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how many generals does the united states have | General (United States) - wikipedia
In the United States Army, United States Marine Corps, and United States Air Force, general (abbreviated as GEN in the Army or Gen in the Air Force and Marine Corps) is a four - star general officer rank, with the pay grade of O - 10. General ranks above lieutenant general and below General of the Army or General of the Air Force; the Marine Corps does not have an established grade above general. General is equivalent to the rank of admiral in the other uniformed services. Since the grades of General of the Army and General of the Air Force are reserved for wartime use only, and since the Marine Corps has no five - star equivalent, the grade of general is currently considered to be the highest appointment an officer can achieve in these three services.
Formally, the term "General '' is always used when referring to a four - star general. However, a number of different terms may be used to refer to them informally, since lower - ranking generals may also be referred to as simply "General ''. These may include "Full General '', "Four - star General '' (or simply four - star), or "O - 10 '' (in reference to pay grade).
The United States Code explicitly limits the total number of general officers (termed flag officers in the Navy and Coast Guard) that may be on active duty at any given time. The total number of active duty general officers is capped at 231 for the Army, 62 for the Marine Corps, 198 for the Air Force, and 162 for the Navy. No more than about 25 % of a service 's active duty general or flag officers may have more than two stars, and statute sets the total number of four - star officers allowed in each service. This is set at 7 four - star Army generals, 9 four - star Air Force generals, 2 four - star Marine generals, and 6 four - star Navy admirals.
Several of these slots are reserved by statute. For example, the two highest - ranking members of each service (the service chief and deputy service chief) are designated as four - star generals. For the Army the Chief of Staff and the Vice Chief of Staff are four - star generals; for the Marine Corps, the Commandant and the Assistant Commandant are both four - star generals; and for the Air Force, the Chief of Staff and Vice Chief of Staff are four - star generals. In addition, for the National Guard, the Chief of the National Guard Bureau is a four - star general under active duty in the Army or Air Force.
There are several exceptions to these limits allowing more than allotted within the statute:
Finally, all statutory limits may be waived at the President 's discretion during time of war or national emergency.
Four - star grades go hand - in - hand with the positions of office to which they are linked; the active rank of four - star general can only be held for so long - though upon retirement, if satisfactory service requirements are met, the general or admiral is normally allowed to hold that rank in retirement, rather than reverting to a lower position, as was formerly usually the case. Their active rank expires with the expiration of their term of office, which is usually set by statute. Generals are nominated for appointment by the President from any eligible officers holding the rank of brigadier general or above who meet the requirements for the position, with the advice of the Secretary of Defense, service secretary (Secretary of the Army, Secretary of the Navy, or Secretary of the Air Force), and if applicable the Joint Chiefs of Staff. For some positions, statute allows the President to waive those requirements for a nominee deemed to serve national interests. The nominee must be confirmed by the United States Senate before the appointee can take office and assume the rank. Four - star ranks may also be given by act of Congress but this is extremely rare. The standard tour for most four - star positions is three years, bundled as a two - year term plus a one - year extension, with the following exceptions:
Extensions of the standard tour length can be approved, within statutory limits, by their respective service secretaries, the Secretary of Defense, the President, or Congress but these are rare, as they block other officers from being promoted. Some statutory limits can be waived in times of national emergency or war.
Other than voluntary retirement, statute sets a number of mandates for retirement. A four - star general must retire after 40 years of service unless he or she is reappointed to serve longer. Otherwise all general officers must retire the month after their 64th birthday. However, the Secretary of Defense can defer a four - star officer 's retirement until the officer 's 66th birthday and the President can defer it until the officer 's 68th birthday.
General officers typically retire well in advance of the statutory age and service limits, so as not to impede the career paths of more junior officers. Since only a limited number of four - star slots are available to each service, typically one officer must leave office before another can be promoted. Maintaining a four - star rank is a game of musical chairs: once an officer vacates a position bearing that rank, he or she has no more than 60 days to be appointed or reappointed to a position of equal or greater importance before he or she must involuntarily retire. Historically, officers leaving four - star positions were allowed to revert to their permanent two - star ranks to mark time in lesser jobs until statutory retirement, but now such officers are expected to retire immediately to avoid obstructing the promotion flow.
To retire at four - star grade, an officer must accumulate at least three years of satisfactory active duty service in that grade, as certified by the Secretary of Defense. The Secretary of Defense may reduce this requirement to two years, but only if the officer is not being investigated for misconduct. Officers who do not meet the service - in - grade requirement revert to the next highest grade in which they served satisfactorily for at least six months. It is extraordinarily rare for a four - star officer not to retire in that grade.
Four - star officers typically step down from their posts up to 60 days in advance of their official retirement dates. Officers retire on the first day of the month, so once a retirement month has been selected, the relief and retirement ceremonies are scheduled by counting backwards from that date by the number of days of accumulated leave remaining to the retiring officer. During this period, termed transition leave or terminal leave, the officer is considered to be awaiting retirement but still on active duty.
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which body structure provides actual diffusion of respiratory gases in lungs | Gas exchange - wikipedia
Gas exchange is the biological process by which gases move passively by diffusion across a surface. Typically, this surface is - or contains - a biological membrane that forms the boundary between an organism and its extracellular environment.
Gases are constantly consumed and produced by cellular and metabolic reactions in most living things, so an efficient system for gas exchange between, ultimately, the interior of the cell (s) and the external environment is required. Small, particularly unicellular organisms, such as bacteria and protozoa, have a high surface - area to volume ratio. In these creatures the gas exchange membrane is typically the cell membrane. Some small multicellular organisms, such as flatworms, are also able to perform sufficient gas exchange across the skin or cuticle that surrounds their bodies. However, in most larger organisms, which have a small surface - area to volume ratios, specialised structures with convoluted surfaces such as gills, pulmonary alveoli and spongy mesophyll provide the large area needed for effective gas exchange. These convoluted surfaces may sometimes be internalised into the body of the organism. This is the case with the alveoli, which form the inner surface of the mammalian lung, the spongy mesophyll, which is found inside the leaves of some kinds of plant, or the gills of those molluscs that have them, which are found in the mantle cavity.
In aerobic organisms, gas exchange is particularly important for respiration, which involves the uptake of oxygen (O 2) and release of carbon dioxide (CO 2). Conversely, in oxygenic photosynthetic organisms such as most land plants, uptake of carbon dioxide and release of both oxygen and water vapour are the main gas - exchange processes occurring during the day. Other gas - exchange processes are important in less familiar organisms: e.g. carbon dioxide, methane and hydrogen are exchanged across the cell membrane of methanogenic archaea. In nitrogen fixation by diazotrophic bacteria, and denitrification by heterotrophic bacteria (such as Paracoccus denitrificans and various pseudomonads), nitrogen gas is exchanged with the environment, being taken up by the former and released into it by the latter, while giant tube worms rely on bacteria to oxidize hydrogen sulfide extracted from their deep sea environment, using dissolved oxygen in the water as an electron acceptor.
The exchange of gases occurs as a result of diffusion down a concentration gradient. Gas molecules move from a region in which they are at high concentration to one in which they are at low concentration. Diffusion is a passive process, meaning that no energy is required to power the transport, and it follows Fick 's Law:
In relation to a typical biological system, where two compartments (' inside ' and ' outside '), are separated by a membrane barrier, and where a gas is allowed to spontaneously diffuse down its concentration gradient:
Fig. 1. Fick 's Law for gas - exchange surface
Gases must first dissolve in a liquid in order to diffuse across a membrane, so all biological gas exchange systems require a moist environment. In general, the higher the concentration gradient across the gas - exchanging surface, the faster the rate of diffusion across it. Conversely, the thinner the gas - exchanging surface (for the same concentration difference), the faster the gases will diffuse across it.
In the equation above, J is the flux expressed per unit area, so increasing the area will make no difference to its value. However, an increase in the available surface area, will increase the amount of gas that can diffuse in a given time. This is because the amount of gas diffusing per unit time (dq / dt) is the product of J and the area of the gas - exchanging surface, A:
Single - celled organisms such as bacteria and amoebae do not have specialised gas exchange surfaces, because they can take advantage of the high surface area they have relative to their volume. The amount of gas an organism produces (or requires) in a given time will be in rough proportion to the volume of its cytoplasm. The volume of a unicellular organism is very small, therefore it produces (and requires) a relatively small amount of gas in a given time. In comparison to this small volume, the surface area of its cell membrane is very large, and adequate for its gas - exchange needs without further modification. However, as an organism increases in size, its surface area and volume do not scale in the same way. Consider an imaginary organism that is a cube of side - length, L. Its volume increases with the cube (L) of its length, but its external surface area increases only with the square (L) of its length. This means the external surface rapidly becomes inadequate for the rapidly increasing gas - exchange needs of a larger volume of cytoplasm. Additionally, the thickness of the surface that gases must cross (dx in Fick 's Law) can also be larger in larger organisms: in the case of a single - celled organism, a typical cell membrane is only 10 nm thick; but in larger organisms such as roundworms (Nematoda) the equivalent exchange surface - the cuticle - is substantially thicker at 0.5 μm.
In multicellular organisms therefore, specialised respiratory organs such as gills or lungs are often used to provide the additional surface area for the required rate of gas exchange with the external environment. However the distances between the gas exchanger and the deeper tissues are often too great for diffusion to meet gaseous requirements of these tissues. The gas exchangers are therefore frequently coupled to gas - distributing circulatory systems, which transport the gases evenly to all the body tissues regardless of their distance from the gas exchanger.
Some multicellular organisms such as flatworms (Platyhelminthes) are relatively large but very thin, allowing their outer body surface to act as a gas exchange surface without the need for a specialised gas exchange organ. Flatworms therefore lack gills or lungs, and also lack a circulatory system. Other multicellular organisms such as sponges (Porifera) have an inherently high surface area, because they are very porous and / or branched. Sponges do not require a circulatory system or specialised gas exchange organs, because their feeding strategy involves one - way pumping of water through their porous bodies using flagellated collar cells. Each cell of the sponge 's body is therefore exposed to a constant flow of fresh oxygenated water. They can therefore rely on diffusion across their cell membranes to carry out the gas exchange needed for respiration.
In organisms that have circulatory systems associated with their specialized gas - exchange surfaces, a great variety of systems are used for the interaction between the two.
In a countercurrent flow system, air (or, more usually, the water containing dissolved air) is drawn in the opposite direction to the flow of blood in the gas exchanger. A countercurrent system such as this maintains a steep concentration gradient along the length of the gas - exchange surface (see lower diagram in Fig. 2). This is the situation seen in the gills of fish and many other aquatic creatures. The gas - containing environmental water is drawn unidirectionally across the gas - exchange surface, with the blood - flow in the gill capillaries beneath flowing in the opposite direction. Although this theoretically allows almost complete transfer of a respiratory gas from one side of the exchanger to the other, in fish less than 80 % of the oxygen in the water flowing over the gills is generally transferred to the blood.
Alternative arrangements are cross current systems found in birds. and dead - end air - filled sac systems found in the lungs of mammals. In a cocurrent flow system, the blood and gas (or the fluid containing the gas) move in the same direction through the gas exchanger. This means the magnitude of the gradient is variable along the length of the gas - exchange surface, and the exchange will eventually stop when an equilibrium has been reached (see upper diagram in Fig. 2). Cocurrent flow gas exchange systems are not known to be used in nature.
The gas exchanger in mammals is internalized to form lungs, as it is in most of the larger land animals. Gas exchange occurs in microscopic dead - end air - filled sacs called alveoli, where a very thin membrane (called the blood - air barrier) separates the blood in the alveolar capillaries (in the walls of the alveoli) from the alveolar air in the sacs.
The membrane across which gas exchange takes place in the alveoli (i.e. the blood - air barrier) is extremely thin (in humans, on average, 2.2 μm thick). It consists of the alveolar epithelial cells, their basement membranes and the endothelial cells of the pulmonary capillaries (Fig. 4). The large surface area of the membrane comes from the folding of the membrane into about 300 million alveoli, with diameters of approximately 75 - 300 μm each. This provides an extremely large surface area (approximately 145 m) across which gas exchange can occur.
Air is brought to the alveoli in small doses (called the tidal volume), by breathing in (inhalation) and out (exhalation) through the respiratory airways, a set of relatively narrow and moderately long tubes which start at the nose or mouth and end in the alveoli of the lungs in the chest. Air moves in and out through the same set of tubes, in which the flow is in one direction during inhalation, and in the opposite direction during exhalation.
During each inhalation, at rest, approximately 500 ml of fresh air flows in through the nose. Its is warmed and moistened as it flows through the nose and pharynx. By the time it reaches the trachea the inhaled air 's temperature is 37 ° C and it is saturated with water vapor. On arrival in the alveoli it is diluted and thoroughly mixed with the approximately 2.5 -- 3.0 liters of air that remained in the alveoli after the last exhalation. This relatively large volume of air that is semi-permanently present in the alveoli throughout the breathing cycle is known as the functional residual capacity (FRC).
At the beginning of inhalation the airways are filled with unchanged alveolar air, left over from the last exhalation. This is the dead space volume, which is usually about 150 ml. It is the first air to re-enter the alveoli during inhalation. Only after the dead space air has returned to the alveoli does the remainder of the tidal volume (500 ml - 150 ml = 350 ml) enter the alveoli. The entry of such a small volume of fresh air with each inhalation, ensures that the composition of the FRC hardly changes during the breathing cycle (Fig. 5). The alveolar partial pressure of oxygen remains very close to 13 -- 14 kPa (100 mmHg), and the partial pressure of carbon dioxide varies minimally around 5.3 kPa (40 mmHg) throughout the breathing cycle (of inhalation and exhalation). The corresponding partial pressures of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the ambient (dry) air at sea level are 21 kPa (160 mmHg) and 0.04 kPa (0.3 mmHg) respectively.
This alveolar air, which constitutes the FRC, completely surrounds the blood in the alveolar capillaries (Fig. 6). Gas exchange in mammals occurs between this alveolar air (which differs significantly from fresh air) and the blood in the alveolar capillaries. The gases on either side of the gas exchange membrane equilibrate by simple diffusion. This ensures that the partial pressures of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood leaving the alveolar capillaries, and ultimately circulates throughout the body, are the same as those in the FRC.
The marked difference between the composition of the alveolar air and that of the ambient air can be maintained because the functional residual capacity is contained in dead - end sacs connected to the outside air by long, narrow, tubes (the airways: nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi and their branches and sub-branches down to the bronchioles). This anatomy, and the fact that the lungs are not emptied and re-inflated with each breath, provides mammals with a "portable atmosphere '', whose composition differs significantly from the present - day ambient air.
The composition of the air in the FRC is carefully monitored, by measuring the partial pressures of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the arterial blood. If either gas pressure deviates from normal, reflexes are elicited that change the rate and depth of breathing in such a way that normality is restored within seconds or minutes.
All the blood returning from the body tissues to the right side of the heart flows through the alveolar capillaries before being pumped around the body again. On its passage through the lungs the blood comes into close contact with the alveolar air, separated from it by a very thin diffusion membrane which is only, on average, about 2 μm thick. The gas pressures in the blood will therefore rapidly equilibrate with those in the alveoli, ensuring that the arterial blood that circulates to all the tissues throughout the body has an oxygen tension of 13 − 14 kPa (100 mmHg), and a carbon dioxide tension of 5.3 kPa (40 mmHg). These arterial partial pressures of oxygen and carbon dioxide are homeostatically controlled. A rise in the arterial P C O 2 (\ displaystyle P_ ((\ mathrm (CO)) _ (2))), and, to a lesser extent, a fall in the arterial P O 2 (\ displaystyle P_ ((\ mathrm (O)) _ (2))), will reflexly cause deeper and faster breathing till the blood gas tensions return to normal. The converse happens when the carbon dioxide tension falls, or, again to a lesser extent, the oxygen tension rises: the rate and depth of breathing are reduced till blood gas normality is restored.
Since the blood arriving in the alveolar capillaries has a P O 2 (\ displaystyle P_ ((\ mathrm (O)) _ (2))) of, on average, 6 kPa (45 mmHg), while the pressure in the alveolar air is 13 kPa (100 mmHg), there will be a net diffusion of oxygen into the capillary blood, changing the composition of the 3 liters of alveolar air slightly. Similarly, since the blood arriving in the alveolar capillaries has a P C O 2 (\ displaystyle P_ ((\ mathrm (CO)) _ (2))) of also about 6 kPa (45 mmHg), whereas that of the alveolar air is 5.3 kPa (40 mmHg), there is a net movement of carbon dioxide out of the capillaries into the alveoli. The changes brought about by these net flows of individual gases into and out of the functional residual capacity necessitate the replacement of about 15 % of the alveolar air with ambient air every 5 seconds or so. This is very tightly controlled by the continuous monitoring of the arterial blood gas tensions (which accurately reflect partial pressures of the respiratory gases in the alveolar air) by the aortic bodies, the carotid bodies, and the blood gas and pH sensor on the anterior surface of the medulla oblongata in the brain. There are also oxygen and carbon dioxide sensors in the lungs, but they primarily determine the diameters of the bronchioles and pulmonary capillaries, and are therefore responsible for directing the flow of air and blood to different parts of the lungs.
It is only as a result of accurately maintaining the composition of the 3 liters alveolar air that with each breath some carbon dioxide is discharged into the atmosphere and some oxygen is taken up from the outside air. If more carbon dioxide than usual has been lost by a short period of hyperventilation, respiration will be slowed down or halted until the alveolar P C O 2 (\ displaystyle P_ ((\ mathrm (CO)) _ (2))) has returned to 5.3 kPa (40 mmHg). It is therefore strictly speaking untrue that the primary function of the respiratory system is to rid the body of carbon dioxide "waste ''. In fact the total concentration of carbon dioxide in arterial blood is about 26 mM (or 58 ml / 100 ml), compared to the concentration of oxygen in saturated arterial blood of about 9 mM (or 20 ml / 100 ml blood). This large concentration of carbon dioxide plays a pivotal role in the determination and maintenance of the pH of the extracellular fluids. The carbon dioxide that is breathed out with each breath could probably be more correctly be seen as a byproduct of the body 's extracellular fluid carbon dioxide and pH homeostats
If these homeostats are compromised, then a respiratory acidosis, or a respiratory alkalosis will occur. In the long run these can be compensated by renal adjustments to the H and HCO concentrations in the plasma; but since this takes time, the hyperventilation syndrome can, for instance, occur when agitation or anxiety cause a person to breathe fast and deeply thus blowing off too much CO from the blood into the outside air, precipitating a set of distressing symptoms which result from an excessively high pH of the extracellular fluids.
Oxygen has a very low solubility in water, and is therefore carried in the blood loosely combined with hemoglobin. The oxygen is held on the hemoglobin by four ferrous iron - containing heme groups per hemoglobin molecule. When all the heme groups carry one O molecule each the blood is said to be "saturated '' with oxygen, and no further increase in the partial pressure of oxygen will meaningfully increase the oxygen concentration of the blood. Most of the carbon dioxide in the blood is carried as HCO ions in the plasma. However the conversion of dissolved CO into HCO (through the addition of water) is too slow for the rate at which the blood circulates through the tissues on the one hand, and alveolar capillaries on the other. The reaction is therefore catalyzed by carbonic anhydrase, an enzyme inside the red blood cells. The reaction can go in either direction depending on the prevailing partial pressure of carbon dioxide. A small amount of carbon dioxide is carried on the protein portion of the hemoglobin molecules as carbamino groups. The total concentration of carbon dioxide (in the form of bicarbonate ions, dissolved CO, and carbamino groups) in arterial blood (i.e. after it has equilibrated with the alveolar air) is about 26 mM (or 58 ml / 100 ml), compared to the concentration of oxygen in saturated arterial blood of about 9 mM (or 20 ml / 100 ml blood).
The dissolved oxygen content in fresh water is approximately 8 -- 10 ml / liter compared to that of air which is 210 ml / liter. Water is 800 times more dense than air and 100 times more viscous. Therefore, oxygen has a diffusion rate in air 10,000 times greater than in water. The use of sac - like lungs to remove oxygen from water would therefore not be efficient enough to sustain life. Rather than using lungs, gaseous exchange takes place across the surface of highly vascularized gills. Gills are specialised organs containing filaments, which further divide into lamellae. The lamellae contain capillaries that provide a large surface area and short diffusion distances, as their walls are extremely thin. Gill rakers are found within the exchange system in order to filter out food, and keep the gills clean.
Gills use a countercurrent flow system that increases the efficiency of oxygen - uptake (and waste gas loss). Oxygenated water is drawn in through the mouth and passes over the gills in one direction while blood flows through the lamellae in the opposite direction. This countercurrent maintains steep concentration gradients along the entire length of each capillary (see the diagram in the "Interaction with circulatory systems '' section above). Oxygen is able to continually diffuse down its gradient into the blood, and the carbon dioxide down its gradient into the water. The deoxygenated water will eventually pass out through the operculum (gill cover). Although countercurrent exchange systems theoretically allow an almost complete transfer of a respiratory gas from one side of the exchanger to the other, in fish less than 80 % of the oxygen in the water flowing over the gills is generally transferred to the blood.
Amphibians have three main organs involved in gas exchange: the lungs, the skin, and the gills, which can be used singly or in a variety of different combinations. The relative importance of these structures differs according to the age, the environment and species of the amphibian. The skin of amphibians and their larvae is highly vascularised, leading to relatively efficient gas exchange when the skin is moist. The larvae of amphibians, such as the pre-metamorphosis tadpole stage of frogs, also have external gills. The gills are absorbed into the body during metamorphosis, after which the lungs will then take over. The lungs are usually simpler than in the other land vertebrates, with few internal septa and larger alveoli; however, toads, which spend more time on land, have a larger alveolar surface with more developed lungs. To increase the rate of gas exchange by diffusion, amphibians maintain the concentration gradient across the respiratory surface using a process called buccal pumping. The lower floor of the mouth is moved in a "pumping '' manner, which can be observed by the naked eye.
All reptiles breathe using lungs. In squamates (the lizards and snakes) ventilation is driven by the axial musculature, but this musculature is also used during movement, so some squamates rely on buccal pumping to maintain gas exchange efficiency.
Due to the rigidity of turtle and tortoise shells, significant expansion and contraction of the chest is difficult. Turtles and tortoises depend on muscle layers attached to their shells, which wrap around their lungs to fill and empty them. Some aquatic turtles can also pump water into a highly vascularised mouth or cloaca to achieve gas - exchange.
Crocodiles have a structure similar to the mammalian diaphragm - the diaphragmaticus - but this muscle helps create a unidirectional flow of air through the lungs rather than a tidal flow: this is more similar to the air - flow seen in birds than that seen in mammals. During inhalation, the diaphragmaticus pulls the liver back, inflating the lungs into the space this creates. Air flows into the lungs from the bronchus during inhalation, but during exhalation, air flows out of the lungs into the bronchus by a different route: this one - way movement of gas is achieved by aerodynamic valves in the airways.
Birds have lungs but no diaphragm. They rely mostly on air sacs for ventilation. These air sacs do not play a direct role in gas exchange, but help to move air unidirectionally across the gas exchange surfaces in the lungs. During inhalation, fresh air is taken from the trachea down into the posterior air sacs and into the parabronchi which lead from the posterior air sacs into the lung. The air that enters the lungs joins the air which is already in the lungs, and is drawn forward across the gas exchanger into anterior air sacs. During exhalation, the posterior air sacs force air into the same parabronchi of the lungs, flowing in the same direction as during inhalation, allowing continuous gas exchange irrespective of the breathing cycle. Air exiting the lungs during exhalation joins the air being expelled from the anterior air sacs (both consisting of "spent air '' that has passed through the gas exchanger) entering the trachea to be exhaled (Fig. 10). Selective bronchoconstriction at the various bronchial branch points ensures that the air does not ebb and flow through the bronchi during inhalation and exhalation, as it does in mammals, but follows the paths described above.
The unidirectional airflow through the parabronchi exchanges respiratory gases with a crosscurrent blood flow (Fig. 9). The partial pressure of O (P O 2 (\ displaystyle P_ ((\ mathrm (O)) _ (2)))) in the parabronchioles declines along their length as O diffuses into the blood. The capillaries leaving the exchanger near the entrance of airflow take up more O than capillaries leaving near the exit end of the parabronchi. When the contents of all capillaries mix, the final P O 2 (\ displaystyle P_ ((\ mathrm (O)) _ (2))) of the mixed pulmonary venous blood is higher than that of the exhaled air, but lower than that of the inhaled air.
Gas exchange in plants is dominated by the roles of carbon dioxide, oxygen and water vapor. CO 2 is the only carbon source for autotrophic growth by photosynthesis, and when a plant is actively photosynthesising in the light, it will be taking up carbon dioxide, and losing water vapor and oxygen. At night, plants respire, and gas exchange partly reverses: water vapor is still lost (but to a smaller extent), but oxygen is now taken up and carbon dioxide released.
Plant gas exchange occurs mostly through the leaves. Gases diffuse into and out of the intercellular spaces within the leaf through pores called stomata, which are typically found on the lower surface of the leaf. Gases enter into the photosynthetic tissue of the leaf through dissolution onto the moist surface of the palisade and spongy mesophyll cells. The spongy mesophyll cells are loosely packed, allowing for an increased surface area, and subsequently an increased rate of gas - exchange. Uptake of carbon dioxide necessarily results in some loss of water vapor, because both molecules enter and leave by the same stomata, so plants experience a gas exchange dilemma: gaining enough CO 2 without losing too much water. Therefore, water loss from other parts of the leaf is minimised by the waxy cuticle on the leaf 's epidermis. The size of a stoma is regulated by the opening and closing of its two guard cells: the turgidity of these cells determines the state of the stomatal opening, and this itself is regulated by water stress. Plants showing crassulacean acid metabolism are drought - tolerant xerophytes and perform almost all their gas - exchange at night, because it is only during the night that these plants open their stomata. By opening the stomata only at night, the water vapor loss associated with carbon dioxide uptake is minimised. However, this comes at the cost of slow growth: the plant has to store the carbon dioxide in the form of malic acid for use during the day, and it can not store unlimited amounts.
Gas exchange measurements are important tools in plant science: this typically involves sealing the plant (or part of a plant) in a chamber and measuring changes in the concentration of carbon dioxide with an infrared gas analyzer. If the environmental conditions (humidity, CO 2 concentration, light and temperature) are fully controlled, the measurements of CO 2 uptake and water release reveal important information about the CO 2 assimilation and transpiration rates. The intercellular CO 2 concentration reveals important information about the photosynthetic condition of the plants. Simpler methods can be used in specific circumstances: hydrogencarbonate indicator can be used to monitor the consumption of CO 2 in a solution containing a single plant leaf at different levels of light intensity, and oxygen generation by the pondweed Elodea can be measured by simply collecting the gas in a submerged test - tube containing a small piece of the plant.
The mechanism of gas exchange in invertebrates depends their size, feeding strategy, and habitat (aquatic or terrestrial).
The sponges (Porifera) are sessile creatures, meaning they are unable to move on their own and normally remain attached to their substrate. They obtain nutrients through the flow of water across their cells, and they exchange gases by simple diffusion across their cell membranes. Pores called ostia draw water into the sponge and the water is subsequently circulated through the sponge by cells called choanocytes which have hair - like structures that move the water through the sponge.
The cnidarians include corals, sea anemones, jellyfish and hydras. These animals are always found in aquatic environments, ranging from fresh water to salt water. They do not have any dedicated respiratory organs; instead, every cell in their body can absorb oxygen from the surrounding water, and release waste gases to it. One key disadvantage of this feature is that cnidarians can die in environments where water is stagnant, as they deplete the water of its oxygen supply. Corals often form symbiosis with other organisms, particularly photosynthetic dinoflagellates. In this symbiosis, the coral provides shelter and the other organism provides nutrients to the coral, including oxygen.
The roundworms (Nematoda), flatworms (Platyhelminthes), and many other small invertebrate animals living in aquatic or otherwise wet habitats do not have a dedicated gas - exchange surface or circulatory system. They instead rely on diffusion of CO 2 and O 2 directly across their cuticle. The cuticle is the semi-permeable outermost layer of their bodies.
Other aquatic invertebrates such as most molluscs (Mollusca) and larger crustaceans (Crustacea) such as lobsters, have gills analogous to those of fish, which operate in a similar way.
Unlike the invertebrates groups mentioned so far, insects are usually terrestrial, and exchange gases across a moist surface in direct contact with the atmosphere, rather than in contact with surrounding water. The insect 's exoskeleton is impermeable to gases, including water vapor, so they have a more specialised gas exchange system, requiring gases to be directly transported to the tissues via a complex network of tubes. This respiratory system is separated from their circulatory system. Gases enter and leave the body through openings called spiracles, located laterally along the thorax and abdomen. Similar to plants, insects are able to control the opening and closing of these spiracles, but instead of relying on turgor pressure, they rely on muscle contractions. These contractions result in an insect 's abdomen being pumped in and out. The spiracles are connected to tubes called tracheae, which branch repeatedly and ramify into the insect 's body. These branches terminate in specialised tracheole cells which provides a thin, moist surface for efficient gas exchange, directly with cells.
The other main group of terrestrial arthropod, the arachnids (spiders, scorpion, mites, and their relatives) typically perform gas exchange with a book lung.
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where do the eastern and western hemispheres meet | Hemispheres of Earth - wikipedia
In geography and cartography, the hemispheres of Earth refer to any division of the globe into two hemi spheres (from Ancient Greek ἡμισφαίριον hēmisphairion, meaning "half of a sphere '').
The most common such divisions are by latitudinal or longitudinal markers:
The East -- West division can also be seen in a cultural sense, as a division into two cultural hemispheres.
However, other schemes have sought to divide the planet in a way that maximizes the preponderance of one geographic feature or another in each division:
The Earth may also be split into hemispheres of day and night by the terrestrial terminator.
Media related to Earth 's hemispheres at Wikimedia Commons
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when was the recession we had to have | Early 1990s recession in Australia - wikipedia
The early 1990s recession saw a period of economic downturn affect much of the world in the late 1980s and early 1990s. The economy of Australia suffered its worst recession since the Great Depression.
In October 1987, the international Stock Market Slump saw markets crash around the world. The crisis originated when Japan and West Germany pushed up interest rates, pressuring US rates also to rise, triggering a massive sell off of US shares. Global share prices fell an average of 25 %, but Australia saw a 40 % decline. 17 of the 18 major OECD economies experienced a recession in the early 1990s.
In the 1980s, Singapore Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew famously predicted that Australia was at risk of becoming the "white trash of Asia '' due to high unemployment, inflationary pressures and government debt. At the time of the comments, Bob Hawke was Australia 's Prime Minister and he stated that the comment was "not an overstatement ''. The white trash quote is still used today.
In Australia, the Australian Labor Party Government of Bob Hawke had come to power in 1983. The Hawke - Keating Government shifted the Labor Party from its traditional allegiance to economic protectionism and have moved to deregulate Australia 's finance industry restructure the role of trade unions.
Ian Macfarlane, Governor of the Reserve Bank from 1996 to 2006, has said that the financial excesses of the 1980s were of such a scale that they made the 1990s recession "inevitable '', describing Australia 's economy at the end of the 1980s as overstretched and vulnerable to contractionary shock. The pressure of high interest rates on businesses -- many of which were "borrowed up to the hilt '' -- became relentless.
The debate as to the causes or extent to which international factors and domestic government policy contributed to the severity of the 1990s recession in Australia continues. Speaking in 2006, former Reserve bank Governor Ian Macfarlane said:
The emphasis on interest rates and deregulation at least reminds us that what we are dealing with is essentially a financial event. The recession of 1990 - 91was dominated by financial failure. In most cases, it was the fall in asset prices that meant that loans could not be repaid, thus transferring the distress to financial institutions.
The Hawke Labor Government initially responded to the crisis by asking the Conciliation and Arbitration Commission to defer its national wage case. Commodity prices dropped and the Australian dollar sharply declined. The Reserve Bank conducted a $2 billion intervention to hold the dollar at 68c but it crashed to 51c. In December 1987, Keating said that the Australian economy would weather the storm because the Hawke Government had already balanced its Budget and brought down inflation.
The Government postponed major policy adjustments, planning a mini-Budget for May. Hawke wrote to US President Reagan calling on the US to reduce its Budget deficit. The Business Council called for wage reductions, decreased government expenditure, a lower dollar and deregulation of the labour market. Seven months into the crisis, Hawke told the State Premiers that the "savings of Australia must be freed '' to go into business investment for export expansion, and funding to the states was cut. A phase out of tariff protections was continued and company tax was cut by 10 % to 39 %. In the May mini-Budget, payment to the states was cut by $870 million and tax cuts deferred. The Government declared cost cutting was completed.
A surge in commodity prices began in 1986 and assisted the economy to a small 1987 surplus of $2.3 Billion. With commodity prices now over their peak, economic conditions were entering a decline, with high interest rates, a growing current account deficit, declining demand, increasing foreign debt and a wave of corporate collapses. Furthermore, the collapse of the Eastern Bloc economies, was to see wool and wheat prices decline, savaging Australia 's agricultural sector.
Treasurer Paul Keating budgeted a record $9.1 billion surplus for 1989 -- 90, and Labor won the 1990 election, aided by the support of environmentalists. To court the green vote, environment minister Graham Richardson had placed restrictions on mining (notably uranium mining) and logging which had a detrimental effect on already rising unemployment. David Barnett wrote in 1997 that Labor fiscal policy at this time "self - defeating as "with one hand it was imposing a monetary squeeze, while on the other it was encouraging spending with wage increases and tax cuts ''.
By July 1990, Australia had entered severe recession. Initially, the Treasurer had insisted Australia would face a "soft landing '', but after receiving the September quarter accounts indicating a large contraction of 1.6 per cent, he adopted a different political strategy, instead arguing that the downturn was a necessary correction by opening a press conference in November as follows:
The remark has continued to spark debate as to the extent of Keating 's responsibility for the depth of the Recession. Former Reserve Bank Governor Ian Macfarlane has said that policymakers did not "set out to have a recession in order to reduce inflation. The recession happened because of the unwinding of the excesses of the 1980s, the international recession of the early 1990s and the high interest rates ''. High interest rates were employed to slow the asset price boom of 1988 -- 89. Treasurer Keating, the Reserve Bank and Treasury itself generally agreed on the need for high interest rates in 1989 and the pace of their reduction.
The popularity of Hawke 's prime ministership, along with the health of the Hawke - Keating political partnership deteriorated along with the Australian economy and Keating began to position himself for a challenge. The Government promised economic recovery for 1991 and launched a series of asset sales to increase revenue. GDP sank, unemployment rose, revenue collapsed and welfare payments surged.
According to former Reserve Bank Governor Ian Macfarlane:
The recession started in the September quarter of 1990 and lasted until the September quarter of 1991. During the recession, GDP fell by 1.7 per cent, employment by 3.4 per cent and the unemployment rate rose to 10.8 per cent. Like all recessions, it was a period of disruption and economic distress. It was particularly deep in Victoria, where a disproportionate share of the financial failure occurred. Victorian employment fell by 8.5 per cent compared with a fall of 2.1 per cent for the rest of Australia.
Reforms were conducted between 1990 and 1991, with Australia 's telecommunications opened to competition; and tariffs were reduced to five per cent, while the phasing out of textile, clothing and motor vehicle protection began.
A slow recovery from recession began around the September quarter in 1991, though unemployment continued to rise until late 1992.
A number of financial institutions failed around Australia, including the State Bank of Victoria, the State Bank of South Australia, the Teachers Credit Union of Western Australia, the Pyramid Building Society as well as several merchant banks, a mortgage trust, and a friendly society.
In 1990, Victoria 's Pyramid Building Society collapsed with debts in excess of $2 billion. With Victoria deeply in debt, Labor Premier John Cain resigned and Joan Kirner was elevated to the post of Premier of Victoria. Melbourne businessman Christopher Skase 's business empire crashed spectacularly and he fled to Majorca in Spain. The Liberal - National Coalition, led by Jeff Kennett was swept into office in a 1992 landslide victory and commenced a wide ranging program of expenditure cuts, privatisation of public assets, and economic reform to reduced government debt and rejuvenate the economy.
The State Bank of South Australia, owned by the Government of South Australia, collapsed in 1991. The bank had been a beneficiary of the commercial property boom of the 1980s, but by February 1991 the Bannon Labor Government had to launch a $970 million bailout due to its bad debts, and the bank 's debts soon reached $3 billion. Premier Bannon resigned after appearing at a Royal Commission into the affair.
With Western Australia suffering at the end of the 1980s boom, the Labor Party replaced Premier Brian Burke firstly with Peter Dowding and then Carmen Lawrence; the subsequent WA Inc investigation saw Burke jailed. West Australian high flying businessman Alan Bond was declared bankrupt in 1992 and jailed in 1997 for corporate fraud.
The Opposition Liberal Party of Australia turned to economist John Hewson as its new leader. Hewson argued that the nation was in economic crisis. He said the Hawke - Keating government had increased the severity of the recession by initially encouraging the economy to boom post-stock crash as elections were approaching, which necessitated higher interest rates and tighter monetary policy than would otherwise have been necessary. Hewson called for a radical reform program and formulated a package which included a consumption tax policy and industrial relations reform to address the poor economic situation. The Fightback! policy was launched in November 1991. The comprehensive plan further destabilised Hawke 's leadership.
The ACTU campaigned for a wage increase. Hawke brokered an increase for waterside workers and public servants. By April 1991, unemployment was nearing 10 % and rising. On 3 June, Keating challenged Hawke for the leadership of Labor, but lost the vote and became a destabilising presence on the back bench. The new treasurer, John Kerin and Deputy Prime Minister Brian Howe blamed Keating 's 1990 economic policy for the poor state of the Australian economy. Industrial Relations Minister Peter Cook indicated an intention to introduce a more flexible wage system. In his July budget, Kerrin forecast a deficit of $4.7 billion. In a press conference, Kerin was unable to recall what GOS -- Gross Operating Surplus -- stood for. In December, shortly before Keating 's successful second challenge against Hawke, Kerin was removed as Treasurer and appointed Minister for Transport and Communications and the Minister for Finance, Ralph Willis, became Treasurer. Hawke attributed the change to loss of confidence in communication.
By 1992, shortly after Hawke lost office and was replaced as leader of the Labor Party and as Prime Minister by his former deputy Paul Keating, unemployment had reached 11 per cent, the highest level in Australia since the Great Depression of the 1930s. Australia had faced eight - quarters of declining economic growth. The new prime minister, Paul Keating, placed emphasis on expanding ties to Asia as a means of securing Australia 's economic future and tied this to a culture agenda of reducing ties to traditional allies.
In February 1992, the Keating Government released the One Nation policy, designed to target job creation. The government introduced the Australian National Training Authority Act 1992 and the Disability Discrimination Act 1992, which it hoped would assist the disabled to remain productive and off welfare. By the close of 1992, unemployment was still rising, but growth had improved.
Keating called an election for March 1993. He promised company tax rate and personal income tax cuts (the "L-A-W tax cuts '') and campaigned heavily against the Hewson led Opposition 's proposal for a Goods and Services Tax. Despite the economic conditions, Keating led Labor to victory. With an ever rising deficit however, Keating was unable to deliver the tax cuts promised prior to the election and sought to reduce expenditure.
In May 1994, the government launched a five - year economic plan entitled Working Nation. By the end of the year, inflation had declined, growth continued to improve and unemployment was again below 10 %.
Following the early 1990s recession, Australia experienced a record period of economic growth.
Speaking in 2006, former Reserve Bank Governor Ian Macfarlane said that a beneficial legacy of the 1990s recession was a lasting reduction in inflation.
The Liberal - National Coalition Government of John Howard was elected in a landslide victory in 1996. It reduced government expenditure, prioritised a return to Budget surplus and instigated industrial relations reforms to speed Australia 's economic recovery. Following the 1998 Election, introduced a revised Goods and Services Tax. Inflation and interest rates lowered. Between 1996 and 2005, unemployment fell from over 8 % to 5 %. To strengthen the financial reporting framework for the financial sector, the Howard Government introduced the Corporations Act 2001 and Corporate Law Economic Reform Program Act 2004, following the recommendations in the Report of the HIH Insurance Royal Commission released in April 2003.
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who was the old testament law written for | Old Testament - wikipedia
Outline of Bible - related topics
The Old Testament (abbreviated OT) is the first part of Christian Bibles, based primarily upon the Hebrew Bible (or Tanakh), a collection of ancient religious writings by the Israelites believed by most Christians and religious Jews to be the sacred Word of God. The second part of the Christian Bible is the New Testament.
The books that comprise the Old Testament canon, as well as their order and names, differ between Christian denominations. The Catholic canon comprises 46 books, and the canons of the Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox Churches comprise up to 51 books and the most common Protestant canon comprises 39 books. The 39 books in common to all the Christian canons correspond to the 24 books of the Tanakh, with some differences of order, and there are some differences in text. The additional number reflects the splitting of several texts (Kings, Samuel and Chronicles, Ezra -- Nehemiah and the minor prophets) into separate books in Christian bibles. The books which are part of a Christian Old Testament but which are not part of the Hebrew canon are sometimes described as deuterocanonical. In general, Protestant Bibles do not include the deuterocanonical books in their canon, but some versions of Anglican and Lutheran bibles place such books in a separate section called Apocrypha. These extra books are ultimately derived from the earlier Greek Septuagint collection of the Hebrew scriptures and are also Jewish in origin. Some are also contained in the Dead Sea Scrolls.
The Old Testament consists of many distinct books by various authors produced over a period of centuries. Christians traditionally divide the Old Testament into four sections: (1) the first five books or Pentateuch (Torah); (2) the history books telling the history of the Israelites, from their conquest of Canaan to their defeat and exile in Babylon; (3) the poetic and "Wisdom books '' dealing, in various forms, with questions of good and evil in the world; and (4) the books of the biblical prophets, warning of the consequences of turning away from God.
The Old Testament contains 39 (Protestant), 46 (Catholic), or more (Orthodox and other) books, divided, very broadly, into the Pentateuch (Torah), the historical books, the "wisdom '' books and the prophets.
The table uses the spellings and names present in modern editions of the Christian Bible, such as the Catholic New American Bible Revised Edition and the Protestant Revised Standard Version and English Standard Version. The spelling and names in both the 1609 -- 10 Douay Old Testament (and in the 1582 Rheims New Testament) and the 1749 revision by Bishop Challoner (the edition currently in print used by many Catholics, and the source of traditional Catholic spellings in English) and in the Septuagint differ from those spellings and names used in modern editions which are derived from the Hebrew Masoretic text.
For the Orthodox canon, Septuagint titles are provided in parentheses when these differ from those editions. For the Catholic canon, the Douaic titles are provided in parentheses when these differ from those editions. Likewise, the King James Version references some of these books by the traditional spelling when referring to them in the New Testament, such as "Esaias '' (for Isaiah).
In the spirit of ecumenism more recent Catholic translations (e.g. the New American Bible, Jerusalem Bible, and ecumenical translations used by Catholics, such as the Revised Standard Version Catholic Edition) use the same "standardized '' (King James Version) spellings and names as Protestant Bibles (e.g. 1 Chronicles as opposed to the Douaic 1 Paralipomenon, 1 -- 2 Samuel and 1 -- 2 Kings instead of 1 -- 4 Kings) in those books which are universally considered canonical, the protocanonicals.
The Talmud (the Jewish commentary on the scriptures) in Bava Batra 14b gives a different order for the books in Nevi'im and Ketuvim. This order is also cited in Mishneh Torah Hilchot Sefer Torah 7: 15. The order of the books of the Torah is universal through all denominations of Judaism and Christianity.
The disputed books, included in one canon but not in others, are often called the Biblical apocrypha, a term that is sometimes used specifically to describe the books in the Catholic and Orthodox canons that are absent from the Jewish Masoretic Text and most modern Protestant Bibles. Catholics, following the Canon of Trent (1546), describe these books as deuterocanonical, while Greek Orthodox Christians, following the Synod of Jerusalem (1672), use the traditional name of anagignoskomena, meaning "that which is to be read. '' They are present in a few historic Protestant versions; the German Luther Bible included such books, as did the English 1611 King James Version.
Empty table cells indicate that a book is absent from that canon.
Several of the books in the Eastern Orthodox canon are also found in the appendix to the Latin Vulgate, formerly the official bible of the Roman Catholic Church.
The first five books -- Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, book of Numbers and Deuteronomy -- reached their present form in the Persian period (538 -- 332 BC), and their authors were the elite of exilic returnees who controlled the Temple at that time. The books of Joshua, Judges, Samuel and Kings follow, forming a history of Israel from the Conquest of Canaan to the Siege of Jerusalem c. 587 BC. There is a broad consensus among scholars that these originated as a single work (the so - called "Deuteronomistic history '') during the Babylonian exile of the 6th century BC. The two Books of Chronicles cover much the same material as the Pentateuch and Deuteronomistic history and probably date from the 4th century BC. Chronicles, and Ezra -- Nehemiah, were probably finished during the 3rd century BC. Catholic and Orthodox Old Testaments contain two (Catholic Old Testament) to four (Orthodox) Books of Maccabees, written in the 2nd and 1st centuries BC.
These history books make up around half the total content of the Old Testament. Of the remainder, the books of the various prophets -- Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Daniel and the twelve "minor prophets '' -- were written between the 8th and 6th centuries BC, with the exceptions of Jonah and Daniel, which were written much later. The "wisdom '' books -- Job, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Psalms, Song of Solomon -- have various dates: Proverbs possibly was completed by the Hellenistic time (332 - 198 BC), though containing much older material as well; Job completed by the 6th Century BC; Ecclesiastes by the 3rd Century BC.
God is consistently depicted as the one who created the world. Although the God of the Old Testament is not consistently presented as the only God who exists, he is always depicted as the only God whom Israel is to worship, or the one "true God '', that only Yahweh is Almighty, and both Jews and Christians have always interpreted the Bible (both the "Old '' and "New '' Testaments) as an affirmation of the oneness of Almighty God.
The Old Testament stresses the special relationship between God and his chosen people, Israel, but includes instructions for proselytes as well. This relationship is expressed in the biblical covenant (contract) between the two, received by Moses. The law codes in books such as Exodus and especially Deuteronomy are the terms of the contract: Israel swears faithfulness to God, and God swears to be Israel 's special protector and supporter.
Further themes in the Old Testament include salvation, redemption, divine judgment, obedience and disobedience, faith and faithfulness, among others. Throughout there is a strong emphasis on ethics and ritual purity, both of which God demands, although some of the prophets and wisdom writers seem to question this, arguing that God demands social justice above purity, and perhaps does not even care about purity at all. The Old Testament 's moral code enjoins fairness, intervention on behalf of the vulnerable, and the duty of those in power to administer justice righteously. It forbids murder, bribery and corruption, deceitful trading, and many sexual misdemeanors. All morality is traced back to God, who is the source of all goodness.
The problem of evil plays a large part in the Old Testament. The problem the Old Testament authors faced was that a good God must have had just reason for bringing disaster (meaning notably, but not only, the Babylonian exile) upon his people. The theme is played out, with many variations, in books as different as the histories of Kings and Chronicles, the prophets like Ezekiel and Jeremiah, and in the wisdom books like Job and Ecclesiastes.
The process by which scriptures became canons and Bibles was a long one, and its complexities account for the many different Old Testaments which exist today. Timothy H. Lim, a professor of Hebrew Bible and Second Temple Judaism at the University of Edinburgh, identifies the Old Testament as "a collection of authoritative texts of apparently divine origin that went through a human process of writing and editing. '' He states that it is not a magical book, nor was it literally written by God and passed to mankind. By about the 5th century BC Jews saw the five books of the Torah (the Old Testament Pentateuch) as having authoritative status; by the 2nd century BC the Prophets had a similar status, although without quite the same level of respect as the Torah; beyond that, the Jewish scriptures were fluid, with different groups seeing authority in different books.
Hebrew texts commenced to be translated into Greek in Alexandria in about 280 and continued until about 130 BC. These early Greek translations -- supposedly commissioned by Ptolemy Philadelphus -- were called the Septuagint (Latin: "Seventy '') from the supposed number of translators involved (hence its abbreviation "LXX ''). This Septuagint remains the basis of the Old Testament in the Eastern Orthodox Church.
It varies in many places from the Masoretic Text and includes numerous books no longer considered canonical in some traditions: 1 and 2 Esdras, Judith, Tobit, 3 and 4 Maccabees, the Book of Wisdom, Sirach, and Baruch. Early modern Biblical criticism typically explained these variations as intentional or ignorant corruptions by the Alexandrian scholars, but most recent scholarship holds it is simply based on early source texts differing from those later used by the Masoretes in their work.
The Septuagint was originally used by Hellenized Jews whose knowledge of Greek was better than Hebrew. But the texts came to be used predominantly by gentile converts to Christianity and by the early Church as its scripture, Greek being the lingua franca of the early Church. The three most acclaimed early interpreters were Aquila of Sinope, Symmachus the Ebionite, and Theodotion; in his Hexapla, Origen placed his edition of the Hebrew text beside its transcription in Greek letters and four parallel translations: Aquila 's, Symmachus 's, the Septuagint 's, and Theodotion 's. The so - called "fifth '' and "sixth editions '' were two other Greek translations supposedly miraculously discovered by students outside the towns of Jericho and Nicopolis: these were added to Origen 's Octapla.
In 331, Constantine I commissioned Eusebius to deliver fifty Bibles for the Church of Constantinople. Athanasius recorded Alexandrian scribes around 340 preparing Bibles for Constans. Little else is known, though there is plenty of speculation. For example, it is speculated that this may have provided motivation for canon lists, and that Codex Vaticanus and Codex Sinaiticus are examples of these Bibles. Together with the Peshitta and Codex Alexandrinus, these are the earliest extant Christian Bibles. There is no evidence among the canons of the First Council of Nicaea of any determination on the canon, however, Jerome (347 -- 420), in his Prologue to Judith, makes the claim that the Book of Judith was "found by the Nicene Council to have been counted among the number of the Sacred Scriptures ''.
In Western Christianity or Christianity in the Western half of the Roman Empire, Latin had displaced Greek as the common language of the early Christians, and in 382 AD Pope Damasus I commissioned Jerome, the leading scholar of the day, to produce an updated Latin bible to replace the Vetus Latina, which was a Latin translation of the Septuagint. Jerome 's work, called the Vulgate, was a direct translation from Hebrew, since he argued for the superiority of the Hebrew texts in correcting the Septuagint on both philological and theological grounds. His Vulgate Old Testament became the standard bible used in the Western Church, specifically as the Sixto - Clementine Vulgate, while the Churches in the East continued, and still continue, to use the Septuagint.
Jerome, however, in the Vulgate 's prologues describes some portions of books in the Septuagint not found in the Hebrew Bible as being non-canonical (he called them apocrypha); for Baruch, he mentions by name in his Prologue to Jeremiah and notes that it is neither read nor held among the Hebrews, but does not explicitly call it apocryphal or "not in the canon ''. The Synod of Hippo (in 393), followed by the Council of Carthage (397) and the Council of Carthage (419), may be the first council that explicitly accepted the first canon which includes the books that did not appear in the Hebrew Bible; the councils were under significant influence of Augustine of Hippo, who regarded the canon as already closed.
In the 16th century, the Protestant reformers sided with Jerome; yet although most Protestant Bibles now have only those books that appear in the Hebrew Bible, they have them in the order of the Greek Bible.
Rome then officially adopted a canon, the Canon of Trent, which is seen as following Augustine 's Carthaginian Councils or the Council of Rome, and includes most, but not all, of the Septuagint (3 Ezra and 3 and 4 Maccabees are excluded); the Anglicans after the English Civil War adopted a compromise position, restoring the 39 Articles and keeping the extra books that were excluded by the Westminster Confession of Faith, but only for private study and for reading in churches, while Lutherans kept them for private study, gathered in an appendix as Biblical Apocrypha.
While the Hebrew, Greek and Latin versions of the Hebrew Bible are the best known Old Testaments, there were others. At much the same time as the Septuagint was being produced, translations were being made into Aramaic, the language of Jews living in Palestine and the Near East and likely the language of Jesus: these are called the Aramaic Targums, from a word meaning "translation '', and were used to help Jewish congregations understand their scriptures.
For Aramaic Christians there was a Syriac translation of the Hebrew Bible called the Peshitta, as well as versions in Coptic (the everyday language of Egypt in the first Christian centuries, descended from ancient Egyptian), Ethiopic (for use in the Ethiopian church, one of the oldest Christian churches), Armenian (Armenia was the first to adopt Christianity as its official religion), and Arabic.
Christianity is based on the belief that the historical Jesus is also the Christ, as in the Confession of Peter. This belief is in turn based on Jewish understandings of the meaning of the Hebrew term messiah, which, like the Greek "Christ '', means "anointed ''. In the Hebrew Scriptures it describes a king anointed with oil on his accession to the throne: he becomes "The LORD 's anointed '' or Yahweh 's Anointed. By the time of Jesus, some Jews expected that a flesh and blood descendant of David (the "Son of David '') would come to establish a real Jewish kingdom in Jerusalem, instead of the Roman province.
Others stressed the Son of Man, a distinctly other - worldly figure who would appear as a judge at the end of time; and some harmonised the two by expecting a this - worldly messianic kingdom which would last for a set period and be followed by the other - worldly age or World to Come. Some thought the Messiah was already present, but unrecognised due to Israel 's sins; some thought that the Messiah would be announced by a fore - runner, probably Elijah (as promised by the prophet Malachi, whose book now ends the Old Testament and precedes Mark 's account of John the Baptist). None predicted a Messiah who suffers and dies for the sins of all the people. The story of Jesus ' death therefore involved a profound shift in meaning from the tradition of the Old Testament.
The name "Old Testament '' reflects Christianity 's understanding of itself as the fulfillment of Jeremiah 's prophecy of a New Covenant (which is similar to "testament '' and often conflated) to replace the existing covenant between God and Israel (Jeremiah 31: 31). The emphasis, however, has shifted from Judaism 's understanding of the covenant as a racially or tribally - based contract between God and Jews to one between God and any person of faith who is "in Christ ''.
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who are the invaders attacking western europe and why are they invading | Hungarian invasions of Europe - wikipedia
The Hungarian invasions of Europe (Hungarian: kalandozások, German: Ungarneinfälle) took place in the ninth and tenth centuries, the period of transition in the history of Europe in the Early Middle Ages, when the territory of the former Carolingian Empire was threatened by invasion from multiple hostile forces, the Magyars (Hungarians) from the east, the Viking expansion from the north and the Arabs from the south.
The Magyars successfully conquered the Pannonian Basin (i.e. what is now Hungary) by the end of the ninth century, and launched a number of plundering raids both westward into former Francia and southward into the Byzantine Empire. The westward raids were stopped only with the Magyar defeat of the Battle of Lechfeld of 955, which led to a new political order in Western Europe centered on the Holy Roman Empire. The raids in to Byzantine territories continued throughout the 10th century, until the eventual Christianisation of the Magyars and the establishment of the Christian Kingdom of Hungary in 1000 or 1001.
The first supposed reference to the Hungarians in war is in the 9th century: in 811, the Hungarians (Magyars) were in alliance with Krum of Bulgaria against Emperor Nikephoros I possibly at the Battle of Pliska in the Haemus Mountains (Balkan Mountains). Georgius Monachus ' work mentions that around 837 the Bulgarian Empire sought an alliance with the Hungarians. Constantine Porphyrogenitus wrote in his work On Administering the Empire that the Khagan and the Bek of the Khazars asked the Emperor Teophilos to have the fortress of Sarkel built for them. This record is thought to refer to the Hungarians on the basis that the new fortress must have become necessary because of the appearance of a new enemy of the Khazars, and no other people could have been the Khazars ' enemy at that time. In the 10th century, Ahmad ibn Rustah wrote that "earlier, the Khazars entrenched themselves against the attacks of the Magyars and other peoples ''.
In 860 -- 861, Hungarian soldiers attacked Saint Cyril 's convoy but the meeting is said to have ended peacefully. Saint Cyril was traveling to the Khagan at (or near) Chersonesos Taurica, which had been captured by the Khazars. Muslim geographers recorded that the Magyars regularly attacked the neighboring East Slavic tribes, and took captives to sell to the Byzantine Empire at Kerch. There is some information about Hungarian raids into the eastern Carolingian Empire in 862.
In 881, the Hungarians and the Kabars invaded East Francia and fought two battles, the former (Ungari) at Wenia (probably Vienna) and the latter (Cowari) at Culmite (possibly Kulmberg or Kollmitz in Austria). In 892, according to the Annales Fuldenses, King Arnulf of East Francia invaded Great Moravia and the Magyars joined his troops. After 893, Magyar troops were conveyed across the Danube by the Byzantine fleet and defeated the Bulgarians in three battles (at the Danube, Silistra and Preslav). In 894, the Magyars invaded Pannonia in alliance with King Svatopluk I of Moravia.
Around 896, probably under the leadership of Árpád, the Hungarians (Magyars) crossed the Carpathians and entered the Carpathian Basin (the plains of Hungary, approximately).
In 899, these Magyars defeated Berengar 's army in the Battle of Brenta River and invaded the northern regions of Italy. They pillaged the countryside around Treviso, Vicenza, Verona, Brescia, Bergamo and Milan. They also defeated Braslav, Duke of Lower Pannonia. In 901, they attacked Italy again. In 902, they led a campaign against northern Moravia and defeated the Moravians whose country was annihilated. Almost every year after 900 they conducted raids against the Catholic west and Byzantine east. In 905, the Magyars and King Berengar formed an amicitia, and fifteen years passed without Hungarian troops entering Italy.
The Magyars defeated no fewer than three large Frankish imperial armies between 907 and 910, as follows. In 907 they defeated the invading Bavarians near Brezalauspurc, destroying their army, successfully defending Hungary and laying Great Moravia, Germany, France and Italy open to Magyar raids. On 3 August 908 the Hungarians won the battle of Eisenach, Thuringia. Egino, Duke of Thuringia was killed, along with Burchard, Duke of Thuringia and Rudolf I, Bishop of Würzburg. The Magyars defeated Louis the Child 's united Frankish Imperial Army at the first Battle of Lechfeld in 910.
Smaller units penetrated as far as Bremen in 915. In 919, after the death of Conrad I of Germany, the Magyars raided Saxony, Lotharingia and West Francia. In 921, they defeated King Berengar 's enemies at Verona and reached Apulia in 922. Between 917 and 925, the Magyars raided through Basel, Alsace, Burgundy, Provence and the Pyrenees.
Around 925, according to the Chronicle of the Priest of Dioclea from the late 12th century, Tomislav of Croatia defeated the Magyars in battle, however others question the reliability of this account, because there is no proof for this interpretation in other records.
In 926, they ravaged Swabia and Alsace, campaigned through present - day Luxembourg and reached as far as the Atlantic Ocean. In 927, Peter, brother of Pope John X, called on the Magyars to rule Italy. They marched into Rome and imposed large tribute payments on Tuscany and Tarento. In 933, a substantial Magyar army appeared in Saxony (the pact with the Saxons having expired) but was defeated by Henry I at Merseburg. Magyar attacks continued against Upper Burgundy (in 935) and against Saxony (in 936). In 937, they raided France as far west as Reims, Lotharingia, Swabia, Franconia, the Duchy of Burgundy and Italy as far as Otranto in the south. They attacked Bulgaria and the Byzantine Empire, reaching the walls of Constantinople. The Byzantines paid them a "tax '' for 15 years. In 938, the Magyars repeatedly attacked Saxony. In 940, they ravaged the region of Rome. In 942, Hungarian raids on Spain, particularly in Catalonia, took place, according to Ibn Hayyan 's work. In 947, Bulcsú, a chieftain of Taksony, led a raid into Italy as far as Apulia, and King Berengar II of Italy had to buy peace by paying a large amount of money to him and his followers.
The Battle of Lechfeld in 955, in which the Magyars lost approximately 5,000 warriors, finally checked their expansion, although raids on the Byzantine Empire continued until 970. Lechfeld is south of Augsburg in present - day southern Germany.
According to the contemporary sources, the researchers count 45 (according to Nagy Kálmán) or 47 (According to Szabados György) raids in different parts of Europe. From these campaigns only 8 (17, 5 %) were unsuccessful (901, 913, 933, 943, 948, 951, 955, 970) and 37 ended with success (82, 5 %).
Their army had mostly light cavalry and were highly mobile. Attacking without warning, they quickly plundered the countryside and departed before any defensive force could be organized. If forced to fight, they would harass their enemies with arrows, then suddenly retreat, tempting their opponents to break ranks and pursue, after which the Hungarians would turn to fight them singly. This tactic is formally known as a feigned retreat.
The Hungarians were the last invading people to establish a permanent presence in Central Europe. Paul K. Davis writes, the "Magyar defeat (at the Battle of Lechfeld) ended more than 90 years of their pillaging western Europe and convinced survivors to settle down, creating the basis for the state of Hungary. '' In the following centuries, the Hungarians adopted western European forms of feudal military organization, including the predominant use of heavily armored cavalry.
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when did each us state became a state | List of U.S. states by date of admission to the Union - wikipedia
A state of the United States is one of the 50 constituent entities that shares its sovereignty with the federal government. Americans are citizens of both the federal republic and of the state in which they reside, due to the shared sovereignty between each state and the federal government. Kentucky, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and Virginia use the term commonwealth rather than state in their full official names.
States are the primary subdivisions of the United States and possess a number of powers and rights under the United States Constitution, such as regulating intrastate commerce, running elections, creating local governments, and ratifying constitutional amendments. Each state has its own constitution grounded in republican principles, and government consisting of executive, legislative, and judicial branches.
All states and their residents are represented in the federal Congress, a bicameral legislature consisting of the Senate and the House of Representatives. Each state is represented by two Senators, while Representatives are distributed among the states in proportion to the most recent constitutionally mandated decennial census. Additionally, each state is entitled to select a number of electors to vote in the Electoral College, the body that elects the President of the United States, equal to the total of Representatives and Senators in Congress from that state.
Article IV, Section 3, Clause 1 of the Constitution grants to Congress the authority to admit new states into the Union. Since the establishment of the United States in 1776, the number of states has expanded from the original 13 to 50. Each new state has been admitted on an equal footing with the existing states.
The following table is a list of all 50 states and their respective dates of statehood. The first 13 became states in July 1776 upon agreeing to the United States Declaration of Independence, and each joined the first Union of states between 1777 and 1781, upon ratifying the Articles of Confederation, its first constitution. (A separate table is included below showing AoC ratification dates.) These states are presented in the order in which each ratified the 1787 Constitution, thus joining the present federal Union of states. The date of admission listed for each subsequent state is the official date set by Act of Congress.
The Second Continental Congress approved the Articles of Confederation for ratification by the individual states on November 15, 1777. The Articles of Confederation came into force on March 1, 1781, after being ratified by all 13 states. On March 4, 1789, the general government under the Articles was replaced with the federal government under the present Constitution.
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easier for a camel eye of a needle meaning | Eye of a needle - wikipedia
The term "eye of a needle '' is used as a metaphor for a very narrow opening. It occurs several times throughout the Talmud. The New Testament quotes Jesus as saying that "it is easier for a camel to go through the eye of a needle than for a rich man to enter the kingdom of God ''.
The eye of a sewing needle is the part formed into a loop for pulling thread, located at the end opposite from the point.
The Babylonian Talmud applies the aphorism to unthinkable thoughts. To explain that dreams reveal the thoughts of a man 's heart, the product of reason rather than the absence of it, some rabbis say:
A Midrash on the Song of Songs uses the phrase to speak of God 's willingness and ability beyond comparison, to accomplish the salvation of a sinner:
Rav Sheishet of Nehardea applies the same aphorism to the convoluted reasoning for which the sages of Pumbedita were evidently famous: "Are you from Pumbedita, where they push an elephant through the eye of a needle? '' (Baba Metzia, 38b).
"The eye of a needle '' is scripture quoting Jesus recorded in the synoptic gospels:
Parallel versions appear in Mark 10: 24 - 27, and Luke 18: 24 - 27.
The saying was a response to a young rich man who had asked Jesus what he needed to do in order to inherit eternal life. Jesus replied that he should keep the commandments, to which the man stated he had done. Jesus responded, "If you want to be perfect, go, sell your possessions and give to the poor, and you will have treasure in heaven. Then come, follow me. '' The young man became sad and was unwilling to do this. Jesus then spoke this response, leaving his disciples astonished.
Cyril of Alexandria (fragment 219) claimed that "camel '' is a Greek misspelling; that kamêlos (camel) was written in place of kamilos, meaning "rope '' or "cable ''. More recently, George Lamsa, in his 1933 translation of the Bible into English from the Syriac, claimed this as well.
Schopenhauer, in The World as Will and Representation, Volume 1, § 68, quoted Matthew 19: 24. "Es ist leichter, daß ein Ankertau durch ein Nadelöhr gehe, denn daß ein Reicher ins Reich Gottes komme. '' This is translated into English as "It is easier for an anchor cable to go through an eye of a needle than for a rich person to come to God 's kingdom. ''
In modern times, the scripture has been used as a counterargument to the prosperity gospel, the belief that accruing wealth is a virtue favored by God.
The "Eye of the Needle '' has been claimed to be a gate in Jerusalem, which opened after the main gate was closed at night. A camel could only pass through this smaller gate if it was stooped and had its baggage removed. This story has been put forth since at least the 15th century, and possibly as far back as the 9th century. However, there is no widely accepted evidence for the existence of such a gate.
According to the English interpretation of the Quran:
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us government policy on the homefront during ww2 | United States home front during World war II - wikipedia
The home front of the United States in World War II supported the war effort in many ways, including a wide range of volunteer efforts and submitting to government - managed rationing and price controls. There was a general feeling of agreement that the sacrifices were for the national good "for the duration (of the war). ''
The labor market changed radically. Peacetime conflicts with respect to race and labor took on a special dimension because of the pressure for national unity. The Hollywood film industry was important for propaganda. Every aspect of life from politics to personal savings changed when put on a wartime footing. This was achieved by tens of millions of workers moving from low to high productivity jobs in industrial centers. Millions of students, retirees, housewives, and unemployed moved into the active labor force. Hours worked increased as leisure activities declined sharply.
Gasoline, meat, and clothing were tightly rationed. Most families were allocated 3 US gallons (11 l; 2.5 imp gal) of gasoline a week, which sharply curtailed driving for any purpose. Production of most durable goods, like cars, new housing, vacuum cleaners, and kitchen appliances, was banned until the war ended. In industrial areas housing was in short supply as people doubled up and lived in cramped quarters. Prices and wages were controlled. Americans saved a high portion of their incomes, which led to renewed growth after the war.
Federal tax policy was highly contentious during the war, with President Franklin D. Roosevelt battling a conservative Congress. However, both sides agreed on the need for high taxes (along with heavy borrowing) to pay for the war: top marginal tax rates ranged from 81 % - 94 % for the duration of the war, and the income level subject to the highest rate was lowered from $5,000,000 to $200,000. Roosevelt tried unsuccessfully, by executive order 9250, to impose a 100 % surtax on after - tax incomes over $25,000 (equal to roughly $353,558 today). However, Roosevelt did manage to impose this cap on executive pay in corporations with government contracts. Congress also enlarged the tax base by lowering the minimum income to pay taxes, and by reducing personal exemptions and deductions. By 1944 nearly every employed person was paying federal income taxes (compared to 10 % in 1940).
Many controls were put on the economy. The most important were price controls, imposed on most products and monitored by the Office of Price Administration. Wages were also controlled. Corporations dealt with numerous agencies, especially the War Production Board (WPB), and the War and Navy departments, which had the purchasing power and priorities that largely reshaped and expanded industrial production.
In 1942 a rationing system was begun to guarantee minimum amounts of necessities to everyone (especially poor people) and prevent inflation. Tires were the first item to be rationed in January 1942 because supplies of natural rubber were interrupted. Gasoline rationing proved an even better way to allocate scarce rubber. In June 1942 the Combined Food Board was set up to coordinate the worldwide supply of food to the Allies, with special attention to flows from the U.S. and Canada to Britain. By 1943 one needed government issued ration coupons to purchase coffee, sugar, meat, cheese, butter, lard, margarine, canned foods, dried fruits, jam, gasoline, bicycles, fuel oil, clothing, silk or nylon stockings, shoes, and many other items. Some items, like automobiles and home appliances, were no longer made. The rationing system did not apply to used goods like clothes or cars, but they became more expensive since they were not subject to price controls.
To get a classification and a book of rationing stamps, one had to appear before a local rationing board. Each person in a household received a ration book, including babies and children. When purchasing gasoline, a driver had to present a gas card along with a ration book and cash. Ration stamps were valid only for a set period to forestall hoarding. All forms of automobile racing were banned, including the Indianapolis 500 which was cancelled from 1942 to 1945. Sightseeing driving was banned.
Personal income was at an all - time high, and more dollars were chasing fewer goods to purchase. This was a recipe for economic disaster that was largely avoided because Americans -- cajoled daily by their government to do so -- were also saving money at an all - time high rate, mostly in War Bonds but also in private savings accounts and insurance policies. Consumer saving was strongly encouraged through investment in war bonds that would mature after the war. Most workers had an automatic payroll deduction; children collected savings stamps until they had enough to buy a bond. Bond rallies were held throughout the U.S. with famous celebrities, usually Hollywood film stars, to enhance the bond advertising effectiveness. Several stars were responsible for personal appearance tours that netted multiple millions of dollars in bond pledges -- an astonishing amount in 1943. The public paid 3⁄4 of the face value of a war bond, and received the full face value back after a set number of years. This shifted their consumption from the war to postwar, and allowed over 40 % of GDP to go to military spending, with moderate inflation. Americans were challenged to put "at least 10 % of every paycheck into Bonds ''. Compliance was very high, with entire factories of workers earning a special "Minuteman '' flag to fly over their plant if all workers belonged to the "Ten Percent Club ''. There were seven major War Loan drives, all of which exceeded their goals.
The unemployment problem ended with the mobilization for war. Out of a labor force of 54 million, unemployment fell in half from 7.7 million in spring 1940 (when the first accurate statistics were compiled) to 3.4 million in fall 1941 and fell in half again to 1.5 million in fall 1942, hitting an all - time low of 700,000 in fall 1944. There was a growing labor shortage in war centers, with sound trucks going street by street begging for people to apply for war jobs.
Greater wartime production created millions of new jobs, while the draft reduced the number of young men available for civilian jobs. So great was the demand for labor that millions of retired people, housewives, and students entered the labor force, lured by patriotism and wages. The shortage of grocery clerks caused retailers to convert from service at the counter to self - service. With new shorter women clerks replacing taller men, some stores lowered shelves to 5 feet 8 inches (1.73 m). Before the war most groceries, dry cleaners, drugstores, and department stores offered home delivery service. The labor shortage and gasoline and tire rationing caused most retailers to stop delivery. They found that requiring customers to buy their products in person increased sales.
Women also joined the workforce to replace men who had joined the forces, though in fewer numbers. Roosevelt stated that the efforts of civilians at home to support the war through personal sacrifice was as critical to winning the war as the efforts of the soldiers themselves. "Rosie the Riveter '' became the symbol of women laboring in manufacturing. The war effort brought about significant changes in the role of women in society as a whole. When the male breadwinner returned, wives could stop working. At the end of the war, most of the munitions - making jobs ended. Many factories were closed; others retooled for civilian production. In some jobs women were replaced by returning veterans who did not lose seniority because they were in service. However the number of women at work in 1946 was 87 % of the number in 1944, leaving 13 % who lost or quit their jobs. Many women working in machinery factories and more were taken out of the work force. Many of these former factory workers found other work at kitchens, being teachers, etc.
The table shows the development of the United States labor force by sex during the war years.
Women also took on new roles in sport and entertainment, which opened to them as more and more men were drafted. The All - American Girls Professional Baseball League (AAGPBL) was the creation of Chicago Cubs owner Philip Wrigley, who sought alternative ways to expand his baseball franchise as top male players left for military service. In 1943, he created an eight team League in small industrial cities around the Great Lakes; team names included the Kenosha Comets, the Rockford Peaches, and the Fort Wayne Daisies. Night games offered affordable, patriotic entertainment to working Americans who had flocked to wartime jobs in the Midwest hubs of Chicago and Detroit (although better paid than in the prewar Depression, most industrial war workers were on gas and tire rationing, limiting them to local recreation options.) The League provided a novelty entertainment of girls who played hardball as well as men, executing traditional baseball skills of sliding and double - plays while wearing short, feminine uniform skirts. Players as young as fifteen were recruited from farm families and urban industrial teams, chaperoned on the road and subject to strict rules of behavior that included mandatory makeup and feminine hair styling, no drinking or smoking, no swearing, no fraternization with men, and no wearing pants in public; moreover, the League only recruited white players. Fans supported the League to the extent that it continued well past the conclusion of the war, lasting through 1953. During the 1980s, the League was formally inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame in Cooperstown, New York, and became the subject of a popular mainstream film called A League of Their Own.
Labor shortages were felt in agriculture, even though most farmers were given an exemption and few were drafted. Large numbers volunteered or moved to cities for factory jobs. At the same time many agricultural commodities were in greater demand by the military and for the civilian populations of Allies. Production was encouraged and prices and markets were under tight federal control. Civilians were encouraged to create "victory gardens '', farms that were often started in backyards and lots. Children were encouraged to help with these farms, too.
The Bracero Program, a bi-national labor agreement between Mexico and the U.S., started in 1942. Some 290,000 braceros ("strong arms, '' in Spanish) were recruited and contracted to work in the agriculture fields. Half went to Texas, and 20 % to the Pacific Northwest.
Between 1942 and 1946 some 425,000 Italian and German prisoners of war were used as farm laborers, loggers, and cannery workers. In Michigan, for example, the POWs accounted for more than one - third of the state 's agricultural production and food processing in 1944.
To help with the need for a larger source of food, the nation looked to school - aged children to help on farms. Schools often had a victory garden in vacant parking lots and on roofs. Children would help on these farms to help with the war effort. The slogan, "Grow your own, can your own '', also influenced children to help at home.
With the war 's ever increasing need for able bodied men consuming America 's labor force in the early 1940s, industry turned to teen - aged boys and girls to fill in as replacements. Consequently, many states had to change their child - labor laws to allow these teenagers to work. The lures of patriotism, adulthood, and money led many youth to drop out of school and take a defense job. Between 1940 and 1944, the number of teenage workers increased by 1.9 million, and the number of students in public high schools dropped from 6.6 million in 1940 to 5.6 million in 1944, as a million students -- and many teachers -- took jobs.
The war mobilization changed the relationship of the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) with both employers and the national government. Both the CIO and the larger American Federation of Labor (AFL) grew rapidly in the war years.
Nearly all the unions that belonged to the CIO were fully supportive of both the war effort and of the Roosevelt administration. However the United Mine Workers, who had taken an isolationist stand in the years leading up to the war and had opposed Roosevelt 's reelection in 1940, left the CIO in 1942. The major unions supported a wartime no - strike pledge that aimed to eliminate not only major strikes for new contracts, but also the innumerable small strikes called by shop stewards and local union leadership to protest particular grievances. In return for labor 's no - strike pledge, the government offered arbitration to determine the wages and other terms of new contracts. Those procedures produced modest wage increases during the first few years of the war but not enough to keep up with inflation, particularly when combined with the slowness of the arbitration machinery.
Even though the complaints from union members about the no - strike pledge became louder and more bitter, the CIO did not abandon it. The Mine Workers, by contrast, who did not belong to either the AFL or the CIO for much of the war, threatened numerous strikes including a successful twelve - day strike in 1943. The strikes and threats made mine leader John L. Lewis a much hated man and led to legislation hostile to unions.
All the major unions grew stronger during the war. The government put pressure on employers to recognize unions to avoid the sort of turbulent struggles over union recognition of the 1930s, while unions were generally able to obtain maintenance of membership clauses, a form of union security, through arbitration and negotiation. Employers gave workers new untaxed benefits (such as vacation time, pensions, and health insurance), which increased real incomes even when wage rates were frozen. The wage differential between higher skilled and less skilled workers narrowed, and with the enormous increase in overtime for blue collar wage workers (at time and a half pay), incomes in working class households shot up, while the salaried middle class lost ground.
The experience of bargaining on a national basis, while restraining local unions from striking, also tended to accelerate the trend toward bureaucracy within the larger CIO unions. Some, such as the Steelworkers, had always been centralized organizations in which authority for major decisions resided at the top. The UAW, by contrast, had always been a more grassroots organization, but it also started to try to rein in its maverick local leadership during these years. The CIO also had to confront deep racial divides in its own membership, particularly in the UAW plants in Detroit where white workers sometimes struck to protest the promotion of black workers to production jobs, but also in shipyards in Alabama, mass transit in Philadelphia, and steel plants in Baltimore. The CIO leadership, particularly those in further left unions such as the Packinghouse Workers, the UAW, the NMU, and the Transport Workers, undertook serious efforts to suppress hate strikes, to educate their membership, and to support the Roosevelt Administration 's tentative efforts to remedy racial discrimination in war industries through the Fair Employment Practices Commission. Those unions contrasted their relatively bold attack on the problem with the timidity and racism of the AFL.
The CIO unions were progressive in dealing with gender discrimination in wartime industry, which now employed many more women workers in nontraditional jobs. Unions that had represented large numbers of women workers before the war, such as the UE (electrical workers) and the Food and Tobacco Workers, had fairly good records of fighting discrimination against women. Most union leaders saw women as temporary wartime replacements for the men in the armed forces. It was important that the wages of these women be kept high so that the veterans would get high wages.
Early in the war, it became apparent that German U-boats were using the backlighting of coastal cities in the Eastern Seaboard and the South to destroy ships exiting harbors. It became the first duties of civilians recruited for local civilian defense to ensure that lights were either off or thick curtains drawn over all windows at night.
State Guards were reformed for internal security duties to replace the National Guardsmen who were federalized and sent overseas. The Civil Air Patrol was established, which enrolled civilian spotters in air reconnaissance, search - and - rescue, and transport. Its Coast Guard counterpart, the Coast Guard Auxiliary, used civilian boats and crews in similar rescue roles. Towers were built in coastal and border towns, and spotters were trained to recognize enemy aircraft. Blackouts were practiced in every city, even those far from the coast. All exterior lighting had to be extinguished, and black - out curtains placed over windows. The main purpose was to remind people that there was a war on and to provide activities that would engage the civil spirit of millions of people not otherwise involved in the war effort. In large part, this effort was successful, sometimes almost to a fault, such as the Plains states where many dedicated aircraft spotters took up their posts night after night watching the skies in an area of the country that no enemy aircraft of that time could possibly hope to reach.
The United Service Organizations (USO) was founded in 1941 in response to a request from President Franklin D. Roosevelt to provide morale and recreation services to uniformed military personnel. The USO brought together six civilian agencies: the Salvation Army, Young Men 's Christian Association, Young Women 's Christian Association, National Catholic Community Service, National Travelers Aid Association, and the National Jewish Welfare Board.
Women volunteered to work for the Red Cross, the USO and other agencies. Other women previously employed only in the home, or in traditionally female work, took jobs in factories that directly supported the war effort, or filled jobs vacated by men who had entered military service. Enrollment in high schools and colleges plunged as many high school and college students dropped out to take war jobs.
Various items, previously discarded, were saved after use for what was called "recycling '' years later. Families were requested to save fat drippings from cooking for use in soap making. Neighborhood "scrap drives '' collected scrap copper and brass for use in artillery shells. Milkweed was harvested by children ostensibly for lifejackets.
In 1940, Congress passed the first peace - time draft legislation. It was renewed (by one vote) in summer 1941. It involved questions as to who should control the draft, the size of the army, and the need for deferments. The system worked through local draft boards comprising community leaders who were given quotas and then decided how to fill them. There was very little draft resistance.
The nation went from a surplus manpower pool with high unemployment and relief in 1940 to a severe manpower shortage by 1943. Industry realized that the Army urgently desired production of essential war materials and foodstuffs more than soldiers. (Large numbers of soldiers were not used until the invasion of Europe in summer 1944.) In 1940 -- 43 the Army often transferred soldiers to civilian status in the Enlisted Reserve Corps in order to increase production. Those transferred would return to work in essential industry, although they could be recalled to active duty if the Army needed them. Others were discharged if their civilian work was deemed essential. There were instances of mass releases of men to increase production in various industries. Working men who had been classified 4F or otherwise ineligible for the draft took second jobs.
In the figure below an overview of the development of the United States labor force, the armed forces and unemployment during the war years.
One contentious issue involved the drafting of fathers, which was avoided as much as possible. The drafting of 18 - year - olds was desired by the military but vetoed by public opinion. Racial minorities were drafted at the same rate as Whites, and were paid the same, but blacks were kept in all - black units. The experience of World War I regarding men needed by industry was particularly unsatisfactory -- too many skilled mechanics and engineers became privates (there is a possibly apocryphal story of a banker assigned as a baker due to a clerical error, noted by historian Lee Kennett in his book "G.I. '') Farmers demanded and were generally given occupational deferments (many volunteered anyway, but those who stayed at home lost postwar veteran 's benefits.)
Later in the war, in light of the tremendous amount of manpower that would be necessary for the invasion of France in 1944, many earlier deferment categories became draft eligible.
The churches showed much less pacifism than in 1914. The Church of God, based in Anderson, Indiana, had a strong pacifist element, reaching a high point in the late 1930s. The Church regarded World War II as a just war because America was attacked. Likewise the Quakers generally regarded World War II as a just war and about 90 % served, although there were some conscientious objectors. The Mennonites and Brethren continued their pacifism, but the federal government was much less hostile than in the previous war. These churches helped their young men to both become conscientious objectors and to provide valuable service to the nation. Goshen College set up a training program for unpaid Civilian Public Service jobs. Although the young women pacifists were not liable to the draft, they volunteered for unpaid Civilian Public Service jobs to demonstrate their patriotism; many worked in mental hospitals. The Jehovah Witness denomination, however, refused to participate in any forms of service, and thousands of its young men refused to register and went to prison.
Civilian support for the war was widespread, with isolated cases of draft resistance. The F.B.I. was already tracking elements that were suspected of loyalty to Germany, Japan, or Italy, and many were arrested in the weeks after the attack on Pearl Harbor. 7,000 German and Italian aliens (who were not U.S. citizens) were moved back from the West Coast, along with some 100,000 of Japanese descent. Some enemy aliens were held without trial during the entire war. The U.S. citizens accused of supporting Germany were given public trials, and often were freed.
There was large - scale migration to industrial centers, especially on the West Coast. Millions of wives followed their husbands to military camps; for many families, especially from farms, the moves were permanent. One 1944 survey of migrants in Portland, Oregon and San Diego found that three quarters wanted to stay after the war. Many new military training bases were established or enlarged, especially in the South. Large numbers of African Americans left the cotton fields and headed for the cities. Housing was increasingly difficult to find in industrial centers, as there was no new non-military construction. Commuting by car was limited by gasoline rationing. People car pooled or took public transportation, which was seriously overcrowded. Trains were heavily booked, with uniformed military personnel taking priority, so people limited vacation and long - distance travel.
The large - scale movement of blacks from the rural South to defense centers in the North (and some in the South) led to small - scale local confrontations over jobs and housing shortages. Washington feared a major race war. The cities were relatively peaceful; much - feared large - scale race riots did not happen, but there was small - scale violence, as in the 1943 race riot in Detroit and the anti-Mexican Zoot Suit Riots in Los Angeles in 1943. The "zoot suit '' was a highly conspicuous costume worn by Mexican American teenagers in Los Angeles. As historian Roger Bruns notes, "the Zoot suit also represented a stark visual expression of culture for Mexican Americans, about making a statement -- a mark of defiance against the place in society in which they found themselves. '' They gained admiration from their in group, and "disgust and ridicule from others, especially the Anglos. ''
Standlee (2010) argues that during the war the traditional gender division of labor changed somewhat, as the "home '' or domestic female sphere expanded to include the "home front ''. Meanwhile, the public sphere -- the male domain -- was redefined as the international stage of military action.
Wartime mobilization drastically changed the sexual divisions of labor for women, as young able - bodied men were sent overseas and war time manufacturing production increased. Throughout the war, according to Susan Hartmann (1982), an estimated 6.5 million women entered the labor force. Women, many of whom were married, took a variety of paid jobs in a multitude of vocational jobs, many of which were previously exclusive to men. The greatest wartime gain in female employment was in the manufacturing industry, where more than 2.5 million additional women represented an increase of 140 percent by 1944. This was catalyzed by the "Rosie the Riveter '' phenomenon.
The composition of the marital status of women who went to work changed considerably over the course of the war. One in every ten married women entered the labor force during the war, and they represented more than three million of the new female workers, while 2.89 million were single and the rest widowed or divorced. For the first time in the nation 's history there were more married women than single women in the female labor force. In 1944, thirty - seven percent of all adult women were reported in the labor force, but nearly fifty percent of all women were actually employed at some time during that year at the height of wartime production. In the same year the unemployment rate hit an all - time historical low of 1.2 %.
According to Hartmann (1982), the women who sought employment, based on various surveys and public opinion reports at the time suggests that financial reasoning was the justification for entering the labor force; however, patriotic motives made up another large portion of women 's desires to enter. Women whose husbands were at war were more than twice as likely to seek jobs.
Fundamentally, women were thought to be taking work defined as "men 's work; '' however, the work women did was typically catered to specific skill sets management thought women could handle. Management would also advertise women 's work as an extension of domesticity. For example, in a Sperry Corporation recruitment pamphlet the company stated, "Note the similarity between squeezing orange juice and the operation of a small drill press. '' A Ford Motor Company at Willow Run bomber plant publication proclaimed, "The ladies have shown they can operate drill presses as well as egg beaters. '' One manager was even stated saying, "Why should men, who from childhood on never so much as sewed on buttons be expected to handle delicate instruments better than women who have plied embroidery needles, knitting needles and darning needs all their lives? '' In these instances, women were thought of and hired to do jobs management thought they could perform based on sex - typing.
Following the war, many women left their jobs voluntarily. One Twin Cities Army Ammunition Plant (formally Twin Cities Ordnance Plant) worker in New Brighton, Minnesota confessed, "I will gladly get back into the apron. I did not go into war work with the idea of working all my life. It was just to help out during the war. '' Other women were laid off by employers to make way for returning veterans who did not lose their seniority due to the war.
By the end of the war, many men who entered into the service did not return. This left women to take up sole responsibility of the household and provide economically for the family.
Nursing became a highly prestigious occupation for young women. A majority of female civilian nurses volunteered for the Army Nurse Corps or the Navy Nurse Corps. These women automatically became officers. Teenaged girls enlisted in the Cadet Nurse Corps. To cope with the growing shortage on the homefront, thousands of retired nurses volunteered to help out in local hospitals.
Women staffed millions of jobs in community service roles, such as nursing, the USO, and the Red Cross. Unorganized women were encouraged to collect and turn in materials that were needed by the war effort. Women collected fats rendered during cooking, children formed balls of aluminum foil they peeled from chewing gum wrappers and also created rubber band balls, which they contributed to the war effort. Hundreds of thousands of men joined civil defense units to prepare for disasters, such as enemy bombing.
The Women Airforce Service Pilots (WASP) mobilized 1,000 civilian women to fly new warplanes from the factories to airfields located on the east coast of the U.S. This was historically significant because flying a warplane had always been a male role. No American women flew warplanes in combat.
Marriage and motherhood came back as prosperity empowered couples who had postponed marriage. The birth rate started shooting up in 1941, paused in 1944 -- 45 as 12 million men were in uniform, then continued to soar until reaching a peak in the late 1950s. This was the "Baby Boom. ''
In a New Deal - like move, the federal government set up the "EMIC '' program that provided free prenatal and natal care for the wives of servicemen below the rank of sergeant.
Housing shortages, especially in the munitions centers, forced millions of couples to live with parents or in makeshift facilities. Little housing had been built in the Depression years, so the shortages grew steadily worse until about 1949, when a massive housing boom finally caught up with demand. (After 1944 much of the new housing was supported by the G.I. Bill.)
Federal law made it difficult to divorce absent servicemen, so the number of divorces peaked when they returned in 1946. In long - range terms, divorce rates changed little.
Juggling their roles as mothers due to the Baby Boom and the jobs they filled while the men were at war, women strained to complete all tasks set before them. The war caused cutbacks in automobile and bus service, and migration from farms and towns to munitions centers. Those housewives who worked found the dual role difficult to handle.
Stress came when sons, husbands, fathers, brothers, and fiancés were drafted and sent to faraway training camps, preparing for a war in which nobody knew how many would be killed. Millions of wives tried to relocate near their husbands ' training camps.
During World War II the trend in immigration policies were both more and less restrictive. The United States immigration policies focused more on national security and were driven by foreign policy imperatives. Legislation such as the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 was finally repealed. This Act was the first law in the United States that excluded a specific group - the Chinese from migrating to the United States. But during World War II, with the Chinese as allies, the United States passed the Magnuson Act, also known as the Chinese Exclusion Repeal Act of 1943. There was also the Nationality Act of 1940, which clarified how to become and remain a citizen. Specifically, it allowed immigrants who were not citizens, like the Filipinos or those in the outside territories to gain citizenship by enlisting in the army. In contrast, the Japanese and Japanese - Americans were subject to internment in the U.S. There was also legislation like the Smith Act, also known as the Alien Registration Act of 1940, which required indicted communists, anarchists and fascists. Another program was the Bracero Program, which allowed over two decades, nearly 5 million Mexican workers to come and work in the United States.
After World War II, there was also the Truman Directive of 1945, which did not allow more people to migrate, but did use the immigration quotas to let in more displaced people after the war. There was also the War Brides Act of 1945, which allowed spouses of US soldiers to get an expedited path towards citizenship. In contrast, the 1952 Immigration and Nationality Act, also known as the McCarran - Walter Act, turned away migrants based not on their country of origin but rather whether they are moral or diseased.
In 1942 the War Department demanded that all enemy nationals be removed from war zones on the West Coast. The question became how to evacuate the estimated 120,000 people of Japanese ancestry living in California. Roosevelt looked at the secret evidence available to him: the Japanese in the Philippines had collaborated with the Japanese invasion troops; most of the adult Japanese in California had been strong supporters of Japan in the war against China. There was evidence of espionage compiled by code - breakers that decrypted messages to Japan from agents in North America and Hawaii before and after the attack on Pearl Harbor. These MAGIC cables were kept secret from all but those with the highest clearance, such as Roosevelt. On February 19, 1942, Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066 which set up designated military areas "from which any or all persons may be excluded. '' The most controversial part of the order included American born children and youth who had dual U.S. and Japanese citizenship. Germans and Italians were not interned, as shown from the Korematsu v. United States case.
In February 1943, when activating the 442nd Regimental Combat Team -- a unit composed mostly of American - born American citizens of Japanese descent living in Hawaii -- Roosevelt said, "No loyal citizen of the United States should be denied the democratic right to exercise the responsibilities of his citizenship, regardless of his ancestry. The principle on which this country was founded and by which it has always been governed is that Americanism is a matter of the mind and heart; Americanism is not, and never was, a matter of race or ancestry. '' In 1944, the U.S. Supreme Court upheld the legality of the executive order in the Korematsu v. United States case. The executive order remained in force until December when Roosevelt released the Japanese internees, except for those who announced their intention to return to Japan.
Fascist Italy was an official enemy, and citizens of Italy were also forced away from "strategic '' coastal areas in California. Altogether, 58,000 Italians were forced to relocate. They relocated on their own and were not put in camps. Known spokesmen for Benito Mussolini were arrested and held in prison. The restrictions were dropped in October 1942, and Italy switched sides in 1943 and became an American ally. In the east, however, the large Italian populations of the northeast, especially in munitions - producing centers such as Bridgeport and New Haven, faced no restrictions and contributed just as much to the war effort as other Americans.
The Fair Employment Practices Commission (FEPC) was a federal executive order requiring companies with government contracts not to discriminate on the basis of race or religion. It assisted African Americans in obtaining jobs in industry. Under pressure from A. Philip Randolph 's growing March on Washington Movement, on June 25, 1941, President Roosevelt created the Fair Employment Practices Committee (FEPC) by signing Executive Order 8802. It said "there shall be no discrimination in the employment of workers in defense industries or government because of race, creed, color, or national origin ''. In 1943 Roosevelt greatly strengthened FEPC with a new executive order, # 9346. It required that all government contracts have a non-discrimination clause. FEPC was the most significant breakthrough ever for Blacks and women on the job front. During the war the federal government operated airfields, shipyards, supply centers, ammunition plants, and other facilities that employed millions. FEPC rules applied and guaranteed equality of employment rights. These facilities shut down when the war ended. In the private sector the FEPC was generally successful in enforcing non-discrimination in the North, it did not attempt to challenge segregation in the South, and in the border region its intervention led to hate strikes by angry white workers.
The African American community in the United States resolved on a Double V campaign: victory over fascism abroad, and victory over discrimination at home. Large numbers migrated from poor Southern farms to munitions centers. Racial tensions were high in overcrowded cities like Chicago; Detroit and New York experienced race riots in 1943. Black newspapers created the Double V campaign to build black morale and head off radical action.
Most Black women had been farm laborers or domestics before the war. Despite discrimination and segregated facilities throughout the South, many left agricultural work, migrated north and west, and took blue - collar jobs in the cities. Working with the federal Fair Employment Practices Committee, the NAACP, and CIO unions, these Black women fought a "Double V '' campaign -- against the Axis abroad and against restrictive hiring practices at home. Their efforts redefined citizenship, equating their patriotism with war work, and seeking equal employment opportunities, government entitlements, and better working conditions as conditions appropriate for full citizens. In the South black women worked in segregated jobs; in the West and most of the North they were integrated, but wildcat strikes erupted in Detroit, Baltimore, and Evansville, Indiana where white migrants from the South refused to work alongside black women.
As propaganda has a tendency to do, media with a pro-American twist during the war tended to portray the Axis powers in an incredibly negative light.
Germans tended to be shown as being either weak or barbaric, but also stupid, and obsessed with Nazism and Nazi imagery. This could be seen in comic books such as Captain America No. 1, who cover features the superhero punching out Hitler, while a number of menacing and feral looking officers shoot at Captain America. This existed in cartoons as well. The Popeye cartoon, Seein ' Red, White, ' N ' Blue (aired on February 19, 1943), ends with a distinctly American Uncle Sam fist punching a sickly looking Hitler. Perhaps nowhere is this unattractive portrayal of Germans better known than in the somewhat controversial Donald Duck cartoon, Der Fuehrer 's Face (aired on January 1, 1943). Best known for portraying Donald Duck as a Nazi living in Germany, the cartoon also features caricatures of Benito Mussolini, Joseph Goebbels, Heinrich Himmler, and Herman Göring performing in an oompa - band marching past swastika clouds, bushes, windmills, fire hydrants, and telephone lines, among other things. Donald Duck, living in a house with a striking resemblance to Hitler, is shown to a swastika fence surrounding it, and swastika wallpaper, an alarm clock that gives the Nazi salute and with each number replaced by a swastika, a cuckoo clock with the same number pattern, and a Hitler cuckoo, and numerous pictures of Hitler and the other Axis leaders decorating the walls. Donald Duck then is forced to his job at a munitions factory (appropriately decorated with even more swastikas) where he must "work 48 hours a day for the Führer '' under heavy guard. While screwing in shells on a conveyor belt, pictures of Hitler occasionally pass him which he must salute, all while a loudspeaker extols the glory of Hitler: "Is this not wonderful? Is not the Führer glorious? ''
Even worse is the portrayal of the Japanese in American Propaganda. Though the way the Germans are shown to be might be considered offensive, the attacks are generally focused on Nazi officials such as Hitler, Himmler, Goebbels, and Göring. On the other hand, the Japanese are targeted on a much broader level. These range from showing the Japanese as being vicious and feral, as on the cover of Marvel Comic 's Mystery Comics no. 32, to using every horrific stereotype available. This is the case in the Loony Tune 's cartoon Tokio Jokio (aired May 13, 1943), in which the Japanese people are all shown to be incredibly stupid (such as one man using an incendiary bomb to roast a hot dog over), obsessed with being polite, cowardly, and physically short with buckteeth, big lips, squinty eyes, and glasses. The entire cartoon is also narrated in broken English, with the letter "R '' often replacing "L '' in pronunciation of words, a common stereotype. Slurs used against Japanese were common as well. In the Popeye cartoon Scrap the Japs (aired November 20, 1942), Popeye at one point exclaims "I never seen a Jap that was n't yella! '' In Nip the Nips, a Bugs Bunny cartoon first aired on April 22, 1944, Bugs passes out explosives disguised as ice cream to a number of Japanese soldiers, referring to them individually as, "bow legs, '' "monkey face, '' and "slanty eyes. '' Perhaps nowhere is the difference in portrayals more solidly seen than in Theodor Geisel 's comics created during the Second World War. Hitler may be seen as weak, cowardly, and ineffective, but Hideki Tojo and Emperor Hirohito are always shown to have the same physical stereotypes already discussed.
Roosevelt easily won the bitterly contested 1940 election, but the Conservative coalition maintained a tight grip on Congress regarding taxes and domestic issues. Wendell Willkie, the defeated GOP candidate in 1940, became a roving ambassador for Roosevelt. After Vice President Henry A. Wallace became emeshed in a series of squabbles with other high officials, Roosevelt stripped him of his administrative responsibilities and dropped him from the 1944 ticket. Roosevelt in cooperation with big city party leaders, replaced Wallace with Missouri Senator Harry S. Truman. Truman was best known for investigating waste, fraud and inefficiency in wartime programs. In very light turnout in 1942 the Republicans made major gains. In the 1944 election, Roosevelt defeated Tom Dewey in a race that attracted little attention.
Patriotism became the central theme of advertising throughout the war, as large scale campaigns were launched to sell war bonds, promote efficiency in factories, reduce ugly rumors, and maintain civilian morale. The war consolidated the advertising industry 's role in American society, deflecting earlier criticism. The media cooperated with the federal government in presenting the official view of the war. All movie scripts had to be pre-approved. For example, there were widespread rumors in the Army to the effect that people on the homefront were slacking off. A Private SNAFU film cartoon (released to soldiers only) belied that rumor. Tin Pan Alley produced patriotic songs to rally the people.
Posters helped to mobilize the nation. Inexpensive, accessible, and ever - present, the poster was an ideal agent for making war aims the personal mission of every citizen. Government agencies, businesses, and private organizations issued an array of poster images linking the military front with the home front -- calling upon every American to boost production at work and at home. Some resorted to extreme racial and ethnic caricatures of the enemy, sometimes as hopelessly bumbling cartoon characters, sometimes as evil, half - human creatures.
A strong aspect of American culture then as now was a fascination with celebrities, and the government used them in its eight war bond campaigns that called on people to save now (and redeem the bonds after the war, when houses, cars and appliances would again be available.) The War Bond drives helped finance the war. Americans were challenged to put at least 10 % of every paycheck into bonds. Compliance was high, with entire work places earning a special "Minuteman '' flag to fly over their plant if all workers belonged to the "Ten Percent Club ''.
Hollywood studios also went all - out for the war effort, as studios encouraged their stars (such as Clark Gable and James Stewart) to enlist. Hollywood had military units that made training films -- Ronald Reagan narrated many of them. Most of all Hollywood made hundreds of war movies that, in coordination with the Office of War Information (OWI), taught Americans what was happening and who the heroes and the villains were. Ninety million people went to the movies every week. Some of the most highly regarded films during this period included Casablanca, Mrs. Miniver, Going My Way, and Yankee Doodle Dandy. Even before active American involvement in the war, the popular Three Stooges comic trio were lampooning the Nazi German leadership, and Nazis in general, with a number of short subject films, starting with You Nazty Spy! in January 1940, nearly two years before the United States was drawn into World War II.
Cartoons and short subjects were a major sign of the times, as Warner Brothers Studios and Disney Studios gave unprecedented aid to the war effort by creating cartoons that were both patriotic and humorous, and also contributed to remind movie - goers of wartime activities such as rationing and scrap drives, war bond purchases, and the creation of victory gardens. Warner shorts such as Daffy - The Commando, Draftee Daffy, Herr Meets Hare, and Russian Rhapsody are particularly remembered for their biting wit and unflinching mockery of the enemy (particularly Adolf Hitler, Hideki Tōjō, and Hermann Göring). Their cartoons of Private Snafu, produced for the military as "training films '', served to remind many military men of the importance of following proper procedure during wartime, for their own safety. Hanna Barbara also contributed to the war effort with slyly pro US short cartoon The Yankee Doodle Mouse with "Lt. '' Jerry Mouse as the hero and Tom Cat as the "enemy ''.
To heighten the suspense, Hollywood needed to feature attacks on American soil, and obtained inspirations for dramatic stories from the Philippines. Indeed, the Philippines became a "homefront '' that showed the American way of life threatened by the Japanese enemy. Especially popular were the films Texas to Bataan (1942), Corregidor (1943), Bataan (1943), They Were Expendable (1945), and Back to Bataan (1945).
The OWI had to approve every film before they could be exported. To facilitate the process the OWI 's Bureau of Motion Pictures (BMP) worked with producers, directors and writers before the shooting started to make sure that the themes reflected patriotic values. While Hollywood had been generally nonpolitical before the war, the liberals who controlled OWI encouraged the expression of New Deal liberalism, bearing in mind the huge domestic audience, as well as an international audience that was equally large.
The Office of Censorship published a code of conduct for newspapers, magazines, and broadcasters. The office did not use government censors to preapprove all articles and radio programs. It relied on voluntary cooperation to avoid subjects, such as troop movements, weather forecasts, and the travels of the President, that might aid the enemy. Journalists did not have to publish positive propaganda, unlike during World War I.
One way to enlist everyone in the war effort was scrap collection (called "recycling '' decades later). Many everyday commodities were vital to the war effort, and drives were organized to recycle such products as rubber, tin, waste kitchen fats (a raw material for explosives), newspaper, lumber, steel, and many others. Popular phrases promoted by the government at the time were "Get into the scrap! '' and "Get some cash for your trash '' (a nominal sum was paid to the donor for many kinds of scrap items) and Thomas "Fats '' Waller even wrote and recorded a song with the latter title. Such commodities as rubber and tin remained highly important as recycled materials until the end of the war, while others, such as steel, were critically needed at first. War propaganda played a prominent role in many of these drives. Nebraska had perhaps the most extensive and well - organized drives; it was mobilized by the Omaha World Herald newspaper.
Although the Axis powers never launched a full - scale invasion on the U.S. mainland, there were attacks and acts of sabotage on U.S. soil.
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who plays isaac in the fault in our stars | The Fault in Our Stars (film) - wikipedia
The Fault in Our Stars is a 2014 American romantic drama film directed by Josh Boone, based on the novel of the same name by John Green. The film stars Shailene Woodley, Ansel Elgort, and Nat Wolff, with Laura Dern, Sam Trammell, and Willem Dafoe playing supporting roles. Woodley plays Hazel Grace Lancaster, a sixteen - year - old cancer patient who is forced by her parents to attend a support group, where she meets and subsequently falls in love with Augustus Waters, another cancer patient, played by Elgort.
Development of The Fault in Our Stars began in January 2012 when Fox 2000, a division of 20th Century Fox, optioned the rights to adapt the novel into a feature film. Principal photography began on August 26, 2013, in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, with a few additional days in Amsterdam, The Netherlands, before concluding on October 16, 2013. Pittsburgh doubled for all of the scenes set in Indianapolis, Indiana, the novel 's setting, as well as for some interior scenes set in Amsterdam.
The Fault in Our Stars was released in the United States on June 6, 2014, to positive critical reception, with praise for Woodley 's performance as well as the script. The film was also a blockbuster, becoming number one at the box office during its opening weekend, and grossing over $307 million worldwide against a budget of $12 million. It was released on Blu - ray and DVD on September 16, 2014, and grossed over $42 million in total domestic video sales.
Hazel Grace Lancaster is an intelligent and witty teenager living in Indianapolis, who has terminal thyroid cancer that has spread to her lungs. Believing she is depressed, her mother Frannie urges her to attend a weekly cancer patient support group to help her make friends with individuals who are going through the same thing. There Hazel meets Augustus Waters, a charming teenager who lost a leg from bone cancer but has since apparently been cancer - free. He invites Hazel to his house where they bond over their hobbies and agree to read each other 's favorite book. Hazel recommends An Imperial Affliction, a novel about a cancer - stricken girl named Anna that parallels her experience, and Augustus gives Hazel Counter Insurgence. They keep in touch via text over the weeks that follow and grow closer. After Augustus finishes the book, he expresses frustration with its abrupt ending (it ends in the middle of a sentence). Hazel explains that the novel 's mysterious author, Peter Van Houten (Willem Dafoe), retreated to Amsterdam following the novel 's publication and has not been heard from since.
Weeks later, Augustus tells Hazel he has traced Van Houten 's assistant, Lidewij, and has corresponded with Van Houten by email. She writes to him to find out more about the novel 's ambiguous ending. Van Houten replies that he is only willing to answer her questions in person. Hazel asks her mother if she can travel to Amsterdam to visit him, but Frannie refuses because of financial and medical constraints. Augustus suggests that she use the "cancer wish '' she received from Make - A-Wish Foundation but Hazel explains that she has already used hers to visit Disney World. Augustus and Hazel go on a picnic date and begin to fall in love. Augustus surprises Hazel with tickets to Amsterdam. After a medical setback, Hazel 's doctors eventually agree to allow the trip, since they expect that she will soon become incapable of doing anything at all.
Hazel and Augustus arrive in Amsterdam and are presented with reservations at an expensive restaurant, pre-paid by Van Houten. During the meal, Augustus confesses his love for Hazel. The following afternoon, they go to Van Houten 's house, but are shocked to find he is a mean - spirited alcoholic. Lidewij arranged the meeting and their dinner without Van Houten knowing anything about it. Angered by his assistant 's actions, he taunts Hazel for seeking serious answers to a piece of fiction and belittles her medical condition. She leaves, utterly distraught. Lidewij invites them to go sightseeing to make up for their ruined experience. The three visit the Anne Frank House, where Hazel struggles to climb the house 's many stairs. They spend that night together in their hotel and have sex for the first time. The next day Augustus tells Hazel that his cancer has returned and spread throughout his body and is terminal. Hazel is heartbroken, expressing how unfair life can be.
After their return to Indianapolis, Augustus ' health worsens. He is taken to the ICU and realizes he is close to death. Augustus invites his blind best friend Isaac and Hazel to his pre-funeral, where they deliver eulogies that they have both prepared. Hazel tells him she would not trade their short time together for anything, since he "gave me a forever within the numbered days. '' Augustus dies eight days later and Hazel is astonished to find Van Houten at the funeral. He tells her that Augustus had demanded he attend his funeral to make up for the spoiled trip. Van Houten tells her that the novel is based on the experiences of his daughter Anna, who died from leukemia at a young age. He gives Hazel a piece of paper which she crumples up asking him to leave. Later, talking with Isaac, Hazel learns that Augustus had asked Van Houten to help him write a eulogy for her. She retrieves the crumpled paper and reads his words accepting his death and about his love for her. She lies on her back on her lawn looking up at the stars, smiling as she remembers Augustus and says: "Okay. ''
The book An Imperial Affliction, which features within both the original novel and the film, is fictitious, as is its author Peter Van Houten; both are used to enhance the themes and story.
According to Lindsey Weber of Vulture.com, the differences between the book and the film include Hazel mentioning the band the Hectic Glow many times in the book, but not in the film. Gus is 17 in the book but 18 in the film. In the book, Gus has an ex-girlfriend, Caroline, who died from cancer which is not mentioned in the film. Hazel 's former best friend Kaitlyn does not appear in the film. In the book, Hazel and Gus meet when she turns around to find him staring at her, while in the film they meet on the way to their support group. Gus dies more quickly in the film than in the book. In the book, Hazel searches for the letter, while in the film, Van Houten gives it to her. In the book, Hazel shows forgiveness towards van Houten after Gus 's funeral, while in the film she demands that he leave. In the book, Hazel is a vegetarian but this is not referenced in the film. A scene in the film in which Gus comes in a limousine to pick up Hazel and her mother when they are leaving for Amsterdam, does not appear in the book. However, in the book, Gus is late when Hazel and her mother arrive at his house in a taxi because he appears to be fighting with his parents over his cancer relapse and the trip. The book Augustus gives Hazel the first time they hang out is "The Price of Dawn '' in the book, while it is "Counterinsurgence '' in the movie. Augustus has blue eyes in the book, though brown eyes in the movie. Issac 's hair is blond in the book, yet black in the movie.
On January 31, 2012, it was announced that Fox 2000, a division of 20th Century Fox, had optioned the rights to adapt John Green 's novel The Fault in Our Stars for a feature film. Wyck Godfrey and Marty Bowen were due to produce the film with their production company, Temple Hill Entertainment. Stephen Chbosky, who directed The Perks of Being a Wallflower (also filmed in Pittsburgh), was in talks to direct the film but turned it down because of its similarity to Perks. On February 19, 2013, Josh Boone was hired as director; Scott Neustadter and Michael H. Weber were hired to adapt the novel into a screenplay -- their second adaptation for Fox, following Rosaline.
On March 19, 2013, Entertainment Weekly announced that Shailene Woodley (who had recently been cast in, and was filming, Divergent) would play Hazel Grace Lancaster. Director Josh Boone said: "We read close to 150 actresses for the role, and I saw about 50 of those. Within ten or fifteen seconds of Shailene 's audition, I knew she was Hazel. She held up her script pages and just her eyes were peeking over them. '' On May 10, 2013, Ansel Elgort was cast as Hazel 's love interest, Augustus Waters. On July 23, Laura Dern joined the cast as Hazel 's mother Frannie Lancaster, and Nat Wolff as Issac, Augustus ' best friend. Wolff told HuffPost Live: "It 's exciting, I feel really lucky. The fact that I get to work with these super talented people -- I mean, that 's part of the reason why, I 'm good in the movie, that 's the reason. '' On August 14, Sam Trammell was cast as Hazel 's father Michael Lancaster, and on August 28, author John Green announced that Mike Birbiglia would be playing Patrick. On September 6, he tweeted that Willem Dafoe would play Peter van Houten.
Prior to these announcements, author John Green had tweeted that he would be happy if Mae Whitman played Hazel, and in February 2013, there had been speculation that Shailene Woodley and Hailee Steinfeld were among those being considered for the lead role.
John Green filmed a cameo appearance; his scene was cut from the film but is included in the deleted scenes section of the film 's DVD and Blu - ray releases. In the cut scene, Green plays the father of a young girl who asks about Hazel 's cannula while at the airport. Green said: "They cut (the scene) because it was totally unnecessary to the movie - slash - I was terrible. ''
Principal photography began on August 26, 2013, in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Film locations included Oakmont, Pennsylvania, Pittsburgh Children 's Hospital, and the historic The Mansions on Fifth hotel. The church scenes were filmed at St. Paul 's Episcopal Church in the Pittsburgh suburb of Mt. Lebanon. Filming in Pennsylvania continued until October 10, then the production moved to Amsterdam, where filming began on October 14. Filming was officially completed on October 16, 2013.
In Amsterdam, three days of filming took place. Woodley and Elgort were filmed on a canal - side public bench. On July 2, 2014, The Guardian reported that the bench had gone missing, and city officials said they did not know where it was. Amsterdam city spokesman, Stephan van der Hoek said: "It 's a bit embarrassing, because we do keep good track of them, but it 's gone all right ''. He promised to install a new bench within weeks. Just a week later, Entertainment Weekly said the Amsterdam film office had tweeted a photograph taken during the re-installation of the stolen bench; Amsterdam film commissioner Simon Brester said it was the same bench, not a replacement.
Filming in Pittsburgh included the interior scenes at the Anne Frank House, which was recreated on a soundstage at Pittsburgh Studios located in Churchill Borough, Pennsylvania in the east suburbs of Pittsburgh. Production designer Molly Hughes and art director Greg Weimerskirch built three different studio sets in Pittsburgh, one for each floor. Also, the Funky Bones art monument in Indianapolis was recreated in Pittsburgh with the help of the sculpture 's creator, Dutch artist Joep Van Lieshout.
Author John Green, though an Indianapolis native, was pleased with the selection of Pittsburgh for filming. He commented that
Pittsburgh has an amazing community of really talented film professionals that 's been built up over the last 20 years. I 've been blown away by their professionalism, their confidence, their dedication. There are n't a lot of cities like that. You kind of have to find the city that can be Indianapolis. And Pittsburgh, even though it has a lot of hills, it can be Indianapolis. We just have to find a couple of flat streets.
Mike Mogis and Nate Walcott of Bright Eyes scored the film. The full album track list was released on April 13, 2014, featuring songs from artists including: M83, Grouplove, Kodaline, Jake Bugg, Tom Odell, Birdy, Ed Sheeran and Charli XCX, who performed "Boom Clap '', one of the main songs from the movie, which became an international success, due in part to its exposure in the film. The soundtrack was released by Atlantic Records on May 19 in the U.S., and on June 23 in the UK.
The Fault in Our Stars premiered to 300 guests at the Ziegfeld Theater in New York City on June 2, 2014. At the premiere, Green said: "I did n't want to sell it, because Hollywood sucks at making unsentimental movies about illness. '' The film was released on June 6, 2014. After the New York premiere, Evangeline Earl, a student, announced that Green 's book, from which the film was adapted, had been inspired by her sister Esther Earl, who had also been an author. Esther suffered from thyroid cancer and died in 2010. Evangeline said Esther had met Green at LeakyCon, a Harry Potter convention held in Boston in 2009. Green said, "I could never have written The Fault in Our Stars without knowing Esther. Every word on that book depends on her. '' Green said he used the word "okay '' in the book and the film because Hazel and Augustus used it to express their love for each other; it becomes a special word between them. The original novel was inspired by the late author Esther Earl, who used the word "okay '' with her sister Abigail.
The first trailer was released on January 29, 2014. The trailer had over 3 million views in less than 24 hours, and more than 15 million views in its first seven days. A video clip was shown before the show at the 2014 MTV Movie Awards on April 13. An extended trailer was released on April 28, and Fox released more clips via YouTube as part of the film 's pre-release promotion. On April 2, the studio announced the launch of a promotional tour program named Demand Our Stars. Green, Woodley, Elgort, and Wolff would visit the states that got most votes from fans re-blogging their states ' map outlines. Four states won: the tour program started in Miami, Florida, on May 6; went to Cleveland, Ohio, on May 7; then went to Nashville, Tennessee, on May 8; and ended in Dallas, Texas, on May 9.
The Fault in Our Stars was released on DVD and Blu - ray on September 16, 2014. The Fault in Our Stars: Little Infinities Blu - ray edition features the theatrical 126 - minute and extended 133 - minute versions of the film, a number of deleted scenes including the John Green cameo, and featurettes. The home video release grossed over $42.6 million in total domestic video sales.
The Fault in Our Stars received generally positive reviews, with Woodley 's and Elgort 's performances and Neustadter and Weber 's screenplay receiving praise. On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 81 % based on 199 reviews, with an average rating of 6.9 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Wise, funny, and heartbreaking without resorting to exploitation, The Fault in Our Stars does right by its bestselling source material. '' Metacritic gave the film a score of 69 out of 100, based on 45 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews. '' At CinemaScore opening day audiences gave the film an "A '' on an A+ to F scale.
Steven Rea of The Philadelphia Inquirer gave the film a score of 3 out of 4; he said: "Woodley... balances grace with gravity, wit with heart. '' A.O. Scott writing for The New York Times said: "The film sets out to make you weep -- not just sniffle or choke up a little, but sob until your nose runs and your face turns blotchy. It succeeds. '' The Boston Globe 's Ty Burr gave the film a rating of 2.5 out 4 and said: "If Elgort 's Gus is glibly charming and ultimately affecting, The Fault in Our Stars belongs to Woodley, a performer who always seems to be backing warily into her own movies. ''
Quickflix 's Simon Miraudo rated the film 3 / 5, and said: "The Fault in Our Stars undeniably sets us up to knock us down. '' Richard Roeper of Chicago Sun - Times gave the film 4 stars. He said Woodley 's performance as Hazel was "transcendent, pure and authentic '', stating that, "she 's that memorable. '' Scott Mendelson of Forbes magazine said the film is "exceptionally high - quality mainstream entertainment '' and called it "a genuine work of art. '' Anna Smith of Empire said it was a, "touching romance and Shailene Woodley 's best performance yet. '' Emma Dibdin of Digital Spy wrote "The Fault in Our Stars is a sharp and emotionally - sophisticated weepie that imbues its teenage characters with rare intelligence, and tackles its bleak subject matter with acerbic wit and tenderness. '' Andy Lea of the Daily Star said: "as teen romances go, this is powerful stuff. '' Wilson Morales at BlackFilm.com praised Woodley and Elgort 's performances, saying they: "are so captivating and genuine in their performances, they manage to make this intensely poignant film very moving, romantic and highly entertaining. ''
Time magazine 's Richard Corliss wrote: "Hazel and Augustus will live in film lore because of the young actors who play them. '' Chris Vongar of Dallas Morning News gave the film a B+ as "the movie is witty and alive and only very occasionally maudlin. '' USA Today 's Claudia Puig called the film "well - written, well - acted, acerbic, funny and wisely observed '', giving it 3.5 out of 4. Chris Nashawaty of Entertainment Weekly called the film a "funny, sweet, three - hankie tearjerker '' and gave the B grade. Geoff Pevere of The Globe and Mail said, "While it may not conform to one 's real - life expectations it certainly hews tightly to teen - flick conventions. '' Connie Ogle of The Miami Herald called it a, "sweet, romantic film full of sudden warmth and humor. '' A.A. Dowd of The A.V. Club gave the film a "B '' saying that it is, "blessed with sparks of wit and buoyed by the talents of a charismatic cast. ''
Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian gave the film a negative review, likening it to "being mugged by a professional whose skills in mixed martial arts you ca n't help but notice and appreciate, even as you are savagely beaten, then dragged upright, bruised and bleeding, and forced to watch as your assailant gives fully 45 % of your money to charity. '' Christy Lemire writing for Roger Ebert 's website gave it two stars out of four and criticized the film for being "emotionally inert, despite its many moments that are meant to put a lump in our throats. '' Lemire criticized Elgort 's performance and praised Woodley 's "abiding, disarming naturalism. '' Robbie Collin writing for The Daily Telegraph said: "Gus is something of a manic pixie dreamboat: the lesser - spotted male version of the kooky, adoring girlfriend - type sometimes played by Kirsten Dunst, Natalie Portman, and Zooey Deschanel. '' David Edelstein of NPR said:
I know people who cried at the trailer of the romantic teen cancer movie The Fault in Our Stars -- at the movie they 'll need a life preserver to keep from drowning in a flood of tears. Me, I did n't cry, though at times my tear ducts tingled; I was on the verge. The film is a little slick for my taste, too engineered. But it 's gently directed by Josh Boone and beautifully acted. Whatever the faults, it 's not in the stars.
Shalini Langer of The Indian Express gave the film two and a half stars and said: "The film is faithful to a fault from the dialogues to the clothes, the setting and the food, even while skipping over some of the unpleasant details. '' Dana Stevens writing for Slate Magazine said: "What in the name of God is wrong with me that I did n't cry once -- I, who just the day before wept through the entirety of my child 's thoroughly upbeat school play. '' Two Christian reviewers and some theologians have mentioned the presence of Christian themes in the film. Writing for Catholic News Agency, Robert Barron said:
I do n't think it is the least bit accidental that Waters (Gus 's last name) and Grace (Hazel 's middle name) met in the sacred heart of Christ and thereby, despite their shared suffering, managed to give life to one another... (and so) Hazel effectively repudiates her nihilism and materialism as she responds across the barrier of death to Gus 's ' okay '. '' He also noted: "(Is) this film a satisfying presentation of Christianity? Hardly. But for those who are struggling to find their way to meaning and faith, it 's not an entirely bad place to start. ''
The film 's studio, 20th Century Fox, mounted an unsuccessful campaign to have Shailene Woodley nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actress, as well as the film 's adapted screenplay.
The Fault in Our Stars earned $124.9 million in North America and $182.3 million in other countries for a worldwide total of $307.2 million, against a production budget of $12 million.
In North America, the film 's income received a boost from "The Night Before Our Stars, '' a premium - priced event for which tickets sold for up to $25. The event included a screening of the film and a simulcast question - and - answer session with cast and crew, including Woodley, Elgort, Wolff, and Green. The film earned $8.2 million from Thursday - night showings and $26.1 million on its opening day. During its opening weekend, the film earned $48,002,573 from 3,173 theaters at an average of $15,128 per theater, making it number one in North America.
At locations outside North America, The Fault in Our Stars earned $16.59 million from 2,892 screens in 17 markets in its opening weekend, placing at number four behind Edge of Tomorrow ($81 million), Maleficent ($61.7 million), and X-Men: Days of Future Past ($41.1 million). Brazil, Mexico, and Australia generated the highest income with $5.8 million, $3.8 million, and $3.7 million respectively. The following week the film earned $16.1 million from 40 markets, remaining at number 4 again.
On August 6, 2014, India 's Fox Star Studios announced its intention to produce a remake of The Fault in Our Stars in Hindi. The studio 's CEO, Vijay Singh, said the English version of the film, which was released in India in July 2014, had earned over $1 million there. On September 19, it was announced that Homi Adajania, the director of Finding Fanny (2014), and producer Dinesh Vijan would be working with Fox Star Studios to develop the film, which will be co-produced by Vijan 's company Maddock Films.
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why is the secret service in charge of counterfeiting | United States Secret Service - wikipedia
The United States Secret Service ("USSS '' or "Secret Service '') is a premier federal law enforcement agency under the U.S. Department of Homeland Security. Until 2003, the Service was part of the U.S. Department of the Treasury, as the agency was originally founded to combat the then - widespread counterfeiting of U.S. currency.
The U.S. Secret Service is tasked with two distinct and critical national security missions:
The Secret Service 's initial responsibility was to investigate the counterfeiting of U.S. currency, which was rampant following the U.S. Civil War. The agency then evolved into the United States ' first domestic intelligence and counterintelligence agency. Many of the agency 's missions were later taken over by subsequent agencies such as the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA), Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF), and IRS Criminal Investigation Division (IRS).
The Secret Service is mandated by Congress to carry out a unique dual mission: safeguarding the financial and critical infrastructure of the United States, and protecting the nation 's leaders. The two core missions of investigations and protection synergize with the other, providing crucial benefits to special agents during the course of their careers. Skills developed during the course of investigations which are also used in an agent 's protective duties include but are not limited to:
The Secret Service 's primary investigative mission is to protect the payment and financial systems of the United States from such crimes as financial institution fraud, computer and telecommunications fraud, false identification documents, access device fraud, advance fee fraud, electronic funds transfers and money laundering as it relates to the agency 's core violations.
Protection remains the other key mission of the United States Secret Service. After the 1901 assassination of President William McKinley, Congress also directed the Secret Service to protect the President of the United States.
The Secret Service is authorized by law to protect:
Any of these individuals may decline Secret Service protection except the President, the Vice President (or other officer next in the order of succession to the Office of President), the President - elect, and the Vice President - elect.
When Hillary Clinton became Secretary of State in 2009, the Secret Service continued to protect her at home; however the Diplomatic Security Service protected her while she was performing her duties as the Secretary of State, including foreign travel.
The Secret Service investigates thousands of incidents each year of individuals threatening the President of the United States.
In the face of budget pressure, hiring challenges and some high - profile lapses in its protective service role in 2014, the Brookings Institution and some members of Congress are asking whether the agency 's focus should shift more to the protective mission, leaving more of its original mission to other agencies.
With a reported one third of the currency in circulation being counterfeit at the time, the Secret Service was created on July 5, 1865 in Washington, D.C., to suppress counterfeit currency. Chief William P. Wood was sworn in by Secretary of the Treasury Hugh McCulloch. It was commissioned in Washington, D.C. as the "Secret Service Division '' of the Department of the Treasury with the mission of suppressing counterfeiting. The legislation creating the agency was on Abraham Lincoln 's desk the night he was assassinated. At the time, the only other federal law enforcement agencies were the United States Park Police, the U.S. Post Office Department 's Office of Instructions and Mail Depredations (now known as the United States Postal Inspection Service), and the U.S. Marshals Service. The Marshals did not have the manpower to investigate all crime under federal jurisdiction, so the Secret Service began to investigate everything from murder to bank robbery to illegal gambling. After the assassination of President William McKinley in 1901, Congress informally requested that the Secret Service provide presidential protection. A year later, the Secret Service assumed full - time responsibility for presidential protection. In 1902, William Craig became the first Secret Service agent to die while serving, in a road accident while riding in the presidential carriage.
The Secret Service was the first U.S. domestic intelligence and counterintelligence agency. Domestic intelligence collection and counterintelligence responsibilities were vested in the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) upon the FBI 's creation in 1908.
The Secret Service assisted in arresting Japanese American leaders and in the Japanese American internment during World War II. The U.S. Secret Service is not a part of the U.S. Intelligence Community.
In 1909, President William H. Taft agreed to meet with Mexican President Porfirio Díaz in El Paso, Texas and Ciudad Juárez, Mexico, the first meeting between a U.S. and a Mexican president and also the first time an American president visited Mexico. But the historic summit resulted in serious assassination threats and other security concerns for the then small Secret Service, so the Texas Rangers, 4,000 U.S. and Mexican troops, BOI agents, U.S. marshals, and an additional 250 private security detail led by Frederick Russell Burnham, the celebrated scout, were all called in by Chief John Wilkie to provide added security. On October 16, the day of the summit, Burnham discovered a man holding a concealed palm pistol standing at the El Paso Chamber of Commerce building along the procession route. Burnham signaled a Texas Ranger, Private C.R. Moore, and the two men captured and disarmed the assassin within only a few feet of Díaz and Taft, preventing the shooting of both Presidents.
In 1950, President Harry S. Truman was residing in Blair House while the White House, across the street, was undergoing renovations. On November 1, 1950, two Puerto Rican nationalists, Oscar Collazo and Griselio Torresola, approached Blair House with the intent to assassinate President Truman. Collazo and Torresola opened fire on Private Leslie Coffelt and other White House Police officers. Though mortally wounded by three shots from a 9 mm German Luger to his chest and abdomen, Private Coffelt returned fire, killing Torresola with a single shot to his head. As of 2017, Coffelt is the only member of the Secret Service killed while protecting a US president against an assassination attempt (Special Agent Tim McCarthy stepped in front of President Ronald Reagan during the assassination attempt of March 30, 1981, and took a bullet to the abdomen but made a full recovery). Collazo was also shot, but survived his injuries and served 29 years in prison before returning to Puerto Rico in late 1979.
In 1968, as a result of Robert F. Kennedy 's assassination, Congress authorized protection of major presidential and vice presidential candidates and nominees. In 1965 and 1968, Congress also authorized lifetime protection of the spouses of deceased presidents unless they remarry and of the children of former presidents until age 16.
The Secret Service Presidential Protective Division safeguards the President of the United States and his immediate family. They work with other federal, state, and local law enforcement agencies and the military to safeguard the President when he travels in Air Force One, Marine One and by limousine in motorcades.
Although the most visible role of the Secret Service today, personal protection is an anomaly in the responsibilities of an agency focused on fraud and counterfeiting.
In 1984, the US Congress passed the Comprehensive Crime Control Act, which extended the Secret Service 's jurisdiction over credit card fraud and computer fraud.
In 1990, the Secret Service initiated Operation Sundevil, which they originally intended as a sting against malicious hackers, allegedly responsible for disrupting telephone services across the entire United States. The operation, which was later described by Bruce Sterling in his book The Hacker Crackdown, affected a great number of people unrelated to hacking, and led to no convictions. The Secret Service, however, was sued and required to pay damages.
In 1994 and 1995, it ran an undercover sting called Operation Cybersnare. The Secret Service has concurrent jurisdiction with the FBI over certain violations of federal computer crime laws. They have created 24 Electronic Crimes Task Forces (ECTFs) across the United States. These task forces are partnerships between the Service, federal / state and local law enforcement, the private sector and academia aimed at combating technology - based crimes.
In 1998, President Bill Clinton signed Presidential Decision Directive 62, which established National Special Security Events (NSSE). That directive made the Secret Service responsible for security at designated events. In 1999, the United States Secret Service Memorial Building was dedicated in DC, granting the agency its first headquarters. Prior to this, the agency 's different departments were based in office space around the DC area.
The New York City Field office was located at 7 World Trade Center. Immediately after the World Trade Center was attacked as part of the September 11 attacks, Special Agents and other New York Field office employees were among the first to respond with first aid. Sixty - seven Special Agents in New York City, at and near the New York Field Office, helped to set up triage areas and evacuate the towers. One Secret Service employee, Master Special Officer Craig Miller, died during the rescue efforts. On August 20, 2002, Director Brian L. Stafford awarded the Director 's Valor Award to employees who assisted in the rescue attempts.
Effective March 1, 2003, the Secret Service transferred from the Treasury to the newly established Department of Homeland Security.
The USA Patriot Act, signed into law by President George W. Bush on October 26, 2001, mandated the Secret Service to establish a nationwide network of ECTFs in addition to the one already active in New York. As such, this mandate expanded on the agency 's first ECTF -- the New York Electronic Crimes Task Force, formed in 1995 -- which brought together federal, state and local law enforcement, prosecutors, private - industry companies, and academia. These bodies collectively provide necessary support and resources to field investigations that meet any one of the following criteria: significant economic or community impact; participation of organized criminal groups involving multiple districts or transnational organizations; or use of schemes involving new technology.
The network prioritizes investigations that meet the following criteria:
Investigations conducted by ECTFs include crimes such as computer generated counterfeit currency; bank fraud; virus and worm proliferation; access device fraud; telecommunications fraud; Internet threats; computer system intrusions and cyber-attacks; phishing / spoofing; assistance with Internet - related child pornography and exploitation; and identity theft.
The network includes ECTFs in the following 28 U.S. cities:
On July 6, 2009, the U.S. Secret Service expanded its fight on cyber-crime by creating the first European Electronic Crime Task Force, based on the successful U.S. domestic model, through a memorandum of understanding with Italian police and postal officials. Over a year later, on August 9, 2010, the agency expanded its European involvement by creating its second overseas ECTF in the United Kingdom.
Both task forces are said to concentrate on a wide range of "computer - based criminal activity, '' including:
The overseas network includes ECTFs in the following European cities:
As of 2010, the Service had over 6,500 employees: 3,200 Special Agents, 1,300 Uniformed Division Officers, and 2,000 technical and administrative employees. Special agents serve on protective details and investigate financial, cyber, and homeland security - related crimes.
In September 2014, the United States Secret Service came under criticism following two high - profile incidents involving intruders at the White House. One such intruder entered the East Room of the White House through an unlocked door.
Another incident involved a violation of procedure in which an armed security guard for the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention rode in the same elevator as President Barack Obama during a visit to that agency 's headquarters in Atlanta, Georgia, to discuss U.S. response to the Ebola virus epidemic in West Africa. The guard used his phone to record a video of Obama and refused to comply with a request to stop. The guard had been arrested multiple times in the past, but had never been convicted of a crime.
Since the 1960s, Presidents John F. Kennedy (killed), Gerald Ford (twice attacked, but uninjured) and Ronald Reagan (seriously wounded) have been attacked while appearing in public. Agents on scene though not injured during attacks on Presidents include William Greer and Roy Kellerman. One of the agents was Robert DeProspero, the Special Agent In Charge (SAIC) of Reagan 's Presidential Protective Division (PPD) from January 1982 to April 1985. DeProspero was deputy to Jerry Parr, the SAIC of PPD during the Reagan assassination attempt on March 30, 1981.
The Kennedy assassination spotlighted the bravery of two Secret Service agents. First, an agent protecting Mrs. Kennedy, Clint Hill, was riding in the car directly behind the presidential limousine when the attack began. While the shooting continued, Hill leapt from the running board of the car he was riding on and jumped onto the back of the President 's moving car and guided Mrs. Kennedy from the trunk back into the rear seat of the car. He then shielded the President and the First Lady with his body until the car arrived at the hospital.
Rufus Youngblood was riding in the vice-presidential car. When the shots were fired, he vaulted over the front seat and threw his body over Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson. That evening, Johnson called Secret Service Chief James J. Rowley and cited Youngblood 's bravery. Youngblood would later recall some of this in his memoir, Twenty Years in the Secret Service.
The period following the Kennedy assassination was the most difficult in the modern history of the agency. Press reports indicated that morale among the agents was "low '' for months following the assassination. The agency overhauled its procedures in the wake of the Kennedy killing. Training, which until that time had been confined largely to "on - the - job '' efforts, was systematized and regularized.
The Reagan assassination attempt also highlighted the bravery of several Secret Service agents, particularly agent Tim McCarthy, who spread his stance to protect Reagan as six bullets were being fired by the would - be assassin, John Hinckley, Jr. McCarthy survived a. 22 - caliber round in the abdomen. For his bravery, McCarthy received the NCAA Award of Valor in 1982. Jerry Parr, the agent who pushed President Reagan into the limousine, and made the critical decision to divert the presidential motorcade to George Washington University Hospital instead of returning to the White House, was also honored with U.S. Congress commendations for his actions that day. After the near - successful assassination attempt on Ronald Reagan, it was clear that the Secret Service needed to increase its efficiency to protect the President.
Arrest and indictment of Max Ray Butler, co-founder of the Carders Market carding website. Butler was indicted by a federal grand jury in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, after his September 5, 2007 arrest, on wire fraud and identity theft charges. According to the indictment, Butler hacked over the Internet into computers at financial institutions and credit card processing centers and sold the tens of thousands of credit card numbers that he acquired in the process.
Operation Firewall: In October 2004, 28 suspects -- located across eight U.S. states and six countries -- were arrested on charges of identity theft, computer fraud, credit - card fraud, and conspiracy. Nearly 30 national and foreign field offices of the U.S. Secret Service, including the newly established national ECTFs, and countless local enforcement agencies from around the globe, were involved in this operation. Collectively, the arrested suspects trafficked in at least 1.7 million stolen credit card numbers, which amounted to $4.3 million of losses to financial institutions. However, authorities estimated that prevented loss to the industry was in the hundreds of millions of dollars. The operation, which started in July 2003 and lasted for more than a year, led investigators to identify three cyber-criminal groups: Shadowcrew, Carderplanet, and Darkprofits.
Arrest and indictment of Albert "Segvec '' Gonzalez and 11 individuals; three U.S. citizens, one from Estonia, three from Ukraine, two from the People 's Republic of China, one from Belarus, and one known only by an online alias. They were arrested on August 5, 2008, for the theft and sale of more than 40 million credit and debit card numbers from major U.S. retailers, including TJX Companies, BJ 's Wholesale Club, OfficeMax, Boston Market, Barnes & Noble, Sports Authority, Forever 21, and DSW. Gonzalez, the main organizer of the scheme, was charged with computer fraud, wire fraud, access device fraud, aggravated identity theft, and conspiracy for his leading role in the crime.
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The Secret Service special agent position is highly competitive. In 2011, the Service accepted less than 1 % of its 15,600 special agent applicants. While the Secret Service has always been a popular career path for former military and law enforcement personnel, the Service seeks to hire agents from a diverse range of backgrounds in fulfilling its dual mission, including accountants, lawyers, scientists, engineers, and foreign language specialists.
At a minimum, a prospective agent must be a U.S. citizen, possess a current valid driver 's license, be in excellent health and physical condition, possess visual acuity no worse than 20 / 60 uncorrected, correctable to 20 / 20 in each eye, and be between the ages of 21 and 37 at the time of appointment. However, preference eligible veterans may apply after age 37. In 2009, the Office of Personnel Management issued implementation guidance on the Isabella v. Department of State court decision: OPM Letter.
Prospective agents must also qualify for a TS / SCI (Top Secret / Sensitive Compartmented Information) clearance, and undergo an extensive background investigation, to include in - depth interviews, drug screening, medical diagnosis, and full - scope polygraph examination.
Special agents receive training in two locations, totaling approximately 7 months. The first phase, the Criminal Investigator Training Program (CITP) is conducted at the Federal Law Enforcement Training Centers (FLETC) at Glynco, GA, lasting approximately 12 weeks. The second phase, the Special Agent Training Course (SATC) is conducted at the Secret Service Academy, James J. Rowley Training Center (JJRTC), just outside Washington, D.C in Laurel, Maryland, lasting approximately 18 weeks.
A typical special agent career path, depending upon performance and promotions that affect individual assignments, begins with the first six to eight years on the job assigned to a field office. Applicants are directed to list their office location preference during the application process, and upon receiving a final job offer, usually have several locations to choose from.
After their field office experience, agents are usually transferred to a protective assignment where they will stay for three to five years. Following their protective assignment, many agents return to a field office for the rest of their careers, or opt for a headquarters based assignment located in Washington, D.C. During their careers, agents also have the opportunity to work overseas in one of the agency 's international field offices. This typically requires foreign language training to ensure language proficiency when working alongside the agency 's foreign law enforcement counterparts.
Special agents are hired at either the GL - 07 or GL - 09 level depending on individual qualifications and / or education. They are promoted to the next grade level on a near yearly basis: GL - 07, GL - 09, GS - 11, GS - 12, and GS - 13 (GL - 08 and GS - 10 grades are skipped). The full performance grade level for a journeyman agent is GS - 13, which a GL - 09 agent may reach in as little as three years. GS - 13 agents are eligible for competitive promotion to the GS - 14, GS - 15, and SES grade level, which are supervisory and executive special agent positions. GS - 13 agents who wish to remain as field agents and in a non-supervisory capacity continue to advance the GS - 13 step level on a regular basis, capping at GS - 13 Step - 10.
Special agents also qualify for Law Enforcement Availability Pay (LEAP), a type of premium overtime pay which provides agents with an additional 25 % bonus pay on top of their salary, given that they work an average workweek of 50 hours as opposed to 40. A newly hired GL - 07 and GL - 09 agent, and newly promoted GS - 11, GS - 12, GS - 13 Step - 1, and GS - 13 Step - 10 agent living in the San Francisco Bay area and qualifying for LEAP pay, will earn approximately $69 k, $77 k, $90 k, $108 k, $129 k, and $162 k respectively.
Due to the nature of their work and unique among their federal law enforcement counterparts (e.g. FBI, DEA, ATF, ICE), Secret Service agents are regularly eligible for scheduled overtime pay (SOT pay) in addition to LEAP overtime pay, for hours worked beyond 50 per week, the pay of which is not to exceed level II of the Executive Schedule (currently capped at $187 k per year).
The Secret Service Uniformed Division is a security police similar to the U.S. Capitol Police or DHS Federal Protective Service and is in charge of protecting the physical White House grounds and foreign diplomatic missions in the Washington, D.C. area. Established in 1922 as the White House Police, this organization was fully integrated into the Secret Service in 1930. In 1970, the protection of foreign diplomatic missions was added to the force 's responsibilities, and its name was changed to the Executive Protective Service. The name United States Secret Service Uniformed Division was adopted in 1977.
Secret Service Uniformed Division officers provide protection for the White House Complex, the Vice President 's residence, the main Treasury Building and Annex, and foreign diplomatic missions and embassies in the Washington, D.C., area. Additionally, Uniformed Division officers travel in support of presidential, vice presidential and foreign head of state government missions. Officers may, as their careers progress, be selected to participate in one of several specialized units, including the:
Secret Service special officers (not to be confused with Uniformed Division Officers) are federal agents who work within the Special Agent Division and perform a wide range of security functions and support assignments as part of the protective mission for the Secret Service. Whereas special agents alternate between protection and investigative assignments, special officers are hired only to work protection details. They must have a familiarity with all phases of protective responsibilities sufficient to assist in protective movements, cover designated security posts and drive protective vehicles.
Assignments may include
Special officers are sworn law enforcement officers, and are authorized to make arrests in connection with their official duties. They are classified as federal agents but use "special officer '' as their official title much the same way as Deputy US Marshals are special agents but use the title "Deputy US Marshal ''.
Newly appointed special officers must successfully complete eight (8) weeks of intensive training at the Special Officer Basic Training Course at the Secret Service James J. Rowley Training Center just outside Washington, D.C. The training includes courses such as Criminal Law, Laws of Arrest, Search and Seizure, Control Tactics, Civil Liability, Emergency Medicine, Basic Water Safety, Firearms and Weapons Handling, Radio Communications, Emergency Driving and Physical Fitness Training.
Since the agency 's inception, a variety of weapons have been carried by its agents.
Initially the firearms were privately procured and there was little if any standardization. In the 1930s, the USSS issued the Colt M1911A1 pistol in. 45 ACP caliber. In the 1950s and 1960s, Special Agents carried the Smith & Wesson Model 36 and Colt Detective Special. 38 - Special revolvers.
Following President Kennedy 's assassination, USSS Special Agents were authorized to carry the. 357 Magnum Smith & Wesson Model 19 revolver.
Between 1981 and 1991, the Secret Service issued the Smith & Wesson Model 19 and the Smith & Wesson Model 66. 357 Magnum revolvers, with 2.5 - inch barrels all the way up to the 4 - inch - barreled models, loaded with hollow - point rounds.
By 1992, the standard issue weapon became the SIG Sauer P228 9mm pistol. This weapon stayed in service through 1999.
The Secret Service replaced the Thompson submachine gun with the Uzi submachine gun in the 1970s. Uzis that the Secret Service used have slightly shorter - than - standard barrels so they could to fit inside the standard size Samsonite briefcases that concealed them. They phased out the Uzi in the mid 1990s and replaced it with the H&K MP5. The Secret Service was the last Federal agency to use the Uzi.
The Counter-Assault Team used the M4 carbine from the early 1990s until 2006, when they replaced it with the SR - 15 carbine.
The current sidearm for USSS agents is the SIG Sauer P229 chambered in. 357 SIG (which entered service in 1999) or FN Five - seveN chambered in FN 5.7 x28mm.
Agents and officers are trained on standard shoulder weapons that include the FN P90 submachine gun, the 9mm Heckler & Koch MP5 submachine gun, and the 12 - gauge Remington 870 shotgun. The agency has initiated a procurement process to ultimately replace the MP5 with a 5.56 mm rifle HK416.
As a non-lethal option, Special Agents, Special Officers, and Uniformed Division Officers are armed with the ASP baton, and Uniformed Division officers carry pepper spray.
The agency uses Motorola XTS and APX radios and surveillance kits in order to maintain communications. These radios are known to use DES encryption keys. When operationally required, members of the Special Operations Division use military grade radios that use Type 1 encryption algorithms.
When transporting the President in a motorcade, the Secret Service uses a fleet of custom - built armored Cadillac Parade Limousines, the newest and largest version of which is known as "The Beast ''. Armored Chevrolet Suburbans are also used when logistics require such a vehicle or when a more low profile appearance is required. For official movement the limousine is affixed with U.S. and presidential flags and the presidential seal on the rear doors. For unofficial events the vehicles are left sterile and unadorned.
Special Agents and Special Officers of the Secret Service wear attire that is appropriate for their surroundings, in order to blend in as much as possible. In most circumstances, the attire of a close protection shift is a conservative suit, but it can range from a tuxedo to casual clothing as required by the environment. Stereotypically Secret Service agents are often portrayed wearing reflective sunglasses and a communication earpiece. Often their attire is customized to conceal the wide array of equipment worn in service. Agents wear a distinctive lapel pin that identifies them to other agents.
The attire for Uniformed Division Officers includes standard police uniforms or utility uniforms and ballistic / identification vests for members of the countersniper team, Emergency Response Team (ERT), and canine officers. The shoulder patch of the Uniformed Division consists of the U.S. coat of arms on white or black, depending on the garment. Also, the shoulder patch is embroidered with "U.S. Secret Service Uniformed Division Police '' around the emblem.
The Secret Service has agents assigned to 136 field offices and field agencies, and the headquarters in Washington, D.C. The Service 's offices are located in cities throughout the United States and in Brazil (Brasilia), Bulgaria (Sofia), Canada (Montreal, Ottawa, Toronto, Vancouver), Colombia (Bogota), China (Hong Kong), France (Paris, Lyon), Germany (Frankfurt), Italy (Rome), Mexico (Mexico City), Netherlands (The Hague), Romania (Bucharest), Russia (Moscow), South Africa (Pretoria), Spain (Madrid), Thailand (Bangkok), and the United Kingdom (London). The offices in Lyon and The Hague are respectively responsible for liaison with the headquarters of Interpol and Europol, located in those cities.
In April 2012, an incident involving the president 's security detail received international press attention. The incident involved 11 agents and personnel from four branches of the U.S. military; they allegedly engaged prostitutes while assigned to protect the U.S. President at the 6th Summit of the Americas in Cartagena, Colombia. As of April 24, 2012, nine employees had resigned or retired.
After the incident was publicized, the Secret Service implemented new rules for its personnel. The rules prohibit personnel from visiting "non-reputable establishments '' and from consuming alcohol fewer than ten hours before starting work. Additionally, they restrict who is allowed in hotel rooms.
A few weeks later, stories emerged of Secret Service agents hiring strippers and prostitutes prior to Obama 's 2011 visit to El Salvador.
In 2015, two inebriated senior service agents drove an official car into the White House complex and collided with a barrier. One of the congressmen in the United States House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform that investigated that incident was Jason Chaffetz. In September 2015, it was revealed that 18 Secret Service employees or supervisors, including Assistant Director Ed Lowery, accessed an unsuccessful 2003 application by Chaffetz for employment with the agency and discussed leaking the information to the media in retaliation for Chaffetz ' investigations of agency misconduct. The confidential personal information was later leaked to The Daily Beast. Agency Director Joe Clancy apologized to Chaffetz and said that disciplinary action would be taken against those responsible.
In March 2017, a member of US Vice President Mike Pence 's detail was suspended after he was caught visiting a prostitute at a hotel in Maryland.
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who is jake's mom in the dark tower | The Dark Tower (2017 film) - wikipedia
The Dark Tower is a 2017 American science fantasy western film directed and co-written by Nikolaj Arcel. A continuation of Stephen King 's novel series of the same name, the film stars Idris Elba as Roland Deschain, a gunslinger on a quest to protect the Dark Tower -- a mythical structure which supports all realities -- while Matthew McConaughey plays his nemesis, Walter Padick, the Man in Black, and Tom Taylor stars as Jake Chambers, a New York boy who becomes Roland 's apprentice.
Intended to launch a film and television franchise, the first installment combines elements from several novels in the eight - volume series, and takes place in both modern - day New York City and in Mid-World, Roland 's Old West - style parallel universe. The film also serves as a canonical sequel to the novel series, which concludes with the revelation that Roland 's quest is a cyclical time loop; the presence of the Horn of Eld, which Roland carries in the film, indicates that this is the next cycle.
The Dark Tower premiered at the Museum of Modern Art in New York City on July 31, 2017, and was theatrically released in the United States by Columbia Pictures on August 4, 2017. It has grossed $111 million worldwide against its production budget of $60 million, and received generally negative reviews, with critics calling it "a dull disappointment without any set audience: incomprehensible to newbies, and wildly unfaithful and simplistic to fans of King 's books, '' though Elba, McConaughey and Taylor 's performances earned some praise.
Eleven - year - old Jake Chambers experiences visions involving a Man in Black who seeks to destroy a Tower and bring ruin to the Universe, and a Gunslinger who opposes him. Jake 's mother, stepfather, and psychiatrists dismiss these as dreams resulting from the trauma of his father 's death the previous year.
At his apartment home in New York City, a group of workers from an alleged psychiatric facility offer to rehabilitate Jake; recognizing them from his visions as monsters wearing human skin, he flees. Jake tracks down an abandoned house from one of his visions, discovers a high - tech portal, and travels to a post-apocalyptic world called Mid-World.
In Mid-World, Jake encounters the last Gunslinger, Roland Deschain who emerged in his visions. Roland is pursuing Walter Padick, the Man in Black who had also appeared in Jake 's dreams, across a desert, seeking to kill him in revenge for the murder of his father, Steven, and all remaining gunslingers. He explains that Walter, over the decades, has been abducting psychic children, and is attempting to use their "shine '' to bring down the Dark Tower, a fabled structure located at the center of the Universe; this will allow beings from the darkness outside to invade and destroy reality.
Roland takes Jake to a village to have his visions interpreted by a seer. Learning of Jake 's escape and journey to Mid-World, Walter investigates and discovers from his minion Sayre that Jake has "pure Shine '', i.e. enough psychic potential to destroy the Tower single - handedly. He kills Jake 's stepfather, then interrogates his mother about his visions and kills her too. In Mid-World, the seer explains that Roland can find Walter 's base of operations in New York. Walter 's minions, the Taheen, attack the village, but Roland individually kills each of them. Roland and Jake return to Earth. When Jake returns home to check in on his mother, he finds her charred remains and breaks down. Roland vows to kill Walter "for both of us '' and comforts Jake by teaching him the Gunslinger 's Creed, which he has n't uttered since his own father 's death, as well as the basics of gun fighting.
As Roland re-arms himself at a gun store, he is attacked by Walter, who captures Jake. At his base, he straps Jake to a machine that will use him to destroy the Tower. Jake uses his psychic powers to alert Roland to his location, and Roland battles his way through Walter 's henchmen. Walter confronts Roland, wounding him. After Jake reminds him of the Gunslinger 's Creed, Roland recovers and kills Walter with a trick shot after a brief fight. Roland destroys the machine, saving the Tower, Jake, and the other children.
Afterwards, Roland says that he must return to his own world and offers Jake a place by his side as his companion. Jake accepts the offer as he has nowhere else to go, and the two depart for Mid-World.
Efforts to adapt The Dark Tower series for the screen have been ongoing since 2007, with periodic reports and official announcements. The project was shelved, before the rights were transitioned to a different production company. Development experienced starts and stops with various filmmakers and studios at different times, including Universal Pictures, Paramount, Columbia - Tristar Entertainment, and Lionsgate Entertainment. The adaptation went through three major phases of planning: with J.J. Abrams from 2007 to 2009, Ron Howard from 2010 to 2015, and finally, the current iteration, announced in March 2015, produced by Sony Pictures Entertainment and Media Rights Capital, with Nikolaj Arcel directing and Howard remaining in a producing role.
By early February 2007, a film adaptation of The Dark Tower series was in the works. J.J. Abrams, co-creator of the television series Lost, was said to be attached to produce and direct. Carlton Cuse and Damon Lindelof, who co-created Lost with Abrams, optioned The Dark Tower from King for a reported amount of $19, a number that mysteriously recurs throughout the series. According to issue # 923 of Entertainment Weekly, King "is an ardent supporter of (Lost) and trusts Abrams to translate his vision '' into a film franchise, with Lindelof being "the leading candidate to write the screenplay for the first installment. '' It was around this time that Marvel Comics launched their graphic novel adaptation of The Dark Tower with The Dark Tower: The Gunslinger Born. Later, in March 2007, Abrams noted in an interview with Wired that the project is "something that we are just now talking about with Stephen, so it 's too early for me to say that we 're even officially doing it yet just because the thing is in the early stages of discussion. ''
A year later, in February 2008, Abrams reiterated that The Dark Tower adaptation was in the early stages of development, when interviewed by Reelz Channel. When interviewed by AMC in September 2008, Abrams admitted that the project needs time he does not have because of Lost, especially since he would like to see a seven - film series (the eighth novel was published in 2012). However, in May 2009, Abrams stated to IGN that he and Lindelof were planning on beginning work on The Dark Tower as soon as Lost finished its run. Speaking to MTV News around the same time, Lindelof revealed some apprehension regarding the project, noting that his "reverence for Stephen King is now getting in the way of what any good writer would do first when they 're adapting a book, which is take creative license. '' In a July 2009 interview with C21 Media, Lindelof revealed that he and Cuse had indeed optioned the rights for The Dark Tower, but said he was wary about committing to such an ambitious project: "The idea of taking on something that massive again after having done six seasons of Lost is intimidating and slightly frightening, to say the least. ''
With these reservations being voiced by the producers, this initial phase of the project came to an end at the end of 2009 after three years, since this was a three - year option. In an interview with USA Today in October 2009, Damon Lindelof stated: "You 'll be hard - pressed to find a huger fan of The Dark Tower than me, but that 's probably the reason that I should n't be the one to adapt it. After working six years on Lost, the last thing I want to do is spend the next seven years adapting one of my favorite books of all time. I 'm such a massive Stephen King fan that I 'm terrified of screwing it up. I 'd do anything to see those movies written by someone else. My guess is they will get made because they 're so incredible. But not by me. '' Finally, in November 2009, Abrams stated that he would not be adapting the series. During an interview with MTV News, Abrams made the following comments: "The Dark Tower thing is tricky. The truth is that Damon and I are not looking at that right now. ''
In April 2010, five months after Abrams revealed he would no longer pursue his adaptation of The Dark Tower, Universal Pictures was set to produce trilogy of feature films, alternating with two seasons of a television series to bridge gaps between the films. The involved parties included Akiva Goldsman writing the script, Ron Howard directing, and also producing with Brian Grazer and Stephen King. The report was made official by NBC Universal five months later via a press release dated September 8, 2010. In an interview with Entertainment Weekly following the announcement, King stated that "I always thought it would take more than a single movie, but I did n't see this solution coming -- i.e., several movies and TV series. It was Ron (Howard) and Akiva (Goldsman) 's idea. Once it was raised, I thought at once it was the solution. '' A month later, the first Dark Tower film was scheduled to open on May 17, 2013. In December 2010, Howard offered the following in regards to the project 's progress: "It is going well, and it has been incredibly stimulating to work on. I really ca n't stop thinking about it. We 've been meeting and talking and I 've been reading and researching and just kind of living with it. I hope it goes great. I hope it goes the way we think it will. It never does, really. But sometimes it goes better. '' Despite Howard 's enthusiasm, Universal had not yet greenlit the project at that point.
By the end of 2010 and the beginning of 2011, New York Post was reporting that Javier Bardem and Viggo Mortensen were in line to play the lead character of Roland Deschain, and Naomie Harris was being considered for the character of Susannah Dean. Speaking on The Howard Stern Show in January 2011 and qualifying his words with the phrase "I do n't know if it 's going to happen or not '', Howard said that after the first film, which would be more action - oriented, a six - episode television miniseries would follow, focusing more on character - driven drama. For his part, Brian Grazer stated around the same time that a casting announcement could be made "within a week. ''
By April 2011, Mark Verheiden was joining the television portion of the project as executive producer and Akiva Goldsman 's co-writer. The same month, Javier Bardem was cast in the role of Roland. However, just a month later, a report in Variety revealed that Universal may seek another studio 's help, as the project 's budget appeared to be more than they were willing to handle. The Hollywood Reporter wrote later that the project was on the verge of turnaround, and Warner Bros. or Columbia Pictures could potentially take the project on, revealing that Universal had paid $5 million for the rights. Shortly after that, Universal committed to a lower budget for the project and Goldsman began rewriting the script to reflect these changes.
Originally, production was slated to begin in September 2011, but in May 2011 it was being pushed back to February 2012 or early spring. The project was still not greenlit by the studio, which had to happen by July 2011. Then on July 18, 2011, Universal decided to cancel development of the entire project due to budgetary concerns. Despite this, Stephen King was confident Howard would see the project through, stating that he was "sorry Universal passed, but not really surprised. I bear them no ill will, and trust Ron Howard to get Roland and his friends before the camera somewhere else. He 's very committed to the project. '' In August 2011, Howard stated that they were "trying to get outside financing to make it, and distribute it through a major (studio) '', including the fact that Netflix might be an outlet. Later, in October 2011, Howard confirmed the adaptation is still on track, noting that HBO would now carry the television portion of the project.
By March 2012, Warner Bros. was expressing interested in taking on the project. Several months later, Goldsman delivered a new script for the first film to Warner Bros., and the studio had to make a decision in August 2012 whether to go ahead with the project. As well, Russell Crowe was being talked about as the lead character. On August 20, 2012, Warner Bros. officially passed. At the same time, Media Rights Capital (MRC) was in talks to take over the project from Warner.
In January 2014, Aaron Paul stated that he had a conversation with Howard and was possibly being considered to play Eddie Dean (earlier, in October 2012, Paul had tweeted that the role of Eddie Dean was a "huge dream '' of his). Following that, a rumor appeared that Liam Neeson was interested in the part of Roland.
On April 10, 2015, it was announced that Sony Pictures Entertainment with MRC were fast - tracking the project, now with a completely reworked script by Goldsman and Jeff Pinkner. King appeared optimistic, saying: "I 'm excited that The Dark Tower is finally going to appear on the screen. '' Howard appeared to be out as director, but would remain in a producing capacity. By June 2, 2015, Sony was looking to Nikolaj Arcel to direct. Arcel officially signed on July 10, 2015, with him and Anders Thomas Jensen rewriting the script. On August 5, 2015, Sony Pictures Entertainment set the film for a release of January 13, 2017. By November 2015, Matthew McConaughey had been offered the role of the Man in Black (also known as Randall Flagg from The Stand, another role McConaughey had been offered in an upcoming adaptation). In January 2016, it was officially announced that Idris Elba has been cast to play Roland Deschain.
By February 18, 2016, Abbey Lee had been offered the female lead role of Tirana. On March 1, 2016, Entertainment Weekly confirmed the casting of Idris Elba as Roland and Matthew McConaughey as The Man in Black, with shooting set to begin in South Africa in April. On March 5, Sony announced that the film would move back on the schedule from January 13 to February 17. By March 10, 2016, Tom Taylor had been cast as Jake Chambers. Filming began on April 12, 2016. Abbey Lee, Jackie Earle Haley, and Fran Kranz were added to the cast when filming commenced, while Katheryn Winnick and Michael Barbieri joined the film at the end of April 2016, and Claudia Kim was cast as Arra Champignon in May 2016. After poor initial test screenings, Sony contemplated replacing Arcel with "a more experienced filmmaker, '' but instead producers Ron Howard and Akiva Goldsman advised Arcel on cleaning up the music and narrative of the film.
The Dark Tower began filming in South Africa in April 2016. The film also shot scenes in New York. In October 2016, the film was screened to test audiences with negative results, with many labeling it confusing and messy. In response, Sony and MRC spent $6 million on reshoots to provide Deschain 's backstory.
Originally, the film was scheduled to be released on January 13, 2017 and was pushed back from its original release date of January 13, 2017 to February 17, 2017. In November 2016, the film was pushed back from February 17, 2017 to July 28, 2017, after the studio 's Jumanji: Welcome to the Jungle was moved from that date. In late March 2017, the film was pushed back one week from July 28, 2017 to August 4, 2017, switching places with Sony Pictures Animation 's The Emoji Movie.
An unfinished rough cut of the first trailer leaked online on October 10, 2016, but was later taken down almost all over the internet. On May 3, 2017, a full length trailer was released.
A one - minute television spot titled Connected KINGdom featured Easter eggs of other Stephen King stories through the inter-dimensional setting of the titular location, the Dark Tower. Various references included The Shining (1980), Christine (1983), Cujo (1983), Misery (1990), The Shawshank Redemption (1994), Carrie, and It.
As of October 20, 2017, The Dark Tower has grossed $50.7 million in the United States and Canada and $61.1 million in other territories for a worldwide total of $111.8 million, against a production budget of $60 million.
In North America, The Dark Tower was released alongside the opening of Kidnap, as well as the wide expansion of Detroit, and was projected to gross around $20 million from 3,451 theaters in its opening weekend. It made $1.8 million from Thursday previews at 2,770 theaters, with screenings beginning at 7: 19 p.m. as an ode to the 19: 19 of Stephen King lore present in the book series, and $7.7 million on its first day. The film went on to debut to $19.5 million, dethroning two - time defender Dunkirk as the top film at the box office, although it was the second lowest gross for a film to finish number one in all of 2017. In its second weekend the film dropped 58.9 % to $7.9 million, finishing 4th at the box office.
Critics called The Dark Tower "boring and flavorless '' and "incomprehensible to newbies and wildly unfaithful and simplistic to fans of King 's books. '' On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 15 % based on 215 reviews, with an average rating of 4.1 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Go then, there are other Stephen King adaptations than these. '' On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 34 out of 100, based on 46 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B '' on an A+ to F scale.
TheWrap 's Dan Callahan was critical of the film 's sloppiness and poor editing, saying, "The 95 - minute culmination of years - long efforts to bring The Dark Tower to the big screen is a complete disaster, a limp, barely coherent shell of a movie. '' Mike Ryan of Uproxx also criticized the incoherent plot, writing, "I 've been told that The Dark Tower books are jam - packed with dense plot, wonderful characters, and a sprawling mythology -- which is what made the movie so hard to make for all these years. Well, the solution seems to have been to just scrap all that and release a shockingly short 95 - minute movie that just kind of glosses over everything to the point that has any meaning or purpose. '' Eric Vespe of Ai n't It Cool News praised Elba 's performance, but said the actor was let down by the decision to make Roland a supporting character: "That puts us in a weird position because Elba 's a good Roland in a movie that does n't allow him to actually embody the character in any meaningful way. He 's undercut at every turn. The strongest stuff in the film is when Roland and Jake are bonding, but that relationship is so accelerated that there 's no room for an arc. ''
Ignatiy Vishnevetsky of The A.V. Club maintained that the film was "ultimately done in by professionalism; it 's a movie that does n't seem to love itself, sidestepping its innate strangeness. (...) If you 're making a movie about weaponized psychic kids, Luciferian wizards, and gun - nut knight - cowboys from another dimension, and your only goal is to get from act one to act three as efficiently as possible, what 's the point? '' Peter Travers of Rolling Stone described the film as a "major misfire '' and an "unholy mess that should n't happen to a King, much less a paying customer ''. Writing for the Chicago Sun - Times, Richard Roeper panned the film with its criticism on the cinematography, special effects and dialogue, referring it as "dull '', "mediocre '', and "stilted '' while calling Matthew McConaughey 's performance as the lead villain "terrible '' and calling it "the film 's unfortunate elements ''.
Vox 's Aja Romano wrote that the film 's disjointed narrative structure, favouring fast - paced action over exposition and backstory, gave it a "basic, wondrous glee '' that made it "feel more like a Stephen King film than any other Stephen King film since Stand By Me '', and applauded its faithfulness to King 's fictional multiverse, an idea usually discarded by adaptations.
In an interview with Vulture, King suggested that the film 's critical and commercial underperformance was due to the length of the source material, and "the decision to do a PG - 13 feature adaptation of books that are extremely violent and deal with violent behavior in a fairly graphic way ''. However, he also defended the film, believing that screenwriter Akiva Goldsman "did a terrific job in taking a central part of the book and turning it into what I thought was a pretty good movie ''.
By September 2016, a television series was scheduled to be released in 2018, with Glen Mazzara as showrunner. Elba and Taylor are set to reprise their roles as Roland and Jake respectively. The series has been confirmed to fill in the backstory to the film, being based on King 's The Dark Tower IV: Wizard and Glass, The Dark Tower: The Wind Through the Keyhole and elements of The Dark Tower: The Gunslinger, with a new actor playing young Roland, and Haysbert attached to return as Steven Deschain. Mazzara said that the series will explore "how Walter became the Man in Black, and how their rivalry cost Roland everything and everyone he ever loved '', though McConaughey 's involvement is not locked in. While discussing the development of the series in the light of the film 's critical and commercial underperformance, King expressed "we 'll see what happens with that. It would be like a complete reboot, so we 'll just have to see ''.
In an interview with Collider, King expressed hope for a sequel film in addition to the television series, suggesting that it should be R - rated, have Roland wearing a hat, and include the "lobstrosities '' from The Dark Tower II: The Drawing of the Three. In an interview with ComingSoon.net, Arcel confirmed that The Drawing of the Three would form the basis for the sequel, and that Eddie and Susannah would appear alongside Elba, McConaughey, Taylor and Haley reprising their roles as Roland, Walter, Jake and Sayre respectively.
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what is the meaning of om namah shivay | Om Namah Shivaya - wikipedia
Saiddhantika
Non - Saiddhantika
(Sanskrit: ॐ नमः शिवाय; IAST: Om Namaḥ Śivāya) is one of the most popular Hindu Mantra and the most important mantra in Shaivism. This mantra is dedicated to Lord Shiva. This Mantra appears as ' Na ' ' Ma ' ' Śi ' ' Vā ' and ' Ya ' in the Yajurveda in the Shri Rudram hymn.
Namah Shivaya means "adoration (namas) to Lord Shiva '', preceded by the devotional syllable "Om ''. The syllable "Ya '' at the end of the mantra denotes an offering. Thus the mantra Om Namah Shivaya actually means "I offer to Shiva a respectful invocation of His Name '', and not merely "I respectfully invoke His Name ''.
In Siddha Shaivism and Shaiva Siddhanta Shaivism tradition Nama Sivaya is considered as Pancha Bodha Tatva of Lord Shiva and his universal oneness of five elements:
Its total meaning is that "universal consciousness is one ''.
The five letters also represents:
This Mantra appears as ' Na ' ' Ma ' ' Śi ' ' Vā ' and ' Ya ' in the Yajurveda in the Shri Rudram hymn. Thus predates the use of Shiva as a proper name, in the original context being an address to Lord Rudra (later Shiva), where śiva retains its original meaning as an adjective, meaning "auspicious, benign, friendly '', a euphemistic epithet of Rudra.
It also appears in the Shiva Purana in the chapter 1.2. 10 (Shabda - Brahma Tanu) and in its Vidyeshvara samhita and in chapter 13 of the Vayaviya samhita of the Shiva Purana as ' Om Namaha Shivaya '.
The Tamil Saivaite hymn Tiruvacakam begins with the five letters ' Na ' ' Ma ' ' Śi ' ' Vā ' and ' Ya '.
It is called Siva Panchakshara, or Shiva Panchakshara or simply Panchakshara meaning the "five - syllable '' mantra (viz., excluding the Om) dedicated to Lord Shiva. It is the most holy salutation to Lord Shiva
This mantra is repeated verbally or mentally, drawing the mind in upon itself to Lord Shiva 's infinite, all - pervasive presence. Traditionally it is repeated 108 times a day while keeping count on a strand of rudraksha beads. This practice is called japa yoga. It is freely sung and chanted by everyone, but it is most powerful when given by one 's guru. Before this initiation which is called mantra diksha, the guru will usually require a period of study. This initiation is often part of a temple ritual, such as a puja, japa, homa (fire ceremony), dhyana or and while smearing vibhuti. The guru whispers the mantra into the disciple 's right ear, along with instructions on how and when to chant it.
This mantra is associated with qualities of prayer, divine - love, grace, truth, and blissfulness. When done correctly, it calms the mind and brings spiritual insight and knowledge. It also keeps the devotee close to Shiva and within His protective global fellowship.
Traditionally, it is accepted to be a powerful healing mantra beneficial for all physical and mental ailments. Soulful recitation of this mantra brings peace to the heart and joy to the Ātman or soul. Many Hindu teachers consider that the recitation of these syllables is sound therapy for the body and nectar for the Ātman. The nature of the mantra is the calling upon the higher self; it is the calling upon Shiva.
Om Namah Shivay was also a TV serial telecasted on an Indian TV Channel, DD National (DD - 1).
These words were chanted by a prisoner as his heart was ripped out by Mola Ram in the 1984 George Lucas and Steven Spielberg film Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom.
In Eat, Pray, Love: One Woman 's Search for Everything Across Italy, India and Indonesia (2007), Elizabeth Gilbert explained that the first chant provided by her guru was "Om Namah Shivaya. '' Gilbert wrote that this meant "I honor the divinity within me. ''
These words are chanted by characters Yogi & Reggie as in the 2014 video game Far Cry 4 as the protagonist experiments with their psychedelic concoctions; the fictional religion in the game is loosely based on Hinduism, thus the chant.
"Om Namah Shivaya '' is also featured in the "Mahadeva '' tune by Astral Projection, a popular psychedelic trance band.
"Om Namah Shivaya '' is also featured in the "Serpente '' (Serpent, snake) song in the SETEVIDAS (SEVENLIVES) album (Deckdisc, 2014) by the Brazilian singer Pitty, the princess of rock in Brazil.
Guitarist Steve Hillage also recorded a psychedelic rock version of the song on his 1976 album L, produced by Todd Rundgren.
Om Namah Shivay is the tenth album (and eighth solo album) by Nina Hagen, released in 1999.
"Om Namah Shiva '' is found in Jah Wobble 's Heaven and Earth album.
"Om Namah Shivaya '' is found in MC Yogi 's Elephant Power album.
"Om Namaha Shiva '' is found on Shiela Chandra 's Weaving My Ancestors ' Voices album.
"Om Namah Shivaya '' Peace offering is found on Apache Indian 's Best of Apache Indian 2000 album.
"Om Namah Shivaya '' is found on Album Vairagya: Bonding with Beyond by Isha Sounds.
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as long as you love me mp3 mr jatt | As Long As You Love Me (Justin Bieber song) - wikipedia
"As Long as You Love Me '' is a song by Canadian recording artist Justin Bieber, from his third studio album, Believe (2012). The track features American rapper Big Sean. It was written by both artists with Nasri Atweh, and was produced by Rodney "Darkchild '' Jerkins and Andre Lindal. It was first released on June 11, 2012, as a promotional single from the album, and one month later it was released as the album 's second single.
The song has since charted in the United Kingdom, first at number thirty as a promotional single with first - week sales of 11,598, and then after being released as a single it improved its position on the UK Singles Chart, reaching number 22. On Billboard 's Rhythmic Airplay Chart, the single reached number one, giving Bieber his first number one single on an American airplay music chart. It peaked at number six on the Billboard Hot 100.
It also reached the number one position on Billboard 's Dance / Mix Show Airplay chart, making Bieber the fifth Canadian artist to reach that position after Martin Solveig featuring Dragonette 's "Hello '' in 2011. The song has sold 2,240,000 copies in the US as December 2012. The music video features actor Michael Madsen.
In late 2011, Bieber confirmed to radio network Capital FM that he was recording material for his third studio album, which was originally going to be released in early 2012. He later spoke to MTV News and revealed that Believe would surprise people in different ways, since it musically is a departure from his previous works. While Bieber has said that he wants his next release to recall Justin Timberlake 's Future Sex / Love Sounds sonically, in an interview with V magazine, he noted that what he 'll be singing is a bit more PG than the topics Timberlake covered on that album.
"I 'm not going to try to conform to what people want me to be or go out there and start partying, have people see me with alcohol. I want to do it at my own pace. I do n't want to start singing about things like sex, drugs and swearing. I 'm into love, and maybe I 'll get more into making love when I 'm older. I want to be someone who is respected by everybody. ''
After releasing "Boyfriend '' as the lead single, Bieber announced that he will release promotional singles to promote Believe. The first promotional single "Die in Your Arms '' was released to iTunes on May 29, 2012. The second "All Around The World '' was released on iTunes on June 4, 2012. "As Long as You Love Me '' was released on June 11, 2012, as the third and final promotional single.
The cover art for "As Long as You Love Me '' shows Bieber perched on a wooden stool, holding an acoustic guitar. Sia Nicole of "Idolator expressed dissatisfaction with the cover, saying "It 's false advertising for the high - fidelity track that has nary a strum within earshot. ''
"As Long as You Love Me '' was written by Bieber, Nasri Atweh, and guest vocalist Big Sean, while production was handled by Darkchild, The Messengers and Andre Lindal. The song is officially written in the key of C minor. It is heavily influenced by dubstep, with vocal loops complemented by a booming beat. As the song continues, it builds and builds to a rave - ready drop.
Lyrically, it tells listeners that true love can defy all circumstances and the obstacles that it can overcome. "As long as you love me / We could be starving / We could be homeless / We could be broke, '' Bieber sings over a staccato beat and handclaps, with an undercurrent of a swirling - sounding synth. "As long as you love me / I 'll be your platinum / I 'll be your silver / I 'll be your gold, '' he adds. Big Sean drops a rap exalting a lady love, too. "I do n't know if this makes sense, but you 're my hallelujah / Give me a time and a place, and I 'll rendezvous, and I 'll fly you to it, '' Sean raps.
Jon Caramanica of The New York Times described the song as "a dubstep love song, with Mr. Bieber reaching into falsetto at points without losing power, and showing restraint at the chorus. '' Natalie Shaw of BBC Music wrote, "It 's fine that his vocal simpers on the verses of As Long As You Love Me, because the song 's pulsating undercurrent propels it onto the dancefloor. '' Hermione Hoby of The Observer complimented his vocals, calling "plaintive and still unmistakably teenage. '' Jason Lipshutz of Billboard defined the track: "A massive yet somehow intimate dance track, with the drums almost reaching hair metal levels in their vibrations. The Biebs handles his business, but Big Sean 's verse probably is n't necessary. ''
Becky Bain of Idolator commented, "The electro - infused track carries your basic we - do n't - need - money - we - have - love sentiment, while Big Sean cameo is mostly useless, but it does come at a pivotal moment in the Darkchild - produced tune. ''
In his review for Fact Magazine, Alex Macpherson described the track:
"' As Long As You Love Me ' is a post-austerity, us - against - the - world electronic storm in which Bieber promises romantic fealty even as he 's buffeted this way and that by a cornucopia of sonic switch - ups courtesy of Darkchild: the 4 × 4 march leading up to the peak of the second chorus, the way the word ' love ' is caught, cut up and tossed into a digital swirl until it becomes helpless surrender. Notably and surprisingly, too, Bieber 's own delivery stands out: his blend of puppy - eyed pleading and genuine tenderness on the line ' We could be homeless, we could be broke ' is the song 's emotional pivot. It 's enough to make you jealous of those terrifyingly devoted Beliebers: imagine how much more intensely they 're feeling this. ''
As part of promotion for "As Long As You Love Me '', a music video, which was filmed in early July 2012, was released. Prior to the release of the video, Bieber revealed that a minute - long clip of the video was due to be broadcast following an episode of The Voice; however, much to the displeasure of Bieber and his fans, the clip was n't shown. NBC later revealed that technical difficulties prevented the clip from being aired. The full video was later premiered on Bieber 's official YouTube page on July 12, 2012. Bieber very rarely referred to the video as a "music video '', but rather as a "short film ''. Directed by Anthony Mandler, cinematography by David Devlin, and edited by Jacquelyn London the video was Bieber 's longest music video at five minutes and fifty - two seconds, before being surpassed by "Confident '' at six minutes and six seconds. It featured guest appearances by Michael Madsen and Big Sean, the latter of which performs the rapping on the track. The video was filmed in Los Angeles, California. The actress in the music video is Chanel Celaya.
Bieber performed the song for the first time in Oslo, Norway at the Oslo Opera House, on May 30, 2012 at his Believe promo tour. Also Bieber performed the song, with Big Sean, in Today Show on June 15, 2012 and again with Big Sean at the 2012 Teen Choice Awards, in a medley with "Boyfriend ''. Bieber also performed the song, once again with Big Sean, during the season finale of the NBC summer reality talent show "America 's Got Talent ''. He also performed in late September on "Dancing With The Stars '', and on the February 9, 2013 episode of "Saturday Night Live '', which he also hosted. Bieber has also performed the song on the 2012 Victoria 's Secret Fashion show on November 7, 2012 in a medley with "Boyfriend ''. On March 28, 2015, Bieber performed a duet with Ariana Grande on The Honeymoon Tour in Miami. Bieber performed the song at the 2015 Wango Tango.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
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who wrote fantastic beasts and where to find them in harry potter | Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them - wikipedia
Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them is a 2001 book written by British author J.K. Rowling (under the pen name of the fictitious author Newt Scamander) about the magical creatures in the Harry Potter universe. The original version purports to be Harry Potter 's copy of the textbook of the same name mentioned in Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone (or Harry Potter and the Sorcerer 's Stone in the US), the first novel of the Harry Potter series. It includes several notes inside it supposedly handwritten by Harry, Ron Weasley, and Hermione Granger, detailing their own experiences with some of the beasts described, and including in - jokes relating to the original series.
In a 2001 interview with publisher Scholastic, Rowling stated that she chose the subject of magical creatures because it was a fun topic for which she had already developed a lot of information in earlier books. Rowling 's name did not appear on the cover of the first edition, the work being credited under the pen name "Newt Scamander '', who, in the books, wrote this textbook as seen on Harry 's supply list for his first year.
The book benefits the charity Comic Relief. Over 80 % of the cover price of each book sold goes directly to poor children in various places around the world. According to Comic Relief, sales from this book and its companion Quidditch Through the Ages have raised over £ 17 million.
On 12 September 2013, Warner Bros. and Rowling announced they would be producing a film inspired by the book, being the first in a series of five such films. Rowling herself was the screenwriter. She came up with a plan for a movie after Warner Bros. suggested the idea. The story features Newt Scamander as a main character and is set in New York City, 70 years before Harry 's story started. The film was released on 18 November 2016.
On 14 March 2017 a new edition of the book was published with six new creatures and the foreword by Newt Scamander. It is assumed to be a new copy as it does not feature any handwritten notes. Proceeds from this edition are donated to Lumos as well as Comic Relief.
Fantastic Beasts purports to be a reproduction of a textbook owned by Harry Potter and written by magizoologist Newt Scamander, a character in the fictional Harry Potter series. In the series, Magizoology is the study of magical creatures.
Albus Dumbledore, headmaster of Hogwarts, provides the Foreword and explains the purpose of the special edition of this book (the Comic Relief charity). At the end, he tells the reader, "... The amusing creatures described hereafter are fictional and can not hurt you. '' He repeats the Hogwarts motto: "Draco dormiens nunquam titillandus '', Latin for "Never tickle a sleeping dragon ''.
Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them contains the history of Magizoology and describes 85 magical species found around the world. Scamander says that he collected most of the information found in the book through observations made over years of travel across five continents. He notes that the first edition was commissioned in 1918 by Augustus Worme of Obscurus Books. However, it was not published until 1927. It is now in its fifty - second edition.
In the Harry Potter universe, the book is a required textbook for first - year Hogwarts students, having been an approved textbook since its first publication. In his foreword to the book, Albus Dumbledore notes that it serves as an excellent reference for Wizarding households in addition to its use at Hogwarts.
The book features doodles and comments added by Ron Weasley. The comments would appear to have been written around the time of the fourth book, Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire. These doodles add some extra information for fans of the series (for example the "Acromantula '' entry has a comment confirming that Hogwarts is located in Scotland) along with comic relief (such as Ron saying "you 're not kidding '' when talking about the Hungarian Horntail being the most fearsome dragon of all, a reference to Harry 's encounter with one in the fourth book).
The cover design of the first edition of the book features apparent claw marks from an unidentified animal.
This edition features six new creatures: the hidebehind, the hodag, the horned serpent, the snallygaster, the thunderbird and the wampus cat, in addition to the original 75, and the illustrations are replaced. Newt Scamander in the foreword says the reason the six new creatures were not previously included is that MACUSA president Seraphina Picquery requested the more important American creatures not be mentioned to deter wizarding sightseers at a time when the US wizarding community were subject to greater persecution than their European counterparts, and after Scamander had contributed to a breach of the International Statute of Secrecy in New York.
Newton Artemis Fido "Newt '' Scamander is the fictional author of Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them, born in 1897. According to the "About the Author '' section of the book, Scamander became a magizoologist because of his own interest in fabulous beasts and the encouragement of his mother, an enthusiastic Hippogriff breeder. In Hogwarts, he was sorted into Hufflepuff house.
After being expelled from Hogwarts, Scamander joined the Ministry of Magic in the Department for the Regulation and Control of Magical Creatures. His career included a brief stint in the Office of House - elf Relocation, a transfer to the Beast Division, the creation of the Werewolf Register in 1947, the 1965 passage of the Ban on Experimental Breeding, and many research trips for the Dragon Research and Restraint Bureau. His contributions to Magizoology earned him an Order of Merlin, Second Class in 1979.
When retired, he lived in Dorset with his wife Porpentina and their pet Kneazles: Hoppy, Milly and Mauler. He had a grandson named Rolf, who married Luna Lovegood (a character who appeared in the last three Harry Potter novels) some time after the events of Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows.
In the film version of Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban, Newt Scamander 's name appeared on the Marauder 's Map.
In the film adaptation of Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them, it is mentioned that Scamander was expelled from Hogwarts following an unspecified incident involving one of his creatures, but Albus Dumbledore argued in his defense.
Scamander himself does not appear in the seven Harry Potter books. He is mentioned in passing in Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone as the author of Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them. He is the central character of the film adaptation of Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them, in which he is portrayed by Eddie Redmayne.
The following mythological beasts are listed in the book:
Jeff Jensen of Entertainment Weekly graded the book with an "A '' and wrote "With its richly detailed history lessons and witty debate parsing the differences between being and beast, plus a compendium of 85 magical creatures that 's chockablock with Rowling 's trademark wordplay (Glumbumble is a standout), Beasts adds a vital new dimension to the Potter mythology. ''
Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them is a British - American fantasy film inspired by the book of the same name by J.K. Rowling. An extension of the wizarding world from the Harry Potter film series and directed by David Yates, the film stars Eddie Redmayne, Katherine Waterston, Alison Sudol, Dan Fogler, Samantha Morton, Ezra Miller, Colin Farrell, Carmen Ejogo, Faith Wood - Blagrove, Jenn Murray, Jon Voight and Ron Perlman. The first movie is set to be followed by four more.
Principal photography commenced on 17 August 2015, at Warner Bros. Studios, Leavesden.
Fantastic Beasts and Where to Find Them was released in the United Kingdom and the United States on 18 November 2016.
A sequel was confirmed in 2016 and is due to be released on 16 November 2018.
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a major concern about projective tests is that they | Projective test - wikipedia
In psychology, a projective test is a personality test designed to let a person respond to ambiguous stimuli, presumably revealing hidden emotions and internal conflicts projected by the person into the test. This is sometimes contrasted with a so - called "objective test '' or "self - report test '' in which responses are analyzed according to a presumed universal standard (for example, a multiple choice exam), and are limited to the content of the test. The responses to projective tests are content analyzed for meaning rather than being based on presuppositions about meaning, as is the case with objective tests. Projective tests have their origins in psychoanalysis, which argues that humans have conscious and unconscious attitudes and motivations that are beyond or hidden from conscious awareness.
The general theoretical position behind projective tests is that whenever a specific question is asked, the response will be consciously - formulated and socially determined. These responses do not reflect the respondent 's unconscious or implicit attitudes or motivations. The respondent 's deep - seated motivations may not be consciously recognized by the respondent or the respondent may not be able to verbally express them in the form demanded by the questioner. Advocates of projective tests stress that the ambiguity of the stimuli presented within the tests allow subjects to express thoughts that originate on a deeper level than tapped by explicit questions, and provide content that may not be captured by responsive tools that may lack appropriate items. After some decrease in interest in the 1980s and 1990s, newer research suggesting that implicit motivation is best captured in this way has increased the research and use of these tools.
This holds that an individual puts structure on an ambiguous situation in a way that is consistent with their own conscious and unconscious needs. It is an indirect method - testee is talking about something that comes spontaneously from the self without conscious awareness or editing.
The best known and most frequently used projective test is the Rorschach inkblot test, in which a subject is shown a series of ten irregular but symmetrical inkblots, and asked to explain what they see. The subject 's responses are then analyzed in various ways, noting not only what was said, but the time taken to respond, which aspect of the drawing was focused on, and how single responses compared to other responses for the same drawing. It is important that the Rorschach test and other projective tests be conducted by experienced professionals to ensure validity and consistency of results.
This is a variation of the Rorschach test, but uses a much larger pool of different images. Its main differences lie in its objective scoring criteria as well as limiting subjects to one response per inkblot (to avoid variable response productivity). Different variables such as reaction time are scored for an individual 's response upon seeing an inkblot.
Another popular projective test is the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) in which an individual views ambiguous scenes of people, and is asked to describe various aspects of the scene; for example, the subject may be asked to describe what led up to this scene, the emotions of the characters, and what might happen afterwards. A clinician will evaluate these descriptions, attempting to discover the conflicts, motivations and attitudes of the respondent. A researcher may use a specific scoring system that establishes consistent criteria of expressed thoughts and described behaviors associated with a specific trait, e.g., the need for Achievement, which has a validated and reliable scoring system. In the answers, the respondent "projects '' their unconscious attitudes and motivations into the picture, which is why these are referred to as "projective tests. ''
The Draw - A-Person test requires the subject to draw a person. The results are based on a psychodynamic interpretation of the details of the drawing, such as the size, shape and complexity of the facial features, clothing and background of the figure. As with other projective tests, the approach has very little demonstrated validity and there is evidence that therapists may attribute pathology to individuals who are merely poor artists. A similar class of techniques is kinetic family drawing.
The Animal Metaphor test consists of a series of creative and analytical prompts in which the person filling out the test is asked to create a story and then interpret its personal significance. Unlike conventional projective tests, the Animal Metaphor Test works as both a diagnostic and therapeutic battery. Unlike the Rorschach test and TAT, the Animal Metaphor is premised on self - analysis via self - report questions. The test combines facets of art therapy, cognitive behavioral therapy, and insight therapy, while also providing a theoretical platform of behavioral analysis. The test has been used widely as a clinical tool, as an educational assessment, and in human resource selection. The test is accompanied by an inventory, The Relational Modality Evaluation Scale, a self - report measure that targets individuals ' particular ways of resolving conflict and ways of dealing with relational stress. These tests were developed by Dr. Albert J Levis at the Center for the Study of Normative Behavior in Hamden, CT, a clinical training and research center.
Sentence completion tests require the subject complete sentence "stems '' with their own words. The subject 's response is considered to be a projection of their conscious and / or unconscious attitudes, personality characteristics, motivations, and beliefs.
Created by Silvan Tomkins, this psychological test consists of 25 sets of 3 pictures which the subject must arrange into a sequence that they "feel makes the best sense ''. The reliability of this test has been disputed, however. For example, patients suffering from schizophrenia have been found to score as more "normal '' than patients with no such mental disorders. Other picture tests:
Word association testing is a technique developed by Carl Jung to explore complexes in the personal unconscious. Jung came to recognize the existence of groups of thoughts, feelings, memories, and perceptions, organized around a central theme, that he termed psychological complexes. This discovery was related to his research into word association, a technique whereby words presented to patients elicit other word responses that reflect related concepts in the patients ' psyche, thus providing clues to their unique psychological make - up
Graphology is the pseudoscientific analysis of the physical characteristics and patterns of handwriting purporting to be able to identify the writer, indicating psychological state at the time of writing, or evaluating personality characteristics.
Graphology has been controversial for more than a century. Although supporters point to the anecdotal evidence of positive testimonials as a reason to use it for personality evaluation, most empirical studies fail to show the validity claimed by its supporters.
From the perspective of statistical validity, psychometrics and positivism, criticisms of projective tests, and depth psychology tests, usually include the well - known discrepancy between statistical validity and clinical validity.
In the case of clinical use, they rely heavily on clinical judgment, lack statistical reliability and statistical validity and many have no standardized criteria to which results may be compared, however this is not always the case. These tests are used frequently, though the scientific evidence is sometimes debated. There have been many empirical studies based on projective tests (including the use of standardized norms and samples), particularly more established tests. The criticism of lack of scientific evidence to support them and their continued popularity has been referred to as the "projective paradox ''.
Responding to the statistical criticism of his projective test, Leopold Szondi said that his test actually discovers "fate and existential possibilities hidden in the inherited familial unconscious and the personal unconscious, even those hidden because never lived through or because have been rejected. Is any statistical method able to span, understand and integrate mathematically all these possibilities? I deny this categorically. ''
Other research, however, has established that projective tests measure things that responsive tests do not, though it is theoretically possible to combine the two, e.g., Spangler, 1992 Decades of works by advocates, e.g., David C. McClelland, David Winter, Abigail Stewart, and, more recently, Oliver Schultheiss, have shown clear validity for these tools for certain personality traits, most especially implicit motivation (as contrasted with self - attributed or "explicit '' motivation, which are conscious states) (McClelland, Koestner, & Weinberger 1989), and that criticisms of projective tools based on techniques used for responsive tools is simply an inappropriate method of measurement.
The terms "objective test '' and "projective test '' have recently come under criticism in the Journal of Personality Assessment. The more descriptive "rating scale or self - report measures '' and "free response measures '' are suggested, rather than the terms "objective tests '' and "projective tests, '' respectively.
Projective techniques, including TATs, are used in qualitative marketing research, for example to help identify potential associations between brand images and the emotions they may provoke. In advertising, projective tests are used to evaluate responses to advertisements. The tests have also been used in management to assess achievement motivation and other drives, in sociology to assess the adoption of innovations, and in anthropology to study cultural meaning. The application of responses is different in these disciplines than in psychology, because the responses of multiple respondents are grouped together for analysis by the organisation commissioning the research, rather than interpreting the meaning of the responses given by a single subject.
Projective techniques are used extensively in people assessment; besides variants of the TAT, which are used to identify implicit motive patterns, the Behavioral Event Interview pioneered by David McClelland and many of its related approaches (Critical Incident Interview, Behavioral Interview, etc.) is fundamentally a projective tool in that it invites someone to tell a specific story about recent actions they took, but does not ask leading questions or questions with yes or no answers. (Camp, Vielhaber, Simonetti, 2001)
En esta crítica aparece siempre la conocida discrepancia entre la validez estadistica y clinica de todos los "tests '' de psicologia profunda
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photo of earth from edge of solar system | Pale Blue Dot - wikipedia
Pale Blue Dot is a photograph of planet Earth taken on February 14, 1990, by the Voyager 1 space probe from a record distance of about 6 billion kilometers (3.7 billion miles, 40.5 AU), as part of the Family Portrait series of images of the Solar System.
In the photograph, Earth 's apparent size is less than a pixel; the planet appears as a tiny dot against the vastness of space, among bands of sunlight scattered by the camera 's optics.
Voyager 1, which had completed its primary mission and was leaving the Solar System, was commanded by NASA to turn its camera around and take one last photograph of Earth across a great expanse of space, at the request of astronomer and author Carl Sagan.
In September 1977, NASA launched Voyager 1, a 722 - kilogram (1,592 lb) robotic spacecraft on a mission to study the outer Solar System and eventually interstellar space. After the encounter with the Jovian system in 1979 and the Saturnian system in 1980, the primary mission was declared complete in November of the same year. Voyager 1 was the first space probe to provide detailed images of the two largest planets and their major moons.
The spacecraft, still travelling at 64,000 km / h (40,000 mph), is the farthest man - made object from Earth and the first one to leave the Solar System. Its mission has been extended and continues to this day, with the aim of investigating the boundaries of the Solar system, including the Kuiper belt, the heliosphere and interstellar space. Operating for 40 years and 28 days as of today (October 5, 2017), it receives routine commands and transmits data back to the Deep Space Network.
Voyager 1 was initially expected to work only through the Saturn encounter. When the spacecraft passed the planet in 1980, Sagan proposed the idea of the space probe taking one last picture of Earth. He pointed out that such a picture would not have had much scientific value, as the Earth would appear too small for Voyager 's cameras to make out any detail, but it could have been meaningful nevertheless as a perspective on our place in the universe.
Although many in NASA 's Voyager program were supportive of the idea, there were concerns that taking a picture of Earth so close to the Sun risked damaging the spacecraft 's imaging system irreparably. It was not until 1989 that Sagan 's idea was put into practice, but then instrument calibrations delayed the operation further, and the personnel who devised and transmitted the radio commands to Voyager 1 were also being laid off or transferred to other projects. Finally, NASA Administrator Richard Truly interceded to ensure that the photograph was taken.
Voyager 1 's Imaging Science Subsystem (ISS), now disabled, consisted of two cameras: a 200 mm focal length, low - resolution wide - angle camera (WA), used for spatially extended imaging, and a 1500 mm high - resolution narrow - angle camera (NA) -- the one that took Pale Blue Dot -- intended for detailed imaging of specific targets. Both cameras were of the slow - scan vidicon tube type and were fitted with eight colored filters, mounted on a filter wheel placed in front of the tube.
The challenge for NASA 's imaging team was that, as the mission progressed, the objects being photographed were getting farther away from the spacecraft, therefore appearing fainter and requiring longer exposures and even slewing (panning) of the cameras to achieve good quality. The telecommunication capability also decreased with distance, limiting the number of data modes that could be used by the imaging system.
After taking the Family Portrait series of images, which included Pale Blue Dot, NASA mission managers commanded Voyager 1 to power its cameras down, as the spacecraft was not going to fly near anything else of significance for the rest of its mission, while other instruments that were still collecting data needed power for the long journey to interstellar space.
The design of the command sequence to be relayed to the spacecraft and the calculations for each photograph 's exposure time were developed by space scientists Candy Hansen of NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) and Carolyn Porco of the University of Arizona. After the planned imaging sequence was taken on February 14, 1990, the data from the camera was stored initially in an on - board tape recorder. Transmission to Earth was also delayed by the Magellan and Galileo missions being given priority over the use of the Deep Space Network. Then, between March and May 1990, Voyager 1 returned 60 frames back to Earth, with the radio signal travelling at the speed of light for nearly five and a half hours to cover the distance.
Three of the frames received showed the Earth as a tiny point of light in empty space. Each frame had been taken using a different color filter: blue, green and violet, with exposure times of 0.72, 0.48 and 0.72 seconds respectively. The three frames were then recombined to produce the image that became Pale Blue Dot.
Of the 640,000 individual pixels that compose each frame, Earth takes up less than one (0.12 pixels, according to NASA). The light bands across the photograph are an artifact, the result of sunlight scattering off parts of the camera and its sunshade, due to the relative proximity between the Sun and the Earth. Voyager 's point of view was approximately 32 ° above the ecliptic. Detailed analysis suggested that the camera also detected the Moon, although it is too faint to be visible without special processing.
The pale blue color of the dot is the result of polarization and scattering of the light reflected from Earth. The polarization in turn depends on various factors such as cloud cover, exposed areas of oceans, forests, deserts, snow fields etc.
Pale Blue Dot, which was taken with the narrow - angle camera, was also published as part of a composite picture created from a wide - angle camera photograph showing the Sun and the region of space containing the Earth and Venus. The wide - angle image was inset with two narrow - angle pictures: Pale Blue Dot and a similar photograph of Venus. The wide - angle photograph was taken with the darkest filter (a methane absorption band) and the shortest possible exposure (5 milliseconds), to avoid saturating the camera 's vidicon tube with scattered sunlight. Even so, the result was a bright burned - out image with multiple reflections from the optics in the camera and the Sun that appears far larger than the actual dimension of the solar disk. The rays around the Sun are a diffraction pattern of the calibration lamp which is mounted in front of the wide - angle lens.
According to NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory 's HORIZONS tool, the distances between Voyager 1 and the Earth on February 14 and May 15, 1990, were as follows:
During a public lecture at Cornell University in 1994, Carl Sagan presented the image to the audience and shared his reflections on the deeper meaning behind the idea of the Pale Blue Dot:
We succeeded in taking that picture, and, if you look at it, you see a dot. That 's here. That 's home. That 's us. On it, everyone you ever heard of, every human being who ever lived, lived out their lives. The aggregate of all our joys and sufferings, thousands of confident religions, ideologies and economic doctrines, every hunter and forager, every hero and coward, every creator and destroyer of civilizations, every king and peasant, every young couple in love, every hopeful child, every mother and father, every inventor and explorer, every teacher of morals, every corrupt politician, every superstar, every supreme leader, every saint and sinner in the history of our species, lived there -- on a mote of dust, suspended in a sunbeam.
The Earth is a very small stage in a vast cosmic arena. Think of the rivers of blood spilled by all those generals and emperors so that in glory and in triumph they could become the momentary masters of a fraction of a dot. Think of the endless cruelties visited by the inhabitants of one corner of the dot on scarcely distinguishable inhabitants of some other corner of the dot. How frequent their misunderstandings, how eager they are to kill one another, how fervent their hatreds. Our posturings, our imagined self - importance, the delusion that we have some privileged position in the universe, are challenged by this point of pale light.
Sagan also titled his 1994 book Pale Blue Dot: A Vision of the Human Future in Space after the photograph.
In 2015, NASA acknowledged the 25th anniversary of Pale Blue Dot.
Twenty - five years ago, Voyager 1 looked back toward Earth and saw a ' pale blue dot, ' "an image that continues to inspire wonderment about the spot we call home,
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what is the book jekyll and hyde about | Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr. Hyde - wikipedia
Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde is a gothic novella by the Scottish author Robert Louis Stevenson first published in 1886. The work is also known as The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, or simply Jekyll & Hyde. It is about a London lawyer named Gabriel John Utterson who investigates strange occurrences between his old friend, Dr Henry Jekyll, and the evil Edward Hyde. The novella 's impact is such that it has become a part of the language, with the very phrase "Jekyll and Hyde '' entering the vernacular to refer to people with an unpredictably dual nature: usually very good, but sometimes shockingly evil instead.
Stevenson had long been intrigued by the idea of how human personalities can affect how to incorporate the interplay of good and evil into a story. While still a teenager, he developed a script for a play about Deacon Brodie, which he later reworked with the help of W.E. Henley and which was produced for the first time in 1882. In early 1884, he wrote the short story "Markheim '', which he revised in 1884 for publication in a Christmas annual. According to his essay, "A Chapter on Dreams '' (Scribner 's, Jan. 1888), he racked his brains for an idea for a story and had a dream, and upon wakening had the intuition for two or three scenes that would appear in the story Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr. Hyde. Biographer Graham Balfour quoted Stevenson 's wife Fanny Stevenson:
In the small hours of one morning, (...) I was awakened by cries of horror from Louis. Thinking he had a nightmare, I awakened him. He said angrily: "Why did you wake me? I was dreaming a fine bogey tale. '' I had awakened him at the first transformation scene.
Lloyd Osbourne, Stevenson 's stepson, wrote: "I do n't believe that there was ever such a literary feat before as the writing of Dr Jekyll. I remember the first reading as though it were yesterday. Louis came downstairs in a fever; read nearly half the book aloud; and then, while we were still gasping, he was away again, and busy writing. I doubt if the first draft took so long as three days. ''
Inspiration may also have come from the writer 's friendship with Edinburgh - based French teacher Eugene Chantrelle, who was convicted and executed for the murder of his wife in May 1878. Chantrelle, who had appeared to lead a normal life in the city, poisoned his wife with opium. According to author Jeremy Hodges, Stevenson was present throughout the trial and as "the evidence unfolded he found himself, like Dr Jekyll, ' aghast before the acts of Edward Hyde '. '' Moreover, it was believed that the doctor had committed other murders both in France and Britain by poisoning his victims at supper parties with a "favourite dish of toasted cheese and opium ''.
Louis Vivet, a mental patient who was suffering from dissociative identity disorder, caught Frederic W.H. Myers 's attention and he wrote to Stevenson after the story was published. Stevenson was polite in his response but rejected that reading. As was customary, Mrs Stevenson would read the draft and offer her criticisms in the margins. Robert Stevenson was confined to bed at the time from a haemorrhage. Therefore, she left her comments with the manuscript and Robert in the toilet. She said that in effect the story was really an allegory, but Robert was writing it as a story. After a while, Robert called her back into the bedroom and pointed to a pile of ashes: he had burnt the manuscript in fear that he would try to salvage it, and in the process forced himself to start again from nothing, writing an allegorical story as she had suggested. Scholars debate whether he really burnt his manuscript; there is no direct factual evidence for the burning, but it remains an integral part of the history of the novella.
Stevenson re-wrote the story in three to six days. A number of later biographers have alleged that Stevenson was on drugs during the frantic re-write; for example, William Gray 's revisionist history A Literary Life (2004) said he used cocaine while other biographers said he used ergot. However, the standard history, according to the accounts of his wife and son (and himself), says he was bed - ridden and sick while writing it. According to Osbourne, "The mere physical feat was tremendous and, instead of harming him, it roused and cheered him inexpressibly ''. He continued to refine the work for four to six weeks after the initial re-write. The novella was written in the southern English seaside town of Bournemouth, where Stevenson had moved due to ill health, to benefit from its sea air and warmer southern climate.
The name Jekyll was borrowed from Reverend Walter Jekyll, a friend of Stevenson and younger brother of horticulturalist and landscape designer Gertrude Jekyll.
Gabriel John Utterson and his cousin Richard Enfield reach the door of a large house on their weekly walk. Enfield tells Utterson that months ago he saw a sinister - looking man named Edward Hyde trample a young girl after accidentally bumping into her. Enfield forced Hyde to pay £ 100 to avoid a scandal. Hyde brought them to this door and provided a cheque signed by a reputable gentleman (later revealed to be Doctor Henry Jekyll, a friend and client of Utterson). Utterson is disturbed because Jekyll recently changed his will to make Hyde the sole beneficiary. Utterson fears that Hyde is blackmailing Jekyll. When Utterson tries to discuss Hyde with Jekyll, Jekyll turns pale and asks that Hyde be left alone.
One night in October, a servant sees Hyde beat to death Sir Danvers Carew, another of Utterson 's clients. The police contact Utterson, who leads officers to Hyde 's apartment. Hyde has vanished, but they find half of a broken cane. Utterson recognizes the cane as one he had given to Jekyll. Utterson visits Jekyll, who shows Utterson a note, allegedly written to Jekyll by Hyde, apologising for the trouble that he has caused. However, Hyde 's handwriting is similar to Jekyll 's own, leading Utterson to conclude that Jekyll forged the note to protect Hyde.
For two months, Jekyll reverts to his former sociable manner, but in early January, he starts refusing visitors. Dr Hastie Lanyon, a mutual acquaintance of Jekyll and Utterson, dies of shock after receiving information relating to Jekyll. Before his death, Lanyon gives Utterson a letter to be opened after Jekyll 's death or disappearance. In late February, during another walk with Enfield, Utterson starts a conversation with Jekyll at a window of his laboratory. Jekyll suddenly slams the window and disappears.
In early March, Jekyll 's butler, Mr. Poole, visits Utterson and says Jekyll has secluded himself in his laboratory for weeks. Utterson and Poole break into the laboratory, where they find Hyde wearing Jekyll 's clothes and apparently dead from suicide. They find a letter from Jekyll to Utterson. Utterson reads Lanyon 's letter, then Jekyll 's. Lanyon 's letter reveals his deterioration resulted from the shock of seeing Hyde drink a serum that turned him into Jekyll. Jekyll 's letter explains that he had indulged in unstated vices and feared discovery. He found a way to transform himself and thereby indulge his vices without fear of detection. Jekyll 's transformed personality, Hyde, was evil, self - indulgent, and uncaring to anyone but himself. Initially, Jekyll controlled the transformations with the serum, but one night in August, he became Hyde involuntarily in his sleep.
Jekyll resolved to cease becoming Hyde. One night, he had a moment of weakness and drank the serum. Hyde, furious at having been caged for so long, killed Carew. Horrified, Jekyll tried more adamantly to stop the transformations. Then, in early January, he transformed involuntarily while awake. Far from his laboratory and hunted by the police as a murderer, Hyde needed help to avoid capture. He wrote to Lanyon (in Jekyll 's hand), asking his friend to bring chemicals from his laboratory. In Lanyon 's presence, Hyde mixed the chemicals, drank the serum, and transformed into Jekyll. The shock of the sight instigated Lanyon 's deterioration and death. Meanwhile, Jekyll 's involuntary transformations increased in frequency and required ever larger doses of serum to reverse. It was one of these transformations that caused Jekyll to slam his window shut on Enfield and Utterson.
Eventually, one of the chemicals used in the serum ran low, and subsequent batches prepared from new stocks failed to work. Jekyll speculated that one of the original ingredients must have some unknown impurity that made it work. Knowing he would become Hyde permanently, Jekyll decided to write his "confession ''. He ended the letter by writing, "I bring the life of that unhappy Henry Jekyll to an end. ''
Gabriel John Utterson, a lawyer and loyal friend of Jekyll and Lanyon, is the main protagonist of the story. Utterson is a measured and at all times emotionless, bachelor -- who nonetheless seems believable, trustworthy, tolerant of the faults of others, and indeed genuinely likable. Utterson has been close friends with Lanyon and Jekyll. However, Utterson is not immune to guilt, as, while he is quick to investigate and judge the faults of others even for the benefit of his friends, Stevenson states that "he was humbled to the dust by the many ill things he had done ''. Whatever these "ill things '' may be, he does not partake in gossip or other views of the upper class out of respect for his fellow man. Often the last remaining friend of the down - falling, he finds an interest in others ' downfalls, which creates a spark of interest not only in Jekyll but also regarding Hyde. He comes to the conclusion that human downfall results from indulging oneself in topics of interest. As a result of this line of reasoning, he lives life as a recluse and "dampens his taste for the finer items of life ''. Utterson concludes that Jekyll lives life as he wishes by enjoying his occupation. Utterson is a good, kind, loyal and honest friend to Henry Jekyll.
Dr Jekyll is a "large, well - made, smooth - faced man of fifty with something of a slyish cast '', who occasionally feels he is battling between the good and evil within himself, upon leading to the struggle between his dual personalities of Henry Jekyll and Edward Hyde. He has spent a great part of his life trying to repress evil urges that were not fitting for a man of his stature. He creates a serum, or potion, in an attempt to mask this hidden evil within his personality. However, in doing so, Jekyll transpired into the smaller, younger, cruel, remorseless, evil Hyde. Jekyll has many friends and an amiable personality, but as Hyde, he becomes mysterious and violent. As time goes by, Hyde grows in power. After taking the potion repeatedly, he no longer relies upon it to unleash his inner demon, i.e., his alter ego. Eventually, Hyde grows so strong that Jekyll becomes reliant on the potion to remain conscious.
Richard Enfield is Utterson 's cousin and is a well known "man about town. '' He first sees Hyde at about three in the morning in an episode that is well documented as Hyde is running over a little girl. He is the person who mentions to Utterson the actual personality of Jekyll 's friend, Hyde. Enfield witnessed Hyde running over a little girl in the street recklessly, and the group of witnesses, with the girl 's parents and other residents, force Hyde into writing a cheque for the girl 's family. Enfield discovers that Jekyll signed the cheque, which is genuine. He says that Hyde is disgusting looking but finds himself stumped when asked to describe the man.
A longtime friend of Jekyll 's, Hastie Lanyon disagrees with Jekyll 's "scientific '' concepts, which Lanyon describes as "... too fanciful ''. He is the first person to discover Hyde 's true identity (Hyde transforms himself back into Jekyll in Lanyon 's presence). Lanyon helps Utterson solve the case when he describes the letter given to him by Jekyll and his thoughts and reactions to the transformation. When Lanyon witnesses the transformation process (and subsequently hears Jekyll 's private confession, made to him alone), Lanyon becomes critically ill and later dies of shock.
Poole is Jekyll 's butler who has lived with him for many years. Upon noticing the reclusiveness and changes of his master, Poole goes to Utterson with the fear that his master has been murdered and his murderer, Mr Hyde, is residing in the chambers. Poole serves Jekyll faithfully and attempts to do a good job and be loyal to his master. Yet events finally drive him into joining forces with Utterson to find the truth.
Utterson joins this Scotland Yard inspector after the murder of Sir Danvers Carew. They explore Hyde 's loft in Soho and discover evidence of his depraved life.
A kind, white - haired old man and a Member of Parliament. The maid claims that Hyde, in a murderous rage, killed Carew in the streets of London on the night of 18 October (sometime between 11 pm and 2 am by the testimony of the maid). At the time of his death, Carew is 70 years old and is carrying on his person a letter addressed to Utterson, and they find one half of one of Jekyll 's walking sticks on his body. As a result, they later go and investigate in Jekyll 's house, but can not find him; they later enter a house where Hyde has been living and find the other half of the stick in one of Hyde 's rooms.
A maid, whose employer Hyde had once visited, is the only person who claims to have witnessed the murder of Sir Danvers Carew. She states that she saw that Mr Hyde murdered Carew with Jekyll 's cane and his feet. Having fainted after seeing what happened, she then wakes up and rushes to the police, thus initiating the murder case of Sir Danvers Carew.
Literary genres which critics have applied as a framework for interpreting the novel include religious allegory, fable, detective story, sensation fiction, Doppelgänger literature, Scottish devil tales, and gothic novel.
The novella is frequently interpreted as an examination of the duality of human nature, usually expressed as an inner struggle between good and evil, with variations such as human versus animal, civilization versus barbarism sometimes substituted, the main thrust being that of an essential inner struggle between the one and other, and that the failure to accept this tension results in evil, or barbarity, or animal violence, being projected onto others. In Freudian theory, the thoughts and desires banished to the unconscious mind motivate the behaviour of the conscious mind. If someone banishes all evil to the unconscious mind in an attempt to be wholly and completely good, it can result in the development of a Mr Hyde - type aspect to that person 's character. This failure to accept the tension of duality is related to Christian theology, where Satan 's fall from Heaven is due to his refusal to accept that he is a created being (that he has a dual nature) and is not God. This idea is suggested when Hyde says to Lanyon, shortly before drinking the famous potion -- "... and your sight shall be blasted by a prodigy to stagger the unbelief of Satan. '' This is because in Christianity, pride (to consider oneself as without sin or without evil) is the greatest sin, as it is the precursor to evil itself.
In his discussion of the novel, Vladimir Nabokov argues that the "good versus evil '' view of the novel is misleading, as Jekyll himself is not, by Victorian standards, a morally good person in some cases.
The work is commonly associated today with the Victorian concern over the public and private division, the individual 's sense of playing a part and the class division of London. In this respect, the novella has also been noted as "one of the best guidebooks of the Victorian era '' because of its piercing description of the fundamental dichotomy of the 19th century "outward respectability and inward lust, '' as this period had a tendency for social hypocrisy.
Another common interpretation sees the novella 's duality as representative of Scotland and the Scottish character. In this reading, the duality represents the national and linguistic dualities inherent in Scotland 's relationship with the wider Britain and the English language, respectively, and also the repressive effects of the Church of Scotland on the Scottish character. A further parallel is also drawn with the city of Edinburgh itself, Stevenson 's birthplace, which consists of two distinct parts: the old medieval section historically inhabited by the city 's poor, where the dark crowded slums were rife with all types of crime, and the modern Georgian area of wide spacious streets representing respectability.
Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde was initially sold as a paperback for one shilling in the UK, as noted above, and for one dollar in the U.S. These books were called "shilling shockers '' or penny dreadfuls. The American publisher issued the book on 5 January 1886, four days before the first appearance of the UK edition issued by Longmans; Scribner 's published 3000 copies, only 1250 of them bound in cloth. Initially, stores would not stock it until a review appeared in The Times, on 25 January 1886, giving it a favourable reception. Within the next six months, close to forty thousand copies were sold. As Stevenson 's biographer, Graham Balfour, wrote in 1901, the book 's success was probably due rather to the "moral instincts of the public '' than to any conscious perception of the merits of its art. It was read by those who never read fiction and quoted in pulpit sermons and in religious papers. By 1901, it was estimated to have sold over 250,000 copies in the United States.
Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde, though it had initially been published as a "shilling shocker, '' was an immediate success and is one of Stevenson 's best - selling works. Stage adaptations began in Boston and London and soon moved all across England and then towards his home country of Scotland.
The first stage adaptation followed the story 's initial publication in 1886. Richard Mansfield bought the rights from Stevenson, and worked with Boston author Thomas Russell Sullivan to write a script. The resulting play added to the cast of characters, and adds some elements of romance to the plot. Addition of female characters to the originally male - centered plot has continued in later adaptations of the story. The first performance of the play took place in the Boston Museum in May 1887. The lighting effects and makeup for Jekyll 's transformation into Hyde created horrified reactions from the audience, and the play was so successful that production followed in London. After a successful ten weeks in London in 1888, Mansfield was forced to close down production. The hysteria surrounding the Jack the Ripper serial murders led even those who only played murderers on stage to be considered suspects. When Mansfield was mentioned in London newspapers as a possible suspect for the crimes, he shut down production.
There have been numerous adaptations of the novella including over 120 stage and film versions alone.
There have also been many audio recordings of the novella, with some of the more famous readers including Tom Baker, Roger Rees, Christopher Lee, Anthony Quayle, Martin Jarvis, Tim Pigott - Smith, John Hurt, Ian Holm, Gene Lockhart and Richard Armitage.
A Musical was created by Frank Wildhorn, Steve Cuden, and Leslie Bricusse: "Jekyll & Hyde: The Gothic Musical Thriller - The Complete Work '' (1994).
S.G. Hulme Beaman illustrated a 1930s edition.
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if a dead tree falls in the woods does it make a sound | If a tree falls in a forest - wikipedia
"If a tree falls in a forest and no one is around to hear it, does it make a sound? '' is a philosophical thought experiment that raises questions regarding observation and perception.
Philosopher George Berkeley, in his work, A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge (1710), proposes, "But, say you, surely there is nothing easier than for me to imagine trees, for instance, in a park (...) and nobody by to perceive them. (...) The objects of sense exist only when they are perceived; the trees therefore are in the garden (...) no longer than while there is somebody by to perceive them. '' (It is worth noting that the quote from section 45 is arguably a statement of an objection to Berkeley 's view, and not a proclamation of it.) Nevertheless, Berkeley never actually wrote about the question.
Some years later, a similar question is posed. It is unknown whether the source of this question is Berkeley or not (Indian Hindu saint of 8th century Sri Adisankara raised similar question "If no one is seeing sky whether it will be blue? ''). In June 1883 in the magazine The Chautauquan, the question was put, "If a tree were to fall on an island where there were no human beings would there be any sound? '' They then went on to answer the query with, "No. Sound is the sensation excited in the ear when the air or other medium is set in motion. '' This seems to imply that the question is posed not from a philosophical viewpoint, but from a purely scientific one. The magazine Scientific American corroborated the technical aspect of this question, while leaving out the philosophic side, a year later when they asked the question slightly reworded, "If a tree were to fall on an uninhabited island, would there be any sound? '' And gave a more technical answer, "Sound is vibration, transmitted to our senses through the mechanism of the ear, and recognized as sound only at our nerve centers. The falling of the tree or any other disturbance will produce vibration of the air. If there be no ears to hear, there will be no sound. ''
Albert Einstein is reported to have asked his fellow physicist and friend Niels Bohr, one of the founding fathers of quantum mechanics, whether he realistically believed that ' the moon does not exist if nobody is looking at it. ' To this Bohr replied that however hard he (Einstein) may try, he would not be able to prove that it does, thus giving the entire riddle the status of a kind of an infallible conjecture -- one that can not be either proved or disproved.
The current phrasing appears to have originated in the 1910 book Physics by Charles Riborg Mann and George Ransom Twiss. The question "When a tree falls in a lonely forest, and no animal is near by to hear it, does it make a sound? Why? '' is posed along with many other questions to quiz readers on the contents of the chapter, and as such, is posed from a purely physical point of view.
Can something exist without being perceived? -- e.g. "is sound only sound if a person hears it? '' The most immediate philosophical topic that the riddle introduces involves the existence of the tree (and the sound it produces) outside of human perception. If no one is around to see, hear, touch or smell the tree, how could it be said to exist? What is it to say that it exists when such an existence is unknown? Of course, from a scientific viewpoint, it exists. It is human beings that are able to perceive it. George Berkeley in the 18th century developed subjective idealism, a metaphysical theory to respond to these questions, coined famously as "to be is to be perceived ''. Today meta - physicists are split. According to substance theory, a substance is distinct from its properties, while according to bundle theory, an object is merely its sense data. The definition of sound, simplified, is a hearable noise. The tree will make a sound, even if nobody heard it. The definition states that sound is a hearable noise. So the tree could have been heard, though nobody was around to do so.
Can we assume the unobserved world functions the same as the observed world? -- e.g., "does observation affect outcome? '' A similar question does not involve whether or not an unobserved event occurs predictably, like it occurs when it is observed. The anthropic principle suggests that the observer, just in its existence, may impose on the reality observed. However, most people, as well as scientists, assume that the observer does n't change whether the tree - fall causes a sound or not, but this is an impossible claim to prove. However, many scientists would argue as follows, "A truly unobserved event is one which realises no effect (imparts no information) on any other (where ' other ' might be e.g., human, sound - recorder or rock), it therefore can have no legacy in the present (or ongoing) wider physical universe. It may then be recognized that the unobserved event was absolutely identical to an event which did not occur at all. '' (this apparent quote has no attribution or reference and none can be found online with reasonable effort). Of course, the fact that the tree is known to have changed state from ' upright ' to ' fallen ' implies that the event must be observed to ask the question at all -- even if only by the supposed deaf onlooker. The British philosopher of science Roy Bhaskar, credited with developing critical realism has argued, in apparent reference to this riddle, that:
If men ceased to exist sound would continue to travel and heavy bodies to fall to the earth in exactly the same way, though ex hypothesi there would be no - one to know it
This existence of an unobserved real is integral to Bhaskar 's ontology, which contends (in opposition to the various strains of positivism which have dominated both natural and social science in the twentieth century) that ' real structures exist independently of and are often out of phase with the actual patterns of events '. In social science, this has made his approach popular amongst contemporary Marxists -- notably Alex Callinicos -- who postulate the existence of real social forces and structures which might not always be observable.
What is the difference between what something is, and how it appears? -- e.g., "sound is the variation of pressure that propagates through matter as a wave '' Perhaps the most important topic the riddle offers is the division between perception of an object and how an object really is. If a tree exists outside of perception then there is no way for us to know that the tree exists. So then, what do we mean by ' existence ', what is the difference between perception and reality? Also, people may also say, if the tree exists outside of perception (as common sense would dictate), then it will produce sound waves. However, these sound waves will not actually sound like anything. Sound as it is mechanically understood will occur, but sound as it is understood by sensation will not occur. So then, how is it known that ' sound as it is mechanically understood ' will occur if that sound is not perceived?
Canadian songwriter, social activist and environmentalist Bruce Cockburn poses the question in the chorus of his 1989 song "If a Tree Falls '' and frames it with his lyrics as a pressing question regarding the cause and effect of deforestation.
Washington - state - based wilderness conservatory Northwest Trek used a shortened form of the quote in its mid-1970s television advertisement, as such: "There is no sound unless someone is there to see it or hear it. Experience it at Northwest Trek. ''
The quote also forms the bridge of the protagonist 's solo number "Waving Through A Window '' in the musical Dear Evan Hansen, in line with the tree motif essential to the plot. The song itself discusses a feeling of isolation through fear of failing in social interactions, as a part of the main character 's social anxiety disorder.
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when did the bee gees live in australia | Bee Gees - wikipedia
Principal Barry Gibb Robin Gibb Maurice Gibb
The Bee Gees were a pop music group formed in 1958. Their line - up consisted of brothers Barry, Robin, and Maurice Gibb. The trio were successful for most of their decades of recording music, but they had two distinct periods of exceptional success: as a popular music act in the late 1960s and early 1970s, and as prominent performers of the disco music era in the mid-to - late 1970s. The group sang recognisable three - part tight harmonies; Robin 's clear vibrato lead vocals were a hallmark of their earlier hits, while Barry 's R&B falsetto became their signature sound during the mid-to - late 1970s and 1980s. The Bee Gees wrote all of their own hits, as well as wrote and produced several major hits for other artists.
Born on the Isle of Man to English parents, the Gibb brothers lived in Chorlton, Manchester, England, until the late 1950s. There, in 1955, they formed The Rattlesnakes. The family then moved to Redcliffe, in Queensland, Australia, and then to Cribb Island. After achieving their first chart success in Australia as the Bee Gees with "Spicks and Specks '' (their 12th single), they returned to the UK in January 1967, when producer Robert Stigwood began promoting them to a worldwide audience.
As of July 2013, the Bee Gees have sold more than 220 million records worldwide, placing them among the world 's best - selling music artists of all time. They were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1997; the presenter of the award to "Britain 's first family of harmony '' was Brian Wilson, historical leader of The Beach Boys, another "family act '' featuring three harmonising brothers. The Bee Gees ' Hall of Fame citation says, "Only Elvis Presley, the Beatles, Michael Jackson, Garth Brooks, and Paul McCartney have outsold the Bee Gees. ''
Following Maurice 's death in January 2003, at the age of 53, Barry and Robin retired the group 's name after 45 years of activity. In 2009, Robin announced that he and Barry had agreed the Bee Gees would re-form and perform again. Robin died in May 2012, aged 62, after a prolonged struggle with cancer and other health problems, leaving Barry as the only surviving member of the group 's final line - up.
In 1955, the brothers Barry, Robin, and Maurice Gibb moved back to their father Hugh Gibb 's hometown of Chorlton - cum - Hardy, Manchester, England, and formed a skiffle / rock - and - roll group, The Rattlesnakes, which consisted of Barry on guitar and vocals, Robin and Maurice on vocals, and friends Paul Frost on drums and Kenny Horrocks on tea - chest bass. In December 1957, the boys began to sing in harmony. The story is told that they were going to lip sync to a record in the local Gaumont cinema (as other children had done on previous weeks), but as they were running to the theatre, the fragile shellac 78 - RPM record broke. The brothers had to sing live and received such a positive response from the audience that they decided to pursue a singing career. In May 1958, The Rattlesnakes were disbanded when Frost and Horrocks left, so the Gibb brothers then formed Wee Johnny Hayes and the Blue Cats, with Barry as Johnny Hayes.
In August 1958, the Gibb family, including older sister Lesley and infant brother Andy, emigrated to Redcliffe, just north - east of Brisbane in Queensland, Australia. The young brothers began performing to raise pocket money. They were introduced to leading Brisbane radio DJ Bill Gates by speedway promoter and driver Bill Goode, who had hired the brothers to entertain the crowd at the Redcliffe Speedway in 1960. The crowd at the speedway would throw money onto the track for the boys, who generally performed during the interval of meetings (usually on the back of a truck that drove around the track), and in a deal with Goode, any money they collected from the crowd they were allowed to keep. Gates renamed them the BG 's (later changed to "Bee Gees '') after his (Goode 's) and Barry Gibb 's initials -- thus the name was not specifically a reference to "Brothers Gibb '', despite popular belief.
The family relocated to Cribb Island which was later demolished for Brisbane Airport. While there, the brothers attended Northgate State School.
By 1960, the Bee Gees were featured on television shows, including their performance of "Time Is Passing By ''. In the next few years they began working regularly at resorts on the Queensland coast. For his songwriting, Barry sparked the interest of Australian star Col Joye, who helped them get a record deal in 1963 with Festival Records subsidiary Leedon Records, under the name "Bee Gees ''. The three released two or three singles a year, while Barry supplied additional songs to other Australian artists. In 1962, the Bee Gees were chosen as the supporting act for Chubby Checker 's concert at Sydney Stadium. From 1963 to 1966, the Gibb family lived at 171 Bunnerong Road, Maroubra in Sydney. (Robin Gibb recorded the song "Sydney '', about the brothers ' experience living in Sydney, just prior to his death. It was released on his posthumous album 50 St. Catherine 's Drive.) The house was demolished in 2016.
A minor hit in 1965, "Wine and Women '', led to the group 's first LP, The Bee Gees Sing and Play 14 Barry Gibb Songs. By 1966 Festival was, however, on the verge of dropping them from the Leedon roster because of their perceived lack of commercial success. It was at this time that they met the American - born songwriter, producer, and entrepreneur Nat Kipner, who had just been appointed A&R manager of a new independent label, Spin Records. Kipner briefly took over as the group 's manager and successfully negotiated their transfer to Spin in exchange for granting Festival the Australian distribution rights to the group 's recordings. Through Kipner the Bee Gees met engineer - producer, Ossie Byrne, who produced (or co-produced with Kipner) many of the earlier Spin recordings, most of which were cut at his own small, self - built St Clair Studio in the Sydney suburb of Hurstville. Byrne gave the Gibb brothers virtually unlimited access to St Clair Studio over a period of several months in mid-1966. The group later acknowledged that this enabled them to greatly improve their skills as recording artists. During this productive time they recorded a large batch of original material -- including the song that would become their first major hit, "Spicks and Specks '' (on which Byrne played the trumpet coda) -- as well as cover versions of current hits by overseas acts such as the Beatles. They regularly collaborated with other local musicians, including members of beat band Steve & The Board, led by Steve Kipner, Nat 's teenage son.
Frustrated by their lack of success, the Gibbs decided to return to England in late 1966. Ossie Byrne travelled with them and Colin Petersen, who eventually became the group 's drummer, followed soon afterward. While at sea in January 1967, they learned that "Spicks and Specks '' had been awarded Best Single of the Year by Go - Set, Australia 's most popular and influential music newspaper.
Before their departure from Australia to England, Hugh Gibb sent demos to Brian Epstein, a promoter who managed the Beatles and directed NEMS, a British music store. Epstein passed the demo tapes to Robert Stigwood, who had recently joined NEMS. After an audition with Stigwood in February 1967, the Bee Gees signed a five - year contract whereby Polydor Records would release their records in the UK, and Atco Records would do so in the US. Work quickly began on the group 's first international album, and Stigwood launched a promotional campaign to coincide with its release.
Stigwood proclaimed that the Bee Gees were "The Most Significant New Talent of 1967 '', thus initiating the comparison of the Bee Gees to the Beatles. Before recording the first album, the group expanded to include Colin Petersen and Vince Melouney. "New York Mining Disaster 1941 '', their second British single (their first - issued UK 45 rpm was "Spicks and Specks ''), was issued to radio stations with a blank white label listing only the song title. Some DJs immediately assumed this was a new single by the Beatles and started playing the song in heavy rotation. This helped the song climb into the top 20 in both the UK and US.
No such chicanery was needed to boost the Bee Gees ' second single, "To Love Somebody '', into the US Top 20. Originally written for Otis Redding, "To Love Somebody '', a soulful ballad sung by Barry, has since become a pop standard covered by many artists including the Flying Burrito Brothers, Rod Stewart, Bonnie Tyler, Janis Joplin, the Animals, Gary Puckett and the Union Gap, Nina Simone, Jimmy Somerville, Billy Corgan, and Michael Bolton. Another single, "Holiday '', released in the US, peaked at No. 16.
The parent album, Bee Gees 1st (their first internationally), peaked at No. 7 in the US and No. 8 in the UK. Bill Shepherd was credited as the arranger. After recording that album, the group recorded their first BBC session at the Playhouse Theatre, Northumberland Avenue, in London, with Bill Bebb as the producer, and they performed three songs. That session is included on BBC Sessions: 1967 -- 1973 (2008).
Following the release of Bee Gees ' 1st, the group was first introduced in New York as "the English surprise ''. At that time, the band made their first British TV appearance on Top of the Pops. Maurice recalled:
In late 1967, they began recording for the second album. On 21 December 1967, for a live broadcast from Liverpool Anglican Cathedral, they performed their own song, "Thank You For Christmas '' (which was recorded in the Horizontal sessions but was not released until 2008), as well as "Silent Night '' and "Hark! The Herald Angels Sing ''. The folk group the Settlers also performed on that program and were conducted by the Very Reverend Edward H. Patey, dean of the cathedral. Ten days later, the band finished the year off with their Christmas Eve special, How on Earth?
January 1968 began with a promotional trip to the US. The Los Angeles Police Department was on alert in anticipation of a Beatles - type reception, and special security arrangements were being put in place. In February, Horizontal repeated the success of their first album, featuring the group 's first UK No. 1 single "Massachusetts '' (a No. 11 US hit) and the No. 7 UK single "World ''. The sound of the album Horizontal had a more "rock '' sound than their previous release, although ballads like "And the Sun Will Shine '' and "Really and Sincerely '' were also prominent. The Horizontal album reached No. 12 in the US and No. 16 in the UK.
Promoting the record, the group made their first appearance on US television on The Smothers Brothers Show, on CBS. Tommy Smothers had first encountered the band on a trip to London, and became their friend as well as a fan. That evening, Smothers wore a shirt which Maurice had bought for him at the Beatles ' Apple Boutique.
With the release of Horizontal, they also embarked on a Scandinavian tour with concerts in Copenhagen. Around the same time, the Bee Gees turned down an offer to write and perform the soundtrack for the film Wonderwall, according to director Joe Massot.
On 27 February 1968, the band, backed by the 17 - piece Massachusetts String Orchestra, began their first tour of Germany with two concerts at Hamburg Musikhalle. In March 1968, the band was supported by Procol Harum (who had a well - known hit "A Whiter Shade of Pale '') on their German tour. As Robin 's partner Molly Hullis recalls: "Germans were wilder than the fans in England at the heights of Beatlemania. '' The tour schedule took them to 11 venues in as many days with 18 concerts played, finishing with a brace of shows at the Stadthalle, Braunschweig.
After that, the group was off to Switzerland. As Maurice described it:
On 17 March, the band performed "Words '' on The Ed Sullivan Show. The other artists who performed on that night 's show were Lucille Ball, George Hamilton, and Fran Jeffries. On 27 March 1968, the band performed at the Royal Albert Hall in London.
Two more singles followed in early 1968: the ballad "Words '' (No. 8 UK, No. 15 US) and the double A-sided single "Jumbo '' b / w "The Singer Sang His Song ''. "Jumbo '', the Bee Gees ' least successful single to date, only reached No. 25 in the UK and No. 57 in the US. The Bee Gees felt "The Singer Sang His Song '' was the stronger of the two sides, an opinion shared by listeners in the Netherlands who made it a No. 3 hit.
Further Bee Gees chart singles followed: "I 've Gotta Get a Message to You '', their second UK No. 1 (No. 8 US), and "I Started a Joke '' (No. 6 US), both culled from the band 's third album Idea. Idea reached No. 4 in the UK and was another top 20 album in the US (No. 17).
Following the tour and TV special to promote the album, Vince Melouney left the group, desiring to play more of a blues style music than the Gibbs were writing. Melouney did achieve one feat while with the Bee Gees: his composition "Such a Shame '' (from Idea) is the only song on any Bee Gees album not written by a Gibb brother.
The group also filmed a BBC television special with Frankie Howerd, called Frankie Howerd Meets The Bee Gees, written by Ray Galton and Alan Simpson. This gave the group the opportunity to display their comedy skills in sketches with Howerd.
The band were due to begin a seven - week tour of the US on 2 August 1968, but on 27 July, Robin collapsed and fell unconscious. He was admitted to a London nursing home suffering from nervous exhaustion, and the American tour was postponed. The band began recording their sixth album, which resulted in their spending a week recording at Atlantic Studios in New York. Robin, still feeling poorly, missed the New York sessions, but the rest of the band put away instrumental tracks and demos.
By 1969, the cracks started to show within the group, as Robin began to feel that Stigwood had been favouring Barry as the frontman.
The Bee Gees ' performances in early 1969 on the Top of the Pops and The Tom Jones Show performing "I Started a Joke '' and "First of May '' as a medley was one of the last live performances of the group with Robin.
Their next album, which was to have been a concept album called Masterpeace, evolved into the double - album Odessa. Most rock critics felt this was the best Bee Gees album of the 1960s with its progressive rock feel on the title track, the country - flavoured "Marley Purt Drive '' and "Give Your Best '', and ballads such as "Melody Fair '' and "First of May '' (the last of which became the only single from the album and was a minor hit). Feeling the flipside, "Lamplight '', should have been the A-side, Robin quit the group in mid-1969 and launched a solo career.
The first of many Bee Gees compilations, Best of Bee Gees, was released featuring the non-LP single "Words '' plus the Australian hit "Spicks and Specks ''. The single "Tomorrow Tomorrow '' was also released and was a moderate hit in the UK, where it reached No. 23, but it was only No. 54 in the US. The compilation reached the top 10 in both the UK and the US.
While Robin pursued his solo career, Barry, Maurice, and Petersen continued on as the Bee Gees recording their next album, Cucumber Castle. The band made their debut performance without Robin at Talk of the Town. They had recruited their sister, Lesley, into the group at this time.
To accompany the album, they also filmed a TV special which aired on the BBC in 1971. Petersen played drums on the tracks recorded for the album but was fired from the group after filming began (he went on to form the Humpy Bong with Jonathan Kelly). His parts were edited out of the final cut of the film, and Pentangle drummer Terry Cox was recruited to complete the recording of songs for the album.
After the album was released in early 1970, it seemed that the Bee Gees were finished. The leadoff single, "Do n't Forget to Remember '', was a big hit in the UK, reaching No. 2, but a disappointment in the US, only reaching No. 73. The next two singles, "I.O.I.O. '' and "If I Only Had My Mind on Something Else '' barely scraped the charts. On 1 December 1969, Barry and Maurice parted ways professionally.
Maurice started to record his first solo album, The Loner, which was not released. Meanwhile, he released the single "Railroad '' and starred in the West End musical, Sing a Rude Song. In February 1970, Barry recorded a solo album which never saw official release either, although "I 'll Kiss Your Memory '' was released as a single backed by "This Time '' without much interest. Meanwhile, Robin saw success in Europe with his No. 2 hit "Saved by the Bell '' and the album Robin 's Reign.
In the summer of 1970, according to Barry, "Robin rang me in Spain where I was on holiday (saying) ' let 's do it again ' ''. By 21 August 1970, after they had reunited, Barry announced that the Bee Gees "are there and they will never, ever part again ''. Maurice said, "We just discussed it and re-formed. We want to apologise publicly to Robin for the things that have been said. '' Earlier in June 1970, Robin and Maurice recorded a dozen songs before Barry joined and included two songs that were on their reunion album. Around the same time, Barry and Robin were about to publish the book, On the Other Hand. They also recruited Geoff Bridgford as the group 's official drummer; Bridgford had previously worked with The Groove and Tin Tin, and played drums on Maurice 's unreleased first solo album.
In 1970, 2 Years On was released in October in the US and November in the UK. The lead single "Lonely Days '' reached at No. 3 on the United States, promoted by appearances on The Johnny Cash Show, Johnny Carson 's Tonight Show, The Andy Williams Show, The Dick Cavett Show, and The Ed Sullivan Show.
Their ninth album, Trafalgar, was released in late 1971. The single "How Can You Mend a Broken Heart '' was the first to hit No 1 on the US Charts, while "Israel '' reached No. 22 in the Netherlands. "How Can You Mend a Broken Heart '' also brought the Bee Gees their first Grammy Award nomination for Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals. Later that year, the group 's songs were included in the soundtrack for the film Melody.
In 1972, they hit No. 16 in the US with the non-album single "My World '', backed by Maurice 's composition "On Time ''. Another 1972 single, "Run To Me '' from the LP To Whom It May Concern, returned them to the UK top 10 for the first time in three years. On 24 November 1972, the band headlined the "Woodstock of the West '' Festival at the Los Angeles Coliseum (which was a West Coast answer to Woodstock in New York), which also featured Sly & The Family Stone, Stevie Wonder, and the Eagles. Also in 1972, the group sang "Hey Jude '' with Wilson Pickett.
By 1973, however, the Bee Gees were in a rut. The album, Life in a Tin Can, released on Robert Stigwood 's newly formed RSO Records, and its lead - off single, "Saw a New Morning '', sold poorly with the single peaking at No. 94. This was followed by an unreleased album (known as A Kick in the Head Is Worth Eight in the Pants). A second compilation album, Best of Bee Gees, Volume 2, was released in 1973, although it did not repeat the success of Volume 1. On the 6 April 1973 episode of The Midnight Special they performed "Money (That 's What I Want) '' with Jerry Lee Lewis. Also in 1973, they were invited by Chuck Berry to performtwo songs with him onstage at The Midnight Special: "Johnny B. Goode '' and "Reelin ' and Rockin ' ''.
After a tour of United States in early 1974 and a Canadian tour later in the year, the group ended up playing small clubs. As Barry joked, "We ended up in, have you ever heard of Batley 's the variety club in (Leeds) England? ''.
On the advice of Ahmet Ertegün, head of their US label Atlantic Records, Stigwood arranged for the group to record with soul music producer Arif Mardin. The resulting LP, Mr. Natural, included fewer ballads and foreshadowed the R&B direction of the rest of their career.
When it, too, failed to attract much interest, Mardin encouraged them to work within the soul music style. The brothers attempted to assemble a live stage band that could replicate their studio sound. Lead guitarist Alan Kendall had come on board in 1971 but did not have much to do until Mr. Natural. For that album, they added drummer Dennis Bryon, and they later added ex-Strawbs keyboard player Blue Weaver, completing the Bee Gees band that lasted through the late ' 70s. Maurice, who had previously performed on piano, guitar, harpsichord, electric piano, organ, mellotron, and bass guitar, as well as mandolin and Moog synthesiser, now confined himself to bass onstage.
At Eric Clapton 's suggestion, the brothers relocated to Miami, Florida, early in 1975 to record. After starting off with ballads, they eventually heeded the urging of Mardin and Stigwood, and crafted more dance - oriented disco songs, including their second US No. 1, "Jive Talkin ' '', along with US No. 7 "Nights on Broadway ''. The band liked the resulting new sound. This time the public agreed by sending the LP Main Course up the charts. This album included the first Bee Gees songs wherein Barry used falsetto, something that would later become a trademark of the band. This was also the first Bee Gees album to have two US top - 10 singles since 1968 's Idea. Main Course also became their first charting R&B album.
On the Bee Gees ' appearance on The Midnight Special in 1975, to promote Main Course, they sang "To Love Somebody '' with Helen Reddy. Around the same time, the Bee Gees recorded three Beatles covers -- "Golden Slumbers / Carry That Weight '', "She Came in Through the Bathroom Window '' with Barry providing lead vocals, and "Sun King '' with Maurice providing lead vocals, for the unsuccessful musical / documentary All This and World War II.
The next album, Children of the World released in September 1976, was drenched in Barry 's new - found falsetto and Weaver 's synthesizer disco licks. Mardin was unavailable to produce, so the Bee Gees enlisted Albhy Galuten and Karl Richardson, who had worked with Mardin during the Main Course sessions. This production team would carry the Bee Gees through the rest of the 1970s.
The first single from the album was "You Should Be Dancing '' (which features percussion work by musician Stephen Stills). The song pushed the Bee Gees to a level of stardom they had not previously achieved in the US, though their new R&B / disco sound was not as popular with some die hard fans. The pop ballad "Love So Right '' reached No. 3 in the US, and "Boogie Child '' reached US No. 12 in January 1977. The album peaked at No. 8 in the US.
A compilation Bee Gees Gold was released in November, containing the group 's hits from 1967 - 1972.
Following a successful live album, Here at Last... Bee Gees... Live, the Bee Gees agreed with Stigwood to participate in the creation of the Saturday Night Fever soundtrack. It would be the turning point of their career. The cultural impact of both the film and the soundtrack was seismic throughout the world, prolonging the disco scene 's mainstream appeal.
The band 's involvement in the film did not begin until post-production. As John Travolta asserted, "The Bee Gees were n't even involved in the movie in the beginning... I was dancing to Stevie Wonder and Boz Scaggs. '' Producer Robert Stigwood commissioned the Bee Gees to create the songs for the film. The brothers wrote the songs "virtually in a single weekend '' at Château d'Hérouville studio in France. Barry Gibb remembered the reaction when Stigwood and music supervisor Bill Oakes arrived and listened to the demos:
They flipped out and said these will be great. We still had no concept of the movie, except some kind of rough script that they 'd brought with them... You 've got to remember, we were fairly dead in the water at that point, 1975, somewhere in that zone -- the Bee Gees ' sound was basically tired. We needed something new. We had n't had a hit record in about three years. So we felt, Oh Jeez, that 's it. That 's our life span, like most groups in the late 60s. So, we had to find something. We did n't know what was going to happen.
Bill Oakes, who supervised the soundtrack, asserts that Saturday Night Fever did not begin the disco craze; rather, it prolonged it: "Disco had run its course. These days, Fever is credited with kicking off the whole disco thing -- it really did n't. Truth is, it breathed new life into a genre that was actually dying. ''
Three Bee Gees singles - "How Deep Is Your Love '' (US No. 1, UK No. 3), "Stayin ' Alive '' (US No. 1, UK No. 4) and "Night Fever '' (US No. 1, UK No. 1) - charted high in many countries around the world, launching the most popular period of the disco era. They also penned the song "If I Ca n't Have You '', which became a US No. 1 hit for Yvonne Elliman, while the Bee Gees ' own version was the B - Side of "Stayin ' Alive ''. Such was the popularity of Saturday Night Fever that two different versions of the song "More Than a Woman '' received airplay, one by the Bee Gees, which was relegated to album track, and another by Tavares, which was the hit.
The Gibb sound was inescapable. During a nine - month period beginning in the Christmas season of 1977, seven songs written by the brothers held the No. 1 position on the US charts for 27 of 37 consecutive weeks: three of their own releases, two for brother Andy Gibb, the Yvonne Elliman single, and "Grease '', performed by Frankie Valli.
Fuelled by the movie 's success, the soundtrack broke multiple industry records, becoming the highest - selling album in recording history to that point. With more than 40 million copies sold, Saturday Night Fever is among music 's top five best selling soundtrack albums. As of 2010, it is calculated as the 4th highest - selling album worldwide.
In March 1978, the Bee Gees held the top 2 positions on the US Charts with "Night Fever '' and "Stayin ' Alive '', the first time this had happened since the Beatles. On the US Billboard Hot 100 chart for 25 March 1978, five songs written by the Gibbs were in the US top 10 at the same time: "Night Fever '', "Stayin ' Alive '', "If I Ca n't Have You '', "Emotion '', and "Love is Thicker Than Water ''. Such chart dominance had not been seen since April 1964, when the Beatles had all five of the top five American singles. Barry Gibb became the only songwriter to have four consecutive number one hits in the US, breaking the John Lennon and Paul McCartney 1964 record. These songs were "Stayin ' Alive '', "Love Is Thicker Than Water '', "Night Fever '', and "If I Ca n't Have You ''.
The Bee Gees won five Grammy Awards for Saturday Night Fever over two years: Album of the Year, Producer of the Year (with Albhy Galuten and Karl Richardson), two awards for Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals (one in 1978 for "How Deep Is Your Love '' and one in 1979 for "Stayin ' Alive ''), and Best Vocal Arrangement for Two or More Voices for "Stayin ' Alive ''.
During this era, Barry and Robin also wrote "Emotion '' for an old friend, Australian vocalist Samantha Sang, who made it a Top 10 hit, with the Bee Gees singing backing vocals. Barry also wrote the title song to the movie version of the Broadway musical Grease for Frankie Valli to perform, which went to No. 1.
The Bee Gees ' younger brother Andy now followed his older siblings into a music career and enjoyed considerable success. Produced by Barry, Andy Gibb 's first three singles all topped the US charts.
The Bee Gees also co-starred with Peter Frampton in Robert Stigwood 's film Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band (1978), loosely inspired by the classic 1967 album by The Beatles. The movie had been heavily promoted prior to release and was expected to enjoy great commercial success. However, it was savaged by the movie critics as a disjointed mess and ignored by the public. Though some of its tracks charted, the soundtrack too was a high - profile flop. The single "Oh! Darling '', credited to Robin Gibb, reached No. 15 in the US.
The Bee Gees ' follow - up to Saturday Night Fever was the Spirits Having Flown album. It yielded three more hits: "Too Much Heaven '' (US No. 1, UK No. 3), "Tragedy '' (US No. 1, UK No. 1), and "Love You Inside Out '' (US No. 1). This gave the act six consecutive No. 1 singles in the US within a year and a half, equalling the Beatles and surpassed only by Whitney Houston.
In January 1979, the Bee Gees performed "Too Much Heaven '' as their contribution to the Music for UNICEF Concert at the United Nations General Assembly, a benefit organised by the Bee Gees, Robert Stigwood, and David Frost for UNICEF that was broadcast worldwide. The brothers donated the royalties from the song to the charity. Up to 2007, this song has earned over $11 million for UNICEF.
During the summer of 1979, the Bee Gees embarked on their largest concert tour covering the US and Canada. The Spirits Having Flown tour capitalised on Bee Gees fever that was sweeping the nation, with sold out concerts in 38 cities. The Bee Gees produced a video for the title track "Too Much Heaven '', directed by Miami - based filmmaker Martin Pitts and produced by Charles Allen. With this video, Pitts and Allen began a long association with the brothers.
The Bee Gees even had a country hit in 1979 with "Rest Your Love on Me '', the flip side of their pop hit "Too Much Heaven '', which made Top 40 on the country charts. It was also a 1981 hit for Conway Twitty topping the country music charts.
The Bee Gees ' overwhelming success rose and fell with the disco bubble. By the end of 1979, disco was rapidly declining in popularity, and the backlash against disco put the Bee Gees ' American career in a tailspin. Radio stations around the US began promoting "Bee Gee - Free Weekends ''. Following their remarkable run from 1975 to 1979, the act would have only one more Top 10 single in the US, and that would not come until 1989.
Barry Gibb considered the success of the Saturday Night Fever soundtrack both a blessing and a curse:
Fever was No. 1 every week... It was n't just like a hit album. It was No. 1 every single week for 25 weeks. It was just an amazing, crazy, extraordinary time. I remember not being able to answer the phone, and I remember people climbing over my walls. I was quite grateful when it stopped. It was too unreal. In the long run, your life is better if it 's not like that on a constant basis. Nice though it was.
Robin co-produced Jimmy Ruffin 's Sunrise released in May 1980, but the songs were started in 1979; the album contains songs written by the Gibb brothers.
In March 1980, Barry Gibb worked with Barbra Streisand on her album Guilty. He co-produced, and wrote or co-wrote all nine of the album 's tracks (four of them written with Robin, and the title track with both Robin and Maurice). Barry also appeared on the album 's cover with Streisand and duetted with her on two tracks. The album reached No. 1 in both the US and the UK, as did the single "Woman in Love '' (written by Barry and Robin), becoming Streisand 's most successful single and album to date. Both of the Streisand / Gibb duets, "Guilty '' and "What Kind of Fool '', also reached the US Top 10.
In October, the Bee Gees regrouped to record songs that would go on to their upcoming album, but it was n't continued, and Weaver, Kendall (who returned in 1987), and Bryon left the group. The brothers later recruited some studio musicians.
In 1981, the Bee Gees released the album Living Eyes, their last full - length album release on RSO. This album was the first CD ever played in public, when it was played to viewers of the BBC show Tomorrow 's World. With the disco backlash still running strong, the album failed to make the UK or US Top 40 -- breaking their streak of Top 40 hits, which started in 1975 with "Jive Talkin ' ''. Two singles from the album fared little better -- "He 's a Liar '', which reached No. 30 in the US, and "Living Eyes '', which reached No. 45.
In 1982, Dionne Warwick enjoyed a UK No. 2 and US Adult Contemporary No. 1 hit with her comeback single, "Heartbreaker '', taken from her eponymous album written largely by the Bee Gees and co-produced by Barry Gibb. The album reached No. 3 in the UK and the Top 30 in the US, where it was certified Gold.
A year later, Dolly Parton and Kenny Rogers recorded the Bee Gees - penned track "Islands in the Stream '', which became a US No. 1 hit and entered the Top 10 in the UK. Rogers ' 1983 album, Eyes That See in the Dark, was written entirely by the Bee Gees and co-produced by Barry. The album was a Top 10 hit in the US and was certified Double Platinum.
The Bee Gees had greater success with the soundtrack to Staying Alive in 1983, the sequel to Saturday Night Fever. The soundtrack was certified platinum in the US, and included their Top 30 hit "The Woman in You ''.
Also in 1983, the band was sued by Chicago songwriter Ronald Selle, who claimed the brothers stole melodic material from one of his songs, "Let It End '', and used it in "How Deep Is Your Love ''. At first, the Bee Gees lost the case; one juror said that a factor in the jury 's decision was the Gibbs ' failure to introduce expert testimony rebutting the plaintiff 's expert testimony that it was "impossible '' for the two songs to have been written independently. However, the verdict was overturned a few months later.
In August 1983, Barry signed a solo deal with MCA Records and spent much of late 1983 and 1984 writing songs for this first solo effort, Now Voyager. Robin released three solo albums in the 80s, How Old Are You?, Secret Agent, and Walls Have Eyes. And Maurice released his second single to date, "Hold Her in Your Hand '', for the first time since 1970.
In 1985, Diana Ross released the album Eaten Alive, written by the Bee Gees, with the title track co-written with Michael Jackson (who also performed on the track). The album was again co-produced by Barry Gibb, and the single "Chain Reaction '' gave Ross a UK and Australian No. 1 hit.
The Bee Gees released the album E.S.P. in 1987, which sold over 3 million copies. It was their first album in six years, and their first for Warner Bros. Records. The single "You Win Again '' went to No. 1 in numerous countries, including the UK, and made the Bee Gees the first group to score a UK No. 1 hit in each of three decades: the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s. The single was a disappointment in the US, charting at No. 75, and the Bee Gees voiced their frustration over American radio stations ' not playing their new European hit single, an omission which the group felt led to poor sales of their current album in the US. The song won the Bee Gees the 1987 British Academy 's Ivor Novello award for Best Song Musically and Lyrically, and in February 1988 the band received a Brit Award nomination for Best British Group.
On 10 March 1988, younger brother Andy died, aged 30, as a result of myocarditis, an inflammation of the heart muscle due to a recent viral infection. His brothers acknowledge that Andy 's past drug and alcohol use probably made his heart more susceptible to this illness. Just before Andy 's death, the brothers had decided that Andy would join them, which would have made them a four - member group. Instead, the Bee Gees got together with Eric Clapton to create a group called The Bunburys to raise money for English charities. The group recorded three songs for The Bunbury Tails: "We 're the Bunburys '', "Bunbury Afternoon '', and "Fight (No Matter How Long) ''. The last song reached # 8 on the rock music chart and appeared on The 1988 Summer Olympics Album. The Bee Gees ' following album, One (1989), featured a song dedicated to Andy, "Wish You Were Here ''. The album also contained their first US Top 10 hit (No. 7) in a decade, "One '' (an Adult Contemporary No. 1). After the album 's release, the band embarked on its first world tour in 10 years.
In 1990, Polydor Records issued the box set Tales from the Brothers Gibb: A History in Song, which contains all singles released (except 1981 's "Living Eyes ''), rare B - sides, unreleased tracks, solo material, and live performances. Many songs received new stereo mixes by Bill Inglot, and some songs made their CD debut. At the time of its release, Tales was one of the first box sets issued in the music business, and it was considered an honour for a group to have one.
In the UK, Polydor issued a single disc hits collection from Tales called The Very Best of the Bee Gees, which contained their biggest UK hits. The album became one of their best selling albums in that country, abd was eventually certified Triple Platinum.
Following their next album, High Civilization (1991), which contained the UK top five hit "Secret Love '', the Bee Gees went on a European tour. After the tour, Barry Gibb began to battle a serious back problem, which required surgery. In addition, he suffered from arthritis, which at one point was so severe that it was doubtful that he would be able to play guitar for much longer. Also in the early 1990s, Maurice Gibb finally sought treatment for his alcoholism, which he had battled for many years with the help of Alcoholics Anonymous.
In 1993, the group returned to the Polydor label and released the album Size Is n't Everything, which contained the UK top five hit "For Whom the Bell Tolls ''. Success still eluded them in the US, however, as the first single released, "Paying the Price of Love '', only managed to reach No. 74 on the Billboard Hot 100, while the parent album stalled at No. 153.
In 1997, they released the album Still Waters, which sold over four million copies and reached No. 2 in the UK (their highest album chart position there since 1979) and No. 11 in the US. The album 's first single, "Alone '', gave them another UK Top 5 hit and a top 30 hit in the US. Still Waters would be the band 's most successful US release of their post-RSO era.
At the 1997 BRIT Awards held in Earls Court, London on 24 February, the Bee Gees received the award for Outstanding Contribution to Music. On 14 November 1997, the Bee Gees performed a live concert in Las Vegas called One Night Only. The show included a performance of "Our Love (Do n't Throw It All Away) '' synchronised with a vocal by their deceased brother Andy and a cameo appearance by Celine Dion singing "Immortality ''. The CD of the performance sold over 5 million copies. The "One Night Only '' name grew out of the band 's declaration that, due to Barry 's health issues, the Las Vegas show was to be the final live performance of their career. After the immensely positive audience response to the Vegas concert, Barry decided to continue despite the pain, and the concert expanded into their last full - blown world tour of "One Night Only '' concerts. The tour included playing to 56,000 people at London 's Wembley Stadium on 5 September 1998 and concluded in the newly built Olympic Stadium in Sydney, Australia on 27 March 1999 to 72,000 people.
In 1998, the group 's soundtrack for Saturday Night Fever was incorporated into a stage production produced first in the West End and then on Broadway. They wrote three new songs for the adaptation. Also in 1998 the brothers recorded Ellan Vannin for Isle of Man charities. Known as the unofficial national anthem of the Isle of Man, the brothers performed the song during their world tour to reflect their pride in the place of their birth.
The Bee Gees closed the decade with what turned out to be their last full - sized concert, known as BG2K, on 31 December 1999.
In 2001, the group released what turned out to be their final album of new material as a group, This Is Where I Came In. The album was another success, reaching the Top 10 in the UK (being certified Gold), and the Top 20 in the US. The title track was also a UK Top 20 hit single. The album gave each member of the group a chance to write in his own way, as well as composing songs together. For example, Maurice 's compositions and leads are the "Man in the Middle '' and "Walking on Air '', while Robin contributed "Déjà Vu '', "Promise the Earth '', and "Embrace '', and Barry contributed "Loose Talk Costs Lives '', "Technicolour Dreams '', and "Voice in the Wilderness ''. The other songs are collaborative in writing and vocals. They performed many tracks from This Is Where I Came In, plus many of their biggest hits, on the live televised concert series Live by Request, shown on the A&E Network. The last concert of the Bee Gees as a trio was at the Love and Hope Ball in 2002.
Maurice, who had been the musical director of the Bee Gees during their final years as a group, died suddenly on 12 January 2003, at age 53, from a heart attack, while awaiting emergency surgery to repair a strangulated intestine. Initially, his surviving brothers announced that they intended to carry on the name "Bee Gees '' in his memory, but as time passed they decided to retire the group 's name, leaving it to represent the three brothers together.
The same week that Maurice died, Robin 's solo album Magnet was released. On 23 February 2003, the Bee Gees received the Grammy Legend Award, they also became the first recipients of that award in the 21st century. Barry and Robin accepted as well as Maurice 's son, Adam, in a tearful ceremony.
Although there was talk of a memorial concert featuring both surviving brothers and invited guests, nothing materialised. Barry and Robin continued to work independently, and both released recordings with other artists, occasionally coming together to perform at special events.
In late 2004, Robin embarked on a solo tour of Germany, Russia, and Asia. During January 2005, Barry, Robin, and several legendary rock artists recorded "Grief Never Grows Old '', the official tsunami relief record for the Disasters Emergency Committee. Later that year, Barry reunited with Barbra Streisand for her top - selling album Guilty Pleasures, released as Guilty Too in the UK as a sequel album to the previous Guilty. Robin continued touring in Europe. Also in 2004, Barry recorded his song "I Cannot Give You My Love '' with Cliff Richard, which became a UK top 20 hit single.
In February 2006, Barry and Robin reunited on stage for a Miami charity concert to benefit the Diabetes Research Institute. It was their first public performance together since Maurice 's death. The pair also played at the 30th annual Prince 's Trust Concert in the UK on 20 May 2006. In October 2008, Robin performed a couple of songs in London as part of the BBC Electric Proms Saturday Night Fever performance. This involved various other performers and the BBC Concert Orchestra, and was screened on the BBC and BBC interactive services.
In an interview with Easy Mix radio host Tim Roxborough on 1 September 2009, Barry 's 63rd birthday, Barry commented on future tours saying that "they will be back ''; but in an agreement with Warner / Rhino they would not make an announcement at that time. On 7 September 2009, Robin disclosed to Jonathan Agnew that he had been in touch with Barry and that they had agreed that the Bee Gees would re-form and "perform again ''.
Barry and Robin performed on the BBC 's Strictly Come Dancing on 31 October 2009 and appeared on ABC - TV 's Dancing with the Stars on 17 November 2009. On 15 March 2010, Barry and Robin inducted the Swedish group ABBA into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. On 26 May 2010, the two made a surprise appearance on the ninth - season finale of American Idol.
On 20 November 2011 it was announced that Robin Gibb, at 61 years old, had been diagnosed with liver cancer, a condition he had become aware of several months earlier. He had become noticeably thinner in previous months and had to cancel several appearances due to issues with severe abdominal pain.
On 13 February 2012, Robin joined British military trio The Soldiers for the Coming Home charity concert at the London Palladium, in support of injured servicemen. It was his first public appearance for almost five months, and his final.
On 14 April 2012, it was reported that Robin had contracted pneumonia in a Chelsea hospital and was in a coma. Although he came out of his coma on 20 April 2012, his condition deteriorated rapidly, and he died on 20 May 2012. With Robin 's death, Barry became the last surviving Gibb brother, and the Bee Gees dissolved as a musical group.
In September and October 2013, Barry performed his first solo tour "in honour of his brothers and a lifetime of music ''. In addition to the Rhino collection, The Studio Albums: 1967 -- 1968, Warner Bros. released a box set in 2014 called The Warner Bros Years: 1987 -- 1991 that included the studio albums E.S.P., One, and High Civilization as well as extended mixes and B - sides. It also included the band 's entire 1989 concert in Melbourne, Australia, available only on video as "All For One '' prior to this release. The documentary The Joy of the Bee Gees is aired on BBC Four on 19 December 2014.
In 2015, 13STAR Records released a box set 1974 -- 1979 by March 23 which included the studio albums Mr. Natural, Main Course, Children of the World and Spirits Having Flown. A fifth disc called The Miami Years includes all the tracks from Saturday Night Fever as well as B - Sides. No unreleased tracks from the era were included.
After a hiatus from performing, Barry Gibb returned to solo and guest singing performances. He occasionally appears with his son, Steve Gibb, who declined to use the Bee Gees brand mainly because of his much more different style. In 2016, he released In the Now, his first solo effort since 1984 's Now Voyager. It was the first release of new Bee Gees - related music since the posthumous release of Robin Gibb 's 50 St. Catherine 's Drive. The Bee Gees have signed a new distribution deal with Capitol Records, bringing them back to Universal.
The Bee Gees were influenced by The Beatles, The Everly Brothers, The Mills Brothers, Elvis Presley, The Rolling Stones, Roy Orbison The Beach Boys and Stevie Wonder. On the 2014 documentary The Joy of the Bee Gees, Barry claimed that the Bee Gees were also influenced by the Hollies and Otis Redding.
Brian May of Queen said: "Of course I was, and am a huge fan of the Bee Gees ' creations in music. Undoubtedly at the pinnacle of song - writing considered over the last -- 30 years, is it?! My fondest recollections are not of the SNF days, which were really a re-birth in the Bee Gees ' popularity, but the early ground - breaking songs... I remember singing these (songs) with my pal Tim Staffell (of Smile) and Freddie (Mercury) in the real old days. '' May also praised the song "You Win Again '' as one of the greatest songs of the ' 80s.
In his 1980 Playboy magazine interview, John Lennon praised the Bee Gees, "Try to tell the kids in the Seventies who were screaming to the Bee Gees that their music was just the Beatles redone. There is nothing wrong with the Bee Gees. They do a damn good job. There was nothing else going on then ''.
Michael Jackson, who was also influenced by the Bee Gees said, "I cried listening to their music. I knew every note, every instrument ''.
Paul McCartney recalled, "It was the ' Mining Disaster ' song that Robert Stigwood played me, I said ' sign them, they 're great ' ''.
Ringo Starr said, "The Bee Gees from our era were quite important, especially the harmonies. ''
In a 2007 interview with Duane Hitchings, who co-wrote Rod Stewart 's 1978 disco song "Da Ya Think I 'm Sexy? '', noted that the song was:
"a spoof on guys from the ' cocaine lounge lizards ' of the Saturday Night Fever days. We Rock and Roll guys thought we were dead meat when that movie and the Bee Gees came out. The Bee Gees were brilliant musicians and really nice people. No big egos. Rod, in his brilliance, decided to do a spoof on disco. VERY smart man. There is no such thing as a "dumb '' super success in the music business. ''
Kevin Parker of Tame Impala has said that listening to the Bee Gees after taking mushrooms inspired him to change the sound of the music he was making in his album Currents.
Barry Gibb once said: "When we first came out, Jimi Hendrix said we were two - year old Beatles. He was just giving an opinion at the time. People just like to have go at other artists. But we are very good friends with Jimi now ''. Years later, Gibb recalled: "He was a great mate of mine. He came to my twenty - first birthday. He was an extremely polite bloke. I never knew about the drugs then. I thought he was acting a bit weird and saying kind of remote things, but I was too naive to even consider that it might be drugs, I never caught on with Jimi and the drugs. I saw him drunk a few times because I remember thinking he was always really quiet until he had a few drinks ''...
The English indie rock band the Cribs was also influenced by the Bee Gees. Cribs member Ryan Jarman said: "It must have had quite a big influence on us -- pop melodies is something we always revert to. I always want to get back to pop melodies and I 'm sure that 's due to that Bee Gees phase we went through ''.
Following Robin 's death on 20 May 2012, Beyoncé remarked: "The Bee Gees were an early inspiration for me, Kelly Rowland and Michelle. We loved their songwriting and beautiful harmonies. Recording their classic song, ' Emotion ' was a special time for Destiny 's Child. Sadly we lost Robin Gibb this week. My heart goes out to his brother Barry and the rest of his family.
Singer Jordin Sparks remarked that her favorite Bee Gees songs are "Too Much Heaven '', "Emotion '' (although performed by Samantha Sang with Barry on the background vocals using his falsetto), and "Stayin ' Alive ''.
Carrie Underwood said, about discovering the Bee Gees during her childhood, "My parents listened to the Bee Gees quite a bit when I was little, so I was definitely exposed to them at an early age. They just had a sound that was all their own, obviously, (it was) never duplicated ''.
Other artists who were influenced by the Bee Gees include: Pet Shop Boys, George Michael, Billy Joel, Paul Simon, David Bowie, Brian Wilson of The Beach Boys, Debbie Harry of Blondie, Madonna, Andy Bell of Beady Eye, Noel Gallagher, and Elton John. The electropop / synth - pop band Hyperbubble even released a dedicated EP, "Christmas with The Bee Gees ''.
The Bee Gees have sold in excess of 220 million records worldwide.
At one point in 1978, the Gibb brothers were responsible for writing and / or performing nine of the songs in the Billboard Hot 100. In all, the Gibbs placed 13 singles onto the Hot 100 in 1978, with 12 making the Top 40. The Gibb brothers are fellows of the British Academy of Songwriters, Composers and Authors (BASCA). At least 2,500 artists have recorded their songs.
Singer - songwriter Gavin DeGraw spoke to the Bee Gees ' influence with their own music as well as their songwriting:
"Let 's talk about the Bee Gees. That 's an iconic group. Not just a great band, but a great group of songwriters. Even long after the Bee Gees ' success on the pop charts, they were still writing songs for other people, huge hit songs. Their talent went far beyond their moment of normal pop success. It is a loss to the music industry and a loss of an iconic group. The beauty of this industry is that we do pay tribute and every artist coming up is a fan of a generation prior to it, so there 's a real tradition element to it ''.
Among the artists who have covered their songs are Michael Bolton, Boyzone, Eric Clapton, Billy Corgan, Destiny 's Child, Faith No More, The Flaming Lips, John Frusciante, Al Green, Engelbert Humperdinck, Elton John, Tom Jones, Janis Joplin, Demi Lovato, Lulu, N - Trance, Pet Shop Boys, Elvis Presley, Nina Simone, Percy Sledge, Robert Smith, Status Quo, Steps and Take That.
In 2009, as part of the Q150 celebrations, the Bee Gees were announced as one of the Q150 Icons of Queensland for their role as "Influential Artists ''.
In October 1999 the Isle of Man Post Office unveiled a set of 6 stamps honouring their native sons ' music. The official launch took place at the London Palladium where the stage show of Saturday Night Fever was playing. A similar launch was held in New York shortly after to coincide with the show opening across the Atlantic. The songs depicted on the stamps are "Massachusetts '', "Words '', "I 've Gotta Get A Message To You '', "Night Fever '', "Stayin ' Alive '' and "Immortality ''.
In 1978, following the success of Saturday Night Fever, and the single "Night Fever '' in particular, Reubin Askew, the Governor of the US state of Florida, named the Bee Gees honorary citizens of the state, since they resided in Miami at the time. In 1979, the Bee Gees got their star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. They were inducted in 1994 on the Songwriters Hall of Fame, as well as Florida 's Artists Hall of Fame in 1995, ARIA Hall of Fame in 1997. Also in 1997, the Bee Gees were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. In 2001, they were inducted on the Vocal Group Hall of Fame. After Maurice 's death, the Bee Gees inducted in Dance Music Hall of Fame in 2001, London 's Walk of Fame in 2006 and Musically Speaking Hall Of Fame in 2008. And on 15 May 2007, the Bee Gees were named BMI Icons at the 55th annual BMI Pop Awards. Collectively, Barry, Maurice and Robin Gibb have earned 109 BMI Pop, Country and Latin Awards.
All three brothers (including Maurice, posthumously) were appointed Commanders in the Order of the British Empire in December 2001 with the ceremony taking place at Buckingham Palace on 27 May 2004. On 10 July 2009, the Isle of Man 's capital bestowed the Freedom of the Borough of Douglas honour on Barry and Robin, as well as posthumously on Maurice. On 20 November 2009, the Douglas Borough Council released a limited edition commemorative DVD to mark their naming as Freemen of the Borough.
On 14 February 2013, Barry Gibb unveiled a statue of the Bee Gees, as well as unveiling "Bee Gees Way '' (a walkway filled with photos of the Bee Gees), in honour of the Bee Gees in Redcliffe, Queensland, Australia.
Barry Gibb played rhythm guitar. During the early 1970s, Robin Gibb played piano and violin occasionally, after which, he only played strings and keyboards privately. Maurice Gibb played bass guitar, acoustic guitar, lead guitar, harmonica, piano, organ, mellotron, keyboard, synthesizer and drums. From 1966 to 1972 he played multiple instruments on many records. During the late 1970s he played mainly bass guitar. From about 1986 onward he usually played keyboards and guitars. Maurice was credited by the brothers as being the most technologically savvy member of the band.
These musicians were considered members of the band:
Soundtracks Saturday Night Fever (1977) and Staying Alive (1983) contain music not released on their original albums. All their officially released albums included on this list; A Kick in the Head Is Worth Eight in the Pants have not been included on the list because it only appeared on numerous bootlegs and was not officially released.
The Gibbs gained ownership rights to their back catalogue, returning distribution rights to Warner Music Group (which had purchased Atco), where they subsequently reissued digitally remastered versions of Saturday Night Fever, their later Bee Gees Greatest album, and a new boxed set: The Studio Albums: 1967 -- 1968 under the Reprise Records / Rhino Records labels.
Additionally, more recent titles such as Still Waters and This Is Where I Came In were among the first batch of re-releases. The band 's three Warner Bros. releases, E.S.P., One and High Civilisation were also made available on iTunes for the first time since the albums went out of print in North America in the mid-90s. According to Robin Gibb 's website, three more reissues were planned for the 2008 holiday season: Best of Bee Gees, Best of Bee Gees, Volume 2 and Love Songs. The double album Odessa was released on 13 January 2009 in a special 3 - disc deluxe edition complete with the original red velvet cover with remastered stereo and mono versions of the album as well as alternate versions and unreleased tracks.
Since the remastered release of Odessa, Rhino has stopped reissuing original Bee Gees albums and there has not been any announcement as to when the remaining albums will be remastered. In December, 2016, Capitol Records assumed distribution rights for the entire Bee Gees catalog.
Ellan Vannin was recorded in 1997 as a 1,000 quantity limited edition single for Isle of Man charities. The song was featured in the Bee Gees World Tour and on ITV 's "An Evening With... '' but to date has not been released generally. The single was subsequently also available as part of the 1999 Bee Gees Stamp issue.
In conjunction with the 50th anniversary of the Bee Gees (when they started calling themselves "Bee Gees '' in 1959), Rhino Records have released two new collections. Mythology is a four - disc collection highlighting each brother, including Andy, with tracks personally selected by Barry, Robin, Maurice 's wife Yvonne (with his children Adam and Samantha), and Andy 's daughter Peta. Maurice 's disc contains two unreleased tracks called "Angel of Mercy '' and "The Bridge ''. Andy 's disc contains the unreleased track "Arrow Through The Heart ''. Mythology also features a scrapbook of family photos, many never - before published, along with tributes from artists such as George Martin, Brian Wilson, Elton John, Graham Nash and the band 's longtime manager Robert Stigwood.
The second collection, The Ultimate Bee Gees, is a more modest two - disc 40 - track collection highlighting their biggest hits and includes a bonus DVD of unreleased videos, previously unreleased television appearances, live performances, and promo videos. Each disc is themed, with the first disc being the more upbeat songs called "A Night Out '' and the second disc being more ballad - focused called "A Night In ''.
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how old are the characters in schitt's creek | Schitt 's Creek - Wikipedia
Schitt 's Creek (stylized as Schitt Creek) is a Canadian television sitcom created by Eugene Levy and his son Daniel Levy, that premiered on CBC Television on January 13, 2015. The series is produced by Not a Real Company Productions. On January 12, 2015, CBC renewed the show for a second season. The second season premiered in Canada on January 12, 2016 on CBC. It was announced on February 17, 2016, that the CBC renewed the show for a third season which began broadcasting on January 11, 2017. On March 10, 2017 the show was renewed for a fourth season, which aired on January 9, 2018 on CBC. On March 6, 2018 the show was renewed for a fifth season to air in early 2019.
The series has won various accolades, including an ACTRA Award and 11 Canadian Screen Awards.
The series stars Eugene Levy as Johnny Rose, a wealthy video store magnate, and Catherine O'Hara as his wife Moira, a formerly successful soap star. The family loses their fortune when their business manager fails to pay their taxes. They are forced to rebuild their lives with their sole remaining asset: a small town named Schitt 's Creek which they had bought their son as a joke birthday gift years before.
The story revolves around the family 's life living in two adjacent rooms of a rundown motel with their pampered twenty - something adult children, David and Alexis, played by Daniel Levy and Annie Murphy respectively. Additional cast includes Chris Elliott, Jennifer Robertson and Emily Hampshire.
The show is based on a series of situations contrasting the once - rich family and their worldly big - city attitudes with sudden small - town living and the honest, down - to - earth, hard - working residents of Schitt 's Creek.
The series is filmed on location in Goodwood, Ontario, the Regional Municipality of Durham of the Greater Toronto Area, and Mono, Ontario, where the motel scenes are filmed. The interior scenes for the first two seasons were filmed at Pinewood Toronto Studios in Toronto, while the interior scenes for the third season were shot at Dufferin Gate Studios in Toronto.
Schitt 's Creek has received mixed reviews. On Rotten Tomatoes the first season has a rating of 59 %, based on 22 reviews, with an average rating of 6.38 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads: "The title is one of the best jokes of Schitt 's Creek, but performances from Eugene Levy and Catherine O'Hara give the writing a comedic boost. '' On Metacritic, the first season has a score of 64 out of 100, based on 11 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''.
Reactions from Canadian reviewers have ranged from raves to pans. Vinon Minay of the Toronto Star wrote that the show "is not just a welcome addition to prime time: it is one of the best CBC comedies in years. '' John Doyle of The Globe and Mail, however, sharply criticized the show saying "Schitt 's Creek is droll? Try smug and self - satisfied... There is no edge to Schitt 's Creek. It 's cozy comedy and perhaps the tightness of the ensemble -- bound by family, old alliances -- blinds then to the lack of hilarity in what they 're doing. Comedy is hard and the show is soft - core comedy. '' Doyle concluded saying "Many viewers will approach Schitt 's Creek with advance affection. They will relish seeing Eugene Levy and Catherine O'Hara working together again. They will savour the father / son dynamic between Eugene and Dan Levy. That 's peachy too. But it will camouflage the fact that the show is as anodyne and polite as the feel - good remarks made by its stars when asked about it. It 's nice and it 's droll, but it fails. ''
After being picked up by Pop, American reception has been similarly mixed. The Los Angeles Times described the show as "very funny, beautifully played, sometimes touching and, though its premise is familiar -- rich family loses money -- quite its own animal. '' and the New York Post stated that "The Levys nicely develop their fish - out - of - water concept by showing how the family tries to fit in out of necessity. '' On the other end of the spectrum, Mike Hale of The New York Times called Schitt 's Creek "a show that 's drab and underwritten, with potentially amusing (if familiar) situations that never build to more than a chuckle or a nod of recognition: Yeah, that could have been funny. ''
The series has also been noted for its portrayal of a pansexual character, played by Dan Levy.
In 2015, Schitt 's Creek 's first season received two Directors Guild of Canada awards from three nominations. At the 2016 ceremony, season one received nine Canadian Screen Awards from 16 nominations. Schitt 's Creek 's second season has received a total of 13 nominations at the 5th Canadian Screen Awards.
The series was picked up in the United States by Pop and premiered on February 11, 2015. The show has also been picked up in New Zealand by TV2 and TVNZ on Demand. The four seasons appear, though not always together, on different streaming television services worldwide. Netflix UK, Ireland, South Africa and Australia carries all series. In India, the show is broadcast on Comedy Central India.
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who's face is on the $20 bill | United States twenty - dollar bill - wikipedia
The United States twenty - dollar bill ($20) is a denomination of U.S. currency. The seventh U.S. President (1829 -- 37), Andrew Jackson has been featured on the front side of the bill since 1928, while the White House is featured on the reverse side.
As of December 2013, the average circulation life of a $20 bill is 7.9 years before it is replaced due to wear. Approximately 11 % of all notes printed in 2009 were $20 bills. Twenty - dollar bills are delivered by Federal Reserve Banks in violet straps.
Andrew Jackson first appeared on the $20 bill in 1928. Although 1928 coincides with the 100th anniversary of Jackson 's election as president, it is not clear why the portrait on the bill was switched from Grover Cleveland to Jackson. (Cleveland 's portrait was moved to the new $1000 bill the same year). According to the U.S. Treasury, "Treasury Department records do not reveal the reason that portraits of these particular statesmen were chosen in preference to those of other persons of equal importance and prominence. ''
The placement of Jackson on the $20 bill may be a historical irony; as president, he vehemently opposed both the National Bank and paper money and made the goal of his administration the destruction of the National Bank. In his farewell address to the nation, he cautioned the public about paper money.
In a campaign called "Women on 20s '', selected voters were asked to choose three of 15 female candidates to have a portrait on the $20 bill. The goal was to have a woman on the $20 bill by 2020, the centennial of the 19th Amendment which gave women the right to vote. Among the candidates on the petition were Harriet Tubman, Eleanor Roosevelt, Rosa Parks, and Wilma Mankiller, the first female chief of the Cherokee Nation.
On May 12, 2015, Tubman was announced as the winning candidate of that "grassroots '' poll with more than 600,000 people surveyed and more than 118,000 choosing Tubman, followed by Roosevelt, Parks and Mankiller.
On June 17, 2015, then - Treasury Secretary Jack Lew announced that a woman 's portrait would be featured on a redesigned $10 bill by 2020, replacing Alexander Hamilton. However, that decision was reversed, at least in part due to Hamilton 's surging popularity following the hit Broadway musical Hamilton.
On April 20, 2016, Lew officially announced that Alexander Hamilton would remain on the $10 bill, while Andrew Jackson would be replaced by Tubman on the front of the $20 bill, with Jackson appearing on the reverse. Lew simultaneously announced that the five - and ten - dollar bills would also be redesigned in the coming years and put into production in the next decade. Steven Mnuchin, the current U.S. Treasury Secretary, said that he will not commit to putting Tubman on the twenty - dollar bill, explaining "People have been on the bills for a long period of time. This is something we 'll consider; right now we have a lot more important issues to focus on. ''
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who was the first host of whose line is it anyway | Whose Line is it Anyway? (UK TV series) - wikipedia
Whose Line is it Anyway? (abbreviated to Whose Line? or WLIIA) is a short - form improvisational comedy television show. Originally a British radio programme, it moved to television in 1988 as a series made for Channel 4.
The show consists of a panel of four performers who create characters, scenes and songs on the spot, in the style of short - form improvisation games, many taken from theatresports. Topics for the games are based on either audience suggestions or predetermined prompts from the host. Both the British and the American shows ostensibly take the form of a game show with the host arbitrarily assigning points and likewise choosing a winner at the end of each episode. However, the show lacks the true stakes and competition of a game show (by design). The "game show '' format is simply part of the comedy.
Following the conclusion of the British run in 1999, ABC began airing an American version, which ran until 2007 and was later revived by The CW in 2013.
In 2016, The Comedy Channel began airing an Australian version of the series with comedian Tommy Little as host.
Each typical television episode of Whose Line Is It Anyway? featured four performers (with an exception of six in a 1989 Christmas special) who sit in a line of chairs at the back of the stage. The host sat at a desk facing the large performance area in front of the performers. The host introduced each performer with a joke or pun, usually all related on a common theme or topic.
The show is made up of games that are scored by the host, who declared arbitrary point values after the game, often citing a humorous reason for his decision. The points are purely decorative, served no practical purpose, and were often awarded to audience members or other arbitrary third persons. The style of the games are varied (see Games, below). Some feature all four performers, while others feature fewer. The performers who are not involved in a game remain in their seats at the back of the stage. Humorous banter between the host and the performers between games is also sometimes featured.
At the conclusion of each episode, a winner or several winners are chosen arbitrarily by the host. The "prize '' for winning on the British version of the show is to read the credits in a certain style, chosen by the host, as they scrolled. On the American series, the "prize '' is either to play a game with the host, or to sit out while the other performers did. After this game, credits simply roll under the show 's theme. In season two, the credit - reading, usually including all of the performers, was adopted from the UK series following the "prize '' game.
Episodes were culled down from longer recording sessions with the best game performances chosen to compile into one or more episodes. The UK series each include one or two compilation shows of unaired games from different taping sessions in that series.
The number and type of games played vary from episode to episode, and whilst some games such as "Questions Only '' and "Hoedown '' became more common over time, others such as "Authors '' and "Remote Control '' faded from use. New games were created throughout the show 's run. Some games, such as "Tag, '' are based on traditional improv games, while others are uniquely created for the series. Most games consist of a single long skit performed by the chosen performers, but some, such as "World 's Worst '' and "Scenes from a Hat, '' are played as a rapid - fire series of short skits.
While all games are designed to test the performer 's improvisational skill, some also test other skills, such as singing or doing impressions. Whose Line? features a number of musical games, which feature one or more of the show 's resident musicians playing live backing music. Occasionally, pre-recorded music is also used. While they were good sports about it, many of the performers despised the musical games. In one episode, Stephen Fry is asked to perform a rap, and starts to do so halfheartedly, but gives up after a few words, and Ryan Stiles would frequently inject insults into the Hoedown whenever he is forced to sing it, usually pointed at the host or the Hoedown itself. Colin Mochrie would generally speak his lines instead of singing them for musical games.
Some games require suggestions or topics. Depending on the game, these may be solicited directly from the studio audience during the taping, or written down by the audience and / or production staff in advance and then randomly drawn for the performers ' use. The host uses a buzzer to signal the end of a game, or of individual sections in the rapid - fire games.
The show has a visual opening sequence that changed over the series. In the first series, the title sequence shows clips from the actual show under the main theme. The sequence introduced in the second series features shots of actors in various styles of dress and activity whose exposed skin had been blackened out as though the actors are performing blackface as a special effect, and in between scenes, there is a shot of Clive 's hand pressing his buzzer. The final sequence features a white line on a red screen, out of which a series of four characters, drawn simply as white outlines, appear and interact. The style is similar to that of La Linea by Osvaldo Cavandoli. The same line figures are superimposed above a picture of Los Angeles ' famous Hollywood Sign for the last series. The British version 's theme song was written by Philip Pope.
Whose Line Is It Anyway? was created by Dan Patterson and Mark Leveson in 1988 as a radio show on BBC Radio 4. This early incarnation of the show is notable as being the origin of the show 's tradition of having the performers read the credits in an amusing style; as it was a radio show, it was necessary for somebody to read the credits, and it was decided that it might as well be done as part of the programme proper, rather than being done by a traditional BBC Radio announcer. This approach to reading credits was pioneered by the earlier BBC radio show I 'm Sorry, I 'll Read That Again. The title of the show itself is a comedic riposte to another radio show that moved to television, What 's My Line, merged with the title of a 1972 teleplay (and eventual theatrical play) Whose Life Is It Anyway?. The radio series consisted of six episodes, with Clive Anderson as host, with John Sessions and Stephen Fry as regulars.
Originally, the producers asked the BBC to move to television; however the BBC was hesitant about this move. By this time, an already eager Channel 4 bought the show. Believing the show would become a hit, Channel 4 ordered 13 episodes for the first series, uncommon in the UK where a TV series often consists of just six episodes in its first year. However, this came as a problem between two cast members. Original plans were to have Sessions and Fry as regulars with the rotation of two performers, but Stephen Fry pulled out as he was often scared performing it on radio, however, Sessions, with some persuasion from Fry, continued his role on the show. With the exception of Sessions in the first series and Ryan Stiles and Colin Mochrie starting with the seventh and eighth series (respectively), there were no fixed regulars on the show, though there were many recurring regulars (including four appearances by Fry).
The British television version lasted for a total of 10 series, with 136 episodes, all of which were hosted by Clive Anderson. The UK show was canceled when the ratings began to slump, but found immediate new life in America when its version aired. One of the early North American broadcasters of the British series was the Canadian youth channel YTV, though many episodes were edited for adult language and content.
Most episodes of the British television programme were primarily shot in London. However, half of the episodes for each of series three and four were taped in New York, and series 10 was filmed entirely in Hollywood in the same studio that would host the American version, Raleigh Studios. This final series was first broadcast only in the U.S. on the Comedy Central cable channel. These episodes shot in the United States were often criticized by both fans and critics as being of a lower quality to the London shot episodes. Reruns of the entire British TV series had been running on Comedy Central since the early 1990s, though some episodes were edited to remove games, rearrange games in a show, or remove content that American audiences might find offensive. Repeats of the British series moved to BBC America in April 2006; however, the network has not shown any episodes taped before 1994.
In the late 1990s, the show was brought to the attention of Drew Carey, who worked with regular Whose Line? performer Ryan Stiles, a co-star on the U.S. TV sitcom The Drew Carey Show. Carey convinced ABC to air test episodes in the United States. The U.S. version of the series became an inexpensive hit (though less so than the British version had been in the UK). ABC kept Carey on as host, and featured Mochrie and Stiles as permanent performers. Wayne Brady, who had also appeared in several UK episodes, was also made a permanent US cast member after the first few episodes, meaning there was only one guest performer per show. Several other performers from the U.K. series also appeared on the U.S. series. The show ran on ABC for eight seasons. In 2013, the CW network revived the U.S. version with Aisha Tyler as host and regulars Stiles, Brady and Mochrie returning.
On 6 March 2011, a special edition of the show was recorded for "24 Hour Panel People '', a marathon of UK panel shows, in aid of Comic Relief. The recording was broadcast live on the Comic Relief website at about 9: 30am, and, the edited compilation shows for the event, shown 13 -- 17 March on BBC Three. The performers were Humphrey Ker, Josie Lawrence, Neil Mullarkey, Tony Slattery and David Walliams.
In 2017 the series appeared at the Edinburgh Festival Fringe with some members of the original cast.
The original BBC Radio 4 broadcasts consists of host Clive Anderson along with two guests and the two regular contestants, Stephen Fry and John Sessions. Clive Anderson stayed on as host when the show moved to television, with John Sessions resuming his role as the only regular in the first series. He subsequently became a rotating regular in the second and third series. However he appears only twice in the third series, these being his final appearances. Stephen Fry appears only occasionally on the television series.
Ryan Stiles and Colin Mochrie first appear in the second and third series respectively; they each gradually increase the frequency of their appearances to the point that both appear in every episode from the eighth series on. Stiles is the most prolific performer on the show, having appeared in 76 of the series ' 136 episodes (including compilations). Wayne Brady, who became a regular on the US version, appears in the final UK series for five episodes, including compilations.
Many of the show 's performers, including Paul Merton, Josie Lawrence and Sandi Toksvig, were regulars with The Comedy Store Players, an improvisational group based at London 's Comedy Store. Other regular performers from the British version include a variety of British, American, and Canadian comedians such as Greg Proops, Tony Slattery, Mike McShane, Stephen Frost, Brad Sherwood, Chip Esten and Jim Sweeney. The series also occasionally features celebrities in the fourth chair, such as Peter Cook, George Wendt, and Jonathan Pryce.
On the original BBC Radio series, the music was provided by Colin Sell, but when the show migrated to television, Richard Vranch (also of The Comedy Store Players) became the resident musician until the last series of the British show, playing electric guitar and piano and other instruments. For the tenth series in Hollywood, Laura Hall took over, playing mainly keyboards, and went on to be the in - house musician for the American series.
The first release of the U.K. show, featuring the first two series, was released on DVD in America on 27 March 2007 and in the UK on 25 January 2008. The U.K. edition is edited to remove references to the ad breaks. Also, British episodes were released on VHS (in the UK only) in the mid-1990s. Additionally, a play - at - home book was printed in 1989, related to the British series.
Almost all of the UK versions (135 of 136 episodes) of Whose Line Is It Anyway? are available for free to those living in the UK on All 4.
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where were opening scenes of rogue one filmed | Rogue One - wikipedia
Rogue One: A Star Wars Story, or simply Rogue One, is a 2016 American epic space opera film directed by Gareth Edwards. The screenplay by Chris Weitz and Tony Gilroy is from a story by John Knoll and Gary Whitta. It was produced by Lucasfilm and distributed by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures. It is the first installment of the Star Wars Anthology series, set immediately before the events of the original Star Wars film. The cast includes Felicity Jones, Diego Luna, Riz Ahmed, Ben Mendelsohn, Donnie Yen, Mads Mikkelsen, Alan Tudyk, Jiang Wen and Forest Whitaker. Rogue One follows a group of rebels on a mission to steal the plans for the Death Star, the Galactic Empire 's superweapon.
Based on an idea first pitched by Knoll ten years before it entered development, the film was made to be different in tone and style from the traditional Star Wars films, including omitting the customary opening crawl. Principal photography on the film began at Elstree Studios near London during early August 2015 and wrapped in February 2016. The film went through extensive reshoots and additional filming in mid-June 2016, with Gilroy joining for these. The film premiered in Los Angeles on December 10, 2016, and was released in the United States on December 16, 2016.
Rogue One received generally positive reviews, with praise for its acting, action sequences, musical score, and darker tone, but was criticized for the lack of character development and the film 's use of computer - generated imagery to recreate the likenesses of some actors. The film has grossed over $1 billion worldwide, making it the second highest - grossing film of 2016 and 22nd overall unadjusted for inflation. It received two Academy Awards nominations for Best Sound Mixing and Best Visual Effects.
Research scientist Galen Erso and his family are in hiding on the planet Lah'mu. Imperial weapons developer Orson Krennic arrives to press him into completing the Death Star, a space station - based superweapon capable of destroying planets. Galen 's wife Lyra is killed in the confrontation while their daughter Jyn escapes and is taken to safety by Rebel extremist Saw Gerrera.
Fifteen years later, cargo pilot Bodhi Rook defects from the Empire, taking a holographic message recorded by Galen to Gerrera on the desert moon Jedha. Rebel intelligence officer Cassian Andor frees Jyn from an Imperial labor camp at Wobani before bringing her to the Rebel leader Mon Mothma, who convinces her to find and rescue Galen so the Alliance can learn more about the Death Star. Cassian is covertly ordered to kill Galen rather than extract him.
Jyn, Cassian, and reprogrammed Imperial droid K - 2SO travel to Jedha, where the Empire is removing kyber crystals from the holy city to power the Death Star while Gerrera and his partisans are engaged in an armed insurgency against them. With the aid of blind spiritual warrior Chirrut Îmwe and his mercenary friend Baze Malbus, Jyn makes contact with Gerrera, who has been holding Rook captive. Gerrera shows her the message, in which Galen reveals he has secretly built a vulnerability into the Death Star and directs them to retrieve the schematics from an Imperial data bank on the planet Scarif.
On the Death Star, Krennic orders a low - powered test shot which destroys Jedha 's capital. Jyn and her group take Rook and flee the moon, but Gerrera remains to die with the city. Grand Moff Tarkin congratulates Krennic before using Rook 's defection and security leak as a pretext to take control of the project. Rook leads the group to Galen 's Imperial research facility on the planet Eadu, where Cassian chooses not to kill Galen. Jyn makes her presence known moments before Rebel bombers attack the facility. Galen is wounded and dies in his daughter 's arms, before she escapes with her group on board a stolen Imperial cargo shuttle. Krennic is summoned by Darth Vader to answer for the attack on Eadu. Krennic seeks his support for an audience with the Emperor, but Vader instead orders him to ensure no further breaches occur.
Jyn proposes a plan to steal the Death Star schematics using the Rebel fleet but fails to get approval from the Alliance Council, who feel victory against the Empire is now impossible. Frustrated at their inaction, Jyn 's group lead a small squad of Rebel volunteers to raid the databank themselves. Arriving at Scarif on the stolen Imperial ship, which Rook dubs "Rogue One '', a disguised Jyn and Cassian enter the base with K - 2SO while the other Rebels attack the resident Imperial garrison as a distraction. The Rebel fleet learns of the raid from intercepted Imperial communications and deploy in support. K - 2SO sacrifices himself so Jyn and Cassian can retrieve the data. Îmwe is killed after activating the master switch to allow communication with the Rebel fleet, and Malbus dies in battle shortly afterwards. Rook is killed by a grenade after informing the Rebel fleet that it must deactivate the shield surrounding the planet to allow the transmission of the schematics. Jyn and Cassian obtain the schematics, but they are ambushed by Krennic, who is eventually shot and wounded by Cassian. Jyn transmits the schematics to the Rebel command ship. The Death Star enters orbit above Scarif, where Tarkin uses another low - power shot to destroy the compromised base, killing Krennic, Cassian, and Jyn.
The Rebel fleet prepares to jump to hyperspace but many of the fleet 's ships are intercepted by Vader 's flagship. Vader boards the Rebel command ship and attempts to regain the schematics, but a small starship escapes with the plans on board. Aboard the fleeing ship, Princess Leia declares that the schematics will provide hope for the Rebellion.
Jimmy Smits, Genevieve O'Reilly, and Anthony Daniels reprise their roles from previous films as Bail Organa, Mon Mothma, and C - 3PO, respectively.
James Earl Jones also reprises his role from previous films as the voice of Darth Vader, who is physically portrayed by Spencer Wilding and Daniel Naprous, replacing David Prowse who played the role in the original films. Grand Moff Tarkin and Princess Leia Organa are played by Guy Henry and Ingvild Deila, respectively, with the digital likenesses of Peter Cushing and Carrie Fisher superimposed. Henry also provides the voice for Tarkin, while archival audio of Fisher is used for Leia. Angus MacInnes and Drewe Henley are featured as Gold Leader Dutch Vander and Red Leader Garven Dreis, respectively, via unused footage from A New Hope; MacInnes returned to record new dialogue for Vander, while new dialogue for the deceased Henley was assembled from archival material.
David Ankrum, who voiced Wedge Antilles in A New Hope, reprises his role in a vocal cameo. Ian McElhinney, Michael Smiley, Andy de la Tour and Tim Beckmann play General Jan Dodonna, Dr. Evazan, General Hurst Romodi and Captain Raymus Antilles, respectively. Warwick Davis plays Weeteef Cyubee, a member of Saw Gerrera 's Partisans.
Additionally, Alistair Petrie plays General Davits Draven, Ben Daniels plays General Antoc Merrick, and Valene Kane plays Lyra Erso, Jyn 's mother. Jonathan Aris, Fares Fares and Sharon Duncan - Brewster appear as Senators Nower Jebel, Vasp Vaspar, and Tynnra Pamlo, respectively. Simon Farnaby plays a member of Blue Squadron. Jordan Stephens appears as Rebel Alliance member Corporal Tonc. Nick Kellington plays Bistan, the door gunner on a U-wing during the battle on Scarif. Ian Whyte plays Moroff, a member of Saw Gerrera 's Partisans. Daniel Mays appears as Tivik. Rian Johnson and Ram Bergman, director and producer of Star Wars: The Last Jedi, respectively, cameo as two Death Star technicians. Richard Franklin plays one of the Death Star engineers.
Rogue One is the first film in the Star Wars Anthology series, a series of stand - alone spin - off films in the Star Wars franchise. Kathleen Kennedy explained that the stand - alone films would not cross over with the films of the sequel trilogy, stating:
George was so clear as to how that works. The canon that he created was the Star Wars saga. Right now, Episode VII falls within that canon. The spinoff movies, or we may come up with some other way to call those films, they exist within that vast universe that he created. There is no attempt being made to carry characters (from the stand - alone films) in and out of the saga episodes. Consequently, from the creative standpoint, it 's a roadmap that George made pretty clear.
John Knoll, visual effects supervisor for the Star Wars prequel trilogy, pitched the idea for the film 10 years before its development; after the Disney acquisition he felt as if he had to pitch it again or forever wonder "what might 've happened if I had ''. In May 2014, Disney announced that Gareth Edwards would direct the film and Gary Whitta would write the script. That October, cinematographer Greig Fraser revealed that he would work on the film. In January 2015, it was revealed that Whitta had completed his work on the script, and would no longer be with the project. Simon Kinberg was considered as a replacement. Later in the month, it was announced that Chris Weitz had signed to write the script for the film. In March 2015, the title was announced.
In July 2016, discussing whether the film would feature an opening crawl, Kennedy said, "we 're in the midst of talking about it, but I do n't think these (Anthology) films will have an opening crawl. '' Edwards said: "The idea is this film is supposed to be different than the saga films... (however,) this film is born out of a crawl. The thing that inspired this movie was a crawl and what was written in that. There 's this feeling that if we did a crawl, then it 'll create another movie. And so the honest answer is you 'll have to wait and see. '' That same month, at the 2016 Star Wars Celebration, Edwards said the title had three meanings: "a military sign '', referring to the Red Squadron from A New Hope; "the ' rogue ' one '' of the franchise, given that it is the first film to not be part of the main saga; and a description of Jyn Erso 's personality. In November 2016, Kennedy confirmed that the film would not feature an opening crawl, instead beginning in "a way that is traditional, with just the title. ''
Edwards stated that the style of the film would be similar to that of a war film, stating, "It 's the reality of war. Good guys are bad. Bad guys are good. It 's complicated, layered; a very rich scenario in which to set a movie. ''
In January 2015, The Hollywood Reporter stated that numerous actresses, including Tatiana Maslany, Rooney Mara, and Felicity Jones were being tested for the film 's lead. In February 2015, it was announced that Jones was in final talks to star in the film, while Aaron Paul and Édgar Ramírez were being eyed for the male lead role. In March 2015, Jones was officially cast. In March 2015, Deadline.com reported a rumor that Ben Mendelsohn was being considered for a lead role. The next month, TheWrap reported that Sam Claflin was being eyed for a role, while Riz Ahmed was in negotiations to join the film. In May, Mendelsohn, Ahmed, and Diego Luna were added to the cast of the film, in the lead roles. Forest Whitaker was added to the cast in June 2015. In July 2015, Jonathan Aris was cast to play Senator Jebel, and in February 2016, model Eunice Olumide revealed she had a part in the film. Genevieve O'Reilly was cast as Mon Mothma, reprising her role from Star Wars: Episode III -- Revenge of the Sith. James Earl Jones was confirmed to return as the voice of Darth Vader in June 2016.
Principal photography on the film began at Elstree Studios, in Hertfordshire, on August 8, 2015. Much of the other photography was completed at or near Pinewood Studios at Buckinghamshire, England where huge sets were built to complement scenes filmed elsewhere in the world. The film was shot using Ultra Panavision 70 lenses with Arri Alexa 65 large format digital 6K cameras.
Filming locations were used around the world. In Iceland, the crew shot in Reynisfjara, and around the mountains of Hjörleifshöfði and Hafursey at Mýrdalssandur, which were used to represent Lah'mu and Eadu. Also used were the Krafla area with its volcanic crater and around Lake Mývatn 's rock formations. The islands of Gan and Baresdhoo of the Laamu Atoll in the Maldives, as well as RAF Bovingdon, were used to represent Scarif. Wadi Rum in Jordan was used to represent Jedha. Pymmes Park in Edmonton, London was also used for location filming, and scenes set on Yavin 4 were filmed at RAF Cardington. Gareth Edwards selected the London Underground 's Canary Wharf station as a location for a chase scene in an Imperial base; the location shoot took place between midnight and 4 am, when the station was closed to the public.
The film spent a total of $265 million and received a $45 million subsidy from the United Kingdom 's film incentive program.
On February 11, 2016, Disney executives stated that the film was "virtually completed ''. Several weeks of pre-scheduled reshoots began in mid-June 2016. In August 2016, The Hollywood Reporter wrote that Tony Gilroy had spearheaded the reshoots, in lieu of Edwards, and that Gilroy would have just as much say in the final cut of the film as Edwards. Gilroy was initially brought on in order to retool the ending of the film, which was not coming together as hoped, under Edwards 's direction. Fearing that Disney would require the survival of at least some of the new characters, an alternate, happier ending was conceived with characters Jyn and Cassian escaping the destruction of Scarif; when it became apparent that Disney would accept the deaths of those characters, the producers opted for the more tragic ending they had envisioned. At least some footage from the unused ending was produced and made it into early trailers.
Industrial Light & Magic (ILM) produced the film 's visual effects. ILM used CGI and digitally altered archive footage to insert Peter Cushing 's likeness over the body of actor Guy Henry. Lucasfilm secured permission from the late actor 's estate to include him in the film. The team reportedly searched through countless hours of Cushing footage in order to find suitable material to build from, then Henry provided the motion capture and voice work with the reference material augmented and mapped over his performance like a digital body mask. Cushing 's family were heavily involved with the creation and had input right down to "small, subtle adjustments ''. Cushing 's mannerisms, including his manner of speaking and facial tics, were studied by the visual effects artists and applied to the digital Tarkin. A similar process was used in the portrayal of Princess Leia; Carrie Fisher 's appearance as Leia in the first film was superimposed over Norwegian actress Ingvild Deila 's face and archival audio of Fisher saying "Hope '' was used to voice the character.
Post-production wrapped on November 28, 2016.
In March 2015, it was reported that Alexandre Desplat, who had worked with Edwards on the Godzilla reboot, would compose the score for Rogue One. Despite rumors that a contract had not been initially set in place by Lucasfilm, Desplat confirmed in an April 2016 interview that he would serve as composer for the film. Concerning the film, Desplat commented that "(Edwards and I) had a great partnership on Godzilla, and I ca n't wait to be starting with him. It will be in a few weeks from now, and it is very exciting and frightening at the same time because it 's such a legendary project. To be called to come after John Williams... it 's a great challenge for me. '' However, in September 2016, it was announced that Michael Giacchino would be replacing Desplat as composer, after the film 's reshoots altered the post-production schedule, and reportedly left Desplat no longer available.
Giacchino only had four and a half weeks to compose the music for the film, beginning almost immediately after finishing production on Doctor Strange. In an interview with Entertainment Weekly in November 2016, Giacchino stated: "It is a film that is in many ways a really great World War II movie, and I loved that about it. But it also has this huge, huge heart at the center of it, and that was the one thing I just did n't want to discount. Yes, it 's an action movie, and it 's a Star Wars film, and it has all the things that you would come to expect and love about that, but I did n't want to forget that it was also an incredibly emotional movie as well. That was what really pulled me in. ''
Giacchino incorporated John Williams ' themes from previous films into the score. The official soundtrack was released by Walt Disney Records on December 16, 2016.
All music was composed by Giacchino except where noted. Giacchino, who has a history of using track titles that contain wordplay, shared his alternate list in the liner notes of the soundtrack release. These names are listed in the notes.
Rogue One premiered at the Pantages Theatre in Los Angeles on December 10, 2016. The film was released in certain European countries on December 14, 2016, and was released in North America on December 16, with China getting the film on January 6, 2017.
Promotion of Rogue One was initially delayed by the release of the film Mission: Impossible -- Rogue Nation in July 2015, because the titles are similar. Paramount Pictures registered and cleared the title with the Motion Picture Association of America in January 2015, well before Disney announced the title of its forthcoming Star Wars spinoff. Disney and Lucasfilm had to reach an agreement with Paramount over promotion in order to avoid any confusion in the public mind. Disney agreed to embargo promotion on Rogue One until after mid-2015, with the exception of a very short teaser which was screened at Star Wars Celebration in Anaheim that year.
A teaser trailer for Rogue One, released by Lucasfilm on April 7, 2016, was praised by reviewers for its portrayal of strong female characters. The Daily Telegraph described Jyn Erso 's character as "a roguish, Han Solo - style heroine '', calling the film "progressive '', while noting its painstaking faithfulness to the production design style of the original Star Wars trilogy. The Hollywood Reporter also noted the visual nods to the original trilogy, and examined the film 's possible narrative direction, considering that the outcome is to some extent already revealed in the opening crawl of A New Hope. The Atlantic writer David Sims stated that the trailer brought "back some memorable pieces of architecture, from the lumbering AT - AT walkers to the Death Star itself, not to mention the glorious 70s costuming of Star Wars. '' He added that the trailer has "the look '', blending the old with the new. The trailer was viewed close to 30 million times in its first 29 hours, at a rate of 800,000 views per hour, from Facebook and YouTube, which is 200,000 views shy of what the first teaser trailer for Star Wars: The Force Awakens was receiving in November 2014.
In June 2016, Rogue One was promoted at the Star Wars Celebration Europe III event in London. During the event, a new official poster was unveiled, which depicts a battle taking place on the tropical planet Scarif, with the Death Star looming large in a blue sky, above which is printed the tagline "A Rebellion Built on Hope ''. A second teaser trailer was also unveiled, screened exclusively for the Celebration audience, and not streamed online. This new trailer was reviewed favorably by critics; The Daily Telegraph noted that the trailer revealed new locations such as the planets Jedha and Scarif, and that its most significant revelation came in the final seconds of the teaser, with the appearance of Darth Vader, reflected in a computer screen and accompanied by his classic breathing sound effect. Variety also hailed the Vader reveal, and noted that the emphasis of the production was much more on the kinetic depiction of large battle sequences and full - on warfare, comparing it to Francis Ford Coppola 's 1979 Vietnam War epic Apocalypse Now. A showreel was also shown during the event, which featured footage from the film, cut with behind - the - scenes shots and interviews with the director and cast members. The second trailer was shown publicly during a broadcast of the 2016 Summer Olympics and received favourable media reviews; Wired stated that the trailer was "littered with nostalgic throwbacks to the original trilogy '', while Rolling Stone described the CGI landscape shots seen in the footage as "eye - poppingly gorgeous ''.
A further trailer released in October 2016 prompted The Hollywood Reporter to comment that the newly revealed footage looked like "a trailer to a different movie than the one advertised earlier '', remarking that Jyn Erso appeared to be portrayed as a more vulnerable character, and highlighting the appearance of Galen Erso as a protective father figure. Vanity Fair also commented on the emphasis given to Jyn 's relationship with her father, suggesting that Rogue One was drawing on "the Star Wars franchise 's greatest natural resource: daddy issues ''.
The film 's publicity tour began in Mexico on November 23, 2016.
In Asia, Disney focused marketing efforts on Donnie Yen, where his individual poster is used for marketing in territories including Japan, Singapore, Indonesia, Thailand, Hong Kong, China, Vietnam and Malaysia. The official Star Wars Facebook page of the respective Asian countries also featured clips and videos of Donnie Yen speaking various languages, greeting fans and telling them to support the film. In addition, Disney also released various versions of international trailers with more footage of Yen.
Rogue One was released on Digital HD on March 24, 2017, and on Blu - ray and DVD on April 4, 2017.
Rogue One grossed $532.2 million in the United States and Canada and $523.8 million in other countries for a worldwide total of $1.056 billion. On January 21, 2017, the film became Disney 's fourth of 2016 to earn $1 billion in ticket sales, joining Captain America: Civil War, Zootopia and Finding Dory. It is the second highest - grossing film of 2016, the second highest - grossing Star Wars film, and the 22nd highest - grossing film of all time, all unadjusted for inflation. It is also the third Star Wars film to gross over $1 billion worldwide, following The Phantom Menace and The Force Awakens. In the United States, it was the top - grossing film of 2016. Deadline.com calculated the net profit of the film to be $319.6 million, when factoring together all expenses and revenues for the film, making it the 3rd most profitable release of 2016.
In late November 2016, box office projections for the United States and Canada had the film grossing $100 -- 150 million during its opening weekend. Disney chairman Bob Iger noted that Disney and Lucasfilm did not expect Rogue One to match The Force Awakens ' total gross of $2.1 billion, nor its $248 million opening. Pre-sale tickets for the film went on sale at 12: 01 AM EST on November 28, 2016. Within 10 minutes, ticket sale sites such as Fandango crashed, much like The Force Awakens had the year prior. In its first 24 hours, the film had the second - highest amount of pre-sale tickets ever sold, behind only The Force Awakens. Worldwide, the film was expected to gross $280 -- 350 million in its opening weekend.
In the United States, the film made $29 million from its Thursday night previews, making it the highest grossing Thursday opening of 2016. On Friday, the film earned $71.1 million, earning the 12th highest grossing opening day of all - time. The film grossed $46.3 million on Saturday, securing a total of $155.1 million in its opening weekend, the third biggest debut of 2016. It topped the box office once again in its second weekend, grossing $64 million (down 58.7 %) over the three day weekend, and $96.1 million over the four day weekend. On Christmas Day, it grossed $25.9 million. It finished first at the box office again in its third weekend, grossing $49.6 million (- 22.5 %) over the three day weekend and $65.5 million over the four day weekend, becoming the seventh film of 2016 to top the box office three times, following Deadpool, Zootopia, The Jungle Book, Finding Dory, Suicide Squad, and Moana. In its fourth weekend, Sunday projections had the film grossing $22 million, besting newcomer Hidden Figures ' $21.8 million. However, final figures the following day revealed the film tallied a weekend total of $21.9 million, falling to second place behind Hidden Figures ' $22.8 million.
Rogue One received generally positive reviews from critics. On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 85 % based on 360 reviews with an average rating of 7.5 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Rogue One draws deep on Star Wars mythology while breaking new narrative and aesthetic ground -- and suggesting a bright blockbuster future for the franchise. '' On Metacritic, the film has a score 65 out of 100 based on 51 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A '' on an A+ to F scale.
IGN reviewer Eric Goldman gave the film 9 / 10, saying, "Rogue One is a movie crammed with fan service, but when fan service is done this well, there 's little to complain about and much to adore. '' Peter Travers of Rolling Stone gave the film 3.5 out of 4 stars, writing, "this spin - off / prequel has the same primitive, lived - in, emotional, loopy, let 's - put - on - a-show spirit that made us fall in love with the original trilogy. '' / Film gave Rogue One 8 / 10, writing that the film is enjoyable but does not have the emotional weight of The Force Awakens, because "no character in Rogue One was strongly compelling ''. PopMatters wrote, "Rogue One seems to enjoy spending time on a whole new batch of moons and planets we have n't seen before, reveling in the clutter and clamor of far - flung settlements where anti-Imperial sentiments fester. But the film is bogged down in engineering the complex maneuverings of spy games, dogfights, and the most sprawling Rebel - versus - Empire land battle scene since the opening of The Empire Strikes Back. '' Justin Chang, writing for the Los Angeles Times, called Rogue One "a swiftly paced, rough - and - ready entertainment. ''
The New York Times wrote, "All the pieces are there, in other words, like Lego figures in a box. The problem is that the filmmakers have n't really bothered to think of anything very interesting to do with them. A couple of 9 - year - olds on a screen - free rainy afternoon would come up with better adventures, and probably also better dialogue. '' Richard Brody of The New Yorker called the film "lobotomized and "depersonalized '', and wrote it "is n't so much a movie as a feature - length promotional film for itself; it 's a movie that is still waiting to be made. '' The Washington Post wrote "Rogue One represents an unobjectionable exercise in franchise extension. It 's fine. It 'll do. For now. ''
IndieWire 's David Ehrlich gave the film a C+ rating, calling it "a spirited but agonizingly safe attempt to expand cinema 's most holy blockbuster franchise and keep the wheels greased between proper installments (...) just a glorified excuse to retcon some sense into one of the silliest things about the original. '' While he praised the set design and visuals, calling them "gorgeous '', he criticized a lack of interesting character development and a script that felt "completely constricted by its purpose. ''
Peter Bradshaw, film critic of The Guardian says "Rogue One does n't really go rogue at any stage, and it is n't a pop culture event like The Force Awakens, in whose slipstream this appears; part of its charm resides in the eerie, almost dreamlike effect of continually producing familiar elements, reshuffled and reconfigured, a reaching back to the past and hinting at a preordained future. There are some truly spectacular cameos from much - loved personae, involving next - level digital effects -- almost creepily exact, so that watching feels at various stages like going into a time machine, back to the 80s and 70s ''.
Rogue One introduced many new characters into the Star Wars mythology, but most critics and general audiences have pointed out that Chirrut Îmwe, played by actor Donnie Yen, and K2SO, played by Alan Tudyk, were the highlights and stole the movie. Donnie Yen 's performance, in particular, was also applauded by audiences worldwide. In an official poll on the Star Wars webpage opened in May 2017, which more 30,000 people voted, Chirrut Îmwe was voted as audiences ' favorite Rogue One character.
While much of the computer - generated imagery (CGI) received plaudits, some news organizations published criticism about certain aspects, including the visual effects (VFX) that were used to revive Peter Cushing, who died in 1994, as Grand Moff Tarkin. The Guardian 's Catherine Shoard, described the "resurrection '' as a "digital indignity ''. Joseph Walsh of The Guardian raised legal and ethical issues about bringing a long - dead actor to life. However, Lucasfilm had obtained permission from Peter Cushing 's estate before deciding to use his likeness. The Washington Times 's Eric Althoff rejected the entire concept of using CGI to recreate a deceased actor: "Alas, what we get is, basically, not a simulation, but an approximation of a simulation -- a dead character portrayed by a living actor inhabiting not the character, but imitating the dead actor. ''
Some journalists also criticized the quality of the CGI that was to represent a younger Carrie Fisher in order to portray Princess Leia at an earlier time, as well as its suitability in movie - making. Eliana Dockterman of Time wrote that "there was something particularly plastic about this version of the young Carrie Fisher -- so smooth and so perfect it could n't be real -- that pulled me out of the moment. '' Kelly Lawler of USA Today said: "... while Tarkin is merely unnerving, the Leia cameo is so jarring as to take the audience completely out of the film at its most emotional moment. Leia 's appearance was meant to help the film end on a hopeful note (quite literally, as ' hope ' is her line), but instead it ends on a weird and unsettling one. '' Michael Cavna of The Washington Post described the facial effect as feeling "distractingly artificial and nearly alien, like a plastered death mask robbed of authentic actorly effect, well beyond the usual artifice of Botox. ''
Characters from the film appeared in the second half of the animated television series Star Wars Rebels, starting with Saw Gerrera in the Season 3 mid-season one - hour special episode "Ghosts of Geonosis ''. The Imperial Death Troopers appeared in that season 's one - hour finale, "Zero Hour ''. More characters and vehicles that were first introduced in the film will appear in the series ' fourth and final season, while the film 's main antagonist, Orson Krennic, will be mentioned by name.
A tie - in novel to the film, Catalyst: A Rogue One Novel, was released on November 15, 2016. Written by veteran Star Wars novelist James Luceno, the story is set some years before the events of Rogue One, and provides a backstory to the 2016 film. The film 's novelization was written by Alexander Freed, and was released on December 16, 2016.
Months after the film was released, Marvel Comics adapted the film into a six - part comic book miniseries, which adds extra content. The miniseries ' complete collection is scheduled to be released on December 12, 2017.
A downloadable expansion pack was released for the Star Wars Battlefront reboot, titled Rogue One: Scarif, that allows players the ability to play through the various locations, characters and set pieces from the planet introduced in Rogue One. A free virtual reality mission for PlayStation 4 was also released alongside the expansion. Several characters and concepts from the film were also included in the mobile games Star Wars: Force Arena, Star Wars Commander and Star Wars: Galaxy of Heroes, all available on iOS and Android.
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what did the original us flag look like | Flag of the United States - wikipedia
The flag of the United States of America, often referred to as the American flag, is the national flag of the United States. It consists of thirteen equal horizontal stripes of red (top and bottom) alternating with white, with a blue rectangle in the canton (referred to specifically as the "union '') bearing fifty small, white, five - pointed stars arranged in nine offset horizontal rows, where rows of six stars (top and bottom) alternate with rows of five stars. The 50 stars on the flag represent the 50 states of the United States of America, and the 13 stripes represent the thirteen British colonies that declared independence from the Kingdom of Great Britain, and became the first states in the U.S. Nicknames for the flag include The Stars and Stripes, Old Glory, and The Star - Spangled Banner.
The current design of the U.S. flag is its 27th; the design of the flag has been modified officially 26 times since 1777. The 48 - star flag was in effect for 47 years until the 49 - star version became official on July 4, 1959. The 50 - star flag was ordered by the then president Eisenhower on August 21, 1959, and was adopted in July 1960. It is the longest - used version of the U.S. flag and has been in use for over 57 years.
The Continental Colors (aka the "Grand Union Flag '')
Flag of the British East India Company, 1707 -- 1801
At the time of the Declaration of Independence in July 1776, the Continental Congress would not legally adopt flags with "stars, white in a blue field '' for another year. The flag contemporaneously known as "the Continental Colors '' has historically been referred to as the first national flag.
The Continental Navy raised the Colors as the ensign of the fledgling nation in the American War for Independence -- likely with the expedient of transforming their previous British red ensigns by adding white stripes -- and would use this flag until 1777, when it would form the basis for the subsequent de jure designs.
The name "Grand Union '' was first applied to the Continental Colors by George Preble in his 1872 history of the American flag.
The flag closely resembles the British East India Company flag of the era, and Sir Charles Fawcett argued in 1937 that the company flag inspired the design. Both flags could have been easily constructed by adding white stripes to a British Red Ensign, one of the three maritime flags used throughout the British Empire at the time. However, an East India Company flag could have from nine to 13 stripes, and was not allowed to be flown outside the Indian Ocean.
In any case, both the stripes (barry) and the stars (mullets) have precedents in classical heraldry. Mullets were comparatively rare in early modern heraldry, but an example of mullets representing territorial divisions predating the U.S. flag are those in the coat of arms of Valais of 1618, where seven mullets stood for seven districts.
On June 14, 1777, the Second Continental Congress passed the Flag Resolution which stated: "Resolved, That the flag of the thirteen United States be thirteen stripes, alternate red and white; that the union be thirteen stars, white in a blue field, representing a new constellation. '' Flag Day is now observed on June 14 of each year. While scholars still argue about this, tradition holds that the new flag was first hoisted in June 1777 by the Continental Army at the Middlebrook encampment.
The first official U.S. flag flown during battle was on August 3, 1777, at Fort Schuyler (Fort Stanwix) during the Siege of Fort Stanwix. Massachusetts reinforcements brought news of the adoption by Congress of the official flag to Fort Schuyler. Soldiers cut up their shirts to make the white stripes; scarlet material to form the red was secured from red flannel petticoats of officers ' wives, while material for the blue union was secured from Capt. Abraham Swartwout 's blue cloth coat. A voucher is extant that Capt. Swartwout of Dutchess County was paid by Congress for his coat for the flag.
The 1777 resolution was most probably meant to define a naval ensign. In the late 18th century, the notion of a national flag did not yet exist, or was only nascent. The flag resolution appears between other resolutions from the Marine Committee. On May 10, 1779, Secretary of the Board of War Richard Peters expressed concern "it is not yet settled what is the Standard of the United States. '' However, the term, "Standard, '' referred to a national standard for the Army of the United States. Each regiment was to carry the national standard in addition to its regimental standard. The national standard was not a reference to the national or naval flag.
The Flag Resolution did not specify any particular arrangement, number of points, nor orientation for the stars and the arrangement or whether the flag had to have seven red stripes and six white ones or vice versa. The appearance was up to the maker of the flag. Some flag makers arranged the stars into one big star, in a circle or in rows and some replaced a state 's star with its initial. One arrangement features 13 five - pointed stars arranged in a circle, with the stars arranged pointing outwards from the circle (as opposed to up), the so - called Betsy Ross flag. This flag, however, is more likely a flag used for celebrations of anniversaries of the nation 's birthday. Experts have dated the earliest known example of this flag to be 1792 in a painting by John Trumbull.
Despite the 1777 resolution, the early years of American independence featured many different flags. Most were individually crafted rather than mass - produced. While there are many examples of 13 - star arrangements, some of those flags included blue stripes as well as red and white. Benjamin Franklin and John Adams, in a letter dated October 3, 1778, to Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies, described the American flag as consisting of "13 stripes, alternately red, white, and blue, a small square in the upper angle, next the flag staff, is a blue field, with 13 white stars, denoting a new Constellation. '' John Paul Jones used a variety of 13 - star flags on his U.S. Navy ships including the well - documented 1779 flags of the Serapis and the Alliance. The Serapis flag had three rows of eight - pointed stars with stripes that were red, white, and blue. The flag for the Alliance, however, had five rows of eight - pointed stars with 13 red and white stripes, and the white stripes were on the outer edges. Both flags were documented by the Dutch government in October 1779, making them two of the earliest known flags of 13 stars.
Francis Hopkinson of New Jersey, a naval flag designer, and a signer of the Declaration of Independence, designed the 1777 flag while he was the Chairman of the Continental Navy Board 's Middle Department, sometime between his appointment to that position in November 1776 and the time that the flag resolution was adopted in June 1777. The Navy Board was under the Continental Marine Committee. Not only did Hopkinson claim that he designed the U.S. flag, but he also claimed that he designed a flag for the U.S. Navy. Hopkinson was the only person to have made such a claim during his own lifetime, when he sent a letter and several bills to Congress for his work. These claims are documented in the Journals of the Continental Congress and George Hasting 's biography of Hopkinson. Hopkinson initially wrote a letter to Congress, via the Continental Board of Admiralty, on May 25, 1780. In this letter, he asked for a "Quarter Cask of the Public Wine '' as payment for designing the U.S. flag, the seal for the Admiralty Board, the seal for the Treasury Board, Continental currency, the Great Seal of the United States, and other devices. However, in three subsequent bills to Congress, Hopkinson asked to be paid in cash, but he did not list his U.S. flag design. Instead, he asked to be paid for designing the "great Naval Flag of the United States '' in the first bill; the "Naval Flag of the United States '' in the second bill; and "the Naval Flag of the States '' in the third, along with the other items. The flag references were generic terms for the naval ensign that Hopkinson had designed, that is, a flag of seven red stripes and six white ones. The predominance of red stripes made the naval flag more visible against the sky on a ship at sea. By contrast, Hopkinson 's flag for the United States had seven white stripes, and six red ones -- in reality, six red stripes laid on a white background. Hopkinson 's sketches have not been found, but we can make these conclusions because Hopkinson incorporated different stripe arrangements in the Admiralty (naval) Seal that he designed in the Spring of 1780 and the Great Seal of the United States that he proposed at the same time. His Admiralty Seal had seven red stripes; whereas, his second U.S. Seal proposal had seven white ones. Hopkinson 's flag for the Navy is the one that the Nation preferred as the national flag. Remnants of Hopkinson 's U.S. flag of seven white stripes can be found in the Great Seal of the United States and the President 's seal. When Hopkinson was chairman of the Navy Board, his position was like that of today 's Secretary of the Navy. The payment was not made, however, because it was determined he had already received a salary as a member of Congress. This contradicts the legend of the Betsy Ross flag, which suggests that she sewed the first Stars and Stripes flag by request of the government in the Spring of 1776. Furthermore, a letter from the War Board to George Washington on May 10, 1779, documents that there was still no design established for a national flag for the Army 's use in battle.
The origin of the stars and stripes design has been muddled by a story disseminated by the descendants of Betsy Ross. The apocryphal story credits Betsy Ross for sewing the first flag from a pencil sketch handed to her by George Washington. No evidence for this exists either in the diaries of George Washington nor in the records of the Continental Congress. Indeed, nearly a century passed before Ross ' grandson, William Canby, first publicly suggested the story in 1870. By her family 's own admission, Ross ran an upholstery business, and she had never made a flag as of the supposed visit in June 1776. Furthermore, her grandson admitted that his own search through the Journals of Congress and other official records failed to find corroboration of his grandmother 's story.
The family of Rebecca Young claimed that she sewed the first flag. Young 's daughter was Mary Pickersgill, who made the Star Spangled Banner Flag. According to rumor, the Washington family coat of arms, shown in a 15th - century window of Selby Abbey, was the origin of the stars and stripes.
In 1795, the number of stars and stripes was increased from 13 to 15 (to reflect the entry of Vermont and Kentucky as states of the Union). For a time the flag was not changed when subsequent states were admitted, probably because it was thought that this would cause too much clutter. It was the 15 - star, 15 - stripe flag that inspired Francis Scott Key to write "Defence of Fort M'Henry '', later known as "The Star Spangled Banner '', which is now the American national anthem. The flag is currently on display in the exhibition, "The Star - Spangled Banner: The Flag That Inspired the National Anthem '' at the Smithsonian Institution National Museum of American History in a two - story display chamber that protects the flag while it is on view.
On April 4, 1818, a plan was passed by Congress at the suggestion of U.S. Naval Captain Samuel C. Reid in which the flag was changed to have 20 stars, with a new star to be added when each new state was admitted, but the number of stripes would be reduced to 13 so as to honor the original colonies. The act specified that new flag designs should become official on the first July 4 (Independence Day) following admission of one or more new states. The most recent change, from 49 stars to 50, occurred in 1960 when the present design was chosen, after Hawaii gained statehood in August 1959. Before that, the admission of Alaska in January 1959 prompted the debut of a short - lived 49 - star flag.
Prior to the adoption of the 48 - star flag in 1912, there was no official arrangement of the stars in the canton, although the U.S. Army and U.S. Navy used standardized designs. Throughout the 19th century there was an abundance of different star patterns, rectangular and circular.
On July 4, 2007, the 50 - star flag became the version of the flag in longest use, surpassing the 48 - star flag that was used from 1912 to 1959.
The U.S. flag was brought to the city of Canton (Guǎngzhōu) in China in 1784 by the merchant ship Empress of China, which carried a cargo of ginseng. There it gained the designation "Flower Flag '' (Chinese: 花旗; pinyin: huāqí; Cantonese Yale: fākeì). According to a pseudonymous account first published in the Boston Courier and later retold by author and U.S. naval officer George H. Preble:
When the thirteen stripes and stars first appeared at Canton, much curiosity was excited among the people. News was circulated that a strange ship had arrived from the further end of the world, bearing a flag "as beautiful as a flower. '' Every body went to see the kwa kee chuen (花旗 船; Fākeìsyùhn), or "flower flagship. '' This name at once established itself in the language, and America is now called the kwa kee kwoh (花旗 國; Fākeìgwok), the "flower flag country '' -- and an American, kwa kee kwoh yin (花旗 國人; Fākeìgwokyàhn) -- "flower flag countryman '' -- a more complimentary designation than that of "red headed barbarian '' -- the name first bestowed upon the Dutch.
In the above quote, the Chinese words are written phonetically based on spoken Cantonese. The names given were common usage in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Other Asian nations have equivalent terms for America, for example Vietnamese: Hoa Kỳ ("Flower Flag ''). Chinese now refer to the United States as simplified Chinese: 美国; traditional Chinese: 美國; pinyin: Měiguó. Měi is short for Měilìjiān (simplified Chinese: 美利坚; traditional Chinese: 美利堅, phono - semantic matching of "American '') and "guó '' means "country '', so this name is unrelated to the flag. However, the "flower flag '' terminology persists in some places today: for example, American Ginseng is called simplified Chinese: 花旗 参; traditional Chinese: 花旗 參; literally: "flower flag ginseng '' in Chinese, and Citibank, which opened a branch in China in 1902, is known as 花旗 银行; "Flower Flag Bank ''.
The U.S. flag took its first trip around the world in 1787 -- 90 on board the Columbia. William Driver, who coined the phrase "Old Glory '', took the U.S. flag around the world in 1831 -- 32. The flag attracted the notice of Japanese when an oversized version was carried to Yokohama by the steamer Great Republic as part of a round - the - world journey in 1871.
In the following table depicting the 28 various designs of the United States flag, the star patterns for the flags are merely the usual patterns, often associated with the United States Navy. Canton designs, prior to the proclamation of the 48 - star flag, had no official arrangement of the stars. Furthermore, the exact colors of the flag were not standardized until 1934.
In the November 2012 U.S. election, Puerto Rico voted to become a U.S. state. However, the legitimacy of the result of this election was disputed. On June 11, 2017, another referendum was held, this time with the result that 97 % of voters in Puerto Rico voted for statehood, but it had a turnout of only 23 %. Similarly in November 2016, a statehood referendum was held in the District of Columbia where 86 % of voters approved the proposal. If a new U.S. state were to be admitted, it would require a new design on the flag to accommodate the additional star.
The modern meaning of the flag was forged in December 1860, when Major Robert Anderson moved the U.S. garrison from Fort Moultrie to Fort Sumter in Charleston Harbor. Author Adam Goodheart argues this was the opening move of the American Civil War, and the flag was used throughout northern states to symbolize American nationalism and rejection of secessionism.
Before that day, the flag had served mostly as a military ensign or a convenient marking of American territory, flown from forts, embassies, and ships, and displayed on special occasions like American Independence day. But in the weeks after Major Anderson 's surprising stand, it became something different. Suddenly the Stars and Stripes flew -- as it does today, and especially as it did after the September 11 attacks in 2001 -- from houses, from storefronts, from churches; above the village greens and college quads. For the first time American flags were mass - produced rather than individually stitched and even so, manufacturers could not keep up with demand. As the long winter of 1861 turned into spring, that old flag meant something new. The abstraction of the Union cause was transfigured into a physical thing: strips of cloth that millions of people would fight for, and many thousands die for. -- Adam Goodheart.
The flag of the United States is one of the nation 's most widely recognized symbols. Within the United States, flags are frequently displayed not only on public buildings but on private residences. The flag is a common motif on decals for car windows, and clothing ornaments such as badges and lapel pins. Throughout the world the flag has been used in public discourse to refer to the United States.
The flag has become a powerful symbol of Americanism, and is flown on many occasions, with giant outdoor flags used by retail outlets to draw customers. Desecration of the flag is considered a public outrage, but remains protected as freedom of speech. Scholars have noted the irony that "(t) he flag is so revered because it represents the land of the free, and that freedom includes the ability to use or abuse that flag in protest ''. In worldwide comparison, Testi noted in 2010 that the United States was not unique in adoring its banner, for the flags of Scandinavian countries are also "beloved, domesticated, commercialized and sacralized objects ''.
The man credited with designing the current 50 star American flag was Robert G. Heft. He was 17 years old at the time and created the flag design in 1958 as a high school class project while living with his grandparents in Ohio. He received a B − on the project. According to Heft, his history teacher honored their agreement to change his grade to an A after his design was selected.
The basic design of the current flag is specified by 4 U.S.C. § 1; 4 U.S.C. § 2 outlines the addition of new stars to represent new states. The specification gives the following values:
These specifications are contained in an executive order which, strictly speaking, governs only flags made for or by the U.S. federal government. In practice, most U.S. national flags available for sale to the public have a different width - to - height ratio; common sizes are 2 × 3 ft. or 4 × 6 ft. (flag ratio 1.5), 2.5 × 4 ft. or 5 × 8 ft. (1.6), or 3 × 5 ft. or 6 × 10 ft. (1.667). Even flags flown over the U.S. Capitol for sale to the public through Representatives or Senators are provided in these sizes. Flags that are made to the prescribed 1.9 ratio are often referred to as "G - spec '' (for "government specification '') flags.
The exact red, white, and blue colors to be used in the flag are specified with reference to the CAUS Standard Color Reference of America, 10th edition. Specifically, the colors are "White '', "Old Glory Red '', and "Old Glory Blue ''. The CIE coordinates for the colors of the 9th edition of the Standard Color Card were formally specified in JOSA in 1946. These colors form the standard for cloth, and there is no perfect way to convert them to RGB for display on screen or CMYK for printing. The "relative '' coordinates in the following table were found by scaling the luminous reflectance relative to the flag 's "white ''.
As with the design, the official colors are only officially required for flags produced for the U.S. federal government, and other colors are often used for mass - market flags, printed reproductions, and other products intended to evoke flag colors. The practice of using more saturated colors than the official cloth is not new. As Taylor, Knoche, and Granville wrote in 1950: "The color of the official wool bunting (of the blue field) is a very dark blue, but printed reproductions of the flag, as well as merchandise supposed to match the flag, present the color as a deep blue much brighter than the official wool. ''
Sometimes, Pantone Matching System (PMS) approximations to the flag colors are used. One set was given on the website of the U.S. embassy in London as early as 1998; the website of the U.S. embassy in Stockholm claimed in 2001 that those had been suggested by Pantone, and that the U.S. Government Printing Office preferred a different set. A third red was suggested by a California Military Department document in 2002. In 2001, the Texas legislature specified that the colors of the Texas flag should be "(1) the same colors used in the United States flag; and (2) defined as numbers 193 (red) and 281 (dark blue) of the Pantone Matching System. ''
When Alaska and Hawaii were being considered for statehood in the 1950s, more than 1,500 designs were submitted to President Dwight D. Eisenhower. Although some of them were 49 - star versions, the vast majority were 50 - star proposals. At least three of these designs were identical to the present design of the 50 - star flag. At the time, credit was given by the executive department to the United States Army Institute of Heraldry for the design.
Of these proposals, one created by 17 - year - old Robert G. Heft in 1958 as a school project received the most publicity. His mother was a seamstress, but refused to do any of the work for him. He originally received a B -- for the project. After discussing the grade with his teacher, it was agreed (somewhat jokingly) that if the flag was accepted by Congress, the grade would be reconsidered. Heft 's flag design was chosen and adopted by presidential proclamation after Alaska and before Hawaii was admitted into the Union in 1959. According to Heft, his teacher did keep to their agreement and changed his grade to an A for the project. The 49 - and 50 - star flags were each flown for the first time at Fort McHenry on Independence Day, in 1959 and 1960 respectively.
Traditionally, the flag may be decorated with golden fringe surrounding the perimeter of the flag as long as it does not deface the flag proper. Ceremonial displays of the flag, such as those in parades or on indoor posts, often use fringe to enhance the appearance of the flag.
The first recorded use of fringe on a flag dates from 1835, and the Army used it officially in 1895. No specific law governs the legality of fringe, but a 1925 opinion of the attorney general addresses the use of fringe (and the number of stars) "... is at the discretion of the Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy... '' as quoted from footnote in previous volumes of Title 4 of the United States Code law books and is a source for claims that such a flag is a military ensign not civilian. However, according to the Army Institute of Heraldry, which has official custody of the flag designs and makes any change ordered, there are no implications of symbolism in the use of fringe. Several federal courts have upheld this conclusion, most recently and forcefully in Colorado v. Drew, a Colorado Court of Appeals judgment that was released in May 2010. Traditionally, the Army and Air Force use a fringed National Color for parade, color guard and indoor display, while the Sea Services (Navy, Marine Corps and Coast Guard) use a fringeless National Color for all occasions.
The flag is customarily flown year - round at most public buildings, and it is not unusual to find private houses flying full - size (3 by 5 feet (0.91 by 1.52 m)) flags. Some private use is year - round, but becomes widespread on civic holidays like Memorial Day, Veterans Day, Presidents ' Day, Flag Day, and on Independence Day. On Memorial Day it is common to place small flags by war memorials and next to the graves of U.S. war veterans. Also on Memorial Day it is common to fly the flag at half staff, until noon, in remembrance of those who lost their lives fighting in U.S. wars.
The United States Flag Code outlines certain guidelines for the use, display, and disposal of the flag. For example, the flag should never be dipped to any person or thing, unless it is the ensign responding to a salute from a ship of a foreign nation. This tradition may come from the 1908 Summer Olympics in London, where countries were asked to dip their flag to King Edward VII: the American flag bearer did not. Team captain Martin Sheridan is famously quoted as saying "this flag dips to no earthly king '', though the true provenance of this quotation is unclear.
The flag should never be allowed to touch the ground and, if flown at night, must be illuminated. If the edges become tattered through wear, the flag should be repaired or replaced. When a flag is so tattered that it can no longer serve as a symbol of the United States, it should be destroyed in a dignified manner, preferably by burning. The American Legion and other organizations regularly conduct flag retirement ceremonies, often on Flag Day, June 14. (The Boy Scouts of America recommends that modern nylon or polyester flags be recycled instead of burned, due to hazardous gases being produced when such materials are burned.)
The Flag Code prohibits using the flag "for any advertising purpose '' and also states that the flag "should not be embroidered, printed, or otherwise impressed on such articles as cushions, handkerchiefs, napkins, boxes, or anything intended to be discarded after temporary use ''. Both of these codes are generally ignored, almost always without comment.
Section 8, entitled Respect For Flag states in part: "The flag should never be used as wearing apparel, bedding, or drapery '', and "No part of the flag should ever be used as a costume or athletic uniform ''. Section 3 of the Flag Code defines "the flag '' as anything "by which the average person seeing the same without deliberation may believe the same to represent the flag of the United States of America ''.
An additional part of Section 8 Respect For Flag, that is frequently violated at sporting events is part (c) "The flag should never be carried flat or horizontally, but always aloft and free. ''
Although the Flag Code is U.S. federal law, there is no penalty for a private citizen or group failing to comply with the Flag Code and it is not widely enforced -- indeed, punitive enforcement would conflict with the First Amendment right to freedom of speech. Passage of the proposed Flag Desecration Amendment would overrule legal precedent that has been established.
When the flag is affixed to the right side of a vehicle of any kind (e.g.: cars, boats, planes, any physical object that moves), it should be oriented so that the canton is towards the front of the vehicle, as if the flag were streaming backwards from its hoist as the vehicle moves forward. Therefore, U.S. flag decals on the right sides of vehicles may appear to be reversed, with the union to the observer 's right instead of left as more commonly seen.
The flag has been displayed on every U.S. spacecraft designed for manned flight, including Mercury, Gemini, Apollo Command / Service Module, Apollo Lunar Module, and the Space Shuttle. The flag also appeared on the S - IC first stage of the Saturn V launch vehicle used for Apollo. But since Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo were launched and landed vertically and were not capable of horizontal atmospheric flight as the Space Shuttle did on its landing approach, the "streaming '' convention was not followed and these flags were oriented with the stripes running horizontally, perpendicular to the direction of flight.
On some U.S. military uniforms, flag patches are worn on the right shoulder, following the vehicle convention with the union toward the front. This rule dates back to the Army 's early history, when both mounted cavalry and infantry units would designate a standard bearer, who carried the Colors into battle. As he charged, his forward motion caused the flag to stream back. Since the Stars and Stripes are mounted with the canton closest to the pole, that section stayed to the right, while the stripes flew to the left. Several US military uniforms, such as flight suits worn by members of the United States Air Force and Navy, have the flag patch on the left shoulder.
Other organizations that wear flag patches on their uniforms can have the flag facing in either direction. The congressional charter of the Boy Scouts of America stipulates that the uniforms should not imitate U.S. military uniforms; consequently, the flags are displayed on the right shoulder with the stripes facing front, the reverse of the military style. Law enforcement officers often wear a small flag patch, either on a shoulder, or above a shirt pocket.
Every U.S. astronaut since the crew of Gemini 4 has worn the flag on the left shoulder of his or her space suit, with the exception of the crew of Apollo 1, whose flags were worn on the right shoulder. In this case, the canton was on the left.
The flag did not appear on U.S. postal stamp issues until the Battle of White Plains Issue was released in 1926, depicting the flag with a circle of 13 stars. The 48 - star flag first appeared on the General Casimir Pulaski issue of 1931, though in a small monochrome depiction. The first U.S. postage stamp to feature the flag as the sole subject was issued July 4, 1957, Scott catalog number 1094. Since that time the flag has frequently appeared on U.S. stamps.
In 1907 Eben Appleton, New York stockbroker and grandson of Lieutenant Colonel George Armistead (the commander of Fort McHenry during the 1814 bombardment) loaned the Star Spangled Banner Flag to the Smithsonian Institution, and in 1912 he converted the loan to a gift. Appleton donated the flag with the wish that it would always be on view to the public. In 1994, the National Museum of American History determined that the Star Spangled Banner Flag required further conservation treatment to remain on public display. In 1998 teams of museum conservators, curators, and other specialists helped move the flag from its home in the Museum 's Flag Hall into a new conservation laboratory. Following the reopening of the National Museum of American History on November 21, 2008, the flag is now on display in a special exhibition, "The Star - Spangled Banner: The Flag That Inspired the National Anthem, '' where it rests at a 10 degree angle in dim light for conservation purposes.
By presidential proclamation, acts of Congress, and custom, U.S. flags are displayed continuously at certain locations.
The flag should especially be displayed at full staff on the following days:
The flag is displayed at half - staff (half - mast in naval usage) as a sign of respect or mourning. Nationwide, this action is proclaimed by the president; statewide or territory - wide, the proclamation is made by the governor. In addition, there is no prohibition against municipal governments, private businesses or citizens flying the flag at half - staff as a local sign of respect and mourning. However, many flag enthusiasts feel this type of practice has somewhat diminished the meaning of the original intent of lowering the flag to honor those who held high positions in federal or state offices. President Dwight D. Eisenhower issued the first proclamation on March 1, 1954, standardizing the dates and time periods for flying the flag at half - staff from all federal buildings, grounds, and naval vessels; other congressional resolutions and presidential proclamations ensued. However, they are only guidelines to all other entities: typically followed at state and local government facilities, and encouraged of private businesses and citizens.
To properly fly the flag at half - staff, one should first briefly hoist it top of the staff, then lower it to the half - staff position, halfway between the top and bottom of the staff. Similarly, when the flag is to be lowered from half - staff, it should be first briefly hoisted to the top of the staff.
Federal statutes provide that the flag should be flown at half - staff on the following dates:
National Korean War Veterans Armistice Day, on July 27, was formerly a day of half - staff observance until the law expired in 2003. In 2009, it became a day of full - staff observance.
Though not part of the official Flag Code, according to military custom, flags should be folded into a triangular shape when not in use. To properly fold the flag:
There is also no specific meaning for each fold of the flag. However, there are scripts read by non-government organizations and also by the Air Force that are used during the flag folding ceremony. These scripts range from historical timelines of the flag to religious themes.
Traditionally, the flag of the United States plays a role in military funerals, and occasionally in funerals of other civil servants (such as law enforcement officers, fire fighters, and U.S. presidents). A burial flag is draped over the deceased 's casket as a pall during services. Just prior to the casket being lowered into the ground, the flag is ceremonially folded and presented to the deceased 's next of kin as a token of respect.
Flag of Bikini Atoll
Flag of Liberia
Flag of Malaysia
Flag of El Salvador 1875 -- 1912
Flag of Brittany
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all of the following concepts were proposed by the joint committee on reconstruction except | United States Congress joint committee on Reconstruction - wikipedia
The Joint Committee on Reconstruction, also known as the Joint Committee of Fifteen, was a joint committee of the 39th United States Congress that played a major role in Reconstruction in the wake of the American Civil War. It was created to "inquire into the condition of the States which formed the Confederate States of America, and report whether they, or any of them, are entitled to be represented in either house of Congress. '' This committee also drafted the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, and required southern states to approve that amendment before being readmitted to representation in Congress.
The committee was established on December 13, 1865, after both houses reached agreement on an amended version of a House concurrent resolution introduced by Representative Thaddeus Stevens of Pennsylvania to establish a joint committee of 15 members. Senator William P. Fessenden of Maine served as chairman. The joint committee divided into four subcommittees to hear testimony and gather evidence regarding the situation in each of four military districts in the South - the First Military District, Second Military District, Third Military District, and Fourth Military District. In all, 144 witnesses were called to testify.
The joint committee included nine members from the House, and six from the Senate. The House members were: Thaddeus Stevens (R - PA), Elihu Washburne (R - IL), Justin Morrill (R - VT), John A. Bingham (R - OH), Roscoe Conkling (R - NY), George Boutwell (R - MA), Henry Blow (R - MO), Henry Grider (D - KY), and Andrew Jackson Rogers (D - NJ). The Senate members were: William Fessenden (R - ME), James W. Grimes (R - IA), Jacob Howard (R - MI), George Henry Williams (R - OR), Ira Harris (R - NY), and Reverdy Johnson (D - MD). The Joint Committee on Reconstruction was not revived in the next Congress.
The joint committee produced a report after Congress had already given final approval to send the draft amendment to the states for ratification, and that report was widely disseminated. The report was signed by twelve of the committee 's fifteen members, and a minority report was signed by the other three members: Johnson, Rogers, and Grider. The proceedings of the committee were recorded in its journal.
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2019 asian cup qualifiers third round (group a) | 2019 AFC Asian Cup qualification -- third round - wikipedia
The third round of the 2019 AFC Asian Cup qualification will be played from 26 March 2017 to 27 March 2018.
A total of 24 teams (16 teams which advanced from the second round and eight teams which advanced from the play - off round) compete in the third round to compete for the final 12 slots in the 2019 AFC Asian Cup. Since the hosts United Arab Emirates advanced to the third round of the 2018 FIFA World Cup qualification, the automatic slot for the hosts is no longer necessary.
The 24 teams were divided into six groups of four teams to play home - and - away round - robin matches. The top two teams of each group will qualify for the 2019 AFC Asian Cup, where they are joined by the 12 teams which qualified directly from the second round.
Due to the withdrawal of Guam and the suspension of Kuwait, the AFC invited both Nepal and Macau, the top two teams of the 2016 AFC Solidarity Cup, to re-enter 2019 AFC Asian Cup qualification as replacements in order to maintain 24 teams in the third round of the competition.
The draw for the third round was held on 23 January 2017, 16: 00 GST (UTC + 4), in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. It was initially scheduled for 18 January 2017, but was delayed.
The 24 teams were drawn into six groups of four. They were seeded using the January 2017 FIFA World Rankings (indicated in parentheses below).
The schedule of each matchday is as follows.
The teams are ranked according to points (3 points for a win, 1 point for a draw, 0 points for a loss). If tied on points, tiebreakers are applied in the following order (Regulations Article 9.3):
Myanmar v India
Kyrgyzstan v Macau
Macau v Myanmar
India v Kyrgyzstan
Macau v India
Myanmar v Kyrgyzstan
India v Macau
Macau v Kyrgyzstan
India v Myanmar
Kyrgyzstan v India
Myanmar v Macau
Kyrgyzstan v Myanmar
Lebanon v Hong Kong
Hong Kong v North Korea
Malaysia v Lebanon
North Korea v Lebanon
Malaysia v Hong Kong
Hong Kong v Malaysia
Lebanon v North Korea
Malaysia v North Korea
Hong Kong v Lebanon
North Korea v Hong Kong
Lebanon v Malaysia
North Korea v Malaysia
Afghanistan v Vietnam
Jordan v Cambodia
Cambodia v Afghanistan
Vietnam v Jordan
Cambodia v Vietnam
Jordan v Afghanistan
Afghanistan v Jordan
Vietnam v Cambodia
Cambodia v Jordan
Vietnam v Afghanistan
Jordan v Vietnam
Afghanistan v Cambodia
Oman v Bhutan
Maldives v Palestine
Bhutan v Maldives
Palestine v Oman
Bhutan v Palestine
Oman v Maldives
Palestine v Bhutan
Maldives v Oman
Bhutan v Oman
Palestine v Maldives
Oman v Palestine
Maldives v Bhutan
Chinese Taipei v Turkmenistan
Bahrain v Singapore
Singapore v Chinese Taipei
Turkmenistan v Bahrain
Singapore v Turkmenistan
Bahrain v Chinese Taipei
Chinese Taipei v Bahrain
Turkmenistan v Singapore
Singapore v Bahrain
Turkmenistan v Chinese Taipei
Bahrain v Turkmenistan
Chinese Taipei v Singapore
Philippines v Nepal
Yemen v Tajikistan
Nepal v Yemen
Tajikistan v Philippines
Nepal v Tajikistan
Philippines v Yemen
Tajikistan v Nepal
Yemen v Philippines
Nepal v Philippines
Tajikistan v Yemen
Philippines v Tajikistan
Yemen v Nepal
There have been 160 goals scored in 46 matches, for an average of 3.48 goals per match.
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what are the sides of a right triangle called | Right triangle - wikipedia
A right triangle (American English) or right - angled triangle (British English) is a triangle in which one angle is a right angle (that is, a 90 - degree angle). The relation between the sides and angles of a right triangle is the basis for trigonometry.
The side opposite the right angle is called the hypotenuse (side c in the figure). The sides adjacent to the right angle are called legs (or catheti, singular: cathetus). Side a may be identified as the side adjacent to angle B and opposed to (or opposite) angle A, while side b is the side adjacent to angle A and opposed to angle B.
If the lengths of all three sides of a right triangle are integers, the triangle is said to be a Pythagorean triangle and its side lengths are collectively known as a Pythagorean triple.
As with any triangle, the area is equal to one half the base multiplied by the corresponding height. In a right triangle, if one leg is taken as the base then the other is height, so the area of a right triangle is one half the product of the two legs. As a formula the area T is
where a and b are the legs of the triangle.
If the incircle is tangent to the hypotenuse AB at point P, then denoting the semi-perimeter (a + b + c) / 2 as s, we have PA = s − a and PB = s − b, and the area is given by
This formula only applies to right triangles.
If an altitude is drawn from the vertex with the right angle to the hypotenuse then the triangle is divided into two smaller triangles which are both similar to the original and therefore similar to each other. From this:
In equations,
where a, b, c, d, e, f are as shown in the diagram. Thus
Moreover, the altitude to the hypotenuse is related to the legs of the right triangle by
For solutions of this equation in integer values of a, b, f, and c, see here.
The altitude from either leg coincides with the other leg. Since these intersect at the right - angled vertex, the right triangle 's orthocenter -- the intersection of its three altitudes -- coincides with the right - angled vertex.
The Pythagorean theorem states that:
In any right triangle, the area of the square whose side is the hypotenuse (the side opposite the right angle) is equal to the sum of the areas of the squares whose sides are the two legs (the two sides that meet at a right angle).
This can be stated in equation form as
where c is the length of the hypotenuse, and a and b are the lengths of the remaining two sides.
Pythagorean triples are integer values of a, b, c satisfying this equation.
The radius of the incircle of a right triangle with legs a and b and hypotenuse c is
The radius of the circumcircle is half the length of the hypotenuse,
Thus the sum of the circumradius and the inradius is half the sum of the legs:
One of the legs can be expressed in terms of the inradius and the other leg as
A triangle ABC with sides a ≤ b < c (\ displaystyle a \ leq b < c), semiperimeter s, area T, altitude h opposite the longest side, circumradius R, inradius r, exradii r, r, r (tangent to a, b, c respectively), and medians m, m, m is a right triangle if and only if any one of the statements in the following six categories is true. All of them are of course also properties of a right triangle, since characterizations are equivalences.
The trigonometric functions for acute angles can be defined as ratios of the sides of a right triangle. For a given angle, a right triangle may be constructed with this angle, and the sides labeled opposite, adjacent and hypotenuse with reference to this angle according to the definitions above. These ratios of the sides do not depend on the particular right triangle chosen, but only on the given angle, since all triangles constructed this way are similar. If, for a given angle α, the opposite side, adjacent side and hypotenuse are labeled O, A and H respectively, then the trigonometric functions are
For the expression of hyperbolic functions as ratio of the sides of a right triangle, see the hyperbolic triangle of a hyperbolic sector.
The values of the trigonometric functions can be evaluated exactly for certain angles using right triangles with special angles. These include the 30 - 60 - 90 triangle which can be used to evaluate the trigonometric functions for any multiple of π / 6, and the 45 - 45 - 90 triangle which can be used to evaluate the trigonometric functions for any multiple of π / 4.
Let H, G, and A be the harmonic mean, the geometric mean, and the arithmetic mean of two positive numbers a and b with a > b. If a right triangle has legs H and G and hypotenuse A, then
and
where φ (\ displaystyle \ phi) is the golden ratio 1 + 5 2. (\ displaystyle (\ tfrac (1 + (\ sqrt (5))) (2)). \,) Since the sides of this right triangle are in geometric progression, this is the Kepler triangle.
Thales ' theorem states that if A is any point of the circle with diameter BC (except B or C themselves) ABC is a right triangle where A is the right angle. The converse states that if a right triangle is inscribed in a circle then the hypotenuse will be a diameter of the circle. A corollary is that the length of the hypotenuse is twice the distance from the right angle vertex to the midpoint of the hypotenuse. Also, the center of the circle that circumscribes a right triangle is the midpoint of the hypotenuse and its radius is one half the length of the hypotenuse.
The following formulas hold for the medians of a right triangle:
The median on the hypotenuse of a right triangle divides the triangle into two isosceles triangles, because the median equals one - half the hypotenuse.
The medians m and m from the legs satisfy
In a right triangle, the Euler line contains the median on the hypotenuse -- that is, it goes through both the right - angled vertex and the midpoint of the side opposite that vertex. This is because the right triangle 's orthocenter, the intersection of its altitudes, falls on the right - angled vertex while its circumcenter, the intersection of its perpendicular bisectors of sides, falls on the midpoint of the hypotenuse.
In any right triangle the diameter of the incircle is less than half the hypotenuse, and more strongly it is less than or equal to the hypotenuse times (2 − 1). (\ displaystyle ((\ sqrt (2)) - 1).)
In a right triangle with legs a, b and hypotenuse c,
with equality only in the isosceles case.
If the altitude from the hypotenuse is denoted h, then
with equality only in the isosceles case.
If segments of lengths p and q emanating from vertex C trisect the hypotenuse into segments of length c / 3, then
The right triangle is the only triangle having two, rather than one or three, distinct inscribed squares.
Let h and k (h > k) be the sides of the two inscribed squares in a right triangle with hypotenuse c. Then
These sides and the incircle radius r are related by a similar formula:
The perimeter of a right triangle equals the sum of the radii of the incircle and the three excircles:
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who has scored most own goals in premier league | Premier League records and Statistics - wikipedia
The top tier of English football was renamed the Premier League for the start of the 1992 -- 93 season. The following page details the football records and statistics of the Premier League.
This is a list of the top 10 youngest players to score a goal in the Premier League.
The all - time Premier League table is a cumulative record of all match results, points and goals of every team that has played in the Premier League since its inception in 1992. The table that follows is accurate as of the start of the 2017 -- 18 season. Teams in bold are part of the 2017 -- 18 Premier League. Numbers in bold are the record (highest either positive or negative) numbers in each column.
League or status at 2017 -- 18:
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who said adjustment is a process of learning | Adjustment (Psychology) - wikipedia
In psychology, adjustment refers to the behavioral process of balancing conflicting needs, or needs challenged by obstacles in the environment. Humans and animals regularly adjust to their environment. For example, when they are stimulated by their physiological state to seek food, they eat (if possible) to reduce their hunger and thus adjust to the hunger stimulus. Adjustment disorder occurs when there is an inability to make a normal adjustment to some need or stress in the environment.
In ivity or behavior
Successful adjustment is crucial to having a high quality of life. Those who are unable to adjust well are more likely to have clinical anxiety or depression, as well as experience feelings of hopelessness, Anhedonia, difficulty concentrating, sleeping problems and reckless behavior.
When evaluating adjustment it can be considered in two ways:
In this model, we look at adjustment as a specific moment in time. We are considering an individual 's adjustment to one challenge, not to all challenges they have faced. Successfully adjusting to one scenario can be independent of struggling to adjust to another, unrelated scenario. An example of this type of approach is observing a poor student beginning to study during recess because they do n't have a home environment where they can effectively study. Beginning to study at another time would be considered adequately adjusting to this scenario, but does not consider the other ways it may impact their life (i.e.: inhibiting social interactions with peers.)
This approach says that since the moment we are born, humans are in a constant state of adjustment. Since we are changing so rapidly and so constantly, we can not break these down into separate unrelated challenges. Additionally there is no way to have successfully adjusted because something will always be about to change and prompt further adjustment. This approach views all life events as intertwined and unable to be teased apart.
Successful Adjustment is also called being ' well adjusted ' and is critical to mental health. Colloquially, being well - adjusted is defined as a person who "is reasonable and has good judgement... their behaviour is not difficult or strange. '' It is important to remember that adjustment is a continuum, not a simple dichotomy; people can fluctuate and be adept at adjusting in different circumstances. In general, a person that is well - adjusted will have the following characteristics:
These more detailed characteristics listed above can be synthesized into these main criteria:
An individual that does n't have these characteristics or is not consistently meeting the listed criteria could be diagnosed with an Adjustment disorder. If diagnosed, they would likely be treated with psychotherapy to help them develop these skills and abilities. Ways to encourage these healthy adjustment mechanisms may include:
Many methods used for adjustment are also defense mechanisms. Defense mechanisms can be either adaptive or maladaptive depending on the context and the use. In a 2003 study, researchers found that elementary school children that utilized appropriate defense mechanisms had higher performance in academic, social, conduct, and athletic domains.
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according to the u.s. supreme court there are two kinds of cruel and unusual punishments | Cruel and unusual punishment - wikipedia
Cruel and unusual punishment is a phrase describing punishment that is considered unacceptable due to the suffering, pain, or humiliation it inflicts on the person subjected to it.
There are generally tests that can serve as a guide to what cruel and unusual punishment is according to various legal textbooks in accordance with the law. These are:
These exact words were first used in the English Bill of Rights 1689. They were later also adopted in the United States by the Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution (ratified 1791) and in the British Leeward Islands (1798). Very similar words, "No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment '', appear in Article 5 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on December 10, 1948. The right under a different formulation is also found in Article 3 of the European Convention on Human Rights (1950) and in Article 7 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966). The Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms (1982) also contains this fundamental right in section 12 and it is to be found in Article 4 (quoting the European Convention verbatim) of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union (2000). It is also found in Article 16 of the Convention against Torture and other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (1984), and in Article 40 of the Constitution of Poland (1997). The Constitution of the Marshall Islands, in the sixth section of its Bill of Rights (Article 2), prohibits "cruel and unusual punishment '', which it defines as: the death penalty; torture; "inhuman and degrading treatment ''; and "excessive fines or deprivations ''.
The Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution states that "cruel and unusual punishments (shall not be) inflicted. '' The general principles the United States Supreme Court relied on to decide whether or not a particular punishment was cruel and unusual were determined by Justice William Brennan. In Furman v. Georgia, 408 U.S. 238 (1972), Justice Brennan wrote, "There are, then, four principles by which we may determine whether a particular punishment is ' cruel and unusual '. ''
And he added: "The function of these principles, after all, is simply to provide means by which a court can determine whether a challenged punishment comports with human dignity. They are, therefore, interrelated, and, in most cases, it will be their convergence that will justify the conclusion that a punishment is "cruel and unusual. '' The test, then, will ordinarily be a cumulative one: if a punishment is unusually severe, if there is a strong probability that it is inflicted arbitrarily, if it is substantially rejected by contemporary society, and if there is no reason to believe that it serves any penal purpose more effectively than some less severe punishment, then the continued infliction of that punishment violates the command of the Clause that the State may not inflict inhuman and uncivilized punishments upon those convicted of crimes. ''
Continuing, he wrote that he expected that no state would pass a law obviously violating any one of these principles, so court decisions regarding the Eighth Amendment would involve a "cumulative '' analysis of the implication of each of the four principles. In this way the United States Supreme Court "set the standard that a punishment would be cruel and unusual (, if) it was too severe for the crime, (if) it was arbitrary, if it offended society 's sense of justice, or if it was not more effective than a less severe penalty. ''
There is great discussion as to whether capital punishment is cruel and unusual. Common arguments are that capital punishment is more expensive when factoring in appeals versus life in prison, and that the government has been wrong before on death penalty cases (therefore, the government could be wrong again, and the government ought not have the authority to end a life). These two arguments alone may or may not qualify under the tests the government puts forth, which could also be considered arbitrary itself, especially if society is not informed enough on these considerable facts. For most of recorded history, capital punishments were often deliberately painful. Severe historical penalties include the breaking wheel, boiling to death, flaying, disembowelment, crucifixion, impalement, crushing, stoning, execution by burning, dismemberment, sawing, scaphism, slow slicing, or necklacing.
In 2008, Michael Portillo on the show Horizon argued that in ensuring an execution is not of a cruel and unusual nature, the following criteria must be met:
The show argued that hypoxia appears to meet the criteria, by way of applying a combination of the gases argon and nitrogen, as the person being executed would not feel any physical pain but would experience a euphoric state. It was further argued that these gases could be applied cheaply and efficiently by restraining the prisoner by way of physical restraints and mask.
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identify three different types of software that can benefit the users in educational industry | Educational software - wikipedia
Educational software is computer software, the primary purpose of which is teaching or self - learning.
The use of computer hardware and software in education and training dates to the early 1940s, when American researchers developed flight simulators which used analog computers to generate simulated onboard instrument data. One such system was the type19 synthetic radar trainer, built in 1943. From these early attempts in the WWII era through the mid-1970s, educational software was directly tied to the hardware, usually mainframe computers, on which it ran. Pioneering educational computer systems in this era included the PLATO system (1960), developed at the University of Illinois, and TICCIT (1969). In 1963, IBM had established a partnership with Stanford University 's Institute for Mathematical Studies in the Social Sciences (IMSSS), directed by Patrick Suppes, to develop the first comprehensive CAI elementary school curriculum which was implemented on a large scale in schools in both California and Mississippi. In 1967 Computer Curriculum Corporation (CCC, now Pearson Education Technologies) was formed to market to schools the materials developed through the IBM partnership. Early terminals that ran educational systems cost over $10,000, putting them out of reach of most institutions. Some programming languages from this period, particularly BASIC (1963), and LOGO (1967) can also be considered educational, as they were specifically targeted to students and novice computer users. The PLATO IV system, released in 1972, supported many features which later became standard in educational software running on home computers. Its features included bitmap graphics, primitive sound generation, and support for non-keyboard input devices, including the touchscreen.
The arrival of the personal computer, with the Altair 8800 in 1975, changed the field of software in general, with specific implications for educational software. Whereas users prior to 1975 were dependent upon university or government owned mainframe computers with timesharing, users after this shift could create and use software for computers in homes and schools, computers available for less than $2000. By the early 1980s, the availability of personal computers including the Apple II (1977), Commodore PET (1977), Commodore VIC - 20 (1980), and Commodore 64 (1982) allowed for the creation of companies and nonprofits which specialized in educational software. Brøderbund and The Learning Company are key companies from this period, and MECC, the Minnesota Educational Computing Consortium, a key non-profit software developer. These and other companies designed a range of titles for personal computers, with the bulk of the software initially developed for the Apple II.
Major developments in educational software in the early and mid-1990s were made possible by advances in computer hardware. Multimedia graphics and sound were increasingly used in educational programs. CD - ROMs became the preferred method for content delivery with several digital encyclopedias released as Multimedia application CD - ROMs. With the spread of the internet in the second half of the 1990s, new methods of educational software delivery appeared. In the history of virtual learning environments, the 1990s were a time of growth for educational software systems, primarily due to the advent of the affordable computer and of the Internet. Today Higher Education institutions use virtual learning environments like Blackboard Inc. to provide greater accessibility to learners.
Courseware is a term that combines the words ' course ' with ' software '. Its meaning originally was used to describe additional educational material intended as kits for teachers or trainers or as tutorials for students, usually packaged for use with a computer. The term 's meaning and usage has expanded and can refer to the entire course and any additional material when used in reference an online or ' computer formatted ' classroom. Many companies are using the term to describe the entire "package '' consisting of one ' class ' or ' course ' bundled together with the various lessons, tests, and other material needed. The courseware itself can be in different formats, some are only available online such as html pages, while others can be downloaded in pdf files or other types of document files. Many forms of educational technology are now being blended with the term courseware. Most leading educational companies solicit or include courseware with their training packages.
Some educational software is designed for use in school classrooms. Typically such software may be projected onto a large whiteboard at the front of the class and / or run simultaneously on a network of desktop computers in a classroom. This type of software is often called classroom management software. While teachers often choose to use educational software from other categories in their IT suites (e.g. reference works, children 's software), a whole category of educational software has grown up specifically intended to assist classroom teaching. Branding has been less strong in this category than in those oriented towards home users. Software titles are often very specialized and produced by various manufacturers, including many established educational book publishers.
With the impact of environmental damage and the need for institutions to become "paperless '', more educational institutions are seeking alternative ways of assessment and testing, which has always traditionally been known to use up vasts amount of paper. Assessment software refers to software with a primary purpose of assessing and testing students in a virtual environment. Assessment software allows students to complete tests and examinations using a computer, usually networked. The software then scores each test transcript and outputs results for each student. Assessment software is available in various delivery methods, the most popular being self - hosted software, online software and hand - held voting systems. Proprietary software and open - source software systems are available. While technically falling into the Courseware category (see above), Skill evaluation lab is an example for Computer - based assessment software with PPA - 2 (Plan, Prove, Assess) methodology to create and conduct computer based online examination. Moodle is an example of open - source software with an assessment component that is gaining popularity. Other popular international assessment systems include Assessment Master, QuestionMark, EvaluNet XT and QuestBase.
Many publishers of print dictionaries and encyclopedias have been involved in the production of educational reference software since the mid-1990s. They were joined in the reference software market by both startup companies and established software publishers, most notably Microsoft.
The first commercial reference software products were reformulations of existing content into CD - ROM editions, often supplemented with new multimedia content, including compressed video and sound. More recent products made use of internet technologies, to supplement CD - ROM products, then, more recently, to replace them entirely.
Wikipedia and its offspins (such as Wiktionary) marked a new departure in educational reference software. Previously, encyclopedias and dictionaries had compiled their contents on the basis of invited and closed teams of specialists. The Wiki concept has allowed for the development of collaborative reference works through open cooperation incorporating experts and non-experts.
Some manufacturers regarded normal personal computers as an inappropriate platform for learning software for younger children and produced custom child - friendly pieces of hardware instead. The hardware and software is generally combined into a single product, such as a child laptop - lookalike. The laptop keyboard for younger children follows an alphabetic order and the qwerty order for the older ones. The most well - known example are Leapfrog products. These include imaginatively designed hand - held consoles with a variety of pluggable educational game cartridges and book - like electronic devices into which a variety of electronic books can be loaded. These products are more portable than gener laptop computers, but have a much more limited range of purposes, concentrating on literacy.
Earlier educational software for the important corporate and tertiary education markets was designed to run on a single desktop computer (or an equivalent user device). In the years immediately following 2000, planners decided to switch to server - based applications with a high degree of standardization. This means that educational software runs primarily on servers which may be hundreds or thousands of miles from the actual user. The user only receives tiny pieces of a learning module or test, fed over the internet one by one. The server software decides on what learning material to distribute, collects results and displays progress to teaching staff. Another way of expressing this change is to say that educational software morphed into an online educational service. US Governmental endorsements and approval systems ensured the rapid switch to the new way of managing and distributing learning material.
See also:
There are highly specific niche markets for educational software, including:
(remote control and monitoring software, filetransfer software, document camera and presenter, free tools,...)
Some operating systems and mobile phones have videogames to teach users how to use the system. A notable example is Microsoft Solitaire, which was developed to familiarize users with the use of graphical user interfaces, especially the mouse and the drag - and - drop technique.
While mainstream operating systems are designed for general usages, and are more or less customized for education only by the application sets added to them, a variety of software manufacturers, especially Linux distributions, have sought to provide integrated platforms for specifically education.
Mr. frog & Mrs frog 's Journey Adventures
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john rutter now thank we all our god | Now thank we all our God (Rutter) - wikipedia
"Now thank we all our God '' is a sacred choral composition by John Rutter, based on the hymn of the same name. Rutter scored the Festival hymn with introductory fanfare for four vocal parts (SATB), brass ensemble (four trumpets, two trombones or two horns, bass trombone and optional tuba), timpani, percussion and organ, adding other versions. The work was published by Oxford University Press in 1974, as No. 1 of Two Hymns of Praise. It takes about four minutes to perform.
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what's the process for amending the constitution | Article Five of the United states Constitution - wikipedia
Article Five of the United States Constitution describes the process whereby the Constitution, the nation 's frame of government, may be altered. Altering the Constitution consists of proposing an amendment or amendments and subsequent ratification. Amendments may be proposed either by the Congress with a two - thirds vote in both the House of Representatives and the Senate or by a convention of states called for by two - thirds of the state legislatures. To become part of the Constitution, an amendment must be ratified by either -- as determined by Congress -- the legislatures of three - quarters of the states or state ratifying conventions in three - quarters of the states. The vote of each state (to either ratify or reject a proposed amendment) carries equal weight, regardless of a state 's population or length of time in the Union.
Additionally, Article V temporarily shielded certain clauses in Article I from being amended. The first clause in Section 9, which prevented Congress from passing any law that would restrict the importation of slaves prior to 1808, and the fourth clause in that same section, a declaration that direct taxes must be apportioned according to state populations, were explicitly shielded from Constitutional amendment prior to 1808. It also shields the first clause of Article I, Section 3, which provides for equal representation of the states in the Senate, from being amended, though not absolutely.
The Congress, whenever two thirds of both houses shall deem it necessary, shall propose amendments to this Constitution, or, on the application of the legislatures of two thirds of the several states, shall call a convention for proposing amendments, which, in either case, shall be valid to all intents and purposes, as part of this Constitution, when ratified by the legislatures of three fourths of the several states, or by conventions in three fourths thereof, as the one or the other mode of ratification may be proposed by the Congress; provided that no amendment which may be made prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any manner affect the first and fourth clauses in the ninth section of the first article; and that no state, without its consent, shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the Senate.
Thirty - three amendments to the United States Constitution have been approved by the Congress and sent to the states for ratification. Twenty - seven of these amendments have been ratified and are now part of the Constitution. The first ten amendments were adopted and ratified simultaneously and are known collectively as the Bill of Rights. Six amendments adopted by Congress and sent to the states have not been ratified by the required number of states and are not part of the Constitution. Four of these amendments are still technically open and pending, one is closed and has failed by its own terms, and one is closed and has failed by the terms of the resolution proposing it. All totaled, approximately 11,539 measures to amend the Constitution have been proposed in Congress since 1789 (through December 16, 2014).
Article V provides two methods for amending the nation 's frame of government. The first method authorizes Congress, "whenever two - thirds of both houses shall deem it necessary '' (a two - thirds of those members present -- assuming that a quorum exists at the time that the vote is cast -- and not necessarily a two - thirds vote of the entire membership elected and serving in the two houses of Congress), to propose Constitutional amendments. The second method requires Congress, "on the application of the legislatures of two - thirds of the several states '' (presently 34), to "call a convention for proposing amendments ''.
When the 1st Congress considered a series of constitutional amendments, it was suggested that the two houses first adopt a resolution indicating that they deemed amendments necessary. This procedure was not used. Instead, both the House and the Senate proceeded directly to consideration of a joint resolution, thereby implying that both bodies deemed amendments to be necessary. Also, when initially proposed by James Madison, the amendments were designed to be interwoven into the relevant sections of the original document. Instead, they were approved by Congress and sent to the states for ratification as supplemental additions (codicils) appended to it. Both these precedents have been followed ever since.
Regarding the amendment process crafted during the 1787 Constitutional Convention, Madison, in The Federalist No. 43, wrote:
It guards equally against that extreme facility which would render the Constitution too mutable; and that extreme difficulty which might perpetuate its discovered faults. It moreover equally enables the General and the State Governments to originate the amendment of errors, as they may be pointed out by the experience on one side, or on the other.
Each time the amendment process has been initiated since 1789, the first method has been used. All 33 amendments submitted to the states for ratification originated in the Congress. The second method, the convention option, which Alexander Hamilton (writing in The Federalist No. 85) believed would serve as a barrier "against the encroachments of the national authority '', has yet to be successfully invoked, although not for lack of activity in the states.
Three times in the 20th century, concerted efforts were undertaken by proponents of particular amendments to secure the number of applications necessary to summon an Article V Convention. These included conventions to consider amendments to (1) provide for popular election of U.S. Senators; (2) permit the states to include factors other than equality of population in drawing state legislative district boundaries; and (3) to propose an amendment requiring the U.S. budget to be balanced under most circumstances. The campaign for a popularly elected Senate is frequently credited with "prodding '' the Senate to join the House of Representatives in proposing what became the Seventeenth Amendment to the states in 1912, while the latter two campaigns came very close to meeting the two - thirds threshold in the 1960s and 1980s, respectively.
Once approved by Congress, the joint resolution proposing a constitutional amendment does not require Presidential approval before it goes out to the states. While Article I Section 7 provides that all federal legislation must, before becoming Law, be presented to the President for his or her signature or veto, Article V provides no such requirement for constitutional amendments approved by Congress, or by a federal convention. Thus the president has no official function in the process. In Hollingsworth v. Virginia (1798), the Supreme Court affirmed that it is not necessary to place constitutional amendments before the President for approval or veto.
After being officially proposed, either by Congress or a national convention of the states, a constitutional amendment must then be ratified by three - fourths of the states. Congress is authorized to choose whether a proposed amendment is sent to the state legislatures or to state ratifying conventions for ratification. Amendments ratified by the states under either procedure are indistinguishable and have equal force as part of the Constitution. Of the 33 amendments submitted to the states for ratification, the state convention method has been used for only one, the Twenty - first Amendment, which became part of the Constitution in 1933. This was also one of only four times that Congress has placed the mode of ratification in the body of an amendment rather than in accompanying legislation; the others being the Eighteenth, Twentieth, and Twenty - second Amendments. In United States v. Sprague (1931), the Supreme Court affirmed the authority of Congress to decide how each individual constitutional amendment is ratified, in accordance with the options provided in Article V and the equal validity of amendments properly ratified in either fashion. The Court had earlier, in Hawke v. Smith (1920), ruled the ratification of the proposed Nineteenth Amendment (which Congress had sent to the state legislatures for ratification) by the Legislature of Ohio could not be referred to the electors (voters) of the state, and that the Ohio Constitution, in requiring such a referendum, was inconsistent with the U.S. Constitution.
An amendment becomes an operative part of the Constitution when it is ratified by the necessary number of states, rather than on the later date when its ratification is certified. No further action by Congress or anyone is required. On three occasions, Congress has, after being informed that an amendment has reached the ratification threshold, adopted a resolution declaring the process successfully completed. Such actions, while perhaps important for political reasons, are, constitutionally speaking, unnecessary.
Presently, the Archivist of the United States is charged with responsibility for administering the ratification process under the provisions of 1 U.S. Code § 106b. The Archivist officially notifies the states, by a registered letter to each state 's Governor, that an amendment has been proposed. Each Governor then formally submits the amendment to their state 's legislature (or ratifying convention). When a state ratifies a proposed amendment, it sends the Archivist an original or certified copy of the state 's action. Upon receiving the necessary number of state ratifications, it is the duty of the Archivist to issue a certificate proclaiming a particular amendment duly ratified and part of the Constitution. The amendment and its certificate of ratification are then published in the Federal Register and United States Statutes at Large. This serves as official notice to Congress and to the nation that the ratification process has been successfully completed.
The Constitution is silent on the issue of whether or not Congress may limit the length of time that the states have to ratify constitutional amendments sent for their consideration. It is also silent on the issue of whether or not Congress, once it has sent an amendment that includes a ratification deadline to the states for their consideration, can extend that deadline.
The practice of limiting the time available to the states to ratify proposed amendments began in 1917 with the Eighteenth Amendment. All amendments proposed since then, with the exception of the Nineteenth Amendment and the (still pending) Child Labor Amendment, have included a deadline, either in the body of the proposed amendment, or in the joint resolution transmitting it to the states. The ratification deadline "clock '' begins running on the day final action is completed in Congress. An amendment may be ratified at any time after final congressional action, even if the states have not yet been officially notified.
In Dillon v. Gloss (1921), the Supreme Court upheld Congress 's power to prescribe time limitations for state ratifications and intimated that clearly out of date proposals were no longer open for ratification. Granting that it found nothing express in Article V relating to time constraints, the Court yet allowed that it found intimated in the amending process a "strongly suggest (ive) '' argument that proposed amendments are not open to ratification for all time or by States acting at widely separate times. The court subsequently, in Coleman v. Miller (1939), modified its opinion considerably. In that case, related to the proposed Child Labor Amendment, it held that the question of timeliness of ratification is a political and non-justiciable one, leaving the issue to Congress 's discretion. It would appear that the length of time elapsing between proposal and ratification is irrelevant to the validity of the amendment. Based upon this precedent, the Archivist of the United States proclaimed the Twenty - seventh Amendment as having been ratified when it surpassed the "three fourths of the several states '' plateau for becoming a part of the Constitution. Declared ratified on May 7, 1992, it had been submitted to the states for ratification on September 25, 1789, an unprecedented time period of 202 years, 7 months and 12 days.
Whether once it has prescribed a ratification period Congress may extend the period without necessitating action by already - ratified States embroiled Congress, the states, and the courts in argument with respect to the proposed Equal Rights Amendment (Sent to the states on March 22, 1972 with a seven - year ratification time limit attached). In 1978 Congress, by simple majority vote in both houses, extended the original deadline by 3 years, 3 months and 8 days (through June 30, 1982).
The amendment 's proponents argued that the fixing of a time limit and the extending of it were powers committed exclusively to Congress under the political question doctrine and that in any event Congress had power to extend. It was argued that inasmuch as the fixing of a reasonable time was within Congress ' power and that Congress could fix the time either in advance or at some later point, based upon its evaluation of the social and other bases of the necessities of the amendment, Congress did not do violence to the Constitution when, once having fixed the time, it subsequently extended the time. Proponents recognized that if the time limit was fixed in the text of the amendment Congress could not alter it because the time limit as well as the substantive provisions of the proposal had been subject to ratification by a number of States, making it unalterable by Congress except through the amending process again. Opponents argued that Congress, having by a two - thirds vote sent the amendment and its authorizing resolution to the states, had put the matter beyond changing by passage of a simple resolution, that states had either acted upon the entire package or at least that they had or could have acted affirmatively upon the promise of Congress that if the amendment had not been ratified within the prescribed period it would expire and their assent would not be compelled for longer than they had intended.
In 1981, the United States District Court for the District of Idaho, however, found that Congress did not have the authority to extend the deadline, even when only contained within the proposing joint resolution 's resolving clause. The Supreme Court had decided to take up the case, bypassing the Court of Appeals, but before they could hear the case, the extended period granted by Congress had been exhausted without the necessary number of states, thus rendering the case moot.
According to constitutional theorist and scholar Lawrence G. Sager, some commentators have seriously questioned whether Article V is the exclusive means of amending the Constitution, or whether there are routes to amendment, including some routes in which the Constitution could be unconsciously or unwittingly amended in a period of sustained political activity on the part of a mobilized national constituency. For example, Akhil Amar argues that the Constitution may be constitutionally amended outside of Article V. He rejects the notion that Article V excludes other modes of constitutional change, arguing instead that the procedure provided for in Article V is simply the exclusive method the government may use to amend the Constitution. He asserts that Article V nowhere prevents the People themselves, acting apart from ordinary Government, from exercising their legal right to alter or abolish Government via the proper legal procedures. Bruce Ackerman argues that the Constitution can be amended by something he calls a "structural amendment '' whereby the people alter their Constitutional order via succeeding elections. Similarly, Sanford Levinson believes that Constitutional amendments have been made outside of Article V and as such it is not exclusive.
Other scholars disagree with Amar, Ackerman, and Levinson. Some argue that the Constitution itself provides no mechanism for the American people to adopt constitutional amendments independently of Article V. Darren Patrick Guerra has argued that Article V is a vital part of the American Constitutional tradition and he defends Article V against modern critiques that Article V is either too difficult, too undemocratic, or too formal. Instead he argues that Article V provides a clear and stable way of amending the document that is explicit, authentic, and the exclusive means of amendment; it promotes wisdom and justice through enhancing deliberation and prudence; and its process complements federalism and separation of powers that are key features of the Constitution. He argues that Article V remains the most clear and powerful way to register the sovereign desires of the American public with regard to alterations of their fundamental law. In the end, Article V is an essential bulwark to maintaining a written Constitution that secures the rights of the people against both elites and themselves.
In his farewell address, President George Washington said:
If in the opinion of the People the distribution or modification of the Constitutional powers be in any particular wrong, let it be corrected by an amendment in the way which the Constitution designates. But let there be no change by usurpation; for though this, in one instance, may be the instrument of good, it is the customary weapon by which free governments are destroyed. The precedent must always greatly overbalance in permanent evil any partial or transient benefit which the use can at any time yield.
This statement by Washington has become controversial, and scholars disagree about whether it still describes the proper constitutional order in the United States. Scholars who dismiss Washington 's position often argue that the Constitution itself was adopted without following the procedures in the Articles of Confederation, while Constitutional attorney Michael Farris disagrees, saying the Convention was a product of the States ' residual power, and the amendment in adoption process was legal, having received the unanimous assent of the States ' legislatures.
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who's leading the series in the stanley cup | 2017 Stanley Cup playoffs - wikipedia
The 2017 Stanley Cup playoffs of the National Hockey League (NHL) began on April 12, 2017 and concluded on June 11, 2017, with the Pittsburgh Penguins defeating the Nashville Predators four games to two in the 2017 Stanley Cup Finals.
The Washington Capitals made the playoffs as the Presidents ' Trophy winners for the second consecutive year with the most points (i.e. best record) during the regular season. The Detroit Red Wings failed to make the playoffs for the first time since the 1989 -- 90 season, ending the NHL 's longest active playoff streak at 25 consecutive seasons; the streak was also tied for the third - longest streak in NHL history. The longest active playoff streak moved to the Pittsburgh Penguins with eleven consecutive appearances. The Edmonton Oilers made the playoffs for the first time since 2006, ending a record - tying playoff drought for a team with ten years missed (the Florida Panthers also missed the playoffs between 2001 and 2011 inclusively). For the first time since 2006, both Alberta teams, the Oilers and the Calgary Flames, qualified for the postseason in the same year. For the first time since 2013, and the fourth time since 2002, all three Eastern Canadian teams (Montreal Canadiens, Ottawa Senators, and Toronto Maple Leafs) qualified for the playoffs. In all, five Canadian - based teams made the playoffs, matching 2015, after a season in which none of the seven teams in Canada contended.
The first round saw eighteen overtime games, eclipsing the previous record of seventeen overtime games in the first round set in 2013. There were 27 total overtime games in these playoffs, one short of the record set in 1993. It was also the first time since 2001 that no first round series went the full seven games.
For the eighth season in a row (and the twelfth time in the last fourteen seasons), a California - based team was in the Western Conference Final.
This is the fourth year in which the top three teams in each division make the playoffs, along with two wild cards in each conference (for a total of eight playoff teams from each conference).
The following teams qualified for the playoffs:
In each round, teams compete in a best - of - seven series following a 2 -- 2 -- 1 -- 1 -- 1 format (scores in the bracket indicate the number of games won in each best - of - seven series). The team with home ice advantage plays at home for games one and two (and games five and seven, if necessary), and the other team is at home for games three and four (and game six, if necessary). The top three teams in each division make the playoffs, along with two wild cards in each conference, for a total of eight teams from each conference.
In the First Round, the lower seeded wild card in the conference plays against the division winner with the best record while the other wild card plays against the other division winner, and both wild cards are de facto # 4 seeds. The other series match the second and third place teams from the divisions. In the first two rounds, home ice advantage is awarded to the team with the better seed; in the last two rounds, it is awarded to the team that had the better regular season record.
The Montreal Canadiens finished first in the Atlantic Division earning 103 points. The New York Rangers finished as the Eastern Conference 's first wild - card, earning 102 points. This was the sixteenth playoff meeting between these two teams with New York winning eight of the fifteen previous series. They last met in the 2014 Eastern Conference Finals, which New York won in six games. Montreal won all three games in this year 's regular season series.
The Rangers eliminated the Canadiens in six games. In the first game of the series, Tanner Glass and Michael Grabner scored the only goals of the games as the Rangers won the game 2 -- 0 on Henrik Lundqvist 's 31 - save shutout. In Game 2, the Canadiens tied the game with 18 seconds left, then in overtime, Alexander Radulov pushed it past the Rangers ' goaltender to give Montreal a 4 -- 3 victory. Radulov continued his scoring into Game 3, getting a goal and an assist to help the Canadiens achieve a 3 -- 1 victory. The Rangers ended a six - game home - losing streak after Game 4 winning 2 -- 1 over the Canadiens to tie the series 2 -- 2. Mika Zibanejad got the overtime - winner for the Rangers in Game 5 after Chris Kreider deflected a pass off of Canadiens defenceman Alexei Emelin, landing towards the forward who put it past goaltender Carey Price in a 3 -- 2 win. Mats Zuccarello scored twice in Game 6 as the Rangers eliminated the Canadiens in a 3 -- 1 victory to advance to the second round.
The Ottawa Senators finished second in the Atlantic Division, earning 98 points. The Boston Bruins earned 95 points in the regular season to finish third in the Atlantic. This was the first playoff meeting between the contemporary Ottawa franchise and Boston, and the first Boston - Ottawa series since the 1927 Stanley Cup Finals. Ottawa won all four games in this year 's regular season series.
The Senators eliminated the Bruins in six games. In Game 1, the Senators gained a 1 -- 0 lead into the third on Bobby Ryan 's goal in the second period, however, the Bruins scored twice in the final period with Brad Marchand having the final tally 2: 33 before the game ended 2 -- 1 for Boston. In Game 2, Ottawa came back from a two - goal deficit in the third period and won via Dion Phaneuf whose goal in overtime helped tie the series 1 -- 1 after a 4 -- 3 conquest. In Game 3, Ottawa had a three - goal lead with Mike Hoffman scoring twice, but the Bruins came back with three goals in the third period. In overtime, Bruins forward Riley Nash took a roughing penalty and on the ensuing power play, Bobby Ryan tipped in a pass from Kyle Turris ending the game 4 -- 3 for the Senators. Bobby Ryan scored the only goal in Game 4 5: 49 into the third period, allowing the Senators to achieve a 3 -- 1 series lead. Boston came back from an early 2 -- 0 deficit in Game 5 and the game would go to overtime. In double - overtime, Bruins rookie Sean Kuraly scored his second goal of the game, completing the comeback in a 3 -- 2 feat. In Game 6, Clarke MacArthur scored the series - winning goal on the power play in overtime for Ottawa to advance to the second round.
The Washington Capitals earned the Presidents ' Trophy for the second consecutive year as the NHL 's best regular season team this time with 118 points. The Toronto Maple Leafs finished as the Eastern Conference 's second wild - card, earning 95 points. This was the first playoff meeting between these two teams. Washington won two of the three games in this year 's regular season series.
This became only the third playoff series in NHL history in which five games were decided in overtime (the first being the 1951 Stanley Cup Finals between the Toronto Maple Leafs and the Montreal Canadiens and the second occurring in the 2012 Western Conference Quarterfinals between the Phoenix Coyotes and the Chicago Blackhawks).
The Capitals defeated the Maple Leafs in six games. Although Toronto had a two - goal lead in the first ten minutes of Game 1, Washington scored two goals, both from Justin Williams, and won the game 3 -- 2 in overtime from Tom Wilson 's goal. In Game 2, rookie Kasperi Kapanen scored twice including the game - winner in double - overtime leading the Maple Leafs to a 4 -- 3 victory. Washington took two two - goal leads in Game 3; the first pick in the 2016 NHL Draft, Auston Matthews, helped soften the lead with his first playoff goal, but after the Capitals got a 3 -- 1 lead, the Maple Leafs scored twice to tie the game. Then in overtime, Tyler Bozak sent his shot past the Capitals ' goaltender to give the Leafs a 2 -- 1 series lead. Game 4 was the only game of the series not to go into overtime; Tom Wilson and T.J. Oshie both scored two goals and Oshie 's second goal proved to be the game - winner in a 5 -- 4 victory after an attempted comeback by Toronto was thwarted. Game 5 featured the fourth overtime game of this series with Justin Williams scoring for Capitals in a 2 -- 1, taking a 3 -- 2 series lead in the process. In Game 6, the game went to overtime for the fifth time this series and at 6: 31 of the first overtime period Marcus Johansson scored his second goal for the Capitals in a 2 -- 1 victory and another trip to the second round.
The Pittsburgh Penguins finished second in the Metropolitan Division earning 111 points. The Columbus Blue Jackets earned 108 points to finish third in the Metropolitan. This was the second playoff meeting between these teams; they last met in the 2014 Eastern Conference First Round, which Pittsburgh won in six games. The teams split this year 's four - game regular season series.
The Penguins defeated the Blue Jackets in five games. Before Game 1 began, Matt Murray, the starting goaltender for the Penguins, injured himself during warm - ups forcing Marc - Andre Fleury, who had been demoted to the backup for the season, to start the game; his team would win the game 3 -- 1, making 31 saves in the process. Sidney Crosby got a goal and two assists in Game 2 as the Penguins defeated the Blue Jackets 4 -- 1 and took a 2 -- 0 series lead. In Game 3, Jake Guentzel scored a hat - trick, his third being the overtime - winner as the Penguins came back from a two - goal deficit and defeated the Blue Jackets 5 -- 4 and take a 3 -- 0 series lead. Columbus avoided a sweep in Game 4, scoring with five different players in a 5 -- 4 victory; this was also the franchise 's first playoff win in regulation. In Game 5, Bryan Rust scored twice, including the series - winner, and Fleury made 49 saves in a 5 -- 2 win for the Penguins to advance to the second round.
The Chicago Blackhawks finished first in the Central Division earning 109 points. The Nashville Predators finished as the Western Conference 's second wild - card, earning 94 points. This was the third playoff meeting between these teams with Chicago winning both previous series. They last met in the 2015 Western Conference First Round, which Chicago won in six games. Chicago won four of the five games in this year 's regular season series.
The Predators defeated the Blackhawks in a four - game sweep; this was the first time in NHL playoff history that an eighth - seeded team swept a playoff series against the top seed in their conference. Viktor Arvidsson scored the only goal in Game 1 as the Predators shut out the Blackhawks, stopping all 29 shots they faced. The Blackhawks remained scoreless after Game 2, instead being outscored 5 -- 0 with Pekka Rinne not only stopping all 30 shots he faced, but also providing two assists. Chicago finally scored a goal in Game 3 and they maintained a two - goal lead throughout the second period, but in the third period, Filip Forsberg scored twice for Nashville to tie the game and send it to overtime. In overtime, Nashville forward Kevin Fiala skated around Chicago goalie Corey Crawford and put the puck past the Chicago netminder to complete the comeback in a 3 -- 2 victory giving them their first 3 -- 0 series lead. In Game 4, Roman Josi scored twice in a 4 -- 1 victory and Rinne made 30 saves for the Predators, who swept a playoff opponent for the first time in franchise history.
The Minnesota Wild finished second in the Central Division earning 106 points. The St. Louis Blues earned 99 points to finish third in the Central. This was the second playoff meeting between these teams; their only previous meeting was the 2015 Western Conference First Round, which Minnesota won in six games. St. Louis won three of the five games in this year 's regular season series.
The Blues defeated the Wild in five games. St. Louis won the first game of the series 2 -- 1 17: 48 into overtime from Joel Edmundson 's wrist shot after the Wild tied the game in the final minute of the game, Jake Allen made 51 saves in the process. In Game 2, Jaden Schwartz scored the game - winner with 2: 27 left in the third period, giving the Blues another 2 -- 1 victory over the Wild. The Wild continued to score only one goal in each game this series, losing the game nevertheless, this time 3 -- 1 as Allen made 40 saves and the Blues took a 3 -- 0 series lead. Devan Dubnyk kept the Wild alive in the series, stopping all 28 shots he faced in a 2 -- 0 victory in Game 4. In Game 5, the Blues took a 3 -- 1 lead in the third period only to see the Wild tie it up in the last ten minutes. However, in overtime, Magnus Paajarvi ended the game for St. Louis, defeating the Wild 4 -- 3 to advance to the second round.
The Anaheim Ducks finished first in the Pacific Division for the fifth consecutive year, this time earning 105 points. The Calgary Flames finished as the Western Conference 's first wild - card, earning 94 points. This was the third playoff meeting between these teams with Anaheim winning both previous series. They last met in the 2015 Western Conference Second Round which Anaheim won in five games. Anaheim won four of the five games in this year 's regular season series. Anaheim has also won 25 straight regular season home games against Calgary.
The Ducks defeated the Flames in a four - game sweep. In Game 1, both Ryan Getzlaf and Jakob Silfverberg had a goal and an assist, the latter of whom had the game - winning goal in a 3 -- 2 victory for the Ducks. Anaheim continued their home - dominance over Calgary defeating the Flames 3 -- 2 with a goal and an assist by Getzlaf again. The Flames had a lead of 4 -- 1 in Game 3, forcing Ducks goaltender John Gibson to be replaced by Jonathan Bernier. The Ducks came back in this game, scoring three times, in what would become the fourth overtime game of this night. Corey Perry then threw the puck towards the net and it bounced off both Calgary goaltender Brian Elliott and defenceman Michael Stone and into the net, to give the Ducks a 3 -- 0 series lead. In Game 4, Gibson stopped 36 shots by the Flames, but allowed only one goal as the Ducks ended the series with a 3 -- 1 win.
The Edmonton Oilers finished second in the Pacific Division with 103 points. The San Jose Sharks earned 99 points in the regular season to finish third in the Pacific. Edmonton started a playoff series at home for the first time since the 1991 Campbell Conference Finals. This was the second playoff meeting between these teams; their only previous series was the 2006 Western Conference Semifinals, which Edmonton won in six games. Edmonton won three of the five games in this year 's regular season series.
The Oilers defeated the Sharks in six games. In Edmonton 's first playoff game since 2006, the Oilers took a 2 -- 0 lead in the first period, but the Sharks scored three goals over the second, third, and first overtime period winning the game 3 -- 2 from Melker Karlsson 's goal. The Oilers scored two shorthanded goals in Game 2 as they blanked San Jose 2 -- 0. The shutout streak continued in Game 3, as Zack Kassian scored the only goal for the Oilers and Cam Talbot stopped 23 shots. Logan Couture and Joe Pavelski scored two goals each and Martin Jones stopped all 23 shots as the Sharks blanked the Oilers 7 -- 0 in Game 4 to tie the series at two. The Sharks gained a 3 -- 1 lead over the Oilers in Game 5, but both Mark Letestu and Oscar Klefbom scored to tie the game and send it to overtime. David Desharnais would end it at 18: 15 of overtime to give the Oilers a 4 -- 3 triumph and a 3 -- 2 series lead. In Game 6, the Oilers scored twice in the second period, both on breakaways, and closed out the series with a 3 -- 1 win.
This was the second playoff meeting between these two teams; their only previous series was in the 2012 Eastern Conference Quarterfinals, which New York won in seven games. This is the second time under the current playoff format and the second year in a row in which a wild - card team has more points than its opponent during the regular season but does not have home ice advantage; the other time was the Tampa Bay Lightning and the New York Islanders in last year 's Eastern Conference Second Round. Ottawa won two of the three games in this year 's regular season series.
The Senators defeated the Rangers in six games. In Game 1, goaltender Craig Anderson made 34 saves in a 2 -- 1 victory for the Senators. The Rangers had leads of 3 -- 1, 4 -- 2, and 5 -- 3 in Game 2 only to have the Senators tie up the game on Jean - Gabriel Pageau 's hat - trick goal with 1: 02 remaining. In double - overtime, Pageau 's fourth goal of the game gave the Senators a 6 -- 5 win and a 2 -- 0 series lead. In doing this, he became the first player to score four goals in a playoff game since Johan Franzen scored four goals for the Detroit Red Wings in Game 4 of their 2010 second round series against the San Jose Sharks. Mats Zuccarello had a goal and an assist in Game 3 as the Rangers won the affair 4 -- 1. The Rangers defeated the Senators 4 -- 1 again in Game 4 tying the series 2 -- 2; Oscar Lindberg scored twice in the victory. The Rangers got an early two - goal lead in Game 5, but the Senators came back scoring three goals in return. The Rangers regained the lead, but former Ranger Derick Brassard tied the game in the final minutes to send it to overtime. Kyle Turris ended the game 6: 28 into overtime to give the Senators a 5 -- 4 victory and a 3 -- 2 series lead. In Game 6, Erik Karlsson netted the series - winning goal and added an assist for the Senators who advanced to the Conference Finals for the first time in ten years after a 4 -- 2 victory.
This was the tenth playoff meeting between these teams and the second consecutive in the second round. Pittsburgh has won eight of the nine previous series including last year 's confrontation which ended in six games. These teams split their four - game regular season series.
The Penguins defeated the Capitals in seven games after they gave up a 3 -- 1 series lead. In the final eight minutes of Game 1, Nick Bonino scored the game - winning goal as the Penguins once led 2 -- 0 only to have Washington score twice to tie the game, then with 8: 24 left in the third period Bonino gave the Penguins a 3 -- 2 lead and thus the victory. Phil Kessel and Jake Guentzel both scored twice for the Penguins in a 6 -- 2 victory, gaining a 2 -- 0 series lead as a result. The Capitals got an early 1 -- 0 lead in Game 3 then a goal by Evgeny Kuznetsov put them up by two goals, however, in the final two minutes of the game, the Penguins tied the score 2 -- 2. In overtime, Trevor Daley of the Penguins was penalized for holding and on the ensuing power play, Kevin Shattenkirk scored to give the Capitals a 3 -- 2 victory. Pittsburgh lead 2 -- 0 in Game 4 only to have Washington tie the game, however, 2: 49 after Nate Schmidt tied the game for Washington, Justin Schultz on the power play gave the Penguins a 3 -- 2 lead and the victory. Washington scored three times in the third period of Game 5 after being down one goal to win 4 -- 2. Andre Burakovsky scored twice in Game 6, forcing a seventh game in Washington 's 5 -- 2 triumph. In Game 7, Marc - Andre Fleury stopped all 29 shots and Bryan Rust scored the series - winning goal to defeat the Capitals 2 -- 0 and advance to the Conference Finals for the second consecutive year.
This was the first playoff meeting between these teams. Nashville won three of the five games in this year 's regular season series.
The Predators defeated the Blues in six games. The first game of the series had Nashville gain a 3 -- 1 lead, St. Louis then scored twice in the third period to tie the game, but with 5: 05 left in the third period, Vernon Fiddler gave the Predators 4 -- 3 lead as well a 1 -- 0 series lead. During the game, Kevin Fiala fractured his left leg after being checked by Robert Bortuzzo; Fiala would require a stretcher to get off the ice. In Game 2, Vladimir Tarasenko scored twice including the game - winner, tying the series 1 -- 1 in a 3 -- 2 triumph. The Predators continued their home - winning streak dating back to last year 's first round winning Game 3, by a final score of 3 -- 1 with Colton Sissons assisting twice, increasing the streak to seven home games. Nashville won their eighth consecutive playoff home game after Game 4, defeating the Blues 2 -- 1 and Pekka Rinne making 32 saves. Jaden Schwartz broke a 1 -- 1 tie in the third period of Game 5 and maintained the 2 -- 1 lead to a victory. In Game 6, Ryan Johansen scored the series - winning goal in a 3 -- 1 victory as the Predators moved onto the Conference Finals for the first time in franchise history after eighteen seasons in the league. This left the Columbus Blue Jackets and Winnipeg Jets as the only two teams that have never made it to the Conference Finals.
This was the second playoff meeting between these teams; their only previous series was in the 2006 Western Conference Finals, which Edmonton won in five games. Edmonton won three of the five games in this year 's regular season series.
The Ducks defeated the Oilers in seven games. Mark Letestu scored twice and Leon Draisaitl had a goal and three assists as the Oilers, who once gained a 3 -- 1 lead in the third period to see the Ducks tie the game in less than three minutes, scored twice in the final five minutes to achieve a 5 -- 3 lead and thus the victory. Goalie Cam Talbot stopped 39 shots and former - Duck Patrick Maroon scored the game - winning goal in Game 2 for the Oilers ' 2 -- 1 victory. Anaheim took an early 3 -- 0 lead in Game 3 only to see the Oilers tie the game. The Ducks took the lead back in the second period with Chris Wagner 's goal, then Jakob Silfverberg scored his second of the game and Ryan Kesler provided an insurance goal to close out the game 6 -- 3. In Game 4, Ryan Getzlaf scored twice to take the lead for the Ducks after being down 2 -- 0 in the game, then in 45 seconds into overtime, Silfverberg scored to give the Ducks the victory and the series tie. The Oilers gained a 3 -- 0 lead in Game 5, but with 3: 16 left in the game, the Ducks scored three times to tie the game becoming the first team to score three goals in that span of time left to tie the game. The comeback was complete at 6: 57 of double - overtime when Corey Perry gave Ducks a 4 -- 3 victory and a 3 -- 2 series lead. The Oilers scored five times in the first period of Game 6 and Draisaitl had a hat trick along with two assists to defeat the Ducks 7 -- 1 and force a seventh game. In Game 7, Nick Ritchie 's goal proved to be the series - winner as the Ducks were able to win a seventh game for the first time since 2006 and advance to the Conference Finals with a 2 -- 1 victory.
This was the fifth playoff meeting between these teams with Pittsburgh winning three of the four previous series. They last met in the 2013 Eastern Conference Semifinals, which Pittsburgh won in five games. This was the second consecutive Conference Finals for Pittsburgh who defeated the Tampa Bay Lightning last year in seven games. Ottawa last went to the Conference Finals in 2007; they defeated the Buffalo Sabres in five games. Ottawa won two of the three games in this year 's regular season series.
The Penguins defeated the Senators in seven games. In Game 1, the Senators held onto a one - goal lead until Evgeni Malkin tied the game in the third period, but in overtime, Bobby Ryan scored to give Ottawa a 2 -- 1 victory. Game 2 remained scoreless until Phil Kessel scored with 6: 55 left in the game to give the Penguins a 1 -- 0 lead and the victory; Marc - Andre Fleury made 23 saves in the process. In the first period of Game 3, the Senators scored four times including three in a span of 2: 18 leading them into a 5 -- 1 victory. In his first playoff game since his injury before the first game of the playoffs, goaltender Matt Murray made 24 saves and stopped a comeback from Ottawa in a 3 -- 2 victory for Pittsburgh. Murray stopped all 26 shots and the Penguins routed the Senators 7 -- 0 in Game 5 to take a 3 -- 2 series lead. Craig Anderson made 45 saves in Game 6, forcing a seventh game in a 2 -- 1 victory. In Game 7, Chris Kunitz of the Penguins and Mark Stone of the Senators started the scoring 20 seconds apart in the second period. After both Justin Schultz and Ryan Dzingel made the game 2 -- 2, the match headed into overtime. In double - overtime, Kunitz scored his second of the game to send the Pittsburgh Penguins to the Finals for the second consecutive year.
This was the second consecutive playoff meeting and the third overall between these teams with Nashville winning both previous series, including a seven - game win in last year 's first round. This was Anaheim 's fifth Conference Finals. They last made the Conference Finals in 2015 where they were defeated in seven games by the Chicago Blackhawks. This was Nashville 's first Conference Finals appearance in their 19 - year history. Anaheim won two of the three games in this year 's regular season series.
The Predators defeated the Ducks in six games. The first game of the series went into overtime, and at 9: 24 James Neal put the puck past the Ducks goaltender to take Game 1, 3 -- 2. In Game 2, the Ducks rallied from an early - two - goal deficit to defeat the Predators 5 -- 3 and Ryan Getzlaf assisted thrice in the victory. Nashville kept their home playoff win streak alive in Game 3, winning 2 -- 1; after a pair of goals were disallowed due to goaltender interference, Roman Josi scored for the Predators with 2: 43 left in the game. Although Nashville tied the game after being down by two goals in Game 4, Anaheim won the game on Corey Perry 's goal 10: 25 into overtime, tying the series 2 -- 2 in a 3 -- 2 victory. Pekka Rinne made 32 saves in Game 5 for the Predators as Nashville took a 3 -- 2 series lead in a 3 -- 1 victory. In Game 6, Colton Sissons ' hat trick goal was the series - winning goal in a 6 -- 3 victory, putting the Nashville Predators in the Finals for the first time in their 19 - year history.
This was the first playoff meeting between these two teams. Pittsburgh made their second consecutive Stanley Cup Finals appearance and their sixth overall; they won in the previous year defeating the San Jose Sharks in six games. Nashville made their first Finals appearance in their nineteenth season since entering the league in 1998 -- 99. These teams split their two - game regular season series.
These are the top ten skaters based on points.
This is a combined table of the top five goaltenders based on goals against average and the top five goaltenders based on save percentage, with at least 420 minutes played. The table is sorted by GAA, and the criteria for inclusion are bolded.
This marked the sixth postseason under NBC Sports ' current 10 - year contract for American television rights to the NHL. All national coverage of games aired on either NBCSN, the NBC broadcast network, NHL Network, USA Network, or CNBC. During the first round, excluding games exclusively broadcast on NBC, the regional rightsholders of each participating U.S. team produced local telecasts of their respective games; NBCUniversal held exclusive rights to all games from the second round onward. Unlike past seasons, the national broadcasts were no longer blacked out on television in the markets of participating teams, and could co-exist with the local broadcasts (however, NBC - provided streaming was still restricted in Boston and Pittsburgh).
For first - round games involving Chicago, San Jose and Washington -- teams whose regional rights are held by the co-owned CSN regional sports networks -- the national broadcasts shared the same video as the local broadcasts but overdubbed with NBC Sports commentators. This was done so NBC would not have to bring additional equipment to these games to produce an entirely separate telecast for the national audience.
In Canada, for the third postseason under Rogers Media 's current 12 - year contract, coverage was broadcast by Sportsnet networks and CBC Television under the Hockey Night in Canada brand, and streamed on Sportsnet Now, CBCSports.ca (for games televised by CBC), or the subscription service Rogers NHL GameCentre Live. French - language coverage was on TVA Sports. Rogers agreed not to schedule games on CBC for the first four Sunday nights of the playoffs, so that the network could broadcast Canada: The Story of Us, a documentary series it had commissioned as part of programming commemorating the 150th anniversary of Canadian confederation.
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when did the english arrive in the caribbean | History of the Caribbean - wikipedia
The history of the Caribbean reveals the significant role the region played in the colonial struggles of the European powers since the 15th century. In 1492, Christopher Columbus landed in the Caribbean and claimed the region for Spain. The First Spanish settlements were established in the Caribbean starting in 1493. Although the Spanish conquests of the Aztec empire and the Inca empire in the early sixteenth century made Mexico and Peru more desirable places for Spanish exploration and settlement, the Caribbean remained strategically important.
Beginning in the 1620s and 1630s, non-Hispanic privateers, traders, and settlers established permanent colonies and trading posts on islands neglected by Spain. Such colonies spread throughout the Caribbean, from the Bahamas in the North West to Tobago in the South East. In addition, beginning in the 1620s, French and English buccaneers settled in places like the island of Tortuga, the northern and western coasts of Hispaniola, and later in Jamaica.
After the Spanish American wars of independence in the early 19th century, only the islands of Cuba and Puerto Rico remained part of the Spanish Empire in the New World. In the 20th century the Caribbean was again important during World War II, in the decolonization wave after the war, and in the tension between Communist Cuba and the United States. Genocide, slavery, immigration, and rivalry between world powers have given Caribbean history an impact disproportionate to its size.
The oldest evidence of human settlement in the Caribbean has been found at Ortoiroid sites on Trinidad dating to the mid-6th millennium BC. They had reached Hispaniola and Cuba by the mid-5th millennium BCE, where their society is also known as the Casirimoid. The hunter - gatherer Guanahatabey present in western Cuba at the time of Columbus 's arrival may have represented a continuation of their language or more recent arrivals from eastern Florida or the Yucatan.
The islands were then repopulated by successive waves of invaders travelling south to north from initial bases in the Orinoco River valley. Between 400 and 200 BC, the Saladoid spread north from Trinidad, introducing agriculture and ceramic pottery. Sometime after AD 250, the Barrancoid followed and replaced them on Trinidad. This society 's settlements in the Orinoco collapsed around 650 and another group, the Arauquinoid (the later "Taíno '' or "Arawaks ''), expanded into the area and northward along the island chain. Around 1200 or 1300, a twentieth group, the Mayoid (the later "Caribs ''), entered Trinidad. They remained dominant until the Spanish conquest.
At the time of the European arrival, three major Amerindian indigenous peoples lived on the islands: the Taíno in the Greater Antilles, The Bahamas and the Leeward Islands; the Island Caribs and Galibi in the Windward Islands; and the Ciboney in western Cuba. The Taínos are subdivided into Classic Taínos, who occupied Hispaniola and Puerto Rico, Western Taínos, who occupied Cuba, Jamaica, and the arabian archipelago, and the Eastern Taínos, who occupied the Leeward Islands. Trinidad was inhabited by both Carib speaking and Arawak - speaking groups.
New scientific DNA studies have changed some of the traditional beliefs about pre-Columbian indigenous history. Juan Martinez Cruzado, a geneticist from the University of Puerto Rico at Mayagüez designed an island - wide DNA survey of Puerto Rico 's people. According to conventional historical belief, Puerto Ricans have mainly Spanish ethnic origins, with some African ancestry, and distant and less significant indigenous ancestry. Cruzado 's research revealed surprising results in 2003. It found that, in fact, 61 % of all Puerto Ricans have Amerindian mitochondrial DNA, 27 % have African and 12 % Caucasian.
Soon after the voyages of Christopher Columbus to the Americas, both Portuguese and Spanish ships began claiming territories in Central and South America. These colonies brought in gold, and other European powers, most specifically England, the Netherlands, and France, hoped to establish profitable colonies of their own. Imperial rivalries made the Caribbean a contested area during European wars for centuries. In the Spanish American wars of independence in the early nineteenth century, most of Spanish America broke away from the Spanish Empire, but Cuba and Puerto Rico remained under the Spanish crown until the Spanish -- American War of 1898.
During the first voyage of the explorer Christopher Columbus contact was made with the Lucayans in the Bahamas and the Taíno in Cuba and the northern coast of Hispaniola, and a few of the native people were taken back to Spain. Small amounts of gold were found in their personal ornaments and other objects such as masks and belts. The Spanish, who came seeking wealth, enslaved the native population and rapidly drove them to near - extinction. To supplement the Amerindian labor, the Spanish imported African slaves. (See also Slavery in the Spanish New World colonies.) Although Spain claimed the entire Caribbean, they settled only the larger islands of Hispaniola (1493), Puerto Rico (1508), Jamaica (1509), Cuba (1511), and Trinidad (1530). The Spanish made an exception in the case of the small ' pearl islands ' of Cubagua and Margarita off the Venezuelan coast because of their valuable pearl beds, which were worked extensively between 1508 and 1530.
The other European powers established a presence in the Caribbean after the Spanish Empire declined, partly due to the reduced native population of the area from European diseases. The Dutch, the French, and the British followed one another to the region and established a long - term presence. They brought with them millions of slaves imported from Africa to support the tropical plantation system that spread through the Caribbean islands.
During the first three - quarters of the sixteenth century, matters of balance of power and dynastic succession weighed heavily on the course of European diplomacy and war. Europe 's largest and most powerful kingdoms, France and Spain, were the continent 's staunchest rivals. Tensions increased after 1516, when the kingdoms of Castile, León, and Aragon were formally unified under Charles I of Spain, who three years later expanded his domains after his election as Holy Roman Emperor and began to surround France. In 1521, France went to war with the Holy Roman Empire. Spanish troops routed French armies in France, the Italian Peninsula, and elsewhere, forcing the French Crown to surrender in 1526 and again in 1529. The Italian Wars, as the French - Spanish wars came to be known, reignited in 1536 and again in 1542. Intermittent warring between the Valois monarchy and the Habsburg Empire continued until 1559.
French corsair attacks began in the early 1520s, as soon as France declared war on Spain in 1521. At the time, prodigious treasures from Mexico began to cross the Atlantic en route to Spain. French monarch Francis I challenged Spain 's exclusivist claims to the New World and its wealth, demanding to see "the clause in Adam 's will which excluded me from my share when the world was being divided. '' Giovanni da Verrazzano (aka Jean Florin) led the first recorded French corsair attack against Spanish vessels carrying treasures from the New World. In 1523, off the Cape of St. Vincent, Portugal, his vessels captured two Spanish ships laden with a fabulous treasure consisting of 70,000 ducats worth of gold, large quantities of silver and pearls, and 25,000 pounds of sugar, a much - treasured commodity at the time.
The first recorded incursion in the Caribbean happened in 1528, when a lone French corsair vessel appeared off the coast of Santo Domingo and its crew sacked the village of San Germán on the western coast of Puerto Rico. In the mid-1530s, corsairs, some Catholic but most of them Protestant (Huguenot), began routinely attacking Spanish vessels and raiding Caribbean ports and coastal towns; the most coveted were Santo Domingo, Havana, Santiago, and San Germán. Corsair port raids in Cuba and elsewhere in the region usually followed the rescate (ransom) model, whereby the aggressors seized villages and cities, kidnapped local residents, and demanded payment for their release. If there were no hostages, corsairs demanded ransoms in exchange for sparing towns from destruction. Whether ransoms were paid or not, corsairs looted, committed unspeakable violence against their victims, desecrated churches and holy images, and left smoldering reminders of their incursions.
In 1536, France and Spain went to war again and French corsairs launched a series of attacks on Spanish Caribbean settlements and ships. The next year, a corsair vessel appeared in Havana and demanded a 700 - ducat rescate. Spanish men - of - war arrived soon and scared off the intruding vessel, which returned soon thereafter to demand yet another rescate. Santiago was also victim of an attack that year, and both cities endured raids yet again in 1538. The waters off Cuba 's northwest became particularly attractive to pirates as commercial vessels returning to Spain had to squeeze through the 90 - mile - long strait between Key West and Havana. In 1537 -- 1538, corsairs captured and sacked nine Spanish vessels. While France and Spain were at peace until 1542, beyond - the - line corsair activity continued. When war erupted again, it echoed once more in the Caribbean. A particularly vicious French corsair attack took place in Havana in 1543. It left a gory toll of 200 killed Spanish settlers. In all, between 1535 and 1563, French corsairs carried out around sixty attacks against Spanish settlements and captured over seventeen Spanish vessels in the region (1536 -- 1547).
While Frenchmen and Spaniards fought one another in Europe and the Caribbean, England sided with Spain, largely because of dynastic alliances. In 1509, Prince Henry of England married Princess Catherine of Aragon and soon thereafter they were crowned king and queen. It was a tortuous marriage, to say the least, and Henry VIII began to separate from Catherine in 1527. When Pope Clement VII refused to annul the marriage, Henry VIII pushed the English Catholic Church to separate from Rome and become the Church of England, free from the pope 's authority. Following Henry VIII 's death in 1547, yet another Anglo - Spanish dynastic marriage was arranged, this time between Spain 's Prince Phillip and Queen Mary I, the Catholic daughter of Anglican Henry VIII. During their brief reign, the Church of England was again subject to the pope 's authority.
When Mary I died in 1558, Phillip II ceased to be king of England and England broke from Rome again. Her successor, Elizabeth, actually rejected a plan to continue the Anglo - Spanish dynastic union when she refused to consider marrying Philip; she was to remain virgin and Protestant. As Protestantism spread further in European kingdoms such as England and France and it became predominant in other formerly Catholic nations, religious antagonisms played an increasingly important role in determining war and peace among the nations of Europe. Tensions increased between England and Spain, particularly following the ascent of Anglican Queen Elizabeth to the throne in 1558. The new English monarch 's anti-Catholic zeal mirrored Philip II 's trenchant hatred of the Protestant faith. Protestantism also spread in France and throughout parts of the Holy Roman Empire. By the mid-1560s, two discernible opposing blocs had taken shape: a southern European Catholic bloc led by Spain and a northern European bloc led by England.
One of the most valuable ideological weapons of the Reformation and wars against Catholic Spain was the "Black Legend, '' the systematic denigration of Spain and its people, culture, and religion. Largely fed by the works of Bartolomé de las Casas, English and Dutch Protestants portrayed Spaniards as backward, dishonest, fanatical, cruel, and lazy. Dutch, English, and German editions of las Casas ' Brief Account of the Destruction of the Indies circulated throughout Europe beginning in 1578 with titles such as "Spanish cruelties and tyrannies. '' Theodore De Bry, a Protestant, edited, illustrated, and published editions of las Casas ' book and others on related topics and included gruesome engravings depicting Spanish cruelty.
Spain 's relations with England further soured upon the crowning of Elizabeth in 1558. She openly supported the Dutch insurrection and aided Huguenot forces in France. After decades of increasing tensions and confrontations in the northern Atlantic and the Caribbean, Anglo - Spanish hostilities broke out in 1585, when the English Crown dispatched over 7,000 troops to the Netherlands and Queen Elizabeth liberally granted licenses for privateers to carry out piracy against Spain 's Caribbean possessions and vessels. Tensions further intensified in 1587, when Elizabeth I ordered the execution of Catholic Mary Queen of Scotts after twenty years of captivity and gave the order for a preemptive attack against the Spanish Armada stationed in Cadiz. In retaliation, Spain organized the famous naval attack that ended tragically for Spain with the destruction of the "invincible '' Armada in 1588. Spain rebuilt its naval forces, largely with galleons built in Havana, and continued to fight England until Elizabeth 's death in 1603. Spain, however, had received a near - fatal blow that ended its standing as Europe 's most powerful nation and virtually undisputed master of the Indies.
Following the Franco - Spanish peace treaty of 1559, crown - sanctioned French corsair activities subsided, but piratical Huguenot incursions persisted and in at least one instance led to the formation of a temporary Huguenot settlement in the Isle of Pines, off Cuba. English piracy increased during the reign of Charles I, King of England, Scotland, and Ireland (1625 -- 1649) and became more aggressive as Anglo - Spanish relations tensed up further during the Thirty Years ' War. Although Spain and the Netherlands had been at war since the 1560s, the Dutch were latecomers, appearing in the region only after the mid-1590s, when the Dutch Republic was no longer on the defensive in its long conflict against Spain. Dutch privateering became more widespread and violent beginning in the 1620s.
English incursions in the Spanish - claimed Caribbean boomed during Queen Elizabeth 's rule. These actions originally took the guise of well - organized, large - scale smuggling expeditions headed by piratical smugglers the likes of John Hawkins, John Oxenham, and Francis Drake; their primary objectives were smuggling African slaves into Spain 's Caribbean possessions in exchange for tropical products. The first instances of English mercantile piracy took place in 1562 -- 63, when Hawkins ' men raided a Portuguese vessel off the coast of Sierra Leone, captured the 300 slaves on board, and smuggled them into Santo Domingo in exchange for sugar, hides, and precious woods. Hawkins and his contemporaries mastered the devilish art of maximizing the number of slaves that could fit into a ship. He and other slave traders methodically packed slaves by having them lay on their sides, spooned against one another. Such was the case of the slave - trading vessel bearing the sub-lime name Jesus of Lübeck, into whose pestilent bowels, in partnership with Elizabeth I, Hawkins jammed 400 African slaves. In 1567 and 1568, Hawkins commanded two piratical smuggling expeditions, the last of which ended disastrously; he lost almost all of his ships and three - fourths of his men were killed by Spanish soldiers at San Juan de Ulúa, off the coast of Veracruz, the point of departure of the fleet of New Spain. Hawkins and Drake barely escaped but Oxenham was captured, convicted of heresy by the Inquisition and burned alive.
Many of the battles of the Anglo - Spanish war were fought in the Caribbean, not by regular English troops but rather by privateers whom Queen Elizabeth had licensed to carry out attacks on Spanish vessels and ports. These were former pirates who now held a more venerable status as privateers. During those years, over seventy - five documented English privateering expeditions targeted Spanish possessions and vessels. Drake terrorized Spanish vessels and ports. Early in 1586, his forces seized Santo Domingo, retaining control over it for around a month. Before departing they plundered and destroyed the city, taking a huge bounty. Drake 's men destroyed church images and ornaments and even erected a defensive palisade with wooden images of saints in the hope that the Spanish soldiers ' Catholic fervor would keep them from firing saints as human shields of sorts.
The development of agriculture in the Caribbean required a large workforce of manual labourers, which the Europeans found by taking advantage of the slave trade in Africa. The Atlantic slave trade brought African slaves to British, Dutch, French, Portuguese and Spanish colonies in the Americas, including the Caribbean. Slaves were brought to the Caribbean from the early 16th century until the end of the 19th century. The majority of slaves were brought to the Caribbean colonies between 1701 and 1810. Also in 1816 there was a slave revolution in the colony of Barbados.
The following table lists the number of slaves brought into some of the Caribbean colonies:
Abolitionists in the Americas and in Europe became vocal opponents of the slave trade throughout the 19th century. The importation of slaves to the colonies was often outlawed years before the end of the institution of slavery itself. It was well into the 19th century before many slaves in the Caribbean were legally free. The trade in slaves was abolished in the British Empire through the Abolition of the Slave Trade Act in 1807. Men, women and children who were already enslaved in the British Empire remained slaves, however, until Britain passed the Slavery Abolition Act in 1833. When the Slavery Abolition Act came into force in 1834, roughly 700,000 slaves in the British West Indies immediately became free; other enslaved workers were freed several years later after a period of forced apprenticeship. Slavery was abolished in the Dutch Empire in 1814. Spain abolished slavery in its empire in 1811, with the exceptions of Cuba, Puerto Rico, and Santo Domingo; Spain ended the slave trade to these colonies in 1817, after being paid ₤ 400,000 by Britain. Slavery itself was not abolished in Cuba until 1886. France abolished slavery in its colonies in 1848.
"The official plantocratic view of slave marriage sought to deny the slaves any loving bonds or long - standing relationships, thus conveniently rationalising the indiscriminate separation of close kin through sales. '' "From the earliest days of slavery, indiscriminate sales and separation severely disrupted the domestic life of individual slaves. '' Slaves could be sold so that spouses could be sold separately. "Slave couples were sometimes separated by sale... They lived as single slaves or as part of maternal or extended families but considered themselves ' married. ' '' Sale of estates with "stock '' to pay debts, more common in the late period of slavery, was criticized as separating slave spouses. William Beckford argued for "families to be sold together or kept as near as possible in the same neighbourhood '' and "laws were passed in the late period of slavery to prevent the breakup of slave families by sale,... (but) these laws were frequently ignored ''. "Slaves frequently reacted strongly to enforced severance of their emotional bonds '', feeling "sorrow and despair '', sometimes, according to Thomas Cooper in 1820, resulting in death from distress. John Stewart argued against separation as leading slave buyers to regret it because of "despair (,)... utter despondency (,) or ' put (ting) period to their lives ' ''. Separated slaves often used free time to travel long distances to reunite for a night and sometimes runaway slaves were married couples. However, "sale of slaves and the resulting breakup of families decreased as slave plantations lost prosperity. ''
European plantations required laws to regulate the plantation system and the many slaves imported to work on the plantations. This legal control was the most oppressive for slaves inhabiting colonies where they outnumbered their European masters and where rebellion was persistent such as Jamaica. During the early colonial period, rebellious slaves were harshly punished, with sentences including death by torture; less serious crimes such as assault, theft, or persistent escape attempts were commonly punished with mutilations, such as the cutting off of a hand or a foot.
Under British rule, slaves could only be freed with the consent of their master, and therefore freedom for slaves was rare. British colonies were able to establish laws through their own legislatures, and the assent of the local island governor and the Crown. British law considered slaves to be property, and thus did not recognize marriage for slaves, family rights, education for slaves, or the right to religious practices such as holidays. British law denied all rights to freed slaves, with the exception of the right to a jury trial. Otherwise, freed slaves had no right to own property, vote or hold office, or even enter some trades.
The French Empire regulated slaves under the Code Noir (Black Code) which was in force throughout the empire, but which was based upon French practices in the Caribbean colonies. French law recognized slave marriages, but only with the consent of the master. French law, like Spanish law, gave legal recognition to marriages between European men and black or Creole women. French and Spanish laws were also significantly more lenient than British law in recognizing manumission, or the ability of a slave to purchase their freedom and become a "freeman ''. Under French law, free slaves gained full rights to citizenship. The French also extended limited legal rights to slaves, for example the right to own property, and the right to enter contracts.
The exploitation of the Caribbean landscape dates back to the Spanish conquistadors starting in the 1490s, who forced indigenous peoples held by Spanish settlers in encomienda to mine for gold. The more significant development came when Christopher Columbus wrote back to Spain that the islands were made for sugar development. The history of Caribbean agricultural dependency is closely linked with European colonialism which altered the financial potential of the region by introducing a plantation system. Much like the Spanish exploited indigenous labor to mine gold, the 17th century brought a new series of oppressors in the form of the Dutch, the English, and the French. By the middle of the 18th century sugar was Britain 's largest import which made the Caribbean that much more important as a colony.
Sugar was a luxury in Europe prior to the 18th century. It became widely popular in the 18th century, then graduated to becoming a necessity in the 19th century. This evolution of taste and demand for sugar as an essential food ingredient unleashed major economic and social changes. Caribbean islands with plentiful sunshine, abundant rainfalls and no extended frosts were well suited for sugarcane agriculture and sugar factories.
Following the emancipation of slaves in 1833 in the United Kingdom, many liberated Africans left their former masters. This created an economic chaos for British owners of Caribbean sugar cane plantations. The hard work in hot, humid farms required a regular, docile and low - waged labour force. The British looked for cheap labour. This they found initially in China and then mostly in India. The British crafted a new legal system of forced labour, which in many ways resembled enslavement. Instead of calling them slaves, they were called indentured labour. Indians and southeast Asians began to replace Africans previously brought as slaves, under this indentured labour scheme to serve on sugarcane plantations across the British empire. The first ships carrying indentured labourers for sugarcane plantations left India in 1836. Over the next 70 years, numerous more ships brought indentured labourers to the Caribbean, as cheap and docile labor for harsh inhumane work. The slave labor and indentured labor - both in millions of people - were brought into Caribbean, as in other European colonies throughout the world.
The New World plantations were established in order to fulfill the growing needs of the Old World. The sugar plantations were built with the intention of exporting the sugar back to Britain which is why the British did not need to stimulate local demand for the sugar with wages. A system of slavery was adapted since it allowed the colonizer to have an abundant work force with little worry about declining demands for sugar. In the 19th century wages were finally introduced with the abolition of slavery. The new system in place however was similar to the previous as it was based on white capital and colored labor. Large numbers of unskilled workers were hired to perform repeated tasks, which made if very difficult for these workers to ever leave and pursue any non farming employment. Unlike other countries, where there was an urban option for finding work, the Caribbean countries had money invested in agriculture and lacked any core industrial base. The cities that did exist offered limited opportunities to citizens and almost none for the unskilled masses who had worked in agriculture their entire lives. The products produced brought in no profits for the countries since they were sold to the colonial occupant buyer who controlled the price the products were sold at. This resulted in extremely low wages with no potential for growth since the occupant nations had no intention of selling the products at a higher price to themselves.
The result of this economic exploitation was a plantation dependence which saw the Caribbean nations possessing a large quantity of unskilled workers capable of performing agricultural tasks and not much else. After many years of colonial rule the nations also saw no profits brought into their country since the sugar production was controlled by the colonial rulers. This left the Caribbean nations with little capital to invest towards enhancing any future industries unlike European nations which were developing rapidly and separating themselves technologically and economically from most impoverished nations of the world.
The Caribbean region was war - torn throughout much of colonial history, but the wars were often based in Europe, with only minor battles fought in the Caribbean. Some wars, however, were borne of political turmoil in the Caribbean itself.
Piracy in the Caribbean was often a tool used by the European empires to wage war unofficially against one another. Gold plundered from Spanish ships and brought to Britain had a pivotal effect on European interest in colonizing the region.
The plantation system and the slave trade that enabled its growth led to regular slave resistance in many Caribbean islands throughout the colonial era. Resistance was made by escaping from the plantations altogether, and seeking refuge in the areas free of European settlement. Communities of escaped slaves, who were known as Maroons, banded together in heavily forested and mountainous areas of the Greater Antilles and some of the islands of the Lesser Antilles. The spread of the plantations and European settlement often meant the end of many Maroon communities, although they survived on Saint Vincent and Dominica, and in the more remote mountainous areas of Jamaica, Hispaniola, Guadeloupe and Cuba.
Violent resistance broke out periodically on the larger Caribbean islands. Many more conspiracies intended to create rebellions were discovered and ended by Europeans before they could materialize. Actual violent uprisings, involving anywhere from dozens to thousands of slaves, were regular events, however. Jamaica and Cuba in particular had many slave uprisings. Such uprisings were brutally crushed by European forces.
The following table lists slave rebellions that resulted in actual violent uprisings:
Haiti, the former French colony of Saint - Domingue on Hispaniola, was the first Caribbean nation to gain independence from European powers in 1804. This followed 13 years of war that started as a slave uprising in 1791 and quickly turned into the Haitian Revolution under the leadership of Toussaint l'Ouverture, where the former slaves defeated the French army (twice), the Spanish army, and the British army, before becoming the world 's first and oldest black republic, and also the second - oldest republic in the Western Hemisphere after the United States. This is additionally notable as being the only successful slave uprising in history. The remaining two - thirds of Hispaniola were conquered by Haitian forces in 1821. In 1844, the newly formed Dominican Republic declared its independence from Haiti.
The nations bordering the Caribbean in Central America gained independence with the 1821 establishment of the First Mexican Empire -- which at that time included the modern states of Mexico, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica. The nations bordering the Caribbean in South America also gained independence from Spain in 1821 with the establishment of Gran Colombia -- which comprised the modern states of Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, and Panama.
Cuba and Puerto Rico remained as Spanish colonies until the Spanish -- American War in 1898, after which Cuba attained its independence in 1902, and Puerto Rico became an unincorporated territory of the United States, being the last of the Greater Antilles under colonial control.
Between 1958 and 1962 most of the British - controlled Caribbean was integrated as the new West Indies Federation in an attempt to create a single unified future independent state -- but it failed. The following former British Caribbean island colonies achieved independence in their own right; Jamaica (1962), Trinidad & Tobago (1962), Barbados (1966), Bahamas (1973), Grenada (1974), Dominica (1978), St. Lucia (1979), St. Vincent (1979), Antigua & Barbuda (1981), St. Kitts & Nevis (1983).
In addition British Honduras in Central America became independent as Belize (1981), British Guiana in South America became independent as Guyana (1966), and Dutch Guiana also in South America became independent as Suriname (1975).
It should be noted that as of the early 21st century, not all Caribbean islands have become independent. Several islands continue to have government ties with European countries, or with the United States.
French overseas departments and territories include several Caribbean islands. Guadeloupe and Martinique are French overseas regions, a legal status that they have had since 1946. Their citizens are considered full French citizens with the same legal rights. In 2003, the populations of St. Martin and St. Barthélemy voted in favour of secession from Guadeloupe in order to form separate overseas collectivities of France. After a bill was passed in the French Parliament, the new status took effect on 22 February 2007.
Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands are officially territories of the United States, but are sometimes referred to as "protectorates '' of the United States. They are self governing territories subject to Congress plenary powers over the territories.
British overseas territories in the Caribbean include:
Aruba, Curaçao, and Sint Maarten are all presently separate constituent countries, formerly part of the Netherlands Antilles. Along with Netherlands, they form the four constituent countries of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. Citizens of these islands have full Dutch citizenship.
Since the Monroe Doctrine, the United States gained a major influence on most Caribbean nations. In the early part of the twentieth century this influence was extended by participation in The Banana Wars. Areas outside British or French control became known in Europe as "America 's tropical empire ''.
Victory in the Spanish -- American War and the signing of the Platt amendment in 1901 ensured that the United States would have the right to interfere in Cuban political and economic affairs, militarily if necessary. After the Cuban revolution of 1959 relations deteriorated rapidly leading to the Bay of Pigs Invasion, the Cuban Missile Crisis and successive US attempts to destabilise the island. The US invaded and occupied Hispaniola (present day Dominican Republic and Haiti) for 19 years (1915 -- 34), subsequently dominating the Haitian economy through aid and loan repayments. The United States invaded Haiti again in 1994 and in 2004 were accused by CARICOM of arranging a coup d'état to remove elected Haitian leader Jean - Bertrand Aristide.
In 1965, 23,000 U.S. troops landed in the Dominican Republic to quash a military coup in what was the first U.S. military intervention in Latin America in more than 30 years. President Lyndon Johnson had ordered the invasion to stem what he claimed to be a "Communist threat '', but the mission appeared ambiguous and was condemned throughout the hemisphere as a return to gunboat diplomacy. In 1983 the United States invaded Grenada to remove populist left - wing leader Maurice Bishop. The United States maintains a naval military base in Cuba at Guantanamo Bay. The base is one of five unified commands whose "area of responsibility '' is Latin America and the Caribbean. The command is headquartered in Miami, Florida.
As an arm of the economic and political network of the Americas, the influence of the United States stretches beyond a military context. In economic terms, the United States represents a primary market for the export of Caribbean goods. Notably, this is a recent historical trend. The post-war era reflects a time of transition for the Caribbean basin when, as colonial powers sought to disentangle from the region (as part of a larger trend of decolonization), the US began to expand its hegemony throughout the region. This pattern is confirmed by economic initiatives such as the Caribbean Basin Initiative (CBI), which sought to congeal alliances with the region in light of a perceived Soviet threat. The CBI marks the emergence of the Caribbean basin as a geopolitical area of strategic interest to the US.
This relationship has carried through to the 21st century, as reflected by the Caribbean Basin Trade Partnership Act. The Caribbean Basin is also of strategic interest in regards to trade routes; it has been estimated that nearly half of US foreign cargo and crude oil imports are brought via Caribbean seaways. During wartime, these figures only stand to increase. It is important to note that the United States is also of strategic interest to the Caribbean. Caribbean foreign policy seeks to strengthen its participation in a global free market economy. As an extension of this, Caribbean states do not wish to be excluded from their primary market in the United States, or be bypassed in the creation of "wider hemispheric trading blocs '' that stand to drastically alter trade and production in the Caribbean Basin. As such, the US has played an influential role in shaping the Caribbean 's role in this hemispheric market. Likewise, building trade relationships with the US has always figured in strongly with the political goal of economic security in post-independence Caribbean states.
The mainstay of the Caribbean economy, sugar, has declined gradually since the beginning of the 20th century, although it is still a major crop in the region. Caribbean sugar production became relatively expensive in comparison to other parts of the world that developed their own sugar cultivation industries, making it difficult for Caribbean sugar products to compete. Caribbean economic diversification into new activities became essential to the islands.
By the beginning of the 20th century, the Caribbean islands enjoyed greater political stability. Large - scale violence was no longer a threat after the end of slavery in the islands. The British - controlled islands in particular benefited from investments in the infrastructure of colonies. By the beginning of World War I, all British - controlled islands had their own police force, fire department, doctors and at least one hospital. Sewage systems and public water supplies were built, and death rates in the islands dropped sharply. Literacy also increased significantly during this period, as schools were set up for students descended from African slaves. Public libraries were established in large towns and capital cities.
These improvements in the quality of life for the inhabitants also made the islands a much more attractive destination for visitors. Tourists began to visit the Caribbean in larger numbers by the beginning of the 20th century, although there was a tourist presence in the region as early as the 1880s. The U.S. - owned United Fruit Company operated a fleet of "banana boats '' in the region that doubled as tourist transportation. The United Fruit Company also developed hotels for tourist accommodations. It soon became apparent, however, that this industry was much like a new form of colonialism; the hotels operated by the company were fully staffed by Americans, from chefs to waitresses, in addition to being owned by Americans, so that the local populations saw little economic benefit. The company also enforced racial discrimination in many policies for its fleet. Black passengers were assigned to inferior cabins, were sometimes denied bookings, and were expected to eat meals early before white passengers. The most popular early destinations were Jamaica and the Bahamas; the Bahamas remains today the most popular tourist destination in the Caribbean.
Post-independence economic needs, particularly in the aftermath of the end of preferential agricultural trade ties with Europe, led to a boom in the development of the tourism industry in the 1980s and thereafter. Large luxury hotels and resorts have been built by foreign investors in many of the islands. Cruise ships are also regular visitors to the Caribbean.
Some islands have gone against this trend, such as Cuba and Haiti, whose governments chose not to pursue foreign tourism, although Cuba has developed this part of the economy very recently. Other islands lacking sandy beaches, such as Dominica, missed out on the 20th - century tourism boom, although they have recently begun to develop eco-tourism, diversifying the tourism industry in the Caribbean.
The development of offshore banking services began during the 1920s. The close proximity of the Caribbean islands to the United States has made them an attractive location for branches of foreign banks. Clients from the United States take advantage of offshore banking services to avoid U.S. taxation. The Bahamas entered the financial services industry first, and continues to be at the forefront of financial services in the region. The Cayman Islands, the British Virgin Islands, and the Netherlands Antilles have also developed competitive financial services industries.
Ports both large and small were built throughout the Caribbean during the colonial era. The export of sugar on a large scale made the Caribbean one of the world 's shipping cornerstones, as it remains today. Many key shipping routes still pass through the region.
The development of large - scale shipping to compete with other ports in Central and South America ran into several obstacles during the 20th century. Economies of scale, high port handling charges, and a reluctance by Caribbean governments to privatize ports put Caribbean shipping at a disadvantage. Many locations in the Caribbean are suitable for the construction of deepwater ports for commercial ship container traffic, or to accommodate large cruise ships. The deepwater port at Bridgetown, Barbados, was completed by British investors in 1961. A more recent deepwater port project was completed by Hong Kong investors in Grand Bahama in the Bahamas.
Some Caribbean islands take advantage of flag of convenience policies followed by foreign merchant fleets, registering the ships in Caribbean ports. The registry of ships at "flag of convenience '' ports is protected by the Law of the Sea and other international treaties. These treaties leave the enforcement of labour, tax, health and safety, and environmental laws under the control of the registry, or "flag '' country, which in practical terms means that such regulations seldom result in penalties against the merchant ship. The Cayman Islands, Bahamas, Antigua, Bermuda, and St. Vincent are among the top 11 flags of convenience in the world. However, the flag of convenience practice has been a disadvantage to Caribbean islands as well, since it also applies to cruise ships, which register outside the Caribbean and thus can evade Caribbean enforcement of the same territorial laws and regulations.
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how many seasons of the mentalist were there | The Mentalist - Wikipedia
The Mentalist is an American drama television series that ran from September 23, 2008, until February 18, 2015, broadcasting 151 episodes over seven seasons, on CBS. The show was created by Bruno Heller, who is also its executive producer. The show follows former "psychic '' Patrick Jane (Simon Baker), who is a consultant to the California Bureau of Investigation (CBI), using the highly developed observational skills he previously employed to "read '' people 's minds.
The series follows Patrick Jane, an independent consultant for the California Bureau of Investigation (CBI) based in Sacramento, California. Although not an officer of the law, he uses his skills from his former career as a successful, yet admittedly fraudulent, psychic medium to help a team of CBI agents solve murders. The real reason for Jane 's involvement with law enforcement is to track down the serial killer known as Red John, who was responsible for the brutal murders of his wife, Angela Ruskin Jane, and his daughter, Charlotte Anne Jane.
Before the murders, Jane had a lucrative career as a con man, successfully posing as a psychic medium and enjoyed near - celebrity status. Five years before the events in the show 's pilot episode, he appeared on television to claim that his paranormal abilities helped the police profile a serial killer named Red John. Red John, angered by the perceived slight, murdered Jane 's wife and his young daughter in revenge.
Jane subsequently abandoned his career and teamed with the CBI, using his skills to help them solve various crimes. His main focus is on the cases involving Red John or Red John copycats. He admits to faking the supernatural aspects of his skills, often asserting that "there 's no such thing as psychics '', yet he has finely honed skills in cold reading, hypnosis, and picking pockets, as well as his intuitive observations and an immense insight into the human psyche and the behavior of witnesses.
His associates at the CBI include their boss, Teresa Lisbon, and colleagues Wayne Rigsby, who is married to Grace Van Pelt, and Kimball Cho. Various directors and recurring civilians come across as the show unfolds, including Sam Bosco and Gale Bertram, and Kristina Frye and Walter Mashburn.
As the show progresses, the focus shifts from general cases through seasons one to three, to solely catching Red John, through seasons four to six. At the midpoint of season six, the Red John case is solved, the FBI steps in, closing the CBI, and the show adopts a new track for two seasons, along with a few new characters.
The show often set episodes based on fictional locales with names such as Salinger Mill and Rancho Rosa. Like the majority of American television shows, The Mentalist was mostly filmed within the studio zone in Los Angeles County, but occasionally filmed a few scenes on location in Sacramento. The structure used to represent the CBI headquarters in Sacramento is the back of the Pico House in downtown Los Angeles. On October 15, 2008, CBS ordered the first season of The Mentalist and the show has subsequently been renewed annually since 2010, both in the domestic market and overseas.
TNT began syndicating The Mentalist in the fall of 2011. In the period between the end of Late Show with David Letterman and Late Show with Stephen Colbert in the summer of 2015, The Mentalist was carried weeknights on CBS in full as part of the network 's temporary late - night lineup.
In November 2013, Amanda Righetti (Van Pelt) and Owain Yeoman (Rigsby) were confirmed to be leaving after season six concluded.
In the season - seven episode "Orange Blossom Ice Cream '', scenes set in Beirut were filmed in Los Angeles and supplemented by freelance footage of Beirut by Michael Timney.
On May 10, 2014, CBS renewed the series for a 13 - episode seventh season, which premiered on November 30, 2014, and later announced it as the final season.
The first season of The Mentalist received mostly positive reviews, with critics being divided on the procedural format, but praising the performance of Simon Baker. On Rotten Tomatoes, season one had an overall rating of 53 % from 19 critics, with the consensus saying, "The setup and episodic storytelling is far from original, but The Mentalist distinguishes itself from other procedurals mostly due to the talents of Simon Baker. '' On Metacritic, season one has a score of 65 / 100, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. Robert Bianco of USA Today felt the pilot episode lacked in originality, but praised Baker, saying, "The Mentalist may be a copy, but it 's a well - done copy sparked by an actor who has come into his own as a TV star. '' Matthew Gilbert of The Boston Globe said, "the CBS show has very little dramatic heft or distinction, but it 's wily and brisk enough to engage you for an hour. '' Gilbert also praised the chemistry between Baker and Tunney, but criticized the crime cases, feeling they were predictable and at times uninteresting. Mary McNamara of The Los Angeles Times praised Baker as "virtually irresistible '' and said, "... psychological sleight of hand ca n't fill an hour every week. For that you need complicated, interesting crimes and complicated, interesting characters solving them. The Mentalist seems prepared to deliver just that. ''
The pilot episode had an audience of 15.6 million viewers in its first airing, and 7.8 million in a reairing three days later. The December 2, 2008, episode, "Flame Red '', was the highest - rated television show of the week, marking the first time a program in its first season had achieved that distinction since Desperate Housewives four years earlier.
The show drew comparisons to the USA Network comedy Psych, which also featured a lead character with heightened powers of observation that were mistaken for psychic abilities, who works as an independent consultant for law enforcement in California, and which debuted two years earlier, including Psych itself making repeated references to the similarities with the later - premiering show.
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when do pam and jim have a baby | The Delivery (the Office) - wikipedia
"The Delivery '' is a two - part episode of the sixth season of the U.S. comedy series The Office. Since it is an hour - long episode, it is considered to be the 17th and 18th episodes in the season 's episode count. It is the 117th and 118th episode overall.
The series -- presented as if it were a real documentary -- depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton, Pennsylvania, branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company. In this episode, Pam starts having contractions but insists on waiting till midnight to go to the hospital in order to get an extra night at the hospital, irritating Jim. The office tries to distract her with food and entertainment. She eventually goes to the hospital and gives birth to a daughter, Cecelia Marie Halpert. Meanwhile, Michael, inspired by the success of Pam and Jim 's relationship, sets up Erin with Kevin. Dwight, sent over to find Pam 's iPod, discovers mold in Pam and Jim 's house and remodels their entire kitchen, and also considers entering a pre-natal contract with ex-girlfriend Angela, for he feels he needs a baby for business reasons.
Part one is written by Daniel Chun and directed by Seth Gordon, while part two is written by Charlie Grandy and directed by Harold Ramis. The episode received mixed reviews from critics and came first in its time slot helping NBC be third highest rated network of the night.
Pam (Jenna Fischer) and Jim (John Krasinski) both acquire sales while making small talk about their baby 's upcoming birth. Dwight (Rainn Wilson) wants to do the same and asks Angela (Angela Kinsey) to have a baby with him. Angela is initially excited, but gets annoyed with Dwight making a parenting contract with absurd demands he wants her to agree to.
Michael (Steve Carell) anxiously waits for Pam and Jim 's baby to be born; Jim urges Pam to let him take her to the hospital, but Pam would rather wait until midnight like she and Jim wanted to do initially (arriving after midnight means a longer hospital stay under the terms of their health insurance). She finds comfort in watching the rest of the office performing absurd activities to distract her from the pain. When Jim reaches his breaking point, Pam reveals that their baby is a girl, which calms Jim 's nerves a bit, but then she tells him that her water broke.
Since Pam and Kevin (Brian Baumgartner) have gotten hungry at the same times, they have enjoyed regular meals together, and Kevin prepares her one final "Ultra Feast '' before she gives birth. When the contractions appear to become too extreme, Jim, Michael, and Kevin all think it is time for her to go to the hospital. Pam still refuses, and finally breaks down admitting she is too scared to give birth. Jim initially assures her that everything will be all right, but goes into a panic when he 's informed she is now at 2 minutes in between contractions (5 -- 7 minutes is the suggested time to leave for the hospital). Pam finally acquiesces and Michael drives her and Jim to the hospital, with Dwight "escorting '' them. Pam realizes she has forgotten her iPod with her desired birth music on it so they request that Dwight retrieve it from their house, asking that he not "touch anything ''. After 19 hours of labor Cecelia Marie Halpert is born at 8: 31 pm, weighing in at 7 lbs 2oz.
Pam 's breastfeeding does not go well, and though a male lactation consultant (Lee Kirk, Jenna Fischer 's husband, and at that time Jenna 's fiance) is summoned to provide apparently successful coaching, Cecelia still fails to "latch '' properly. Against the advice of the nurse, Jim and Pam opt to have Cecelia spend the night with them instead of in the nursery, and they are kept up long hours tending to her. A sleep - deprived Pam accidentally nurses a baby that belongs to a new mom (Melissa Rauch) in the same hospital room. As Jim and Pam get ready to leave the hospital, Pam manages to breast feed Cecelia while Jim gets the car (which is littered with parking tickets, thanks to Michael parking the car in an ambulance only zone).
In the meantime, Michael sees the birth as proof that he is a successful office matchmaker. He sets up Kevin on a lunch date with Erin (Ellie Kemper), making Andy (Ed Helms) jealous and finally driving him to consider actually asking her out himself, to which she happily accepts as Michael looks on.
At the Halpert residence, Dwight embarks on a search for the iPod only to find mold under the sink and moves in for several days while he reconstructs the cabinets. Dwight and Angela make the final revisions to the parenting contract, but Dwight begins to have second thoughts after an encounter with Pam 's friend Isabel (Kelen Coleman), with whom he had a one night stand at Jim and Pam 's wedding. He signs the contract, but decides to hold it off.
The first part of the episode was written by Daniel Chun his second writing credit for the series after "Murder '' and directed by Seth Gordon his second directing credit for the series after "Double Date ''. The second part was written by Charlie Grandy, his fourth writing credit of the series and directed by Harold Ramis, who also directed "A Benihana Christmas, '' "Safety Training '' and "Beach Games. '' The episode also guest stars Nelson Franklin playing Nick the IT Administrator who would appear in later episodes and Linda Purl who played Helene, Pam 's mother who previously dated Michael.
In its original American broadcast, part one of "The Delivery '' was watched by 8.71 million viewers, with a 4.5 rating and a 12 share in the 18 -- 49 demographic, with part two increasing in viewers to 9.35 million and a 4.9 rating and a 13 share winning its timeslot both times and helping NBC come third ahead of ABC and The CW. The episode ranked 10th in the weekly 18 -- 49 ratings and ranked 24th in total viewers weekly ratings. It was the last episode of The Office to be viewed by over 9 million viewers.
Dan Phillips of IGN gave the episode a 6.6 saying that Pam 's lactation problems and Kevin 's lack of personality while dating Erin made consistently amusing plots, "But sadly everything that the episode 's half - hour gets right does n't make up for the painfully uncomfortable and largely unfunny first half. '' He particularly objected to the length that Pam 's refusal to go to the hospital is stretched out, since the entire office supporting her irrational decision even after her water breaks was "uncomfortable and unbelievable ''. Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly gave the episode a positive review saying "Last night managed to combine a thoroughly believable and funny central idea -- that Pam would try to delay going to the hospital to get some extra time, gaming the office 's "stupid HMO '' -- with a batch of fine Michael scenes and a thoroughly did n't - buy - it - for - a-second Dwight subplot. '' Nathan Rabin of The A.V. Club gave the episode a B+ saying "It felt a little padded and implausible and lurched from one radically different tone to another but it was also very funny and intriguingly prickly and real when it was n't being cartoonish and over the top. It was n't a home run. ''
Joel Keller of TV Squad gave the episode a mixed review saying "As usual with most one - hour ' Office ' episodes, the first half was better than the second. But even the first half of this one had some problems ''.
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what factor contributed to the rise of communism in the early twentieth century | History of communism - wikipedia
The history of communism encompasses a wide variety of ideologies and political movements sharing the core theoretical values of common ownership of wealth, economic enterprise and property.
Most modern forms of communism are grounded at least nominally in Marxism, an ideology conceived by noted sociologist Karl Marx during the mid-19th century. Marxism subsequently gained a widespread following across much of Europe and throughout the late 1800s its militant supporters were instrumental in a number of failed revolutions on that continent. During the same era, there was also a proliferation of communist parties which rejected armed revolution, but embraced the Marxist ideal of collective property and a classless society.
Although Marxist theory suggested that the places ripest for social revolution -- either through peaceful transition or by force of arms -- were industrial societies, communism was mostly successful in underdeveloped countries with endemic poverty such as the Russian Empire and the Republic of China. In 1917, the Bolshevik Party seized power during the Russian Revolution and created the Soviet Union, the world 's first Marxist state. The Bolsheviks thoroughly embraced the concept of proletarian internationalism and world revolution, seeing their struggle as an international rather than a purely regional cause. This was to have a phenomenal impact on the spread of communism during the twentieth century as the Soviet Union installed new communist governments in Central and Eastern Europe following World War II and indirectly backed the ascension of others in the Americas, Asia and Africa. Pivotal to this policy was the Communist International (also simply known as the Commintern), which was formed with the perspective of aiding and assisting communist parties around the world and fostering revolution. This was one major cause of tensions during the Cold War as the United States and its military allies equated the global spread of communism with Soviet expansionism by proxy.
By 1985, one - third of the world 's population lived under a communist system of government in one form or another. However, there was significant debate among communist ideologues as to whether most of these countries could be meaningfully considered Marxist at all. Many of the basic components of the Marxist system were altered and revised by various self - styled communist regimes. The failure of communist governments to live up to the ideal of a communist society as well as their general trend towards increasing authoritarianism has been linked to the decline of communism in the late 20th century. With the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, several communist states repudiated or abolished the ideology altogether. By the 21st century, only a small number of communist governments remained, namely Cuba, Vietnam and Laos. Despite retaining a nominal commitment to communism, the People 's Republic of China has essentially ceased to be governed by the principles of Marxism or Maoism, reverting to an authoritarian regime with a mixed economy.
From the Bolshevik Revolution in 1917 until 2017, demographers have estimated that self - styled communist governments have collectively claimed the lives of more than 68 million people through starvation, political purges, extrajudicial killings, forced labour camps, and violently implemented social engineering policies.
"Communism '' derives from the French communisme which developed out of the Latin roots communis and the suffix isme -- and was in use as a word designating various social situations before it came to be associated with more modern conceptions of an economic and political organization. Semantically, communis can be translated to "of or for the community '' while isme is a suffix that indicates the abstraction into a state, condition, action or doctrine, so "communism '' may be interpreted as "the state of being of or for the community ''. This semantic constitution has led to various usages of the word in its evolution, but ultimately came to be most closely associated with Marxism, most specifically embodied in The Communist Manifesto, which proposed a particular type of communism.
The term was first created in its modern definition by the French philosopher Victor d'Hupy. In his 1777 book Projet de communauté philosophe, d'Hupay pushes the legacy of the Enlightenments to principles which he lived up to during most of his life in his bastide of Fuveau, Provence. His book can be seen as a backbone of communist philosophy as d'Hupay attempts a definition of this lifestyle which he calls a "commune '' and advises to "share all economic and material products between inhabitants of the commune, so that all may benefit from each other 's work ''. His friend and contemporary author Restif de la Bretonne also describes him as a "communist '' in one of his books.
Many historical groups have been considered as following forms of communism. Karl Marx and other early communist theorists believed that hunter - gatherer societies as were found in the Paleolithic were essentially egalitarian and he therefore termed their ideology to be "primitive communism ''. Early Christianity supported a form of common ownership based on the teachings in the New Testament which emphasised sharing amongst everyone. Other ancient Jewish sects, like the Essenes, also supported egalitarianism and communal living.
In Europe, during the early modern period various groups supporting communist ideas appeared. Tommaso Campanella 's 1601 work The City of the Sun propagated the concept of a society where the products of society should be shared equally. Within a few centuries, during the English Civil War various groups on the side of the Roundheads propagated the redistribution of wealth on an egalitarian basis, namely the Levellers and the Diggers. In the 18th century, the French philosopher Jean Jacques Rousseau in his hugely influential The Social Contract (1762) outlined the basis for a political order based on popular sovereignty rather than the rule of monarchs. His views proved influential during the French Revolution of 1789 in which various anti-monarchists, particularly the Jacobins, supported the idea of redistributing wealth equally among the people, including Jean - Paul Marat and Gracchus Babeuf. The latter was involved in the Conspiracy of the Equals of 1796 intending to establish a revolutionary regime based on communal ownership, egalitarianism and the redistribution of property. However, the plot was detected and he and several others involved were arrested and executed. Despite this setback, the example of the French Revolutionary regime and Babeuf 's doomed insurrection was an inspiration for radical French thinkers such as Compte Henri de Saint Simon, Louis Blanc, Charles Fourier and Pierre - Joseph Proudhon, who declared that "Property is theft! ''. By the 1830s and 1840s the egalitarian concepts of communism and the related ideas of socialism had become widely popular in French revolutionary circles thanks to the writings of social critics and philosophers such as Pierre Leroux and Théodore Dézamy whose critiques of bourgeoisie liberalism led to a widespread intellectual rejection of laissez - faire capitalism on both economic, philosophical, and moral grounds.
Importantly one of Babeuf 's co-conspirators, Philippe Buonarroti, survived the crackdown on the Conspiracy of the Equals, and went on to write the influential book "Babuef 's Conspiracy for Equality '' first published in 1828. Buonarroti 's works and teachings went on to inspire early Babouvist communist groups such as the Christian Communist League of the Just in 1836 led by Wilhelm Weitling which would later be merged with the Communist Correspondence Committee in Brussels. This merger of the two groups in 1847 formed the Communist League, headed by German socialist labour leader Karl Schapper who then that same year tasked two founding members, Karl Marx and Fredrick Engels to write a manifesto laying out the principles of the new political party.
Communism is the riddle of history solved, and it knows itself to be this solution.
In the 1840s, a German philosopher and sociologist named Karl Marx (1818 -- 1883), who was living in England after fleeing the authorities in the German states, where he was considered a political threat, began publishing books in which he outlined his theories for a variety of communism now known as Marxism. Marx was financially aided and supported by another German émigré, Friedrich Engels (1820 -- 1895), who like Marx had fled from the German authorities in 1849. Marx and Engels took on many influences from earlier philosophers and politically they were influenced by Maximilien Robespierre and several other radical figures of the French Revolution, whilst economically they were influenced by David Ricardo and philosophically they were influenced by Hegel. Engels regularly met Marx at Chetham 's Library in Manchester, England from 1845 and the alcove where they met remains identical to this day. It was here that Engels relayed his experiences of industrial Manchester, chronicled in the Condition of the Working Class in England, highlighting the struggles of the working class.
Marx stated that "the history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles '', something that he believed was happening between the bourgeoisie (the select few upper class and upper middle class) who then controlled society and the proletariat (the working class masses) who toiled to produce everything but who had no political control. He purported the idea that human society moved through a series of progressive stages from primitive communism through to slavery, feudalism and then capitalism -- and that this in turn would be replaced by communism. Therefore, for Marx communism was seen as inevitable, as well as desirable.
Marx founded the Communist Correspondence Committee in 1846 through which the various communists, socialists and other leftists across Europe could keep in contact with one another in the face of political repression. He then published The Communist Manifesto in 1848, which would prove to be one of the most influential communist texts ever written. He subsequently began work on a multi-volume epic that would examine and criticise the capitalist economy and the effect that it had upon politics, society and philosophy -- the first volume of the work, which was known as Capital: Critique of Political Economy, was published in 1869. However, Marx and Engels were not only interested in writing about communism, as they were also active in supporting revolutionary activity that would lead to the creation of communist governments across Europe. They helped to found the International Workingmen 's Association, which would later become known as the First International, to unite various communists and socialists -- and Marx was elected to the Association 's General Council.
During the latter half of the 19th century, various left - wing organisations across Europe continued to campaign against the many autocratic right - wing regimes that were then in power. In France in 1871, socialists set up a government known as the Paris Commune after the fall of Napoleon III, but they were soon overthrown and many of their members executed by counter-revolutionaries. Meanwhile, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels joined the German Social - Democratic Party, which had been created in 1875, but which was outlawed in 1879 by the German government, then led by Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, who deemed it to be a political threat due to its revolutionary nature and increasing number of supporters. In 1890, the party was re-legalised and by this time it had fully adopted Marxist principles. It subsequently achieved a fifth of the vote in the German elections and some of its leaders, such as August Bebel and Wilhelm Liebknecht, became well - known public figures.
At the time, Marxism took off not only in Germany, but it also gained popularity in Hungary, the Habsburg Monarchy and the Netherlands, although it did not achieve such success in other European nations like the United Kingdom, where Marx and Engels had been based. Nonetheless, the new political ideology had gained sufficient support that an organisation was founded known as the Second International to unite the various Marxist groups around the world.
-- Karl Marx, 1848
However, as Marxism took off it also began to come under criticism from other European intellectuals, including fellow socialists and leftists. For instance, the Russian collectivist anarchist Mikhail Bakunin criticised what he believed were the flaws in the Marxian theory that the state would eventually dissolve under a Marxist government, instead he believed that the state would gain in power and become authoritarian. Criticism also came from other sociologists, such as the German Max Weber, who whilst admiring Marx disagreed with many of his assumptions on the nature of society. Some Marxists tried to adapt to these criticisms and the changing nature of capitalism and Eduard Bernstein emphasised the idea of Marxists bringing legal challenges against the current administrations over the treatment of the working classes rather than simply emphasising violent revolution as more orthodox Marxists did. Other Marxists opposed Bernstein and other revisionists, with many including Karl Kautsky, Otto Bauer, Rudolf Hilferding, Rosa Luxemburg, Vladimir Lenin and Georgi Plekhanov sticking steadfast to the concept of violently overthrowing what they saw as the bourgeoisie - controlled government and instead establishing a "dictatorship of the proletariat ''.
The Comintern 's historical existence is divided among periods, regarding changes in the general policy it followed.
At the start of the 20th century, the Russian Empire was an autocracy controlled by Tsar Nicholas II, with millions of the country 's largely agrarian population living in abject poverty and the anti-communist historian Robert Service noted that "poverty and oppression constituted the best soil for Marxism to grow in ''. The man responsible for largely introducing the ideology into the country was Georgi Plekhanov, although the movement itself was largely organised by a man known as Vladimir Lenin, who had for a time been exiled to a prison camp in Siberia by the Tsarist government for his beliefs. A Marxist group known as the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party was formed in the country, although it soon divided into two main factions: the Bolsheviks led by Lenin and the Mensheviks led by Julius Martov. In 1905, there was a revolution against the Tsar 's rule, in which workers ' councils known as "soviets '' were formed in many parts of the country and the Tsar was forced to implement democratic reform, introducing an elected government, the Duma.
In 1917, with further social unrest against the Duma and its part in involving Russia in the First World War, the Bolsheviks took power in the October Revolution. They subsequently began remodelling the country based upon communist principles, nationalising various industries and confiscating land from wealthy aristocrats and redistributing it amongst the peasants. They subsequently pulled out of the war against Germany by signing the Treaty of Brest - Litovsk, which was unpopular amongst many in Russia for it gave away large areas of land to Germany. From the outset, the new government faced resistance from a myriad of forces with differing perspectives, including anarchists, social democrats, who took power in the Democratic Republic of Georgia, Socialist - Revolutionaries, who formed the Komuch in Samara, Russia, scattered tsarist resistance forces known as the White Guard, as well as Western powers. This led to the events of the Russian civil war, which the Bolsheviks won and subsequently consolidated their power over the entire country, centralising power from the Kremlin in the capital city of Moscow. In 1922, the Russian SFS Republic was officially redesignated to be the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, whilst in 1924 Lenin resigned as leader of the Soviet Union due to poor health and soon died, with Joseph Stalin subsequently taking over control.
In 1919, the Bolshevik government in Russia organised the creation of an international communist organisation that would act as the Third International after the collapse of the Second International in 1916 -- this was known as the Communist International, although was commonly abbreviated as Comintern. Throughout its existence, Comintern would be dominated by the Kremlin despite its internationalist stance. Meanwhile, in 1921 the Soviet Union invaded its neighboring Mongolia to aid a popular uprising against the Chinese who then controlled the country, instituting a Marxist government, which declared the nation to be the Mongolian People 's Republic in 1924.
Comintern and other such Soviet - backed communist groups soon spread across much of the world, though particularly in Europe, where the influence of the recent Russian Revolution was still strong. In Germany, the Spartacist uprising took place in 1919, when armed communists supported rioting workers, but the government put the rebellion down violently with the use of a right - wing paramilitary group, the Freikorps, with many noted German communists, such as Rosa Luxemburg, being killed. Within a few months, a group of communists seized power amongst public unrest in the German region of Bavaria, forming the Bavarian Soviet Republic, although once more this was put down violently by the Freikorps, who historians believe killed around 1200 communists and their sympathisers.
That same year, political turmoil in Hungary following their defeat in the First World War led to a coalition government of the Social Democratic Party and the Communist Party taking control. The communists, led by Bela Kun, soon became dominant and instituted various communist reforms in the country, but the country was subsequently invaded by its neighbouring Romania within a matter of months who overthrew the government, with the communist leaders either escaping abroad or being executed. In 1921, a communist revolt against the government occurred whilst supportive factory workers were on strike in Turin and Milan in northern Italy, but the government acted swiftly and put down the rebellion. That same year, a further communist rebellion took place in Germany only to be crushed, but another occurred in 1923 which once again was also defeated by the government. The communists of Bulgaria had also attempted an uprising in 1923, but like most of their counterparts across Europe they were defeated.
Communist parties were tight knit organizations that exerted tight control over the members. To reach sympathisers unwilling to join the party, front organizations were created that advocated party - approved positions. The Comintern, under the leadership of Grigory Zinoviev in the Kremlin, established fronts in many countries in the 1920s and after. To coordinate their activities, the Comintern set up various international umbrella organizations (linking groups across national borders), such as the Young Communist International (youth), Profintern (trade unions), Krestintern (peasants), International Red Aid (humanitarian aid), Sportintern (organized sports), etc. In Europe, front organizations were especially influential in Italy and France, which in 1933 became the base for Communist front organizer Willi Münzenberg. These organizations were dissolved the late 1930s or early 1940s.
The Pan-Pacific Trade Union Secretariat (PPTUS) was set up in 1927 by the Profintern (the Comintern 's trade union arm) with the mission of promoting communist trade unions in China, Japan, Korea, the Philippines, Australia, New Zealand and other nations in the western Pacific. Trapeznik (2009) says the PPTUS was a "Communist - front organization '' and "engaged in overt and covert political agitation in addition to a number of clandestine activities ''.
There were numerous Communist front organizations in Asia, many oriented to students and youth. In Japan in the labor union movement of the 1920s, according to one historian, "The Hyogikai never called itself a communist front but in effect, this was what it was. '' He points out it was repressed by the government "along with other communist front groups ''. In the 1950s, Scalapino argues, "The primary Communist - front organization was the Japan Peace Committee ''. It was founded in 1949.
In 1924, Joseph Stalin, a key Bolshevik follower of Lenin, took power in the Soviet Union. He was supported in his leadership by Nikolai Bukharin, but had various important opponents in the government, most notably Leon Trotsky, Grigory Zinoviev and Lev Kamenev. Stalin initiated his own process of building a communist society, creating a variant of communism known as Stalinism and as a part of this he abandoned some of the capitalist, free market policies that had been allowed to continue under Lenin, such as the New Economic Policy. He radically altered much of the Soviet Union 's agricultural production, modernising it by introducing tractors and other machinery, by forced collectivisation of the farms, by forced collection of grains from the peasants in accordance with predecided targets. There was food available for industrial workers, but those peasants who refused to move starved especially in the Ukraine. The Communist Party targeted "Kulaks '', who owned a little land.
Stalin took control of the Comintern, and introduced a policy in the international organisation of opposing all leftists who were not Marxists, labelling them to be "social - fascists '', although many communists, such as Jules Humbert - Droz, disagreed with him on this policy, believing that the left should unite against the rise of right wing movements like fascism across Europe. In the early 1930s, Stalin reversed course and promoted "popular front '' movements whereby communist parties would collaborate with Socialists and other political forces. A high priority was mobilizing wide support for the Republican cause in the Spanish Civil War.
The "Great Terror '' mainly operated from December 1936 to November 1938, although the features of arrest and summary trial followed by execution were well entrenched in the Soviet system since the days of Lenin, as Stalin systematically destroyed the older generation of pre-1918 leaders, usually on the grounds they were enemy spies or simply because they were "enemies of the people ''. In the Red Army, a majority of generals were executed and hundreds of thousands of other "enemies '' were sent to the gulag, where terrible conditions in Siberia led quickly to death.
The International Right Opposition and Trotskyism are examples of dissidents who still claim communism today, but they are not the only ones. In Germany, the split in the SPD had initially led to a variety of Communist unions and parties forming, which included the councilist tendencies of the AAU - D, AAU - E and KAPD. Councilism had a limited impact outside of Germany, but a number of international organisations formed. In Spain, a fusion of Left and Right dissidents led to the formation of the POUM. Additionally, in Spain the CNT was associated with the development of the FAI political party, a non-Marxist party which stood for revolutionary communism.
As the Cold War took effect around 1947, the Kremlin set up new international coordination bodies including the World Federation of Democratic Youth, the International Union of Students, the World Federation of Trade Unions, the Women 's International Democratic Federation and the World Peace Council. Kennedy says the, "Communist ' front ' system included such international organizations as the WFTU, WFDY, IUS, WIDF and WPC, besides a host of lesser bodies bringing journalists, lawyers, scientists, doctors and others into the widespread net ''.
The World Federation of Trade Unions (WFTU) was established in 1945 to unite trade union confederations across the world; it was based in Prague. While it had non-communist unions it was largely dominated by the Soviets. In 1949 the British, American and other non-Communist unions broke away to form the rival International Confederation of Free Trade Unions. The labor movement in Europe became so polarized between the communists unions and social democratic and Christian labor unions, whereas front operations could no longer hide the sponsorship and they became less important.
The devastation of the war resulted in a massive recovery program involving the rebuilding of industrial plants, housing and transportation, as well as the demobilization and migration of millions of soldiers and civilians. In the midst of this turmoil during the winter of 1946 -- 1947, the Soviet Union experienced the worst natural famine in the 20th century. There was no serious opposition to Stalin, as the secret police continued to send possible suspects to the gulag.
Relations with the United States and Britain went from friendly to hostile, as they denounced Stalin 's political controls over eastern Europe and his blockade of Berlin. By 1947, the Cold War had begun. Stalin himself believed that capitalism was a hollow shell and would crumble under increased non-military pressure exerted through proxies in countries like Italy. He greatly underestimated the economic strength of the West and instead of triumph saw the West build up alliances that were designed to permanently stop or "contain '' Soviet expansion. In early 1950, Stalin gave the go - ahead for North Korea 's invasion of South Korea, expecting a short war. He was stunned when the Americans entered and defeated the North Koreans, putting them almost on the Soviet border. Stalin supported China 's entry into the Korean war, which drove the Americans back to the prewar boundaries, but which escalated tensions. The United States decided to mobilize its economy for a long contest with the Soviets, built the hydrogen bomb and strengthened the NATO alliance that covered Western Europe.
According to Gorlizki and Khlevniuk (2004), Stalin 's consistent and overriding goal after 1945 was to consolidate the nation 's superpower status and in the face of his growing physical decrepitude to maintain his own hold on total power. Stalin created a leadership system that reflected historic czarist styles of paternalism and repression, yet was also quite modern. At the top, personal loyalty to Stalin counted for everything. However, Stalin also created powerful committees, elevated younger specialists and began major institutional innovations. In the teeth of persecution, Stalin 's deputies cultivated informal norms and mutual understandings which provided the foundations for collective rule after his death.
The military success of the Red Army in Central and Eastern Europe led to a consolidation of power in communist hands. In some cases, such as Czechoslovakia, this led to an enthusiastic support for socialism inspired by the Communist Party and a Social Democratic Party willing to fuse. In other cases, such as Poland or Hungary, the fusion of the Communist Party with the Social Democratic party was forcible and accomplished through undemocratic means. In many cases, the communist parties of Central Europe were faced with a population initially quite willing to reign in market forces, institute limited nationalisation of industry and supporting the development of intensive social welfare states, whereas broadly the population largely supported socialism. However, the purges of non-communist parties which supported socialism, combined with forced collectivisation of agriculture and a Soviet - bloc wide recession in 1953 led to deep unrest. This unrest first surfaced in Berlin in 1953, where Brecht ironically suggested that the Party ought to elect a new People. However, Khrushchev 's Secret Speech of 1956 opened up internal debate, even if members were unaware, in both the Polish and Hungarian Communist Parties. This led to the Polish Crisis of 1956 which was resolved through change in Polish leadership and a negotiation between the Soviet and Polish parties over the direction of the Polish economy.
The Hungarian Revolution of 1956 was a major challenge to Moscow 's control of Eastern Europe. This revolution saw general strikes, the formation of independent workers councils, the restoration of the Social Democratic Party as a party for revolutionary communism of a non-Soviet variety and the formation of two underground independent communist parties. The mainstream Communist Party was controlled for a period of about a week by non-Soviet aligned leaders. Two non-communist parties which supported the maintenance of socialism also regained their independence. This flowering of dissenting communism was crushed by a combination of a military invasion supported by heavy artillery and airstrikes; mass arrests, at least a thousand juridical executions and an uncounted number of summary executions; the crushing of the Central Workers Council of Greater Budapest; mass refugee flight; and a worldwide propaganda campaign. The effect of the Hungarian Revolution on other communist parties varied significantly, resulting in large membership losses in Anglophone communist parties.
The Czechoslovak Communist Party began an ambitious reform agenda under Alexander Dubček. The plan to limit central control and make the economy more independent of the party threatened bedrock beliefs. On 20 August 1968, Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev ordered a massive military invasion by Warsaw Pact forces that destroyed the threat of internal liberalization. At the same time, the Soviets threatened retaliation against the British - French - Israeli invasion of Egypt. The upshot was a collapse of any tendency toward détente, and the resignations of more intellectuals from Parties in the West.
West Germany (and West Berlin) were centers of East - West conflict during the Cold War and numerous communist fronts were established. For example, the Society for German -- Soviet Friendship (GfDSF) had 13,000 members in West Germany, but it was banned in 1953 by some Länder as a communist front. The Democratic Cultural League of Germany started off as a series of genuinely pluralistic bodies, but in 1950 -- 1951 came under the control of communists. By 1952, the U.S. Embassy counted 54 "infiltrated organizations '', which started independently, as well as 155 "front organizations '', which had been Communist inspired from their start.
The Association of the Victims of the Nazi Regime was set up to rally West Germans under the antifascist banner, but had to be dissolved when Moscow discovered it had been infiltrated by "Zionist agents ''.
Mao Zedong and the Communist Party came to power in China in 1949, as the Nationalists fled to the island of Taiwan. In 1950 -- 1953, China engaged in a large - scale but undeclared war with the United States, South Korea and United Nations forces in the Korean War. It ended in a military stalemate, but it gave Mao the opportunity to identify and purge elements in China that seemed supportive of capitalism. At first there was close cooperation with Stalin, who sent in technical experts to aid the industrialization process along the line of the Soviet model of the 1930s. After Stalin 's death in 1953, relations with Moscow soured -- Mao thought Stalin 's successors had betrayed the Communist ideal. Mao charged that Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev was the leader of a "revisionist clique '' which had turned against Marxism and Leninism was now setting the stage for the restoration of capitalism. The two nations were at sword 's point by 1960. Both began forging alliances with communist supporters around the globe, thereby splitting the worldwide movement into two hostile camps.
Rejecting the Soviet model of rapid urbanization, Mao Zedong and his top aide Deng Xiaoping launched the "Great Leap Forward '' in 1957 -- 1961 with the goal of industrializing China overnight, using the peasant villages as the base rather than large cities. Private ownership of land ended and the peasants worked in large collective farms that were now ordered to start up heavy industry operations, such as steel mills. Plants were built in remote locations, despite the lack of technical experts, managers, transportation or needed facilities. Industrialization failed, but the main result was a sharp unexpected decline in agricultural output, which led to mass famine and millions of deaths. The years of the Great Leap Forward in fact saw economic regression, with 1958 through 1961 being the only years between 1953 and 1983 in which China 's economy saw negative growth. Political economist Dwight Perkins argues, "Enormous amounts of investment produced only modest increases in production or none at all. (...) In short, the Great Leap was a very expensive disaster ''. Deng, put in charge of rescuing the economy, adopted pragmatic policies that the idealistic Mao disliked. Mao for a while was in the shadows, but he returned to center stage and purged Deng and his allies in the "cultural revolution '' (1966 -- 1969).
Following the Second World War, Trotskyism was wracked by increasing internal divisions over analysis and strategy. This was combined with an industrial impotence that was widely recognised. Additionally, the success of Soviet - aligned parties in Europe and Asia led to the persecution of Trotskyite intellectuals, such as the infamous purge of Vietnamese Trotskyists. The war had also strained social democratic parties in the West. In some cases, such as Italy, significant bodies of membership of the Social Democratic Party were inspired by the possibility of achieving advanced socialism. In Italy this group, combined with dissenting communists, began to discuss theory centred on the experience of work in modern factories, leading to Autonomist Marxism. In the United States, this theoretical development was paralleled by the Johnston - Forrest tendency, whereas in France a similar impulse occurred.
The Cultural Revolution was an upheaval that targeted intellectuals and party leaders from 1966 through 1976. Mao 's goal was to purify communism by removing pro-capitalists and traditionalists by imposing Maoist orthodoxy within the Communist Party. The movement paralyzed China politically and weakened the country economically, culturally and intellectually for years. Millions of people were accused, humiliated, stripped of power and either imprisoned, killed or most often sent to work as farm laborers. Mao insisted that these "revisionists '' be removed through violent class struggle. The two most prominent militants were Marshall Lin Biao of the army and Mao 's wife Jiang Qing. China 's youth responded to Mao 's appeal by forming Red Guard groups around the country. The movement spread into the military, urban workers and the Communist Party leadership itself. It resulted in widespread factional struggles in all walks of life. In the top leadership, it led to a mass purge of senior officials who were accused of taking a "capitalist road '', most notably Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping. During the same period, Mao 's personality cult grew to immense proportions. After Mao 's death in 1976, the survivors were rehabilitated and many returned to power.
The Cuban Revolution was a successful armed revolt led by Fidel Castro 's 26th of July Movement against the regime of Cuban dictator Fulgencio Batista. It ousted Batista on 1 January 1959, replacing his regime with Castro 's revolutionary government. Castro 's government later reformed along communist lines, becoming the present Communist Party of Cuba in October 1965. The United States response was highly negative, leading to a failed invasion attempt in 1961. The Soviets decided to protect its ally by stationing nuclear weapons in Cuba in 1962. In the Cuban Missile Crisis, the United States vehemently opposed the Soviet Union move. There was serious fear of nuclear war for a few days, but a compromise was reached by which Moscow publicly removed its weapons and the United States secretly removed its from bases in Turkey and promised never to invade.
During the Decolonization of Africa, the Soviet Union took a keen interest in that continent 's independence movements and initially hoped that the cultivation of communist client states there would deny their economic and strategic resources to the West. Soviet foreign policy with regards to Africa assumed that newly independent African governments would be receptive to Marxist ideology and that the Soviets would have the resources to make them attractive as development partners. During the 1970s, the ruling parties of several sub-Saharan African states formally embraced communism, including Burkina Faso, the People 's Republic of Benin, the People 's Republic of Mozambique, the People 's Republic of the Congo, the People 's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia and the People 's Republic of Angola. Most of these regimes ensured the selective adoption and flexible application of Marxist theory set against a broad ideological commitment to Marxism or Leninism. The adoption of communism was often seen as a means to an end and used to justify the extreme centralization of power.
Angola was perhaps the only African state which made a longstanding commitment to orthodox Marxism, but this was severely hampered by its own war - burdened economy, rampant corruption and practical realities which allowed a few foreign companies to wield considerable influence despite the elimination of the domestic Angolan private sector and a substantial degree of central economic planning. Both Angola and Ethiopia built new social and political communist institutions modeled closely after those in the Soviet Union and Cuba. However, after the collapse of the Soviet Union their regimes either dissolved due to civil conflict or voluntarily repudiated communism in favour of social democracy.
An important trend in several countries in Western Europe from the late 1960s into the 1980s was "Eurocommunism ''. It was strongest in Spain 's PCE, Finland 's party and especially in Italy 's PCI, where it drew on the ideas of Antonio Gramsci. It was developed by members of the Communist Party who were disillusioned with both the Soviet Union and China and sought an independent program. They accepted liberal parliamentary democracy and free speech, as well as with some conditions accepted a capitalist market economy. They did not speak of the destruction of capitalism, but sought to win the support of the masses and by a gradual transformation of the bureaucracies. In 1978, Spain 's PCE replaced the historic "Marxist -- Leninist '' catchphrase with the new slogan, "Marxist, democratic and revolutionary ''. The movement faded in the 1980s and collapsed with the fall of communism in Eastern Europe in 1989.
With the fall of the communist governments in the Soviet Union and the eastern bloc, the power that the state - based Marxist ideologies held on the world was weakened, but there are still many communist movements of various types and sizes around the world. Three other communist nations, particularly those in eastern Asia, the People 's Republic of China, Vietnam and Laos, all moved toward market economies, but without major privatization of the state sector during the 1980s and 1990s (see Socialism with Chinese characteristics and doi moi for more details). Spain, France, Portugal and Greece have very publicly strong communist movements that play an open and active leading role in the vast majority of their labor marches and strikes, as well as also anti-austerity protests, all of which are large, pronounced events with much visibility. Also, worldwide marches on International Workers Day sometimes give a clearer picture of the size and influence of current communist movements, particularly within Europe.
Cuba has recently emerged from the crisis sparked by the fall of the Soviet Union given the growth in its volume of trade with its new allies Venezuela and China (the former of whom has recently adopted a "socialism of the 21st century '' according to Hugo Chavez). Various other countries throughout South and Latin America have also taken similar shifts to more clearly socialistic policies and rhetoric in a phenomenon academics are calling the "pink tide ''.
North Korea has had less success in coping with the collapse of the Soviet bloc than its counterparts, which led that government to "supersede '' its original Marxism -- Leninism with an ideology called Juche. However, Cuba does apparently have an ambassador to North Korea and China still protects North Korean territorial integrity even as it simultaneously refuses to supply the state with material goods or other significant assistance.
In Nepal, the Communist Party of Nepal (Unified Marxist -- Leninist) leader Man Mohan Adhikari briefly became Prime Minister and national leader from 1994 to 1995 and the Maoist guerrilla leader Prachanda was elected Prime Minister by the Constituent Assembly of Nepal in 2008. Prachanda has since been deposed as Prime Minister, leading the Maoists to abandon their legalistic approach and return to their typical street actions and militancy and to lead sporadic general strikes using their quite substantial influence on the Nepalese labor movement. These actions have oscillated between mild and intense, only the latter of which tends to make world news. They consider Prachanda 's removal to be unjust.
The previous national government of India depended on the parliamentary support of the Communist Party of India (Marxist) and CPI (M) leads the state governments in West Bengal, Kerala and Tripura. The armed wing of the Communist Party of India (Maoist) is fighting a war against the government of India and is active in half the country, but the Indian government has recently declared the Maoists its chief objective to eliminate.
In Cyprus, the veteran communist Dimitris Christofias of AKEL won the 2008 presidential election.
In Moldova, the communist party won the 2001, 2005 and 2009 parliamentary elections. However, the April 2009 Moldovan elections results, in which the communists supposedly won a third time, were massively protested (including an attack on the Parliament and Presidency buildings by angry crowds) and another round was held on July 29 in which three opposition parties (the Liberals, Liberal - Democrats and Democrats) won and formed the Alliance for European Integration. However, failing to elect the president, new parliamentary elections were held in November 2010 which resulted in roughly the same representation in the Parliament. According to Ion Marandici, a Moldovan political scientist, the Moldovan communists differ from those in other countries because they managed to appeal to the ethnic minorities and the anti-Romanian Moldovans. After tracing the adaptation strategy of the Party of Communists from Moldova, he finds confirming evidence for five of the factors contributing to the electoral success, already mentioned in the theoretical literature on former communist parties: the economic situation, the weakness of the opponents, the electoral laws, the fragmentation of the political spectrum and the legacy of the old regime. However, Marandici identified seven additional explanatory factors at work in the Moldovan case: the foreign support for certain political parties, separatism, the appeal to the ethnic minorities, the alliance - building capacity, the reliance on the Soviet notion of the Moldovan identity, the state - building process and the control over a significant portion of the media. It is due to these seven additional factors that the successor party in Moldova managed to consolidate and expand its constituency. According to Marandici, in the post-Soviet area the Moldovan communists are the only ones who have been in power for so long and did not change the name of the party.
In Ukraine and Russia, the communists came second in the 2002 and 2003 elections, respectively. The party remains strong in Russia, but in Ukraine following the 2014 Russian invasion of Ukraine and Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation the Ukrainian parliamentary election, 2014 resulted in the loss of its 32 members and no parliamentary representation by the Communist Party of Ukraine.
In the Czech Republic, the Communist Party of Bohemia and Moravia came third in the 2002 elections, as did the Communist Party of Portugal in 2005.
In South Africa, the South African Communist Party (SACP) is a member of the Tripartite alliance alongside the African National Congress and the Congress of South African Trade Unions. Sri Lanka has communist ministers in their national governments.
In Zimbabwe, former President Robert Mugabe of the Zimbabwe African National Union -- Patriotic Front, the country 's longstanding leader, is a professed Marxist.
Colombia is in the midst of a civil war which has been waged since 1966 between the Colombian government and aligned rightwing paramilitaries against two communist guerrilla groups: the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia -- People 's Army (FARC -- EP) and the National Liberation Army (ELN).
The Philippines is still experiencing a low scale guerrilla insurgency by the New People 's Army.
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give an account of the trend of foreign investment in india | Foreign direct investment in India - Wikipedia
Foreign direct investment (FDI) in India is the major monetary source for economic development in India. Foreign companies invest directly in fast growing private Indian businesses to take benefits of cheaper wages and changing business environment of India. Economic liberalisation started in India in wake of the 1991 economic crisis and since then FDI has steadily increased in India. It were Manmohan Singh and P.V. Narasimha Rao who brought FDI in India, which subsequently generated more than one crore jobs. According to the Financial Times, in 2015 India overtook China and the US as the top destination for the Foreign Direct Investment. 2016 2017In first half of the 2015, India attracted investment of $31 billion compared to $28 billion and $27 billion of China and the US respectively.
There are two routes by which India gets FDI.
The Government of India has amended FDI policy to increase FDI inflow. In 2014, the government increased foreign investment upper limit from 26 % to 49 % in insurance sector. It also launched Make in India initiative in September 2014 under which FDI policy for 25 sectors was liberalised further. As of April 2015, FDI inflow in India increased by 48 % since the launch of "Make in India '' initiative.
India was ranking 15th in the world in 2013 in terms of FDI inflow, it rose up to 9th position in 2014 while in 2015 India became top destination for foreign direct investment.
During 2014 -- 15, India received most of its FDI from Mauritius, Singapore, Netherlands, Japan and the US. On 25 September 2014, Government of India launched Make in India initiative in which policy statement on 25 sectors were released with relaxed norms on each sector. Following are some of major sectors for Foreign Direct Investment.
10 % of India 's GDP is based on construction activity. Indian government has invested $1 trillion on infrastructure from 2012 -- 2017. 40 % of this $1 trillion had to be funded by private sector. 100 % FDI under automatic route is permitted in construction sector for cities and townships.
FDI in automotive sector was increased by 89 % between April 2014 to February 2015. India is 7th largest producer of vehicles in the world with 17.5 million vehicles annually. 100 % FDI is permitted in this sector via automatic route. Automobiles shares 7 % of the India 's GDP.
India is making progress turning itself into a magnet for manufacturers, the aim being to increase the share of manufacturing in India 's GDP from a stagnant 15 - 16 % since 1980 to 25 % by 2022 and create an additional 100 million jobs. Electronics contributes to India 's success in manufacturing but some challenges remain with foreign direct investment.
Indian pharmaceutical market is 3rd largest in terms of volume and 13th largest in terms of value. Indian pharma industry is expected to grow at 20 % compound annual growth rate from 2015 to 2020. 100 % FDI is permitted in this sector.
FDI in service sector was increased by 46 % in 2014 -- 15.It is US $ 1.88 Bl in 2017. Service sector includes banking, insurance, outsourcing, research & development, courier and technology testing. FDI limit in insurance sector was raised from 26 % to 49 % in 2014.
100 % FDI is allowed under automatic route in most of areas of railway, other than the operations, like High speed train, railway electrification, passenger terminal, mass rapid transport systems etc. Mumbai - Ahemdabad high speed corridor project is single largest railway project in India, other being CSTM - Panvel suburban corridor. Foreign investment more than ₹ 90,000 crore (US $14 billion) is expected in these projects.
Chemical industry of India earned revenue of $155 -- 160 billion in 2013. 100 % FDI is allowed in Chemical sector under automatic route. Except Hydrocynic acid, Phosgene, Isocynates and their derivatives, production of all other chemicals is de-licensed in India. India 's share in global specialty chemical industry is expected to rise from 2.8 % in 2013 to 6 -- 7 % in 2023.
Textile is one major contributor to India 's export. Nearly 11 % of India 's total export is textile. This sector has attracted about $1647 million from April 2000 to May 2015. 100 % FDI is allowed under automatic route. During year 2013 -- 14, FDI in textile sector was increased by 91 %. Indian textile industry is expected reach up to $141 billion till 2021.
Foreigner investment in a scheduled or regional air transport service or domestic scheduled passenger airline is permitted to 100, with FDI up to 49 % permitted under automatic route and beyond 49 % through goor existing airport under automatic route.
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in october 2017 which country declared that the trade agreement with pakistan has been expired | Afghanistan -- Pakistan Transit Trade Agreement - wikipedia
The Afghanistan -- Pakistan Transit Trade Agreement (also known as APTTA) is a bilateral trade agreement signed in 2010 by Pakistan and Afghanistan that calls for greater facilitation in the movement of goods amongst the two countries.
On October 23, 2017 the President of Afghanistan Ashraf Ghani announced that "The Afghanistan and Pakistan Trade Agreement (APTA) has expired '' and issued a decree banning Pakistani trucks from entering the country via the Torkham and Spin Boldak border crossings, TOLOnews reported.
The 2010 agreement supersedes the 1965 Afghanistan Transit Trade Agreement, which granted Afghanistan the right to import duty - free goods through Pakistani seaports, mostly notably from Karachi. The 1965 agreement did not offer Pakistan reciprocal rights to export goods to the Soviet Union, nor to the Central Asian Republics after the fall of the USSR.
Trade in goods smuggled into Pakistan once constituted a major source of revenue for Afghanistan. Pakistan official goods imported into Afghanistan under the 1965 Afghanistan Transit Trade Agreement were often immediately smuggled back into Pakistan over the porous border that the two countries share, often with the help of corrupt officials. In addition to illegal transfer of goods back into Pakistan, items declared as Afghanistan - bound were often prematurely offloaded from trucks and smuggled into Pakistani markets without paying requisite duty fees. This resulted in the creation of a thriving black market, with much of the illegal trading occurring openly, as was common in Peshawar 's bustling Karkhano Market, which was widely regarded as a smuggler 's bazaar. In Pakistan clamped down in 2003 on the types of goods permitted duty - free transit, and introducing stringent measures and labels to prevent smuggling. re-routing of goods through Iran from the Persian Gulf increased significantly resulting in steep decreases of smuggled goods in Pakistani markets. The 2003 measures lead to drastic declines in the number of undocumented jobs related to the transit and sale of smuggled goods; jobs and revenues of which also helped fuel the black economy, often intertwined with the drug cartels, of both countries.
The ATTA did not grant Pakistan reciprocal rights to export goods across Afghan territory to neighbouring countries. Pakistani attempts to access the Central Asian markers were frustrated by political instability in Afghanistan that had been ongoing since the late 1970s. As Afghanistan became increasingly dangerous as a transit corridor, China, Pakistan, Kazakhstan, and Kyrgyzstan in 1995 devised a separate treaty named the "Quadrilateral Agreement on Traffic in Transit '' (QATT), and signed the treaty in 2004. Despite signing of the QATT, the agreements full potential was never realised, largely on account of poor infrastructure links between the four countries.
The United States emphasised the importance of a revised transit agreement between Pakistan and Afghanistan to revive trade route along the ancient Silk Road between South Asia, Central Asia, and the Middle East. As a result of the shortcomings of the ATTA, a new treaty between Afghanistan and Pakistan was necessary that would permit Afghanistan access to Indian markets, and Pakistan reciprocal access to Central Asian markets via Afghanistan -- which by 2010 had been far more stable than it had been in the previous 20 years.
In July 2010, a Memorandum of understanding (MoU) was reached between Pakistan and Afghanistan for the Afghan - Pak Transit Trade Agreement (APTTA), which was observed by US Secretary of State Hillary Clinton. The two states also signed an MoU for the construction of rail tracks in Afghanistan to connect with Pakistan Railways (PR), which has been in the making since at least 2005.
In October 2010, the landmark APTTA agreement was signed by Pakistani Commerce Minister Makhdoom Amin Fahim and Anwar ul - Haq Ahady, Afghan Ministry of Commerce. The ceremony was attended by Richard Holbrooke, US Special Representative for Afghanistan and Pakistan, and a number of foreign ambassadors, Afghan parliamentarians and senior officials.
The 2010 APTTA allows for both countries to use each other 's airports, railways, roads, and ports for transit trade along designated transit corridors. The agreement does not cover road transport vehicles from any third country, be it from India or any Central Asia country.
Afghan trucks are to enter Pakistan via border crossings at Torkham, Ghulam Khan, and Chaman to transit Afghan goods across Pakistani territory, and to import goods from Pakistani ports in Karachi, Port Qasim and Gwadar. The signed Agreement permits Afghanistan trucks access to Wagah border with India, where Afghan goods will be offloaded onto Indian trucks, but does not permit Indian goods to be loaded onto trucks for transit back to Afghanistan.
The APTTA agreement allows Afghan trucks to transport exports to India via Pakistan up to the Wagah crossing point, but does not offer Afghanistan the right to import Indian goods across Pakistani territory, out of fear that Indian goods would end up on the Pakistani black market in the same manner that was common under the 1965 ATTA. Instead, Afghan trucks offloaded at Wagah may return to Afghanistan loaded only with Pakistani, rather than Indian goods, in an attempt to prevent the formation of a black market for Indian goods in Pakistan.
The agreement provided Pakistan access to every country bordering Afghanistan, with access to Iran via the Islam Qila and Zaranj borders, Uzbekistan via the Hairatan border, Tajikistan via Ali Khanum and Sher Khan Bandar crossings, and Turkmenistan via the Aqina and Torghundi border crossings. Pakistani imports and exports are granted permission to enter Afghanistan via border crossings at Torkham, Ghulam Khan, and Chaman.
The APTTA calls for various measures to counter smuggling of duty - free goods into both Pakistan and Afghanistan by mandating: tracking devices of goods, banking guarantees and special bonded carrier licenses for transit trucks, vehicular tracking systems, and container security deposits.
The Afghanistan - Pakistan Transit Trade Coordination Authority (APTTCA) was created to coordinate the Afghanistan -- Pakistan Transit Trade Agreement and meetings are held.
Implementation of the treaty has been inconsistent, with both sides complaining of continued barriers to trade.
Owing to tensions between the government of Hamid Karzai and Pakistan, much of the APTTA provisions remained unexploited after 2010. Pakistan is Afghanistan 's largest trading partner, and Afghanistan is Pakistan 's fourth - largest export market. Banking contacts between the two countries remain under developed, although Pakistan 's commerce minister in 2015 pledged to improve such contacts.
Afghanistan has complained that anti-smuggling security measures agreed in the APTTA are restrictive cost - prohibitive, and that banking guarantee fees are excessively high and time consuming, ranging from 100,000 to 150,000 Pakistani ruppees per carrier. Banks from both countries have also refused to offer such guarantees, further delaying customs clearances.
The required truck - tracking systems have been implemented in Pakistan, while the Afghan side has yet to install such systems on their own trucks. Further, the reliability of Pakistani and Afghan trucks to travel through mountainous terrain in both countries has been called into question, while Afghan trucks frequently enter Pakistani territory without requisite insurance, thereby violating the terms of APTTA. Afghanistan also has not yet notified Pakistan of its customs transit rules required under the APTTA, despite repeated requests by Pakistan and assurances by the Afghan government.
Afghanistan also refuses to grant Pakistan the right to import and export goods from Central Asia across Afghan territory. The 2010 APTTA agreement allowed for Afghan goods to be exported to India via Pakistan territory, but did not permit Indian goods to in turn to be exported to Afghanistan across Pakistani territory.
During the visit of Afghan President Ashraf Ghani to India in April 2015, he stated "We will not provide equal transit access to Central Asia for Pakistani trucks '' unless the Pakistani government included India as part of the 2010 Afghanistan -- Pakistan Transit Trade Agreement to allow Indian goods to be transported across Pakistani territory, directly contradicting Article 5 of the Agreement which explicitly excludes Indian exports from the Agreement. Pakistan has rejected calls for India 's inclusion, as the signed Agreement specifically denies Indian goods the right to transit across Pakistan.
While Afghan importers and exporters have full access to Pakistani seaports under APTTA, Afghanistan has alleged that Pakistani officials frequently stall shipments and cause unnecessary delays, especially after the 2011 NATO attack in Pakistan. In November 2010, the two states formed a joint chamber of commerce to expand trade relations and solve the problems traders face in this and other regards.
In July 2012, Afghanistan and Pakistan agreed to extend APTTA to Tajikistan in what will be the first step for the establishment of a North - South trade corridor. The proposed agreement will provide facilities to Tajikistan to use Pakistan 's ports and the Wagah Border for its imports and exports while Pakistan would be granted rights to transit goods across Tajik territory to Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan.
Afghanistan 's President Ashraf Ghani in 2015 made clear that Tajikistan can not be included in the trade agreement until Indian goods are offered the right to export goods to Afghanistan across Pakistani territory, which is in direct contradiction of Articles 5 and 52 of the signed Agreement which specifically forbids Indian goods and transporters this right.
In April 2015, China and Pakistan agreed to construct various infrastructure projects worth approximately $46 billion under the China - Pakistan Economic Corridor, which is part of China 's ambitious proposed 21st century Silk Road initiative. Projects currently under construction include the a system of motorways and upgraded roads from the Pakistani coastal cities of Karachi and Gwadar, all the way to the Chinese border and onwards to Kashgar in China 's Xinjiang province. From Kashgar, transport links to Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan have been upgraded, while seasonal road access to Tajikistan is provided by the Pamir Highway. Upgrading of Pakistan 's roadway network is under way, and will allow Pakistan access to those states via China rather than Afghanistan by 2020.
The Pakistani government continued to be frustrated by Afghanistan 's refusal to allow Pakistani goods access to Central Asian markets until Afghan exports were granted reciprocal access to Indian markets. Owing to this frustration, and ongoing construction of roadway projects to China under the China - Pakistan Economic Corridor, the Pakistani Government in February 2016 signalled its intention to completely bypass Afghanistan in its quest to access Central Asia by announcing its intent to revive the Quadrilateral Agreement on Traffic in Transit so that Central Asian states could access Pakistani ports via Kashgar instead of Afghanistan, thereby allowing the Central Asian republics to access Pakistan 's deep water ports without having to rely on a politically unstable Afghanistan as a transit corridor. However, the QTTA would not allow Pakistan access to Turkmenistan and Iran across Afghan territory as the APTTA does.
In early March 2016, the Afghan government reportedly acquiesced to Pakistani requests to use Afghanistan as a corridor to Tajikistan, after having dropped demands from reciprocal access to India via Pakistan. The revised transit trade agreement is expected to be signed by April 2016.
Meanwhile, India and Afghanistan started trade with first wheat consignment completely bypassing Pakistan via chabahar port in Iran. Pakistan has lost the leverage over Afghanistan in a manner as Pakistan has been the only way for land locked Afghanistan to access India so far.
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who was the agency that funded the sputnik 2 | Sputnik 2 - wikipedia
Sputnik 2 (Russian pronunciation: (ˈsputjnjɪk), Russian: Спутник - 2, Satellite 2), or Prosteyshiy Sputnik 2 (PS - 2, Russian: Простейший Спутник 2, Elementary Satellite 2) was the second spacecraft launched into Earth orbit, on 3 November 1957, and the first to carry a living animal, a Soviet space dog named Laika, who died a few hours after the launch.
Launched by the U.S.S.R., Sputnik 2 was a 4 - metre (13 foot) high cone - shaped capsule with a base diameter of 2 meters (6.6 feet) that weighed around 500 kg, though it was not designed to separate from the rocket core that brought it to orbit, bringing the total mass in orbit to 7.79 tons. It contained several compartments for radio transmitters, a telemetry system, a programming unit, a regeneration and temperature - control system for the cabin, and scientific instruments. A separate sealed cabin contained the dog Laika.
Engineering and biological data were transmitted using the Tral D telemetry system, transmitting data to Earth for a 15 - minute period during each orbit. Two photometers were on board for measuring solar radiation (ultraviolet and x-ray emissions) and cosmic rays. Sputnik 2 did not contain a television camera; TV images of dogs on Korabl - Sputnik 2 are commonly misidentified as Laika.
Sputnik 2 was launched into space only 32 days after its predecessor Sputnik 1. Due to the huge success of Sputnik 1, Nikita Khrushchev had Sergey Korolev on orders and back to work creating a Sputnik 2 that needed to be ready for space for the 40th anniversary of the Bolshevik revolution. Many people believed that Khrushchev pushed Korolev into creating Sputnik 2 against his will and advice that it would end in failure, but actually Korolev was more than happy to comply, and he used the excitement from Sputnik 1 to help "accelerate his own plans for exploring space, particularly putting man into orbit ''
Sputnik 2 was part of an idea that included Sputnik 1 that came from Korolev that was approved in January 1957. At that time, it was not clear that the Soviets ' main satellite plan (which would eventually become Sputnik 3) would be able to get to space because of the ongoing issues with the R - 7 ICBM, which would be needed to launch a satellite of that size. "Korolev proposed substituting two "simple satellites '' for the IGY satellite ''. The choice to launch these two instead of waiting for the more advanced Sputnik 3 to be finished was largely motivated by the desire the launch a satellite to orbit before the US.
Sputnik 2, known to Korolev 's design bureau as "Prosteyshiy Sputnik - 2 '', meaning "Simple Satellite 2 '', was launched into a 212 × 1660 km (132 × 1031 mi) orbit with a period of 103.7 minutes on a modified ICBM R - 7, similar to the one used to launch Sputnik 1.
Sputnik 2 's launch vehicle had several modifications for the mission. These included modifying the launch trajectory to utilize propellant more efficiently and removing some flight control components to reduce weight. In addition, the core stage would be burned to propellant depletion instead of cutting off at a preset time. The telemetry system at engine cutoff would be switched from monitoring the booster 's parameters to those of the capsule. It was also designed to only transmit data for ten minutes at a time every 90 minutes, so as to prevent battery power from being used up sending data while the spacecraft was out of range of Soviet tracking stations. The interstage section between the booster and capsule was highly polished and equipped with thermal blankets so as to reflect off sunlight and keep the latter cool, also several deployable reflectors were mounted on the core stage. A braking nozzle was added to the core stage to prevent it from tumbling in orbit; this would work by venting excess helium gas from the propellant tank pressurization system. Several RD - 107 engines were test - fired, with the best - performing units being selected for use on Sputnik 2 's booster. The launch vehicle arrived at Baikonur on October 22, along with various parts of the capsule. On November 1, the booster was erected on LC - 1.
Ten dogs were considered for the mission, with the final selection being narrowed down to three, Laika being the flight animal, Albina the backup, and Muhka, used to test equipment.
Liftoff took place at about 5: 30 PM Moscow time on November 3. Booster performance was nominal and the command to terminate core stage thrust was issued at T + 297 seconds, just as onboard sensors detected LOX depletion. The booster and capsule entered a 225 km × 1,671 km (140 mi × 1,038 mi) orbit at a 65 degree inclination.
During the first two orbits, it proved difficult to reliably track Sputnik 2 's flight path, but ground controllers were able to intercept theodolite data from an American tracking station in Perth, Australia. Data showed that Laika 's heart rate and breathing spiked rapidly during ascent, but she otherwise reached orbit largely unscathed. Official Soviet press releases stated that Laika survived a week in orbit, but information released in the post-Soviet era indicated that she died only several hours into the mission. Other sources suggested it had been four days before the dog succumbed to overheating and carbon dioxide buildup.
Telemetry data indicated that Laika 's vital signs were normal for the first three orbits, but during the fourth orbit, the cabin temperature rose to 43 ° C (109 ° F) followed by movements of the dog. Data received on the second day showed no signs of breathing, heart rate, or blood pressure, but the cardio sensor was still registering a heart beat. By the morning of November 6, there were no signs of life in the capsule. On November 10, the batteries in the spacecraft ran out and all data transmission ceased, after 150 separate telemetry sessions. Sputnik 2 reentered the atmosphere on April 14, 1958 after 162 days in space and about 2500 orbits. Reentry was sighted from the east coast of the United States and surviving debris impacted in the Amazon region of South America.
The flight sparked considerable ethical debate about cruelty to animals, as Laika had been launched with the full knowledge that she could not be recovered and may have suffered a quite unpleasant death from panic and overheating, and even some Soviet space program officials reportedly felt sorry about it. An anonymously - written poem criticizing the mission and the Soviet state was circulated in Moscow.
The R - 7 was also known by its GURVO designation 8K71, as well as the T - 3, M - 104, and Type A. The R - 7 modified for the PS - 2 satellite launch was designated 8k71PS. Unlike Sputnik 1, Sputnik 2 was not designed to detach from the R - 7 sustainer core, since Sputnik 1 's core stage had demonstrated an acceptable orbital lifespan. This allowed the core 's Tral D telemetry system to be used to transmit data, but would lead to speculation that Sputnik 2 had failed to separate. After Sputnik 2 reached orbit, the interior temperature rapidly climbed to over 40 ° C (100 ° F), and Laika survived for only a few hours instead of the planned ten days.
The first living creature (larger than a microbe) to enter orbit was a female mongrel originally named Kudryavka (Little Curly), but later renamed Laika ("Barker ''). Her true pedigree is unknown, although it is generally accepted that she was part husky or other Nordic breed, and possibly part terrier. NASA refers to Laika as a "part - Samoyed terrier ''. Laika was selected from ten candidates at the Air Force Institute of Aviation Medicine, because of her even temperament. She weighed about 6 kg (13 lbs).
The pressurized cabin on Sputnik 2 was padded and allowed enough room for Laika to lie down or stand. An air regeneration system provided oxygen; food and water were dispensed in a gelatinized form. Laika was chained in place and fitted with a harness, a bag to collect waste, and electrodes to monitor vital signs.
Early telemetry indicated Laika was agitated but alive and well, although the cabin temperature had already reached 43 ° C (109 ° F) by the third orbit. Biometric telemetry failed sometime after the fourth orbit. It was initially claimed that Laika had survived in orbit for a week; decades later, Russian sources revealed that Laika likely had survived only a few hours in orbit before dying from overheating.
The mission provided scientists with the first data on the behavior of a living organism in the space environment. Although the time between Sputniks 1 and 2 was only 32 days, the plan to launch a dog was in the works more than a year in advance. The Soviets already had significant experience launching dogs in high altitude rockets, and they used that experience when ordered to quickly get Sputnik 2 into space.
The time after Sputnik 2 was tense for the Americans and exciting for the Soviets. The day after Sputnik 2 went into orbit the Gaither committee met with President Eisenhower to brief him on the current situation. The committee, like much of the U.S., seemed to be in a panic, afraid that they were falling so far behind the Soviets technologically that it would put them in danger of a strike using nuclear weapons.
Unlike most of the U.S., President Eisenhower kept calm through the time afterward just as he did after Sputnik 1 was launched. According to one of the president 's aides, "The president 's burning concern was to keep the country from going hog - wild and from embarking on foolish, costly schemes. '' And by this he was referring to the push from the Gaither committee and others to invest in creating nuclear fallout shelters.
In the U.S.S.R., just six days after the launch of Sputnik 2, on the 40th anniversary of the October revolution, Khrushchev boasted in a speech "Now our first Sputnik is not lonely in its space travels. ''
The Van Allen radiation belt could have received the name "Vernov Belt '' after S.N. Vernov (ru) from Moscow State University. Sputnik 2 detected the Earth 's outer radiation belt in the far northern latitudes, but researchers did not immediately realize the significance of the elevated radiation because Sputnik 2 passed through the Van Allen belt too far out of range of the Soviet tracking stations.
In Australia, Professor Harry Messel intercepted the signals. Other stations in Australia and South America had also been in range and intercepted the signals. However, the Soviets would not release the code that would allow the stations in Australia and South America to read the signals, and without the code, the stations would not cooperate and send the data to the Soviets.
The disagreement cost the Soviets the opportunity to claim one of the most significant findings of the space race at that time, and only after the launch (31 January 1958) of the U.S. satellite Explorer 1 did James Van Allen demonstrate the existence of the radiation belts. In 1958, with Sputnik 3, they began to cooperate, and they confirmed the findings of the U.S. satellites Explorer 1, 3, and 4.
Sputnik 2 reentered the Earth 's atmosphere 14 April 1958, at approximately 0200 hrs, on a line that stretched from New York to the Amazon. Its track was plotted by British ships and 3 "Moon Watch Observations '', from New York. It was said to be glowing and did not develop a tail until it was at latitudes south of 20 degrees North. Estimates put the average length of the tail at about 50 nautical miles.
A copy of Sputnik 2 that was used in testing before the launch is located at the Kansas Cosmosphere and Space Center in Hutchinson, Kansas, USA.
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where is please like me filmed in melbourne | Please Like Me - Wikipedia
Please Like Me is an Australian television comedy drama series created by and starring Josh Thomas. Thomas also serves as a writer for most episodes. The series premiered on 28 February 2013 on ABC2 in Australia. The show explores realistic issues with humorous tones; the executive producer, Todd Abbott, had pitched the show as a drama rather than a sitcom. The show aired later on the United States network Pivot, which then helped to develop the show from its second season onwards. Four seasons of the show have been broadcast, and creator Thomas has stated that he has no plans to make any further episodes. The show has attracted praise from critics and has garnered numerous nominations, winning eight awards.
Please Like Me was chiefly written by Josh Thomas, who also played the main character, Josh. Most episodes were directed by Matthew Saville. Thomas and producer Todd Abbott developed the series together for four years. They held a series of consultation meetings with the Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Abbott was careful to pitch the series as a drama rather than a sitcom. It portrays a set of circumstances that could happen to a young person but has humorous themes. Thomas envisioned an original show, something he had not seen on television before. The actor, also a known comedian in Australia, wanted honesty in the script and wrote the comedy with that in mind. He also wanted the actors to not intentionally react to the scripted jokes.
In January 2013, The West Australian reported that Please Like Me would air on ABC2. The show had been meant to air on ABC1, but it was decided that the show would be better suited to the digital channel ABC2. The broadcaster stated that the show is aimed at a younger demographic more appropriate for ABC2, while ABC1 caters to all ages. The move was criticised because it was believed to be the result of the Australian Broadcasting Corporation viewing the show 's content as "too gay '' for their primary channel. The series begins with Josh realising that he is gay and his mother attempting suicide with an overdose of Panadol and Baileys.
In September 2013, ABC1 started running the series on Wednesday nights (10pm), six months after its original ABC2 run.
It was announced in July 2013 that the series would air in the United States as part of the launch programming of Pivot, a new digital cable and satellite television channel which released the first episode of the series online prior to its screening on the channel. It will also offer the series as part of its video on demand service. Pivot also launched a social media website "pleaselikeme.org '' for viewers to share personal experiences about breaking stigma and fear of being unliked, in relation to the series.
On 26 July 2013, it was announced that ABC and Pivot had commissioned a second season of the show consisting of ten episodes. The season debuted in its American territory first from 8 August 2014. Producers also added a host of new regular characters to the cast. On 12 July 2014, it was announced that the networking partnership had renewed Please Like Me for a third series also comprising ten episodes. On 7 July 2016, the series was renewed for a fourth season consisting of six episodes. On 2 February 2017, it was announced that season 4 was the final season for the series.
We first meet Josh in Season 1 as a 20 - year - old gay male who is trying to find his place in the world. Although he can be awkward, selfish and unsure of himself, he is also very caring, kind, compassionate, faithful, and honest friend. His closest friend is Tom, who is also his flatmate, and they have a very open friendship and are often brutally honest with one another.
Claire is the ex-girlfriend of Josh. She broke up with him in the pilot episode and told him that she also thinks he is gay. Throughout the series they have remained close friends. There was a short period where she dated Tom, but she realised they were not good together and she moved to Germany to put space between the two of them. Claire returns at the end of the second season but over the time skip prior to season four, she has moved out and is living with her boyfriend Warren.
Tom is Josh 's roommate and one of his best friends. Tom is straight and has issues in regards to rejecting women willing to offer him comfort, admiration, and sex. His girlfriends include Niamh, Claire, and Jenny and he has been unfaithful to each of them, sometimes immediately after agreeing to be exclusive. He was in a relationship with Ella that ended at the end of season four, just after they 'd moved out together. He sometimes likes to smoke marijuana.
Geoffrey is introduced as Tom 's coworker, and is comfortably out of the closet. He takes immediate and sudden interest in Josh from the moment that they meet at Geoffrey 's place of work. Geoffrey falls head over heels for Josh, and is unhealthily invested in the relationship, telling Josh that he loves him within a matter of days and outing him to his family against his will. Josh and Geoffrey break up after Josh realizes that he is merely interested in Geoffrey physically, even though Geoffrey is very in love with Josh, admitting to crave his approval. The two reconnect in the second season, after Geoffrey 's dad dies, and have a one - night stand in the fourth season after Josh breaks up with Arnold. Geoffrey seemingly realizes after this third attempt that he and Josh do not have good chemistry, and seems to be over him for good.
She is Tom 's ex-girlfriend and is extremely insecure and requires a lot of attention. She even went so far as feigning a pregnancy to deceive Tom into a renewed relationship. When confronted by Claire, Niamh confessed that she had not even taken a pregnancy test, she made her determination simply by the fact that her period was late.
Alan is Josh 's father. He is divorced from Josh 's mother and is in a relationship with Mae. He and Mae have a newborn baby named Grace, whom Josh adores. It is important to Alan that Josh spend time with his half sister so he forces Josh to babysit her one night. Alan admits to Geoffrey when he is intoxicated at one point early in the season that he is still in love with Josh 's mother despite being in a relationship with Mae. This is never mentioned again. After Rose 's death Mae approaches Josh about Alan being ' too perky '. Alan cries when he hears about this and then even more when Josh tells him that Rose said she was still in love with him.
Rose is Josh 's mum. Rose and Alan are divorced. She suffers from bipolar disorder and has tried to commit suicide on more than one occasion. Josh is her pride and joy and she makes sure to play an active role in his life, but at the same time does not smother him. In the fourth season, Rose admitted she still loved her ex-husband, Josh 's dad, Alan. In the next episode she committed suicide and was discovered by Josh. Her ashes are in a cookie jar in Josh 's new flat.
Mae is Alan 's girlfriend and the mother of Grace, Josh 's half - sister. She is from a very prominent family in Thailand and is clearly quite cultured. Alan once reveals that Mae is able to speak six different languages and her family has great wealth. Despite these facts, people often assume that she is a mail order bride, which angers Alan greatly and he always defends her honour even though he is not a fighter. Mae is very kind and family means a lot to her, and that includes her stepson, Josh. She shows Josh much support and love, and often chastises Alan for not doing the same. For the most part she gets along well with Rose, except for one occasion where Rose had a bipolar moment. After much urging, she finally convinces Alan to go into semi-retirement as she tells him that she and Grace do not need more money, but they do need more time with Alan.
Hannah was a depressed patient at the hospital with Rose and Arnold. After being discharged, she lived with Rose and became friends with Josh. She briefly takes romantic interest in Rose after moving in with her, and is rejected when trying to kiss her. In the finale of the third season, it was revealed that Hannah is still self - harming. Her birthday is the subject of the second episode of season four in which Josh, Tom, Ella and Arnold take her camping to celebrate. Later in the season, Hannah and Rose fight due to Rose 's moody behavior, and Hannah decides to move out, relocating to a trailer where she reconnects with her former girlfriend, Kyah. Hannah blames herself for Rose 's suicide.
Patrick is briefly Josh and Tom 's roommate, and a romantic interest of Josh 's. After slightly unsatisfactory romantic developments in a car, Josh expects more from their relationship, only for Patrick to tell Josh he does not want to have sex with him. Patrick 's rejection of him causes Josh 's body insecurities to heighten for a few episodes, claiming that Patrick ' finds him repulsive '. Eventually, Josh asks Patrick to move out.
Arnold is Josh 's former boyfriend. They met at a party at Josh 's house through friends. Arnold is coincidentally staying at the same hospital as Rose. Arnold and Josh 's relationship is turbulent, and constantly caused Arnold 's anxiety to flare up. Arnold comes out to his family as a result of his relationship with Josh, and Josh learns how to help manage Arnold 's anxiety. At Arnold 's request, they define themselves as an "open relationship, '' which causes two major rifts in their relationship -- most notably in regards to a failed threesome they attempt at the beginning of season four. Josh breaks up with Arnold following Josh 's admission that he no longer connects with the person Arnold has evolved into. Afterwards, Arnold begins a relationship with Kyle, the third man in their "threesome '', who only had eyes for Arnold.
Initially a recurring character throughout the third season, Ella was Tom 's long - term girlfriend. They met one night while Josh, Tom and Arnold were partying under the influence of MDMA. She is upbeat, enthusiastic, and empathetic. Ella breaks up with Tom at the end of the fourth season, just after they began to move into their new apartment.
Peg is the aunt of Rose and the grand - aunt of Josh. She is an avid churchgoer, and attempts to coerce Josh (an atheist) into coming with her to church when she sees him kissing Geoffrey outside a party. At the service, however, she is overcome with anger that the preacher is discussing homosexuality in such negative terms, and promptly leaves. Peg dies in the first season, and her wake is held on Josh 's birthday.
Rod is Rose 's ex-boyfriend. He is clearly awful and is sometimes offensive, but Rose is glad for the company and attention. They met on an online dating website but did not continue a relationship for very long. Rose breaks up with him at Peg 's funeral.
Ginger is a flamboyant patient at the same hospital as Rose, Hannah and Arnold. After a rough start, she and Rose become two peas in a pod. Ginger is the driving force that keeps them all occupied and amused while at the hospital, though she often achieves this by being incredibly bossy, pushing them into things they are not willing to do initially. She commits suicide in season two.
Steve is Arnold 's older and more successful brother. He is incredibly brash, sometimes unsavourably so. Arnold is jealous of his success, and his outgoing behavior. Despite this, during Arnold 's coming out, Steve is very supportive of his younger brother, immediately guessing that he is coming out, claiming to have known all along having had the unsavory task of deleting his internet porn history.
Jenny is a former girlfriend of Tom 's. She was still in high school (much younger than Tom), which Tom was often teased about. She is very easygoing initially, which Tom finds very attractive. She is as immature as might be expected for her age, but she is still possibly more mature than Tom. Jenny has a love of rabbits, leading Tom to purchase a rabbit for them to care for as a couple - however, the rabbit promptly dies after a mere two weeks. Jenny breaks up with Tom after he and his friends were rude, drunk and immature after watching her school play.
Stuart is a patient at the same hospital of Rose was. He and Rose have an affair at the hospital, despite Stuart being married. He proceeds to stalk Rose afterwards but eventually stops after a tense confrontation at Rose 's home.
Ben is a one - night stand of Josh 's during the initial stages of his open relationship with Arnold. Ben is later hospitalized, facing a possibly life - threatening surgery, causing a dilemma for Josh as to whether or not it is appropriate to visit him. Josh ends up doing so, which frustrates Arnold and creates the defining rift in their relationship. Josh later tries to get back in contact with Ben, but he has begun a relationship with a woman, identifying as sexually fluid.
Anthony D. Langford from AfterElton.com said that he "absolutely loved this charming series. It 's funny and sweet and has plenty of heart. '' He also praised Thomas 's portrayal of Josh and wished that US broadcasters could emulate the show 's format. He later said that he would miss the show and hoped a second season would be commissioned. He added that he did not want to say goodbye to Josh 's world. Andrew Mast, writing for Music.com.au, praised Briggs 's "naturalistic performances '' and the inclusion of accomplished actress Farr. He concluded that Thomas 's writing was good and comedic, but the on - screen delivery did not meet his expectations. David Knox from TV Tonight praised the performances of many cast members. He opined that the dynamic between Josh and his parents created a "very rich comedic terrain '' for the show. He added that Please Like Me displays "a confidence that delivers laughs, pathos and insight ''.
Colin Vickery and Darren Devlyn News.com.au said that it "has a sweetness that sets it apart from other boundary - pushing comedies ''. Giles Hardie from The Age praised the show for "breaking new ground '' and not making stereotypes of gay characters. He viewed the comedy as being genuine without feeling like a sitcom. He noted that coming out and attempted suicide are given humour without the gags. Hardie concluded that Josh, his family and friends were "incredibly well '' played. His colleague Scott Ellis believed that Please Like Me was an important show and the type of material the ABC should be investing more in. He also branded it "gentle '' and insightful when covering "tough ground ''. Fellow critic Craig Mathieson also agreed that the show 's darker moments are some of the most humorous and compared it to US show Louie. Please Like Me received an invitation to screen at the Series Mania Television Festival in Paris.
The A.V. Club regarded season 2 of Please Like Me as one of the year 's best shows, praising the camera work and Josh 's performance. The Guardian praised Please Like Me 's "unconventional writing ''.
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when does marvel agents of shield season 5 | Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. (Season 5) - wikipedia
The fifth season of the American television series Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D., based on the Marvel Comics organization S.H.I.E.L.D. (Strategic Homeland Intervention, Enforcement, and Logistics Division), revolves around the character of Phil Coulson and other S.H.I.E.L.D. agents and allies as they try to save humanity while in deep space. It is set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU), sharing continuity with the films of the franchise. The season is produced by ABC Studios, Marvel Television, and Mutant Enemy Productions, with Jed Whedon, Maurissa Tancharoen, and Jeffrey Bell serving as showrunners.
The season was ordered in May 2017. Alongside Clark Gregg, who reprises his role as Coulson from the film series, principal cast members Ming - Na Wen, Chloe Bennet, Iain De Caestecker, Elizabeth Henstridge, and Henry Simmons return from previous seasons, while Natalia Cordova - Buckley is promoted to the principal cast after appearing in a recurring role since season three.
The fifth season is set to begin airing on December 1, 2017, after Marvel 's Inhumans has finished airing its episodes, and run for 22 episodes.
Clark Gregg will direct the sixth episode in the season.
In January 2017, ahead of the mid-season premiere of the fourth season, ABC 's Channing Dungey said that she was "very bullish '' about S.H.I.E.L.D. 's future, feeling that "the episodes just keep getting better and stronger ''. The series was renewed for a fifth season of 22 episodes on May 11, with ABC looking to lower the cost of the series moving forward, by reducing its budget and licensing fee. Asked whether she had considered giving the season a shorter episode order, Dungey noted that every season of the series had been 22 episodes long, and she felt its prior success in delayed viewership and overseas justified continuing that. She added that the "show has continued to grow creatively every season. I feel like last season (was) its strongest creatively yet. I 'm very excited for what we have planned for Season 5. '' It was reported that Disney, the parent company of Marvel Television, ABC Studios, and ABC, had given a mandate to ABC to renew Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. "despite the desire by some at the network to end the series ''.
In May 2017, ahead of the fifth season renewal, showrunner and executive producer Jed Whedon said the writers were not sure what would happen in the season, and that it would be "by the seat of our pants. '' The season will also explore the ramifications of Phil Coulson making a deal with Ghost Rider. Additionally, the season will continue to explore the groundwork laid by Aida for humans to fear S.H.I.E.L.D. and Inhumans, with Whedon stating, "The public perception of S.H.I.E.L.D. is at an all - time low, so we have not resolved that, and there will be still more fallout from it. ''
Regarding if they would break the season up into pods again as with season four, executive producer Jeffrey Bell said, "A 22 - episode arc is a lot for people to hold onto. By breaking it up into either smaller arcs or different pods, by introducing a set of antagonists and putting them down, or moving from space to space, our experience has been that it 's something the viewers enjoy, and it makes it a little easier to digest when you 're telling some of these stories. '' Whedon also noted it would depend on how the season would be "broken up in terms of airing. If everything is running back - to - back, it feels weird to start calling it different things... We will try to have it in bite - sized chunks. '' The writers for the season began work at the end of May 2017.
Main cast members Clark Gregg, Ming - Na Wen, Chloe Bennet, Iain De Caestecker, Elizabeth Henstridge, and Henry Simmons return from previous seasons as Phil Coulson, Melinda May, Daisy Johnson / Quake, Leo Fitz, Jemma Simmons, and Alphonso "Mack '' MacKenzie, respectively. Before the 2017 New York Comic - Con, it was revealed that Natalia Cordova - Buckley had been promoted to series regular for the season, after recurring in the past two seasons as Elena "Yo - Yo '' Rodriguez.
In August 2017, Jeff Ward was cast in a recurring role. A month later, it was revealed that former series regular Nick Blood would be returning to reprise his role as Lance Hunter. Blood left the series during the third season, to star on the spin - off series Marvel 's Most Wanted, which never came to fruition. Adrianne Palicki, who portrayed Bobbi Morse and also left in the third season to star on Most Wanted with Blood, expressed interest in October 2017 in returning to guest star in the season, saying she "would absolutely come back '' if asked.
After leaving the series during the fourth season, costume designer Ann Foley returned for the first two episodes of the fifth season, before handing over to Whitney Galitz, who had assisted her on the previous few seasons, and Christann Chanell.
Filming for the season began on July 20, 2017. In May 2017, Gregg expressed interest in directing an episode in the season, and confirmed that September he would be directing an episode, which will be the sixth of the season. Bennet felt Gregg was able to bring out performances from the cast "that another director probably would n't have been able to because he knows the characters so well. ''
In terms of having connections to Marvel 's Inhumans, Whedon felt it was doubtful, but noted "we also want there to be a bigger reward for people who watch all of (the MCU series), so they 'll start to see that there 's lines connecting it. It 's more fun for people who are playing the whole game, but if you do n't, you 'll still have a great rollercoaster ride. ''
The season is set to begin airing in the United States on ABC on December 1, 2017, beginning once Inhumans has finished airing its episodes. It is set to run for 22 episodes. The fifth season is moving to a Friday timeslot, alongside the seventh season of ABC 's Once Upon a Time, with ABC chief Channing Dungey explaining, "We 've turned Friday into more of a destination for our fantasy and science fiction fans. Once Upon a Time and S.H.I.E.L.D. are airing on the same night for the first time, which is giving many fans of both shows what they 've been asking for for a long time. '' Andy Kubitz, executive vice president for program planning and scheduling at ABC, added that ABC had "confidence that (the S.H.I.E.L.D.) core audience... (would) travel with it '' to its new Friday time slot. He continued, "The great thing about Friday night for these shows is it gives three days of downtime for a lot of these younger viewers to be able to catch up on it. You 've got Saturday and Sunday viewing that will be able to be counted into our C3 to help us monetize it. ''
The main cast of the season appeared at New York Comic Con on October 7, 2017, where they promoted the season and debuted the first 20 minutes of the first episode of the season.
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dhadkan film dhadkan film dhadkan film dhadkan film | Dhadkan (1946 film) - Wikipedia
Dhadkan is a Bollywood film. It was released in 1946.
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who were the khmer rouge and what role did they play in cambodia | Khmer Rouge rule of Cambodia - wikipedia
The Khmer Rouge period (1975 -- 1979) refers to the rule of Pol Pot, Nuon Chea, Ieng Sary, Son Sen, Khieu Samphan and the Communist Party of Kampuchea over Cambodia, which the Khmer Rouge renamed Democratic Kampuchea.
The four - year period cost approximately 2 million lives through the combined result of political executions, disease, starvation, and forced labor. Due to the large numbers, the deaths during the rule of the Khmer Rouge are commonly known as the Cambodian Holocaust or Cambodian genocide. The Khmer Rouge took power at the end of the Cambodian Civil War and were only toppled after the invasion of Cambodia by the neighbouring Socialist Republic of Vietnam in the Cambodian -- Vietnamese War. Most of Cambodia remained under Vietnamese occupation for over a decade.
By the 17 April 1975 Khmer Rouge victory, Pol Pot and his associates occupied the most important positions in the Communist Party of Kampuchea (CPK) and in the state hierarchies. Pol Pot had been CPK general secretary since February 1963. His associates functioned as the party 's Political Bureau, and they held a majority of the seats on the Central Committee.
Through the 1970s, and especially after mid-1975, the party was shaken by factional struggles, including armed attempts to topple Pol Pot. Punitive measures resulted in 1977 and 1978 when hundreds of thousands of people, including some of the most important CPK leaders, were executed.
The Khmer Rouge abolished the Royal Government of National Union of Kampuchea (established in 1970). Cambodia did not have any sort of government until the proclamation of the Constitution of Democratic Kampuchea on January 5, 1976.
The Khmer Rouge continued to use King Norodom Sihanouk as a figurehead for the government until April 2, 1976, when Sihanouk resigned as head of state. Sihanouk remained under insecure house arrest in Phnom Penh, until late in the war with Vietnam when he departed for the United States where he made Democratic Kampuchea 's case before the Security Council. He eventually relocated to China.
The "rights and duties of the individual '' were briefly defined in Article 12. They included none of what are commonly regarded as guarantees of political human rights except the statement that "men and women are equal in every respect. '' The document declared, however, that "all workers '' and "all peasants '' were "masters '' of their factories and fields. An assertion that "there is absolutely no unemployment in Democratic Kampuchea '' rings true in light of the regime 's massive use of force.
The Constitution defined Democratic Kampuchea 's foreign policy principles in Article 21, the document 's longest, in terms of "independence, peace, neutrality, and nonalignment. '' It pledged the country 's support to anti-imperialist struggles in the Third World. In light of the regime 's aggressive attacks against Vietnamese, Thai, and Lao territory during 1977 and 1978, the promise to "maintain close and friendly relations with all countries sharing a common border '' bore little resemblance to reality.
Governmental institutions were outlined very briefly in the Constitution. The legislature, the Kampuchean People 's Representative Assembly (KPRA), contained 250 members "representing workers, peasants, and other working people and the Kampuchean Revolutionary army. '' One hundred and fifty KPRA seats were allocated for peasant representatives; fifty, for the armed forces; and fifty, for worker and other representatives. The legislature was to be popularly elected for a five - year term. Its first and only election was held on March 20, 1976. "New people '' apparently were not allowed to participate.
The executive branch of government also was chosen by the KPRA. It consisted of a state presidium "responsible for representing the state of Democratic Kampuchea inside and outside the country. '' It served for a five - year term, and its president was head of state. Khieu Samphan was the only person to serve in this office, which he assumed after Sihanouk 's resignation. The judicial system was composed of "people 's courts, '' the judges for which were appointed by the KPRA, as was the executive branch.
The Constitution did not mention regional or local government institutions. After assuming power, the Khmer Rouge abolished the old provinces (khet) and replaced them with seven zones; the Northern Zone, Northeastern Zone, Northwestern Zone, Central Zone, Eastern Zone, Western Zone, and Southwestern Zone. There were also two other regional - level units: the Kracheh Special Region Number 505 and, until 1977, the Siemreab Special Region Number 106.
The zones were divided into damban (regions) that were given numbers. Number One, appropriately, encompassed the Samlot region of the Northwestern Zone (including Battambang Province), where the insurrection against Sihanouk had erupted in early 1967. With this exception, the damban appear to have been numbered arbitrarily.
The damban were divided into srok (districts), khum (subdistricts), and phum (villages), the latter usually containing several hundred people. This pattern was roughly similar to that which existed under Sihanouk and the Khmer Republic, but inhabitants of the villages were organized into krom (groups) composed of ten to fifteen families. On each level, administration was directed by a three - person committee (kanak, or kena).
CPK members occupied committee posts at the higher levels. Subdistrict and village committees were often staffed by local poor peasants, and, very rarely, by "new people. '' Cooperatives (sahakor), similar in jurisdictional area to the khum, assumed local government responsibilities in some areas.
According to Pol Pot, Cambodia was made up of four classes: peasants and workers, bourgeoisie, capitalists, and feudalists. Post-revolutionary society, as defined by the 1976 Constitution of Democratic Kampuchea, consisted of workers, peasants, and "all other Kampuchean working people. '' No allowance was made for a transitional stage such as China 's "New Democracy '' in which "patriotic '' landlord or bourgeois elements were permitted to play a role in socialist construction.
Sihanouk writes that in 1975 he, Khieu Samphan, and Khieu Thirith went to visit Zhou Enlai, who was gravely ill. Zhou warned them not to attempt to achieve communism in a single step, as China had attempted in the late 1950s with the Great Leap Forward. Khieu Samphan and Khieu Thirith "just smiled an incredulous and superior smile. '' Khieu Samphan and Son Sen later boasted to Sihanouk that "we will be the first nation to create a completely communist society without wasting time on intermediate steps. ''
Although conditions varied from region to region, a situation that was, in part, a reflection of factional divisions that still existed within the CPK during the 1970s, the testimony of refugees reveals that the most salient social division was between the politically suspect "new people, '' those driven out of the towns after the communist victory, and the more reliable "old people '', the poor and lower middle - class peasants who had remained in the countryside. Despite the ideological commitment to radical equality, CPK members and the armed forces constituted a clearly recognizable elite.
The working class was a negligible factor because of the evacuation of the urban areas and the idling of most of the country 's few factories. The one important working class group in pre-revolutionary Cambodia -- labourers on large rubber plantations -- traditionally had consisted mostly of Vietnamese emigrants and thus was politically suspect.
The number of people, including refugees, living in the urban areas on the eve of the communist victory probably was somewhat more than 3 million, out of the total population of 8.4 million. As mentioned, despite their rural origins, the refugees were considered "new people '' -- that is, people unsympathetic to Democratic Kampuchea. Some doubtless passed as "old people '' after returning to their native villages, but the Khmer Rouge seem to have been extremely vigilant in recording and keeping track of the movements of families and of individuals.
The lowest unit of social control, the krom (group), consisted of ten to fifteen nuclear families whose activities were closely supervised by a three - person committee. The committee chairman was selected by the CPK. This grass roots leadership was required to note the social origin of each family under its jurisdiction and to report it to persons higher up in the Angkar hierarchy. The number of "new people '' may initially have been as high as 2.5 million.
The "new people '' were treated as forced labourers. They were constantly moved, were forced to do the hardest physical labour, and worked in the most inhospitable, fever - ridden parts of the country, such as forests, upland areas, and swamps. "New people '' were segregated from "old people, '' enjoyed little or no privacy, and received the smallest rice rations. When the country experienced food shortages in 1977, the "new people '' suffered the most.
The medical care available to them was primitive or nonexistent. Families often were separated because people were divided into work brigades according to age and sex and sent to different parts of the country. "New people '' were subjected to unending political indoctrination and could be executed without trial.
The situation of the "old people '' under Khmer Rouge rule was more ambiguous. Refugee interviews reveal cases in which villagers were treated as harshly as the "new people, '' enduring forced labour, indoctrination, the separation of children from parents, and executions; however, they were generally allowed to remain in their native villages.
Because of their age - old resentment of the urban and rural elites, many of the poorest peasants probably were sympathetic to Khmer Rouge goals. In the early 1980s, visiting Western journalists found that the issue of peasant support for the Khmer Rouge was an extremely sensitive subject that officials of the People 's Republic of Kampuchea were not inclined to discuss.
Although the Southwestern Zone was one original centre of power of the Khmer Rouge, and cadres administered it with strict discipline, random executions were relatively rare, and "new people '' were not persecuted if they had a cooperative attitude. In the Western Zone and in the Northwestern Zone, conditions were harsh. Starvation was general in the latter zone because cadres sent rice to Phnom Penh rather than distributing it to the local population. In the Northern Zone and in the Central Zone, there seem to have been more executions than there were victims of starvation. Little reliable information emerged on conditions in the Northeastern Zone, one of the most isolated parts of Cambodia.
On the surface, society in Democratic Kampuchea was strictly egalitarian. The Khmer language, like many in Southeast Asia, has a complex system of usages to define speakers ' rank and social status. These usages were abandoned. People were encouraged to call each other "friend '', or "comrade '' (in Khmer, មិត្ដ mitt), and to avoid traditional signs of deference such as bowing or folding the hands in salutation.
Language was transformed in other ways. The Khmer Rouge invented new terms. People were told they must "forge '' (lot dam) a new revolutionary character, that they were the "instruments '' (opokar) of the Angkar, and that nostalgia for pre-revolutionary times (chheu satek arom, or "memory sickness '') could result in their receiving Angkar 's "invitation '' to be deindustrialised and to live in a concentration camp.
Members and candidate members of the CPK, local - level leaders of poor peasant background who collaborated with the Angkar, and members of the armed forces had a higher standard of living than the rest of the population. Refugees agree that, even during times of severe food shortage, members of the grass - roots elite had adequate, if not luxurious, supplies of food. One refugee wrote that "pretty new bamboo houses '' were built for Khmer Rouge cadres along the river in Phnom Penh.
According to Craig Etcheson, an authority on Democratic Kampuchea, members of the revolutionary army lived in self - contained colonies, and they had a "distinctive warrior - caste ethos. '' Armed forces units personally loyal to Pol Pot, known as the "Unconditional Divisions, '' were a privileged group within the military.
Although their revolutionary ideology was extreme, the highest ranks of the Khmer Rouge leadership had a tendency to nepotism similar of the Sihanouk - era elite. Pol Pot 's wife, Khieu Ponnary, was head of the Association of Democratic Khmer Women and her younger sister, Khieu Thirith, served as minister of social action. These two women were considered among the half - dozen most powerful personalities in Democratic Kampuchea. Son Sen 's wife, Yun Yat, served as minister for culture, education and learning.
Several of Pol Pot 's nephews and nieces were given jobs in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. One of Ieng Sary 's daughters was appointed head of the Calmette Hospital although she had not graduated from secondary school. A niece of Ieng Sary was given a job as English translator for Radio Phnom Penh although her fluency in the language was relative.
Family ties were important, both because of the culture and because of the leadership 's intense secretiveness and distrust of outsiders, especially of pro-Vietnamese communists. Different ministries, such as the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Ministry of Industry, were controlled and exploited by powerful Khmer Rouge families. Administering the diplomatic corps was regarded as an especially profitable fiefdom.
Democratic Kampuchea 's economic policy was similar to, and possibly inspired by, China 's radical Great Leap Forward that carried out immediate collectivisation of the Chinese countryside in 1958. During the early 1970s, the Khmer Rouge established "mutual assistance groups '' in the areas they occupied.
After 1973, these were organised into "low - level cooperatives '' in which land and agricultural implements were lent by peasants to the community but remained their private property. "High - level cooperatives, '' in which private property was abolished and the harvest became the collective property of the peasants, appeared in 1974. "Communities, '' introduced in early 1976, were a more advanced form of high - level cooperative in which communal dining was instituted. State - owned farms also were established.
Far more than the Chinese communists, the Khmer Rouge pursued the ideal of economic self - sufficiency, specifically the version that Khieu Samphan had outlined in his 1959 doctoral dissertation. Currency was abolished, and domestic trade or commerce could be conducted only through barter. Rice, measured in tins, became the most important medium of exchange, although people also bartered gold, jewelry, and other personal possessions.
Foreign trade was almost completely halted, though there was a limited revival in late 1976 and early 1977. China was the most important trading partner, but commerce amounting to a few million dollars was also conducted with France, the United Kingdom, and with the United States through a Hong Kong intermediary.
From the Khmer Rouge perspective, the country was free of foreign economic domination for the first time in its 2,000 - year history. By mobilising the people into work brigades organised in a military fashion, the Khmer Rouge hoped to unleash the masses ' productive forces.
There was an "Angkorian '' component to economic policy. That ancient kingdom had grown rich and powerful because it controlled extensive irrigation systems that produced surpluses of rice. Agriculture in modern Cambodia depended, for the most part, on seasonal rains.
By building a nationwide system of irrigation canals, dams, and reservoirs, the leadership believed it would be possible to produce rice on a year - round basis. It was the "new people '' who suffered and sacrificed the most to complete these ambitious projects.
Although the Khmer Rouge implemented an "agriculture first '' policy in order to achieve self - sufficiency, they were not, as some observers have argued, "back - to - nature '' primitivists. Although the 1970 -- 75 war and the evacuation of the cities had destroyed or idled most industry, small contingents of workers were allowed to return to the urban areas to reopen some plants.
Like their Chinese counterparts, the Cambodian communists had great faith in the inventive power and the technical aptitude of the masses, and they constantly published reports of peasants ' adapting old mechanical parts to new uses. Similarly to Mao 's regime, which had attempted unsuccessfully to build a new steel industry based on backyard furnaces during the Great Leap Forward, the Khmer Rouge sought to move industry to the countryside. Significantly, the seal of Democratic Kampuchea displayed not only sheaves of rice and irrigation sluices, but also a factory with smokestacks.
The Khmer Rouge regarded traditional education with undiluted hostility. After the fall of Phnom Penh, they executed thousands of teachers. Those who had been educators prior to 1975 survived by hiding their identities.
Aside from teaching basic mathematical skills and literacy, the major goal of the new educational system was to instill revolutionary values in the young. For a regime at war with most of Cambodia 's traditional values, this meant that it was necessary to create a gap between the values of the young and the values of the nonrevolutionary old.
The regime recruited children to spy on adults. The pliancy of the younger generation made them, in the Angkar 's words, the "dictatorial instrument of the party. '' In 1962 the communists had created a special secret organisation, the Democratic Youth League, that, in the early 1970s, changed its name to the Communist Youth League of Kampuchea. Pol Pot considered Youth League alumni as his most loyal and reliable supporters, and used them to gain control of the central and of the regional CPK apparatus. The powerful Khieu Thirith, minister of social action, was responsible for directing the youth movement.
Hardened young cadres, many little more than twelve years of age, were enthusiastic accomplices in some of the regime 's worst atrocities. Sihanouk, who was kept under virtual house arrest in Phnom Penh between 1976 and 1978, wrote in War and Hope that his youthful guards, having been separated from their families and given a thorough indoctrination, were encouraged to play cruel games involving the torture of animals. Having lost parents, siblings, and friends in the war and lacking the Buddhist values of their elders, the Khmer Rouge youth also lacked the inhibitions that would have dampened their zeal for revolutionary terror.
Health facilities in the years 1975 to 1978 were abysmally poor. Many physicians either were executed or were prohibited from practicing. It appears that the party and the armed forces elite had access to Western medicine and to a system of hospitals that offered reasonable treatment, but ordinary people, especially "new people, '' were expected to use traditional plant and herbal remedies that were of debatable usefulness. Some bartered their rice rations and personal possessions to obtain aspirin and other simple drugs.
The deportations were one of the markers of the beginning of the Khmer Rouge rule. They demanded and then forced the people to leave the cities and live in the countryside. Phnom Penh -- populated by 2.5 million people -- was soon nearly empty. The roads out of the city were clogged with evacuees. Similar evacuations occurred throughout the nation.
The conditions of the evacuation and the treatment of the people involved depended often on which military units and commanders were conducting the specific operations. Pol Pot 's brother -- Chhay, who worked as a Republican journalist in the capital -- was reported to have died during the evacuation of Phnom Penh.
Even Phnom Penh 's hospitals were emptied of their patients. The Khmer Rouge provided transportation for some of the aged and the disabled, and they set up stockpiles of food outside the city for the refugees; however, the supplies were inadequate to sustain the hundreds of thousands of people on the road. Even seriously injured hospital patients, many without any means of conveyance, were summarily forced to leave regardless of their condition.
The foreign community, about 800 people, was quarantined in the French embassy compound, and by the end of the month the foreigners were taken by truck to the Thai border. Khmer women who were married to foreigners were allowed to accompany their husbands, but Khmer men were not permitted to leave with their foreign wives.
Western historians claim that the motives were political, based on deep - rooted resentment of the cities. The Khmer Rouge was determined to turn the country into a nation of peasants in which the corruption and "parasitism '' of city life would be completely uprooted. In addition, Pol Pot wanted to break up the "enemy spy organisations '' that allegedly were based in the urban areas. Finally, it seems that Pol Pot and his hard - line associates on the CPK Political Bureau used the forced evacuations to gain control of the city 's population and to weaken the position of their factional rivals within the communist party.
A security apparatus called Santebal was part of the Khmer Rouge organizational structure well before April 17, 1975 when the Khmer Rouge took control over Cambodia. Son Sen, later the Deputy Prime Minister for Defense of Democratic Kampuchea, was in charge of the Santebal, and in that capacity he appointed Comrade Duch to run its security apparatus. When the Khmer Rouge took power in 1975, Duch moved his headquarters to Phnom Penh and reported directly to Son Sen. At that time, a small chapel in the capital was used to incarcerate the regime 's prisoners, who totaled fewer than two hundred. In May 1976, Duch moved his headquarters to its final location, a former high school known as Tuol Sleng, which could hold up to 1,500 prisoners.
The Khmer Rouge government arrested, tortured and eventually executed anyone suspected of belonging to several categories of supposed "enemies '':
Through the 1970s, and especially after mid-1975, the party was also shaken by factional struggles. There were even armed attempts to topple Pol Pot. The resultant purges reached a crest in 1977 and 1978 when thousands, including some important KCP leaders, were executed.
Today, examples of the torture methods used by the Khmer Rouge can be seen at the Tuol Sleng Genocide Museum. The museum occupies the former grounds of a high school turned prison camp that was operated by Khang Khek Ieu, more commonly known as "Comrade Duch ''.
The torture system at Tuol Sleng was designed to make prisoners confess to whatever crimes they were charged with by their captors. In their confessions, the prisoners were asked to describe their personal background. If they were party members, they had to say when they joined the revolution and describe their work assignments in DK. Then the prisoners would relate their supposed treasonous activities in chronological order. The third section of the confession text described prisoners ' thwarted conspiracies and supposed treasonous conversations. At the end, the confessions would list a string of traitors who were the prisoners ' friends, colleagues, or acquaintances. Some lists contained over a hundred names. People whose names were in the confession list were often called in for interrogation. Typical confessions ran into thousands of words in which the prisoner would interweave true events in their lives with imaginary accounts of their espionage activities for the CIA, the KGB, or Vietnam.
Some 17,000 people passed through Tuol Sleng Centre (also known as S - 21) before they were taken to sites (also known as The Killing Fields), outside Phnom Penh such as Choeung Ek where most were executed (mainly by pickaxes to save bullets) and buried in mass graves. Of the thousands who entered Tuol Sleng only twelve are known to have survived.
Modern research has located 20,000 mass graves from the Khmer Rouge era all over Cambodia. Various studies have estimated the death toll at between 740,000 and 3,000,000, most commonly between 1.4 million and 2.2 million, with perhaps half of those deaths being due to executions, and the rest from starvation and disease.
The Yale Cambodian Genocide Project estimates approximately 1.7 million. R.J. Rummel, an analyst of historical political killings, gives a figure of 2 million.
A UN investigation reported 2 -- 3 million dead, while UNICEF estimated 3 million had been killed. Demographic analysis by Patrick Heuveline suggests that between 1.17 and 3.42 million Cambodians were killed, while Marek Sliwinski estimates that 1.8 million is a conservative figure. Researcher Craig Etcheson of the Documentation Center of Cambodia suggests that the death toll was between 2 and 2.5 million, with a "most likely '' figure of 2.2 million. After 5 years of researching grave sites, he concluded that "these mass graves contain the remains of 1,386,734 victims of execution ''.
An additional 650,000 Cambodians starved to death between 1979 and 1980, largely as a result of the after - effects of Khmer Rouge policy.
Article 20 of the 1976 Constitution of Democratic Kampuchea guaranteed religious freedom, but it also declared that "all reactionary religions that are detrimental to Democratic Kampuchea and the Kampuchean People are strictly forbidden. '' About 85 percent of the population follows the Theravada school of Buddhism. The country 's 40,000 to 60,000 Buddhist monks, regarded by the regime as social parasites, were defrocked and forced into labour brigades.
Many monks were executed; temples and pagodas were destroyed or turned into storehouses or gaols. Images of the Buddha were defaced and dumped into rivers and lakes. People who were discovered praying or expressing religious sentiments were often killed. The Christian and Muslim communities also were even more persecuted, as they were labelled as part of a pro-Western cosmopolitan sphere, hindering Cambodian culture and society.
The Roman Catholic cathedral of Phnom Penh was completely razed. The Khmer Rouge forced Muslims to eat pork, which they regard as forbidden (ḥarām). Many of those who refused were killed. Christian clergy and Muslim imams were executed. One hundred and thirty Cham mosques were destroyed.
The Khmer Rouge banned by decree the existence of ethnic Chinese, Vietnamese, Muslim Cham, and 20 other minorities, which altogether constituted 15 % of the population at the beginning of the Khmer Rouge 's rule.
Tens of thousands of Vietnamese were raped, mutilated, and murdered in regime - organised massacres. Most of the survivors fled to Vietnam.
The Cham, a Muslim minority who are the descendants of migrants from the old state of Champa, were forced to adopt the Khmer language and customs. Their communities, which traditionally had existed apart from Khmer villages, were broken up. Forty thousand Cham were killed in two districts of Kampong Cham Province alone. Thai minorities living near the Thai border also were persecuted.
The state of the Chinese Cambodians was described as "the worst disaster ever to befall any ethnic Chinese community in Southeast Asia ''. Cambodians of Chinese descent were massacred by the Khmer Rouge under the justification that they "used to exploit the Cambodian people ''. The Chinese were stereotyped as traders and moneylenders, and therefore were associated with capitalism. Among the Khmer, the Chinese were also resented for their lighter skin color and cultural differences. Hundreds of Chinese families were rounded up in 1978 and told that they were to be resettled, but were actually executed. At the beginning of the Khmer Rouge 's rule in 1975, there were 425,000 ethnic Chinese in Cambodia; by the end in 1979, there were 200,000. In addition to being a proscribed ethnic group by the government, the Chinese were predominantly city - dwellers, making them vulnerable to the Khmer Rouge 's revolutionary ruralism. The government of the People 's Republic of China did not protest the killings of ethnic Chinese in Cambodia. The policies of the Khmer Rouge towards Sino - Cambodians seems puzzling in light of the fact that the two most powerful people in the regime and presumably the originators of the racist doctrine, Pol Pot and Nuon Chea, both had mixed Chinese - Cambodian ancestry. Other senior figures in the Khmer Rouge state apparatus such as Son Sen and Ta Mok also had Chinese ethnic heritage.
In the late 1980s, little was known of Khmer Rouge policies toward the tribal peoples of the northeast, the Khmer Loeu. Pol Pot established an insurgent base in the tribal areas of Ratanakiri Province in the early 1960s, and he may have had a substantial Khmer Loeu following. Predominantly animist peoples, with few ties to the Buddhist culture of the lowland Khmers, the Khmer Loeu had resented Sihanouk 's attempts to "civilise '' them.
The ' Democratic Kampuchea ' regime had closer ties with China (its main backer) and to a lesser extent with North Korea. In 1977, in a message congratulating the Cambodian comrades on the 17th anniversary of the CKP, Kim Jong - Il congratulated the Cambodian people for having "wiped out (...) counterrevolutionary group of spies who had committed subversive activities and sabotage '' Only China, North Korea, Egypt, Albania, Cuba, Laos, Vietnam (until December 1977), Romania and Yugoslavia had diplomatic missions in Phnom Penh.
Not content with ruling Cambodia, the KR leaders also dreamed of reviving the Angkorian empire of a thousand years earlier, which ruled over large parts of what today are Thailand and Vietnam. This involved launching military attacks into southern Vietnam in which thousands of unarmed villagers were massacred.
Immediately following the Khmer Rouge victory in 1975, there were skirmishes between their troops and Vietnamese forces. A number of incidents occurred in May 1975. The Cambodians launched attacks on the Vietnamese islands of Phu Quoc and Tho Chu causing the death of over 500 civilians and intruded into Vietnamese border provinces. In late May, at about the same time that the United States launched an air strike against the oil refinery at Kompong Som, following the Mayagüez incident, Vietnamese forces seized the Cambodian island of Poulo Wai. According to Republic of Vietnam, the island of Poulo Wai was a part of Vietnam since the 18th century and the island was under Cambodian administrative management in 1939 in accordance with decisions of French conlonists. The Socialist Republic of Vietnam has recognized the island of Poulo Wai as part of Cambodia since 1976, and the recognition is seen as a sign of goodwill by Vietnam to preserve its relationship with Cambodia.
The following month, Pol Pot and Ieng Sary visited Hanoi. They proposed a friendship treaty between the two countries, an idea that met with a cool reception from Vietnam 's leaders. Although the Vietnamese evacuated Poulo Wai in August, incidents continued along Cambodia 's northeastern border. At the instigation of the Phnom Penh regime, thousands of Vietnamese also were driven out of Cambodia.
Relations between Cambodia and Vietnam improved in 1976, in part because of Pol Pot 's preoccupation with intraparty challenges. In May Cambodian and Vietnamese representatives met in Phnom Penh in order to establish a commission to resolve border disagreements.
The Vietnamese, however, refused to recognize the Brévié Line -- the colonial - era demarcation of maritime borders between the two countries -- and the negotiations broke down. In late September, however, a few days before Pol Pot was forced to resign as prime minister, air links were established between Phnom Penh and Hanoi.
With Pol Pot back in the forefront of the regime in 1977, the situation rapidly deteriorated. Incidents escalated along all of Cambodia 's borders. Khmer Rouge forces attacked villages in the border areas of Thailand near Aranyaprathet. Brutal murders of Thai villagers, including women and children, were the first widely reported concrete evidence of Khmer Rouge atrocities. There were also incidents along the Laos border.
At approximately the same time, villages in Vietnam 's border areas underwent renewed attacks. In turn, Vietnam launched air strikes against Cambodia. From April 18 to 30, 1975, Cambodian troops, after invading Vietnamese province of An Giang, carried out the Ba Chúc massacre causing 3,157 civilian death in province of Tay Ninh, Vietnam. In September, border fighting resulted in as many as 1,000 Vietnamese civilian casualties. The following month, the Vietnamese counter-attacked in a campaign involving a force of 20,000 personnel.
Vietnamese defense minister General Vo Nguyen Giap underestimated the tenacity of the Khmer Rouge, however, and was obliged to commit an additional 58,000 reinforcements in December. On January 6, 1978, Giap 's forces began an orderly withdrawal from Cambodian territory. The Vietnamese apparently believed they had "taught a lesson '' to the Cambodians, but Pol Pot proclaimed this a "victory '' even greater than that of April 17, 1975. For several years, the Vietnamese government sought in vain to establish peaceful relations with the KR regime. But the KR leaders were intent on war. Behind this seeming insanity clearly lay the assumption that China would support the KR militarily in such a conflict.
Faced with growing Khmer Rouge belligerence, the Vietnamese leadership decided in early 1978 to support internal resistance to the Pol Pot regime, with the result that the Eastern Zone became a focus of insurrection. War hysteria reached bizarre levels within Democratic Kampuchea. In May 1978, on the eve of So Phim 's Eastern Zone uprising, Radio Phnom Penh declared that if each Cambodian soldier killed thirty Vietnamese, only 2 million troops would be needed to eliminate the entire Vietnamese population of 50 million. It appears that the leadership in Phnom Penh was seized with immense territorial ambitions, i.e., to recover Kampuchea Krom, the Mekong Delta region, which they regarded as Khmer territory.
Massacres of ethnic Vietnamese and of their sympathizers by the Khmer Rouge intensified in the Eastern Zone after the May revolt. In November, Vorn Vet led an unsuccessful coup d'état. There were now tens of thousands of Cambodian and Vietnamese exiles on Vietnamese territory.
On December 3, 1978, Radio Hanoi announced the formation of the Kampuchean National United Front for National Salvation (KNUFNS). This was a heterogeneous group of communist and noncommunist exiles who shared an antipathy to the Pol Pot regime and a virtually total dependence on Vietnamese backing and protection. The KNUFNS provided the semblance, if not the reality, of legitimacy for Vietnam 's invasion of Democratic Kampuchea and for its subsequent establishment of a satellite regime in Phnom Penh.
In the meantime, as 1978 wore on, Cambodian bellicosity in the border areas surpassed Hanoi 's threshold of tolerance. Vietnamese policy makers opted for a military solution and, on December 22, Vietnam launched its offensive with the intent of overthrowing Democratic Kampuchea. A force of 120,000, consisting of combined armor and infantry units with strong artillery support, drove west into the level countryside of Cambodia 's southeastern provinces. Together, the Vietnamese army and the National Salvation Front struck at the KR on December 25.
After a seventeen - day campaign, Phnom Penh fell to the advancing Vietnamese on January 7, 1979. Pol Pot and the main leaders initially took refuge near the border with Thailand. After making deals with several governments, they were able to use Thailand as a safe staging area for the construction and operation of new redoubts in the mountain and jungle fastness of Cambodia 's periphery, Pol Pot and other Khmer Rouge leaders regrouped their units, issued a new call to arms, and reignited a stubborn insurgency against the regime in power as they had done in the late 1960s.
For the moment, however, the Vietnamese invasion had accomplished its purpose of deposing an unlamented and particularly violent dictatorship. A new administration of ex-Khmer Rouge fighters under the control of Hanoi was quickly established (who are ruling till present), and it set about competing, both domestically and internationally, with the Khmer Rouge as the legitimate government of Cambodia.
Peace still eluded the war - ravaged nation, however, and although the insurgency set in motion by the Khmer Rouge proved unable to topple the new Vietnamese - controlled regime in Phnom Penh, it did nonetheless keep the country in a permanent state of insecurity. The new administration was propped up by a substantial Vietnamese military force and civilian advisory effort.
As events in the 1980s progressed, the main preoccupations of the new regime were survival, restoring the economy, and combating the Khmer Rouge insurgency by military and by political means. The fostering of activity to meet these imperatives and the building of institutions are described in subsequent articles in the History of Cambodia series.
The UN General Assembly voted by a margin of 71 to 35 for the KR to retain their seat at the UN, with 34 abstentions and 12 absentees. The seat was occupied by Thiounn Prasith, an old cadre of Pol Pot and Ieng Sary from their student days in Paris and one of the 21 attendees at the 1960 KPRP Second Congress. The seat was retained under the name ' Democratic Kampuchea ' until 1982 and then ' Coalition Government of Democratic Kampuchea ' until 1993.
According to journalist Elizabeth Becker, former U.S. National Security Advisor Zbigniew Brzezinski said that in 1979, "I encouraged the Chinese to support Pol Pot. Pol Pot was an abomination. We could never support him, but China could. '' Brzezinski has denied this, writing that the Chinese were aiding Pol Pot "without any help or encouragement from the United States. ''
China, the U.S., and other Western countries opposed an expansion of Vietnamese and Soviet influence in Indochina, and refused to recognize the People 's Republic of Kampuchea as the legitimate government of Cambodia, claiming that it was a puppet state propped up by Vietnamese forces. China funneled military aid to the Khmer Rouge, which in the 1980s proved to be the most capable insurgent force, while the U.S. publicly supported a non-Communist alternative to the PRK; in 1985, the Reagan administration approved $5 million in aid to the republican KPNLF, led by former prime minister Son Sann, and the ANS, the armed wing of the pro-Sihanouk FUNCINPEC party.
The KPNLF, while lacking in military strength compared to the Khmer Rouge, commanded a sizable civilian following (up to 250,000) amongst refugees near the Thai - Cambodian border that had fled the KR regime. Funcinpec had the benefit of traditional peasant Khmer loyalty to the crown and Sihanouk 's widespread popularity in the countryside.
In practice, the military strength of the non-KR groups within Cambodia was minimal, though their funding and civilian support was often greater than the KR. The Thatcher and Reagan administrations both supported the non-KR insurgents covertly, with weapons, and military advisors in the form of Green Berets and Special Air Service units, who taught sabotage techniques in camps just inside Thailand.
A UN-led peacekeeping mission that took place from 1991 -- 95 sought to end violence in the country and establish a democratic system of government through new elections. The 1990s saw a marked decline in insurgent activity, though the Khmer Rouge later renewed their attacks against the government. As Vietnam disengaged from direct involvement in Cambodia, the government was able to begin to split the KR movement by making peace offers to lower level officials. The Khmer Rouge was the only member of the CGDK to continue fighting following the reconciliation process. The other two political organizations that made up the CGDK alliance ended armed resistance and became a part of the political process that began with elections in 1993.
In 1997, Pol Pot ordered the execution of his right - hand man Son Sen for attempting peace negotiations with the Cambodian government. In 1998, Pol Pot himself died, and other key KR leaders Khieu Samphan and Ieng Sary surrendered to the government of Hun Sen in exchange for immunity from prosecution, leaving Ta Mok as the sole commander of the Khmer Rouge forces; he was detained in 1999 for "crimes against humanity. '' The organization essentially ceased to exist.
Since 1990 Cambodia has gradually recovered, demographically and economically, from the Khmer Rouge regime, although the psychological scars affect many Cambodian families and émigré communities. The current government teaches little about Khmer Rouge atrocities in schools. Cambodia has a very young population and by 2005 three - quarters of Cambodians were too young to remember the Khmer Rouge years. The younger generations would only know the Khmer Rouge through word - of - mouth from parents and elders.
In 1997, Cambodia established a Khmer Rouge Trial Task Force to create a legal and judicial structure to try the remaining leaders for war crimes and other crimes against humanity, but progress was slow, mainly because the Cambodian government of ex-Khmer Rouge Cadre Hun Sen, despite its origins in the Vietnamese - backed regime of the 1980s, was reluctant to bring the Khmer Rouge leaders to trial.
Funding shortfalls plagued the operation, and the government said that due to the poor economy and other financial commitments, it could only afford limited funding for the tribunal. Several countries, including India and Japan, came forward with extra funds, but by January 2006, the full balance of funding was not yet in place.
Nonetheless, the task force began its work and took possession of two buildings on the grounds of the Royal Cambodian Armed Forces (RCAF) High Command headquarters in Kandal province just on the outskirts of Phnom Penh. The tribunal task force expects to spend the rest of 2006 training the judges and other tribunal members before the actual trial is to take place. In March 2006 the Secretary General of the United Nations, Kofi Annan, nominated seven judges for a trial of the Khmer Rouge leaders.
In May 2006, Justice Minister Ang Vong Vathana announced that Cambodia 's highest judicial body approved 30 Cambodian and U.N. judges to preside over the genocide tribunal for some surviving Khmer Rouge leaders. The chief Khmer Rouge torturer Kang Kek Iew -- known as Duch and ex-commandant of the notorious S - 21 prison -- went on trial for crimes against humanity on February 17, 2009. It is the first case involving a senior Pol Pot cadre three decades after the end of a regime blamed for 1.7 million deaths in Cambodia.
While the events in Cambodia are widely considered to be a genocide or democide and referred to as such, Steven Rosefielde argues that the deaths in Cambodia fail to meet the definition of genocide in the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide. Rosefielde states that there is "no evidence Pol Pot sought to exterminate the Khmer people, or even the Cham and religious minorities. '' Instead, he defines Khmer Rouge killings as "dystopicide '': "The no - prisoners - taken pursuit of badly implemented, poorly conceived communist utopia - building. ''
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the structure of the eye that continues to grow throughout life is the | Lens (anatomy) - wikipedia
The lens is a transparent, biconvex structure in the eye that, along with the cornea, helps to refract light to be focused on the retina. The lens, by changing shape, functions to change the focal distance of the eye so that it can focus on objects at various distances, thus allowing a sharp real image of the object of interest to be formed on the retina. This adjustment of the lens is known as accommodation (see also below). Accommodation is similar to the focusing of a photographic camera via movement of its lenses. The lens is more flat on its anterior side than on its posterior side.
The lens is also known as the aquula (Latin, a little stream, dim. of aqua, water) or crystalline lens. In humans, the refractive power of the lens in its natural environment is approximately 18 dioptres, roughly one - third of the eye 's total power.
The lens is part of the anterior segment of the human eye. In front of the lens is the iris, which regulates the amount of light entering into the eye. The lens is suspended in place by the suspensory ligament of the lens, a ring of fibrous tissue that attaches to the lens at its equator and connects it to the ciliary body. Posterior to the lens is the vitreous body, which, along with the aqueous humor on the anterior surface, bathes the lens. The lens has an ellipsoid, biconvex shape. The anterior surface is less curved than the posterior. In the adult, the lens is typically circa 10 mm in diameter and has an axial length of about 4 mm, though it is important to note that the size and shape can change due to accommodation and because the lens continues to grow throughout a person 's lifetime.
The lens has three main parts: the lens capsule, the lens epithelium, and the lens fibers. The lens capsule forms the outermost layer of the lens and the lens fibers form the bulk of the interior of the lens. The cells of the lens epithelium, located between the lens capsule and the outermost layer of lens fibers, are found only on the anterior side of the lens. The lens itself lacks nerves, blood vessels, or connective tissue.
The lens capsule is a smooth, transparent basement membrane that completely surrounds the lens. The capsule is elastic and is composed of collagen. It is synthesized by the lens epithelium and its main components are Type IV collagen and sulfated glycosaminoglycans (GAGs). The capsule is very elastic and so allows the lens to assume a more globular shape when not under the tension of the zonular fibers, which connect the lens capsule to the ciliary body. The capsule varies from 2 to 28 micrometres in thickness, being thickest near the equator and thinnest near the posterior pole.
The lens epithelium, located in the anterior portion of the lens between the lens capsule and the lens fibers, is a simple cuboidal epithelium. The cells of the lens epithelium regulate most of the homeostatic functions of the lens. As ions, nutrients, and liquid enter the lens from the aqueous humor, Na / K - ATPase pumps in the lens epithelial cells pump ions out of the lens to maintain appropriate lens osmotic concentration and volume, with equatorially positioned lens epithelium cells contributing most to this current. The activity of the Na / K - ATPases keeps water and current flowing through the lens from the poles and exiting through the equatorial regions.
The cells of the lens epithelium also serve as the progenitors for new lens fibers. It constantly lays down fibers in the embryo, fetus, infant, and adult, and continues to lay down fibers for lifelong growth.
The lens fibers form the bulk of the lens. They are long, thin, transparent cells, firmly packed, with diameters typically 4 -- 7 micrometres and lengths of up to 12 mm long. The lens fibers stretch lengthwise from the posterior to the anterior poles and, when cut horizontally, are arranged in concentric layers rather like the layers of an onion. If cut along the equator, it appears as a honeycomb. The middle of each fiber lies on the equator. These tightly packed layers of lens fibers are referred to as laminae. The lens fibers are linked together via gap junctions and interdigitations of the cells that resemble "ball and socket '' forms.
The lens is split into regions depending on the age of the lens fibers of a particular layer. Moving outwards from the central, oldest layer, the lens is split into an embryonic nucleus, the fetal nucleus, the adult nucleus, and the outer cortex. New lens fibers, generated from the lens epithelium, are added to the outer cortex. Mature lens fibers have no organelles or nuclei.
Development of the human lens begins at the 4 mm embryonic stage. Unlike the rest of the eye, which is derived mostly from the neural ectoderm, the lens is derived from the surface ectoderm. The first stage of lens differentiation takes place when the optic vesicle, which is formed from outpocketings in the neural ectoderm, comes in proximity to the surface ectoderm. The optic vesicle induces nearby surface ectoderm to form the lens placode. At the 4 mm stage, the lens placode is a single monolayer of columnar cells.
As development progresses, the lens placode begins to deepen and invaginate. As the placode continues to deepen, the opening to the surface ectoderm constricts and the lens cells forms a structure known as the lens vesicle. By the 10 mm stage, the lens vesicle has completely separated from the surface ectoderm.
After the 10 mm stage, signals from the developing neural retina induces the cells closest to the posterior end of the lens vesicle begin to elongate toward the anterior end of the vesicle. These signals also induce the synthesis of crystallins. These elongating cells eventually fill in the lumen of the vesicle to form the primary fibers, which become the embryonic nucleus in the mature lens. The cells of the anterior portion of the lens vesicle give rise to the lens epithelium.
Additional secondary fibers are derived from lens epithelial cells located toward the equatorial region of the lens. These cells lengthen anteriorly and posteriorly to encircle the primary fibers. The new fibers grow longer than those of the primary layer, but as the lens gets larger, the ends of the newer fibers can not reach the posterior or anterior poles of the lens. The lens fibers that do not reach the poles form tight, interdigitating seams with neighboring fibers. These seams are readily visible and are termed sutures. The suture patterns become more complex as more layers of lens fibers are added to the outer portion of the lens.
The lens continues to grow after birth, with the new secondary fibers being added as outer layers. New lens fibers are generated from the equatorial cells of the lens epithelium, in a region referred to as the germinative zone. The lens epithelial cells elongate, lose contact with the capsule and epithelium, synthesize crystallin, and then finally lose their nuclei (enucleate) as they become mature lens fibers. From development through early adulthood, the addition of secondary lens fibers results in the lens growing more ellipsoid in shape; after about age 20, however, the lens grows rounder with time and the iris is very important for this development
Several proteins control the embryonic development of the lens: among these, primarily, PAX6, considered the master regulator gene of this organ. Other effectors of proper lens development include the Wnt signaling components BCL9 and Pygo2.
In many aquatic vertebrates, the lens is considerably thicker, almost spherical, to increase the refraction. This difference compensates for the smaller angle of refraction between the eye 's cornea and the watery medium, as they have similar refractive indices. Even among terrestrial animals, however, the lens of primates such as humans is unusually flat.
In reptiles and birds, the ciliary body touches the lens with a number of pads on its inner surface, in addition to the zonular fibres. These pads compress and release the lens to modify its shape while focusing on objects at different distances; the zonular fibres perform this function in mammals. In fish and amphibians, the lens is fixed in shape, and focusing is instead achieved by moving the lens forwards or backwards within the eye.
In cartilaginous fish, the zonular fibres are replaced by a membrane, including a small muscle at the underside of the lens. This muscle pulls the lens forward from its relaxed position when focusing on nearby objects. In teleosts, by contrast, a muscle projects from a vascular structure in the floor of the eye, called the falciform process, and serves to pull the lens backwards from the relaxed position to focus on distant objects. While amphibians move the lens forward, as do cartilaginous fish, the muscles involved are not homologous with those of either type of fish. In frogs, there are two muscles, one above and one below the lens, while other amphibians have only the lower muscle.
In the most primitive vertebrates, the lampreys and hagfish, the lens is not attached to the outer surface of the eyeball at all. There is no aqueous humor in these fish, and the vitreous body simply presses the lens against the surface of the cornea. To focus its eyes, a lamprey flattens the cornea using muscles outside of the eye and pushes the lens backwards.
The lens is flexible and its curvature is controlled by ciliary muscles through the zonules. By changing the curvature of the lens, one can focus the eye on objects at different distances from it. This process is called accommodation. At short focal distance the ciliary muscle contracts, zonule fibers loosen, and the lens thickens, resulting in a rounder shape and thus high refractive power. Changing focus to an object at a greater distance requires the relaxation of the lens and thus increasing the focal distance.
The refractive index of human lens varies from approximately 1.406 in the central layers down to 1.386 in less dense layers of the lens. This index gradient enhances the optical power of the lens.
Aquatic animals must rely entirely on their lens for both focusing and to provide almost the entire refractive power of the eye as the water - cornea interface does not have a large enough difference in indices of refraction to provide significant refractive power. As such, lenses in aquatic eyes tend to be much rounder and harder.
Crystallins are water - soluble proteins that compose over 90 % of the protein within the lens. The three main crystallin types found in the human eye are α -, β -, and γ - crystallins. Crystallins tend to form soluble, high - molecular weight aggregates that pack tightly in lens fibers, thus increasing the index of refraction of the lens while maintaining its transparency. β and γ crystallins are found primarily in the lens, while subunits of α - crystallin have been isolated from other parts of the eye and the body. α - crystallin proteins belong to a larger superfamily of molecular chaperone proteins, and so it is believed that the crystallin proteins were evolutionarily recruited from chaperone proteins for optical purposes. The chaperone functions of α - crystallin may also help maintain the lens proteins, which must last a human for his / her entire lifetime.
Another important factor in maintaining the transparency of the lens is the absence of light - scattering organelles such as the nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, and mitochondria within the mature lens fibers. Lens fibers also have a very extensive cytoskeleton that maintains the precise shape and packing of the lens fibers; disruptions / mutations in certain cytoskeletal elements can lead to the loss of transparency.
The lens blocks most ultraviolet light in the wavelength range of 300 -- 400 nm; shorter wavelengths are blocked by the cornea. High intensity ultraviolet light can harm the retina, and artificial intraocular lenses are therefore manufactured to also block ultraviolet light. People lacking a lens (a condition known as aphakia) perceive ultraviolet light as whitish blue or whitish - violet.
The lens is metabolically active and requires nourishment in order to maintain its growth and transparency. Compared to other tissues in the eye, however, the lens has considerably lower energy demands.
By nine weeks into human development, the lens is surrounded and nourished by a net of vessels, the tunica vasculosa lentis, which is derived from the hyaloid artery. Beginning in the fourth month of development, the hyaloid artery and its related vasculature begin to atrophy and completely disappear by birth. In the postnatal eye, Cloquet 's canal marks the former location of the hyaloid artery.
After regression of the hyaloid artery, the lens receives all its nourishment from the aqueous humor. Nutrients diffuse in and waste diffuses out through a constant flow of fluid from the anterior / posterior poles of the lens and out of the equatorial regions, a dynamic that is maintained by the Na / K - ATPase) pumps located in the equatorially positioned cells of the lens epithelium.
Glucose is the primary energy source for the lens. As mature lens fibers do not have mitochondria, approximately 80 % of the glucose is metabolized via anaerobic metabolism. The remaining fraction of glucose is shunted primarily down the pentose phosphate pathway. The lack of aerobic respiration means that the lens consumes very little oxygen as well.
MRI scan of human eye showing lens.
Interior of anterior chamber of eye.
The crystalline lens, hardened and divided.
Section through the margin of the lens, showing the transition of the epithelium into the lens fibers.
The structures of the eye labeled
Another view of the eye and the structures of the eye labeled
This svg file was configured so that the rays, diaphragm and crystalline lens are easily modified
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the most abundant element in earth's crust | Abundance of elements in Earth 's crust - wikipedia
The abundance of elements in Earth 's crust is shown in tabulated form with the estimated crustal abundance for each chemical element shown as either percentage or parts per million (ppm) by mass (10,000 ppm = 1 %).
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who plays the voice of sally in cars | Sally Carrera - wikipedia
Sally Carrera is a fictional character In the Pixar computer animated film Cars. She is Radiator Springs 's town attorney and protagonist Lightning McQueen 's love interest. She is voiced by Bonnie Hunt.
In the film, Sally owns the Cozy Cone Motel, a newly refurbished tourist court similar in design to the Wigwam Motels but with each individual motel room constructed as an oversized traffic cone. She has cones all around her shop, inside and out; even the lamps, planters and alarm clocks follow the theme. Neon lighting at the Cozy Cone, one of the first historic restoration efforts in Radiator Springs, displays the "100 % Refrigerated Air '' slogan of Tucumcari 's historic US 66 Blue Swallow Motel.
She once was a successful California lawyer but, unhappy, chose to leave the state to settle in the small U.S. Route 66 town.
"It 's really pretty simple. I was an attorney in LA. livin ' life in the fast lane and well, that was my life. And you know what? It never felt happy. So I left California. Just drove and drove and finally broke down right here. Doc fixed me up, Flo took me in. Well, they all did. And I never left. ''
Sally is a 2002 Porsche 911 Carrera on a slightly - shortened wheelbase and has a pinstripe tattoo on her back. Pixar had initially wanted a classic Porsche for the role, but were convinced by Bob Carlson at Porsche to make her the latest model. Pixar 's animators, modelers and sound crews obtained access to real Porsche 911 - series vehicles to meticulously create an animated Sally who looks, moves and responds in a similar manner to the original automobile.
"It 's the nicest body I 've ever had on film. I 'm telling you, it 's a luxury. I really thought they were going to cast me as a Buick. ''
According to director John Lasseter. "Sally is the one modern car in the town of Radiator Springs. She 's beautiful. It 's interesting that people mostly think of a Porsche as powerful and a guy 's car, but the lines on a Porsche are so beautiful that it fits perfectly for the character of Sally. ''
Her character is modeled on Dawn Welch of the historic Rock Café on U.S. Route 66 in Oklahoma, an advocate of the promotion and restoration of Stroud, Oklahoma after the town had been both bypassed by the Turner Turnpike and heavily damaged by a 1999 F3 tornado. Welch had long traveled cross-country promoting Route 66 and rallying support for keeping it alive. Like Sally, Dawn Welch is a relative newcomer to U.S. Route 66, having left the travel industry to purchase the Rock Café in 1993 and list it on the National Register of Historic Places in 2001. Originally, Sally was going to be a Ford Mustang. However, they made her a Porsche since the grill looked more "lady like. '' She also, at one point, originally resembled a Porsche 993.
"We met people out on Route 66 and we 're thinking, at first, ' What are you doing here? You 've travelled the world. You 're educated. You speak three languages. But you run a restaurant out in the middle of nowhere. ' But then, after an hour of having dinner with this person, you think, ' Wow, this is perfect. I 'm so glad you 're here because you 're keeping it alive. ' ''
Sally is instrumental in convincing the local judge to direct McQueen to repair the town 's Main Street, a section of the now - bypassed U.S. Route 66, as a community service obligation upon his conviction in traffic court. Sally often calls Lightning McQueen "Stickers '', at first because of his fake headlights and later as a friendly nickname. Her desire that McQueen stay to assist in rebuilding the town places her at odds with Doc 's intransigence that "I want him out of my courtroom. I want him out of our town! '', motivated by his desire to break all ties with a racing community which once abandoned him.
Sally leads McQueen on a leisurely drive on picturesque but serpentine mountain roads through Tailfin Pass to the vacant Wheel Well Motel, an abandoned motor court and filling station near a scenic lookout point with a wide panoramic view of Ornament Valley, Radiator Springs and the entire surrounding region (including US 66 and I - 40). Surrounding scenery strongly resembles Arizona landmarks such as Havasu Falls near Grand Canyon National Park or Monument Valley. She also appears to be able to speak Italian at least when she sometimes talks to Guido.
She explains the history of the town with a nostalgic flashback, describing the two - lane Route 66 's busy heyday and the construction of the parallel but unconnected six - lane I - 40; the fact that it would not connect with Radiator Springs was unknown to the excited locals, who were expecting a new influx of visitors. The disappearance of cars from Main Street on the new highway 's completion is every bit as abrupt as that (described to the film 's makers by Arizona business people Angel and Juan Delgadillo) when I - 40 opened in Seligman on September 22, 1978. When Interstate 40 is completed, US 66, Radiator Springs and Ornament Valley are all seen to simultaneously vanish from road maps as all highway traffic on 66 disappears and local businesses close, their business names fading into the underlying brickwork.
Forty years ago, that Interstate down there did n't exist. Back then, cars came across the country a whole different way. Well, the road did n't cut through the land like that Interstate. It moved with the land, it rose, it fell, it curved. Cars did n't drive on it to make great time. They drove on it to have a great time.
Lamenting that "the town got bypassed just to save ten minutes of driving '', she often wishes to have seen the community in its heyday. Her efforts are devoted to historic restoration and tireless promotion of "Radiator Springs, the glorious jewel strung on the necklace of Route 66, the mother road ''. The town has been without clients for years, even though there are no services on the new road. As the task of rebuilding is huge (the Rock Café, listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2001, represented a $ 60,000 restoration effort) she needs to convince a long - demoralised local populace not only that the town can be fixed but also that "we 're a town worth fixing '' and that "someday, we 'll find a way to get this place back on the map ''.
Her ultimate objective is to get the once busy and neon - lit 1950s main street rebuilt to its former historic glory and obtain much - needed publicity for the town to restore "Radiator Springs '' to highway signage and "Historic Route 66 '' to standard printed road maps. Sally serves as a vehicle to deliver a message which individual small towns, historic preservationists, route 66 associations, chambers of commerce, route 66 businesspeople and various long - time fans of the mother road have tried to convey for many years since US 66 became a decommissioned highway in 1985, largely removing the route from maps.
After the big race is complete, McQueen and Sally rebuild and reopen the Wheel Well as a bed and breakfast, restoring the historic 1930s fuel pumps to its forecourt. (A third motel in the area, the long - abandoned "Glenn Rio Motel '', is shown briefly but does not return as a motel.) She is set to appear in Cars 3 and will be attending the race at where McQueen crashes.
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who won the 2018 formula 1 australian grand prixs | 2018 Australian Grand Prix - wikipedia
The 2018 Australian Grand Prix (formally known as the Formula 1 2018 Rolex Australian Grand Prix) was a Formula One motor race held on 25 March 2018 in Melbourne, Victoria. The race was contested over fifty - eight laps of the Melbourne Grand Prix Circuit and was the first round of the 2018 FIA Formula One World Championship. The race marked the eighty - second race in the combined history of the Australian Grand Prix -- which dates back to the 100 Miles Road Race of 1928 -- and the twenty - third time the event was held at the Albert Park circuit.
Ferrari driver Sebastian Vettel was the defending race winner. Lewis Hamilton started the race from pole -- his seventh pole position in Australia, a record for the event -- while Vettel successfully defended his race win, the forty - eighth of his career.
The race marked the competitive début of the "halo '' cockpit protection device after eighteen months of rigorous testing.
Tyre supplier Pirelli provided teams with the soft, supersoft and ultrasoft compounds.
In the week before the Grand Prix, race officials confirmed the inclusion of a third drag reduction system (DRS) zone. The detection point for the third zone was positioned on the approach to the Turn 11 - 12 chicane with the activation point on the exit to Turn 12. The existing DRS zones were unchanged from previous years, with one positioned on the main straight and the second on the straight between Turns 2 and 3.
In his first run in the third part of qualifying Valtteri Bottas crashed and damaged his gearbox. As a result he received a five place grid penalty and started fifteenth. Lewis Hamilton qualified on pole, Kimi Räikkönen qualified second, Sebastian Vettel qualified third. Ricciardo qualified fifth but started eighth. Verstappen, Magnussen, Grosjean started fourth, fifth and sixth. Hülkenberg started seventh, while Sainz and Alonso started ninth and tenth.
After the start the top three stayed in the same order they started while Verstappen lost a place to Magnussen at the start. Sergey Sirotkin was the first retirement of the race when on lap 4 he retired due to a brake failure caused by overheating. On lap 9, Verstappen spun at turn one while chasing Magnussen and dropped down to eighth. Hamilton led Räikkönen, Vettel, Magnussen, Grosjean, Ricciardo, Hülkenberg, Verstappen, Sainz and Alonso. They stayed in that order until the first round of pit stops. On lap 18 Räikkönen pitted for softs. On lap 19 Hamilton pitted for softs to cover Räikkönen and emerged on track ahead of him. Verstappen pitted on lap 20. Magnussen pitted at the end of lap 21, but retired the next lap due to the cross-threaded wheel - nut being fitted loosely. On lap 24, Grosjean retired at turn 2 from seventh after pitting with the same problem as his team mate Magnussen resulting in a Virtual Safety Car (VSC) being called out. On lap 26 Vettel pitted under the VSC and emerged ahead of Hamilton and Räikkönen. Mercedes miscalculated the required gap between Vettel and Hamilton to prevent a jump under the safety car before Vettel 's pit stop due to a software glitch. After the first round of pit stops Vettel led with Hamilton second and Räikkönen in third. Alonso pitted under the VSC to emerge ahead of Verstappen. On lap 27 the full - course Safety Car was called out. The safety car came in at the end of lap 31. This left the top ten Vettel, Hamilton, Räikkönen, Ricciardo, Alonso, Verstappen, Hülkenberg, Bottas, Vandoorne and Sainz. None of the top ten pitted again. Ricciardo hounded Räikkönen for the rest of the race, setting the fastest lap in the process. Alonso resisted the pressure from Verstappen while holding on to fifth place. Vettel took the chequered flag to win the Australian Grand Prix for the second consecutive year, followed by Hamilton and Räikkönen rounding the podium. Ricciardo, Alonso, Verstappen, Hülkenberg, Bottas, Vandoorne and Sainz in that order completed the top ten, with Renault scoring their first double - points - finish since the 2011 Turkish Grand Prix. Ricciardo 's 4th placed finish marked his joint best finish at Albert Park, but also the joint best finish for an Australian at the Australian Grand Prix, equalling his 2016 result, and Mark Webber 's 4th place in 2012.
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how many goals did yakubu aiyegbeni scored in english premier league | Yakubu Aiyegbeni - wikipedia
Yakubu Aiyegbeni (born 22 November 1982), known as Yakubu, is a Nigerian former professional footballer who last played as a striker for Coventry City. His nickname is "The Yak ''.
His performances in the 2002 -- 03 UEFA Champions League for Maccabi Haifa earned a loan move to English club Portsmouth which became permanent as they were promoted to the Premier League in 2003. He has since appeared in over 250 Premier League matches for Portsmouth, Middlesbrough, Everton, and Blackburn Rovers, and is the second highest African goalscorer in Premier League history with 96 goals. He is the third highest scorer in the history of the Nigeria national football team, and represented them at four African Cup of Nations finals, the 2010 FIFA World Cup and the football at the 2000 Summer Olympics.
Yakubu Aiyegbeni was born in Benin City, Edo State. A powerful central striker, he started his career with Julius Berger FC in Lagos as a teenager in the Nigerian Premier League. He was later loaned to Portuguese club Gil Vicente.
Israeli side Maccabi Haifa paid Julius Berger $300,000 for his signature. Yakubu 's highest scoring season at Haifa was 2001 -- 02, when he scored 13 times in 22 games (League season was 33 matches). He came to England and trained with Derby County but could not obtain a work permit at the time. He scored seven goals in eight European Cup appearances in the 2002 -- 03 season UEFA Champions League, (including a hat - trick against Olympiakos and a penalty in the 3 -- 0 win over Manchester United).
Yakubu moved to English club Portsmouth of the First Division (now the Championship) on loan on 6 January 2003. Signed by Harry Redknapp, Yakubu helped Portsmouth win the 2002 -- 03 Division 1 title, scoring at a rate of one goal every two games (7 in 14 matches). He made his debut as a 57th - minute substitute for Vincent Péricard in a 1 -- 1 away match versus Brighton & Hove Albion on 18 January. On 1 February he started for the first time and scored after 4 minutes at home to Grimsby Town. The match ended 3 -- 0 with Yakubu substituted for Péricard after 89 minutes. Seven days later, Yakubu scored a goal in each half of a 6 -- 2 victory over Derby County for his first brace in English football. He gained his second brace of the season with two first - half goals in a 5 -- 0 away victory at Millwall on 1 March.
Yakubu made his loan spell at Portsmouth permanent in May 2003 for a fee of £ 4 million. He played 37 of Portsmouth 's 38 Premier League matches in 2003 -- 04, starting all but two. Yakubu 's 16 goals made him the club 's leading goal - scorer, and joint - sixth highest scorer in the entire league.
Yakubu scored his first Premier League goal in his second match, opening a 1 -- 1 draw versus Manchester City on 23 August 2003. After eight consecutive league matches without a goal, he scored a brace in a League Cup match away to Nottingham Forest on 29 October, one of which was in extra time of the 4 -- 2 win. Yakubu scored the final goal of a 6 -- 1 home win over Leeds United on 8 November. On 3 January 2004, he scored an 89th - minute winner in the FA Cup third round match at home to Blackpool. Three days later he scored an equaliser in the Premier League as Portsmouth lost 2 -- 1 away to Aston Villa. On 10 January he scored his first Premier League brace with two goals in the second half of a 4 -- 2 home win over Manchester City. He played at the 2004 African Cup of Nations.
Yakubu ended the season with 11 goals in his last 10 Premier League matches, starting with one each in four straight games, the first being the only goal in the South Coast derby versus Southampton on 21 March. This was followed by a late winner against Blackburn Rovers in a 2 -- 1 away victory, and an equaliser away to Charlton Athletic. On the final day of the season, he scored four goals as Portsmouth defeated Middlesbrough 5 -- 1.
In the 2004 -- 05 season he scored 13 goals. His final goal for Portsmouth in May 2005 before he left the club -- the equaliser in a 1 -- 1 home draw to Bolton Wanderers in the penulitimate league game of the season -- was the goal that ensured Portsmouth would not be relegated from Premiership in the 2004 -- 05 season.
Yakubu 's 28 Premier League goals between his two seasons make him Portsmouth 's highest ever scorer in the Premier League, with nine more than their second - highest scorer Benjani Mwaruwari.
After the 2004 -- 05 season, he transferred from Portsmouth to Middlesbrough for a £ 7.5 million record fee, the highest for a Nigerian ever. Yakubu scored the only goal of the game with a penalty in the first leg of the UEFA Cup last 16 round at home against Roma, giving Middlesbrough a 1 -- 0 victory, who later went through on away goals. His performances were rewarded, as he helped Middlesbrough reach the 2006 UEFA Cup Final against Sevilla, in which they lost 4 -- 0.
His transfer from Portsmouth to Middlesbrough in July 2005 is one of those about which the Stevens inquiry report in June 2007 expressed concerns because of the lack of co-operation from agents Pinhas Zahavi and Barry Silkman.
Yakubu was transferred to Everton in August 2007 for a fee of £ 11.25 million on a five - year deal, which was at the time the most the club had ever paid for a player. Shunning the traditional centre - forwards ' number 9, Yakubu asked to be assigned number 22, setting this number as a goal - scoring target for his first season, a feat he fell one goal short of achieving. He scored 11 minutes into his debut for the club, the first goal in a 2 -- 1 win against Bolton Wanderers at the Reebok Stadium in September 2007. His first hat - trick for the club came against Fulham in a 3 -- 0 home league win in December 2007. Yakubu travelled to Ghana in early 2008 to compete in the Cup of Nations. Following Nigeria 's exit from the competition, he was late in returning to his club, and as a result was dropped by manager David Moyes once back in England. His double against Newcastle United in a 3 -- 1 win at Goodison Park on the last day of the 2007 -- 08 season helped the Toffees clinch fifth place and a place in the 2008 -- 09 UEFA Cup competition. He finished his first season with 15 Premier League goals to his name, and 21 goals in all competitions for Everton. Yakubu achieved his highest goal tally for a single season, and also became the first Everton player since Peter Beardsley to net 20 goals in a season.
Yakubu scored his 100th goal in English football in a league game at West Bromwich Albion early in the Premier League 2008 -- 09 season. He scored a goal against Standard Liège in the UEFA Cup and got back on the scoresheet with a goal against Middlesbrough, his first goal in 10 games. He ruptured his achilles tendon in the 1 -- 0 away win at Tottenham Hotspur on 30 November, ruling him out for the rest of the season. Yakubu played his first competitive game after the Achilles tendon injury against Burnley Reserves, and in his first start for the first team in almost a year, he scored within 11 minutes against Hull City in the League Cup. He came on for Jô in first - half injury time and scored an equaliser with his first touch to bring Everton level at Stamford Bridge against Chelsea. He later scored the winning goal against Stoke.
Yakubu joined Leicester City on loan until the end of the season on 13 January 2011, with the possibility of a permanent deal. He made his debut and scored in a 1 -- 1 draw against Preston North End on 15 January 2011, followed by another goal in a 4 -- 2 win over Millwall on 22 January.
On 12 February 2011 he scored a left footed volley in their 2 -- 0 win over local rivals Derby County. On 2 April 2011, he scored his first hat - trick against his former club Middlesbrough. He then scored a double in Leicester 's 4 -- 2 win over Watford.
On 31 August 2011, Yakubu signed a three - year deal with Blackburn Rovers for an undisclosed fee and was assigned the number 24 shirt by manager Steve Kean. He scored his first and second goals for Blackburn Rovers on 17 September on his Premier League debut against Arsenal in which Blackburn won 4 -- 3. He was voted Man of the Match as he helped Blackburn to their first win of the season, with Blackburn fans chanting "Feed the Yak and he will score! '' by the time the final whistle blew. He scored his third goal in the league in the 3 -- 3 away draw against Norwich City. Yakubu 's fourth and fifth goals of the league season came in an away 3 -- 3 draw at Wigan Athletic on 19 November 2011. He opened the scoring from long range after 65 seconds and equalised with an injury - time penalty. He had earlier been behind an incident when Blackburn were 2 -- 1 down, by dummying a short corner to allow team - mate Morten Gamst Pedersen to dribble the ball from the corner and cross for Junior Hoilett to equalise the game 2 -- 2. At the end of the game, Yakubu admitted that he did not touch the ball and that the goal should not have stood.
On 3 December 2011, Yakubu scored all four goals for Blackburn in a 4 -- 2 home win over Swansea City. He scored two in each half, finishing with a penalty. It was his first Blackburn hat - trick and his first four - goal game since the last day of the 2003 -- 04 season, for Portsmouth against Middlesbrough. He scored 2 goals, one being a penalty, in his side 's shock 2 -- 3 victory against Manchester United at Old Trafford on 31 December 2011 which left him on 13 goals for the season in all competitions. On 15 January 2012, in a match against Fulham, Yakubu was sent off for the first time in the Premier League for a straight red. On his return from suspension, he scored against QPR. On 10 April 2012, Yakubu scored twice, while missing one penalty and scoring a second, in Blackburn 's 2 -- 3 loss at home to Liverpool. In his first season at Blackburn, he scored 18 goals, but the club were relegated to the Championship by the end of the season after a 1 -- 0 home loss to in - form Wigan Athletic. After relegation was confirmed, Yakubu stated that he did not want to play Championship football and wanted to leave Blackburn.
Yakubu confirmed on 28 June 2012 that he had left Blackburn and had signed for Chinese side Guangzhou R&F, on an initial three - year deal. On 15 July, Yakubu made his Chinese Super League debut in a Guangzhou Derby match which Guangzhou R&F played against Guangzhou Evergrande at Tianhe Stadium. He scored the winning goal of the match in the 87th minute, ending Guangzhou Evergrande 's 34 - league - home - match unbeaten run.
On 2 February 2015, Reading signed free agent Yakubu on a contract until the end of the 2014 -- 15 season. On 14 February, Yakubu scored his first goal for the Royals with the winner in a 2 -- 1 defeat of Derby County at Pride Park to put the club into the quarter - finals of the FA Cup. Yakubu was released by Reading on 21 May 2015.
On 31 August 2015, Yakubu signed a one - year contract, with the option of an additional year, with Süper Lig side Kayserispor.
On 13 February 2017, Yakubu signed for Coventry City until the end of the 2016 -- 17. On 5 April 2017, having featured only three times due to suffering a hamstring injury, Yakubu 's Coventry City contract was terminated by mutual consent. He announced his retirement from football on 22 November 2017.
Yakubu has scored 21 goals in his 57 appearances for Nigeria since his 2000 debut. He is currently the third highest ever international goalscorer for Nigeria.
In September 2000, Yakubu featured in Nigeria 's squad for football at the 2000 Summer Olympics in Australia. Nigeria were the holders for the tournament. Then of Maccabi Haifa, the 17 - year - old Yakubu wore the number 9 shirt. He scored the injury - time equaliser in Nigeria 's first match, a 3 -- 3 draw with Honduras on 13 September in Adelaide. He also played against the hosts Australia on 16 September in Sydney as his side won 3 -- 2 but did not play on 19 September as they drew with Italy in Adelaide. He featured in the quarter - finals as Nigeria lost 4 -- 1 to Chile in Melbourne on 23 September.
Yakubu made his full international debut on 22 April 2000 in a 4 -- 0 home win in Lagos against Eritrea in qualification for the 2002 African Cup of Nations. He scored his first international goal in an away win against Namibia on 16 June 2001 in the same qualification campaign. On 1 July 2001, he scored his first international brace, with the second and fourth goals in a 4 -- 0 away win over Sudan in the 2002 FIFA World Cup qualification stage. He was named in the squad for the 2002 Africa Cup of Nations in Mali and was given the number 8 shirt by manager Shuaibu Amodu. On 9 February 2002, Yakubu scored the only goal of the third - place play - off against Mali after 29 minutes. However, Yakubu was not named later in the year in the squad selected by new manager Festus Onigbinde for the 2002 World Cup in Japan and South Korea.
On 7 June 2003, Yakubu scored Nigeria 's first two goals as they came from behind to beat Malawi 4 -- 1 in a qualifier for the 2004 African Cup of Nations. He retained the number 8 shirt in the squad named for the finals in Tunisia by manager Christian Chukwu but did not score. Alongside Celestine Babayaro and Victor Agali, he was sent home from the tournament for indiscipline. His then manager at Portsmouth, Harry Redknapp said he cared less about the tournament and was glad to have Yakubu back.
Yakubu scored the final goal in an away 3 -- 0 victory over Zimbabwe and an equaliser in an away 1 -- 1 draw against Gabon as Nigeria were beaten to the qualification place by Angola and missed the finals for the first time since 1994. Despite having a goal difference superior by + 14 to + 8, Nigeria did not qualify as the tie - break was on head - to - head between Nigeria and Angola.
Although Nigeria gained a place at the tournament due to their performance in World Cup qualification, Yakubu decided not to play at the 2006 African Cup of Nations to concentrate on his form at Middlesbrough instead. He was praised for his decision as the club defeated defending champions and league leaders Chelsea 3 -- 0.
At the 2010 FIFA World Cup in South Africa, Yakubu notably missed an open goal from three metres against South Korea in the last Group game but later went on to score a penalty. Yakubu 's penalty made sure that Nigeria earned a 2 -- 2 draw, but this was not enough for his side to progress out of the group stages.
In 2008, Yakubu married Yvonne Lameen Ikhana, the daughter of former Nigerian international footballer Kadiri Ikhana, who is also the father - in - law to former Nigerian international footballer Patrick Ovie. Yakubu and Ikhana have 2 daughters named Kayla and Katriel. He used to play barefoot on the streets of Benin, Nigeria, until his brother gave him a pair of boots aged 12.
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how to calculate equivalent weight of sodium hydroxide | Equivalent weight - wikipedia
Equivalent weight (also known as gram equivalent) is a term which has been used in several contexts in chemistry. In its most general usage, it is the mass of one equivalent, that is the mass of a given substance which will
Equivalent weight has the dimensions and units of mass, unlike atomic weight, which is dimensionless. Equivalent weights were originally determined by experiment, but (insofar as they are still used) are now derived from molar masses. Additionally, the equivalent weight of a compound can be calculated by dividing the molecular weight by the number of positive or negative electrical charges that result from the dissolution of the compound.
The first tables of equivalent weights were published for acids and bases by Carl Friedrich Wenzel in 1777. A larger set of tables was prepared, possibly independently, by Jeremias Benjamin Richter, starting in 1792. However, neither Wenzel nor Richter had a single reference point for their tables, and so had to publish separate tables for each pair of acid and base.
John Dalton 's first table of atomic weights (1808) suggested a reference point, at least for the elements: taking the equivalent weight of hydrogen to be one unit of mass. However, Dalton 's atomic theory was far from universally accepted in the early 19th century. One of the greatest problems was the reaction of hydrogen with oxygen to produce water. One gram of hydrogen reacts with eight grams of oxygen to produce nine grams of water, so the equivalent weight of oxygen was defined as eight grams. Since Dalton supposed (incorrectly) that a water molecule consisted of one hydrogen and one oxygen atom, this would imply an atomic weight of oxygen equal to eight. However, expressing the reaction in terms of gas volumes following Gay - Lussac 's law of combining gas volumes, two volumes of hydrogen react with one volume of oxygen to produce two volumes of water, suggesting (correctly) that the atomic weight of oxygen is sixteen. The work of Charles Frédéric Gerhardt (1816 -- 56), Henri Victor Regnault (1810 -- 78) and Stanislao Cannizzaro (1826 -- 1910) helped to rationalise this and many similar paradoxes, but the problem was still the subject of debate at the Karlsruhe Congress (1860).
Nevertheless, many chemists found equivalent weights to be a useful tool even if they did not subscribe to atomic theory. Equivalent weights were a useful generalisation of Joseph Proust 's law of definite proportions (1794) that enabled chemistry to become a quantitative science. French chemist Jean - Baptiste Dumas (1800 -- 84) became one of the more influential opponents of atomic theory, after having embraced it earlier in his career, but was a staunch supporter of equivalent weights.
Insofar as the atomic tables have been drawn up in part following the laws of Wenzel and Richter, in part by simple speculations, they have left plenty of doubts in the best of minds. It was to escape this problem that it was attempted to deduce the atomic weights from the density of the elements in the vapour state, from their specific heat, from their crystalline form. But one must not forget that the value of the figures deduced from these properties is not in the least absolute... To sum up, what have left from this ambitious excursion that we have allowed ourselves in the realm of the atoms? Nothing, nothing necessary at the very least. What we have left is the conviction that chemistry got itself lost there, as it always does when it abandons experiment, it tried to walk without a guide through the shadows. With experiment as a guide, you find Wenzel 's equivalents, Mitscherlich 's equivalents, they are nothing else but molecular groups. If I had the power, I would erase the word ' atom ' from science, persuaded that it oversteps the evidence of experiment; and, in chemistry, we must never overstep the evidence of experiment.
Equivalent weights were not without problems of their own. For a start, the scale based on hydrogen was not particularly practical, as most elements do not react directly with hydrogen to form simple compounds. However, one gram of hydrogen reacts with 8 grams of oxygen to give water or with 35.5 grams of chlorine to give hydrogen chloride: hence 8 grams of oxygen and 35.5 grams of chlorine can be taken to be equivalent to one gram of hydrogen for the measurement of equivalent weights. This system can be extended further through different acids and bases.
Much more serious was the problem of elements which form more than one oxide or series of salts, which have (in today 's terminology) different oxidation states. Copper will react with oxygen to form either brick red cuprous oxide (copper (I) oxide, with 63.5 g of copper for 8 g of oxygen) or black cupric oxide (copper (II) oxide, with 32.7 g of copper for 8 g of oxygen), and so has two equivalent weights. Supporters of atomic weights could turn to the Dulong -- Petit law (1819), which relates the atomic weight of a solid element to its specific heat capacity, to arrive at a unique and unambiguous set of atomic weights. Most supporters of equivalent weights -- which were the great majority of chemists prior to 1860 -- simply ignored the inconvenient fact that most elements exhibited multiple equivalent weights. Instead, these chemists had settled on a list of what were universally called "equivalents '' (H = 1, O = 8, C = 6, S = 16, Cl = 35.5, Na = 23, Ca = 20, and so on). However, these nineteenth - century "equivalents '' were not equivalents in the original or modern sense of the term. Since they represented dimensionless numbers that for any given element were unique and unchanging, they were in fact simply an alternative set of atomic weights, in which the elements of even valence have atomic weights one - half of the modern values. This fact was not recognized until much later.
The final death blow for the use of equivalent weights for the elements was Dmitri Mendeleev 's presentation of his periodic table in 1869, in which he related the chemical properties of the elements to the approximate order of their atomic weights. However, equivalent weights continued to be used for many compounds for another hundred years, particularly in analytical chemistry. Equivalent weights of common reagents could be tabulated, simplifying analytical calculations in the days before the widespread availability of electronic calculators: such tables were commonplace in textbooks of analytical chemistry.
The use of equivalent weights in general chemistry has largely been superseded by the use of molar masses. Equivalent weights may be calculated from molar masses if the chemistry of the substance is well known:
Historically, the equivalent weights of the elements were often determined by studying their reactions with oxygen. For example, 50 g of zinc will react with oxygen to produce 62.24 g of zinc oxide, implying that the zinc has reacted with 12.24 g of oxygen (from the Law of conservation of mass): the equivalent weight of zinc is the mass which will react with eight grams of oxygen, hence 50 g × 8 g / 12.24 g = 32.7 g.
When choosing primary standards in analytical chemistry, compounds with higher equivalent weights are generally more desirable because weighing errors are reduced. An example is the volumetric standardisation of a solution of sodium hydroxide which has been prepared to approximately 0.1 mol dm. It is necessary to calculate the mass of a solid acid which will react with about 20 cm of this solution (for a titration using a 25 cm burette): suitable solid acids include oxalic acid dihydrate, potassium hydrogen phthalate and potassium hydrogen iodate. The equivalent weights of the three acids 63.04 g, 204.23 g and 389.92 g respectively, and the masses required for the standardisation are 126.1 mg, 408.5 mg and 779.8 mg respectively. Given that the measurement uncertainty in the mass measured on a standard analytical balance is ± 0.1 mg, the relative uncertainty in the mass of oxalic acid dihydrate would be about one part in a thousand, similar to the measurement uncertainty in the volume measurement in the titration. However the measurement uncertainty in the mass of potassium hydrogen iodate would be five times lower, because its equivalent weight is five times higher: such an uncertainty in the measured mass is negligible in comparison to the uncertainty in the volume measured during the titration (see example below).
For sake of example, it shall be assumed that 22.45 ± 0.03 cm of the sodium hydroxide solution reacts with 781.4 ± 0.1 mg of potassium hydrogen iodate. As the equivalent weight of potassium hydrogen iodate is 389.92 g, the measured mass is 2.004 milliequivalents. The concentration of the sodium hydroxide solution is therefore 2.004 meq / 0.02245 l = 89.3 meq / l. In analytical chemistry, a solution of any substance which contains one equivalent per litre is known as a normal solution (abbreviated N), so the example sodium hydroxide solution would be 0.0893 N. The relative uncertainty (u) in the measured concentration can be estimated by assuming a Gaussian distribution of the measurement uncertainties:
This sodium hydroxide solution can be used to measure the equivalent weight of an unknown acid. For example, if it takes 13.20 ± 0.03 cm of the sodium hydroxide solution to neutralise 61.3 ± 0.1 mg of an unknown acid, the equivalent weight of the acid is:
Because each mole of acid can only release an integer number of moles of hydrogen ions, the molar mass of the unknown acid must be an integer multiple of 52.0 ± 0.1 g.
The term "equivalent weight '' had a distinct sense in gravimetric analysis: it was the mass of precipitate which corresponds to one gram of analyte (the species of interest). The different definitions came from the practice of quoting gravimetric results as mass fractions of the analyte, often expressed as a percentage. A related term was the equivalence factor, one gram divided by equivalent weight, which was the numerical factor by which the mass of precipitate had to be multiplied to obtain the mass of analyte.
For example, in the gravimetric determination of nickel, the molar mass of the precipitate bis (dimethylglyoximate) nickel (Ni (dmgH)) is 288.915 (7) g mol, while the molar mass of nickel is 58.6934 (2) g mol: hence 288.915 (7) / 58.6934 (2) = 4.9224 (1) grams of (Ni (dmgH)) precipitate is equivalent to one gram of nickel and the equivalence factor is 0.203151 (5). For example, 215.3 ± 0.1 mg of (Ni (dmgH)) precipitate is equivalent to (215.3 ± 0.1 mg) × 0.203151 (5) = 43.74 ± 0.2 mg of nickel: if the original sample size was 5.346 ± 0.001 g, the nickel content in the original sample would be 0.8182 ± 0.0004 %.
Gravimetric analysis is one of the most precise of the common methods of chemical analysis, but it is time - consuming and labour - intensive. It has been largely superseded by other techniques such as atomic absorption spectroscopy, in which the mass of analyte is read off from a calibration curve.
In polymer chemistry, the equivalent weight of a reactive polymer is the mass of polymer which has one equivalent of reactivity (often, the mass of polymer which corresponds to one mole of reactive side - chain groups). It is widely used to indicate the reactivity of polyol, isocyanate, or epoxy thermoset resins which would undergo crosslinking reactions through those functional groups.
It is particularly important for ion - exchange polymers (also called ion - exchange resins): one equivalent of an ion - exchange polymer will exchange one mole of singly charged ions, but only half a mole of doubly charged ions.
Nevertheless, given the decline in use of the term "equivalent weight '' in the rest of chemistry, it has become more usual to express the reactivity of a polymer as the inverse of the equivalent weight, that is in units of mmol / g or meq / g.
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ting tings that's not my name lyrics | That 's Not My Name - wikipedia
"That 's Not My Name '' is the third single by British duo The Ting Tings from their debut studio album We Started Nothing. Vocalist Katie White states that the song was written "with me ranting about my frustrations with the record industry. '' The song was originally released as a double A-side with "Great DJ '' by independent record label Switchflicker Records on 28 May 2007. After heavy promotion from BBC Radio 1 and the NME, the single was re-released individually on 12 May 2008 on Columbia Records.
"That 's Not My Name '' topped the UK Singles Chart, seeing off competition from well - established acts like Rihanna, Madonna, and will.i.am. The song was a sleeper hit in North America, peaking within the top 40 of the charts in the United States. The single has sold over a million digital copies.
"That 's Not My Name '' is written in the key of E major with a tempo of 144 beats per minute. The vocals in the song span from G to G ♯.
The single received favourable reviews from critics upon re-release, with the NME describing it as "no - flab electro - pop nugget '', while Q magazine described it as "a snatch of Hey Mickey - style handclaps and a gobbily staccato vocal, stitched together to fashion a groove that 's as instant and familiar ''. Digital Spy compared the single to a "well - shaken can of cola '', and added "(the track is) brimming with sticky, yummy, fizzy goodness ''.
The song has three music videos. The first features the Ting Tings on a white background performing the song on a set, with alternating scenes of White with blue and pink backgrounds. This version of the video was used to promote the song and album upon its 2007 release. This video is visually similar to the video for Toni Basil 's "Mickey '', in keeping with the audio similarities. This video was directed by Sophie Muller and Stacey Hartly. Columbia produced a 2008 video for the US release, with director David Allain and with them performing again on a different set, with more equipment and flashing lights in the background. The video premiered on mtvU.com on 26 January 2009. Another video was made for the acoustic version. All videos are live action. The third music video known as the alternate video was directed by AlexandLiane and features the Ting Tings in a desert ghost town. Double dutchers, cheerleaders, marching band drummers and sign spinners come out the woods wearing black clothes with reflective martial. The Ting Tings perform the song "That 's Not My Name '' while behind them the double dutchers skip rope the cheerleaders cheer the drummers drum and the sign spinners spin signs that have the different names Katie gets called from the song 's lyrics on them.
Dizzee Rascal performed a version of this song in the Live Lounge on BBC Radio 1, changing the chorus to: "They call me ' blood ' / They call me ' rude boy ' / They call me oi / They call me mate /... They use the ' N - word ' like it 's a game / That 's not my name... ''
During the Pittsburgh Penguins ' Stanley Cup run in 2009, Pittsburgh radio station WDVE did a spoof of the song entitled "That Is My Name '' about Penguins player Evgeni Malkin, in which a man sounding like Malkin sang about his multiple nicknames.
The instrumental of the track was used in a UK cinema advert for BBC Radio 1 during the summer of 2008. A remixed version of the song was also used as the music for the PINK segment of the 2008 Victoria 's Secret Fashion Show (remixed by Cho Dongho). The song is also used in Slovenian mobile operator Mobitel 's commercial for their subscription package, Itak Džabest. "That 's Not My Name '' was used in the trailer for the 2009 summer film Post Grad, and on the shows 90210 on The CW, Brothers & Sisters on ABC, Taking the Stage, and The City on MTV, as well as in the films Fired Up! (2009) and Horrible Bosses (2011), in which Charlie Day 's character Dale sang it in a car while on cocaine. The song was featured in CSI: NY as track of the beginning of the episode "Point of No Return ''. The song was also used on the Skins series 3 episode "Katie and Emily ''. This song often appears in the E4 sitcom The Inbetweeners and appeared in The Inbetweeners Movie (official soundtrack). Furthermore, the song was featured in Suburgatory.
The song was also parodied as "He 's Got My Name '' for Cartoon Network 's Johnny Test.
Additionally, the song was used in a parody music video by Norwegian comedy duo Ylvis on their talk show I kveld med YLVIS (Tonight with YLVIS), titled "Jeg Heter Finn '' ("My Name Is Finn '').
This song is also heard in the Despicable Me 2 "Rollcall '' TV spot.
The song was featured in a fall 2013 Joe Fresh commercial
Also heard in a commercial for the 2014 film The Lego Movie.
The song was used in a summer 2014 commercial for Coca - Cola.
The Israeli TV series Ha - Yehudim Ba'im used the song as a basis for a satire regarding the Jewish law forbidding the pronunciation of the tetragrammaton, where God complains about calling him with various names that are not truly His.
The song is used in the opening scene of the French film La Famille Bélier.
In 2017 it was used in Amazon Alexa radio ads.
In the United Kingdom, the single entered the UK Singles Chart at number one on 18 May 2008, ending Madonna and Justin Timberlake 's four - week reign at the top with "4 Minutes ''. The following week, however, it slipped to number two after Rihanna 's "Take a Bow '' climbed to number one. In Ireland, it peaked at number two for five consecutive weeks.
In Australia, after slowly rising up the singles chart, it eventually peaked inside the top 10, and was certified Gold on 3 November. On the Australian Physical Singles Chart, it peaked at 20, and on the Australian Digital track chart at number eight. In the United States, "That 's Not My Name '' peaked at number 39 on the Billboard Hot 100, giving the band their first top 40 there. The song was certified Gold on 2 April 2009, selling over 500,000 copies.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
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total number of episodes of phineas and ferb | List of Phineas and Ferb episodes - wikipedia
The following is a list of episodes from the Disney Channel Original Series Phineas and Ferb, which ran from August 17, 2007 to June 12, 2015. The show ended with a total of 222 segments (133 episodes).
O.W.C.A. Files is an hour - long special on Disney XD after the series finale. While the episode was set to air during the regular season, it was later announced by Disney on May 7, 2015 that the show would end with Last Day of Summer on June 12, 2015, and that the episode would air as a stand - alone special on the Disney XD network. On Netflix, the episode is split into two parts.
The episode focuses on the O.W.C.A. (Organization Without a Cool Acronym), Agent P and Dr. Doofenshmirtz with the new other agents.
Extras: ' Original pilot pitch ' and ' Arcade - style games '
Extra: ' Set - top games '
Extras: ' Virtual fireplace ', ' Dr. Doofenshmirtz 's Christmas Jukebox - inator ', ' Christmas Perry - oki ', ' Letters to Santa ', and ' Behind - the - scenes featurette '
Extras: ' Character Commentary and Creator Commentary on "Attack of the 50 Foot Sister '' ', ' 8 deleted scenes ', ' "Perry - oke '' Sing - Along Feature ', ' Dr. D 's Jukebox - inator ', ' Interactive Menus with Easter Eggs ', ' 8 Digital Music Tracks (disc 2) ', and ' FREE In - Pack Platypult Kit Inside (while supplies last) '
Extras: ' "Nerves of Teal '' spy recruiting video ', ' "Platybus Tour '' video ', ' Free Perry Activity Kit (while supplies last) ', and ' The PAL versions do not contain the Season 3 episodes. Instead, they contain "Thaddeus & Thor '', "De Plane! De Plane! '', "I Was A Middle - Aged Robot '', "Suddenly Suzy '' "Undercover Carl '', and "Hip Hip Parade '' '
Extras: ' Bonus six Take Two with Phineas and Ferb episodes: Cedric the Entertainer, David Beckham, Jason Segel, Shaun White, Miss Piggy and Ben Stiller '
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island nation woth a cross on its flag crossword | List of countries that border only one other country - Wikipedia
This is the list of countries that border only one other country, with only land borders being counted. Some of these countries have several neighbours "across the sea ''. As an example Denmark "borders '' Sweden and Norway by sea, and Canada has sea boundaries with Denmark (between Baffin Island and Greenland) and France (between the island of Newfoundland and the territory of St. Pierre and Miquelon). Other countries, such as Sri Lanka, border only one other country by sea.
There are generally three possible arrangements by which a country can have a single border. The first is with a divided island such a Haiti and the Dominican Republic, or Ireland and the United Kingdom. The second is a peninsular relationship, where the first country borders the second and is otherwise surrounded by sea, while the second country borders other countries, as with Portugal and Spain, Denmark and Germany, or Canada and the United States. The third is the circumstance where the first country is a small country that is landlocked and completely surrounded by the second, larger country, as with The Vatican and Italy, or Lesotho and South Africa.
Territory leased or ceded by one country to another for perpetual use, but not in sovereignty, such as Guantanamo Bay Naval Base in Cuba, or memorials, such as the American Cemetery in France, do not constitute true territorial borders, because the land occupied remains a formal part of the host country.
This list is based on the Correlates of War Direct Contiguity data set, with causeways and bridges not being counted.
Borders relevant to this list may include short borders in the middle of man - made constructions. Artificial islands and causeways are permanent geographic features.
In some cases, a dependent territory of one nation borders another nation.
There were many countries that historically had only one neighbour. Some no longer exist while others now have either no land borders or borders with more than one nation due to border changes.
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who owns the national parks in the uk | National parks of England and Wales - wikipedia
The national parks of England and Wales are areas of relatively undeveloped and scenic landscape that are designated under the National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act (2016). Despite their similar name, national parks in England and Wales are quite different from national parks in many other countries, which are usually owned and managed by the government as a protected community resource, and which do not usually include permanent human communities. In England and Wales, designation as a national park may include substantial settlements and human land uses which are often integral parts of the landscape, and land within a national park remains largely in private ownership.
There are currently thirteen national parks (Welsh: parciau cenedlaethol) in England and Wales. Each park is operated by its own national park authority, with two "statutory purposes '':
When national parks carry out these purposes they also have the duty to:
An estimated 110 million people visit the national parks of England and Wales each year. Recreation and tourism bring visitors and funds into the parks, to sustain their conservation efforts and support the local population through jobs and businesses. These visitors also bring problems, such as erosion and traffic congestion, and conflicts over the use of the parks ' resources. Access to cultivated land is restricted to bridleways, public footpaths, and permissive paths, with most (but not all) uncultivated areas in England and Wales having right of access for walking under the Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000.
Archaeological evidence from prehistoric Britain shows that the areas now designated as national parks have been occupied by humans since the Stone Age, at least 5,000 years ago and in some cases much earlier.
Before the 19th century, relatively wild, remote areas were often seen simply as uncivilised and dangerous. In 1725 Daniel Defoe described the High Peak as "the most desolate, wild and abandoned country in all England ''. However, by the early 19th century, romantic poets such as Byron, Coleridge and Wordsworth wrote about the inspirational beauty of the "untamed '' countryside. Wordsworth described the English Lake District as a "sort of national property in which every man has a right and interest who has an eye to perceive and a heart to enjoy '' in 1810. This early vision, based in the Picturesque movement, took over a century, and much controversy, to take legal form in the UK with the National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act 1949.
The idea for a form of national parks was first proposed in the United States in the 1860s, where national parks were established to protect wilderness areas such as Yosemite. This model has been used in many other countries since, but not in the United Kingdom.
After thousands of years of human integration into the landscape, Britain lacks any substantial areas of wilderness. Furthermore, those areas of natural beauty so cherished by the romantic poets were often only maintained and managed in their existing state by human activity, usually agriculture.
By the early 1930s, increasing public interest in the countryside, coupled with the growing and newly mobile urban population, was generating increasing friction between those seeking access to the countryside and landowners. Alongside of direct action trespasses, such as the mass trespass of Kinder Scout, several voluntary bodies took up the cause of public access in the political arena.
In 1931, Christopher Addison (later Lord Addison) chaired a government committee that proposed a ' National Park Authority ' to choose areas for designation as national parks. A system of national reserves and nature sanctuaries was proposed:
However, no further action was taken after the intervention of the 1931 General Election.
The voluntary Standing Committee on National Parks first met on 26 May 1936 to put the case to the government for national parks in the UK. After World War II, the Labour Party proposed the establishment of national parks as part of the post-war reconstruction of the UK. A report by John Dower, secretary of the Standing Committee on National Parks, to the Minister of Town and Country Planning in 1945 was followed in 1947 by a Government committee, this time chaired by Sir Arthur Hobhouse, which prepared legislation for national parks, and proposed twelve national parks. Sir Arthur had this to say on the criteria for designating suitable areas:
The essential requirements of a National Park are that it should have great natural beauty, a high value for open - air recreation and substantial continuous extent. Further, the distribution of selected areas should as far as practicable be such that at least one of them is quickly accessible from each of the main centres of population in England and Wales. Lastly there is merit in variety and with the wide diversity of landscape which is available in England and Wales, it would be wrong to confine the selection of National Parks to the more rugged areas of mountain and moorland, and to exclude other districts which, though of less outstanding grandeur and wildness, have their own distinctive beauty and a high recreational value.
The National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act 1949 was passed with all party support. The first ten national parks were designated as such in the 1950s under the Act in mostly poor - quality agricultural upland. Much of the land was still owned by individual landowners, often private estates, but there was also property owned by public bodies such as the Crown, or charities which allow and encourage access such as the National Trust. Accessibility from the cities was also considered important.
Other areas were also considered: for example, parts of the coast of Cornwall were considered as a possible national park in the 1950s but were thought to be too disparate to form a single coherent national park and were eventually designated as an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB) instead. The north Pennines were also considered for designation as a national park in the 1970s but the proposal was thought to be administratively too difficult because the area was administered by five different county councils.
The Broads in East Anglia are not in the strictest sense a national park, being run by a separately constituted Broads Authority set up by a special Act of Parliament in 1988 and with a structure in which conservation is subordinate to navigational concerns (see Sandford Principle below), but it is generally regarded as being "equivalent to '' a national park.
The New Forest, which includes the largest remaining tracts of unenclosed pasture land, heathland and old - growth forest in the heavily populated south east of the country was designated as a national park on 1 March 2005.
On 31 March 2009, Environment Secretary Hilary Benn announced that the South Downs would be designated a national park. The South Downs National Park came into effect on 31 March 2010.
Following the Environment Act 1995, each national park has been managed by its own national park authority since April 1997. Previously, all but the Peak District and the Lake District were governed by the local county councils. The Peak District and the Lake District, the first two national parks to be designated, were under the control of planning boards that were independent of the local county councils.
Each authority is required to carry out two "statutory purposes '':
These purposes can conflict: in such cases, under the "Sandford Principle '', conservation comes first. This principle was given statutory force by section 62 of the Environment Act 1995, although there are no explicit provisions as to how wildlife is to be preserved. In pursuing these purposes, national park authorities also have a duty to foster the social and economic well - being of their local communities.
Slightly over half the members of each national park authority are appointees from the principal local authorities covered by the park; the remainder are appointed by the Secretary of State for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (in England) or the Welsh Ministers (in Wales), some to represent local parish or community councils, others selected to represent the "national interest ''. The Broads Authority also has members appointed by Natural England, Great Yarmouth Port Authority and the Environment Agency. The national park authorities and the Broads Authority are covered by similar regulatory controls to those applied to local councils.
Funding for national parks is complex, but the full cost of each park authority is funded from central government funds. In the past this was partly paid for by local authorities, and refunded to them from the government to varying degrees. In 2003 / 2004, the park authorities received around £ 35.5 million of central government funding.
Natural England is the statutory body responsible for designating new national parks in England, subject to approval by the Secretary of State; Natural Resources Wales designates new national parks in Wales, subject to approval by the Welsh Ministers. The Association of National Park Authorities exists to provide the park authorities with a single voice when dealing with government and its agencies. The Campaign for National Parks (formerly Council for National Parks) is a charity that works to protect and enhance the national parks of England and Wales.
National park authorities are the strategic and local planning authorities for their areas, so that the local district or unitary councils do not exercise planning control in an area covered by a national park. Consequently, they have to perform all the duties of a local planning authority.
They are responsible for maintaining the local development framework -- the spatial planning guide for their area. They also grant planning consent for development, within the constraints of the Framework. This gives them very strong direct control over residential and industrial development, and the design of buildings and other structures; as well as strategic matters such as mineral extraction.
The national park authorities ' planning powers vary only slightly from other authorities, but the policies and their interpretation are stricter than elsewhere. This is supported and encouraged by the government who regard:
Tourism is an important part of the economy of the regions which contain national parks. Through attractions, shops and accommodation, visitors provide an income and a livelihood to local employers and farmers. This income provides jobs for the park. For example, within the Peak District National Park the estimate in 2004 for visitor spending is £ 185 million, which supports over 3,400 jobs, representing 27 % of total employment in the national park.
The national park authorities have two roles: to conserve and enhance the park, and to promote its use by visitors. These two objectives cause frequent conflicts between the needs of different groups of people. It is estimated that the national parks of England and Wales receive 110 million visitors each year. Most of the time it is possible to achieve both the original two purposes by good management. Occasionally a situation arises where access for the public is in direct conflict with conservation. Following the ethos of the Sandford Principle, the Environment Act 1995 sets down how a priority may be established between conservation and recreational use. Similar provision has been made for Scottish national parks.
Although recreation and tourism brings many benefits to an area, it also brings a number of problems. The national funding offered to national park authorities is partly in recognition of the extra difficulties created in dealing with these conflicts.
At the beginning of 2005, some 9.3 % of the area of England and Wales lay within national parks; the addition of South Downs and the New Forest would increase this proportion to 10.7 %. The three Welsh national parks cover around 20 % of the land area of Wales.
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how many types of search engine are there | List of search engines - wikipedia
This is a list of search engines, including web search engines, selection - based search engines, metasearch engines, desktop search tools, and web portals and vertical market websites that have a search facility for online databases. For a list of search engine software, see List of enterprise search vendors.
* Powered by Bing
General:
Academic materials only:
Search appliance
Desktop search engines listed on a light purple background are no longer in active development.
Search engines dedicated to a specific kind of information
These search engines work across the BitTorrent protocol.
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how many bed bath and beyond stores are there in canada | Bed Bath & Beyond - Wikipedia
Bed Bath & Beyond Inc. is an American chain of domestic merchandise retail stores in the United States, Puerto Rico, Canada and Mexico. Founded in 1971, the stores sell home goods primarily for the bedroom and bathroom, as well as kitchen and dining room. The company is included in the S&P 400 and Global 1200 Indices. It is also counted among the Fortune 500 and the Forbes Global 2000.
In 1971, Warren Eisenberg and Leonard Feinstein opened a store in Springfield, New Jersey called Bed ' n Bath. By 1985, Eisenberg and Feinstein were operating 17 stores in the New York metropolitan area and California. Also in 1985, the first superstore was opened, as an attempt to remain competitive with Linens ' n Things, Pacific Linen, and Luxury Linens. In order to properly represent the size increase in its retail stores, the company changed its name to Bed Bath & Beyond.
Bed Bath and Beyond has several major retail competitors, including Walmart, Target, and JCPenney, as well as several mid-sized competitors like Pier 1 Imports. Companies such as Crate & Barrel, IKEA, and the numerous Williams - Sonoma companies like Pottery Barn and West Elm are competitors as well.
There is a New Zealand chain with the name "Bed Bath & Beyond '', which has no corporate connection with the American company.
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who ends up together in pll season 7 | Pretty Little Liars (season 7) - Wikipedia
The seventh and final season of the American mystery drama television series Pretty Little Liars, based on the books of the same name by Sara Shepard, was renewed on June 10, 2014 for two additional seasons, making the show Freeform 's longest running original series.
The season consisted of 20 episodes, in which ten episodes aired in the summer of 2016, with the remaining ten episodes aired from April 2017. The season 's premiere aired on June 21, 2016 on Freeform. Production and filming began in the end of March 2016, which was confirmed by showrunner I. Marlene King. The season premiere was written by I. Marlene King and directed by Ron Lagomarsino. King revealed the title of the premiere on Twitter on March 17, 2016. On August 29, 2016, it was confirmed that this would be the final season of the series.
A.D. gives the Liars 24 hours to find Charlotte 's real killer or Hanna dies. While discussing possible suspects, the girls ' suspicion fell on Alison. Aria suspects the red jacket blonde she saw entering the church was Alison. Emily finds the jacket in Alison 's things and Caleb gives it to A.D. Meanwhile, Hanna manages to escape. Elliot 's true motive is later revealed to Alison; she managed to use his phone to alert the girls to her location when he takes her out in his car one night. She jumps out of the car and he gives chase but Hanna accidentally runs him over and they bury him in the woods.
The Liars find out Jenna is calling Elliot as "Archer '' on his burner phone. Mona then traces most of the sent messages from a secret apartment where they find out his real name is "Archer Dunhill ''. Toby discovers this and gets the cops to release Alison who reveals that she was the red jacket blonde but only tried to comfort Charlotte. Jenna befriends Sara and Noel begins helping them. Emily confronts Jenna and Sara. Jenna reveals that she became Charlotte 's friend after feeling sympathy for her in Welby and helped Archer fake his identity to be with Charlotte. Sara reveals that they are all looking for the same thing but is killed soon after. A.D. tricks Hanna into believing Archer is alive and records her digging up his grave.
The Liars find videos in Noel 's cabin of him torturing them in the dollhouse. Hanna kidnaps Noel after negotiating with him does n't work and films an interrogation video. He manages to escape and lures the Liars to an abandoned blind school. They leave the dollhouse videos on a table and someone takes them but Noel and Jenna attempt to murder them. In the confrontation, Noel is accidentally killed, and Spencer is shot by A.D., while Jenna corners Spencer. Jenna prepares to kill Spencer, but is knocked out by Mary. She then reveals that Spencer is her second child. A.D. saves Jenna who asks if they shot Spencer.
One week later, Spencer has recovered and A.D. sends Jenna to confess to the cops that Noel wanted money Charlotte left Jenna for another eye surgery, killed Sara and tried to kill Jenna in the blind school. Peter returns and reveals that Mary is the one who killed Jessica. Hanna and Spencer follow the trail of a private investigator he hired to find Mary and bump into Ted who reveals he has been hiding her as she is his college fling with whom he conceived Charles. Mary reveals to Spencer that Peter and Jessica were planning to kill her, thus she used his pills to kill Jessica. A.D. then uses Emily 's stolen eggs to impregnate Alison, as a way to further torture the liars. Meanwhile, A.D. hires Sydney Driscoll as their helper and she fakes being A.D. to recruit Aria into joining the A.D. team. Aria is forced into playing and becomes A.D. 's new helper, destroying Emison 's baby nursery and leaving an "A '' message in Spencer 's house, until the Liars catch her in the act and she defects. Mona, who is becoming addicted to the A-game again, reveals that she tried to scare Charlotte into not resuming the A-game but Charlotte attacked her and she killed her in self - defense. Mary confesses to Rollins and Jessica 's murder. A.D. ends the game as they have finally learned that Mona was Charlotte 's killer.
One year later, Mary escapes from prison and Mona is released from Welby but rejoins the A-Team and is sent to kidnap Spencer, who comes face - to - face with A.D. -- Alex Drake, her twin sister. Mary reveals she sold Alex to a London family to get out of Radley. Alex ran away and met Wren who revealed everything about Spencer to her and introduced her to Charlotte who left her everything. She became A.D. to use the Liars to find Charlotte 's killer and killed Wren as he always saw her as Alex while she wanted to become Spencer to have her "perfect life ''. She explains that Sara was looking for Charlotte 's false treasure in the Radley which was actually the secret file and Jenna recruited Noel to look for "Charlotte 's sister ''. Jenna uses her enhanced sense of smell to figure out "Spencer 's not Spencer '' and alerts Toby who tells the others. Mona reveals to them that Wren was going to kill her but she convinced him she could get Mary out. The Liars, Toby, Mona, and Caleb come face to face with Alex and Spencer as they can not tell them apart, until Toby makes the distinction by asking what Spencer 's favorite poem from a book she gave him. Mona tracked A.D. 's location has a cop arrest her. The Liars then say goodbye to one another as Aria leaves for her honeymoon with Ezra. Mona moves to Paris and the "cop '' is revealed to be her boyfriend who has imprisoned Alex and Mary in her basement dollhouse. In the finale moment, a new set of liars are awaken to find their leader, Addison, has just gone missing.
After putting herself in danger, Hanna is rescued by Mary Drake. After Alison calls Emily about her current condition, this leads the Liars to grow suspicious of Elliott. Spencer and Caleb 's relationship is on the rocks after Hanna tells Caleb about her feelings towards him. Liam is assigned to help Aria and Ezra on their book and after Aria breaks up with him, he unleashes on Ezra. Hanna breaks off her engagement with Jordan, and later signs a contract with Lucas to construct a fashion company.
The Rosewood P.D. begin to question Elliott 's disappearance and explore the possibility of him being dead. The investigation leads the Liars to question Elliott 's murder altogether, with Hanna being conflicted about whether or not to tell the police the truth. Spencer talks with Marco in order to make things clear regarding the kiss they had in the Radley elevator. Meanwhile, Aria and Ezra struggle with their relationship after Aria turns down Ezra 's proposal because of Elliott 's murder. Emily questions the fact that Sara and Jenna have teamed up together, and finds out that Charlotte enlisted Jenna 's help to find her birth mother and make Archer the alias of Elliott Rollins in order to purposely meet Ali and take advantage of her good intentions for her eventual release. Spencer and Caleb finally have a conversation about their relationship and break up. "A.D. '' unsuccessfully attacks Alison at her house wearing a mask. After hearing everything from Aria, Ezra proposes to her again -- and, this time, she says yes. Sara is murdered by an unseen figure and her body is discovered in a bathtub at The Radley.
Jason comes back to Rosewood in order to stop Alison from becoming too close to Mary. Meanwhile, Noel Kahn 's behaviour starts to worry the girls when they find out he broke into Toby 's house to steal Mary 's Radley file. The Liars discover new information about Mary and Jessica, leading them to a secret cellar in Carol Ward 's house where they discover that Jessica had files about them and that Mary had a second child while at Radley. They then begin to think that this child, a cousin of Alison, may be behind the "A.D. '' mask, and wanting revenge for something. The cellar explodes right after the girls leave, and someone writes "I see you '' on the rear window of their car. Ezra and Aria decide to elope in Italy, but right before they are about to leave, the FBI contacts Ezra and tells him that Nicole may be alive.
The Liars, Alison, Mona, and Caleb team up with Rosewood P.D. to find Hanna. Emily and Paige continue to rebuild their friendship. Alison reveals to Emily that she 's pregnant. Spencer learns that Toby and Yvonne are planning to leave Rosewood. Aria finds out that Nicole is alive. Noel manages to escape and leads the Liars to an abandoned school for the blind where Jenna, armed with a gun, attempts to murder the Liars with Noel. However, Noel, while attacking Hanna and Emily, trips on his axe and accidentally kills himself. Jenna then shoots at the Liars and gets Spencer. Jenna corners her and is about to execute her when Mary Drake knocks her out and reveals that she is Spencer 's biological mother. While leaving town, Toby and Yvonne are in a car accident.
One week after the events of the last episode, Toby is well but Yvonne is in a coma while Spencer has recovered. Ezra arrives and reveals he has n't told Nicole about him and Aria getting married. Hanna and Caleb are back together and Mona helps her get back into the fashion business. Emily is appointed coach of the varsity swimming team and Paige is made an athletics supervisor at Rosewood High. The Liars are given a interactive board game by "A.D. '' which shows the area of notable places of Rosewood and figurines of the Liars. Spencer plays the game and receives a puzzle piece and a letter from Mary. Hanna tries to destroy the game but a video appears showing that "A.D. '' knows they killed Rollins.
After being blackmailed by "A.D. '', Aria supplies info to them about the Liars findings. Detective Furey reveals to Spencer that she used Archer 's credit card to buy drinks when they first met and she is now a suspect in Archer 's death. After some arguing, Ezra finally agrees to leave Nicole behind for Aria, while Emily encourages Ali to not get an abortion and raise her child. Paige discovers Emily is going to help Alison raise her child. That night Paige and Alison discuss Emily, while finally making up after years of hate. Realizing that Emily loves Alison, Paige leaves Rosewood and Emily for good. After learning about Lucas ' relation with Charles, Hanna sets out to prove he is innocent, but finds more evidence that he is "A.D '', when the Liars find a comic book made by Lucas and Charles, that heavily resembles the "A '' game. Hanna tells Mona about the game and tries to convince her to help. Meanwhile, "A.D. '' sends Aria to retrieve the comic book for them, and in return she is gifted the official "A '' uniform.
Spencer steals a flash drive from Marco 's apartment about Lucas ' alibi confession to the police the night Archer was killed. "A.D. '' sends Aria to destroy Alison and Emily 's nursery. In Hanna 's turn at the game, "A.D. '' makes her pick up something at the computer repair shop and bring it to Rosewood High School. The Liars have a confrontation with Lucas where he explains to them that he did n't know Charles and Charlotte were the same person, or that Charlotte was "A ''. A second comic book exists and depicts turning vengeance into a game. Aria breaks down in remorse after her plot to destroy the nursery. Meanwhile, Caleb and Hanna return to Lucas 's loft with the hard drive Hanna picked up. The audio file contains a Patsy Cline song. Hanna remembers that "A '' played a different Patsy song in the Dollhouse. Alison finally admits her feelings to Emily.
The Liars are told by Caleb that Mona has the board game and jump to conclusions that Mona is "A.D. ''. Mary meets with Spencer at Lost Woods Resort and gives her ownership of the building. Mona reveals that Charlotte never recovered and was going to resume the A-game. She confronted Charlotte and threatened to push her out the window but never planned to go through with it. When Hanna, Caleb and Spencer take Mona back to their car, the final two puzzle pieces are waiting. Later, the Liars gather in a room at the Lost Woods and put the two final puzzle pieces in. When the pieces are in place, the game says "Congratulations. Claim the grand prize '', a picture of Archer. Augmented reality shows a man walking toward Aunt Carol 's house. The Liars are arrested by Tanner at Aunt Carol 's where Archer 's body is found. Mary lies and says she killed Archer, also confessing to Jessica 's murder, saving the Liars from a murder charge. Mona reveals that after she stopped threatening her, Charlotte attacked Mona and in the struggle she accidentally killed Charlotte in self - defense.
The seventh season was ordered with the sixth season on June 10, 2014, right before the fifth - season premiere aired, which made Pretty Little Liars ABC Family 's longest running original series, surpassing The Secret Life of the American Teenager, which was ABC Family 's previous longest running original series. The season will consist of 20 episodes, in which ten episodes will air in the summer of 2016, with the remaining ten episodes beginning to air in April 2017. Charlie Craig, who served as writer / consulting producer on the second season, will return for the seventh season as executive producer / co-showrunner. I. Marlene King revealed the title of the premiere "Tick - Tock, Bitches '' on Twitter. Variety announced that season premiere would air on June 21, 2016, the latest for a season premiere in the show 's history. Additionally, series star Troian Bellisario would make her directorial debut this season. Bellisario is set to direct the fifteenth episode of the season. A promo was released on May 12, 2016. Freeform released a promotional poster for the season, on June 7, 2016. After the season premiere, Freeform released another poster which included Ashley Benson. On August 29, 2016, I. Marlene King with the principal cast of the show announced that Pretty Little Liars would end after the seventh season. King also announced that the show would start airing the second half of the season later than usual, in April 2017 and that the series finale would be a two - hour episode event. It was reported on October 26, 2016, that a tell - all special will air after the series finale "Till Death Do Us Part '', where the main cast and showrunner I. Marlene King talked about the show and behind - the - scenes exclusive.
The seventh season had been speculated by both fans and the cast and crew of the show to being the final season of Pretty Little Liars ever since the show was renewed for two additional seasons. In an interview with BuzzFeed, Troian Bellisario said "This is the beginning of the end. But the best part about these last two years is that, because it 's the beginning of the end, we can actually start telling the story I think we 've been waiting to tell for a long time. '' Regarding the show 's ending, Lucy Hale said to E! News that "Seven seasons will definitely end the show. '' Showrunner I. Marlene King commented on these rumors to TVLine as she said "We have enough story to take us to the end of Season 7, and we 're going to let the fans tell us if they 're ready to say goodbye to this world and these characters. '' She confirmed to being open for an eighth season and a movie and a new book.
In an interview with Variety regarding the five - year time - jump, King said "I think that this story when we 're back will end next year at the end of Season 7 ''. She later took to Twitter where she confirmed that the current storyline that began in the second half of the sixth season would end after the seventh season, but would not necessarily mean that the show would end after the seventh season. Hale said on The Late Late Show with James Corden that the show was ending after the seventh season. Bellisario 's fiancé Patrick J. Adams said in June 2016, that the show was ending in 2017, as the couple has decided to get married after the show ends. Freeform gave out a statement not long after saying that "There has been no official decision made for PLL beyond a season 7. '' It was announced on August 29, 2016, the day before the mid-season finale would air, that Pretty Little Liars will end after the seventh season.
Production began on February 1, 2016, when King announced on Twitter that the writers were in full swing brainstorming and mapping the seventh season. Production and filming began in the end of March 2016 and officially wrapped up in October 2016.
The seventh season has nine roles receiving star billing, with eight of them returning from the previous season, six of which was part of the original cast from the first season. The season saw the four protagonists of the series continue the roles as they try to take down the new ' A '. Troian Bellisario played Spencer Hastings, who has relationship problems with Caleb, while Ashley Benson played Hanna Marin, who was kidnapped at the end of last season. Lucy Hale continued her role as Aria Montgomery as she is set in a love triangle with Ezra and her boyfriend Liam. Shay Mitchell portrayed Emily Fields who begins to rekindle her relationship with Alison. Sasha Pieterse continued to portray Alison DiLaurentis as Alison struggles with being in a psych - ward. Janel Parrish returned as Mona Vanderwaal who seems to be finally on their side. Tyler Blackburn continues to play Caleb Rivers and Ian Harding also continued his role as Ezra Fitz. Andrea Parker was added as a series regular, playing Jessica DiLaurentis ' twin sister Mary Drake.
After the sixth - season finale, it was announced that Andrea Parker would return to the show as Mary Drake, Jessica DiLaurentis ' identical twin sister and biological mother to Charlotte DiLaurentis. TVLine later confirmed that Parker was added as a series regular for the upcoming season. Deadline reported on May 10, 2016, that actor Nicholas Gonzalez was cast as Detective Vic Furey, a character who will oversee the Rosewood Police Department. The character was later renamed Det. Marco Furey. Tammin Sursok announced that she will return to the show as Jenna Marshall after last appearing in the fifth - season episode "How the ' A ' Stole Christmas ''. On June 2, 2016, Variety reported that Brant Daugherty would be returning as Noel Kahn; Brant has not appeared on the show since the beginning of the fifth season.
On June 10, 2016, The Hollywood Reporter reported that Lindsey Shaw would be returning as Paige McCullers after leaving in the fifth season mid-season premiere. The actress playing Sydney Driscoll, Chloe Bridges, posted an image on social media, confirming that she would return to the show after last appearing in the Christmas special episode. On July 28, 2016, The Hollywood Reporter reported that Shane Coffey would be returning as Holden Strauss; Shane has not appeared on the show since the beginning of the third season. It was announced on August 8, 2016, that Ava Allan will appear on the show, and will first appear in the second half of the season as Addison. On August 17, 2016, TVLine reported that Edward Kerr would be returning to the show as Pastor Ted Wilson in the second half of the season. Kerr had not been on the show since towards the end of the fifth season.
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who were the first european settlers in the west | History of the west coast of North America - wikipedia
The human history of the west coast of North America is believed to stretch back to the arrival of the earliest people over the Bering Strait, or alternately along a now - submerged coastal plain, through the development of significant pre-Columbian cultures and population densities, to the arrival of the European explorers and colonizers. The west coast of North America today is home to some of the largest and most important companies in the world, as well as being a center of world culture.
As used in this article, the term "west coast of North America '' means a contiguous region of that continent bordering the Pacific Ocean: all or parts of the U.S. states of Alaska, Washington, Oregon, and California; all or parts of British Columbia and the Yukon in Canada; all or part of the Mexican states of Baja California, Baja California Sur, Sonora, Sinaloa, Nayarit, Jalisco, Colima, Michoacán, Guerrero, Oaxaca and Chiapas; and the Central American countries of Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Panama. The eastern Islands of the Pacific Ocean off the west coast, such as the Coastal islands of the Californias, are also important.
The west coast of North America likely saw the first sustained arrival of people to the continent. Although there are other theories, most scientists believe that the first significant groups of people came from Asia, through today 's Bering Strait area, then through modern Alaska, and from there spread throughout North America and to South America.
Although the cultures on the west coast of today 's Canada and United States are not known to have developed substantial urban centers and sophisticated writing or scientific systems, it is likely that, before European contact, the population density was significantly higher than in the rest of the northern part of the continent. For example, it has been estimated that in 1492, one - third of all Native Americans in the United States were living in California.
In the western half of Mesoamerica (that is, western portions of today 's Mexico and northern Central America), the oldest known settlements date to approximately 2000 BCE. A succession of cultures started with the very early Capacha culture, which appeared on the Pacific coast of modern Mexico about 1450 BC and spread into the interior. The following cultures developed into "high civilizations '' in Mesoamerica, with extensive urban areas, writing, astronomy and fine arts:
Farther south, Panama was home to some of the earliest pottery - making, such as the Monagrillo culture dating to about 2500 -- 1700 BC; this culture evolved into significant populations best known for spectacular burial sites (dating to c. 500 -- 900 AD) and polychrome pottery of the Coclé style.
Each of these cultures rose, flourished, and was then conquered by a more militarily developed culture. While not all of these civilizations had large settlements along the coast of the Pacific Ocean, their influence extended to the Pacific coast.
Regional communications in ancient Mesoamerica -- and especially along the west coast -- have been the subject of considerable research. There is evidence of trade routes starting as far north as the Mexico Central Plateau, and going down to the Pacific coast. These trade routes and cultural contacts then went on as far as Central America. These networks operated along the west coast with various interruptions from pre-Olmec times and up to the Late Classical Period (600 -- 900 CE).
In 1513, Spanish explorers were the first Europeans to reach the west coast of North America, on the Pacific coast of the Panama isthmus. From the point of view of European powers in the age of sailing ships, the west coast of North America was among the most distant places in the world. The arduous journey around Cape Horn at the tip of South America and then north meant nine to twelve months of dangerous sailing. These practical difficulties discouraged all but the Spanish Empire from making regular visits and establishing settlements and ports until the second half of the 18th century -- some 200 years after Europeans first reached the east coast of North America.
Explorers flying the flag of Spain reached the New World beginning in 1492 with the discovery of America by Christopher Columbus. Spanish expeditions colonized and explored vast areas in North and South America following the grants of the Pope (contained in the 1493 papal bull Inter caetera) and rights contained in the 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas and 1529 Treaty of Zaragoza. These formal acts gave Spain the exclusive rights to colonize the entire Western Hemisphere (excluding eastern Brazil), including all of the west coast of North America. The first European expedition to actually reach the west coast was led by the Spaniard Vasco Núñez de Balboa, who reached the Pacific coast of Panama in 1513. In an act of enduring historical importance, Balboa claimed the Pacific Ocean for the Spanish Crown, as well as all adjoining land and islands. This act gave Spain exclusive sovereignty and navigation rights over the entire west coast of North America.
The commonly held belief at the time was that the west coast of North America was in modest sailing distance of Asia to the west, or the two might actually physically connect. To the north was imagined a narrow Northwest Passage, known as the Strait of Anián, which some believed reached the Pacific Ocean at 42 ° north latitude (the latitude of today 's border between Oregon and California) and connected to the Atlantic Ocean at the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Confirmation of the land connection, and discovery of this Strait of Anián, were key elements in Spain 's efforts to establish direct trade routes with China and other countries in Asia. See Early knowledge of the Pacific Northwest.
The Pacific Coast of Mexico and Central America was not especially conducive to economic development during this era. The northern Mexican coast (including the Baja California Peninsula) was generally too dry for substantial agriculture or ranching that would support settlements. South of the deserts, the jungles of the Pacific Coast in Mexico and Central America, and the tropical diseases found there, were major obstacles to large - scale development.
Notable exceptions were the development of important Spanish ports at Puerto de Navidad and Acapulco in today 's Mexico. While Navidad faded in importance, Acapulco became the primary port of the Spanish Empire on the west coast of North America, and was used as a base for exploratory expeditions north and trade routes with the Far East.
From 1533 -- 1535, Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés personally sponsored and financed exploratory sailing voyages north from Acapulco, in a search for legendary riches reported to be in the site of today 's California. In the third of these voyages, Cortés accompanied the voyage, and likely reached the site of today 's La Paz on the Baja California peninsula.
In 1539, another voyage financed and sponsored by Cortés, and led by Francisco de Ulloa, embarked on an expedition in three small vessels, sailing north from Acapulco to explore the Pacific Coast, and to seek the Strait of Anián. The expedition sailed northwards along the west coast of the Mexican mainland, and reached the Gulf of California six weeks later. Ulloa named the Gulf the "Sea of Cortés '' in honor of his patron. When one of his ships was lost in a storm, Ulloa paused to repair the other two ships, and then resumed his voyage, eventually reaching the northern end of the Gulf. Unable to find the Strait of Anián, Ulloa turned south and sailed along the eastern coast of the Baja California peninsula, landing at the Bay of La Paz. After taking on supplies of wood and water, Ulloa rounded the tip of the peninsula with great difficulty and sailed northward along the western shore of the peninsula, in the Pacific Ocean. The progress of his small ships was hampered by the fierce winds and high seas he encountered, eventually forcing him to turn back to Acapulco. The voyage eventually reached 28 ° north latitude (near the Isla de Cedros).
Voyages in 1540 and 1541 to Baja California were sponsored by Cortés 's rival, the Viceroy of New Spain. These voyages were led by Hernando de Alarcón (1540) and by Francisco de Bolaños (1541). The voyage by Alarcón was meant to be coordinated with Francisco Vásquez de Coronado 's overland expedition; Alarcón penetrated the lower Colorado River, perhaps as far as the modern California - Arizona boundary (but did not meet up with Coronado 's expedition). The voyage of Bolaños provided little new information not already known in New Spain. Application of the name California to this part of the west coast of North America is attributed by some to Bolaños, however other insist that the name first appears in work written by Alarcón.
The governor of Guatemala also determined to build a Pacific fleet on the west coast of Guatemala, for use in an attempt to cross the Pacific to Asia. Ferdinand Magellan, the Portuguese explorer sailing for Spain, had shown in 1521 that the Pacific Ocean could be crossed from South America. Hence, beginning in 1536, using hardware from Spain (such as anchors) hauled across the isthmus of Central America, and local hardwoods, a flotilla of some thirteen ships was built over the next four years. After much difficulty, the larger number of these ships (under the command of Ruy López de Villalobos) was ordered to make the first crossing of the Pacific Ocean from North America to the Philippines. A smaller number was placed under the command of Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo, a Portuguese navigator sailing for the Spanish Crown. Cabrillo was ordered north along the west coast of North America to explore the expected coastal route to reach the Asian mainland, as well as attempt to find the Strait of Anián.
In 1542, Cabrillo became the first European to explore the west coast of today 's United States, leading the expedition that landed at San Diego Bay, and continued north along the coast up to Punta del Año Nuevo, 37 ° 10 ' north of Monterrey. But Cabrillo died on January 3, 1543, and the remainder of the exploration was led by Bartolomé Ferrer, who sailed perhaps as far north as the Rogue River in today 's western coast of Oregon.
Importantly beginning in 1565, Acapulco was a home of the vital Manila Galleons. The Manila Galleons crossed the Pacific Ocean to the Spanish possession of the Philippines, laden with silver and gemstones from Mexico. There, the wealth was used to purchase Asian trade goods such as spices, silk, and porcelain. These goods were then carried across the Pacific by the Manila Galleons to Acapulco; from there, the goods were transshipped across Mexico, for delivery to the Spanish treasure fleet, for shipment to Spain. The income provided to Spain by the Manila Galleons was essential to the Spanish Crown and to the Spanish economy of the era.
When Miguel López de Legazpi completed the conquest of the Philippines in 1565, he sent his flagship, the San Pedro, back to New Spain, with orders to survey and chart a practicable route for ships returning from the Islands. The San Pedro sailed from Cebu, headed roughly northeast, followed the Kuroshio Current (also known as the Japan Current), and made landfall on the coast of California about the latitude of Cape Mendocino. A sail of two thousand five hundred miles down the coasts of California and New Spain brought the voyagers to the port of Acapulco. This route was charted by the Basque navigator and friar Andrés de Urdaneta, on board the San Pedro, and for nearly three centuries was the one followed by the galleons of Spain sailing from Manila to Acapulco. This return voyage across the Pacific could take up to seven months. A harbor on the coast of California where ships could find shelter and repair damage was greatly desired. A survey of the unknown northern Pacific coast of North America was ordered, and it was also suggested that the explorations be extended north of 42 ° north latitude.
In 1585, Captain Francisco de Gali, on the return voyage from the Philippines, via Macao, was directed to sail as far north as the weather would permit, and then east, and upon reaching the coast of California to make maps on his journey south. However, Gali accomplished only limited chart - making. He reached the California coast at latitude 37 ° 30 ' (Pillar Point -- just south of today 's San Francisco), and noted that the land was high and fair; that the mountains were without snow, and that there were many indications of rivers, bays, and havens along the coast.
In 1594, Captain Sebastião Rodrigues Soromenho, a Portuguese sailor in the service of Spain, sailed from the Philippines in the San Agustin with orders similar to those of Gali. In this attempt, he reached land between Point St. George and Trinidad Head on November 4, 1595. Following the line of the coast southwards, Cermeñon 's ship became wrecked and was beached in Drake 's Bay, north of San Francisco. Using salvaged and local materials, the crew constructed an open boat, and the ship 's company of more than seventy persons continued the homeward voyage. This open vessel reached Acapulco in early 1596 -- a remarkable voyage of nearly twenty - five hundred miles in an open boat. With the loss of the San Agustin, exploration of the California coast by ships loaded with cargo from the Philippines came to an end.
In 1602, the Basque captain Sebastián Vizcaíno, sailing for Spain, explored the coastline from Mexico as far north as Monterey Bay in today 's California, where he went ashore. He ventured inland south along the coast, and recorded a visit to what is likely Carmel Bay. His major contributions were the glowing reports of the Monterey area as an anchorage and as land suitable for settlement, as well as the detailed charts he made of the coastal waters (which were used for nearly 200 years); however no settlements in today 's California were established for the next 150 years.
In the late 17th century, Spain sent the first missionaries into today 's Baja California, founding the first mission there in 1683 at San Bruno on the east coast of the Baja peninsula (San Bruno was abandoned as unsuccessful after two years). In 1697, the first "permanent '' mission was established at Loreto, about 20 miles (32 km) away from San Bruno, also on the east coast of the peninsula. During this period (until 1750), some 16 missions were established on the peninsula -- mostly on the east coast of the peninsula, with a handful on the Pacific coast, in the northwestern part of the peninsula.
Although it was n't until 1579 that the west coast of North America was visited by an English explorer, the privateer Sir Francis Drake who landed north of today 's San Francisco and claimed the area for England, calling it "New Albion '' or New England, the English claim to this territory dates back to John Cabot 's landing on Americas. The officially - accepted location for Drake 's landing is at Drake 's Estero (also known as "Drakes Bay, '' just north of San Francisco, in Marin County). Despite the facts that no permanent settlements were ever established by Drake, and that the next official visit by the British would be some two hundred years later, Drake 's action and Cabot 's original claim in 1497 were the foundations of British claims to portions of the west coast of North America in the late 18th century. One of the most important consequences of these claims is that charters for the British colonies on the Atlantic coast went from sea to sea, and this was the foundation of the US claim to its current territory.
While the Spanish had dominated development on the west coast of North America for over 200 years since the early 16th century, beginning in the mid-18th century, this period saw the advent of British and Russian rivals, and the establishment of the California missions, followed by the independence of Mexico and the Central American countries. Much later in this period, the United States started on its path to become the dominant power on the west coast of North America.
In the 1760s, a decision was made to create a harbor at San Blas (in today 's Mexican state of Nayarit), for the purpose of building ships, supplying them, and being the expeditionary base for voyages north along the west coast of North America, from Baja California to Alaska. Today it remains unclear exactly why the Viceroy of New Spain decided to create an entirely new shipbuilding port along the west coast of Mexico, when the port at Acapulco already existed. It has been speculated that the reasons San Blas was chosen included that it was a week 's sailing closer than Acapulco to the intended destination sites in California, that it was not far from the capital of New Spain, and perhaps more importantly, it had ready access to tropical hardwoods that would be needed to build the ships for the strenuous voyages as far north as today 's Alaska. San Blas built the ships and was the home port for these exploration and supply voyages beginning in 1769 and continuing to 1820.
It was not until 1769 that the first missions were established in today 's California (then called Las Californias), including the first mission, at San Diego in 1769, the mission at Monterey in 1770, and the mission at San Francisco in 1776. These missions eventually stretched from the southern tip of the Baja California peninsula to Sonoma, California, north of San Francisco. The purpose of the missions, which typically had an accompanying pueblo (town) and presidio (military outpost), was to solidify the 250 - year - old Spanish claim to the region. This need became more urgent as the Russians and British were encroaching on the far northern part of the west coast of North America. In addition, there continued the long - standing interest in creating a safe anchorage for seaworn Manila Galleons on their return to Acapulco.
Explorers and fur trappers from the Russian Empire (beginning with Semyon Dezhnev expedition of 1630) arrived on the Pacific coast of today 's Alaska, and after establishing settlements there (beginning in 1784), expanded hunting and trading down the west coast of North America. In the early 19th century, fur trappers of the Russian Empire explored the west coast of North America, hunting for sea otter pelts as far south as San Diego. In 1812, the Russian - American Company set up a fortified trading post at Fort Ross, located north of present - day Bodega Bay some sixty miles north of San Francisco, with the never - materialized hope of using that area to develop a source of agricultural products needed for their settlements in Alaska.
In the late 18th century, Spain reacted to the expanding Russian and British presence in the Pacific Northwest by sending exploratory expeditions along the coast as far north as Alaska. In 1774 Juan José Pérez Hernández was commissioned to explore the coast up to 60 ° N, but only made it as far as 55 ° 30 _́ N. Off Langara Island in Haida Gwaii he made contact with the Haida, and on the homeward journey, the Nuu - chah - nulth. In 1775, a two - ship exploration expedition led by Spanish Captain Don Bruno de Heceta landed on the coast of today 's Washington -- the first European to have sailed this far north along the coast. The expedition re-asserted Spanish claims to all the coastal lands, including to the Russian settlements in the north. The two ships sailed together as far north as Point Grenville, named Punta de los Martires (or "Point of the Martyrs '') by Heceta in response to an attack by the local Quinault Indians. He was the first European to sight the mouth of the Columbia River.
By design, the two vessels separated with one continuing to what is today the border between Washington state and Canada. The other (now with second officer Juan Francisco de la Bodega y Quadra at the helm) moved up the coast according to its orders, ultimately reaching a position at 59 ° north latitude on August 15, 1775, entering Sitka Sound near the present - day town of Sitka, Alaska. It is there that the Spaniards performed numerous "acts of sovereignty, '' naming and claiming Puerto de Bucareli (Bucareli Sound), Puerto de los Remedios, and Mount San Jacinto (renamed Mount Edgecumbe by British explorer James Cook three years later).
In 1790, Spanish explorer Salvador Fidalgo led an expedition that included visits to the sites of today 's Cordova, Alaska and Valdez, Alaska, where acts of sovereignty were performed. Fidalgo went as far as today 's Kodiak Island, visiting the small Russian settlement there. Fidalgo then went to the Russian settlement at Alexandrovsk (today 's English Bay or Nanwalek, Alaska), southwest of today 's Anchorage on the Kenai Peninsula, where again, Fidalgo re-asserted the Spanish claim to the area by conducting a formal ceremony of sovereignty.
In 1791, the Malaspina Expedition undertook a search for the Northwest Passage, surveying the Alaska coast from Yakutat Bay to Prince William Sound. At Yakutat Bay, the expedition made contact with the Tlingit. The expedition 's scientists made a study of the tribe, recording information on social mores, language, economy, warfare methods, and burial practices. Artists with the expedition, Tomas de Suria and José Cardero, produced portraits of tribal members and scenes of Tlingit daily life. A glacier between Yakutat Bay and Icy Bay was subsequently named after Malaspina. The botanist Luis Née also accompanied the expedition, during which he collected and described numerous new plants.
During the return to Mexico, Malaspina 's expedition spent a month at the Spanish outpost in Nootka Sound on Vancouver Island (see below). The expedition made a study of the Nootka. The two ships then sailed south to Mexico, stopping at the Spanish settlement and mission at Monterey, California on the way. Simultaneously an expedition under Francisco de Eliza, exploring the Strait of Juan de Fuca, discovered an entrance to the Strait of Georgia, which prompted further investigation. In Acapulco, Malaspina took over two schooners, the Sutil and Mexicana, placed them under the command of one of his officers, Dionisio Alcalá Galiano, and had them sail north to explore the Strait of Georgia. Galiano 's expedition took place in 1792 at the same time as that of George Vancouver. The two expeditions met in the Strait of Georgia and worked together to map the waters and establish the insularity of Vancouver Island.
Today, Spain 's legacy endures as dozens of Spanish place names. In Alaska these include the Malaspina Glacier and Cordova Glacier, the towns of Valdez, Cordova and Port Gravina, as well as Orca Bay, Cordova Peak, and Revillagigedo Island. In British Columbia some of the better - known Spanish names (of many) include Quadra Island, Galiano Island, Gabriola Island, and Haro Strait.
In 1778, the British seafaring Captain James Cook, midway through his third and final voyage of exploration, sailed along the west coast of North America, mapping the coast from California all the way to the Bering Strait. The northern stretch of the west coast of North America was claimed by the British, but the region was not occupied by any British subject until 1788, when John Meares first small trading post in Nootka Sound in today 's British Columbia. His post was torn down at the end of 1788 although he claimed otherwise.
Spain established its own competing fortified trading post at Nootka Sound (Santa Cruz de Nutka, maintained between 1789 and 1795) on Vancouver Island, in today 's British Columbia, and sought forcibly to remove British traders by seizing ships, triggering the Nootka Crisis.
War between Spain and Great Britain over control of the Pacific Northwest was averted by the three Nootka Conventions, signed in 1790, 1793, and 1794. Spain gave up its claim that it alone could establish settlements in the Pacific Northwest (a claim that dated back to the 1493 papal bull and Balboa 's actions in 1513), and conceded the British right to establish settlements in any area nominally claimed by Spain but never occupied. This agreement effectively allowed a greatly expanded British presence in the Pacific Northwest, including today 's British Columbia, Oregon, and Washington.
The primary beneficiary of this agreement was the Hudson 's Bay Company, which, in 1825, established a major trading post at Fort Vancouver across the Columbia River just north of today 's Portland, Oregon. From this headquarters, British - employed fur trappers spread throughout the Pacific Northwest, extending as far east as the Rocky Mountains and, by using the Siskiyou Trail, as far south as California 's Central Valley.
After the Spanish possession now known as Mexico (first known as "América Septentrional '' or "Northern America '') won its War of Independence from Spain in 1821, Mexico initially retained Spain 's missions and settlements along the Pacific coast, and continued Spain 's claims to territory as far north as today 's border between California and Oregon. In the 1830s, Mexico ended Church control of the missions in California and opened the land to secular development, particularly ranching. By the 1840s, there were small Mexican settlements at San Diego, Los Angeles, San Francisco, and the territorial capital at Monterey. These settlements primarily traded cattle hides and tallow with American and European merchant vessels. This period is vividly portrayed in Bostonian Richard Henry Dana, Jr. 's famous seafaring memoir, Two Years Before the Mast and the culture of the great Mexican landowners of this period is often harked back to as exemplifying the height of California 's romantic pastoral era. Mexican control of the territory ended after only 25 years, when attempts by local Mexican officials to expropriate the property of American ranchers and drive them out of California in the winter lead to the successful uprising known as the Bear Flag Revolt.
During the 1820s, the Central American possessions of Spain gained their independence, and the boundaries of the young nations shifted in alliances and configurations. For example, what was to become the nation of Panama was simply a province of Colombia, and Guatemala was variously part of a confederation with Mexico, and part of the United Provinces of Central America, before becoming a separate nation in 1838. Almost all of these Central American nations saw continuing political strife throughout this period (and into the 20th century), as struggles continued between indigenous peoples and elites, and among factions of the elites.
In 1786, Jean - François de Galaup, comte de La Pérouse led a group of French scientists and artists on a voyage of exploration ordered by Louis XVI and were welcomed in Monterey, California. They compiled an account of the California mission system, the land and the people.
The leader of a further French scientific expedition to California, Eugène Duflot de Mofras, wrote in 1840 "... it is evident that California will belong to whatever nation chooses to send there a man - of - war and two hundred men. '' In 1841, the Mexican military commander in Northern California, General Mariano Vallejo, wrote "there is no doubt that France is intriguing to become mistress of California. ''
In 1805, the first official party of Americans to arrive on the west coast of North America, the fabled expedition of Lewis and Clark, came down the Columbia River to the river 's mouth on the border between today 's Oregon and Washington. In 1819, the United States acquired the Spanish claims to the Pacific Northwest (as negotiated in the Nootka Convention) in the Adams - Onís Treaty. The United States argued that it acquired the Spanish rights to exclusive ownership of the Pacific Northwest as far north as Alaska, even though Spain had in fact relinquished any claim to exclusive rights as a result of the Nootka Conventions. This position led to a dispute with Britain known as the Oregon boundary dispute, remembered for the slogan "54 - 40 or fight! '' The two countries agreed to defer resolution of the dispute, and to allow settlement by both British and American immigrants in what became known in the United States as the Oregon Country (today 's Oregon, Washington, and Idaho; much of today 's British Columbia; and parts of Montana and Wyoming).
In 1841, the United States Exploring Expedition visited the west coast of North America by ship, and sent an overland party down the Siskiyou Trail, from the site of today 's Portland, Oregon, to San Francisco.
Americans continued arriving on the west coast of North America in significant numbers in the mid-1830s. They first came overland along the Oregon Trail, settling primarily in the rich Willamette Valley south of today 's Portland. By 1841, the first overland party of American settlers reached California along what became the California Trail, and by the mid-1840s significant numbers of Americans were arriving in California.
In addition, the long - standing dispute between the United States and Great Britain over the Oregon Country was resolved in 1846, with the signing of the Oregon Treaty; the Oregon Treaty divided the disputed territory along what later became the current international boundary between Canada and the United States.
In this era, much of the west coast of North America transformed from an area still largely populated by indigenous peoples to widespread population of non-natives. In particular, the west coast of the United States showed the most dramatic change, beginning with the California Gold Rush and the subsequent opening of the transcontinental railroads, through the development of Hollywood in Southern California, and increased industry and agriculture in the U.S. Pacific Northwest. Canadian and Mexican development also proceeded during this time, but at a slower pace.
Americans in California rebelled against Mexico, and in 1846 established the short - lived California Republic. However, the Mexican -- American War had already been declared, and the American military quickly took control of California. At the end of the war, Mexico ceded control of California to the United States. Things began to change dramatically in 1848 with the California Gold Rush which brought an influx of immigrants from around the world. While few found much gold, many stayed, founding communities and turning to farming and other practices. Despite these increases in population the west coast was still on the periphery. The American Civil War had little effect. This began to change as the first transcontinental railroads (completed in 1869) stretched across the United States. For the first time, it was relatively cheap and easy to move to the west coast.
In 1867, the United States acquired Alaska from the Russian Empire, capping American westward expansion on the North American continent.
The next 75 years saw monumental change on the west coast of the United States. Successive booms of agriculture, oil, entertainment, and industry greatly increased California 's population. Logging, fishing, and industry drove the economies of California north of the San Francisco Bay Area, and Oregon and Washington.
The gold rush fever spread progressively north; in 1858, the Fraser Canyon Gold Rush began in British Columbia, and at the end of the century, the Klondike Gold Rush saw the Yukon hit by masses of prospectors.
The formal delineation of the international border had not completely allayed Britain 's fears of losing its Pacific territories, especially as it continued to lag behind the western United States in population and development. As a condition of British Columbia 's joining Canadian Confederation in 1871, the Canadian government promised British Columbia a railway, though due to the Pacific Scandal and controversies over the location of the Pacific port and railhead and the use of importing Chinese rather than British labour, the Canadian Pacific Railway was not completed until 1885. The new line became an important link in what was known as the All Red Route around the world, linking global travel through territories exclusively British.
While the Pacific Coast of Mexico remained relatively undeveloped economically, exceptions were tobacco cultivation in the coastal territory of Nayarit, tourism at Acapulco, and local - scale fishing all along the coast.
The countries of Central America continued to struggle politically during this time (with perhaps the notable exception of Costa Rica), and began to expand agriculture, particularly in coffee and bananas with investment and substantial control by the United States. The establishment in 1903 of the newly independent nation of Panama (under pressure from the United States) led to the creation of the Canal Zone and opening of the Panama Canal in 1914. The opening of the Canal benefited the region economically as trade with the Eastern United States and Europe became far easier.
Both the gold rushes and the building of the railroads required vast amounts of labor. One available source that was used on both sides of the border were immigrants from East Asia, largely from China and Japan. These immigrants were willing to work for very little and played a crucial role in building the infrastructure of the west coast. However, they faced constant discrimination. Asians were deprived of their civil rights in both the United States and Canada. There was also pressure to restrict Asian immigration, opinions that were acted on with quotas, head taxes, and finally a complete ban in both nations in the 1920s. Because of discrimination, and also a desire to remain a community, Chinatowns developed in all the major cities along the west coast.
The rise of the Japanese economy also benefited the region as the ability to trade across the Pacific continued to show its great potential.
However, only a few decades later, Japan would become a major threat. During World War II, there were few attacks against North America, but the occasional Japanese submarine lurked off the shores. Japan tried to damage the region by sending over hundreds of balloon bombs in an attempt to light forest fires. These were generally ineffective; a few landed in either Canada or the United States but they caused no great destruction. More destructive was the internment of ethnic Japanese, who were expropriated and sent into internal exile merely for their descent.
The post-war years would be ones of great prosperity and growth on the west coast of North America. The quick reemergence of Japan and its stunning growth over the next decades meant great wealth for the west coast ports. Japan became the second largest trading partner of both Canada and the United States, and this trade was almost entirely based in the west coast (the US and Canada are each other 's largest trading partners). Later the other Asian economies would add to this trade. Throughout the northwest the primary extractive activities of logging, mining, and fishing remained the central industries. California became a centre of entertainment, aerospace engineering, and electronics.
Unlike other areas of the United States, the western economies were not based upon manufacturing and the great deindustrialization of the 1970s and 1980s did little to hurt the region -- creating an imbalance between rapid growth in the west and stagnation or decline in the east.
During this period, the west coast departed from positions held in the FDR years and moved toward the direction of conservatism with the population favoring lower taxes. In the United States, this manifested itself in support for the Republican Party, especially for the two Republican California - based presidents Richard Nixon and Ronald Reagan. In British Columbia, the right wing Social Credit Party governed for over thirty years. Nonetheless, the great port cities of San Francisco and Vancouver both fostered alternative views, acting as centres for environmentalism, unions, feminism, and gay rights.
The general economic revival of North America in the late 1990s brought growth in Northern California due to the high - tech industry. The region was hurt, however, by the decade - long economic slump of Japan beginning at the same time. This was made up for by the rapid growth of Southeast Asia, South Korea, and especially China. The entire region shifted quite dramatically politically, however. Westerners diverged from conservatism over social issues such as gay rights, abortion, and the legalization of soft drugs. In 1991, British Columbia threw out Social Credit electing the social democratic British Columbia New Democratic Party. California, Washington, and Oregon were pivotal in Bill Clinton 's two victories and Al Gore and John Kerry 's near wins in 2000 and 2004. This change was mainly in the urban coastal areas. Inland, rural regions of California remained staunchly Republican, and although once full of labour strongholds, the Interior of British Columbia has voted solidly for the Reform Party and its successors.
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who is the longest serving doctor who companion | Companion (Doctor Who) - wikipedia
In the long - running BBC television science fiction programme Doctor Who and related works, the term "companion '' refers to a character who travels with, or shares the adventures of the Doctor. In most Doctor Who stories, the primary companion acts as an audience surrogate. They provide the lens through which the viewer is introduced to the series. The companion character often furthers the story by asking questions and getting into trouble, or by helping, rescuing, or challenging the Doctor. This designation is applied to a character by the show 's producers and appears in the BBC 's promotional material and off - screen fictional terminology. Until the modern revival of the series in 2005, the term was rarely used on - screen. The Doctor also refers to the show 's other leads as his "friends '' or "assistants ''; the British press have also used the latter term.
In the earliest episodes of Doctor Who, the dramatic structure of the programme 's cast was rather different from the hero - and - sidekick pattern that emerged later. Initially, the character of the Doctor was unclear, with uncertain motives and abilities. The protagonists were schoolteachers Ian Chesterton and Barbara Wright, who provided the audience 's point of view in stories set in Earth 's history and on alien worlds. Ian in particular served the role of the action hero. The fourth character was the Doctor 's granddaughter, Susan, who (though initially presented as an "unearthly child '') was intended as an identification figure for younger viewers.
Carole Ann Ford, who played Susan Foreman, became unhappy with the lack of development for her character and chose to leave in its second series. The character of Susan was married off to a freedom fighter and left behind to rebuild a Dalek - ravaged Earth. Doctor Who 's producers replaced Susan with another young female character, Vicki. Similarly, when Ian and Barbara left, the "action hero '' position was filled by astronaut Steven Taylor. This grouping of the Doctor, a young heroic male, and an attractive young female became the programme 's pattern throughout the 1960s.
When the programme changed to colour in 1970, its format changed: the Doctor was now Earth - bound and acquired a supporting cast by his affiliation with the paramilitary organisation United Nations Intelligence Taskforce (UNIT). The Third Doctor, more active and physical than his predecessors, made the role of the "action hero '' male companion redundant. In the 1970 season, the Doctor was assisted by scientist Liz Shaw and Brigadier Lethbridge - Stewart, along with other UNIT personnel (such as Sergeant Benton). The intellectual Shaw was replaced by Jo Grant in the 1971 season, and as the programme returned to occasional adventures in outer space, the format shifted once more: while UNIT continued to provide a regular "home base '' for Earth - bound stories, in stories on other planets, the Doctor and Jo became a two - person team with a close, personal bond. This pattern, the Doctor with a single female companion, became a template from which subsequent episodes of Doctor Who rarely diverged. The "heroic male '' type occasionally returned (for example, Harry Sullivan, Adric, Vislor Turlough, Jack Harkness, and Rory Williams), but the single female companion was Doctor Who 's staple.
The character of Harry Sullivan was created by the production team when it was expected that the Fourth Doctor would be played by an older actor who would have trouble with the activity expressed by his predecessor. The role went to 40 - year - old Tom Baker, and the part of Harry, no longer required for the action role, was reduced.
In the final season for the Fourth Doctor, he acquired three companions (Adric, Tegan, and Nyssa), and this situation continued under the Fifth Doctor for a while. Adric was written out by the unusual method within the series of being "killed off ''. By the time of the Sixth Doctor, a single companion had become standard again.
Although the term "companion '' is designated to specific characters by the show 's producers and appears in the BBC 's promotional material and off - screen fictional terminology, there is no formal definition that constitutes such a designation. The definition of who is and is not a companion becomes less clear in the newer series. For instance, Stephen Brook in The Guardian newspaper 's Organgrinder blog discounted Michelle Ryan as a likely next companion but said that "what constitutes a Doctor Who companion is no longer clear '' During the Doctor 's latest incarnations, his primary companions, such as Rose Tyler and Martha Jones, have fulfilled a distinct dramatic role, more significant than other, less - prominent TARDIS travellers such as Adam, Jack, and Mickey. The British press referred to Martha as the "first ethnic minority companion in the 43 - year television history of Doctor Who '' and the "first black assistant '', despite the presence of Mickey Smith in the previous season -- including several episodes in which he travelled in the TARDIS with the Doctor. Similarly, some characters who appear to qualify as companions are never awarded the title, as in the case of Canton Delaware, who assisted the Doctor for several weeks, traveled in the TARDIS, and was even invited to witness the Eleventh Doctor 's supposed death.
The opening credits do little to clarify the situation. In the first two series of the renewed programme, the only supporting actor to receive a title credit is Billie Piper. In subsequent series, Freema Agyeman, and Catherine Tate are credited in all episodes in which they appear. In the third series, John Barrowman receives a title credit for his return to the show. Series Four gave Agyeman, Piper, Barrowman, and Elisabeth Sladen title billing for each of their reappearances. Noel Clarke reprised his role in the Series Four finale; although listed as a companion alongside the other actors on the BBC Doctor Who website, Clarke is not credited in this way. In The End of Time John Simm receives title billing for his antagonist role as the Master, ahead of Bernard Cribbins as companion Wilfred Mott.
Companions in the new series also have a more flexible tenure than their classical predecessors. Several companion characters have returned to the series after leaving the Doctor 's company, most notably in the Series Four finale "The Stolen Earth '' / "Journey 's End '', which features the returns of Rose, Martha, Jack, Sarah Jane, and Mickey. This tendency, plus the increase in "one - off '' companions like Astrid Peth and Jackson Lake, has further obscured the matter of who is and is not a companion.
The Doctor 's companions have assumed a variety of roles -- involuntary passengers, assistants (particularly Liz Shaw), friends, and fellow adventurers; and, of course, he regularly gains new companions and loses old ones. Sometimes they return home, and sometimes they find new causes -- or loves -- on worlds they have visited. A few companions have died during their travels with the Doctor.
Most companions travel in the TARDIS with the Doctor for more than one adventure. Sometimes a guest character takes a role in the story similar to that of a companion, such as photographer Isobel Watkins, who plays a significant role in The Invasion (1968), or Lynda in "Bad Wolf '' and "The Parting of the Ways '' (2005). In the revived era, some guest characters have gained companion status such as Mickey Smith, River Song, Wilfred Mott, and Craig Owens.
Despite the fact that the majority of the Doctor 's companions are young, attractive females, the production team for the 1963 -- 89 series maintained a long - standing taboo against any overt romantic involvement in the TARDIS: for example, Peter Davison, as the Fifth Doctor, was not allowed to put his arm around either Sarah Sutton (Nyssa) or Janet Fielding (Tegan Jovanka). However, that has not prevented fans from speculating about possible romantic involvements, most notably between the Fourth Doctor and the Time Lady Romana (whose actors, Tom Baker and Lalla Ward, shared a romance and brief marriage). The taboo was controversially broken in the 1996 television movie when the Eighth Doctor was shown kissing companion Grace Holloway. The 2005 series played with this idea by having various characters think that the Ninth Doctor and Rose Tyler were a couple, which they vehemently denied. Since the series revival, the Doctor has kissed many of his companions, including Rose and Jack, although each instance was not necessarily in a romantic context (see also "The Doctor and romance ''). Donna Noble vehemently denied a sexual interest in the Doctor when he invited her to join him and explained, "I just want a mate, '' which she misheard as "I just want to mate. '' Rose and Martha each developed romantic feelings toward the Doctor. On the opposite side of the same coin, Amy reacted to the stress of her adventures by very aggressively trying to seduce the Doctor on the eve of her own wedding, despite being in love with her fiancé Rory; the Doctor forcibly pushed her off of himself, though she did not immediately cease her pursuit. The Eleventh Doctor romantically kissed Amy and Rory 's daughter, sporadic companion River Song, jokingly proposed marriage to her, and soon married her.
Previous companions have reappeared in the series. Brigadier Lethbridge - Stewart reunited with later incarnations of the Doctor in Mawdryn Undead and Battlefield. He and Sergeant Benton began as returning characters in the first place, having appeared with the Second Doctor in The Web of Fear and again in The Invasion, prior to starting their full - time association with the Third and Fourth Doctors. Tegan Jovanka was the first full - time companion to part from the Doctor and subsequently return to full - time companionship, although the break in her tenure had been pre-planned.
Most reappearances of companions in the original series, however, were for anniversary specials such as "The Five Doctors '' and "Dimensions in Time '', both of which also featured multiple Doctors. One former companion, Sarah Jane Smith, together with the robotic dog K - 9, appeared in four and two episodes, respectively, of the revived series more than twenty years after their last appearances in the 20th anniversary story The Five Doctors (1983). The character of Sarah Jane also headed up a Doctor Who spin - off, The Sarah Jane Adventures, with K - 9 until Sladen 's death. Another companion, Captain Jack Harkness, is the lead character in the spin - off BBC science fiction programme Torchwood. Not only have these former companions continued to make appearances on Doctor Who, they have sometimes been accompanied by some of their own companions from the spin - offs when doing so, including Jack 's colleagues Gwen Cooper and Ianto Jones, and Sarah Jane 's ' family ' Mr Smith, Luke Smith and K - 9 Mark IV. Other former companions from both the classic era and revived series have also returned as guest stars in the spin - offs, including Martha Jones on Torchwood, and Brigadier Lethbridge - Stewart and Jo Grant on The Sarah Jane Adventures. K - 9 Mark I has also been spun off into its own series, albeit with an independent continuity.
When Doctor Who returned to television in 2005, the companion characters played a slightly different role, partly due to a strong focus on the character of Rose Tyler and characters connected to her. For example, although Adam Mitchell was a companion by the standard definition, he appeared in only two episodes and was arguably a less significant part of the 2005 series than Rose 's sometime boyfriend Mickey Smith, who was not technically a companion but appeared in five episodes (or six, including a brief appearance as a child in "Father 's Day ''). Mickey later gained full - fledged companion status when he travelled in the TARDIS in the 2006 episode "School Reunion ''. In that episode, Sarah Jane Smith referred to Rose as the Doctor 's "assistant '', a term to which the latter took offence. This exchange might be regarded as indicating the new series ' shift in approach to the companion role. Adam was also far less significant than Rose 's mother, Jackie Tyler, who was a frequently recurring character who travelled in the TARDIS, yet is not considered a companion.
As of the end of the sixth series, Sarah Jane Smith is the only classic era companion to have travelled again with the Doctor in the revived series, and one of two to have done so in the revived era. She declined his invitation in "School Reunion '', but subsequently met up with the Doctor aboard a Dalek ship in "Journey 's End '' and travelled with him, several other companions, and Jackie Tyler in the TARDIS as they towed the Earth back to the solar system. Sarah Jane, her predecessor Jo Jones (née Grant), and their own respective companions subsequently momentarily travelled in the TARDIS with the Eleventh Doctor in The Sarah Jane Adventures serial, Death of the Doctor. The Eleventh Doctor attempted to have Brigadier Lethbridge - Stewart travel with him again in "The Wedding of River Song '' only to learn of the Brigadier 's death months earlier.
In the classic era, companions ' friends and families were rarely depicted, and almost all were kept unaware of the true nature of the Doctor and the TARDIS. Exceptions include the very brief portrayals of Susan 's future husband David Campbell; Dodo Chaplet 's ancestor Anne Chaplet; Victoria Waterfield 's father Edward; Jo Grant 's future husband Prof. Clifford Jones; the companions ' various co-workers at UNIT; Leela 's father Sole & future husband or lover Andred; Tegan Jovanka 's aunt Vanessa, maternal grandfather Andrew Verney, & cousin Colin Frazer; Nyssa 's father Tremas & step - mother Kassia; Vislor Turlough 's maths teacher retired Lethbridge - Stewart; Peri Brown 's step - father Prof. Howard Foster, & future husband King Yrcanos; Ace McShane 's ex-lover Sabalom Glitz, maternal grandmother Kathleen Dudman, infant mother Audrey Dudman, & a photograph of her maternal grandfather Frank Dudman); and Brigadier Lethbridge - Stewart 's second wife Doris. Classic era spin - off media additionally introduced Sarah Jane Smith 's aunt Lavina Smith (who had been an unseen character in the original series) and foster brother Brendan Richards, and Brigadier Lethbridge - Stewart 's daughter Kate (who would later become a recurring guest in the revived series) and grandson Gordon.
Conversely, families and friends of most companions in the revived era are extensively and continually depicted, and their adventures with the Doctor are generally not kept secret. The revived era has also featured a number of companions related to other companions by blood or marriage (Donna Noble 's grandfather Wilfred Mott, Amy Pond 's fiancé (later husband) Rory Williams, and the couple 's daughter River Song; and former companions Mickey Smith and Martha Jones who married subsequent to their companionship). No such relationships occurred among companions in the classic era, although original companions Ian Chesterton and Barbara Wright are reported in the revived era to have married subsequent to their companionship, and Ben Jackson and Polly are likewise reported to be together. The families of some classic - era companions too have been depicted in the revived era, such as Jo Grant (n / k / a Jo Jones) 's grandson Santiago Jones; and Sarah Jane Smith 's parents, adopted son Luke Smith, adopted daughter Sky Smith, and alternate timeline fiancé Peter Dalton; and Alistair Lethbridge - Stewart 's daughter Kate Stewart.
Another change in the revived era is the depiction of many companions ' pre-Doctor lives, particularly their childhoods; no companion was so depicted in the classic era, aside from John Benton being temporarily ' de-aged ' by The Master. Companions Rose Tyler, Mickey Smith, Adelaide Brooke, Amy Pond, Rory Williams, River Song and Clara Oswald have all been portrayed in their youths by juvenile actors on Doctor Who; the pre-companionship lives of the Pond - Williams - Song family being particularly well - documented. Companions Jack Harkness and Sarah Jane Smith have also been depicted in their youths on their respective spin - off series. In addition to having been de-aged once in the classic era, John Benton was the first companion whose childhood was chronicled.
A recurring theme of the new series is the toll the loss of companions takes on the Doctor. While he would more or less easily deal with his companions ' departures in the classic series, the new series shows the Doctor having a harder time recovering when a companion leaves him, especially when they do so under tragic circumstances and if the Doctor develops a strong emotional tie beyond friendship. After losing Donna Noble, the Tenth Doctor refused to travel with a companion until after his regeneration, unable to cope with them leaving anymore. Later, the loss of Amy and Rory Williams - his parents - in - law by way of his marriage to River Song - drives the Eleventh Doctor into a deep depression, and he retreats to Victorian London where he refuses to get involved in the world 's affairs anymore. Additionally, "Let 's Kill Hitler '' spotlights the Doctor 's continuing guilt in relation to several past companions. An ongoing subplot of Series 9 (2015) dealt with the Twelfth Doctor 's growing fear over the potential of losing Clara Oswald. Her death in "Face the Raven '' leads the Doctor to undertake extreme measures to undo her fate, as depicted in the Series 9 finale "Heaven Sent '' / "Hell Bent ''. The impact of the death of his wife, River Song, is a subplot of both "The Husbands of River Song '' and "The Return of Doctor Mysterio ''.
The ' last serial ' column only includes the last serial in which he or she appeared in a companion role and excludes minor roles, cameos, flashbacks, and so forth. Also, the table refers solely to adventures with the respective Doctor. Some companions who appear with two or more Doctors appear in separate tables.
The following three characters, all associated with UNIT during the Third Doctor 's exile to Earth, are sometimes considered his companions despite appearing irregularly during his tenure.
In October 2017, the BBC announced that Bradley Walsh, Mandip Gill and Tosin Cole had been cast as companions Graham, Yasmin and Ryan respectively in the eleventh series of Doctor Who; they will appear alongside Jodie Whittaker as the Thirteenth Doctor in 2018.
A few of the companions have died during the course of the series. Katarina sacrificed herself by opening her airlock to save the others from the mad fugitive Kirksen, and was blown into the vacuum of space. In the same serial, Sara Kingdom was rapidly aged to dust by a Time Destructor. While Adric attempted to divert a spaceship from crashing into Earth, a Cyberman destroyed the controls; they hurtled through time and crashed into the planet, creating the Chicxulub crater and causing the K - Pg extinction event (this fulfilled Silurians ' prophecy and facilitated the evolution of mammals). The android Kamelion, after coming under the Master 's control, convinced the Doctor to destroy him, and the Doctor complied. Astrid Peth sacrificed herself to kill Max Capricorn, saving the lives of millions aboard the interstellar space liner RMS Titanic and in the greater London area. Before River Song 's formal companionship began, she sacrificed herself in order to save those trapped in the Library 's computer servers ' simulations. The Doctor uploaded her "data ghost '' into the library servers, from which she later is able to communicate across time and space with Madame Vastra, Jenny Flint, Strax, and Clara Oswald in "The Name of the Doctor ''. Adelaide Brooke killed herself after the Doctor altered the timeline by rescuing her; this ensured that her descendants will explore the galaxy and the wider universe as originally destined. Rory Williams is touched by a Weeping Angel in 2012 and sent back in time. With the encouragement of her daughter, River Song, and against the Doctor 's pleas, Amy Pond allows herself to be touched by a Weeping Angel in 2012 in the hope of being reunited with her husband in the past. She is successful, and they grow old together in New York City, die, and are buried in Queens on the spot from which they will later be sent back in time in 2012. In fighting the Ice Governess in the final hour of Christmas Eve 1892, a Victorian era incarnation of Clara Oswald falls off of the cloud on which the TARDIS was parked, plummeting to the ground. Another incarnation of Clara Oswald (named Oswin Oswald) dies in "Asylum of the Daleks ''; the character disabling the planet 's shielding thus enabling the Doctor, Amy Pond and Rory Williams to escape.
Not all companion deaths have been permanent however. Jack Harkness resurrects after each death, having been made immortal by Rose Tyler in "The Parting of the Ways ''. Rory Williams suffered several deaths, each of which was negated by alternate timelines, paradoxes, resurrection by advanced alien medicine, or the rebooting of the universe. Clara Oswald dies in "Face the Raven '', but in a subsequent episode ("Hell Bent '') her time stream is frozen at the moment of death by the Time Lords so that they can interrogate her about the Hybrid; the Doctor takes advantage of this to save her life, but she remains technically neither alive nor dead, does not age or have a pulse. After her departure as a companion of the Twelfth Doctor, she teams with the immortal Ashildr and travels in a stolen TARDIS.
Other companions died in alternate timelines or alternate lives. Brigade Leader Alistair Lethbridge - Stewart, Section Leader Liz Shaw, and Platoon Leader John Benton all died in the destruction of their universe 's Earth. Sarah Jane Smith, her son Luke Smith, Maria Jackson, & Clyde Langer perished while trying to stop the Plasmavore and the Judoon in Royal Hope Hospital on the Moon in the parallel universe of "Turn Left ''. In the same story, Martha Jones suffocated after giving up her oxygen to classmate / co-worker Oliver Morgenstern while on the Moon. Teenaged Sarah Jane Smith also died after falling from a pier in place of her friend, Andrea Yates; Maria Jackson convinces the adult Yates to correct the timeline, restoring Sarah Jane to life. After surviving decades in an alien hospice that was deadly to humans, Amy Pond compelled Rory Williams to lock her out of the TARDIS in order to protect her younger self and allow the latter to have the life with Rory that the former missed. Amy and Rory jointly jumped off of a high - rise in New York on a hunch that doing so would create a paradox and deliver themselves from that timeline.
Several other companions have died subsequent to their companionships. Sir Alistair Lethbridge - Stewart 's death months earlier was revealed in "The Wedding of River Song '', and he was later remembered fondly by his daughter and the Eleventh Doctor. Harry Sullivan 's death was implied by Sarah Jane Smith when he was the only former companion of whom she spoke in the past - tense and she remarked that she loved him. When the series was relaunched in 2005, the Doctor believed himself to be the only Time Lord to have survived the Last Great Time War, indicating that he believes that Susan Foreman and Romana were killed, and that Leela, who settled on Gallifrey, was lost when that planet was destroyed in the Last Great Time War. However, the fiftieth anniversary episode "The Day of the Doctor '' reveals that the planet still exists in a separate pocket universe, leaving their fates uncertain. In 2050, Sarah Jane Smith is implied to be dead by Rani Chandra in "The Mad Woman in the Attic ''. Vicki left the First Doctor circa 1250 BCE and passed into legend as Cressida.
During the course of the show 's history, there have been a few occasions when companions have died while on adventures with the Doctor. They are:
It should be noted that, of the examples given above, only Adric and Clara and were ongoing, "long - term '' companions of the Doctor. All others listed either appeared for the first time and died in the same storyline (Sara, Astrid, Adelaide), or died in their second on - screen appearance in a Doctor Who storyline (Katarina, Kamelion, K - 9 Mark III).
Others are implied or stated to have died years after parting company with the Doctor.
A number of TV companions have died in spin off media as well as several spin off exclusives companions have died but this list is only concerned with TV companions:
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list of deficiency diseases of vitamins and minerals | Vitamin - wikipedia
A vitamin is an organic compound and an essential nutrient that an organism requires in limited amounts. An organic chemical compound (or related set of compounds) is called a vitamin when the organism can not synthesize the compound in sufficient quantities, and it must be obtained through the diet; thus, the term vitamin is conditional upon the circumstances and the particular organism. For example, ascorbic acid (one form of vitamin C) is a vitamin for humans, but not for most other animals. Vitamin D is essential only for people who do not have adequate skin exposure to sunlight, as ultraviolet light promotes synthesis in skin cells. Supplementation is important for the treatment of certain health problems, but there is little evidence of nutritional benefit when used by otherwise healthy people.
By convention the term vitamin does not include other essential nutrients, such as dietary minerals, essential fatty acids and essential amino acids. Thirteen vitamins are universally recognized at present. Vitamins are classified by both biological and chemical activity, and not their structure. Thus, each vitamin refers to a number of vitamer compounds that all show the biological activity associated with a particular vitamin. Such a set of chemicals is grouped under an alphabetized vitamin "generic descriptor '' title, such as "vitamin A '', which includes the compounds retinal, retinol, and four known carotenoids. Vitamers by definition are convertible to the active form of the vitamin in the body, and are sometimes inter-convertible to one another, as well.
Vitamins have diverse biochemical functions. Some, such as vitamin D, have hormone - like functions as regulators of mineral metabolism, or regulators of cell and tissue growth and differentiation (such as some forms of vitamin A). Others function as antioxidants (e.g., vitamin E and sometimes vitamin C). The largest number of vitamins, the B complex vitamins, function as enzyme cofactors (coenzymes) or the precursors for them; coenzymes help enzymes in their work as catalysts in metabolism. In this role, vitamins may be tightly bound to enzymes as part of prosthetic groups: For example, biotin is part of enzymes involved in making fatty acids. They may also be less tightly bound to enzyme catalysts as coenzymes, detachable molecules that function to carry chemical groups or electrons between molecules. For example, folic acid may carry methyl, formyl, and methylene groups in the cell. Although these roles in assisting enzyme - substrate reactions are vitamins ' best - known function, the other vitamin functions are equally important.
Until the mid-1930s, when the first commercial yeast - extract vitamin B complex and semi-synthetic vitamin C supplement tablets were sold, vitamins were obtained solely through food intake, and changes in diet (which, for example, could occur during a particular growing season) usually greatly altered the types and amounts of vitamins ingested. However, vitamins have been produced as commodity chemicals and made widely available as inexpensive semisynthetic and synthetic - source multivitamin dietary and food supplements and additives, since the middle of the 20th century. Study of structural activity, function and their role in maintaining health is called vitaminology.
Each vitamin is typically used in multiple reactions, and therefore most have multiple functions.
Vitamins are essential for the normal growth and development of a multicellular organism. Using the genetic blueprint inherited from its parents, a fetus begins to develop from the nutrients it absorbs. It requires certain vitamins and minerals to be present at certain times. These nutrients facilitate the chemical reactions that produce among other things, skin, bone, and muscle. If there is serious deficiency in one or more of these nutrients, a child may develop a deficiency disease. Even minor deficiencies may cause permanent damage.
For the most part, vitamins are obtained with food, but a few are obtained by other means. For example, microorganisms in the intestine -- commonly known as "gut flora '' -- produce vitamin K and biotin, while one form of vitamin D is synthesized in the skin with the help of the natural ultraviolet wavelength of sunlight. Humans can produce some vitamins from precursors they consume. Examples include vitamin A, produced from beta carotene, and niacin, from the amino acid tryptophan.
Once growth and development are completed, vitamins remain essential nutrients for the healthy maintenance of the cells, tissues, and organs that make up a multicellular organism; they also enable a multicellular life form to efficiently use chemical energy provided by food it eats, and to help process the proteins, carbohydrates, and fats required for cellular respiration.
In those who are otherwise healthy, there is little evidence that supplements have any benefits with respect to cancer or heart disease. Vitamin A and E supplements not only provide no health benefits for generally healthy individuals, but they may increase mortality, though the two large studies that support this conclusion included smokers for whom it was already known that beta - carotene supplements can be harmful. While other findings suggest that vitamin E toxicity is limited to only a specific form when taken in excess.
The European Union and other countries of Europe have regulations that define limits of vitamin (and mineral) dosages for their safe use as dietary supplements. Most vitamins that are sold as dietary supplements are not supposed to exceed a maximum daily dosage referred to as the Tolerable upper intake level (ULs). Vitamin products above these regulatory limits are not considered supplements and should be registered as prescription or non-prescription (over-the - counter drugs) due to their potential side effects. The European Union, United States, Japan and some other countries each set ULs.
Dietary supplements often contain vitamins, but may also include other ingredients, such as minerals, herbs, and botanicals. Scientific evidence supports the benefits of dietary supplements for persons with certain health conditions. In some cases, vitamin supplements may have unwanted effects, especially if taken before surgery, with other dietary supplements or medicines, or if the person taking them has certain health conditions. They may also contain levels of vitamins many times higher, and in different forms, than one may ingest through food.
The USDA has conducted extensive studies on the percentage losses of various nutrients from different food types and cooking methods.
Some vitamins may become more "bio-available '' -- that is, usable by the body -- when foods are cooked.
The table below shows whether various vitamins are susceptible to loss from heat -- such as heat from boiling, steaming, frying, etc. The effect of cutting vegetables can be seen from exposure to air and light. Water - soluble vitamins such as B and C dissolve into the water when a vegetable is boiled, and are then lost when the water is discarded.
Humans must consume vitamins periodically but with differing schedules, to avoid deficiency. The body 's stores for different vitamins vary widely; vitamins A, D, and B are stored in significant amounts, mainly in the liver, and an adult 's diet may be deficient in vitamins A and D for many months and B in some cases for years, before developing a deficiency condition. However, vitamin B (niacin and niacinamide) is not stored in significant amounts, so stores may last only a couple of weeks. For vitamin C, the first symptoms of scurvy in experimental studies of complete vitamin C deprivation in humans have varied widely, from a month to more than six months, depending on previous dietary history that determined body stores.
Deficiencies of vitamins are classified as either primary or secondary. A primary deficiency occurs when an organism does not get enough of the vitamin in its food. A secondary deficiency may be due to an underlying disorder that prevents or limits the absorption or use of the vitamin, due to a "lifestyle factor '', such as smoking, excessive alcohol consumption, or the use of medications that interfere with the absorption or use of the vitamin. People who eat a varied diet are unlikely to develop a severe primary vitamin deficiency. In contrast, restrictive diets have the potential to cause prolonged vitamin deficits, which may result in often painful and potentially deadly diseases.
Well - known human vitamin deficiencies involve thiamine (beriberi), niacin (pellagra), vitamin C (scurvy), and vitamin D (rickets). In much of the developed world, such deficiencies are rare; this is due to (1) an adequate supply of food and (2) the addition of vitamins and minerals to common foods (fortification). In addition to these classical vitamin deficiency diseases, some evidence has also suggested links between vitamin deficiency and a number of different disorders.
Some vitamins have documented side effects that tend to be more severe with a larger dosage. The likelihood of consuming too much of any vitamin from food is remote, but overdosing (vitamin poisoning) from vitamin supplementation does occur. Acute symptoms can include nausea, vomiting and diarrhea. In the United States, the Institute of Medicine of the National Academies has established Tolerable upper intake levels (ULs) for those vitamins which have documented side effects at high intakes. In the European Union the European Food Safety Authority has also set ULs. ULs from the two organizations do not always match.
In 2014, overdose exposure to all formulations of vitamins and multi-vitamin / mineral formulations was reported by 68,058 individuals to the American Association of Poison Control Centers with 73 % of these exposures in children under the age of five.
Vitamins are classified as either water - soluble or fat - soluble. In humans there are 13 vitamins: 4 fat - soluble (A, D, E, and K) and 9 water - soluble (8 B vitamins and vitamin C). Water - soluble vitamins dissolve easily in water and, in general, are readily excreted from the body, to the degree that urinary output is a strong predictor of vitamin consumption. Because they are not as readily stored, more consistent intake is important. Fat - soluble vitamins are absorbed through the intestinal tract with the help of lipids (fats). Because they are more likely to accumulate in the body, they are more likely to lead to hypervitaminosis than are water - soluble vitamins. Fat - soluble vitamin regulation is of particular significance in cystic fibrosis.
The value of eating a certain food to maintain health was recognized long before vitamins were identified. The ancient Egyptians knew that feeding liver to a person may help with night blindness, an illness now known to be caused by a vitamin A deficiency. The advancement of ocean voyages during the Renaissance resulted in prolonged periods without access to fresh fruits and vegetables, and made illnesses from vitamin deficiency common among ships ' crews.
In 1747, the Scottish surgeon James Lind discovered that citrus foods helped prevent scurvy, a particularly deadly disease in which collagen is not properly formed, causing poor wound healing, bleeding of the gums, severe pain, and death. In 1753, Lind published his Treatise on the Scurvy, which recommended using lemons and limes to avoid scurvy, which was adopted by the British Royal Navy. This led to the nickname limey for British sailors. Lind 's discovery, however, was not widely accepted by individuals in the Royal Navy 's Arctic expeditions in the 19th century, where it was widely believed that scurvy could be prevented by practicing good hygiene, regular exercise, and maintaining the morale of the crew while on board, rather than by a diet of fresh food. As a result, Arctic expeditions continued to be plagued by scurvy and other deficiency diseases. In the early 20th century, when Robert Falcon Scott made his two expeditions to the Antarctic, the prevailing medical theory at the time was that scurvy was caused by "tainted '' canned food.
During the late 18th and early 19th centuries, the use of deprivation studies allowed scientists to isolate and identify a number of vitamins. Lipid from fish oil was used to cure rickets in rats, and the fat - soluble nutrient was called "antirachitic A ''. Thus, the first "vitamin '' bioactivity ever isolated, which cured rickets, was initially called "vitamin A ''; however, the bioactivity of this compound is now called vitamin D. In 1881, Russian surgeon Nikolai Lunin studied the effects of scurvy at the University of Tartu in present - day Estonia. He fed mice an artificial mixture of all the separate constituents of milk known at that time, namely the proteins, fats, carbohydrates, and salts. The mice that received only the individual constituents died, while the mice fed by milk itself developed normally. He made a conclusion that "a natural food such as milk must therefore contain, besides these known principal ingredients, small quantities of unknown substances essential to life. '' However, his conclusions were rejected by his advisor, Gustav von Bunge, even after other students reproduced his results. A similar result by Cornelius Pekelharing appeared in a Dutch medical journal in 1905, but it was not widely reported.
In East Asia, where polished white rice was the common staple food of the middle class, beriberi resulting from lack of vitamin B was endemic. In 1884, Takaki Kanehiro, a British trained medical doctor of the Imperial Japanese Navy, observed that beriberi was endemic among low - ranking crew who often ate nothing but rice, but not among officers who consumed a Western - style diet. With the support of the Japanese navy, he experimented using crews of two battleships; one crew was fed only white rice, while the other was fed a diet of meat, fish, barley, rice, and beans. The group that ate only white rice documented 161 crew members with beriberi and 25 deaths, while the latter group had only 14 cases of beriberi and no deaths. This convinced Takaki and the Japanese Navy that diet was the cause of beriberi, but they mistakenly believed that sufficient amounts of protein prevented it. That diseases could result from some dietary deficiencies was further investigated by Christiaan Eijkman, who in 1897 discovered that feeding unpolished rice instead of the polished variety to chickens helped to prevent beriberi in the chickens. The following year, Frederick Hopkins postulated that some foods contained "accessory factors '' -- in addition to proteins, carbohydrates, fats etc. -- that are necessary for the functions of the human body. Hopkins and Eijkman were awarded the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1929 for their discoveries.
In 1910, the first vitamin complex was isolated by Japanese scientist Umetaro Suzuki, who succeeded in extracting a water - soluble complex of micronutrients from rice bran and named it aberic acid (later Orizanin). He published this discovery in a Japanese scientific journal. When the article was translated into German, the translation failed to state that it was a newly discovered nutrient, a claim made in the original Japanese article, and hence his discovery failed to gain publicity. In 1912 Polish - born biochemist Casimir Funk, working in London, isolated the same complex of micronutrients and proposed the complex be named "vitamine ''. It was later to be known as vitamin B (niacin), though he described it as "anti-beri - beri - factor '' (which would today be called thiamine or vitamin B). Funk proposed the hypothesis that other diseases, such as rickets, pellagra, coeliac disease, and scurvy could also be cured by vitamins. Max Nierenstein a friend and reader of Biochemistry at Bristol University reportedly suggested the "vitamine '' name (from "vital amine '').). The name soon became synonymous with Hopkins ' "accessory factors '', and, by the time it was shown that not all vitamins are amines, the word was already ubiquitous. In 1920, Jack Cecil Drummond proposed that the final "e '' be dropped to deemphasize the "amine '' reference, after researchers began to suspect that not all "vitamines '' (in particular, vitamin A) have an amine component.
In 1930, Paul Karrer elucidated the correct structure for beta - carotene, the main precursor of vitamin A, and identified other carotenoids. Karrer and Norman Haworth confirmed Albert Szent - Györgyi 's discovery of ascorbic acid and made significant contributions to the chemistry of flavins, which led to the identification of lactoflavin. For their investigations on carotenoids, flavins and vitamins A and B, they both received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1937.
In 1931, Albert Szent - Györgyi and a fellow researcher Joseph Svirbely suspected that "hexuronic acid '' was actually vitamin C, and gave a sample to Charles Glen King, who proved its anti-scorbutic activity in his long - established guinea pig scorbutic assay. In 1937, Szent - Györgyi was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his discovery. In 1943, Edward Adelbert Doisy and Henrik Dam were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their discovery of vitamin K and its chemical structure. In 1967, George Wald was awarded the Nobel Prize (along with Ragnar Granit and Haldan Keffer Hartline) for his discovery that vitamin A could participate directly in a physiological process.
The term vitamin was derived from "vitamine '', a compound word coined in 1912 by the Polish biochemist Kazimierz Funk when working at the Lister Institute of Preventive Medicine. The name is from vital and amine, meaning amine of life, because it was suggested in 1912 that the organic micronutrient food factors that prevent beriberi and perhaps other similar dietary - deficiency diseases might be chemical amines. This was true of thiamine, but after it was found that other such micronutrients were not amines the word was shortened to vitamin in English.
Once discovered, vitamins were actively promoted in articles and advertisements in McCall 's, Good Housekeeping, and other media outlets. Marketers enthusiastically promoted cod - liver oil, a source of Vitamin D, as "bottled sunshine '', and bananas as a "natural vitality food ''. They promoted foods such as yeast cakes, a source of B vitamins, on the basis of scientifically - determined nutritional value, rather than taste or appearance. World War II researchers focused on the need to ensure adequate nutrition, especially in processed foods. Robert W. Yoder is credited with first using the term vitamania, in 1942, to describe the appeal of relying on nutritional supplements rather than on obtaining vitamins from a varied diet of foods. The continuing preoccupation with a healthy lifestyle has led to an obsessive consumption of additives the beneficial effects of which are questionable.
Most countries place dietary supplements in a special category under the general umbrella of foods, not drugs. As a result, the manufacturer, and not the government, has the responsibility of ensuring that its dietary supplement products are safe before they are marketed. Regulation of supplements varies widely by country. In the United States, a dietary supplement is defined under the Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act of 1994. There is no FDA approval process for dietary supplements, and no requirement that manufacturers prove the safety or efficacy of supplements introduced before 1994. The Food and Drug Administration must rely on its Adverse Event Reporting System to monitor adverse events that occur with supplements. In 2007, the US Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) Title 21, part III took effect, regulating Good Manufacturing Practices (GMPs) in the manufacturing, packaging, labeling, or holding operations for dietary supplements. Even though product registration is not required, these regulations mandate production and quality control standards (including testing for identity, purity and adulterations) for dietary supplements. In the European Union, the Food Supplements Directive requires that only those supplements that have been proven safe can be sold without a prescription. For most vitamins, pharmacopoeial standards have been established. In the United States, the United States Pharmacopeia (USP) sets standards for the most commonly used vitamins and preparations thereof. Likewise, monographs of the European Pharmacopoeia (Ph. Eur.) regulate aspects of identity and purity for vitamins on the European market.
The reason that the set of vitamins skips directly from E to K is that the vitamins corresponding to letters F -- J were either reclassified over time, discarded as false leads, or renamed because of their relationship to vitamin B, which became a complex of vitamins.
The German - speaking scientists who isolated and described vitamin K (in addition to naming it as such) did so because the vitamin is intimately involved in the coagulation of blood following wounding (from the German word Koagulation). At the time, most (but not all) of the letters from F through to J were already designated, so the use of the letter K was considered quite reasonable. The table nomenclature of reclassified vitamins lists chemicals that had previously been classified as vitamins, as well as the earlier names of vitamins that later became part of the B - complex.
There are other missing B vitamins which were reclassified or determined not to be vitamins. For example, B is folic acid and five of the folates are in the range B through B, forms of other vitamins already discovered, not required as a nutrient by the entire population (like B, PABA for internal use), biologically inactive, toxic, or with unclassifiable effects in humans, or not generally recognised as vitamins by science, such as the highest - numbered, which some naturopath practitioners call B and B. There are also nine lettered B complex vitamins (e.g. B). There are other D vitamins now recognised as other substances, which some sources of the same type number up to D. The controversial cancer treatment laetrile was at one point lettered as vitamin B. There appears to be no consensus on any vitamins Q, R, T, V, W, X, Y or Z, nor are there substances officially designated as Vitamins N or I, although the latter may have been another form of one of the other vitamins or a known and named nutrient of another type.
Anti-vitamins are chemical compounds that inhibit the absorption or actions of vitamins. For example, avidin is a protein in raw egg whites that inhibits the absorption of biotin; it is deactivated by cooking. Pyrithiamine, a synthetic compound, has a molecular structure similar to thiamine, vitamin B, and inhibits the enzymes that use thiamine.
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incubators used in the microbiology laboratory generally maintain a constant temperature of | Incubator (culture) - wikipedia
In biology, an incubator is a device used to grow and maintain microbiological cultures or cell cultures. The incubator maintains optimal temperature, humidity and other conditions such as the carbon dioxide (CO) and oxygen content of the atmosphere inside. Incubators are essential for a lot of experimental work in cell biology, microbiology and molecular biology and are used to culture both bacterial as well as eukaryotic cells.
Louis Pasteur used the small opening underneath his staircase as an incubator. Incubators are also used in the poultry industry to act as a substitute for hens. This often results in higher hatch rates due to the ability to control both temperature and humidity. Various brands of incubators are commercially available to breeders.
The simplest incubators are insulated boxes with an adjustable heater, typically going up to 60 to 65 ° C (140 to 150 ° F), though some can go slightly higher (generally to no more than 100 ° C). The most commonly used temperature both for bacteria such as the frequently used E. coli as well as for mammalian cells is approximately 37 ° C, as these organisms grow well under such conditions. For other organisms used in biological experiments, such as the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, a growth temperature of 30 ° C is optimal.
More elaborate incubators can also include the ability to lower the temperature (via refrigeration), or the ability to control humidity or CO levels. This is important in the cultivation of mammalian cells, where the relative humidity is typically > 80 % to prevent evaporation and a slightly acidic pH is achieved by maintaining a CO level of 5 %.
Perhaps one of the most important pieces of equipment in the laboratory, the incubator has provided a foundation for countless medical advances and experimental work in cellular and molecular biology. From aiding in hatching chicken eggs to enabling scientists to understand and develop vaccines for deadly viruses, the laboratory incubator has seen numerous applications over the thousands of years it has been in use.
Today 's incubators are made up of a nonporous chamber plus equipment that regulates the temperature, humidity and ventilation within that chamber. While many technological advances have occurred since the primitive incubators used in ancient Egypt and China, the main purpose of the incubator has remained unchanged: to create a stable, controlled environment conducive to research, study, and cultivation.
The earliest incubators were found thousands of years ago in ancient Egypt and China, where they were used to keep chicken eggs warm. Use of incubators revolutionized food production, as it allowed chicks to hatch from eggs without requiring that a hen sit on them, thus freeing the hens to lay more eggs in a shorter period of time. Both early Egyptian and Chinese incubators were essentially large rooms that were heated by fires, where attendants turned the eggs at regular intervals to ensure even heat distribution.
The incubator received an update in the 16th century when Jean Baptiste Porta drew on ancient Egyptian design to create a more modern egg incubator. While he eventually had to discontinue his work due to the Spanish Inquisition, Rene - Antoine Ferchault de Reaumur took up the challenge in the middle of the 17th century. Reaumur warmed his incubator with a wood stove and monitored its temperature using the Reaumur thermometer, another of his inventions.
In the 19th century, researchers finally began to recognize that the use of incubators could contribute to medical advancements. They began to experiment to find the ideal environment for maintaining cell culture stocks. These early incubators were simply made up of bell jars that contained a single lit candle. Cultures were placed near the flame on the underside of the jar 's lid, and the entire jar was placed in a dry, heated oven.
In the late 19th century, doctors realized another practical use for incubators: keeping premature or weak infants alive. The first infant incubator, used at a women 's hospital in Paris, was heated by kerosene lamps. Fifty years later, Julius H. Hess, an American physician often considered to be the father of neonatology, designed an electric infant incubator that closely resembles the infant incubators in use today.
The next innovation in incubator technology came in the 1960s, when the CO2 incubator was introduced to the market. Demand came when doctors realized that they could use CO2 incubators to identify and study pathogens found in patients ' bodily fluids. To do this, a sample was harvested and placed onto a sterile dish and into the incubator. The air in the incubator was kept at 37 degrees Celsius, the same temperature as the human body, and the incubator maintained the atmospheric carbon dioxide and nitrogen levels necessary to promote cell growth.
At this time, incubators also began to be used in genetic engineering. Scientists could create biologically essential proteins, such as insulin, with the use of incubators. Genetic modification could now take place on a molecular level, helping to improve the nutritional content and resistance to pestilence and disease of fruits and vegetables.
In 1984, SHEL LAB introduced a general - purpose incubator. The incubator had the ability to provide superior temperature uniformity with a warm air - jacket design.
The EchoTherm incubator came to market in the 1990s. It was in demand for its compact design and its ability to chill as well as heat.
Ninety percent of an experiment 's life is spent in passive equipment, such as the CO2 incubator, making this piece of equipment one of the most important in a laboratory. While incubator technology has been fine - tuned over the last two decades, there had been no technological advancements until Hardin Scientific 's T3 - I7 model. Incorporating customizable, upgradable features, both a humidified and a dry decontamination cycle, and simple repair and maintenance solutions, this laboratory cell culture incubator provides unparalleled value and a user - friendly experience. From helping to avoid risk in the event of a power outage to providing researchers with an efficient, high quality and cost - effective piece of equipment, the T3 - I7 is revolutionizing the way laboratories conduct experiments. Scientists now have the freedom to customize the incubator to suit their experiments as well as to meet regulatory requirements.
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when did the black and red jordans come out | Air Jordan - wikipedia
Air Jordan is a brand of basketball footwear and athletic clothing produced by Nike. It was created for former professional basketball player, Michael Jordan. The original Air Jordan I sneaker, produced for Jordan in 1984, were released to the public in 1985. The shoes were designed for Nike by Peter Moore, Tinker Hatfield, and Bruce Kilgore. To date Nike owns all Jordan operations.
Since its introduction into the sports shoe market, the Air Jordan evolved from the original basketball shoes to models for different uses, including I - XXXII. The Jordan brand sponsors 21 active NBA players, including Jimmy Butler (basketball), Chris Paul, Blake Griffin, Kawhi Leonard, Russell Westbrook, and Carmelo Anthony. They also endorse Nike Air Jordan products. Also they sponsor other leagues such as the MLB, NFL, NASCAR and the WNBA.
The Air Jordan 1 was first produced for Michael Jordan in 1984. It was designed by Peter C. Moore. The red and black colorway of the Nike Air Ship, the prototype for the Jordan 1, was later outlawed by NBA Commissioner David Stern for having very little white on them. It is a common misconception that the Jordan 1 was banned however, it was indeed the Nike Air Ship. After the Nike Air Ship was banned, Michael Jordan and Nike introduced the Jordan 1 in color ways with more white such as the "Chicago '' color way and the "Black Toe '' color way. They used the Nike Air Ship 's banning as a promotional tool in advertisements hinting that the shoes gave an unfair competitive advantage for the Jordan 1 and that whoever wore them had a certain edginess associated with outlaw activities.
The Air Jordan I was originally released on the market from 1985 to 1986. Then retro - ed in 1994, 2001 -- 2004, and 2007 -- 2017.
The success of the Air Jordan 1 encouraged Nike to release the New Air Jordan in 1986 for the new basketball season. Designed by Peter Moore and Bruce Kilgore, the original Air Jordan II was unique in that it was made in Italy giving the shoe a luxury feel. The Air Jordan 2 also retailed with a full length encapsulated Nike air bubble for maximum comfort. The Air Jordan 2 was the first Jordan not to have the Nike swoosh on the upper. The Air Jordan II was originally retailed at $100. The Air Jordan was originally released from 1986 to 1987. The model was revived from obscurity when Air Jordan collaborated with Just Don to create the Just Don x Air Jordan 2. The shoe featured premium blue quilted leather inspired by a Chanel handbag and released in very limited numbers on January 31, 2015 for $275. The shoe was released again in a Beach colourway bundled with a premium snapback and gold pin for $650 on January 30, 2016. Then retro - ed in 1994, 2004 -- 2005, 2008, 2010, 2014 -- 2017.
The Air Jordan III was designed by Tinker Hatfield who works for Nike as a designer for stores and offices. By that time Michael Jordan was ready to leave Nike, but the Jordan III changed his mind. It was the first Air Jordan to feature a visible air unit on the heel, the new Jumpman logo, an elephant print trim and tumble leather to give it a luxury look. The Air Jordan III was also famous for the humorous ads depicting Spike Lee as Mars Blackmon, the character he played in his film ' She 's Gotta Have It '. This campaign was known as the "Mars and Mike '' ad campaign, which was one of Nike 's most successful advertisement campaigns. These were the first Jordan 's to feature the "NIKE AIR '' logo on the back, but later replaced by the Jumpman logo, with the words "AIR '' underneath it, similar to the Air Jordan VI. These were said to be Michael Jordan 's favorite shoes, he wore them during the 1988 Dunk Championship and many other events in his basketball career. The Air Jordan III 's had poor sales when first reintroduced in 1994. On their second reintroduction in 2001, they sold well. The "Fire Red '' Air Jordan III was released in March 2007, and late again in 2013.
In 2007, Jordan Brand collaborated with director Spike Lee to release a limited pair of Air Jordan III 's the Do The Right Thing movie poster. The same year also saw the reintroduced versions of the Air Jordan III 's in two monotone colorways, all black and all white, nicknamed the "Black Cats '' and the "Pure Moneys '' respectively. 2007 also had the "Flips '' which moved the elephant print from the trim to the entire shoe and replacing it with white leather, indeed "Flipping '' the original design of white leather with elephant print trim.
In 2009, the Jordan Brand reintroduced the highly sought after Air Jordan III in the True Blue colorway. It was an international - only release, meaning they were not sold in the US. In 2011, the brand released a Black History Month (BHM) Air Jordan III colorway in commemoration of the 35th anniversary of Black History Month. The sneaker is black with gold trim and stitching as well as laser print around the toe and heel. The BHM III was a very limited release and there was said to have been no more than 3,000 pairs made. Also, the same year saw the release of the "True Blue '' III on June 4. The Stealth colorway of the III was released in September and the Black Cements were released in November. The "Black Flips '' were released on December 3, 2011. In 2013, Jordan released a special edition of the Jordan III this shoe was deemed the Air Jordan III "Retro ' 88 '' White Cement and were released in February.
The Air Jordan III was originally released in 1988. The multiple retros and new colorways have been released in 1994, 2001, 2007, 2009, 2011, 2013, 2014 and 2016.
In 1989, Nike released the Air Jordan IV to the public. Designed by Tinker Hatfield, it was the first Air Jordan released on the global market. It had four colorways: White / Black - Cement Grey, Black / Cement Grey, White / Fire Red - Black, and Off White / Military Blue.
Nike featured director and actor Spike Lee in ads for AJ IV. Lee had featured the shoe in his movie Do The Right Thing. The Air Jordan Bordeaux "Spiz'ike IV '' was made to commemorate Lee 's friendship with Michael Jordan.
The Air Jordan IV was on Jordan 's feet when he made "The Shot, '' a series winner in Game 5 of the 1989 NBA First Round between the Chicago Bulls and the Cleveland Cavaliers. In 2012 a Cavalier colorway dubbed the "Cavs '' was released to honor "The Shot. ''
The Air Jordan IV was re-released in 1999 and retroed in 2000, 2004, 2006, 2008, 2010 -- 2013 and 2015 -- 2017. Recent retroed colorways are the Retro 4 "Legend Blue '', "Oreo '' in early 2015, and the Retro 4 OG "Cement '' that released on February 13, 2016.
The Air Jordan V was released in February 1990, designed by Tinker Hatfield again. Some elements were carried over from the Air Jordan IV, but overall they were a completely new look. Some of its new features were a reflective tongue, translucent rubber soles and lace locks. The soles gave them a new look, but it yellowed over time when exposed to moisture and were the source of many complaints early on due to the slippery nature of the soles when collecting dust.
Hatfield is believed to have drawn inspiration for the Air Jordan V from World War II fighter planes, which was most notably visible in the shark teeth shapes on the midsole. The Air Jordan V was reintroduced in 2000, including a new color way featuring Michael Jordan 's high school (Laney High) colors. In 2006 several V 's were reintroduced, including the LS "Grape '' V 's, the LS "burgundy '' V 's, the "Fire - Red '' V 's, the "Green Bean '' V 's, and "Stealth Blue V 's. Along with the latter, a very limited laser design and the black / metallic / fire red colorways were released in early 2007.
In the month of May 2009, Air Jordan confirmed the release of an "DMP II '' consisting of two Air Jordan V 's. The second color way features a 3M material base with black laces and midsole. The retail price was $310.
The Air Jordan V was originally released in 1990. It was retroed in 2000, 2006 -- 2009, 2011 and 2013 -- 2017.
The Air Jordan V saw a lot of use in popular sitcom The Fresh Prince of Bel - Air. During many episodes you can see Will Smith wearing the ' metallic silver ', ' grape ', and ' fire red ' colorway. To pay tribute to his character, Jordan released the Air Jordan 5 Bel Air in 2013.
The Air Jordan VI had a new design by Tinker Hatfield and released in 1991. The Original 5 colorways were: Black / Infrared, White / Infrared, White / Carmine - Black, White / Sport Blue, and Off White / Maroon. The Air Jordan VI introduced a reinforcement around the toe, It had two holes in the tongue, and a molded heel tab on the back of the sneaker (demanded by Jordan so it would n't hit his Achilles tendon). Like the Air Jordan V this sneaker also had Clear rubber / "Icy '' Soles. The Air Jordan VI was the last Air Jordan to feature the Nike Air logo on it.
Later that year the Bulls defeated the Lakers in the 1991 NBA Finals, with Jordan (wearing the Black / Infrared) named as the most valuable player. That was also the first NBA Championship won by Jordan and the Bulls. The Jordan VI was also seen in the film White Men Ca n't Jump, which was produced in 1991 and released one year later.
The Air Jordan VI has been retro - ed many times since its original release in 1991, Notable releases were in 2000, 2002, 2005, 2008, 2010, 2012 and 2014 with the Black Infrared Colorway.
In addition to a Porsche - inspired rear pull tab and visible air the Air Jordan VI was the first Jordan with an inner bootie.
The Air Jordan VI was originally released in 1991. It was retro - ed in 2000, 2002, 2006, 2008 -- 2010, 2012 and 2014 -- 2017.
The Air Jordan VI saw much of screen time in 2015 's Creed. Adonis Johnson (Michael B. Jordan) can be seen sporting the black / infrared and the white / varsity red - black colorway through most of the movie, most notably during the training montage before the big fight that Rocky films are known for.
The VI was the first shoe used by the protagonist of Slam Dunk, Hanamichi Sakuragi. Nike released special versions of both the VI and the Jordan Super. Fly 3 featuring artwork from the series in 2014. The VI also had Sakuragi 's number 10 embroidered on the side of the heels. Various other models in the Air Jordan line are featured in the series, including the original (which Sakuragi eventually switched to), the V, and the XII (both worn by Sakuragi 's rival, Kaede Rukawa).
The Air Jordan VII was released in 1992 with a new design by Tinker Hatfield. This shoe introduced the huarache technology which allowed the shoes to better conform to the user 's foot. A few things were no longer featured on the new model, such as the visible air sole, the Nike Air logo, and the yellowing soles. This was the first Air - Jordan in the line that did not have any distinctive "Nike Air '' on the outer portions of the shoe. The "Nike Air '' branding was still on the in - soles, which Air Jordans VIII - XI also had. The VIIs were also known for a successful ad campaign in which Bugs Bunny appeared alongside Michael Jordan to market the shoes.
When Jordan went to compete at the 1992 Barcelona Olympics to play for the US Men 's Basketball Team (also known as the "Dream Team ''), Nike released a special Olympic color combo of the Air Jordan VII model which had Jordan 's Olympic jersey number, 9 even though most of the jordans that were made, especially the Air Jordan VII had a "23 '' on the back.
Various models of the Air Jordan VII were re-released in 2002, again in 2004, and again with different colors in 2006. Also in 2008 Nike released a black and blue pair owned only by Cheikh Mbacké, ordered for $600.
In 2011 the Air Jordan VII saw releases in the "Orion '' and "Bordeaux '' colorways. Other colorways are confirmed for a 2011 release as well, such as the "Cardinals '' which is a re-release and "Year of the Rabbits ''. The "Olympic '' and "Charcoal '' (commonly referred to as Raptors) were re-released in 2012.
The Air Jordan VII was originally released in 1992. It was retro - ed in 2002, 2004, 2006, 2008 -- 2012 and 2015 -- 2017.
The Air Jordan VIII was released to coincide with the 1992 -- 1993 NBA season. The eighth model of the Air Jordan was noticeably heavier than its predecessors. This shoe had a lot more detail than most of the earlier Air Jordan 's such as two crossover straps on each shoe and a Jumpman. Thus the Air Jordan VIII model became known as the "Punisher '' because of the advanced basketball ankle support and enhanced traction. This shoe contains a full length air sole, polyurethane midsole, polycarbonate shank plate, and two crossover straps (for added support and more custom fit).
The Air Jordan VIII was originally released in 1993. It was retro - ed in 2003, 2007, 2008, 2013 and 2015 -- 2017.
Originally released in November 1993, the Air Jordan IX model was the first model released after Michael Jordan 's retirement. Jordan never played an NBA season wearing these shoes. This model was inspired by baseball cleats that Jordan wore when playing minor - league baseball.
Like the VII and VIII models, the Air Jordan IX featured an inner sock sleeve and nubuck accents. The sole featured different symbols and languages of different countries. The Air Jordan IX has been the shoe chosen to adorn Jordan 's feet for his statue outside of the United Center in Chicago.
In popular culture, in the children 's movie The Little Rascals one of the bullies, Butch is wearing a pair of these shoes. American rap icon Tupac Shakur also wore Air Jordans in a popular "Thug Life '' photo set in 1993.
The Air Jordan IX was originally released from 1993 to 1994. It was retro - ed in 2002, 2008, 2010, 2012, 2014 -- 2017.
This was released in 1995 in 8 different colors, Black / grey, varsity - black, off - white / black / varsity red *, Powder Blue (worn by UNC 's Men 's and Women 's basketball teams), Orlando Magic *, New York Knicks *, Seattle SuperSonics *, and Sacramento Kings *. It was the first Air Jordan to feature a lightweight phylon midsole. The shoe also featured all of Michael Jordan 's accomplishments on the outsole of the shoe.
In 2012, the Air Jordan X was re-released. They are dubbed the "Chicago Bulls '', as they are part of a regional pack (City Pack), representing five teams. The lacing and tongue are completely black, and the red inner lining contrasts with the red inserts on the outsole. The outsole 's design features a striped (wavy) design, which list many of Jordan 's accomplishments. They retailed at $160. The Air Jordan X was released again in an OVO collaboration in 2015 and 2016, releasing in white and black colorways respectively with stingray detailing.
The Air Jordan X was originally released from 1994 to 1995. It was retro - ed in 2005, 2008 and 2012 -- 2016.
This model was designed by Tinker Hatfield. When the shoe launched, Michael Jordan (retired from basketball by then) was trying in minor baseball leagues. Hatfield designed the sneaker waiting for Jordan to come back and hoping he would play in them.
The ballistic mesh upper of the sneaker was meant to make the Air Jordan XI lighter and more durable than the past sneakers. Further changes came with the use of a carbon fiber spring plate in the clear out sole, giving the shoe better torque when turning on the court. The highlight and arguably most well - known aspect of the shoe is the patent leather mudguard. Patent leather was lightweight, when compared to genuine leather, and also tended not to stretch as much -- a property to help keep the foot within the bounds of the shoe bed during direction changes on the court. The patent leather gave the XI a "formal '' look. When this shoe released, some wore this model with business suits instead of dress shoes.
The sneakers were only samples in 1995 when Jordan decided to come back in the NBA. Hatfield and Nike discouraged Michael Jordan playing in them, but when produced he wore them. Also noteworthy, Jordan violated league dress code by wearing the shoes, as his teammates wore all black shoe. He was fined $5,000 for not following the Bulls colorway policy. After the fining, Nike made him a pair of the shoes in a black / white / concord colorway for the series against Orlando. A similar black / white / royal blue colorway was released to the public at the end of 2000. The colorway was changed for the public release because the concord purple had looked like royal blue on TV.
Jordan wore the Air Jordan XI model to help the Chicago Bulls claim the 1995 -- 96 NBA Championship, he also wore the Air Jordan XI white Columbia colorway in the 1996 NBA All - Star Game and was selected MVP of the game. The shoes received more media exposure when Michael Jordan wore the Air Jordan XI model in the 1996 animated movie Space Jam. These shoes were eventually released in 2000 and re-released in 2009 with the nickname Space Jams. The concord purple was changed to royal blue for the released versions of the shoe.
The Air Jordan XI was originally released from 1995 to 1996. It was retro - ed in 2000, 2001, 2003, and 2006 -- 2017. The Air Jordan XI is the most popular Air Jordan 's in the series, and has released almost ritualistically every December since 2008 and sells out within minutes, also it is Tinker Hatfield 's favorite. With the Air Jordan XI being the most popular Jordan supply used to be very limited and would cause fans to line up outside of store fronts before releases.
The Air Jordan XII was inspired by Nisshoki (the Japanese flag), and a 19th - century women dress boot. However, featuring gold - plated steel lace loops, embossed lizard skin pattern and a full length zoom air unit with a carbon fiber shank plate, this model set a new direction in style and technology in shoe design. Though not as light weight as previous models, the construction and firmness of the shoe is widely considered to be the most durable and sturdy shoes from the Air Jordan line. The first model released after the creation of subsidiary Jordan Brand, the Air Jordan XII has no Nike branding on it of any kind, while all the models before it have Nike Air or other Nike branding outwardly (Air Jordans I - VI) or just simply on the insoles (Air Jordans VII - XI). This shoe came in 5 colorways and was released on March 13. The shoe was re-released on December 25, 2008 with the Eleven as the final countdown pack. In addition, the Twelve was combined with the Thirteen numbered Jordan to produce the 12.5. As of today, the 11 / 12 countdown package (retro) retails for US $ 750 -- US $800, well above the starting price of US $310. The Air Jordan 12 has been subject to many highly limited colorways recently such as the Air Jordan 12 x PSNY collaboration, the Wings colorway that was limited to 12,000 pairs, and the OVO collaboration.
The Air Jordan XII was originally released from 1996 to 1997. It was retro - ed in 2003, 2004, 2008, 2009, 2011 -- 2013, and 2015 -- 2017.
In 1997, Air Jordan XIII 's were released to the public. This model was known for its cushioning along the feet, designed by Hatfield. The Black Panther was the inspiration for the Air Jordan XIII, the sole resembles the pads on a panther 's paw. But also the panther is the hologram on the back of the shoe which imitates a panther 's eyes in the dark when light is shined at them. They were re-released in 2005, which coincided with the release of the Air Jordan 8s shoe.
In the movie He Got Game, the Air Jordan XIII was worn by Jake Shuttlesworth (Denzel Washington). Ray Allen, who played Jake 's son Jesus in the film, wore them when he broke Reggie Miller 's all - time record for made three - point shots during a game against the Lakers in Boston during the 2011 season. The Jordan Brand re-released the Air Jordan XIII at the end of 2010, which included the French Blue / Flint Grey, White / Red - Black, "Playoff '' color way and the Black / Altitude Green color way. In 2017, Jordan Brand released the "History of Flight '' colorway. This colorway is from the 2009 World Basketball Festival, where the "History of Flight '' collection was revealed to celebrate Jordan 's 25th anniversary.
The Air Jordan XIII was originally released from 1997 to 1998. It was retro - ed in 2004, 2005, 2008, 2010 -- 2017.
Inspired by the Ferrari 550 M which Michael Jordan owned, the Air Jordan XIV was originally released from 1997 to 1999. It was re-released in 2005, 2006, 2008, 2011, 2012 and 2014 -- 2017.
The Air Jordan XIV co-styled by the famous Tinker Hatfield and Mark Smith was made race ready and equipped with the Jordan Jumpman insignia on a Ferrari shaped badge. In addition, these shoes include breathable air ducts on the outer sole. The color scheme of predominant black accentuated with red was nicknamed "The Last Shot '' because Michael Jordan wore them as he hit the game winning shot over Bryon Russell, of the Utah Jazz, in his final game with the Chicago Bulls in the 1998 NBA Finals.
There are 14 Jumpman logos on Air Jordan XIV 's -- 7 on each shoe -- corresponding the shoes ' number in the series. They can be found in the following places:
The Air Jordan XVs were released in 1999 -- 2000. Reggie Miller wore it during the 2000 NBA Finals.
This was the first shoe after Jordan 's retirement. The design of the XV 's originated from the aircraft prototype X-15, which was developed by NASA during the 1950s. The sides of the XV were made from woven kevlar fibre. The Jordan XV 's were the first Air Jordan 's to be negatively received in a while (the last being the Air Jordan 2 's), because the quality on the Jordan shoes was bad.
The Air Jordan XV was originally released from 1999 to 2000. It was retro - ed in 2007, 2008 and 2017.
Air Jordan XVIs, designed by Nike 's Senior Footwear Designer Wilson Smith, were released in 2001. This meaning it was the first design since the II 's that Tinker Hatfield was not behind. Smith decided to bring in a few design elements / fabrics from earlier releases. The shoe featured the return of the clear rubber sole (V, VI, XI) and patent leather (XI).
Unique to the Air Jordan XVI was a gaiter / shroud that covered the shoe and could be removed to give the shoe a new look. Not only was this for fashion purposes, it also had a thermal functionality.
The shoe was said to be stiff and that the shroud / gaiter could easily fall off when playing basketball. The black / red and white / midnight navy versions of the shoe both featured patent leather which very easily creased and cracked.
The Air Jordan XVI was originally released in 2001. It was retro - ed in 2008, 2014 and 2016.
This pair of Jordan 's come equipped with Keefer, which held the shoes and a compact disc containing the Air Jordan XVII song. The retail price of the shoe was US $200. The defining functional design element of the Air Jordan XVII model, which was later replicated on the Air Jordan XXIII model, was the reinforced mid-sole which provided a sturdy and stable chassis for the shoe. They were made in four mid top colors and three low - top colors.
The Air Jordan XVII was originally released in 2002. It was retro - ed in 2008 and 2016.
The Air Jordan XVIII shoe was released in 2003, and was the shoe for Jordan 's last season, in which he played for the Washington Wizards.
The shoe was designed by Air Jordan Senior Footwear Designer, Tate Kuerbis, a person that had been part of the Jordan footwear design team since 1999 and with Nike since 1995. The inspiration for the design came from a number of things; sleek racing lines of the auto world, carbon fibre - based monocoque of F1 race cars, race car driving shoes (rubber heel wrap) and Fine Italian dress shoes (bold stitching on the soles).
The Air Jordan XVIII was originally released from 2003 to 2004. It was retro - ed in 2008.
Released in 2004, this is the first Jordan release after his third, and final, retirement which came after the 2002 -- 03 NBA season. The design was inspired by the Black Mamba snake, and two original colorways where released: white / flint grey and black / red. Three regional colorways and three special edition colorways were released. They consisted of the East, West, and Midwest edition for regular and West, East, and Olympic for the SE (special edition).
The Air Jordan XIX used innovative materials. The upper section of shoe was developed in collaboration with the global materials consultancy Material ConneXion, who sourced Nike a sleeving normally used in architectural applications for protecting PVC pipes from bursting. In theory, this allowed for a shoe without laces, because the sleeving does not stretch. Nonetheless, the Air Jordan XIX model did include a set of laces behind the sleeve to better secure the shoe. They are the lightest Air Jordans ever made.
The Air Jordan XIX was originally released in 2004. It was retro - ed in 2008.
The Air Jordan XX was also inspired by bicycling shoes. The strap was placed in the center of the shoe over the laces. It also helped to create a tighter fit and increased support.
The Air Jordan XX was originally released in 2005. It was retro - ed in 2008 and 2015.
The Air Jordan XXI model of shoes was designed by D'Wayne Edwards and inspired by sport touring vehicles. The shoe features lower - foot air grilles, double - overlasted Phylon midsole, a carbon fibre shank plate and a seamless diamond - quilted booty. It also has a tenable I.P.S. suspension system that lets the wearer choose between Zoom and Encapsulated air.
The Air Jordan XXI was introduced on television by the "Second Generation '' advertisement.
The Air Jordan XXI was originally released in 2006. It was retro - ed in 2008.
The Air Jordan XX2 / XXII shoe model, designed by D'Wayne Edwards, was released on March 24, 2007. The original retail price of the model was US $175. The aggressive and sharp design was inspired by the F - 22 Raptor fighter jet. Some technical features of the shoe include an updated visible and interchangeable I.P.S. suspension system, a new metallic mesh for ventilation, the Air Jordan camouflage pattern printed in reflective 3M material, and an updated traction system, based on an army general 's stripes.
Two special editions of the Air Jordan XX2 model were released. The first edition was released for Jordan 's birthday on February 17. This edition featured authentic Jordan Brand basketball leather. The second edition was the Omega model, part of the Alpha - Omega package. This model featured a laser - etched image of Jordan after he won his sixth NBA championship in 1998.
An entirely new line of Air Jordan XX2 / XXII shoes called the released, with these shoes worn by NBA players from the Atlanta Hawks, Denver Nuggets, Detroit Pistons, and Dallas Mavericks. This Air Jordan model featured a new strap around the heel and ankle.
The promo commercial for the XX2 was directed by Mark Romanek.
The Air Jordan XX2 was originally released in 2007. It was retro - ed in 2008.
The Air Jordan XX3 was designed by Tinker Hatfield. It was a unique model, being the first basketball shoe to be included in the "Nike Considered '' category, for using materials from not more than 200 miles from a Nike Factory. It features a hand - stitched exterior, full - length bootie, carbon fiber shank plate, the last to feature interchangeable IPS pillars, and an articulated chassis. The shoe was released on January 25, 2008, and was the last Air Jordan until the XX8 to have Roman numeral identification.
The Air Jordan XX3 was originally released in 2008. It was retro - ed in 2015 -- 2016.
The Air Jordan 2009 was designed by Jason Mayden and was the first Air Jordan model named after the year of its release rather than its numbered system. Inspired by Jordan 's defensive focus, the shoe incorporates Articulated Propulsion Technology used by Paralympian runners. It also features a durable pleated silk upper, protective TPU chassis, carbon fiber arch plate and Zoom Air structure. The shoe was released on January 31, 2009.
The Air Jordan 2009 was originally released in 2009. It has not been retro - ed.
This is the 25th anniversary of the Air Jordan brand, and although commonly called the Jordan 2010s, is also referred to as Air Jordan XX5 / XXV. This model of shoe was announced on November 12, 2009, for a release date of February 13, 2010, retailing for US $170. Dwyane Wade is endorsing the AJ 2010.
The base of the each mid-sole has stylized text that when combined reads: "I 've failed over and over and over again in my life. And that is why I succeed. '' This quote was originally attributed to Michael Jordan, and is a reference to an advertising campaign that aired in 1997 with Jordan detailing his failures that led to his success in his career.
The Air Jordan 2010 was originally released in 2010. It has not been retro - ed.
The Air Jordan 2011 was endorsed by Dwyane Wade in 2011, Jordan Brand decided to keep the fans happy with the release of the Air Jordan 2011. The shoe has inter-changeable insoles - The Red, "Explosive '' one is claimed to symbolize power, and a Blue, "Quick '' one, supposedly for quickness. Four colorways of the shoe were released on February 19, 2011 in correspondence with the 2011 All Star Game. The first colorway was White / Black. There were also White / Red and White / Blue colorways that coincided with the East / West Jersey Colors. The "Year of the Rabbit '' colorway was a limited release that celebrated of Michael Jordan 's Chinese zodiac sign, coinciding with the current zodiac sign, the Year of the Rabbit.
The 2011 has a unique design along both sides of the shoe. It is a star - constellation pattern that also serves as breathing holes for the shoe to keep it well ventilated. It uses patent leather wrapped around the shoe. The shoes are hand burnished and crafted. A dress shoe that feels similar to the XI was reported to be the goal. o The Air Jordan 2011 was originally released in 2011. It has not been retro - ed.
Air Jordan 2012 offers six customization configurations. Two interchangeable sleeves and three insoles adapt to different playing styles. The Deluxe model was launched on February 8, while the customization Flight models were released on February 25, 2012. It was the final Air Jordan model to be named after the year it was released as the numbered system returned in 2013 with the Air Jordan XX8.
The Air Jordan 2012 was originally released in 2012. It has not been retro - ed.
The Air Jordan XX8, designed by Tinker Hatfield, was released on February 16, 2013. This premiere model featuring a mostly black upper and volt Dynamic Fit bootie. A heel and forefoot Nike Zoom unit in combination with the new Jordan Flight Plate, Dynamic Fit straps for increased support, a carbon fiber heel counter for additional support, and its most notable feature, the mesh upper for flexibility and ventilation. Jordan Brand has decided for 2013 to returning to the Air Jordan numbered order after having stopped at XX3. The Air Jordan 2012 featured different technology which including interchangeable insoles for various styles of play, a concept introduced with the Kobe System. The exterior shroud gives the shoe a sleeker look than any other and is 8 inches high on the ankle but unzips and folds down revealing the bright volt green interior.
The Air Jordan XX9, also designed by Hatfield, released in September 2014 in both an elephant print and a knit edition. The shoe has already been debuted in the NBA by Russell Westbrook and Kawhi Leonard. The shoe has Flight Web for superior lockdown, a performance woven upper for comfort, support, strength, and protection, and a re-engineered Flight Plate. The XX9 also released in a pack alongside the iconic Air Jordan XI on December 23, 2014 called the "Ultimate Gift of Flight '' pack.
The Air Jordan XXX (30) debuted on January 14, 2016 at an exclusive media event in Chicago. It was again designed by Tinker Hatfield. The first colorway of the shoe released on February 16. The shoe consists of an upper and outsole very similar to that of the XX9 of the previous year. The upper is a combination of performance woven and flyknit that is new for the brand in 2016, and also has a flyknit - constructed ankle collar that extends slightly past where the collar of the shoe would normally be. Jordan brand has also brought back functional Dynamic Fit in the lacing system. The outsole / midsole is almost identical to the XX9, with very minor technical tweaks. The outsole boasts a more noticeable change, with a different traction pattern unique to this shoe, while the midsole remains almost entirely the same. The only difference in the midlsole cushioning setup from the Jordan XX9 is a material change in the FlightPlate setup, which is now named FlightSpeed and is constructed of a plastic rather than carbon fiber for more flexibility while remaining structural integrity.
The Air Jordan XXXI (31) was unveiled on July 20, 2016. The sneaker is heavily influenced by the Air Jordan 1 's having a leather upper and both a Nike swoosh and a Jumpman plus a Jordan "Wings '' logo. Its first retail debut was on September 3, 2016 in the "banned '' colorway for $185 alongside its air Jordan 1 counterpart. Notable appearances of the AJ 31 include the "USA '' colorway worn during the 2016 Olympic basketball tournament by members of team USA. Basketball at the 2016 Summer Olympics -- Men 's team rosters.
Michael Jordan and Spike Lee released the Jordan Spiz'ike shoes on October 21, 2006, as a tribute to their historic relationship. The relationship began when Mars Blackmon (a character from Spike Lee 's film, She 's Gotta Have It) became the primary pitchman in Nike commercials for Air Jordans. The Spiz'ike is a mash - up of the Jordan III, IV, V, VI, Air Jordan IX and XX shoes. Only 4,567 pairs were made of the original release, with all of the proceeds going to Morehouse College. The number 40 represents Spike Lee 's film company, 40 Acres & A Mule Filmworks, and the number 23 represents Michael Jordan 's jersey number. Each future release of the shoes varied the colors used.
"Defining Moments ''
Released in 2006 retailing at $295 containing the sneakers Michael Jordan wore during his first championship of his two three - peats. The retro 11 concord contains a gold Jumpman on the side, but originally was meant to also have gold eyelets spelling out Jordan was changed because of color bleeding. The retro 6 black infrared replaces its infrared for gold as well. Both shoes contained dog tags to reference the title won and a booklet showcasing a slam dunk highlight of the game and concept art of the shoe. Some of the original DMP retro 11 concords have surfaced and are considered some of the rarest air Jordan 's.
"Defining Moments II ''
The "raging bull pack '' retailed for $310 and drew inspiration from the running of the bull that takes place every year in Spain. The pack contains two air Jordan 5s the toro bravo and the 3m. The toro bravo is a red suede sneaker one of the first of its kind, it takes inspiration from the red bandanas worn by the runners. The second pair is the 3m named after its reflective coating. Both shoes come in a wood gate exterior graphic box with double sided slide out, originally released in 2009.
The Jordan Brand released a third "Defining Moments '' package on July 11, 2009. The 60 + Air Jordan Retro 1 Package is inspired by Jordan scoring 63 points on the Celtics in a double overtime playoff game during his second year. The Air Jordan Retro 1 60 + Package features a re-release of the sneakers that Jordan wore during that game, and a Retro Air Jordan 1 inspired by the Celtics colors and the parquet floors from the old Boston Garden.
The Jordan Brand released a fourth "Defining Moments '' package on August 15, 2009. This package, also known as the Orlando 60 + pack, consists of the Jordan 7 black and red. Also included is a second pair of Air Jordan ' s. The "Orlando '' pair features a white leather upper with black and blue accents. The blue accents featured a cracked print. The black tongue had black pinstripes which represented the black pinstriped Orlando jersey of the 1990s.
The Jordan 6 white / infrared and black / infrared was released February 14, 2013, at a retail price of US $170. This is the second of the same colorway retro in Jordan Brand history. The first time retro on both colorways were in 2000, they were retro separately. This time, the retro distinguished with the previous release. The heel logo are using Jumpman logo instead of Nike Air logo, this is the most significant difference between these two re-releases. Jordan Brand started using Jumpman logo
The Jordan Brand released their second two - pair package named the "Old Love New Love '' (OLNL), which consisted of the Air Jordan I Retro model in Mid White / Black - Varsity Red (Black Toes) and Black / Varsity - Maize / White. It was released on April 21, 2007. The Old Love New Love package was sold for $200.00. The pack represented Jordan 's passions, the old love being basketball the new love being motorcycle racing.
Air Jordan Brand released 5 new colorways including one that is themed after another Spike Lee 's "Do The Right Thing. ''
There will be more colors of the Air Jordan Spizikes released than of the recent Air Jordan 3 retro re-release. The Air Jordan "Spiz'ikes '' take pieces from the following Air Jordans:
The first Jordan Sixty Plus was released in August 2009. The Jordan 6ixty Plus (60 +) is a hybrid sneaker from Jordan Brand that combines the various sneakers Michael Jordan wore when he scored 60 or more points in an NBA Game. In these games, MJ was wearing the Jordan I, II, V and VII. Inspiration came from the Air Jordan 5 because he was wearing those when he scored his career high of 69 points.
The "Jordan Son of Mars '' is an Air Jordan hybrid shoe, that released in the Summer of 2012. It borrows prominent design elements from the Air Jordan III, IV, V, VI, and XX. It also retains a strap across the shoe laces, that is a custom modification with a design that seems to be elephant print but is instead a series of relevant icons, etc. The Jordan Son Of Mars was birthed from the Spizike, which was originally inspired by all the Jordan shoes made in collaboration with famous urban director Spike Lee. Son of Mars is a sneaker directly influenced by Spike Lee 's longtime involvement with the brand, as the shoe pieces together models in which Spike (or Mars Blackmon rather) had a hand in launching.
The shoe breakdown begins with elements from the first Tinker Hatfield years, Mars Blackmon; Lee 's loudmouthed character first appeared alongside Michael Jordan for the release of the Air Jordan III, a sneaker whose immediately recognizable elephant print bookends the Jordan Son of Mars, with sectioning on the back end and towards the toe. Next the Air Jordan IV, which is pretty conspicuous in this hybrid release, shows up only in the form of the netting running below the laces. The sole gottem ion is all Air Jordan V, as the coveted icy treatment splashes across the bottom and the angular ' teeth ' of the midsole rear up towards the toe. The V actually extends its reach to the top end too, with the textured Jumpman tongue bursting out from the familiar see - through lacelocks. Building up the ankle area is the higher - hitting support of the Air Jordan VI, complete with the attached loop on back and the perforated paneling reaching up the side of the shoe. The midsection which completes the sneaker is a major fast - forward, leaping ahead to the Air Jordan XX in the form of the lasered strap.
The Jordan Son of Mars takes on one of the favorite color schemes in the Jordan Brand line.
This package consisted of two variations of Retro Air Jordan, in which each model number equaled 23. So the Retro I was released in a package with the Retro XXII, the Retro II with the Retro XXI, etc.
The first Countdown package consisted of the reintroduced Air Jordan XIII model in white / black - true red. The package also included a pair of the shadow grey Air Jordan X model with the number 23 stitched on the side of the shoes. The package cost US $400.00 and was released January 19, 2008.
The second Countdown package consisted of the Air Jordan Retro XIV model in Black / Varsity Red which was similar to the Air Jordan "Last Shot '' XIV model though it consisted of a white stitching on the sides, a different color outer arch, and a different colored Jumpman logo on the side. The other Air Jordan was the Air Jordan Retro IX model in a White / Black / True Red colorway. The package retailed for US $310.00 and was released March 15, 2008.
The third Countdown package consisted of the Air Jordan Retro II model in White / Varsity Red. The other Air Jordan in this package was the Air Jordan Retro XXI model in Black / Varsity Red. The package retailed US $310.00 and was released April 26, 2009.
The fourth Countdown package consisted of the Air Jordan Retro VI model in White / Carmine. The other Air Jordan in this package would be Air Jordan Retro XVII model in Black / Metallic Silver. The package cost US $310.00 and was released May 24, 2008.
The final Countdown package consisted of the Air Jordan Retro XI model in Varsity Red / Black. The other Air Jordan in this package was the Air Jordan Retro XII model in Black / White. The package retailed for US $310.00.
This line of sneakers consist of a fusion of several Air Jordan and Air Force One Models.
A fusion between the Air Jordan XII model and the Midtop Air Force One model.
A fusion between the Air Jordan III model and the Air Force One model.
This package is the only original colorway of the Air Jordan V model that was not released in the last round of re-releases. Like the Air Jordan V model, the outsole is a mix of black and clear rubber; there is no visible air sole unit in these shoes. The shoe a rubber loop in the back, middle upright cotton jumpman, rubber tongue, and the lace lock first was brought in an infrared colorway. It is said Michael Jordan wears these shoes in his practice games.
A fusion between the Air Jordan VI and the Air Force One model.
A fusion between the Air Jordan XX and the Air Force One model. These feature the same laser upper as the original XX but replace the ankle strap and sole with that of the Air Force One. Has the numbers one through till six on the heel to represent Jordan 's 6 championships ever.
A fusion between the Air Jordan IV and the Air Force One model.
A fusion between the Air Jordan VIII and the Midtop Air Force One model.
A fusion between the Air Jordan IX and the Air Force One model.
A fusion between the Air Jordan X and the Midtop Air Force One model.
A fusion between the Air Jordan XIII and the Midtop Air Force One model.
The Jordan 6 Rings (aka Jordan Six Rings) is a combination of the seven Air Jordan shoes that Michael Jordan wore during his 6 Championship seasons. That includes the Air Jordan 6, 7, 8, 11, 12, 13 and 14. The Jordan Brand company released the "6 Rings '' shoes starting in September 2008.
The Jordan Brand released colorways representative of each team that the Chicago Bulls defeated in each of their six championship seasons during the 1990s. The colorways include colors borrowed from the following teams: the L.A. Lakers, Portland Trail Blazers, Phoenix Suns, the former Seattle SuperSonics, and Utah Jazz, each shoe of which includes laser - etched graphics detailing specific aspects about that particular championship series, the city of the competing team and so forth. Many other colorways exist and Jordan Brand continues to release additional colors that pay tribute to different Jordan and Nike shoes along with new colorways specific to 6 Rings shoes.
There even exists a "winterized 6 rings '' which are a modified 6 Rings shoe turned into a durable boot designed for the outdoors which changes some of the design and placement of the inspired pieces and parts from the Air Jordans the shoe pays tribute.
Of particular note, there is an Olympic colorway, a Nelly version apparently inspired by the rap artist Nelly and a shoe that combines the colors of all the teams that the Bulls defeated in the NBA Finals, acting as the ' sixth shoe ' since only five separate teams were defeated for the Bulls to win six championships; the Utah Jazz was defeated twice, in 1997 and 1998.
The Air Jordan line has been associated with many riots, assaults, robberies, and murders, such as the murder of a 15 - year - old high school student named Michael Eugene Thomas who was choked to death by one of his peers for a pair of Air Jordan sneakers in 1989.
In 1988, the then - principal of Mumford High School mentioned that clothing - related violence had reached a point where he felt it was necessary to ban certain items of clothing, including the Air Jordan sneaker, from the school grounds. This ban was the first of many dress codes implemented in schools after the wave of robberies, beatings, and shootings over possession of Air Jordan sneakers and other items of clothing.
Nike owns none of the factories where Air Jordans are produced and contracts the work to various factory owners. Company officials say that they only advertise and market the shoes. However, Nike dictates production terms and standards to the contractor, often without questioning labor or safety practices. In April 1997, 10,000 Indonesian workers went on strike over wage violations at an Air Jordan factory. The same month in Vietnam 1,300 workers went on strike demanding a 1 - cent - per - hour raise, and a year later in 1998, 3,000 workers in China went on strike to protest hazardous working conditions and low wages cause.
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what does the song snuff by slipknot mean | Snuff (song) - wikipedia
"Snuff '' is a power ballad by American metal band Slipknot. Released as the fifth single from their fourth album All Hope Is Gone on September 28, 2009, the song charted at number two on the Billboard Hot Mainstream Rock Tracks chart, their highest - charted single to date, surpassing "Dead Memories ''. It was not included in the All Hope Is Gone World Tour setlist but the band performed the song live at the October 11, 2009 performance in Kennewick, Washington. The song is also available for free on www.roadrunnerrecords.com.
Roadrunner Records placed "Snuff '' at number 6 for its greatest music videos of all time. The song was also nominated for Best Single at the Kerrang! Awards 2010, but lost to "Liquid Confidence '' by You Me at Six.
It is the final single released from the band before the death of their bassist, Paul Gray who died just eight months after its release, and also the final single release before Joey Jordison left the band four years later. During recent solo acoustic shows, Corey Taylor has performed an acoustic version of "Snuff '' as a tribute to Paul Gray.
"Snuff '', "Wait and Bleed '', "Left Behind '', and "Pulse of the Maggots '' were released as downloadable songs in the Rock Band series.
On the background and themes of "Snuff '', vocalist Corey Taylor said the following:
This is the slow one. It 's another personal one. Again, not naming names, it 's about someone who helped me through a lot and I thought she felt the same way that I did and then she really let me down. At the same time, it was good that she did, because it was that final push to me figuring out myself. The lyrics are pretty self - explanatory ".
It was announced on October 14, 2009 by Roadrunner Records that a music video fit within enough production quality to be considered a short film was to be released for "Snuff '', which premiered on December 18, 2009 at 11: 09 PM CST. It was co-directed by Shawn "Clown '' Crahan and P.R. Brown, and features Malcolm McDowell and Ashley Laurence of Hellraiser fame. Corey Taylor is seen for the third time in a Slipknot video without his mask (the other two times being: "Dead Memories '' and "Before I Forget '') and is cross-dressed at the end of the short film.
The video is about a man (played by Corey Taylor) who has broken up with his girlfriend, but is truly obsessed with her. The man enters the woman 's apartment, smelling things with her scent on it. He then notices on the television a tape that he and the woman had made, and then collapses on to the woman 's bed. As she walks out the door, she does n't notice the man lying on her bed. The man then dives out after her, but she has already gone to visit a neighbor. Going back in, he sits at a table and holds a wine glass that she was drinking from. The glass shatters in his hands and the man goes into a rage, throwing things around and screaming. The video ends with the man cross dressed as his ex and exiting the corridor, revealing it was the man who had exited the apartment and not the woman; the concierge, not seeing the difference, walks back along the corridor whistling the tune to the song.
Aside from their real names, members of the band are referred to by numbers zero through eight.
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who sings amy what you going to do | Amie (song) - wikipedia
"Amie '' is a song recorded by the American soft rock group Pure Prairie League. It was released in 1973 as their debut single, but did not chart on the Billboard Hot 100 until 1975.
The song was written by Craig Fuller and was originally recorded by the band on their 1972 album Bustin ' Out, but it was not released as a single until 1973, when it gained popularity on college radio stations. Its airplay led RCA Records to re-sign Pure Prairie League after having previously dropped them.
In his book Music: What Happened?, musician and music critic Scott Miller described the song as "quintessentially 1972 '' and "lovely ''. Mike DeGagne of Allmusic called it "a charming little country - pop tune '' and "their most memorable, '' praising its melody and Craig Fuller 's lead vocals. Rock historian John Einarson, citing the song 's "lilting harmonies and subtle acoustic playing, '' called it "a classic of the country rock genre. ''
Lonestar covered the song on their 1997 album Crazy Nights, and included it as the B - side to the album 's single "Say When ''.
Travis Tritt covered the song on Randy Scruggs ' 1998 album, Crown of Jewels.
Wesley Willis covered the song to critical acclaim on his 1999 album Greatest Hits Vol. 2.
Singer Brent Anderson included a portion of "Amie '' in his 2011 single "Amy 's Song '', which featured backing vocals from Craig Fuller and Vince Gill.
Counting Crows covered the song on their 2011 album of covers, Underwater Sunshine.
Garth Brooks covered the song on the "Melting Pot '' disc of his four CD boxed set Blame It All on My Roots: Five Decades of Influences released in 2013.
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where are the caucasus located on a map | Caucasus - wikipedia
Abkhazia
Artsakh
Russia
Georgia
Azerbaijan
The Caucasus / ˈkɔːkəsəs / or Caucasia / kɔːˈkeɪʒə / is a region located at the border of Eastern Europe and Western Asia, situated between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea and occupied by Russia, Georgia, Azerbaijan, and Armenia. A less common definition includes also portions of northwestern Iran and northeastern Turkey.
It is home to the Caucasus Mountains including the Greater Caucasus mountain range, which acts as a natural barrier separating Eastern Europe from Western Asia, the latter including the Transcaucasia, Armenian Highland and Anatolia regions. Europe 's highest mountain, Mount Elbrus, at 5,642 metres (18,510 ft) is located in the west part of the Greater Caucasus mountain range.
The Caucasus region is separated into northern and southern parts -- the North Caucasus (Ciscaucasus) and Transcaucasus (South Caucasus), respectively. The Greater Caucasus mountain range in the north is within the Russian Federation, while the Lesser Caucasus mountain range in the south is occupied by several independent states, namely Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan and partially recognized Republic of Artsakh.
The region is known for its linguistic diversity: aside from Indo - European and Turkic languages, the Kartvelian, Northwest Caucasian, and Northeast Caucasian families are indigenous to the area.
Pliny the Elder 's Natural History (77 -- 79 AD) derives the name of the Caucasus from Scythian kroy - khasis ("ice - shining, white with snow ''). German linguist Paul Kretschmer notes that the Latvian word Kruvesis also means "ice ''.
In the Tale of Past Years (1113 AD), it is stated that Old East Slavic Кавкасийскыѣ горы (Kavkasijskyě gory) came from Ancient Greek Καύκασος (Kaukasos; later Greek pronunciation Kafkasos)), which, according to M.A. Yuyukin, is a compound word that can be interpreted as the "Seagull 's Mountain '' (καύ -: καύαξ, καύηξ, ηκος ο, κήξ, κηϋξ "a kind of seagull '' + the reconstructed * κάσος η "mountain '' or "rock '' richly attested both in place and personal names.)
According to German philologists Otto Schrader and Alfons A. Nehring, the Ancient Greek word Καύκασος (Kaukasos) is connected to Gothic Hauhs ("high '') as well as Lithuanian Kaũkas ("hillock '') and Kaukarà ("hill, top ''). British linguist Adrian Room points out that Kau - also means "mountain '' in Pelasgian.
The Transcaucasus region and Dagestan were the furthest points of Parthian and later Sasanian expansions, with areas to the north of the Greater Caucasus range practically impregnable. The mythological Mount Qaf, the world 's highest mountain that ancient Iranian lore shrouded in mystery, was said to be situated in this region. In Middle Persian sources of the Sasanian era, the Caucasus range was referred to as Kaf Kof. The term resurfaced in Iranian tradition later on in a variant form when Ferdowsi, in his Shahnameh, referred to the Caucasus mountains as Kōh - i Kāf. "Most of the modern names of the Caucasus originate from the Greek Kaukasos (Lat., Caucasus) and the Middle Persian Kaf Kof ''.
"The earliest etymon '' of the name Caucasus comes from Kaz - kaz, the Hittite designation of the "inhabitants of the southern coast of the Black Sea ''.
It was also noted that in Nakh Ков гас (Kov gas) means "gateway to steppe ''
The modern name for the region is usually similar in the many languages, and is generally between Kavkaz and Kawkaz.
The North Caucasus region is known as the Ciscaucasus, whereas the South Caucasus region is commonly known as the Transcaucasus.
The Ciscaucasus contains most of the Greater Caucasus mountain range. It consists of Southern Russia, mainly the North Caucasian Federal District 's autonomous republics, and the northernmost parts of Georgia and Azerbaijan. The Ciscaucasus lies between the Black Sea to its west, the Caspian Sea to its east, and borders the Southern Federal District to its north. The two Federal Districts are collectively referred to as "Southern Russia. ''
The Transcaucasus borders the Greater Caucasus range and Southern Russia to its north, the Black Sea and Turkey to its west, the Caspian Sea to its east, and Iran to its south. It contains the Lesser Caucasus mountain range and surrounding lowlands. All of Armenia, Azerbaijan (excluding the northernmost parts) and Georgia (excluding the northernmost parts) are in the South Caucasus.
The watershed along the Greater Caucasus range is generally perceived to be the dividing line between Europe and Southwest Asia. The highest peak in the Caucasus is Mount Elbrus (5,642 meters) located in western Ciscaucasus, and is considered as the highest point in Europe.
The Caucasus is one of the most linguistically and culturally diverse regions on Earth. The nation states that comprise the Caucasus today are the post-Soviet states Georgia (including Adjara), Azerbaijan (including Nakhchivan), Armenia, and the Russian Federation. The Russian divisions include Dagestan, Chechnya, Ingushetia, North Ossetia -- Alania, Kabardino -- Balkaria, Karachay -- Cherkessia, Adygea, Krasnodar Krai and Stavropol Krai, in clockwise order.
Three territories in the region claim independence but are recognised as such by only a handful or by no independent UN countries: Artsakh, Abkhazia and South Ossetia. Abkhazia and South Ossetia are recognised by the majority of countries as part of Georgia, and Artsakh as part of Azerbaijan.
Chechnya 's capital Grozny
Armenia 's capital Yerevan
Georgia 's capital Tbilisi
Azerbaijan 's capital Baku
The region has many different languages and language families. There are more than 50 ethnic groups living in the region. No fewer than three language families are unique to the area. In addition, Indo - European languages, such as Armenian and Ossetian, and Turkic languages, such as Azerbaijani, Kumyk language and Karachay -- Balkar, are spoken in the area. Russian is used as a lingua franca most notably in the North Caucasus.
The peoples of the northern and southern Caucasus tend to be either Sunni Muslims, Eastern Orthodox Christians and Armenian Christians. Twelver Shi'ism has many adherents in the southeastern part of the region, in Azerbaijan which extends into Iran.
Located on the peripheries of Turkey, Iran, and Russia, the region has been an arena for political, military, religious, and cultural rivalries and expansionism for centuries. Throughout its history, the Caucasus was usually incorporated into the Iranian world. At the beginning of the 19th century, the Russian Empire conquered the territory from Qajar Iran.
The territory of the Caucasus region was inhabited by Homo erectus since the Paleolithic Era. In 1991, early human (that is, hominin) fossils dating back 1.8 million years were found at the Dmanisi archaeological site in Georgia. Scientists now classify the assemblage of fossil skeletons as the subspecies Homo erectus georgicus.
The site yields the earliest unequivocal evidence for presence of early humans outside the African continent; and the Dmanisi skulls are the five oldest hominins ever found outside Africa, thereby doubling the presumed age of the human migration outside the continent.
Kura -- Araxes culture from about 4000 BC until about 2000 BC enveloped a vast area approximately 1,000 km by 500 km, and mostly encompassed, on modern - day territories, the Southern Caucasus (except western Georgia), northwestern Iran, the northeastern Caucasus, eastern Turkey, and as far as Syria.
Under Ashurbanipal (669 -- 627 BC) the boundaries of the Assyrian Empire reached as far as the Caucasus Mountains. Later ancient kingdoms of the region included Armenia, Albania, Colchis and Iberia, among others. These kingdoms were later incorporated into various Iranian empires, including Media, the Achaemenid Empire, Parthia, and the Sassanid Empire, who would altogether rule the Caucasus for many hundreds of years. In 95 -- 55 BC under the reign of Armenian king Tigranes the Great, the Kingdom of Armenia included Kingdom of Armenia, vassals Iberia, Albania, Parthia, Atropatene, Mesopotamia, Cappadocia, Cilicia, Syria, Nabataean kingdom, and Judea. By the time of the first century BC, Zoroastrianism had become the dominant religion of the region; however, the region would go through two other religious transformations. Owing to the strong rivalry between Persia and Rome, and later Byzantium, the latter would invade the region several times, although it was never able to hold the region.
As the Arsacid dynasty of Armenia (an eponymous branch of the Arsacid dynasty of Parthia) was the first nation to adopt Christianity as state religion (in 301 AD), and Caucasian Albania and Georgia had become Christian entities, Christianity began to overtake Zoroastrianism and pagan beliefs. With the Muslim conquest of Persia, large parts of the region came under the rule of the Arabs, and Islam penetrated into the region.
In the 10th century, the Alans (proto - Ossetians) founded the Kingdom of Alania, that flourished in the Northern Caucasus, roughly in the location of latter - day Circassia and modern North Ossetia -- Alania, until its destruction by the Mongol invasion in 1238 -- 39.
During the Middle Ages Bagratid Armenia, Kingdom of Tashir - Dzoraget, Kingdom of Syunik and Principality of Khachen organized local Armenian population facing multiple threats after the fall of antique Kingdom of Armenia. Caucasian Albania maintained close ties with Armenia and the Church of Caucasian Albania shared same Christian dogmas with the Armenian Apostolic Church and had a tradition of their Catholicos being ordained through the Patriarch of Armenia.
In the 12th century, the Georgian king David the Builder drove the Muslims out from Caucasus and made the Kingdom of Georgia a strong regional power. In 1194 -- 1204 Georgian Queen Tamar 's armies crushed new Seljuk Turkish invasions from the south - east and south and launched several successful campaigns into Seljuk Turkish - controlled Southern Armenia. The Georgian Kingdom continued military campaigns in the Caucasus region. As a result of her military campaigns and the temporary fall of the Byzantine Empire in 1204, Georgia became the strongest Christian state in the whole Near East area, encompassing most of the Caucasus stretching from Northern Iran and Northeastern Turkey to the North Caucasus.
The Caucasus region was conquered by the Ottomans, Mongols, local kingdoms and khanates, as well as, once again, Iran.
Etchmiadzin Cathedral in Armenia, original building completed in 303 AD, a religious centre of Armenia. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Svetitskhoveli Cathedral in Georgia, original building completed in the 4th century. It was a religious centre of monarchical Georgia. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Northwest Caucasus caftan, 8 - 10th century, from the region of Alania.
Svaneti defensive tower houses
Up to including the early 19th century, the Southern Caucasus and southern Dagestan all formed part of the Persian Empire. In 1813 and 1828 by the Treaty of Gulistan and the Treaty of Turkmenchay respectively, the Persians were forced to irrevocably cede the Southern Caucasus and Dagestan to Imperial Russia. In the ensuing years after these gains, the Russians took the remaining part of the Southern Caucasus, comprising western Georgia, through several wars from the Ottoman Empire.
In the second half of the 19th century, the Russian Empire also conquered the Northern Caucasus. In the aftermath of the Caucasian Wars, an ethnic cleansing of Circassians was performed by Russia in which the indigenous peoples of this region, mostly Circassians, were expelled from their homeland and forced to move primarily to the Ottoman Empire.
In the 1940s, around 480,000 Chechens and Ingush, 120,000 Karachay -- Balkars and Meskhetian Turks, thousands of Kalmyks, and 200,000 Kurds in Nakchivan and Caucasus Germans were deported en masse to Central Asia and Siberia. About a quarter of them died.
The Southern Caucasus region was unified as a single political entity twice -- during the Russian Civil War (Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic) from 9 April 1918 to 26 May 1918, and under the Soviet rule (Transcaucasian SFSR) from 12 March 1922 to 5 December 1936. Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, Georgia, Azerbaijan and Armenia became independent nations.
The region has been subject to various territorial disputes since the collapse of the Soviet Union, leading to the Nagorno - Karabakh War (1988 -- 1994), the East Prigorodny Conflict (1989 -- 1991), the War in Abkhazia (1992 -- 93), the First Chechen War (1994 -- 1996), the Second Chechen War (1999 -- 2009), and the 2008 South Ossetia War.
In Greek mythology the Caucasus, or Kaukasos, was one of the pillars supporting the world. After presenting man with the gift of fire, Prometheus (or Amirani in Georgian version) was chained there by Zeus, to have his liver eaten daily by an eagle as punishment for defying Zeus ' wish to keep the "secret of fire '' from humans.
In Persian mythology the Caucasus might be associated with the mythic Mount Qaf which is believed to surround the known world. It is the battlefield of Saoshyant and the nest of the Simurgh.
The Roman poet Ovid placed Caucasus in Scythia and depicted it as a cold and stony mountain which was the abode of personified hunger. The Greek hero Jason sailed to the west coast of the Caucasus in pursuit of the Golden Fleece, and there met Medea, a daughter of King Aeëtes of Colchis.
The Caucasus is an area of great ecological importance. The region is included in the list of 34 world biodiversity hotspots. It harbors some 6400 species of higher plants, 1600 of which are endemic to the region. Its wildlife includes Persian leopards, brown bears, wolves, bison, marals, golden eagles and hooded crows. Among invertebrates, some 1000 spider species are recorded in the Caucasus. Most of arthropod biodiversity is concentrated on Great and Lesser Caucasus ranges.
The region has a high level of endemism and a number of relict animals and plants, the fact reflecting presence of refugial forests, which survived the Ice Age in the Caucasus Mountains. The Caucasus forest refugium is the largest throughout the Western Asian (near Eastern) region. The area has multiple representatives of disjunct relict groups of plants with the closest relatives in Eastern Asia, southern Europe, and even North America. Over 70 species of forest snails of the region are endemic. Some relict species of vertebrates are Caucasian parsley frog, Caucasian salamander, Robert 's snow vole, and Caucasian grouse, and there are almost entirely endemic groups of animals such as lizards of genus Darevskia. In general, species composition of this refugium is quite distinct and differs from that of the other Western Eurasian refugia.
The natural landscape is one of mixed forest, with substantial areas of rocky ground above the treeline. The Caucasus Mountains are also noted for a dog breed, the Caucasian Shepherd Dog (Rus. Kavkazskaya Ovcharka, Geo. Nagazi). Vincent Evans noted that minke whales have been recorded from the Black Sea.
Caucasus has many economically important minerals and energy resources, such as alunite, gold, chromium, copper, iron ore, mercury, manganese, molybdenum, lead, tungsten, uranium, zinc, oil, natural gas, and coal (both hard and brown).
2014 Winter Olympics venue, Sochi, Russia. Krasnaya Polyana -- a popular centre of mountain skiing and a 2015 European Games snowboard venue. The first in the history of the European Games to be held in Azerbaijan.
Mountain - skiing complexes:
The Azerbaijan Grand Prix (motor racing) venue was the first in the history of Formula One to be held in Azerbaijan The Rugby World Cup U20 (rugby) was in Georgia (country) 2017
http://site.rugby.ge/ka-ge/news-view/?newsid=4416&callerModID=17364
Coordinates: 42 ° 15 ′ 40 '' N 44 ° 07 ′ 16 '' E / 42.26111 ° N 44.12111 ° E / 42.26111; 44.12111
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twin peaks when you see me again it won't be me | Episode 29 (Twin Peaks) - Wikipedia
"Episode 29 '', also known as "Beyond Life and Death '', is the twenty - second and final episode of the second season of the American mystery television series Twin Peaks. It was also the second hour of the two - part series finale. The episode was written by the series co-creator Mark Frost, producer Harley Peyton and regular writer Robert Engels and was directed by series co-creator David Lynch, who also allegedly rewrote parts of the script. It features series regulars Kyle MacLachlan, Michael Ontkean, Richard Beymer and Kenneth Welsh; and guest stars Frank Silva as Killer Bob, Michael J. Anderson as The Man from Another Place, Carel Struycken as The Giant, and Heather Graham as Annie Blackburn.
Twin Peaks centers on the investigation into the murder of schoolgirl Laura Palmer (Sheryl Lee) in the small rural town in Washington state after which the series is named. In this episode, after the kidnap of Annie Blackburn, Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) Special Agent Dale Cooper (MacLachlan) and Sheriff Truman (Ontkean) follow Windom Earle (Welsh) to the entrance of The Black Lodge -- an evil place which exists on an alternate plane of reality. Upon entering, Cooper encounters tests of courage from Killer Bob, The Man from Another Place, Earle and a number of doppelgängers.
"Episode 29 '' was broadcast on June 10, 1991 on the American Broadcasting Company (ABC) and was watched by an audience of 10.4 million households in the United States, about 12 percent of the available audience. The episode was well received and has been the subject of vast critical and academic commentary. Several of the episode 's cliffhangers were expanded upon in Lynch 's 1992 prequel film, Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me and in the 2016 tie - in book "The Secret History of Twin Peaks ''.
Andy and Lucy console one another in the aftermath of the Miss Twin Peaks Pageant, where Annie was kidnapped by Windom Earle. Cooper, Harry, and Hawk contemplate the chalkboard map, as Cooper says quietly, "Fire walk with me. '' Pete Martell enters the police station exclaiming, "Grand theft auto! '' and says the Log Lady stole his truck and drove off toward the woods. There were "... twelve rainbow trout in the (truck) bed. '' Truman recalls a circle of twelve sycamore trees in the woods: Glastonbury Grove, where Hawk found the pages torn from Laura 's diary. The Log Lady arrives carrying a jar of black oil given to her by her husband before his death. Cooper informs Pete that Windom Earle stole his truck. The Log Lady says, "This oil is an opening to a gateway. '' The oil smells like scorched engine oil. Hawk brings in Ronnette Pulaski, who recognizes the odor from the night of Laura Palmer 's death.
Windom arrives in a dark, wooded grove with Annie, who is quietly reciting Psalm 141. They reach a circle of young trees with a dark pool at its center. Upon entering the circle, Annie becomes catatonic, and Windom recites a fragment of poetic verse. A ghostly red curtain appears behind the pool. They pass through the curtain and vanish.
At the Hurley house, Ed, Norma, and Doc Hayward bandage Nadine Hurley and Mike Nelson 's injuries. Nadine suddenly regains her memory, and is horrified to see Ed with Norma. She hollers about the missing drape runners and bursts into tears. Mike apologises to Ed for letting his affair with Nadine "get out of hand. ''
At the Hayward house, Donna is distraught, having learned that Benjamin Horne is her biological father. Ben and Donna 's mother try to console her. Doc Hayward arrives and orders Ben to leave. Ben 's wife arrives and yells at him. An enraged Doc Hayward attacks Ben. Ben slams his head on the fireplace and collapses, twitching and bloodied.
At the Blue Pine Lodge, Andrew steals the safe deposit box key from the pie plate and sneaks off, though Pete sees him.
Cooper and Harry find Pete 's truck in the woods. They walk deeper into the forest. Eventually Cooper says he must continue alone and leaves Harry behind. Cooper hears an owl, then sees the pool of oil in the circle of trees. Harry watches from a distance as Cooper enters the circle and passes through a red curtain which materializes behind the pool. The curtain glows for a moment then disappears, along with Cooper.
Cooper passes through a red - curtained hallway and finds himself in the Red Room from his dream. The Man from Another Place dances into the room and sits in a velvet chair. A strobe light flickers as Jimmy Scott croons a plaintive jazz ballad, "Sycamore Trees. ''
Andy arrives in the forest and joins Harry. Ten hours pass, and morning arrives, but Cooper has not returned. Andy asks Harry if he wants some food from the Double R Diner.
Meanwhile, Audrey walks into the Twin Peaks Savings & Loan bank and chains herself to the bank vault, in protest of the Ghostwood project and its environmental effect on the forest weasel. The elderly bank president, Dell Mibbler, fetches Audrey a glass of water, but fails to understand what Audrey is doing. Andrew and Pete arrive with the safe deposit key, intending to open the box left by Thomas Eckhart. Andrew asks Dell for help in identifying the correct box in the bank vault, which he does, albeit very slowly. As Dell ambles away, Andrew opens the box to reveal a bomb, along with a note: "Got you, Andrew! Love, Thomas. '' The bomb explodes, blowing out the bank windows. Dell 's glasses and some dollar bills fall on a nearby pine tree.
At the Double R Diner, Bobby proposes marriage to Shelly. Shelly reminds Bobby that she is still married to Leo, who is still in the woods caught in Windom Earle 's tarantula trap. Nearby, Major Briggs and his wife are sitting in a booth, happy to be reunited. Dr. Jacoby arrives with a worried Sarah Palmer, who delivers a message to Major Briggs in a distorted voice not her own: "I 'm in the Black Lodge with Dale Cooper. I 'm waiting... for... you. ''
In the Black Lodge, the Man from Another Place tells Cooper, "This is the waiting room, '' and offers Cooper some coffee. The Man from Another Place tells Cooper, "When you see me again, it wo n't be me. '' Laura Palmer appears, saying, "I will see you again in 25 years. '' She makes a strange pose, says, "Meanwhile, '' and then is gone. The elderly waiter from the Great Northern appears and brings Cooper a cup of coffee, repeating, "Coffee! '' He places the cup beside Cooper and is replaced by the Giant, who sits down and says, "One and the same. '' The Man from Another Place rubs his hands together, and a ringing tone is heard. Cooper attempts to sip the coffee, only to find it frozen solid. He tips the cup forward, and some of the coffee spills out. He tips it again, and now it is thick as syrup. The Man from Another Place says, "Wow, Bob, wow. ''
The Man from Another Place says, "Fire walk with me. '' A massive explosion of flames is seen, and then the waiting room turns dark with strobes. Cooper leaves the room, entering another room that looks exactly the same. He returns to the first room, where The Man from Another Place says, "Wrong way. '' Cooper goes back to the second room and finds The Man from Another Place twitching and laughing maniacally, saying, "Another friend. '' Maddy Ferguson enters and warns, "Watch out for my cousin, '' then disappears.
Cooper returns to the first room to find it completely empty. The Man from Another Place appears at Cooper 's left, grimacing and twitching, his eyes white cataracts, and says, "Doppelgänger. '' A menacing Laura doppelgänger appears, holding the same pose as before. She says, "Meanwhile, '' shrieks, and charges Cooper. Cooper briefly sees the face of Windom Earle over Laura 's and flees the room in fright. Now in the prior room, Cooper finds a fresh stab wound in his stomach. He stumbles back to the first room, following a trail of his own blood, and sees Caroline in a floral dress lying on the floor beside his own bloodied body. He calls, "Caroline '', but the woman turns into Annie. Annie sits up, covered in blood, dazed and wide - eyed. Cooper calls out to her, but the room turns dark, strobes flash, and the bodies disappear.
Cooper walks into a room with a black marble table. Annie appears wearing the floral dress and says, "Dale, I saw the face of the man who killed me: It was my husband. '' Cooper is confused. Then Annie turns into Caroline. Caroline is replaced by doppelgänger Laura, who again shrieks, and then turns into Windom Earle. Annie materializes in her black pageant gown, and watches the confrontation between Windom and Cooper. She disappears, and Windom cackles. Windom tells Cooper he will let Annie live if Cooper gives him his soul. Cooper agrees without hesitation, and Windom stabs Cooper in the stomach. Cooper collapses, and then there is another explosion of flames. Cooper 's stabbing is reversed as we hear Bob screaming. Bob appears, holding Windom Earle captive. Bob screams to Windom, "Be quiet! '' then says to Cooper, "He ca n't ask for your soul. I will take his. '' Windom screams as Bob takes his soul, leaving Windom ashen and still. Cooper leaves the room as Bob cackles. A doppelgänger of Cooper appears from behind a curtain and joins Bob. The two cackle together.
The doppelgänger Leland Palmer, with partially greying brown hair, appears in the hall between the two rooms and says to Cooper, "I did not kill anybody. '' The doppelgänger Cooper comes into the hall and snickers with Leland, then gives Cooper chase. Cooper flees but is caught by his doppelgänger just before he can escape. Bob appears, smiling into the camera.
It is nightfall again in the woods. The gateway to the Black Lodge glows for a moment and disappears. Harry finds Cooper and Annie lying in the circle of trees. Annie 's face is bloodied.
Cooper wakes up in his bed at the Great Northern Hotel, with Harry and Doc Hayward watching over him. Cooper asks, "How 's Annie? '' Harry replies that Annie is at the hospital and will be all right. Cooper gets up out of bed, announcing he needs to brush his teeth. In the bathroom, Cooper begins to put toothpaste on a brush, but then squeezes the tube 's contents into the sink. He rams his head into the bathroom mirror. Bob stares back at him from the shattered mirror. Harry and Doc knock on the door, concerned. As blood drips from his forehead, Cooper repeats in a mocking tone, "How 's Annie? '' and laughs maniacally.
The officially credited writers for this episode are Mark Frost, Harley Peyton, and Robert Engels. However, David Lynch revised their script significantly sans credit; he maintained the episode 's general structure but altered much of the dialogue and many scenes, most notably in the Red Room / Black Lodge sequences, making them more akin to the dream sequences in the first season. Lynch also expanded the cast, bringing back some characters who had not been seen in the series for some time, including The Log Lady, Ronette Pulaski, Maddy Ferguson, and the Palmer family.
James Marshall, Joan Chen and Piper Laurie do not appear in this episode. Ray Wise returns to the regular cast.
In an interview with Chris Rodley, Lynch said that the last episode "was written, but when it came to the Red Room, it was, in my opinion, completely and totally wrong. Completely and totally wrong. And so I changed that part. A lot of the other parts were things that had been started and were on a certain route, so they had to continue. But you can still direct them in a certain way. But I really like that last episode. ''
The major differences between the episode as originally scripted and as actually filmed are as follows:
The 2016 tie - in book for the 2017 relaunch of the series elaborates on some of the events that transpire in "Beyond Life and Death. '' The book takes the form of a dossier that has been compiled by an initially unidentified former resident of Twin Peaks. It is revealed in The Secret History of Twin Peaks that Audrey Horne survived the bomb blast at the bank, but that both Pete Martell and Andrew Packard died. We also learn that Benjamin Horne survived his run in with Doc Hayward and later purchased all of Catherine Martell 's land in Twin Peaks retaining his stranglehold on the town. Catherine later became a recluse.
Agent Cooper 's fate is elaborated on slightly when it is revealed that the dossier was compiled by Major Garland Briggs, who, after the immediate events of the finale, discovered that Cooper was the "key '' to unlocking the mystery of Project Blue Book and the Black Lodge. Upon hearing that Cooper was resting at the Great Northern following his experience in the Lodge, Briggs requested that Cooper join him at his house to discuss his experiences. Later that evening Cooper joined Briggs at the family house, but what happened at the house is not specified. Major Briggs 's final entry in the dossier states that Cooper left the house later that evening and that Briggs realized that something was wrong with him; he then writes that he realized what he had to do and signed off with the message "M * A * Y * D * A * Y ''. It is here that the dossier ends.
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when were automatic weapons banned in the usa | Federal assault weapons ban - wikipedia
The Federal Assault Weapons Ban (AWB), officially the Public Safety and Recreational Firearms Use Protection Act, is a subsection of the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994, a United States federal law, which included a prohibition on the manufacture for civilian use of certain semi-automatic firearms that were defined as assault weapons as well as certain ammunition magazines that were defined as "large capacity. ''
The 10 - year ban was passed by the US Congress on September 13, 1994, following a close 52 -- 48 vote in the US Senate, and was signed into law by US President Bill Clinton on the same day. The ban applied only to weapons manufactured after the date of the ban 's enactment. It expired on September 13, 2004, in accordance with its sunset provision.
Several constitutional challenges were filed against provisions of the ban, but all were rejected by the courts. There were multiple attempts to renew the ban, but none succeeded.
Studies have shown the ban had little effect in criminal activity. Other studies, using sources such as Mother Jones, a report prepared for Mayors Against Illegal Guns and a New York Police Department report, have shown small decreases in the rate of mass shootings followed by increases beginning after the ban was lifted.
Efforts to create restrictions on assault weapons at the federal government level intensified in 1989 after 34 children and a teacher were shot and five children killed in Stockton, Calif. with a semi-automatic AK - 47 rifle. The Luby 's shooting in October 1991, which left 23 people dead and 27 wounded, was another factor. The July 1993 101 California Street shooting also contributed to passage of the ban. The shooter killed eight people and wounded six. Two of the three firearms he used were TEC - 9 semi-automatic handguns with Hell - Fire triggers. The ban tried to address public concerns about mass shootings by restricting firearms that met the criteria for what it defined as a "semiautomatic assault weapon '', as well as magazines that met the criteria for what it defined as a "large capacity ammunition feeding device ''.
In November 1993, the proposed legislation passed the U.S. Senate. The bill 's author, Dianne Feinstein (D - CA) and other advocates said that it was a weakened version of the original proposal. In May 1994, former presidents Gerald Ford, Jimmy Carter, and Ronald Reagan, wrote to the U.S. House of Representatives in support of banning "semi-automatic assault guns ''. They cited a 1993 CNN / USA Today / Gallup Poll that found 77 percent of Americans supported a ban on the manufacture, sale, and possession of such weapons.
Rep. Jack Brooks (D - TX), then chair of the House Judiciary Committee, tried unsuccessfully to remove the assault weapons ban section from the crime bill. The National Rifle Association (NRA) opposed the ban. In November 1993, NRA spokesman Bill McIntyre said that assault weapons "are used in only 1 percent of all crimes ''. The low usage statistic was supported in a 1999 Department of Justice brief. The legislation passed in September 1994 with the assault weapon ban section expiring in 2004 due to its sunset provision.
The Public Safety and Recreational Firearms Act was enacted as part of the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994. The prohibitions expired on September 13, 2004.
The Act prohibited the manufacture, transfer, or possession of "semiautomatic assault weapons, '' as defined by the Act. "Weapons banned were identified either by specific make or model (including copies or duplicates thereof, in any caliber), or by specific characteristics that slightly varied according to whether the weapon was a pistol, rifle, or shotgun '' (see below). The Act also prohibited the transfer and possession of "large capacity ammunition feeding devices '' (LCAFDs). An LCAFD was defined as "any magazine, belt, drum, feed strip, or similar device manufactured after the date (of the act) that has the capacity of, or that can be readily restored or converted to accept, more than 10 rounds of ammunition ''.
The Act included a number of exemptions and exclusions from its prohibitions:
In 1989, the George H.W. Bush administration had banned the importation of foreign - made, semiautomatic rifles deemed not to have "a legitimate sporting use. '' It did not affect similar but domestically - manufactured rifles. (The Gun Control Act of 1968 gives discretion to the Attorney General of the United States to choose whether to "authorize a firearm or ammunition to be imported or brought into the United States, '' under what is known as "the sporting purposes test. '') Following the enactment of the Federal Assault Weapons Ban, the ATF determined that "certain semiautomatic assault rifles could no longer be imported even though they were permitted to be imported under the 1989 ' sporting purposes test ' because they had been modified to remove all of their military features other than the ability to accept a detachable magazine '' and so in April 1998, it "prohibited the importation of 56 such rifles, determining that they did not meet the ' sporting purposes test. ' ''
Under the Assault Weapons Ban of 1994, the definition of "semiautomatic assault weapon '' included specific semi-automatic firearm models by name, and other semi-automatic firearms that possessed two or more from a set certain features:
The ban defined the following semi-automatic firearms and any copies or duplicates of them, in any caliber, as assault weapons:
Gun control advocates and gun rights advocates have referred to at least some of the features outlined in the federal Assault Weapon Ban of 1994 as cosmetic. The NRA Institute for Legislative Action and the Violence Policy Center both used the term in publications that were released by them in September 2004, when the ban expired. In May 2012, the Law Center to Prevent Gun Violence said that "the inclusion in the list of features that were purely cosmetic in nature created a loophole that allowed manufacturers to successfully circumvent the law by making minor modifications to the weapons they already produced. '' The term was repeated in several stories after the 2012 Aurora shooting and Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting. Senator Marco Rubio cited that issue during a town hall forum, responding to questions from survivors of the 2018 Stoneman - Douglas High School shooting in Parkland, Florida.
A February 2013 Congressional Research Service (CRS) report to Congress said that the "Assault Weapons Ban of 1994 was unsuccessfully challenged as violating several constitutional provisions '' but that challenges to three constitutional provisions were easily dismissed. The ban did not make up an impermissible bill of attainder. It was not unconstitutionally vague. Also, it was ruled to be compatible with the Ninth Amendment by the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals.
Challenges to two other provisions took more time to decide.
In evaluating challenges to the ban under the Commerce Clause, the court first evaluated Congress 's authority to regulate under the clause and then analyzed the ban 's prohibitions on manufacture, transfer, and possession. The court held that "it is not even arguable that the manufacture and transfer of ' semiautomatic assault weapons ' for a national market can not be regulated as activity substantially affecting interstate commerce. '' It also held that the "purpose of the ban on possession has an ' evident commercial nexus ' ''.
The law was also challenged under the Equal Protection Clause. It was argued that it banned some semi-automatic weapons that were functional equivalents of exempted semi-automatic weapons and that to do so, based upon a mix of other characteristics, served no legitimate governmental interest. The reviewing court held that it was "entirely rational for Congress... to choose to ban those weapons commonly used for criminal purposes and to exempt those weapons commonly used for recreational purposes. '' It also found that each characteristic served to make the weapon "potentially more dangerous '' and were not "commonly used on weapons designed solely for hunting. ''
The Federal Assault Weapons Ban was never directly challenged under the Second Amendment. Since its 2004 expiration, there has been debate on how the ban would fare in light of cases decided in following years, especially District of Columbia v. Heller (2008).
A 2002 study by Koper and Roth found that around the time when the ban became law, assault weapon prices increased significantly, but the increase was reversed in the several months afterward by a surge in assault weapons production that occurred just before the ban took effect.
In 2003, the Task Force on Community Preventive Services, an independent, non-federal task force, examined an assortment of firearms laws, including the AWB, and found "insufficient evidence to determine the effectiveness of any of the firearms laws reviewed for preventing violence. '' A 2004 critical review of firearms research by a National Research Council committee said that an academic study of the assault weapon ban "did not reveal any clear impacts on gun violence outcomes. '' The committee noted that the study 's authors said the guns were relatively rarely used criminally before the ban and that its maximum potential effect on gun violence outcomes would be very small.
In 2004, a research report commissioned by the National Institute of Justice found that if the ban was renewed, the effects on gun violence would likely be small and perhaps too small for reliable measurement, because rifles in general, including rifles referred to as "assault rifles '' or "assault weapons '', are rarely used in gun crimes. That study, by Christopher S. Koper, Daniel J. Woods, and Jeffrey A. Roth of the Jerry Lee Center of Criminology, University of Pennsylvania, found no statistically significant evidence that either the assault weapons ban or the ban on magazines holding more than 10 rounds had reduced gun murders. The authors also report that "there has been no discernible reduction in the lethality and injuriousness of gun violence, based on indicators like the percentage of gun crimes resulting in death or the share of gunfire incidents resulting in injury. ''
In 2004, the Brady Center to Prevent Gun Violence examined the impact of the Assault Weapons Ban, On Target: The Impact of the 1994 Federal Assault Weapon Act. Examining 1.4 million guns involved in crime, "in the five - year period before enactment of the Federal Assault Weapons Act (1990 -- 1994), assault weapons named in the Act constituted 4.82 % of the crime gun traces ATF conducted nationwide. Since the law 's enactment, however, these assault weapons have made up only 1.61 % of the guns ATF has traced to crime. Page 10 of the Brady report, however, adds that "an evaluation of copycat weapons is necessary ''. Including "copycat weapons '', the report concluded that "in the post-ban period, the same group of guns has constituted 3.1 % of ATF traces, a decline of 45 %. '' A spokesman for the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF) stated that he "can in no way vouch for the validity '' of the report.
A study conducted by Dube in 2013, showed that the passing of the FAWB in 1994 had an insignificant impact on violent crime in Mexico, while the expiration of the FAWB in 2004 combined with political instability was correlated with an increase in gun - related homicides among Mexican municipalities near the border. Also in 2013, Koper reviewed the literature on the ban 's effects and concluded that its effects on crimes committed with assault weapons were mixed due to its various loopholes. He also concluded that the ban did not seem to affect gun crime rates, but may have been able to reduce shootings if it had been renewed in 2004.
Research by gun advocate John Lott found no impact of these bans on violent crime rates, but provided evidence that the bans may have reduced the number of gun shows by over 20 percent. Koper, Woods, and Roth studies focus on gun murders, while Lott 's look at murder, rape, robbery, and aggravated assaults. Unlike their work, Lott 's research accounted for state assault weapon bans and 12 other different types of gun control laws.
In a 2013 report Samantha Bricknell from the Australian Institute of Criminology, Frederic Lemieux and Tim Prenzler compared mass shootings between America and Australia and found the "1996 NFA coincided within the cessation of mass shooting events '' in Australia, and that there were reductions in America that were evident during the 1994 -- 2004 US Federal Assault Weapon Ban.
The assault weapons ban expired on September 13, 2004. Legislation to renew or replace the ban was proposed numerous times unsuccessfully.
Between May 2003 and June 2008, U.S. Senator Dianne Feinstein, D - CA, and Representatives Michael Castle, R - DE, Alcee Hastings, D - FL, and Mark Kirk, R - IL, introduced bills to reauthorize the ban. At the same time, Senator Frank Lautenberg, D - NJ, and Representative Carolyn McCarthy, D - NY, introduced similar bills to create a new ban with a revised definition for assault weapons. None of the bills left committee.
After the November 2008 election, the website of President - elect Barack Obama listed a detailed agenda for the forthcoming administration. The stated positions included "making the expired federal Assault Weapons Ban permanent. '' Three months later, newly sworn - in Attorney General Eric Holder reiterated the Obama administration 's desire to reinstate the ban. The mention came in response to a question during a joint press conference with DEA Acting Administrator Michele Leonhart, discussing efforts to crack down on Mexican drug cartels. Attorney General Holder said that "there are just a few gun - related changes that we would like to make, and among them would be to reinstitute the ban on the sale of assault weapons. ''
Efforts to pass a new federal assault weapons ban were made in December 2012 after the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting, in Newtown, Connecticut. On January 24, 2013, Senator Feinstein introduced S. 150, the Assault Weapons Ban of 2013 (AWB 2013). The bill was similar to the 1994 ban, but differed in that it would not expire after 10 years, and it used a one - feature test for a firearm to qualify as an assault weapon rather than the two - feature test of the defunct ban. The GOP Congressional delegation from Texas, and the NRA, condemned Feinstein 's bill. On March 14, 2013, the Senate Judiciary Committee approved a version of the bill along party lines. On April 17, 2013, AWB 2013 failed on a Senate vote of 40 to 60.
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what 3 physical features make up part of the boarders of indiana | Geography of New York (state) - wikipedia
The geography of New York state varies widely. Most of New York (state) is dominated by farms, forests, rivers, mountains, and lakes. New York 's Adirondack Park is larger than any U.S. National Park in the contiguous United States. Niagara Falls, on the Niagara River as it flows from Lake Erie to Lake Ontario, is a popular attraction. The Hudson River begins near Lake Tear of the Clouds and flows south through the eastern part of the state without draining lakes George or Champlain. Lake George empties at its north end into Lake Champlain, whose northern end extends into Canada, where it drains into the Richelieu River and then the St. Lawrence. Four of New York City 's five boroughs are on the three islands at the mouth of the Hudson River: Manhattan Island, Staten Island, and Brooklyn and Queens on Long Island.
"Upstate '' is a common term for New York counties north of suburban Westchester, Rockland and Dutchess counties. Upstate New York typically includes the Catskill Mountains or areas North of the Catskill Mountains, the Capital district, The Adirondacks, the Erie Canal, Lake Champlain, Otsego Lake, Oneida Lake; rivers such as the Delaware, Genesee, Mohawk, and Susquehanna. The highest elevation in New York is Mount Marcy of the Adirondacks.
New York is located in the northeastern United States, in the Mid-Atlantic Census Bureau division. New York covers an area of 54,556 square miles (141,299 km) and ranks as the 27th largest state by size. The state borders six U.S. states: Pennsylvania and New Jersey to the south, and Connecticut, Rhode Island (across Long Island Sound), Massachusetts, and Vermont to the east. New York also borders the Canadian provinces of Ontario and Quebec to the north. Additionally, New York touches the Atlantic Ocean to the southeast, and two of the Great Lakes: Lake Erie to the west and Lake Ontario to the northwest.
New York is part of the Marcellus Shale, a gas - rich rock formation which also extends across Ohio, Pennsylvania and West Virginia.
New York lies upon the portion of the Appalachian Mountains where the mountains generally assume the character of hills and finally sink to a level of the lowlands that surround the great depression filled by Lake Ontario and the St. Lawrence River. Three distinct mountain masses can be identified in the state. The most easterly of these ranges -- a continuation of the Blue Ridge Mountains of Virginia -- enters the state from New Jersey and extends northeast through Rockland and Orange counties to the Hudson River, continuing on the east side of that river as the highlands of Putnam and Dutchess counties. A northerly extension of the same range passes into the Green Mountains of western Massachusetts and Vermont. This range is known in New York as the Hudson Highlands. The highest peaks are 1,000 to 1,700 feet (300 to 520 m) above sea level. The rocks that compose these mountains are principally primitive or igneous, and the mountains themselves are rough, rocky, precipitous, and unfit for cultivation.
The second series of mountains enters the state from Pennsylvania and extends northeast through Sullivan, Ulster, and Greene counties, terminating and culminating in the Catskill Mountains west of the Hudson. The highest peaks are 3,000 to 3,800 feet (910 to 1,160 m) above sea level. The Shawangunk Mountains, a high and continuous ridge extending between Sullivan and Orange counties and into the southern part of Ulster County, is the extreme eastern range of this series. The Helderberg and Hellibark Mountains are spurs extending north from the main range into Albany and Schoharie counties. This whole mountain system is principally composed of rocks of the New York system above the Medina sandstone. The summits are generally crowned with red sandstone and with the conglomerate of the coal measures. The declivities are steep and rocky, and a large share of the surface is too rough for cultivation.
The third mountainous region, occupying the northeast part of the state, is known as the Adirondack Mountains. The region is bounded to the south by the Mohawk River, south of which the highlands become part of the Allegheny Plateau, in the form of broad, irregular hills, broken by the deep ravines of streams. The valley of the Mohawk separates the Allegheny Plateau to the south from the highlands leading to the Adirondacks to the north, reaching its narrowest point in the neighborhood of Little Falls, the Noses, and other places. North of the Mohawk the highlands extend northeast in several distinct ranges, all terminating upon Lake Champlain. The culminating point of the whole system, and the highest mountain in the state, is Mount Marcy, standing 5,467 feet (1,666 m) above sea level. The rocks of all this region are principally of igneous origin, and the mountains are usually wild, rugged, and rocky. A large share of the surface is entirely unfit for cultivation, but the region is rich in minerals, and especially in an excellent variety of iron ore.
In western New York, a series of hills forming spurs of the Allegheny Mountains enter the state from Pennsylvania and occupy the entire southern half of the west part of the state. An irregular line extending through the southerly counties forms the watershed that separates the northern and southern drainage; and from it the surface gradually declines northward until it finally terminates in the level of Lake Ontario. The portion of the state lying south of this watershed and occupying the greater part of the two southerly tiers of counties is entirely occupied by these hills. Along the Pennsylvania line they are usually abrupt and are separated by narrow ravines, but toward the north their summits become broader and less broken. A considerable portion of the highland region is too steep for profitable cultivation and is best adapted to grazing. The highest summits in Allegany and Cattaraugus counties are 2,000 to 2,500 feet (610 to 760 m) above sea level.
From the summits of the watershed, the highlands usually descend toward Lake Ontario in a series of terraces, the edges of which are outcrops of different rocks beneath the surface. These terraces are usually smooth, and, although inclined toward the north, the inclination is generally so slight that they appear level. Between the hills of the south and the level land of the north is a beautiful rolling region, the ridges gradually declining toward the north. In that part of the state, south of the most eastern mountain range, the surface is generally level or broken by low hills. In Manhattan and Westchester County, these hills are principally composed of primitive rocks. The surface of Long Island is generally level or gently undulating. A ridge 150 to 200 feet (46 to 61 m) high, composed of sand, gravel, and clay, extends east and west across the island north of its center.
The river system of the state has two general divisions. The first is the streams tributary to the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River. The second are those tributaries that flow in a general southerly direction. The watershed divide that separates these two systems extends in an irregular line eastward from Lake Erie, through the southern tier of counties to near the northeast corner of Chemung County. It then turns northeast to the Adirondack Mountains in Essex County, then southeast to the east extremity of Lake George, and then nearly due east to the east border of the state.
The northerly division has five general subdivisions. The most westerly of these comprises all the streams flowing into Lake Erie and the Niagara River and those flowing into Lake Ontario west of the Genesee River. In Chautauqua County, the streams are short and rapid, as the watershed approaches within a few miles of Lake Erie. Cattaraugus, Buffalo, Tonawanda, and Oak Orchard creeks are the most important streams in this division. Buffalo Creek is chiefly noted for forming Buffalo Harbor at its mouth; and the Tonawanda for 12 miles (19 km) from its mouth was once used for canal navigation. Oak Orchard and other creeks flowing into Lake Ontario descend from the interior in a series of rapids, affording a large amount of waterpower.
The second subdivision comprises the Genesee River and its tributaries. The Genesee rises in the northern part of Pennsylvania and flows in a generally northerly direction to Lake Ontario. Its upper course is through a narrow valley bordered by steep, rocky hills. Upon the line of Wyoming and Livingston counties, it breaks through a mountain barrier in a deep gorge and forms the Portage Falls. Below this point the course of the river is through a valley 1 to 2 miles (1.6 to 3.2 km) wide and bordered by banks 50 to 150 feet (15 to 46 m) high. At Rochester it flows over the precipitous edges of the Niagara limestone, forming the Upper Genesee Falls; and 3 miles (4.8 km) below it flows over the edge of the Medina sandstone, forming the Lower Genesee Falls. The principal tributaries of this stream are Canaseraga, Honeoye, and Conesus creeks from the south, and Oatka and Black creeks from the west. Honeoye, Canadice, Hemlock, and Conesus lakes -- four of the Finger Lakes -- lie within the Genesee Basin. The third subdivision includes the Oswego River and its tributaries, and the small streams flowing into Lake Ontario between the Genesee and Oswego rivers. The basin of the Oswego includes most of the inland lakes, which form a peculiar feature of the landscape in the interior of the state. The principal of these lakes are Cayuga, Seneca, Canandaigua, Skaneateles, Crooked, and Owasco lakes, all occupying long, narrow valleys, and extending from the level land in the center far into the highland region of the south (many of those lakes just mentioned are also part of the Finger Lakes). The valleys they occupy appear like immense ravines formed by some tremendous force that tore the solid rocks from their original beds, from the general level of the surrounding summits, down to the present bottoms of the lakes. Oneida and Onondaga lakes occupy level land in the northeast part of the Oswego Basin. Mud Creek, the most westerly branch of the Oswego River, takes its rise in Ontario County, flows northeast into Wayne County, where it unites with Canandaigua Outlet and takes the name of Clyde River; then it flows east to the west line of Cayuga County, where it empties into the Seneca River. This latter stream, made up of the outlets of Seneca and Cayuga Lakes, from this point flows in a northeasterly course, and receives successively the outlets of Owasco, Skaneateles, Onondaga, and Oneida lakes. From the mouth of the last - named stream it takes the name Oswego River, and its course is nearly due north to Lake Ontario.
The fourth subdivision includes the streams flowing into Lake Ontario and the St. Lawrence River east of the mouth of the Oswego. The principal of these are the Salmon, Black, Oswegatchie, Grasse, and Raquette rivers. The water is usually very dark, being colored with iron and the vegetation of swamps.
The fifth subdivision includes all the streams flowing into Lakes George and Champlain. They are mostly mountain torrents, frequently interrupted by cascades. The principal streams are the Chazy, Saranac, and Ausable rivers, and Wood Creek. Deep strata of Tertiary clay extend along the shores of Lake Champlain and Wood Creek. The water of most of the streams in this region is colored by the iron over which it flows.
The second general division of the river system of the state includes the basins of the Allegheny, Susquehanna, Delaware, and Hudson. The Allegheny Basin embraces the southerly half of Chautauqua and Cattaraugus counties and the southwest corner of Allegany County. The Allegheny River enters the state from the south in the southeast corner of Cattaraugus County, flows in nearly a semicircle, with its outward curve toward the north, and flows out of the state in the southwest part of the same county. It receives several tributaries from the north and east. These streams mostly flow in deep ravines bordered by steep, rocky hillsides. The watershed between this basin and Lake Erie approaches within a few miles of the lake, and is elevated 800 to 1,000 feet (240 to 300 m) above it.
The Susquehanna Basin occupies about one - third of the south border of the state. The river takes its rise in Otsego Lake, and, flowing southwest to the Pennsylvania line, receives Charlotte River from the south and the Unadilla River from the north. After a course of a few miles in Pennsylvania, it again enters New York and flows in a general westerly direction to near the western border of Tioga County, whence it turns south and again enters Pennsylvania. Its principal tributary from the north is the Chenango River. The Tioga River enters New York from Pennsylvania near the eastern border of Steuben County, flows north, receives the Canisteo River from the west and the Cohocton River from the north. From the mouth of the latter, the stream takes the name Chemung River, and flows in a southeast direction, into the Susquehanna River in Pennsylvania, a few miles south of the state line. The upper course of these streams is generally through deep ravines bordered by steep hillsides, but below they are bordered by wide intervales.
The Delaware Basin occupies Delaware and Sullivan counties and portions of several of the adjacent counties. The north or principal branch of the river rises in the northeast part of Delaware County and flows southwest to near the Pennsylvania line; then it turns southwest and forms the boundary of the state to the line of New Jersey. Its principal branches are the Pepacton and Neversink rivers. These streams all flow in deep, narrow ravines bordered by steep, rocky hills.
The basin of the Hudson occupies about two - thirds of the east border of the state, and a large territory extending into the interior. The remote sources of the Hudson are among the highest peaks of the Adirondacks, more than 4,000 feet (1,200 m) above sea level. Several of the little lakes that form reservoirs of the Upper Hudson are 2,500 to 3,000 feet (760 to 910 m) above sea level. The stream rapidly descends through the narrow defiles into Warren County, where it receives from the east the outlet of Schroon Lake, and the Sacandaga River from the west. Below the mouth of the latter the river turns eastward, and breaks through the barrier of the Luzerne Mountains in a series of rapids and falls. At Fort Edward it again turns south and flows with a rapid current, frequently interrupted by falls, to Troy, 160 miles (260 km) from the ocean. At this place the river falls into an estuary, where its current is affected by the tide; and from this place to its mouth it is a broad, deep, sluggish stream. About 60 miles (97 km) from its mouth the Hudson breaks through the rocky barrier of the highlands, forming the most easterly of the Appalachian Mountain ranges; and along its lower course it is bordered on the west by a nearly perpendicular wall of basaltic rock 300 to 500 feet (91 to 152 m) high, known as The Palisades. Above Troy, the Hudson receives the Hoosic River from the east and the Mohawk River from the west. The former stream rises in western Massachusetts and Vermont, and the latter near the center of New York.
At Little Falls and The Noses, the Mohawk breaks through mountain barriers in a deep, rocky ravine; and at Cohoes, about 1 mile (1.6 km) from its mouth, it flows down a perpendicular precipice of 70 feet (21 m). Below Troy the tributaries of the Hudson are all comparatively small streams. South of the highlands the river spreads out into a wide expanse known as Haverstraw Bay. A few small streams upon the extreme eastern border of the state flow eastward into the Housatonic River, and several small branches of the Passaic River rise in the southern part of Rockland County.
Lake Erie forms a portion of the western boundary of the state. It is 240 miles (390 km) long, with an average width of 38 miles (61 km), and it lies mostly west of the bounds of the state. It is 334 feet (102 m) above Lake Ontario, 565 feet (172 m) above sea level, and has an average depth of 120 feet (37 m). The greatest depth ever obtained by soundings is 270 feet (82 m). The harbors upon the lake are Buffalo, Silver Creek, Dunkirk, and Barcelona.
The Niagara River, forming the outlet of Lake Erie, is 34 miles (55 km) long, and, on average, more than a mile wide. About 20 miles (32 km) below Lake Erie the rapids commence; and 2 miles (3.2 km) further below are Niagara Falls. For 7 miles (11 km) below the falls the river has a rapid course between perpendicular, rocky banks, 200 to 300 feet (61 to 91 m) high, but below it emerges from the highlands and flows 7 miles (11 km) to Lake Ontario in a broad, deep, and majestic current.
Lake Ontario forms a part of the northern boundary to the western half of the state. Its greatest length is 130 miles (210 km) and its greatest width is 55 miles (89 km). It is 232 feet (71 m) above sea level, and its greatest depth is 600 feet (180 m). Its principal harbors on the American shore are Lewiston, Youngstown, Port Genesee, Sodus and Little Sodus bays, Oswego, Sackets Harbor, and Cape Vincent. The St. Lawrence River forms the outlet of the lake and the northern boundary of the state to the east line of St. Lawrence County. It is a broad, deep river, flowing with a strong yet sluggish current until it passes the limits of this state. In the upper part of its course it encloses a great number of small islands, known as the Thousand Islands.
The surfaces of the Great Lakes are subject to variations of level, probably due to prevailing winds, unequal amounts of rain, and evaporation. The greatest difference known in Lake Erie is 7 feet (2.1 m), and in Lake Ontario 4 feet (1.2 m). The time of these variations is irregular, and the interval between the extremes often extends through several years. A sudden rise and fall of several feet has been noticed upon Lake Ontario at rare intervals, produced by some unknown cause.
New York has many state parks and two major forest preserves. The Adirondack Park, roughly the size of the state of Vermont and the largest state park in the United States, was established in 1892 and given state constitutional protection in 1894. The thinking that led to the creation of the park first appeared in George Perkins Marsh 's Man and Nature, published in 1864. Marsh argued that deforestation could lead to desertification; referring to the clearing of once - lush lands surrounding the Mediterranean, he asserted "the operation of causes set in action by man has brought the face of the earth to a desolation almost as complete as that of the moon. ''
The Catskill Park was protected in legislation passed in 1885, which declared that its land was to be conserved and never put up for sale or lease. Consisting of 700,000 acres (2,800 km) of land, the park is a habitat for bobcats, minks and fishers with some 400 black bears living in the region. The state operates numerous campgrounds, and maintains over 300 miles (480 km) of multi-use trails.
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when did they ban smoking in hospitals uk | Smoking ban in England - wikipedia
A smoking ban in England, making it illegal to smoke in all enclosed work places in England, came into force on 1 July 2007 as a consequence of the Health Act 2006. Similar bans had already been introduced by the rest of the United Kingdom: in Scotland on 26 March 2006, Wales on 2 April 2007 and Northern Ireland on 30 April 2007.
Before the ban many businesses voluntarily introduced bans on smoking mainly as a result of public feedback. The pub chain Wetherspoons was the first major chain to introduce a complete ban on indoor smoking.
Tobacco advertising had been banned in England gradually starting with a ban on Television Advertising of cigarettes in 1965 to a complete ban on all Tobacco Advertising in 2005.
On 16 November 2004 a Public Health white paper proposed a smoking ban in almost all public places in England and Wales. Smoking restrictions would be phased in, with a ban on smoking in NHS and government buildings by 2006, in enclosed public places by 2007, and pubs, bars and restaurants (except pubs not serving food) by the end of 2008.
On 26 October 2005, after external challenge and debates within the Cabinet, the government announced that it would continue with its plans. All workplaces, including restaurants and pubs selling food, would have to comply by summer 2007 However, there was widespread criticism from all sides of the argument on this, with a number of MPs threatening to try to overturn the bill. Many representatives of the licensed trade told the Government that only a total ban would work, and over 90 MPs signed a motion demanding this, with over 100 signing a petition for a free vote on the issue. It was reported on 24 November that Chief Medical Officer Liam Donaldson nearly quit over the partial ban, but decided to stay to champion a total ban. On the same day, the government released the results of the public consultation, after Cancer Research UK demanded them under the Freedom of Information Act, which revealed that nearly 9 out of 10 respondents wanted a total ban.
On 11 January 2006, the government further announced that it would give MPs a free vote on an amendment to the Health Bill, submitted by the Health select committee, to instigate a comprehensive smoke - free workplace regulations. Health Secretary Patricia Hewitt voted in favour of the amendment and, in so doing, voted against her own Department 's then publicly stated policy (i.e. the proposed partial regulations). All other parties had offered free votes on the issue which was debated on 14 February, with three options: the present compromise, a total ban, or an exemption for members ' clubs only.
On 14 February 2006, the House of Commons first voted on the amendment to the original compromise plan, to extend the ban to all enclosed public places except private members ' clubs. The amendment was carried with a large majority. MPs then voted on a further amendment to ban smoking in all enclosed public places including private members ' clubs. Again this amendment gained significant support and was carried with a large majority. This therefore replaced the earlier successful amendment which would have allowed smoking only in private members ' clubs. The legislation was passed by the House of Lords, allowing a total smoking ban in enclosed public places to come into force in England.
Political opposition did not entirely disappear at this point, the House of Lords Economic Affairs Committee accused the Government of overreacting to the threat posed by passive smoking and said that the smoking ban was symptomatic of MPs ' failure to understand risk on 7 June 2006.
The ban came into force on 1 July 2007, as announced on 30 November 2006 by former Secretary of State for Health Patricia Hewitt, who called it "a huge step forward for public health ''.
On 30 June 2010, the recently formed Coalition Government announced that it would not be reviewing the ban. An attempt in October 2010 by Conservative MP David Nuttall to amend the law to exempt private members ' clubs and pubs from the smoking ban was defeated in the House of Commons on its first reading.
While the ban affects almost all indoor workplaces, some exemptions were provided:
An exemption was also theoretically possible within the Palace of Westminster, as for other Royal Palaces, although members of the House of Commons and the House of Lords agreed to observe the spirit of the ban and restrict any smoking within the grounds of Parliament to four designated outside areas.
Smoking is permitted in a private residence, although not in areas used as a shared work - space. In flats with communal entrances or shared corridors, these must be smoke - free.
University halls of residence presented some dilemmas in practice as regards defining what is public and private. Several universities have imposed a blanket ban on smoking including halls of residence.
As part of the implementation of the smoking ban, Transport for London announced that smoking would be no longer permitted on taxis, private hire vehicles and all London Buses premises, including all bus stop shelters.
The Association of Train Operating Companies and Network Rail introduced an extended ban on smoking covering all railway property including all National Rail station platforms whether enclosed or not. The ban has since been extended to cover the use of Electronic cigarettes. Smoking on board trains was banned in 2005 when both GNER and First Caledonian Sleeper withdrew smoking accommodation from their services.
The Tyne and Wear Metro was the first public transport system to ban in its entirety which has been enforced since the system first opened in 1980.
The ban is enforced by Environmental Health Officers in England, who issue warnings and offer advice before resorting to punitive measures and have had to issue a low frequency of fines since the law came into force. However, there were some objectors who generated higher - profile legal cases, for instance Hugh Howitt, also known as Hamish Howitt, the landlord of the Happy Scots Bar in Blackpool who was the first landlord to be prosecuted for permitting smoking in a smoke - free place under his control. On 2 August 2007, Howitt appeared before Blackpool Magistrates ' Court and pleaded not guilty to 12 counts of failing to stop people smoking in his pub. On 2 December 2008, Howitt effectively had his premises licence revoked, after an appeal by Blackpool Council was upheld; he was not allowed to appeal, and Howitt had to close the Delboys Bar following the decision.
There have been some incidents of violence perpetrated by people refusing to obey the ban, in one of which a former heavyweight boxer, James Oyebola, was shot in the head after he asked a customer at a nightclub to stop smoking and later died of his injuries. However, the view of enforcement authorities is that the smoke - free workplace regulations are simple to understand, popular, and as a result largely ' self - policing '. For a short while, bars in the UK that offered shisha (the smoking of flavoured tobacco through a pipe) were still allowed to provide their services inside the establishment, however the ban covered this area in late 2007 leading to a rapid decline in shisha bars.
A legal blunder by Stoke - on - Trent City Council meant that, while the smoking ban still applied in the city, the council were unable to issue fines to people caught flouting the law until 16 July 2007. The blunder caused the city to briefly be dubbed Smoke - on - Trent.
A group calling themselves "Freedom To Choose '', launched a campaign for a judicial review of the smoke - free workplace regulations claiming a breach of the Human Rights Act 1998, as it does not respect the right to privacy of people who wish to smoke in public. Supporters of the regulations put forward counter-arguments positing that the rights of smokers to indulge in their habit cease as soon as it negatively affects other people in the vicinity. In 2010 pub landlord Nick Hogan was jailed for an offence related to the smoking ban. In 2012 it was reported that "Five years after the introduction of the smoking ban in England, almost seven out of 10 licensees want the legislation amended to allow for separate smoking rooms in pubs ''.
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who sang the song my heart will go on | My Heart Will Go On - wikipedia
"My Heart Will Go On, '' also called the "Love Theme from Titanic, '' is the main theme song to James Cameron 's blockbuster film Titanic. Its music was composed by James Horner, its lyrics were written by Will Jennings, and it was produced by Walter Afanasieff and Simon Franglen, recorded by Celine Dion, and released in 1997.
Originally released in 1997 on Dion 's album Let 's Talk About Love and the Titanic soundtrack album, the romantic song went to number one all over the world, including the United States, Canada, Ireland, United Kingdom, and Australia. "My Heart Will Go On '' was released in Australia and Germany on 8 December 1997, and in the rest of the world in January and February 1998.
The song became Dion 's biggest hit, and one of the best - selling singles of all time, and was the world 's best - selling single of 1998. The music video was directed by Bille Woodruff and released at the end of 1997. Due to the song 's widespread popularity when it was released, it is considered to be Dion 's signature song. It was also included in the list of Songs of the Century by the Recording Industry Association of America and the National Endowment for the Arts. Dion performed the song to honor the 20th Anniversary of the film at the 2017 Billboard Music Awards on 21 May 2017. With worldwide sales estimated at 18 million copies, it became the second best - selling single by a female artist in history, and the eighth overall.
James Horner had originally composed the music for the song as an instrumental motif which he used in several scenes during Titanic; the main theme of the song being inspired by the song "Flying Dutchman '' by Jethro Tull. He then wanted to prepare a full vocal version of it, for use in the end credits of the film. Lyricist Will Jennings was hired, who wrote the lyrics "from the point of view of a person of a great age looking back so many years. '' Director James Cameron did not want such a song, but Will Jennings went ahead anyway and wrote the lyrics. When Dion originally heard the song, she did not want to record it as she felt she was pushing her luck by singing another film theme song after Beauty and the Beast. Horner showed the piano sketch to Simon Franglen, who was working with him on electronic textures and synthesizers for the film score. Franglen, who had, himself, worked with Dion for several years on many of her major hits to date, programmed and arranged an extensive demo to take to Dion.
In Hitmaker: The Man and His Music by Tommy Mottola, he claims that Dion recorded the song in one take, and that demo is what was released. Mottola states that since so much money was on the line for Cameron 's film that Cameron felt obligated to include a theme song to promote the movie.
Dion 's manager and husband René Angélil convinced her to sing on this demo version, which she had not done for many years. Horner waited until Cameron was in an appropriate mood before presenting him with the song. After playing it several times, Cameron declared his approval, even though he worried that he might be criticized for "going commercial at the end of the movie ''. Cameron also wanted to appease anxious studio executives and "saw that a hit song from his movie could only be a positive factor in guaranteeing its completion. ''
The song is written in the key of E major, though the leitmotif (as heard in the intro) is in the relative key of C ♯ minor. The verses follow the chord progression of E -- Bsus4 -- Aadd9 -- E -- B. The chorus has the chord progression of C ♯ m -- B -- A -- B. The song modulates to F minor in the final chorus, and ends in the key of A ♭ major. It contains heavy emphasis on the instrumental arranging. Usage of flute is prominent, backed by melodic use of strings and rhythm guitars. The song features both acoustic and electronic instrumentation. Dion 's vocal performance is described as "emotional '' and "demanding '' by Pandora radio.
The original Horner / Franglen produced "demo '' version of the ballad runs a little over five minutes and has an extended ending with longer, segmented vocalizations by Dion. Franglen mixed the final film and soundtrack version, expanding on the demo and adding orchestra to the final chorus. It is this version which appears on the Titanic soundtrack album and is also played over the ending credits of the film.
When the single was to be released to radio, it was produced further by Walter Afanasieff who added string and electric guitar, as well as rearranged portions of the song. This version, which runs a little over four and a half minutes, appears on both the 4 - track maxi single and Dion 's album Let 's Talk About Love. At the height of the song 's popularity, some radio stations in the US and the UK played an edited version of the song, that had dramatic moments of dialog from the Jack and Rose lead characters in the film inserted in between Dion 's vocal lines.
AllMusic senior editor Stephen Thomas Erlewine wrote that this song "shines the most brilliantly '' and marked it as a standout track. Another AllMusic reviewer, single editor Heather Phares, who rated the single 4 out 5 stars, wrote, "Indeed, her performances of it on VH1 Divas, the 1998 Academy Awards (wearing the film 's ' Heart of the Ocean ' pendant, no less), and on her 1997 album Let 's Talk About Love have cemented ' My Heart Will Go On ' as the quintessence of Dion 's sweeping, romantic style. '' Yahoo.com described the song as an "emotional power ballad that perfectly captured (Titanic 's) romantic yearning ''. Vulture said that it is a powerful song and has "one of the most glorious key changes in recorded music history '', and that "its legacy is eclipsed only by '' Whitney Houston 's "admittedly far superior '' song "I Will Always Love You ''. Washington Post appreciated how the song was not just tagged on the end of the three - hour film, but has a lyrical motif that was already placed throughout the key moments of the film 's love story in order to create a musical narrative.
In latter years, "My Heart Will Go On '' proved not to be popular with readers of Rolling Stone magazine; nor did it become popular with Kate Winslet, who played Rose DeWitt Bukater -- the notional protagonist of the song -- in the film. In 2011, Rolling Stone readers rated it the 7th worst song of the ' 90s, with the magazine writing, "Celine Dion 's song and the movie have aged very poorly... Now (the song) probably just makes you cringe ''. Winslet stated that the song made her feel "like throwing up '', due to people 's tendency to start playing it when she was around: "I wish I could say, ' Oh listen, everybody! It 's the Celine Dion song! ' But I do n't. I just have to sit there, you know, kind of straight - faced with a massive internal eye roll. '' The Atlantic attributed the song 's decline in popularity to its overexposure and added that over the years there have been many jokes that parody the song 's lyrics by claiming "My Heart Will Go On '' goes "on and on and on ''. Vulture reasoned that it has become fashionable to dislike the song because it "encapsulates most everything that once - enthusiastic moviegoers now dislike about Titanic: It 's outdated, cheesy, and overly dramatic ''. Maxim deemed it "the second most tragic event ever to result from that fabled ocean liner ''. On 11 September 2010, Matthew Wilkening of AOL Radio ranked the song No. 11 on his list of the "100 Worst Songs Ever '', while stating a new rule: "From now on, the Canadian warbler, and not the captain, has to go down with this ship. '' This was in reference to the Titanic itself.
"My Heart Will Go On '' won the 1997 Academy Award for Best Original Song. It dominated the 1999 Grammy Awards, winning Record of the Year -- marking the first time to be won by a Canadian -- Song of the Year, Best Female Pop Vocal Performance and Best Song Written Specifically for a Motion Picture or Television. "My Heart Will Go On '' also won the Golden Globe Award for "Best Original Song -- Motion Picture '' in 1998.
The song also won a Japanese Gold Disc Award, for Song of the Year, as well as a Billboard Music Award for Soundtrack Single of the Year.
It has been named one of the Songs of the Century. It is one of the best - selling singles ever in the United Kingdom, selling over a million copies, the second single released by Dion to do so. This made Dion the only female artist to date to have released two million - selling singles in Britain. In December 2007, the song peaked # 21 on VH1 's "100 Greatest Songs of the 90 's ''. In April 2010, the UK radio station Magic 105.4 voted the single the "top movie song of all time '' after listeners 's votes. It was ranked at number 14 on AFI 's 100 Years... 100 Songs, celebrating the 100 greatest songs in American film history.
The song became "imprinted on the movie 's legacy '', and every listen prompts a reminder of the blockbuster and the hype surrounding it. USA Today agreed that the song will be forever tied to Titanic. The Washington Post says it is the marriage of music and image that make both the song and film greater than the sum of their parts.
After the song had become a huge worldwide hit, many movie studios and record labels tried to duplicate the process. Although many soundtrack singles had become hits before "My Heart Will Go On '', a string of similar songs followed afterward, such as Aerosmith 's "I Do n't Want to Miss a Thing '' from Armageddon and Faith Hill 's "There You 'll Be '' from Pearl Harbor (both of which directed by Michael Bay). Each followed in the footsteps of the "Titanic '' theme, a love ballad for a tragedy. Although those two songs became hits, they did not achieve the same success of "My Heart Will Go On ''.
Horner himself repeated the formula of making a song from his film themes with films such as A Beautiful Mind, Bicentennial Man, The Perfect Storm, and Avatar.
The Atlantic noted that its popularity did n't stem from being played at events such as high school proms, weddings, and funerals, but by being indelibly placed into pop culture through numerous plays on the radio station, speakers, and passing cars.
Reportedly, the song was playing when cruise liner Costa Concordia crashed into rocks and sank. Dion has said "My Heart Will Go On gave me the opportunity to be associated with a classic that will live forever ''.
"My Heart Will Go On '' became Dion 's biggest hit and one of the best - selling singles in history, having sold more than 15 million copies worldwide. In the United States, the song was given a limited number of copies -- 658,000. Regardless, it debuted at number - one on the Billboard Hot 100, with sales of 360,000 copies, where it stayed for two weeks. In addition, the song spent ten weeks at number - one on the Billboard Hot 100 Airplay, and was number one for two weeks on the Hot 100 Singles Sales. As a testament to the popularity of the song on the radio, the song broke the record for the then - largest radio audience ever, garnering 117 million listeners in February 1998. The single was eventually certified gold in the United States. Billboard reported that the digital copy of the single has sold 1,133,000 units since being available bringing total sales to 1,791,000 copies sold in the US.
In addition "My Heart Will Go On '' reached number one in several other U.S. charts, including, Billboard 's Hot Adult Contemporary Tracks, Top 40 Mainstream, Hot Latin Pop Airplay, and Hot Latin Tracks. For the latter, the single became the first English - language song to top the Hot Latin Tracks chart, to which Dion was given a Billboard Latin Music Award for that achievement.
Internationally, the song was phenomenally successful, spending many weeks at the top position in various countries, including 17 weeks on the Eurochart Hot 100 Singles, 15 weeks in Switzerland, 13 weeks in France and Germany, 11 weeks in the Netherlands and Sweden, ten weeks in Belgium Wallonia, Denmark, Italy, and Norway, seven weeks in Belgium Flanders, six weeks in Ireland, four weeks in Australia and Austria, two weeks in Spain and the United Kingdom, and one week in Finland.
In Germany, "My Heart Will Go On '' was certified 4 × platinum for selling over two million copies, and was ranked as one of the most popular singles ever released there. It sold over 1.2 million copies in France, being certified Diamond. Additionally, the song was certified 3 × Platinum in Belgium, 2 × Platinum in Australia, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, and Switzerland, Platinum in Greece, and Gold in Austria. "My Heart Will Go On '' was released twice in Japan. The regular edition from January 1998 sold 205,300 and was certified 2 × Platinum, for 200,000 copies sold. The remixed edition released in June 1998 sold 111,920 copies and was certified Gold for 100,000 copies sold, due the fact that maxi - singles are treated as an album.
In the United Kingdom, the song sold 1,681,023 copies (as of September 2017), becoming Dion 's second million - selling single in Britain following "Think Twice '' in 1995 and Britain 's second best - selling single of 1998 behind Cher 's "Believe ''. This made her the only solo female artist to have two million - selling singles in Britain, a record which stood until early 2012 when Rihanna 's singles "Only Girl (In the World) '' (2010) and "We Found Love '' (2011) both topped a million sales.
The song was included on the All the Way... A Decade of Song & Video DVD and on the Titanic (Three - Disc Special Collector 's Edition) DVD release in 25 October 2005. In addition to Dion 's Let 's Talk About Love and the Titanic soundtrack, "My Heart Will Go On '' appears on several other albums, including VH1 Divas Live, Au cœur du stade, All the Way... A Decade of Song, A New Day... Live in Las Vegas, Complete Best, My Love: Essential Collection, Taking Chances World Tour: The Concert, and Céline... une seule fois / Live 2013. It was also included on the DVDs for Au cœur du stade, All the Way... A Decade of Song & Video, Live in Las Vegas: A New Day..., and Celine: Through the Eyes of the World.
It was included later on the Back to Titanic second soundtrack album, but it does not happear on the 20th anniversary edition. In France, "My Heart Will Go On '' was released as a double A-side single with "The Reason ''. In the Let 's Talk about Love album booklet, the lyrics of the song contain an additional line between a second chorus and the final verse. The words "There is some love that will not go away '' are not performed by Dion in any available version of the song, however, they are still included on Dion 's official site.
European CD single
European CD single # 2
French CD single
French CD single # 2
French CD single # 3
Japanese CD single
UK cassette single
US CD single and Cassette
Australian / Brazilian / European / UK / Korean CD maxi single
Australian CD maxi single # 2
Brazilian CD maxi single # 2
European CD maxi single # 2 / UK 12 '' single
Japanese / Korean CD maxi single
UK CD maxi single # 2
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
Sissel Kyrkjebø recorded the song for the movie in 1997, but Celine Dion 's vocals was preferred due to James Horner decision to support Dion 's career. In an interview from December 2014, Horner quotes: "When I had completed the Titanic (movie), I had to decide for Celine Dion or Sissel ('s) (vocals). Sissel I am very close, while Celine I had known since she was 18, and I had already written three film songs for (her). But that was before Celine was known and filmmakers and marketing people had not done what they should have done for Celine and (her) songs. So I felt I owed her a Titanic chance, but I could (still) have used Sissel there. ''
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where is area code 914 located in usa | Area code 914 - wikipedia
Area code 914 is the telephone area code for Westchester County, New York.
914 was among the original area codes, which were announced in October 1947. It originally was assigned to most of the New York state side of the New York metropolitan area (excluding New York City itself, which was assigned 212.) The 914 code originally included Nassau, Suffolk, Rockland, Putnam, Orange, Dutchess, Ulster, Sullivan and Delaware counties, plus Westchester. In 1951, Nassau and Suffolk were transitioned to area code 516.
Due to the growing popularity and commercialization of cell phones and internet dial - up connections, 914 was split on June 5, 2000. Westchester retained 914, while the rest of the region became 845. 914 was retained for all cell phones in the lower Hudson Valley that were in use before the split.
Coordinates: 41 ° 06 ′ N 73 ° 47 ′ W / 41.10 ° N 73.79 ° W / 41.10; - 73.79
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what is the use of baking powder in cooking | Baking powder - wikipedia
Baking powder is a dry chemical leavening agent, a mixture of a carbonate or bicarbonate and a weak acid and is used for increasing the volume and lightening the texture of baked goods. Baking powder works by releasing carbon dioxide gas into a batter or dough through an acid - base reaction, causing bubbles in the wet mixture to expand and thus leavening the mixture.
Baking powder is used instead of yeast for end - products where fermentation flavors would be undesirable or where the batter lacks the elastic structure to hold gas bubbles for more than a few minutes, or to speed the production. Because carbon dioxide is released at a faster rate through the acid - base reaction than through fermentation, breads made by chemical leavening are called quick breads.
Most commercially available baking powders are made up of sodium bicarbonate (also known as baking soda or bicarbonate of soda) and one or more acid salts. Typical formulations (by weight) call for 30 % sodium bicarbonate, 5 - 12 % monocalcium phosphate, and 21 - 26 % sodium aluminum sulfate. The last two ingredients are acidic: they combine with the sodium bicarbonate and water to produce the gaseous carbon dioxide. The use of two acidic components is the basis of the term "double acting. '' Another typical acid in such formulations is cream of tartar, a derivative of tartaric acid. Baking powders also include components to help with the consistency and stability of the mixture.
Commercial baking powder formulations are different from domestic ones, although the principles remain the same. Instead of sodium aluminum sulfate, commercial baking powders use sodium acid pyrophosphate as one of the two acidic components.
Baking soda (NaHCO) is the source of the carbon dioxide, and the acid - base reaction can be generically represented as shown:
The real reactions are more complicated because the acids are complicated. For example, starting with baking soda and monocalcium phosphate the reaction produces carbon dioxide by the following stoichiometry:
Baking powders also include components to improve their consistency and stability. The most important additive is cornstarch, although potato starch may also be used. The inert starch serves several functions in baking powder. Primarily it is used to absorb moisture, and thus prolong shelf life by keeping the powder 's additional alkaline and acidic components dry so as not to react with each other prematurely. A dry powder also flows and mixes more easily. Finally, the added bulk allows for more accurate measurements.
The acid in a baking powder can be either fast - acting or slow - acting. A fast - acting acid reacts in a wet mixture with baking soda at room temperature, and a slow - acting acid will not react until heated in an oven. Baking powders that contain both fast - and slow - acting acids are double - acting; those that contain only one acid are single - acting. By providing a second rise in the oven, double - acting baking powders increase the reliability of baked goods by rendering the time elapsed between mixing and baking less critical, and this is the type most widely available to consumers today. Double - acting baking powders work in two phases; once when cold, and once when hot. Common low - temperature acid salts include cream of tartar and monocalcium phosphate (also called calcium acid phosphate). High - temperature acid salts include sodium aluminium sulfate, sodium aluminum phosphate, and sodium acid pyrophosphate. Despite very low acute toxicity, exposure to aluminum salts has raised concerns regarding potential neurotoxicity.
For example, Rumford Baking Powder is a double acting consumer product that contains only monocalcium phosphate as a leavening acid. With this acid, about two - thirds of the available gas is released within about two minutes of mixing at room temperature. It then becomes dormant because an intermediate form of dicalcium phosphate is generated during the initial mixing. Further release of gas requires the batter to be heated above 140 ° F (60 ° C).
Early chemical leavening was accomplished by activating baking soda in the presence of liquid (s) and an acid such as sour milk, vinegar, lemon juice, or cream of tartar. These acidulants all react with baking soda quickly, meaning that retention of gas bubbles was dependent on batter viscosity and that it was critical for the batter to be baked before the gas escaped. The development of baking powder created a system where the gas - producing reactions could be delayed until needed.
While various baking powders were sold in the first half of the 19th century, the modern variants in use today were discovered by Alfred Bird in 1843. August Oetker, a German pharmacist, made baking powder very popular when he began selling his mixture to housewives. The recipe he created in 1891 is still sold as Backin in Germany. Oetker started the mass production of baking powder in 1898 and patented his technique in 1903.
In the US, Joseph and Cornelius Hoagland developed a baking powder with the help of an employee following the American Civil War. Their formula became known as Royal Baking Powder. The small company eventually moved from Fort Wayne, Indiana to New York in the 1890s and became the largest manufacturer of baking powder in the US.
Eben Norton Horsford, a student of Justus von Liebig, who began his studies on baking powder in 1856, eventually developed a variety he named in honor of Count Rumford. By the mid-1860s "Horsford 's Yeast Powder '' was on the market as an already - mixed leavening agent, distinct from separate packages of calcium acid phosphate and sodium bicarbonate. His product was packaged in bottles, but Horsford was interested in using metal cans for packing; this meant the mixture had to be more moisture resistant. This was accomplished by the addition of corn starch, and in 1869 Rumford began the manufacture of what can truly be considered baking powder. In 2006 Rumford Baking Powder was designated a National Historic Chemical Landmark in recognition of its significance for making baking easier, quicker, and more reliable.
During World War II, Byron H. Smith, an inventor in Bangor, Maine (U.S.), created a substitute product for American housewives, who were unable to obtain cream of tartar or baking powder due to war food shortages. Under the name "Bakewell '', Smith marketed a mixture of sodium pyrophosphate mixed with corn starch to replace the acid cream of tartar component of baking powder. When mixed with baking soda, the product behaved like a single - acting baking powder, the only difference being that the acid is sodium acid pyrophosphate. A similar product is marketed today, under the name Bakewell Cream.
Generally one teaspoon (5 grams (0.18 oz)) of baking powder is used to raise a mixture of one cup (125 g) of flour, one cup of liquid, and one egg. However, if the mixture is acidic, baking powder 's additional acids will remain unconsumed in the chemical reaction and often lend an unpleasant taste to food. High acidity can be caused by ingredients like buttermilk, lemon juice, yogurt, citrus or honey. When excessive acid is present, some of the baking powder should be replaced with baking soda. For example, one cup of flour, one egg, and one cup of buttermilk requires only 1⁄2 teaspoon of baking powder -- the remaining leavening is caused by buttermilk acids reacting with 1⁄4 teaspoon of baking soda.
On the other hand, with baking powders that contain sodium acid pyrophosphate, excess alkaline substances can sometimes deprotonate the acid in two steps instead of the one that normally occurs, resulting in an offensive bitter taste to baked goods. Calcium compounds and aluminium compounds do not have that problem though, since calcium compounds that deprotonate twice are insoluble and aluminium compounds do not deprotonate in that fashion.
Moisture and heat can cause baking powder to lose its effectiveness over time, and commercial varieties have a somewhat arbitrary expiration date printed on the container. Regardless of the expiration date, the effectiveness can be tested by placing a teaspoon of the powder into a small container of hot water. If it bubbles energetically, it is still active and usable.
Different brands of baking powder can perform quite differently in the oven. In one test, six U.S. brands were used to bake white cake, cream biscuits, and chocolate cookies. Depending on the brand, the thickness of the cakes varied by up to 20 percent (from 0.89 inches to 1.24 inches). It was also found that the lower - rising products made what were judged to be better chocolate cookies.
As described above, baking powder is mainly just baking soda mixed with an acid. In principle, a number of kitchen acids may be combined with baking soda to simulate commercial baking powders. Vinegar (dilute acetic acid), especially white vinegar, is also a common acidifier in baking; for example, many heirloom chocolate cake recipes call for a tablespoon or two of vinegar. Where a recipe already uses buttermilk or yogurt, baking soda can be used without cream of tartar (or with less). Alternatively, lemon juice can be substituted for some of the liquid in the recipe, to provide the required acidity to activate the baking soda. The main variable with the use of these kitchen acids is the rate of leavening.
Baking powders are available both with and without aluminium compounds. Some people prefer not to use baking powder with aluminium because they believe it gives food a vaguely metallic taste and aluminium is not an essential mineral. Others object because of possible health concerns associated with aluminium intake. In 2015, Cook 's Country, an American TV show and magazine, evaluated six baking powders marketed to consumers. They reported that 30 % of their testers (n = 21) noted a metallic flavor in cream biscuits made with brands containing aluminum.
Use of aluminium based powders was briefly banned in Missouri in 1899 as one producer attempted to discredit others.
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what european countries are not a part of the eu | European Union - wikipedia
The European Union (EU) is a political and economic union of 28 member states that are located primarily in Europe. It has an area of 4,475,757 km (1,728,099 sq mi) and an estimated population of over 510 million. The EU has developed an internal single market through a standardised system of laws that apply in all member states. EU policies aim to ensure the free movement of people, goods, services and capital within the internal market, enact legislation in justice and home affairs and maintain common policies on trade, agriculture, fisheries and regional development. Within the Schengen Area, passport controls have been abolished. A monetary union was established in 1999 and came into full force in 2002 and is composed of 19 EU member states which use the euro currency.
The EU traces its origins to the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) and the European Economic Community (EEC), established, respectively, by the 1951 Treaty of Paris and 1957 Treaty of Rome. The original members of what came to be known as the European Communities were the Inner Six: Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and West Germany. The Communities and its successors have grown in size by the accession of new member states and in power by the addition of policy areas to its remit. While no member state has left the EU or its predecessors, the United Kingdom signified an intention to leave after a membership referendum in June 2016 and is negotiating its withdrawal. The Maastricht Treaty established the European Union in 1993 and introduced European citizenship. The latest major amendment to the constitutional basis of the EU, the Treaty of Lisbon, came into force in 2009.
The European Union provides more foreign aid than any other economic union. Covering 7.3 % of the world population, the EU in 2017 generated a nominal gross domestic product (GDP) of 19.670 trillion US dollars, constituting approximately 24.6 % of global nominal GDP and 16.5 % when measured in terms of purchasing power parity. Additionally, 27 out of 28 EU countries have a very high Human Development Index, according to the United Nations Development Programme. In 2012, the EU was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. Through the Common Foreign and Security Policy, the EU has developed a role in external relations and defence. The union maintains permanent diplomatic missions throughout the world and represents itself at the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the G7 and the G20. Because of its global influence, the European Union has been described as an emerging superpower.
Victor Hugo, International Peace Congress, 1849.
During the centuries following the fall of Rome in 476, several European States viewed themselves as translatio imperii of the defunct Roman Empire: the Frankish Empire (481 -- 843) and the Holy Roman Empire (962 -- 1806) were attempts to resurrect Rome in the West. The Russian Tsardom, and ultimately the Empire (1547 -- 1917), declared Moscow to be Third Rome and inheritor of the Eastern tradition after the fall of Constantinople in 1453. The gap between Greek East and Latin West had already been widened by the political scission of the Roman Empire in the 4th century and the Great Schism of 1054; and would be eventually widened again by the Iron Curtain (1945 -- 91). The Medieval Christendom and political power of the Papacy are also often cited as premisses to European integration and unity.
Pan-European political thought truly emerged during the 19th century, inspired by the liberal ideas of the French and American Revolutions after the demise of Napoléon 's Empire (1804 -- 15). In the decades following the outcomes of the Congress of Vienna, ideals of European unity flourished across the continent, especially in the writings of Wojciech Jastrzębowski, Giuseppe Mazzini or Theodore de Korwin Szymanowski. The term United States of Europe (French: États - Unis d'Europe) was famously used at that time by Victor Hugo during a speech at the International Peace Congress held in Paris in 1849.
During the interwar period, the consciousness that national markets in Europe were interdependent though confrontational, along with the observation of a larger and growing US market on the other side of the ocean, nourished the urge for the economic integration of the continent. In 1920, advocating the creation of a European economic union, British economist John Maynard Keynes wrote that "a Free Trade Union should be established... to impose no protectionist tariffs whatever against the produce of other members of the Union. '' During the same decade, Richard von Coudenhove - Kalergi, one of the first to imagine of a modern political union of Europe, founded the Pan-Europa Movement. His ideas influenced his contemporaries, among which then Prime Minister of France Aristide Briand. In 1929, the later gave a famous speech in favour of a European Union before the assembly of the League of Nations, precursor of the United Nations.
After World War II, European integration was seen as an antidote to the extreme nationalism which had devastated the continent. In a speech delivered on 19 September 1946 at the University of Zürich, Switzerland, Winston Churchill postulated the emerging of a United States of Europe during the 20th century. The 1948 Hague Congress was a pivotal moment in European federal history, as it led to the creation of the European Movement International and of the College of Europe, where Europe 's future leaders would live and study together. 1952 saw the creation of the European Coal and Steel Community, which was declared to be "a first step in the federation of Europe. '' The supporters of the Community included Alcide De Gasperi, Jean Monnet, Robert Schuman, and Paul - Henri Spaak. These men and others are officially credited as the Founding fathers of the European Union.
In 1957, Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and West Germany signed the Treaty of Rome, which created the European Economic Community (EEC) and established a customs union. They also signed another pact creating the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom) for co-operation in developing nuclear energy. Both treaties came into force in 1958.
The EEC and Euratom were created separately from the ECSC, although they shared the same courts and the Common Assembly. The EEC was headed by Walter Hallstein (Hallstein Commission) and Euratom was headed by Louis Armand (Armand Commission) and then Étienne Hirsch. Euratom was to integrate sectors in nuclear energy while the EEC would develop a customs union among members.
During the 1960s, tensions began to show, with France seeking to limit supranational power. Nevertheless, in 1965 an agreement was reached and on 1 July 1967 the Merger Treaty created a single set of institutions for the three communities, which were collectively referred to as the European Communities. Jean Rey presided over the first merged Commission (Rey Commission).
In 1973, the Communities were enlarged to include Denmark (including Greenland, which later left the Communities in 1985, following a dispute over fishing rights), Ireland, and the United Kingdom. Norway had negotiated to join at the same time, but Norwegian voters rejected membership in a referendum. In 1979, the first direct elections to the European Parliament were held. This was marked by a special international friendly football match at Wembley Stadium between two teams called "The Three '' and "The Six '' which finished 2 - 0 to "The Three ''.
Greece joined in 1981, Portugal and Spain following in 1986. In 1985, the Schengen Agreement paved the way for the creation of open borders without passport controls between most member states and some non-member states. In 1986, the European flag began to be used by the EEC and the Single European Act was signed.
In 1990, after the fall of the Eastern Bloc, the former East Germany became part of the Communities as part of a reunified Germany. A close fiscal integration with the introduction of the euro was not matched by institutional oversight making things more troubling. Attempts to solve the problems and to make the EU more efficient and coherent had limited success. With further enlargement planned to include the former communist states of Central and Eastern Europe, as well as Cyprus and Malta, the Copenhagen criteria for candidate members to join the EU were agreed upon in June 1993. The expansion of the EU introduced a new level of complexity and discord.
The European Union was formally established when the Maastricht Treaty -- whose main architects were Helmut Kohl and François Mitterrand -- came into force on 1 November 1993. The treaty also gave the name European Community to the EEC, even if it was referred as such before the treaty. In 1995, Austria, Finland, and Sweden joined the EU.
In 2002, euro banknotes and coins replaced national currencies in 12 of the member states. Since then, the eurozone has increased to encompass 19 countries. The euro currency became the second largest reserve currency in the world. In 2004, the EU saw its biggest enlargement to date when Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Malta, Poland, Slovakia, and Slovenia joined the Union.
In 2007, Bulgaria and Romania became EU members. The same year, Slovenia adopted the euro, followed in 2008 by Cyprus and Malta, by Slovakia in 2009, by Estonia in 2011, by Latvia in 2014, and by Lithuania in 2015.
On 1 December 2009, the Lisbon Treaty entered into force and reformed many aspects of the EU. In particular, it changed the legal structure of the European Union, merging the EU three pillars system into a single legal entity provisioned with a legal personality, created a permanent President of the European Council, the first of which was Herman Van Rompuy, and strengthened the position of the High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy.
In 2012, the EU received the Nobel Peace Prize for having "contributed to the advancement of peace and reconciliation, democracy, and human rights in Europe. '' In 2013, Croatia became the 28th EU member.
From the beginning of the 2010s, the cohesion of the European Union has been tested by several issues, including a debt crisis in some of the Eurozone countries, increasing migration from the Middle East, and the United Kingdom 's withdrawal from the EU. A referendum in the UK on its membership of the European Union was held on 23 June 2016, with 51.9 % of participants voting to leave. This is referred to in common parlance throughout Europe as Brexit, a portmanteau of "Britain '' and "exit ''. The UK formally notified the European Council of its decision to leave on 29 March 2017 initiating the formal withdrawal procedure for leaving the EU, committing the UK to leave the EU on 29 March 2019.
The following timeline illustrates the integration that has led to the formation of the present union, in terms of structural development driven by international treaties:
The EU 's member states cover an area of 4,423,147 square kilometres (1,707,787 sq mi). The EU 's highest peak is Mont Blanc in the Graian Alps, 4,810.45 metres (15,782 ft) above sea level. The lowest points in the EU are Lammefjorden, Denmark and Zuidplaspolder, Netherlands, at 7 m (23 ft) below sea level.
The landscape, climate, and economy of the EU are influenced by its coastline, which is 65,993 kilometres (41,006 mi) long.
Including the overseas territories of France which are located outside the continent of Europe, but which are members of the union, the EU experiences most types of climate from Arctic (North - East Europe) to tropical (French Guiana), rendering meteorological averages for the EU as a whole meaningless. The majority of the population lives in areas with a temperate maritime climate (North - Western Europe and Central Europe), a Mediterranean climate (Southern Europe), or a warm summer continental or hemiboreal climate (Northern Balkans and Central Europe).
The EU 's population is highly urbanised, with some 75 % of inhabitants living in urban areas as of 2006. Cities are largely spread out across the EU, although with a large grouping in and around the Benelux.
In 1957, when the EEC was founded, it had no environmental policy. Over the past 50 years, an increasingly dense network of legislation has been created, extending to all areas of environmental protection, including air pollution, water quality, waste management, nature conservation, and the control of chemicals, industrial hazards, and biotechnology. According to the Institute for European Environmental Policy, environmental law comprises over 500 Directives, Regulations and Decisions, making environmental policy a core area of European politics.
European policy - makers originally increased the EU 's capacity to act on environmental issues by defining it as a trade problem. Trade barriers and competitive distortions in the Common Market could emerge due to the different environmental standards in each member state. In subsequent years, the environment became a formal policy area, with its own policy actors, principles and procedures. The legal basis for EU environmental policy was established with the introduction of the Single European Act in 1987.
Initially, EU environmental policy focused on Europe. More recently, the EU has demonstrated leadership in global environmental governance, e.g. the role of the EU in securing the ratification and coming into force of the Kyoto Protocol despite opposition from the United States. This international dimension is reflected in the EU 's Sixth Environmental Action Programme, which recognises that its objectives can only be achieved if key international agreements are actively supported and properly implemented both at EU level and worldwide. The Lisbon Treaty further strengthened the leadership ambitions. EU law has played a significant role in improving habitat and species protection in Europe, as well as contributing to improvements in air and water quality and waste management.
Mitigating climate change is one of the top priorities of EU environmental policy. In 2007, member states agreed that, in the future, 20 % of the energy used across the EU must be renewable, and carbon dioxide emissions have to be lower in 2020 by at least 20 % compared to 1990 levels. The EU has adopted an emissions trading system to incorporate carbon emissions into the economy. The European Green Capital is an annual award given to cities that focuses on the environment, energy efficiency, and quality of life in urban areas to create smart city.
As of 1 January 2016, the population of the European Union is about 510.1 million people (6.9 % of the world population). In 2015, 5.1 million children were born in the EU - 28, corresponding to a birth rate of 10 per 1,000, which is 8 births below the world average. For comparison, the EU - 28 birth rate had stood at 10.6 in 2000, 12.8 in 1985 and 16.3 in 1970. Its population growth rate was positive at an estimated 0.23 % in 2016.
In 2010, 47.3 million people who lived in the EU were born outside their resident country. This corresponds to 9.4 % of the total EU population. Of these, 31.4 million (6.3 %) were born outside the EU and 16.0 million (3.2 %) were born in another EU member state. The largest absolute numbers of people born outside the EU were in Germany (6.4 million), France (5.1 million), the United Kingdom (4.7 million), Spain (4.1 million), Italy (3.2 million), and the Netherlands (1.4 million).
The EU contains about 40 urban areas with populations of over one million, including the three megacities (cities with a population of over 10 million) of London, Paris, and the Rhine - Ruhr. In addition to large agglomerations, the EU also includes several densely populated polycentric urbanised regions that have no single core but have emerged from the connection of several cities and now encompass a large metropolis. The largest of these polycentric metropolis include Rhine - Ruhr with approximately 11.5 million inhabitants (Cologne, Dortmund, Düsseldorf et al.), Randstad with approx. 8.2 million (Amsterdam, Rotterdam, The Hague, Utrecht et al.), Frankfurt Rhine - Main with approx. 5.8 million (Frankfurt, Wiesbaden et al.), the Flemish Diamond with approx. 5.5 million (Antwerp, Brussels, Leuven, Ghent et al.), and Greater Copenhagen with approx. 4 million (Copenhagen, Malmö).
Paris
Milan
Survey 2012. Native: Native language Total: EU citizens able to hold a conversation in this language
The European Union has 24 official languages: Bulgarian, Croatian, Czech, Danish, Dutch, English, Estonian, Finnish, French, German, Greek, Hungarian, Italian, Irish, Latvian, Lithuanian, Maltese, Polish, Portuguese, Romanian, Slovak, Slovene, Spanish, and Swedish. Important documents, such as legislation, are translated into every official language and the European Parliament provides translation for documents and plenary sessions.
Due to the high number of official idioms, most of the institutions use only a handful of working languages. The European Commission conducts its internal business in three procedural languages: English, French, and German. Similarly, the European Court of Justice uses French as the working language, while the European Central Bank conducts its business primarily in English.
Even though language policy is the responsibility of member states, EU institutions promote multilingualism among its citizens. English is the most widely spoken language in the EU, being understood by 51 % of the EU population when counting both native and non-native speakers. German is the most widely spoken mother tongue (spoken by 16 % of the EU population.) More than a half (56 %) of EU citizens is able to engage in a conversation in a language other than their mother tongue.
Most official languages of the EU belong to the Indo - European language family, represented by the Balto - Slavic, the Italic, the Germanic, the Hellenic, and the Celtic branches. Some EU languages however, namely Hungarian, Finnish, Estonian (all three Uralic), Basque (Vasconic) and Maltese (Semitic) do not belong to Indo - European languages. The three official alphabets of the European Union (Cyrillic, Latin, and modern Greek), all derive from the Archaic Greek scripts.
Besides the 24 official languages, there are about 150 regional and minority languages, spoken by up to 50 million people. Catalan, Galician, Basque, Scottish Gaelic, and Welsh are not recognised official languages of the European Union but have semi-official status: official translations of the treaties are made into them and citizens have the right to correspond with the institutions in these languages. The European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages ratified by most EU states provides general guidelines that states can follow to protect their linguistic heritage. The European Day of Languages is held annually on 26 September and is aimed at encouraging language learning across Europe.
The EU has no formal connection to any religion. The Article 17 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union recognises the "status under national law of churches and religious associations '' as well as that of "philosophical and non-confessional organisations ''.
The preamble to the Treaty on European Union mentions the "cultural, religious and humanist inheritance of Europe ''. Discussion over the draft texts of the European Constitution and later the Treaty of Lisbon included proposals to mention Christianity or God, or both, in the preamble of the text, but the idea faced opposition and was dropped.
Christians in the European Union are divided among members of Catholicism (both Roman and Eastern Rite), numerous Protestant denominations (Anglicans, Lutherans, and Reformed forming the bulk of this category), and the Eastern Orthodox Church. In 2009, the EU had an estimated Muslim population of 13 million, and an estimated Jewish population of over a million. The other world religions of Buddhism, Hinduism, and Sikhism are also represented in the EU population.
According to new polls about religiosity in the European Union in 2015 by Eurobarometer, Christianity is the largest religion in the European Union, accounting for 71.6 % of the EU population. Catholics are the largest Christian group, accounting for 45.3 % of the EU population, while Protestants make up 11.1 %, Eastern Orthodox make up 9.6 %, and other Christians make up 5.6 %.
Eurostat 's Eurobarometer opinion polls showed in 2005 that 52 % of EU citizens believed in a God, 27 % in "some sort of spirit or life force '', and 18 % had no form of belief. Many countries have experienced falling church attendance and membership in recent years. The countries where the fewest people reported a religious belief were Estonia (16 %) and the Czech Republic (19 %). The most religious countries were Malta (95 %, predominantly Roman Catholic) as well as Cyprus and Romania (both predominantly Orthodox) each with about 90 % of citizens professing a belief in God. Across the EU, belief was higher among women, older people, those with religious upbringing, those who left school at 15 or 16, and those "positioning themselves on the right of the political scale ''.
Basic education is an area where the EU 's role is limited to supporting national governments. In higher education, the policy was developed in the 1980s in programmes supporting exchanges and mobility. The most visible of these has been the Erasmus Programme, a university exchange programme which began in 1987. In its first 20 years, it has supported international exchange opportunities for well over 1.5 million university and college students and has become a symbol of European student life.
There are now similar programmes for school pupils and teachers, for trainees in vocational education and training, and for adult learners in the Lifelong Learning Programme 2007 -- 2013. These programmes are designed to encourage a wider knowledge of other countries and to spread good practices in the education and training fields across the EU. Through its support of the Bologna Process, the EU is supporting comparable standards and compatible degrees across Europe.
Scientific development is facilitated through the EU 's Framework Programmes, the first of which started in 1984. The aims of EU policy in this area are to co-ordinate and stimulate research. The independent European Research Council allocates EU funds to European or national research projects. EU research and technological framework programmes deal in a number of areas, for example energy where the aim is to develop a diverse mix of renewable energy to help the environment and to reduce dependence on imported fuels.
Although the EU has no major competences in the field of health care, Article 35 of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union affirms that "A high level of human health protection shall be ensured in the definition and implementation of all Union policies and activities ''. The European Commission 's Directorate - General for Health and Consumers seeks to align national laws on the protection of people 's health, on the consumers ' rights, on the safety of food and other products.
All EU and many other European countries offer their citizens a free European Health Insurance Card which, on a reciprocal basis, provides insurance for emergency medical treatment insurance when visiting other participating European countries. A directive on cross-border healthcare aims at promoting co-operation on health care between member states and facilitating access to safe and high - quality cross-border healthcare for European patients.
The European Union operates according to the principles of conferral (which says that it should act only within the limits of the competences conferred on it by the treaties) and of subsidiarity (which says that it should act only where an objective can not be sufficiently achieved by the member states acting alone). Laws made by the EU institutions are passed in a variety of forms. Generally speaking, they can be classified into two groups: those which come into force without the necessity for national implementation measures (regulations) and those which specifically require national implementation measures (directives).
Through successive enlargements, the European Union has grown from the six founding states (Belgium, France, West Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands) to the current 28. Countries accede to the union by becoming party to the founding treaties, thereby subjecting themselves to the privileges and obligations of EU membership. This entails a partial delegation of sovereignty to the institutions in return for representation within those institutions, a practice often referred to as "pooling of sovereignty ''.
To become a member, a country must meet the Copenhagen criteria, defined at the 1993 meeting of the European Council in Copenhagen. These require a stable democracy that respects human rights and the rule of law; a functioning market economy; and the acceptance of the obligations of membership, including EU law. Evaluation of a country 's fulfilment of the criteria is the responsibility of the European Council. No member state has yet left the Union, although Greenland (an autonomous province of Denmark) withdrew in 1985. The Lisbon Treaty now contains a clause under Article 50, providing for a member to leave the EU.
There are six countries that are recognised as candidates for membership: Albania, Iceland, Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia, and Turkey, though Iceland suspended negotiations in 2013. Bosnia and Herzegovina and Kosovo are officially recognised as potential candidates, with Bosnia and Herzegovina having submitted a membership application.
The four countries forming the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) are not EU members, but have partly committed to the EU 's economy and regulations: Iceland, Liechtenstein and Norway, which are a part of the single market through the European Economic Area, and Switzerland, which has similar ties through bilateral treaties. The relationships of the European microstates, Andorra, Monaco, San Marino, and the Vatican include the use of the euro and other areas of co-operation. The following 28 sovereign states (of which the map only shows territories situated in and around Europe) constitute the European Union:
The EU operates through a hybrid system of supranational and intergovernmental decision - making.
EU policy is in general promulgated by EU directives, which are then implemented in the domestic legislation of its member states, and EU regulations, which are immediately enforceable in all member states. The EU 's seven principal decision making bodies -- known as the Institutions of the European Union are:
Beyond the EU institutions is the Council of Europe (CoE) which is a wider international organisation with 47 member states whose stated aim is to uphold human rights, democracy and the rule of law in Europe. Its legislative principles are promulgated by the European Convention on Human Rights and its judicial agent is the European Court of Human Rights. These ethical institutions are distinct from the legislative European Union institutions mentioned above, although ECHR decisions are enforcable upon the EU institutions and upon the several judiciaries of sovereign member states of the EU
The Venice Commission formally The European Commission for Democracy through Law provides advice regarding constitutional matters in order to improve functioning of democratic institutions and the protection of human rights in member states of the Council of Europe
Apart from the national political structures within member states and the directly elected European Parliament the EU also encourages citizen participation via development projects such as CORDIS (the EU Community Research and Development Information Service) and the ERASMUS (The European Region Action Scheme for the Mobility of University Students).
Lobbying at EU level by special interest groups is regulated to try to balance the aspirations of private initiatives with public interest decision - making process
The Five Presidents (in 2017) were led by:
By working together, they seek provide a forward policy consideration nucleus for the various European "think - tanks '' which discuss various possible future social and economic scenarios that will eventually require ratification by the EU electorate.
The classification of the EU in terms of international or constitutional law has been much debated. It began life as an international organisation and gradually developed into a confederation of states. However, since the mid-1960s it has also added several of the key attributes of a federation, such as the direct effect of the law of the general level of government upon the individual and majority voting in the decision - making process of the general level of government, without becoming a federation per se. Scholars thus today see it as an intermediate form lying between a confederation and a federation, being an instance of neither political structure. For this reason, the organisation is termed sui generis (incomparable, one of a kind), although some argue that this designation is no longer valid.
The organisation has traditionally used the terms "Community '' and later "Union '' to describe itself. The difficulties of classification involve the difference between national law (where the subjects of the law include natural persons and corporations) and international law (where the subjects include sovereign states and international organisations). They can also be seen in the light of differing European and American constitutional traditions. Especially in terms of the European tradition, the term federation is equated with a sovereign federal state in international law; so the EU can not be called a federation -- at least, not without qualification. It is, however, described as being based on a federal model or federal in nature; and so it may be appropriate to consider it a federal union of states, a conceptual structure lying between the confederation of states and the federal state. The German Constitutional Court refers to the EU as a Staatenverbund, an intermediate structure between the Staatenbund (confederation of states) and the Bundesstaat (federal state), consistent with this concept. This may be a long - lived political form. Professor Andrew Moravcsik claims that the EU is unlikely to develop further into a federal state, but instead has reached maturity as a constitutional system.
The European Union has seven institutions: the European Parliament, the European Council, the Council of the European Union, the European Commission, the Court of Justice of the European Union, the European Central Bank and the European Court of Auditors. Competence in scrutinising and amending legislation is shared between the Council of the European Union and the European Parliament, while executive tasks are performed by the European Commission and in a limited capacity by the European Council (not to be confused with the aforementioned Council of the European Union). The monetary policy of the eurozone is determined by the European Central Bank. The interpretation and the application of EU law and the treaties are ensured by the Court of Justice of the European Union. The EU budget is scrutinised by the European Court of Auditors. There are also a number of ancillary bodies which advise the EU or operate in a specific area.
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The European Parliament forms the other half of the EU 's legislature. The 751 Members of the European Parliament (MEPs) are directly elected by EU citizens every five years on the basis of proportional representation. Although MEPs are elected on a national basis, they sit according to political groups rather than their nationality. Each country has a set number of seats and is divided into sub-national constituencies where this does not affect the proportional nature of the voting system. The European Union council, the Council of Ministers, and the Commission fulfilled the duties as the executive for the parliament.
The European Parliament and the Council of the European Union pass legislation jointly in nearly all areas under the ordinary legislative procedure. This also applies to the EU budget. The European Commission is accountable to Parliament, requiring its approval to take office, having to report back to it and subject to motions of censure from it. The President of the European Parliament (currently Antonio Tajani) carries out the role of speaker in Parliament and represents it externally. The President and Vice-Presidents are elected by MEPs every two and a half years.
The European Council gives political direction to the EU. It convenes at least four times a year and comprises the President of the European Council (currently Donald Tusk), the President of the European Commission and one representative per member state (either its head of state or head of government). The High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy (currently Federica Mogherini) also takes part in its meetings. It has been described by some as the Union 's "supreme political authority ''. It is actively involved in the negotiation of treaty changes and defines the EU 's policy agenda and strategies.
The European Council uses its leadership role to sort out disputes between member states and the institutions, and to resolve political crises and disagreements over controversial issues and policies. It acts externally as a "collective head of state '' and ratifies important documents (for example, international agreements and treaties).
Tasks for the President of the European Council are ensuring the external representation of the EU, driving consensus and resolving divergences among member states, both during meetings of the European Council and over the periods between them.
The European Council should not be mistaken for the Council of Europe, an international organisation independent of the EU based in Strasbourg.
The Council of the European Union (also called the "Council '' and the "Council of Ministers '', its former title) forms one half of the EU 's legislature. It consists of a government minister from each member state and meets in different compositions depending on the policy area being addressed. Notwithstanding its different configurations, it is considered to be one single body. In addition to its legislative functions, the Council also exercises executive functions in relations to the Common Foreign and Security Policy.
The European Commission acts as the EU 's executive arm and is responsible for initiating legislation and the day - to - day running of the EU. The Commission is also seen as the motor of European integration. It operates as a cabinet government, with 28 Commissioners for different areas of policy, one from each member state, though Commissioners are bound to represent the interests of the EU as a whole rather than their home state.
One of the 28 is the President of the European Commission (currently Jean - Claude Juncker) appointed by the European Council. After the President, the most prominent Commissioner is the High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy, who is ex-officio a Vice-President of the Commission and is also chosen by the European Council. The other 26 Commissioners are subsequently appointed by the Council of the European Union in agreement with the nominated President. The 28 Commissioners as a single body are subject to a vote of approval by the European Parliament.
The 2011 EU budget (€ 141.9 bn)
The EU had an agreed budget of € 120.7 billion for the year 2007 and € 864.3 billion for the period 2007 -- 2013, representing 1.10 % and 1.05 % of the EU - 27 's GNI forecast for the respective periods. In 1960, the budget of the then European Economic Community was 0.03 % of GDP.
In the 2010 budget of € 141.5 billion, the largest single expenditure item is "cohesion & competitiveness '' with around 45 % of the total budget. Next comes "agriculture '' with approximately 31 % of the total. "Rural development, environment and fisheries '' takes up around 11 %. "Administration '' accounts for around 6 %. The "EU as a global partner '' and "citizenship, freedom, security and justice '' bring up the rear with approximately 6 % and 1 % respectively.
The Court of Auditors is legally obliged to provide the Parliament and the Council with "a statement of assurance as to the reliability of the accounts and the legality and regularity of the underlying transactions ''. The Court also gives opinions and proposals on financial legislation and anti-fraud actions. The Parliament uses this to decide whether to approve the Commission 's handling of the budget.
The European Court of Auditors has signed off the European Union accounts every year since 2007 and, while making it clear that the European Commission has more work to do, has highlighted that most of the errors take place at national level. In their report on 2009 the auditors found that five areas of Union expenditure, agriculture and the cohesion fund, were materially affected by error. The European Commission estimated in 2009 that the financial effect of irregularities was € 1,863 million.
EU member states retain all powers not explicitly handed to the European Union. In some areas the EU enjoys exclusive competence. These are areas in which member states have renounced any capacity to enact legislation. In other areas the EU and its member states share the competence to legislate. While both can legislate, member states can only legislate to the extent to which the EU has not. In other policy areas the EU can only co-ordinate, support and supplement member state action but can not enact legislation with the aim of harmonising national laws.
That a particular policy area falls into a certain category of competence is not necessarily indicative of what legislative procedure is used for enacting legislation within that policy area. Different legislative procedures are used within the same category of competence, and even with the same policy area.
The distribution of competences in various policy areas between Member States and the Union is divided in the following three categories:
The EU is based on a series of treaties. These first established the European Community and the EU, and then made amendments to those founding treaties. These are power - giving treaties which set broad policy goals and establish institutions with the necessary legal powers to implement those goals. These legal powers include the ability to enact legislation which can directly affect all member states and their inhabitants. The EU has legal personality, with the right to sign agreements and international treaties.
Under the principle of supremacy, national courts are required to enforce the treaties that their member states have ratified, and thus the laws enacted under them, even if doing so requires them to ignore conflicting national law, and (within limits) even constitutional provisions.
The judicial branch of the EU -- formally called the Court of Justice of the European Union -- consists of two courts: the Court of Justice and the General Court
The Court of Justice primarily deals with cases taken by member states, the institutions, and cases referred to it by the courts of member states. The General Court mainly deals with cases taken by individuals and companies directly before the EU 's courts, and the European Union Civil Service Tribunal adjudicates in disputes between the European Union and its civil service. Decisions from the General Court can be appealed to the Court of Justice but only on a point of law.
The treaties declare that the EU itself is "founded on the values of respect for human dignity, freedom, democracy, equality, the rule of law and respect for human rights, including the rights of persons belonging to minorities... in a society in which pluralism, non-discrimination, tolerance, justice, solidarity and equality between women and men prevail. ''
In 2009, the Lisbon Treaty gave legal effect to the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union. The charter is a codified catalogue of fundamental rights against which the EU 's legal acts can be judged. It consolidates many rights which were previously recognised by the Court of Justice and derived from the "constitutional traditions common to the member states. '' The Court of Justice has long recognised fundamental rights and has, on occasion, invalidated EU legislation based on its failure to adhere to those fundamental rights.
Although signing the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) is a condition for EU membership, previously, the EU itself could not accede to the Convention as it is neither a state nor had the competence to accede. The Lisbon Treaty and Protocol 14 to the ECHR have changed this: the former binds the EU to accede to the Convention while the latter formally permits it.
Although, the EU is independent from Council of Europe, they share purpose and ideas especially on rule of law, human rights and democracy. Further European Convention on Human Rights and European Social Charter, the source of law of Charter of Fundamental Rights are created by Council of Europe. The EU also promoted human rights issues in the wider world. The EU opposes the death penalty and has proposed its worldwide abolition. Abolition of the death penalty is a condition for EU membership.
The main legal acts of the EU come in three forms: regulations, directives, and decisions. Regulations become law in all member states the moment they come into force, without the requirement for any implementing measures, and automatically override conflicting domestic provisions. Directives require member states to achieve a certain result while leaving them discretion as to how to achieve the result. The details of how they are to be implemented are left to member states. When the time limit for implementing directives passes, they may, under certain conditions, have direct effect in national law against member states.
Decisions offer an alternative to the two above modes of legislation. They are legal acts which only apply to specified individuals, companies or a particular member state. They are most often used in competition law, or on rulings on State Aid, but are also frequently used for procedural or administrative matters within the institutions. Regulations, directives, and decisions are of equal legal value and apply without any formal hierarchy.
Since the creation of the EU in 1993, it has developed its competencies in the area of freedom, security and justice, initially at an intergovernmental level and later by supranationalism. To this end, agencies have been established that co-ordinate associated actions: Europol for co-operation of police forces, Eurojust for co-operation between prosecutors, and Frontex for co-operation between border control authorities. The EU also operates the Schengen Information System which provides a common database for police and immigration authorities. This co-operation had to particularly be developed with the advent of open borders through the Schengen Agreement and the associated cross border crime.
Furthermore, the Union has legislated in areas such as extradition, family law, asylum law, and criminal justice. Prohibitions against sexual and nationality discrimination have a long standing in the treaties. In more recent years, these have been supplemented by powers to legislate against discrimination based on race, religion, disability, age, and sexual orientation. By virtue of these powers, the EU has enacted legislation on sexual discrimination in the work - place, age discrimination, and racial discrimination.
Foreign policy co-operation between member states dates from the establishment of the Community in 1957, when member states negotiated as a bloc in international trade negotiations under the EU 's common commercial policy. Steps for a more wide - ranging co-ordination in foreign relations began in 1970 with the establishment of European Political Cooperation which created an informal consultation process between member states with the aim of forming common foreign policies. It was not, however, until 1987 when European Political Cooperation was introduced on a formal basis by the Single European Act. EPC was renamed as the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) by the Maastricht Treaty.
The aims of the CFSP are to promote both the EU 's own interests and those of the international community as a whole, including the furtherance of international co-operation, respect for human rights, democracy, and the rule of law. The CFSP requires unanimity among the member states on the appropriate policy to follow on any particular issue. The unanimity and difficult issues treated under the CFSP sometimes lead to disagreements, such as those which occurred over the war in Iraq.
The coordinator and representative of the CFSP within the EU is the High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy who speaks on behalf of the EU in foreign policy and defence matters, and has the task of articulating the positions expressed by the member states on these fields of policy into a common alignment. The High Representative heads up the European External Action Service (EEAS), a unique EU department that has been officially implemented and operational since 1 December 2010 on the occasion of the first anniversary of the entry into force of the Treaty of Lisbon. The EEAS will serve as a foreign ministry and diplomatic corps for the European Union.
Besides the emerging international policy of the European Union, the international influence of the EU is also felt through enlargement. The perceived benefits of becoming a member of the EU act as an incentive for both political and economic reform in states wishing to fulfil the EU 's accession criteria, and are considered an important factor contributing to the reform of European formerly Communist countries. This influence on the internal affairs of other countries is generally referred to as "soft power '', as opposed to military "hard power ''.
The predecessors of the European Union were not devised as a military alliance because NATO was largely seen as appropriate and sufficient for defence purposes. 22 EU members are members of NATO while the remaining member states follow policies of neutrality. The Western European Union, a military alliance with a mutual defence clause, was disbanded in 2010 as its role had been transferred to the EU.
According to the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI), the United Kingdom spent $61 billion on defence in 2014, placing it fifth in the world, while France spent $53 billion, the sixth largest. Together, the UK and France account for approximately 40 per cent of European countries ' defence budget and 50 per cent of their military capacity. Both are officially recognised nuclear weapon states holding permanent seats on the United Nations Security Council.
Following the Kosovo War in 1999, the European Council agreed that "the Union must have the capacity for autonomous action, backed by credible military forces, the means to decide to use them, and the readiness to do so, in order to respond to international crises without prejudice to actions by NATO ''. To that end, a number of efforts were made to increase the EU 's military capability, notably the Helsinki Headline Goal process. After much discussion, the most concrete result was the EU Battlegroups initiative, each of which is planned to be able to deploy quickly about 1500 personnel.
EU forces have been deployed on peacekeeping missions from middle and northern Africa to the western Balkans and western Asia. EU military operations are supported by a number of bodies, including the European Defence Agency, European Union Satellite Centre and the European Union Military Staff. Frontex is an agency of the EU established to manage the cooperation between national border guards securing its external borders. It aims to detect and stop illegal immigration, human trafficking and terrorist infiltration. In 2015 the European Commission presented its proposal for a new European Border and Coast Guard Agency having a stronger role and mandate along with national authorities for border management. In an EU consisting of 28 members, substantial security and defence co-operation is increasingly relying on collaboration among all member states.
The European Commission 's Humanitarian Aid and Civil Protection department, or "ECHO '', provides humanitarian aid from the EU to developing countries. In 2012, its budget amounted to € 874 million, 51 % of the budget went to Africa and 20 % to Asia, Latin America, the Caribbean and Pacific, and 20 % to the Middle East and Mediterranean.
Humanitarian aid is financed directly by the budget (70 %) as part of the financial instruments for external action and also by the European Development Fund (30 %). The EU 's external action financing is divided into ' geographic ' instruments and ' thematic ' instruments. The ' geographic ' instruments provide aid through the Development Cooperation Instrument (DCI, € 16.9 billion, 2007 -- 2013), which must spend 95 % of its budget on official development assistance (ODA), and from the European Neighbourhood and Partnership Instrument (ENPI), which contains some relevant programmes. The European Development Fund (EDF, € 22.7 bn, 2008 -- 2013) is made up of voluntary contributions by member states, but there is pressure to merge the EDF into the budget - financed instruments to encourage increased contributions to match the 0.7 % target and allow the European Parliament greater oversight.
In 2016, the average among EU countries was 0.4 % and five had met or exceeded the 0.7 % target: Denmark, Germany, Luxembourg, Sweden and the United Kingdom.
The European Union has established a single market across the territory of all its members representing 511 million citizens. In 2016, the EU had a combined GDP of $20 trillion international dollars, a 17 % share of global gross domestic product by purchasing power parity (PPP). As a political entity the European Union is represented in the World Trade Organization (WTO). EU member states own the estimated second largest after the United States (33 %) net wealth in the world, equal to 25 % (US $72 trillion) of the $280 trillion global wealth.
19 member states have joined a monetary union known as the eurozone, which uses the Euro as a single currency. The currency union represents 340 million EU citizens. The euro is the second largest reserve currency as well as the second most traded currency in the world after the United States dollar.
Of the top 500 largest corporations in the world measured by revenue in 2010, 161 have their headquarters in the EU. In 2016, unemployment in the EU stood at 8.9 % while inflation was at 2.2 %, and the current account balance at − 0.9 % of GDP. The average annual net earnings in the European Union was around € 24,000 (US $30,000) in 2015, which was about 70 % of that in the United States.
There is a significant variance for Nominal GDP per capita within individual EU states. The difference between the richest and poorest regions (276 NUTS - 2 regions of the Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics) ranged, in 2016, from 14 % (Severozapaden, Bulgaria) of the EU28 average (€ 29,200) to 935 % (Inner London - West, UK), or from € 4,100 to € 207,300.
Structural Funds and Cohesion Funds are supporting the development of underdeveloped regions of the EU. Such regions are primarily located in the states of central and southern Europe. Several funds provide emergency aid, support for candidate members to transform their country to conform to the EU 's standard (Phare, ISPA, and SAPARD), and support to the Commonwealth of Independent States (TACIS). TACIS has now become part of the worldwide EuropeAid programme. EU research and technological framework programmes sponsor research conducted by consortia from all EU members to work towards a single European Research Area.
Two of the original core objectives of the European Economic Community were the development of a common market, subsequently becoming a single market, and a customs union between its member states. The single market involves the free circulation of goods, capital, people, and services within the EU, and the customs union involves the application of a common external tariff on all goods entering the market. Once goods have been admitted into the market they can not be subjected to customs duties, discriminatory taxes or import quotas, as they travel internally. The non-EU member states of Iceland, Norway, Liechtenstein and Switzerland participate in the single market but not in the customs union. Half the trade in the EU is covered by legislation harmonised by the EU.
Free movement of capital is intended to permit movement of investments such as property purchases and buying of shares between countries. Until the drive towards economic and monetary union the development of the capital provisions had been slow. Post-Maastricht there has been a rapidly developing corpus of ECJ judgements regarding this initially neglected freedom. The free movement of capital is unique insofar as it is granted equally to non-member states.
The free movement of persons means that EU citizens can move freely between member states to live, work, study or retire in another country. This required the lowering of administrative formalities and recognition of professional qualifications of other states.
The free movement of services and of establishment allows self - employed persons to move between member states to provide services on a temporary or permanent basis. While services account for 60 -- 70 % of GDP, legislation in the area is not as developed as in other areas. This lacuna has been addressed by the recently passed Directive on services in the internal market which aims to liberalise the cross border provision of services. According to the Treaty the provision of services is a residual freedom that only applies if no other freedom is being exercised.
The creation of a European single currency became an official objective of the European Economic Community in 1969. In 1992, having negotiated the structure and procedures of a currency union, the member states signed the Maastricht Treaty and were legally bound to fulfil the agreed - on rules including the convergence criteria if they wanted to join the monetary union. The states wanting to participate had first to join the European Exchange Rate Mechanism.
In 1999 the currency union started, first as an accounting currency with eleven member states joining. In 2002, the currency was fully put into place, when euro notes and coins were issued and national currencies began to phase out in the eurozone, which by then consisted of 12 member states. The eurozone (constituted by the EU member states which have adopted the euro) has since grown to 19 countries.
The euro, and the monetary policies of those who have adopted it in agreement with the EU, are under the control of the European Central Bank (ECB). The ECB is the central bank for the eurozone, and thus controls monetary policy in that area with an agenda to maintain price stability. It is at the centre of the European System of Central Banks, which comprehends all EU national central banks and is controlled by its General Council, consisting of the President of the ECB, who is appointed by the European Council, the Vice-President of the ECB, and the governors of the national central banks of all 28 EU member states.
The European System of Financial Supervision is an institutional architecture of the EU 's framework of financial supervision composed by three authorities: the European Banking Authority, the European Insurance and Occupational Pensions Authority and the European Securities and Markets Authority. To complement this framework, there is also a European Systemic Risk Board under the responsibility of the ECB. The aim of this financial control system is to ensure the economic stability of the EU.
To prevent the joining states from getting into financial trouble or crisis after entering the monetary union, they were obliged in the Maastricht treaty to fulfil important financial obligations and procedures, especially to show budgetary discipline and a high degree of sustainable economic convergence, as well as to avoid excessive government deficits and limit the government debt to a sustainable level.
In 2006, the EU - 27 had a gross inland energy consumption of 1,825 million tonnes of oil equivalent (toe). Around 46 % of the energy consumed was produced within the member states while 54 % was imported. In these statistics, nuclear energy is treated as primary energy produced in the EU, regardless of the source of the uranium, of which less than 3 % is produced in the EU.
The EU has had legislative power in the area of energy policy for most of its existence; this has its roots in the original European Coal and Steel Community. The introduction of a mandatory and comprehensive European energy policy was approved at the meeting of the European Council in October 2005, and the first draft policy was published in January 2007.
The EU has five key points in its energy policy: increase competition in the internal market, encourage investment and boost interconnections between electricity grids; diversify energy resources with better systems to respond to a crisis; establish a new treaty framework for energy co-operation with Russia while improving relations with energy - rich states in Central Asia and North Africa; use existing energy supplies more efficiently while increasing renewable energy commercialisation; and finally increase funding for new energy technologies.
In 2007, EU countries as a whole imported 82 % of their oil, 57 % of their natural gas and 97.48 % of their uranium demands. There is a strong dependence on Russian energy that the EU has been attempting to reduce.
The EU is working to improve cross-border infrastructure within the EU, for example through the Trans - European Networks (TEN). Projects under TEN include the Channel Tunnel, LGV Est, the Fréjus Rail Tunnel, the Öresund Bridge, the Brenner Base Tunnel and the Strait of Messina Bridge. In 2010 the estimated network covers: 75,200 kilometres (46,700 mi) of roads; 78,000 kilometres (48,000 mi) of railways; 330 airports; 270 maritime harbours; and 210 internal harbours.
Rail transport in Europe is being synchronised with the European Rail Traffic Management System (ERTMS), an initiative to greatly enhance safety, increase efficiency of trains and enhance cross-border interoperability of rail transport in Europe by replacing signalling equipment with digitised mostly wireless versions and by creating a single Europe - wide standard for train control and command systems.
The developing European transport policies will increase the pressure on the environment in many regions by the increased transport network. In the pre-2004 EU members, the major problem in transport deals with congestion and pollution. After the recent enlargement, the new states that joined since 2004 added the problem of solving accessibility to the transport agenda. The Polish road network was upgraded such as the A4 autostrada.
The Galileo positioning system is another EU infrastructure project. Galileo is a proposed Satellite navigation system, to be built by the EU and launched by the European Space Agency (ESA). The Galileo project was launched partly to reduce the EU 's dependency on the US - operated Global Positioning System, but also to give more complete global coverage and allow for greater accuracy, given the aged nature of the GPS system.
The Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) is one of the long lasting policies of the European Community. The policy has the objectives of increasing agricultural production, providing certainty in food supplies, ensuring a high quality of life for farmers, stabilising markets, and ensuring reasonable prices for consumers. It was, until recently, operated by a system of subsidies and market intervention. Until the 1990s, the policy accounted for over 60 % of the then European Community 's annual budget, and as of 2013 accounts for around 34 %.
The policy 's price controls and market interventions led to considerable overproduction. These were intervention stores of products bought up by the Community to maintain minimum price levels. To dispose of surplus stores, they were often sold on the world market at prices considerably below Community guaranteed prices, or farmers were offered subsidies (amounting to the difference between the Community and world prices) to export their products outside the Community. This system has been criticised for under - cutting farmers outside Europe, especially those in the developing world. Supporters of CAP argue that the economic support which it gives to farmers provides them with a reasonable standard of living.
Since the beginning of the 1990s, the CAP has been subject to a series of reforms. Initially, these reforms included the introduction of set - aside in 1988, where a proportion of farm land was deliberately withdrawn from production, milk quotas and, more recently, the ' de-coupling ' (or disassociation) of the money farmers receive from the EU and the amount they produce (by the Fischler reforms in 2004). Agriculture expenditure will move away from subsidy payments linked to specific produce, toward direct payments based on farm size. This is intended to allow the market to dictate production levels. One of these reforms entailed the modification of the EU 's sugar regime, which previously divided the sugar market between member states and certain African - Caribbean nations with a privileged relationship with the EU.
The EU operates a competition policy intended to ensure undistorted competition within the single market. The Commission as the competition regulator for the single market is responsible for antitrust issues, approving mergers, breaking up cartels, working for economic liberalisation and preventing state aid.
The Competition Commissioner, currently Margrethe Vestager, is one of the most powerful positions in the Commission, notable for the ability to affect the commercial interests of trans - national corporations. For example, in 2001 the Commission for the first time prevented a merger between two companies based in the United States (GE and Honeywell) which had already been approved by their national authority. Another high - profile case against Microsoft, resulted in the Commission fining Microsoft over € 777 million following nine years of legal action.
Contemporary European culture is the heir of several historical periods, from Biblical Israel, Indo - European culture, the Graeco - Roman world and Christianity, to the modern phenomena of the Renaissance and the Enlightenment.
Cultural co-operation between member states has been a concern of the EU since its inclusion as a community competency in the Maastricht Treaty. Actions taken in the cultural area by the EU include the Culture 2000 seven - year programme, the European Cultural Month event, and orchestras such as the European Union Youth Orchestra. The European Capital of Culture programme selects one or more cities in every year to assist the cultural development of that city.
Association football is by far the most popular sport in the European Union by the number of registered players. The other sports with the most participants in clubs are tennis, swimming, athletics, golf, gymnastics, equestrian sports, handball, volleyball and sailing.
Sport is mainly the responsibility of the member states or other international organisations, rather than of the EU. However, there are some EU policies that have affected sport, such as the free movement of workers, which was at the core of the Bosman ruling that prohibited national football leagues from imposing quotas on foreign players with European citizenship.
The Treaty of Lisbon requires any application of economic rules to take into account the specific nature of sport and its structures based on voluntary activity. This followed lobbying by governing organisations such as the International Olympic Committee and FIFA, due to objections over the application of free market principles to sport, which led to an increasing gap between rich and poor clubs. The EU does fund a programme for Israeli, Jordanian, Irish, and British football coaches, as part of the Football 4 Peace project.
The flag of the Union consists of a circle of 12 golden stars on a blue background. The blue represents the West, while the number and position of the stars represent completeness and unity, respectively. Originally designed in 1955 for the Council of Europe, the flag was adopted by the European Communities, the predecessors of the present Union, in 1986.
United in Diversity was adopted as the motto of the Union in the year 2000, having been selected from proposals submitted by school pupils. Since 1985, the flag day of the Union has been Europe Day, on 9 May (the date of the 1950 Schuman declaration). The anthem of the Union is an instrumental version of the prelude to the Ode to Joy, the 4th movement of Ludwig van Beethoven 's ninth symphony. The anthem was adopted by European Community leaders in 1985 and has since been played on official occasions.
Besides naming the continent, the Greek mythological figure of Europa has frequently been employed as a personification of Europe. Known from the myth in which Zeus seduces her in the guise of a white bull, Europa has also been referred to in relation to the present Union. Statues of Europa and the bull decorate several of the Union 's institutions and a portrait of her is seen on the 2013 series of Euro banknotes. The bull is, for its part, depicted on all residence permit cards.
Charles the Great, also known as Charlemagne (Latin: Carolus Magnus) and later recognised as Pater Europae ("Father of Europe ''), has a symbolic relevance to Europe. The Commission has named one of its central buildings in Brussels after Charlemagne and the city of Aachen has since 1949 awarded the Charlemagne Prize to champions of European unification. Since 2008, the organisers of this prize, in conjunction with the European Parliament, have awarded the Charlemagne Youth Prize in recognition of similar efforts by young people.
Benedict of Nursia (c. 2 March 480 -- 543 or 547 AD) is a patron saint of Europe, venerated in the Eastern Orthodox Churches, the Catholic Church, the Oriental Orthodox Churches, the Anglican Communion and Old Catholic Churches. Pope Benedict XVI said that he "exercised a fundamental influence on the development of European civilization and culture '' and helped Europe to emerge from the "dark night of history '' that followed the fall of the Roman empire. In 1997, Polish - born Pope John Paul II canonised Poland 's 14th - century monarch Jadwiga as Saint Hedwig, the patron saint of queens and of European unification There are five other recognised patron saints of Europe, declared so by Pope John Paul II between 1980 and1999: Cyril and Methodius, Saint Bridget of Sweden, Catherine of Siena and Saint Teresa Benedicta of the Cross.
Media freedom is a fundamental right that applies to all member states of the European Union and its citizens, as defined in the EU Charter of Fundamental Rights as well as the European Convention on Human Rights. Within the EU enlargement process, guaranteeing media freedom is named a "key indicator of a country 's readiness to become part of the EU ''.
The vast majority of media in the European Union are national - oriented. However, some EU - wide media focusing on European affairs have emerged since the early 1990s, such as Euronews, EUobserver, EURACTIV or Politico Europe. ARTE is a public Franco - German TV network that promotes programming in the areas of culture and the arts. 80 % of its programming are provided in equal proportion by the two member companies, while the remainder is being provided by the European Economic Interest Grouping ARTE GEIE and the channel 's European partners.
The MEDIA Programme of the European Union intends to support the European popular film and audiovisual industries since 1991. It provides support for the development, promotion and distribution of European works within Europe and beyond.
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your safe choice today was point of no return. what is this strategy used for | Point of no return - wikipedia
The point of no return (PNR or PONR) is the point beyond which one must continue on one 's current course of action because turning back is physically impossible, prohibitively expensive, or dangerous. A particular irreversible action (e.g., setting off an explosion or signing a contract) can be a point of no return, but the point of no return can also be a calculated point during a continuous action (such as in aviation).
The phrase "point of no return '' originated as a technical term in air navigation to refer to the point on a flight at which a plane is no longer capable of returning to the airfield from which it took off.
The first major metaphorical use of the term in popular culture was in the 1947 novel Point of No Return by John P. Marquand. It inspired a 1951 Broadway play of the same name by Paul Osborn. The novel and play concern a pivotal period in the life of a New York City banker. In the course of the story, the character faces two "point of no return '' realities: First, that his quest for a big promotion will mean either triumph or a dead end to his career, and second, that he can never go back to the small - town life he abandoned as a young man.
There are a number of phrases with similar or related meaning:
The Point of Safe Return (PSR) is the last point on a route at which it is possible to safely return to the departure airfield with the required fuel reserves still available in the tanks. Continuing past the PSR, the aircraft must either land at the aircraft 's intended destination, or to divert and land at another nearby airfield should an emergency arise.
The following expressions also express the idea of a point of no return.
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institute of liver and biliary sciences in delhi | Institute of liver and biliary Sciences - wikipedia
The Institute of Liver and Biliary Sciences (ILBS) is a mono - superspeciality hospital for liver and biliary diseases located at New Delhi, India. It has been established by the Government of the Nation Capital Territory (NCT) of Delhi as an autonomous Institute, under the Societies Registration Act - 1860, at New Delhi with Shiv Kumar Sarin as its founding director. ILBS is a teaching hospital and has been given the status of Deemed University by the University Grants Commission (UGC) of India. ILBS has been created by the Government of Delhi to make it a dedicated international center of excellence for the diagnosis and management of liver and biliary diseases and to provide advanced training and research in the field of Hepato - biliary Sciences.
The foundation stone of ILBS was laid in 2003. The first phase of ILBS was built by the Public Works Department (PWD). The first phase was completed in 2009. The formal inauguration of the hospital took place on January 14, 2010 by the Chief Minister of Delhi, Mrs. Shiela Dixit.
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http://www.allindiajobs.in/2017/08/ilbs-result.html
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west virginia take me home to the place i belong | Take Me Home, Country Roads - wikipedia
"Take Me Home, Country Roads '', also known as "Country Roads, Take Me Home '' or "Country Roads '', is a song written by Bill Danoff, Taffy Nivert, and John Denver. It was released as a single performed by Denver on April 12, 1971, peaking at number 2 on Billboard 's US Hot 100 singles for the week ending August 28, 1971. The song was a success on its initial release and was certified Gold by the RIAA on August 18, 1971, and Platinum on April 10, 2017. The song became one of John Denver 's most popular and beloved songs. It has continued to sell, with over a million digital copies sold in the United States. It is considered to be Denver 's signature song.
The song has a prominent status as an iconic symbol of West Virginia, which it describes as "almost Heaven ''. In March 2014, it became one of several official state anthems of West Virginia.
Danoff and his then - wife, Mary ("Taffy '') Nivert, wrote "I Guess He 'd Rather Be in Colorado '' and "Take Me Home, Country Roads '', both of which were hits for John Denver. Danoff (from Springfield, Massachusetts) has stated he had never been to West Virginia before co-writing the song. Inspiration for the song had come while driving to a family reunion of Nivert 's relatives along Clopper Road in nearby Maryland. To pass the time en route, Danoff had made up a ballad about the little winding roads they were taking. He had even briefly considered using "Massachusetts '' rather than "West Virginia '' as both four - syllable state names would have fit the song 's meter.
Starting December 22, 1970, John Denver was heading the bill at The Cellar Door, a Washington, D.C. club. Danoff and Nivert opened for him as a duo named Fat City. After the Tuesday post-Christmas re-opening night (Cellar Door engagements ran from Tuesday to Sunday and this booking was for two weeks,) the three headed back to their place for an impromptu jam. On the way, Denver 's left thumb was broken in an automobile accident. He was taken to the hospital, where a splint was applied. By the time they got back to the house, he was, in his own words, "wired, you know. ''
Danoff and Nivert then told him about the song that they had been working on for about a month. Originally, Danoff and Nivert had planned to sell the song to popular country singer Johnny Cash, but when Denver heard the song and decided he had to have it, the duo who wrote the original lyrics decided not to make the sale.
They sang the song for Denver and as he recalled, "I flipped. '' The three stayed up until 6: 00 a.m., changing words and moving lines around. When they finished, John announced that the song had to go on his next album.
The song was premiered December 30, 1970, during an encore of Denver 's set, with the singers reading the words from a folded piece of paper. This resulted in a five - minute ovation, one of the longest in Cellar Door history. They recorded it in New York City in January 1971.
"Take Me Home, Country Roads '' appeared on the LP Poems, Prayers & Promises and was released as a 45 in the spring of 1971. Original pressings credited the single to "John Denver with Fat City ''. It broke nationally in mid-April but moved up the charts very slowly. After several weeks, RCA Records called John and told him that they were giving up on the single. His response: "No! Keep working on it! '' They did, and the single went to number 1 on the Record World Pop Singles Chart and the Cash Box Top 100, and number 2 on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100, topped only by "How Can You Mend a Broken Heart '' by The Bee Gees.
On August 18, 1971, it was certified Gold by the RIAA for a million copies shipped. The song continued to sell in the digital era. As of October 2018, the song has also sold an additional 1,479,000 downloads since it became available digitally.
"Take Me Home, Country Roads '' received an enthusiastic response from West Virginians. The song is the theme song of West Virginia University and it has been performed during every home football pregame show since 1972. In 1977, Denver sang it at Morgantown High School, and he even changed the wording to "Appalachian Mountains, Monongahela River ''. In 1980, Denver performed the song during pregame festivities to a sold - out crowd of Mountaineer fans. This performance marked the dedication of the current Mountaineer Field and the first game for head coach Don Nehlen.
The song is played for other athletic events and university functions, including after football games, for which the fans are encouraged to stay in the stands and sing the song along with the team.
The popularity of the song has inspired resolutions in the West Virginia Legislature to adopt "Take Me Home, Country Roads '' as an official state song. On March 7, 2014, the West Virginia Legislature approved a resolution to make "Take Me Home, Country Roads '' an official state song of West Virginia, alongside three other pieces: "West Virginia Hills '', "This is My West Virginia '', and "West Virginia, My Home Sweet Home ''. Governor Earl Ray Tomblin signed the resolution into law on March 8.
The geographical features mentioned prominently in the song lyrics -- the Shenandoah River and the Blue Ridge Mountains -- have only marginal associations with the state of West Virginia, and would seem to be more appropriate to describe western Virginia. The river passes through only the very eastern tip of the Eastern Panhandle of West Virginia in Jefferson County, but its sources and its four upper forks are in Virginia.
Similarly, the Blue Ridge Mountains are only peripherally associated with West Virginia, but do form the boundary between West Virginia and the State of Virginia for a few miles at Jefferson County. According to a radio interview with Nivert, the road is close to her native Washington, D.C., in nearby Montgomery County, Maryland, where Denver often visited. That road -- Clopper Road -- still exists today, but the landscape has changed drastically from the countryside scenery that once surrounded it.
The Mountain State Brewing Company based in Thomas, West Virginia, produces an amber ale called "Almost Heaven, '' which it says is "named after John Denver 's ode to West Virginia, Country Roads ''.
This song was played at the funeral memorial for Senator Robert Byrd at the state capitol in Charleston on July 2, 2010.
sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
In 2001, the song was covered by Dutch pop band Hermes House Band and released as "Country Roads ''. This version was a chart success in Europe, reaching number one in Scotland, number two in Germany and Ireland, and the top 10 in Austria, Denmark, and the United Kingdom. The band performed the song live on Top of the Pops.
sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
A cover version of the song -- a collaboration between Copilot Music + Sound and the vocal group Spank -- was commissioned for and featured in both the teaser and full E3 2018 trailers for the 2018 video game, Fallout 76, whose plot events are set in West Virginia. Released as an iTunes - only single on July 4, 2018, the song reached # 1 on the iTunes singles chart. It debuted at # 41 on Billboard 's Hot Country Songs chart that week and at # 21 on Billboard 's Country Digital Songs the following week. The official YouTube upload of the original John Denver recording, initially uploaded in 2013, would later edit its description in response to the song 's use for the game.
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who came up with the idea of federation in australia | Federation of Australia - wikipedia
The Federation of Australia was the process by which the six separate British self - governing colonies of Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania, South Australia, and Western Australia agreed to unite and form the Commonwealth of Australia, establishing a system of federalism in Australia. Fiji and New Zealand were originally part of this process, but they decided not to join the federation. Following federation, the six colonies that united to form the Commonwealth of Australia as states kept the systems of government (and the bicameral legislatures) that they had developed as separate colonies, but they also agreed to have a federal government that was responsible for matters concerning the whole nation. When the Constitution of Australia came into force, on 1 January 1901, the colonies collectively became states of the Commonwealth of Australia.
The efforts to bring about federation in the mid-19th century were dogged by the lack of popular support for the movement. A number of conventions were held during the 1890s to develop a constitution for the Commonwealth. Sir Henry Parkes, Premier of New South Wales, was instrumental in this process. Sir Edmund Barton, second only to Parkes in the length of his commitment to the federation cause, was the caretaker Prime Minister of Australia at the inaugural national election in 1901 in March 1901. The election returned Barton as prime minister, though without a majority.
This period has lent its name to an architectural style prevalent in Australia at that time, known as Federation architecture, or Federation style.
A serious movement for Federation of the colonies arose in the late 1880s, a time when there was increasing nationalism amongst Australians, the great majority of whom were native - born. The idea of being "Australian '' began to be celebrated in songs and poems. This was fostered by improvements in transport and communications, such as the establishment of a telegraph system between the colonies in 1872. The Australian colonies were also influenced by other federations which had emerged around the world, notably in Argentina, Canada, Switzerland and the United States.
Sir Henry Parkes, then Colonial Secretary of New South Wales, first proposed a Federal Council body in 1867. After it was rejected by the British Secretary of State for the Colonies, the Duke of Buckingham, Parkes brought up the issue again at a conference in 1880, this time as the Premier of New South Wales. At the conference, representatives from Victoria, New South Wales and South Australia considered a number of issues including federation, communication, Chinese immigration, vine diseases and uniform tariff rates. The Federation had the potential to ensure that throughout the continent, trade, and interstate commerce would be unaffected by protectionism and measurement and transport would be standardised.
The final (and successful) push for the Federal Council came at a conference in 1883, called to debate the strategies needed to counter the activities of the German and French in New Guinea and in New Hebrides. Sir Samuel Griffith, the Premier of Queensland, drafted a bill to constitute the Federal Council. The conference successfully petitioned the Imperial Parliament to enact the bill as the Federal Council of Australasia Act 1885.
As a result, a Federal Council of Australasia was formed, to represent the affairs of the colonies in their relations with the South Pacific islands. New South Wales and New Zealand did not join. The self - governing colonies of Queensland, Tasmania and Victoria, as well as the Crown Colonies of Western Australia and Fiji, became involved. South Australia was briefly a member between 1888 and 1890. The Federal Council had powers to legislate directly upon certain matters, such as in relation to extradition, regulation of fisheries, and so on, but it did not have a permanent secretariat, executive powers, or any revenue of its own. Furthermore, the absence of the powerful colony of New South Wales weakened its representative value.
Nevertheless, it was the first major form of inter-colonial co-operation. It provided an opportunity for Federalists from around the country to meet and exchange ideas. The means by which the Council was established endorsed the continuing role that the Imperial Parliament would have in the development of Australia 's constitutional structure. In terms of the Federal Council of Australia Act, the Australian drafters established a number of powers dealing with their "common interest '' which would later be replicated in the Australian Constitution, especially section 51.
The individual colonies, Victoria excepted, were somewhat wary of Federation. Politicians from the smaller colonies, in particular, disliked the very idea of delegating power to a national government; they feared that any such government would inevitably be dominated by the more populous New South Wales and Victoria. Queensland, for its part, worried that the advent of national legislation (see White Australia Policy) would restrict the importing of kanaka labourers, thereby jeopardising its sugar cane industry.
These were not the only concerns of those resistant to federation. Smaller colonies also worried about the abolition of tariffs, which would deprive them of a large proportion of their revenue, and leave their commerce at the mercy of the larger states. New South Wales, traditionally free - trade in its outlook, wanted to be satisfied that the federation 's tariff policy would not be protectionist. Victorian Premier James Service described fiscal union as "the lion in the way '' of federation.
A further fundamental issue was how to distribute the excess customs duties from the central government to the states. For the larger colonies there was the possibility (which never became an actuality) that they could be required to subsidise the struggling economies of Tasmania, South Australia and Western Australia.
Even without the concerns, there was debate about the form of government that a federation would take. Experience of other federations was less than inspiring. In particular, the United States had experienced the traumatic Civil War.
The nascent Australian labour movement was less than wholly committed in its support for federation. On the one hand, nationalist sentiment was strong within the labour movement and there was much support for the idea of White Australia. On the other hand, labour representatives feared that federation would distract attention from the need for social and industrial reform, and further entrench the power of the conservative forces. The federal conventions included no representatives of organised labour. In fact, the proposed federal constitution was criticised by labour representatives as being too conservative. These representative wanted to see a federal government with more power to legislate on issues such as wages and prices. They also regarded the proposed senate as much too powerful, with the capacity to block attempts at social and political reform, much as the colonial upper houses were quite openly doing at that time.
Religious factors played a small but not trivial part in disputes over whether federation was desirable or even possible. As a general rule, pro-federation leaders were Protestants, while Catholics ' enthusiasm for federation was much weaker, not least because Parkes had been militantly anti-Catholic for decades (and because the labour movement was disproportionately Catholic in its membership).
In the early 1890s two meetings established the need for federation and set the framework for this to occur. An informal meeting attended by official representatives from the Australasian colonies was held in 1890. This led to the first National Australasian Convention, meeting in Sydney in 1891. New Zealand was represented at both the conference and the Convention, although its delegates indicated that it would be unlikely to join the Federation at its foundation, but it would probably be interested in doing so at a later date.
The Conference of 1890 was organised at the instigation of Parkes. The account of the calling of the 1890 conference usually begins with Lord Carrington, the Governor of New South Wales, goading the ageing Parkes at a luncheon on 15 June 1889. Parkes reportedly boasted that he "could confederate these colonies in twelve months ''. Carrington retorted, "Then why do n't you do it? It would be a glorious finish to your life. '' Parkes the next day wrote to the Premier of Victoria, Duncan Gillies, offering to advance the cause of Federation. Gillies 's response was predictably cool, given the reluctance of Parkes to bring New South Wales into the Federal Council. In October Parkes travelled north to Brisbane and met with Griffith and Sir Thomas McIlwraith. On the return journey, he stopped just south of the colonial border, and delivered the historic Tenterfield Oration on 24 October 1889, stating that the time had come for the colonies to consider Australian federation.
Through the latter part of 1889 the premiers and governors corresponded and agreed for an informal meeting to be called. The membership was: New South Wales, Parkes (Premier) and William McMillan (Colonial Treasurer); Victoria, Duncan Gillies (Premier) and Alfred Deakin (Chief Secretary); Queensland, Sir Samuel Griffith (Leader of the Opposition) and John Murtagh Macrossan (Colonial Secretary); South Australia, Dr. John Cockburn (Premier) and Thomas Playford (Leader of the Opposition); Tasmania, Andrew Inglis Clark (Attorney - General) and Stafford Bird (Treasurer); Western Australia, Sir James George Lee Steere (Speaker); New Zealand, Captain William Russell (Colonial Secretary) and Sir John Hall.
When the conference met at the Victorian Parliament in Melbourne on 6 February, the delegates were confronted with a scorching summer maximum temperature of 39.7 ° C (103.5 ° F) in the shade. The Conference debated whether or not the time was ripe to proceed with federation.
While some of the delegates agreed it was, the smaller states were not as enthusiastic. Thomas Playford from South Australia indicated the tariff question and lack of popular support as hurdles. Similarly, Sir James Lee Steere from Western Australia and the New Zealand delegates suggested there was little support for federation in their respective colonies.
A basic question at this early assembly was how to structure the federation within the Westminster tradition of government. The British North America Act (1867), which had confederated the Canadian provinces, provided a model with respect to the relations between the federation and the Crown. There was less enthusiasm, however, for the centralism of the Canadian Constitution, especially from the smaller states. Following the conference of 1890, the Canadian federal model was no longer considered appropriate for the Australian situation.
Although the Swiss Federal Constitution provided another example, it was inevitable that the delegates should look to the Constitution of the United States as the other major model of a federation within the English - speaking world. It gave just a few powers to the federal government and left the majority of matters within the legislative competence of the states. It also provided that the Senate should consist of an equal number of members from each State while the Lower House should reflect the national distribution of population. Andrew Inglis Clark, a long - time admirer of American federal institutions, introduced the US Constitution as an example of the protection of States ' rights. He presented it as an alternative to the Canadian model, arguing that Canada was "an instance of amalgamation rather than Federation. '' The introduction by Deakin of James Bryce 's The American Commonwealth also had far - reaching influence.
The conference in Melbourne ended with an agreement by the delegates that the time for federation had arrived.
A.I. Clark had given considerable thought towards a suitable constitution for Australia. In May 1890, he travelled to London to conduct an appeal on behalf of the Government of Tasmania before the Privy Council. During this trip, he began writing a draft constitution, taking the main provisions of the British North America Act and its supplements up through 1890, the US Constitution, the Federal Council of Australasia Act, and various Australian colonial constitutions. Clark returned from London by way of Boston, Massachusetts, where he held discussions about his draft with Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr., and Moncure Conway among others.
Clark 's draft introduced the nomenclature and form which was subsequently adopted:
Upon his return to Hobart in early November 1890, with the technical aid of W.O. Wise, the Tasmanian Parliamentary Draftsman, Clark completed the final form of the Draft Constitution and had a number of copies printed. In February 1891, Inglis Clark circulated copies of his draft to Parkes, Barton and probably Playford as well. This draft was always intended to be a private working document, and never has been published.
The Parliament proposed at the Convention of 1891 was to adopt the nomenclature of the United States Congress. This proposal provided the broad outline of a Federal government. Its lower house was to be elected by districts drawn up on the basis of their population, while in the Senate there was to be equal representation for each "province ''. This American model was mixed with the Westminster system by which the Prime Minister and other ministers would be appointed by the representative of the British Crown from among the members of the political party holding a majority in the lower House.
Griffith identified with great clarity at the Sydney Convention perhaps the greatest problem of all: how to structure the relationship between the lower and upper houses within the Federal Parliament. The main division of opinion centred on the contention of Alfred Deakin, that the lower house must be supreme, as opposed to the views of Barton, John Cockburn and others, that a strong Senate with co-ordinate powers was essential. Griffith himself recommended that the doctrine of responsible government should be left open, or substantially modified to accord with the Federal structure.
Over the Easter weekend in 1891, Griffith edited Clark 's draft aboard the Queensland Government 's steam yacht Lucinda. (Clark was not present, as he was ill with influenza in Sydney). Griffith 's draft Constitution was submitted to colonial parliaments but it lapsed in New South Wales, after which the other colonies were unwilling to proceed.
The importance of the draft Constitution of 1891 was recognised by John La Nauze when he flatly declared that "The draft of 1891 is the Constitution of 1900, not its father or grandfather. '' In the Twenty - First Century, however, a lively debate has sprung up as to whether the principal credit for this draft belongs to Queensland 's Sir Samuel Griffith or Tasmania 's Andrew Inglis Clark. The debate began with the publication of Peter Botsman 's The Great Constitutional Swindle: A Citizen 's Guide to the Australian Constitution in 2000, and a biography of Andrew Inglis Clark by F.M. Neasey and L.J. Neasey published by the University of Tasmania Law Press in 2001.
The traditional view attached almost sole responsibility for the 1891 draft to Griffith. Quick and Garran, for instance, state curtly that Griffith "had the chief hand in the actual drafting of the Bill. '' Given that the authors of this highly respected work were themselves active members of the federal movement, it may be presumed that this view represents - if not the complete truth - then, at least, the consensus opinion amongst Australia 's "founding fathers ''.
In his 1969 entry on "Clark, Andrew Inglis (1848 -- 1907) '' for the Australian Dictionary of Biography, Henry Reynolds offers a more nuanced view:
Before the National Australasian Convention in Sydney in 1891 he (Clark) circulated his own draft constitution bill. This was practically a transcript of relevant provisions from the British North American Act, the United States Constitution and the Federal Council Act, arranged systematically, but it was to be of great use to the drafting committee at the convention. Parkes received it with reservations, suggesting that ' the structure should be evolved bit by bit '. George Higinbotham admitted the ' acknowledged defects & disadvantages ' of responsible government, but criticized Clark 's plan to separate the executive and the legislature. Clark 's draft also differed from the adopted constitution in his proposal for ' a separate federal judiciary ', with the new Supreme Court replacing the Privy Council as the highest court of appeal on all questions of law, which would be ' a wholesome innovation upon the American system '. He became a member of the Constitutional Committee and chairman of the Judiciary Committee. Although he took little part in the debates he assisted (Sir) Samuel Griffith, (Sir) Edmund Barton and Charles Cameron Kingston in revising Griffith 's original draft of the adopted constitution on the Queensland government 's steam yacht, Lucinda; though he was too ill to be present when the main work was done, his own draft had been the basis for most of Griffith 's text.
Clark 's supporters are quick to point out that 86 Sections (out of a total of 128) of the final Australian Constitution are recognisable in Clark 's draft, and that "only eight of Inglis Clark 's ninety - six clauses failed to find their way into the final Australian Constitution ''; but these are potentially misleading statistics. As Professor John Williams has pointed out:
It is easy to point to the document and dismiss it as a mere ' cut and paste ' from known provisions. While there is some validity in such observations it does tend to overlook the fact that there are very few variations to be added once the basic structure is agreed. So for instance, there was always going to be parts dealing with the executive, the parliament and the judiciary in any Australian constitution. The fact that Inglis Clark modelled his on the American Constitution is no surprise once that basic decision was made. Issues of the respective legislative powers, the role of the states, the power of amendment and financial questions were the detail of the debate that the framers were about to address in 1891.
As to who was responsible for the actual detailed drafting, as distinct from the broad structure and framework of the 1891 draft, Professor Williams (for one) is in no doubt:
In terms of style there can be little argument that Inglis Clark 's Constitution is not as crisp or clean as Kingston 's 1891 draft Constitution. This is not so much a reflection on Inglis Clark, but an acknowledgement of the talents of Charles Kingston and Sir Samuel Griffith as drafters. They were direct and economical with words. The same can not always be said of Inglis Clark.
The revival of the federal movement stemmed from the growth of federal leagues and nationalist organisations that were committed to federation, such as the Australian Natives ' Association. There were two so - called People 's Conventions held in Corowa and Bathurst.
In 1893 John Quick, who had attended the Corowa convention, drew up a bill which became the basis of discussion at the Adelaide Convention (see below) and is considered to have contributed largely to the eventual constitution. Quick with Robert Garran went on to publish The Annotated Constitution of the Australian Commonwealth in 1901, which is widely regarded as one of the most authoritative works on the Australian Constitution.
In 1895 a proposal was accepted by the premiers of the Australian colonies to establish a new Convention by popular vote, with the resulting draft of the constitution being submitted to the electors of each colony in a referendum. The Convention held meetings over the course of a year, beginning first in Adelaide in 1897, later meeting in Sydney, and culminating in Melbourne in March 1898. After the Adelaide meeting, the colonial Parliaments took the opportunity to debate the emerging Bill and to suggest changes. The basic principles discussed in 1891 were adopted, with the addition of the principle of responsible government. There was also a consensus for more democracy in the constitutional structure. It was agreed that the Senate should be chosen by popular vote with the voters in each State acting as one electorate.
A draft bill was drawn up in 1898, and then sent to each colony to be ratified by the electorate. Referendums were held in four of the colonies in June 1898. There were majority votes in all four of them, however, the enabling legislation in New South Wales required the support of at least 80,000 voters for passage, and this number was not reached. A meeting of the colonial premiers in early 1899 agreed to a number of amendments to make the constitution more acceptable to New South Wales. Known as the "Braddon Clause '', the amendments provided for the return of customs revenue to the states for ten years. It was also agreed that the new federal capital was to be built in New South Wales provided it was at least a hundred miles (160 km) from Sydney. In June 1899, the referendum was held again in all the colonies except for Western Australia, where the vote was not held until the following year. The majority vote was "yes '' in all the colonies.
The Bill as accepted by the colonies went to Britain for ratification by the British Parliament.
The Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act (UK) was passed on 5 July 1900 and given Royal Assent by Queen Victoria on 9 July 1900. It was proclaimed on 1 January 1901 in Centennial Park, Sydney. Sir Edmund Barton was sworn in as the interim Prime Minister, leading an interim Federal ministry of nine members.
The new constitution established a bicameral Parliament, containing a Senate and a House of Representatives. The office of Governor - General was established as the Queen 's representative; initially, this person was considered a representative of the British government. The Constitution also established a High Court, and divided the powers of government between the states and the new Commonwealth government.
The site of a federal capital was disputed heavily between the two arch - rivals Sydney and Melbourne; the compromise was that a separate territory (the Australian Capital Territory) would be established within New South Wales to hold a new capital, while Parliament would sit in Melbourne until the new city was constructed. The site eventually chosen for the city became Canberra.
The significance of Federation for Australia is such that a number of landmarks, natural and man - made, have been named after it. These include:
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when did the claim to the caliphate become central to ottoman ideology | Caliphate - wikipedia
A caliphate (Arabic: خِلافة khilāfah) is a state under the leadership of an Islamic steward with the title of caliph (/ ˈkælɪf, ˈkeɪ - /; Arabic: خَليفة khalīfah, pronunciation (help info)), a person considered a religious successor to the Islamic prophet Muhammad and a leader of the entire ummah (community). Historically, the caliphates were polities based in Islam which developed into multi-ethnic trans - national empires. During the medieval period, three major caliphates succeeded each other: the Rashidun Caliphate (632 -- 661), the Umayyad Caliphate (661 -- 750) and the Abbasid Caliphate (750 -- 1258). In the fourth major caliphate, the Ottoman Caliphate, the rulers of the Ottoman Empire claimed caliphal authority from 1517. During the history of Islam, a few other Muslim states, almost all hereditary monarchies, have claimed to be caliphates.
Prior to the rise of Muhammad and the unification of the tribes of Arabia under Islam, Arabs followed a pre-Islamic Arab polytheism, lived as self - governing sedentary and nomadic communities and often raided their neighbouring tribes. Following the early Muslim conquests of the Arabian Peninsula, the region became unified and most of the tribes adopted Islam.
The first caliphate, the Rashidun Caliphate, was established immediately after Muhammad 's death in 632. The four Rashidun caliphs, who directly succeeded Muhammad as leaders of the Muslim community, were chosen through shura, a process of community consultation that some consider to be an early form of Islamic democracy. The fourth caliph, Ali, who, unlike the prior three, was from the same clan as Muhammad (Banu Hashim), is considered by Shia Muslims to be the first rightful caliph and Imam after Muhammad. Ali reigned during the First Fitna (656 -- 661), a civil war between supporters of Ali and supporters of the assassinated previous caliph, Uthman, from Banu Umayya, as well as rebels in Egypt; the war led to the establishment of the Umayyad Caliphate under Muawiyah I in 661.
The second caliphate, the Umayyad Caliphate, was ruled by Banu Umayya, a Meccan clan descended from Umayya ibn Abd Shams. The caliphate continued the Arab conquests, incorporating the Caucasus, Transoxiana, Sindh, the Maghreb and the Iberian Peninsula (Al - Andalus) into the Muslim world. The caliphate had considerable acceptance of the Christians within its territory, necessitated by their large numbers, especially in the region of Syria. Following the Abbasid Revolution from 746 -- 750, which primarily arose from non-Arab Muslim disenfranchisement, the Abbasid Caliphate was established in 750.
The third caliphate, the Abbasid Caliphate was ruled by the Abbasids, a dynasty of Meccan origin which descended from Hashim, a great - grandfather of Muhammad, making them part of Banu Hashim, via Abbas, an uncle of Muhammad, hence the name. Caliph al - Mansur founded its second capital of Baghdad in 762 which became a major scientific, cultural and art centre, as did the territory as a whole during a period known as the Islamic Golden Age. From the 10th century, Abbasid rule became confined to an area around Baghdad. From 945 to 1157, the Abbasid Caliphate came under Buyid and then Seljuq military control. In 1250, a non-Arab army created by the Abbasids called the Mamluks came to power in Egypt. In 1258, the Mongol Empire sacked Baghdad, ending the Abbasid Caliphate, and in 1261 the Mamluks in Egypt re-established the Abbasid Caliphate in Cairo. Though lacking in political power, the Abbasid dynasty continued to claim authority in religious matters until the Ottoman conquest of Mamluk Egypt in 1517.
The fourth major caliphate, the Ottoman Caliphate, was established after their conquest of Mamluk Egypt in 1517. The conquest gave the Ottomans control over the holy cities of Mecca and Medina, previously controlled by the Mamluks. The Ottomans gradually came to be viewed as the de facto leaders and representatives of the Muslim world. Following their defeat in World War I, their empire was partitioned by the United Kingdom and French Third Republic, and on 3 March 1924, the first President of the Turkish Republic, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, as part of his reforms, constitutionally abolished the institution of the caliphate. A few other states that existed through history have called themselves caliphates, including the Isma'ili Fatimid Caliphate in Northeast Africa (909 -- 1171), the Umayyad Caliphate of Córdoba in Iberia (929 -- 1031), the Berber Almohad Caliphate in Morocco (1121 -- 1269) and the Fula Sokoto Caliphate in present - day northern Nigeria (1804 -- 1903).
The Sunni branch of Islam stipulates that, as a head of state, a caliph may come to power in one of four ways: either through an election, through nomination, through a selection by a committee, or by force. Followers of Shia Islam, however, believe a caliph should be an Imam chosen by God from the Ahl al - Bayt (the "Family of the House '', referring to Muhammad 's family).
In the early 21st century, following the failure of the Arab Spring and defeat of the self - proclaimed "Islamic State '', there has seen "a broad mainstream embrace of a collective Muslim identity '' by young Muslims and the appeal of a caliphate as a "idealized future Muslim state '' has grown ever stronger.
Before the advent of Islam, Arabian monarchs traditionally used the title malik (King, ruler), or another from the same root.
The term caliph (/ ˈkeɪlɪf, ˈkælɪf /), derives from the Arabic word khalīfah (خَليفة, pronunciation (help info)), which means "successor '', "steward '', or "deputy '' and has traditionally been considered a shortening of Khalīfat Rasūl Allāh ("successor of the messenger of God ''). However, studies of pre-Islamic texts suggest that the original meaning of the phrase was "successor selected by God ''.
Shortly before his death, Muhammad called all the Muslims who had accompanied him on the final Hajj (pilgrimage) to gather around at a place known as Ghadir Khumm. Muhammad gave a long sermon, part of which states:
O people! Reflect on the Quran and comprehend its verses. Look into its clear verses and do not follow its ambiguous parts, for by Allah, none shall be able to explain to you its warnings and its mysteries, nor shall anyone clarify its interpretation, other than the one that I have grasped his hand, brought up beside myself, (and lifted his arm), the one about whom I inform you that whomever I am his Mawla, this Ali is his Mawla; and he is Ali Ibn Abi Talib, my brother, the executor of my will (Wasiyyi), whose appointment as your guardian and leader has been sent down to me from Allah, the mighty and the majestic.
This event has been narrated by both Shia and Sunni sources.
In Medina, after the Farewell Pilgrimage and the event of Ghadir Khumm, Muhammad ordered an army under the command of Usama bin Zayd. He commanded all the companions, except for his family, to go with Usama to Syria to avenge the Muslims ' defeat at the Battle of Mu'tah. Muhammad gave Usama the banner of Islam on the 18th day of the Islamic month of Safar in the year 11 A.H. Abu Bakr and Umar were among those that Muhammad commanded to join Usama 's army.
However, Abu Bakr and Umar resisted going under the command of Usama because they thought that he, who was 18 or 20 at the time, was too young to lead an army, despite Muhammad 's teachings that age and standing in society did not necessarily correspond to being a good general.
In response to these worries, the Prophet said: "O Arabs! You are miserable because I have appointed Usama as your general, and you are raising questions if he is qualified to lead you in war. I know you are the same people who had raised the same question about his father. By God, Usama is qualified to be your general just as his father was qualified to be a general. Now obey his orders and go. '' Whenever Muhammad felt any relief from his fatal sickness, he would inquire as to whether Usama 's army had left for Syria yet, and would continue urging his companions to leave for Syria. Muhammad even said, "Usama 's army must leave at once. May Allah curse those men who do not go with him. '' However, while a few companions were ready to join Usama 's army, many other companions, including Abu Bakr and Umar, disobeyed Muhammad 's orders. It is also noted that this was the only battle expedition where Muhammad urged his companions to go the battle no matter what; for other battles, if someone was unable to go to the fight, Muhammad would let them stay at home. It has been pointed out in history that the fact that Muhammad ordered his companions, but not his family, to leave Medina right before he knew he was about to die is proof that he did not intend for his companions to decide on his succession. This has served as an indication that, as Muhammad did not want his companions to be in Medina when he died, he did not want his companions to decide among themselves who would be his successor. That matter had already been decided at Ghadir Khumm.
However, after Muhammad passed away, a group of Muslims left Ali and gathered at Saqifa. In what has been described as a coup d'état, Umar pledged allegiance to Abu Bakr, after which Abu Bakr assumed power. This was followed by an attack on the house of Ali and Fatimah in an attempt to defeat any opposition to Abu Bakr.
Abu Bakr, the first successor of Muhammad, nominated Umar as his successor on his deathbed. Umar, the second caliph, was killed by a Persian named Piruz Nahavandi. His successor, Uthman, was elected by a council of electors (majlis). Uthman was killed by members of a disaffected group. Ali then took control but was not universally accepted as caliph by the governors of Egypt and later by some of his own guard. He faced two major rebellions and was assassinated by Abd - al - Rahman ibn Muljam, a Khawarij. Ali 's tumultuous rule lasted only five years. This period is known as the Fitna, or the first Islamic civil war. The followers of Ali later became the Shi'a ("shiaat Ali '', partisans of Ali.) minority sect of Islam and reject the legitimacy of the first 3 caliphs. The followers of all four Rashidun Caliphs (Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman and Ali) became the majority Sunni sect.
Under the Rashidun each region (Sultanate, Wilayah, or Emirate) of the Caliphate had its own governor (Sultan, Wāli or Emir). Muawiyah, a relative of Uthman and governor (Wali) of Syria, succeeded Ali as Caliph. Muawiyah transformed the caliphate into a hereditary office, thus founding the Umayyad dynasty.
In areas which were previously under Sasanian Empire or Byzantine rule, the Caliphs lowered taxes, provided greater local autonomy (to their delegated governors), greater religious freedom for Jews, and some indigenous Christians, and brought peace to peoples demoralised and disaffected by the casualties and heavy taxation that resulted from the decades of Byzantine - Persian warfare.
Ali 's reign was plagued by turmoil and internal strife. The Persians, taking advantage of this, infiltrated the two armies and attacked the other army causing chaos and internal hatred between the companions at the Battle of Siffin (source?). The battle lasted several months, resulting in a stalemate. In order to avoid further bloodshed, Ali agreed to negotiate with Mu'awiyah. This caused a faction of approximately 4,000 people, who would come to be known as the Kharijites, to abandon the fight. After defeating the Kharijites at the Battle of Nahrawan, Ali was later assassinated by the Kharijite Ibn Muljam. Ali 's son Hasan was elected as the next caliph, but handed his title to Mu'awiyah a few months later. Mu'awiyah became the fifth (or second by Shia reckoning) caliph, establishing the Umayyad Dynasty, named after the great - grandfather of Uthman and Mu'awiyah, Umayya ibn Abd Shams.
Beginning with the Umayyads, the title of the caliph became hereditary. Under the Umayyads, the Caliphate grew rapidly in territory, incorporating the Caucasus, Transoxiana, Sindh, the Maghreb and most of the Iberian Peninsula (Al - Andalus) into the Muslim world. At its greatest extent, the Umayyad Caliphate covered 5.17 million square miles (13,400,000 km), making it the largest empire the world had yet seen and the sixth - largest ever to exist in history.
Geographically, the empire was divided into several provinces, the borders of which changed numerous times during the Umayyad reign. Each province had a governor appointed by the caliph. However, for a variety of reasons, including that they were not elected by Shura and suggestions of impious behaviour, the Umayyad dynasty was not universally supported within the Muslim community. Some supported prominent early Muslims like Al - Zubayr; others felt that only members of Muhammad 's clan, the Banu Hashim, or his own lineage, the descendants of Ali, should rule.
There were numerous rebellions against the Umayyads, as well as splits within the Umayyad ranks (notably, the rivalry between Yaman and Qays). At the command of Yazid son of Muawiya, an army led by Umar ibn Saad, a commander by the name of Shimr Ibn Thil - Jawshan killed Ali 's son Hussein and his family at the Battle of Karbala in 680, solidifying the Shia - Sunni split. Eventually, supporters of the Banu Hashim and the supporters of the lineage of Ali united to bring down the Umayyads in 750. However, the Shi'at ' Alī, "the Party of Ali '', were again disappointed when the Abbasid dynasty took power, as the Abbasids were descended from Muhammad 's uncle, ' Abbas ibn ' Abd al - Muttalib and not from Ali.
In 750, the Umayyad dynasty was overthrown by another family of Meccan origin, the Abbasids. Their time represented a scientific, cultural and religious flowering. Islamic art and music also flourished significantly during their reign. Their major city and capital Baghdad began to flourish as a center of knowledge, culture and trade. This period of cultural fruition ended in 1258 with the sack of Baghdad by the Mongols under Hulagu Khan. The Abbasid Caliphate had however lost its effective power outside Iraq already by c. 920. By 945, the loss of power became official when the Buyids conquered Baghdad and all of Iraq. The empire fell apart and its parts were ruled for the next century by local dynasties.
In the 9th century, the Abbasids created an army loyal only to their caliphate, composed predominantly of Turkic Cuman, Circassian and Georgian slave origin known as Mamluks. By 1250 the Mamluks came to power in Egypt. The Mamluk army, though often viewed negatively, both helped and hurt the caliphate. Early on, it provided the government with a stable force to address domestic and foreign problems. However, creation of this foreign army and al - Mu'tasim's transfer of the capital from Baghdad to Samarra created a division between the caliphate and the peoples they claimed to rule. In addition, the power of the Mamluks steadily grew until Ar - Radi (934 -- 41) was constrained to hand over most of the royal functions to Muhammad ibn Ra'iq.
In 1261, following the Mongol conquest of Baghdad, the Mamluk rulers of Egypt tried to gain legitimacy for their rule by declaring the re-establishment of the Abbasid caliphate in Cairo. The Abbasid caliphs in Egypt had little political power; they continued to maintain the symbols of authority, but their sway was confined to religious matters. The first Abbasid caliph of Cairo was Al - Mustansir (r. June -- November 1261). The Abbasid caliphate of Cairo lasted until the time of Al - Mutawakkil III, who ruled as caliph from 1508 to 1516, then he was deposed briefly in 1516 by his predecessor Al - Mustamsik, but was restored again to the caliphate in 1517.
The Ottoman Great Sultan Selim I defeated the Mamluk Sultanate and made Egypt part of the Ottoman Empire in 1517. Al - Mutawakkil III was captured together with his family and transported to Constantinople as a prisoner where he had a ceremonial role. He died in 1543, following his return to Cairo.
The Abbasid dynasty lost effective power over much of the Muslim realm by the first half of the tenth century
The Shiʻa Ubayd Allah al - Mahdi Billah of the Fatimid dynasty, who claimed descent from Muhammad through his daughter, claimed the title of Caliph in 909, creating a separate line of caliphs in North Africa. Initially controlling Algeria, Tunisia and Libya, the Fatimid caliphs extended their rule for the next 150 years, taking Egypt and Palestine, before the Abbasid dynasty was able to turn the tide, limiting Fatimid rule to Egypt. The Fatimid dynasty finally ended in 1171.
The Umayyad dynasty, which had survived and come to rule over Al - Andalus, reclaimed the title of Caliph in 929, lasting until it was overthrown in 1031.
The Fatimid Caliphate was an Isma'ili Shi'i caliphate, originally based in Tunisia, that extended its rule across the Mediterranean coast of Africa and ultimately made Egypt the centre of its caliphate. At its height, in addition to Egypt, the caliphate included varying areas of the Maghreb, Sicily, the Levant and the Hejaz.
The Fatimids established the Tunisian city of Mahdia and made it their capital city, before conquering Egypt and building the city of Cairo there in 969. Thereafter, Cairo became the capital of the caliphate, with Egypt becoming the political, cultural and religious centre of the state. Islam scholar Louis Massignon dubbed the 4th century AH / 10th century CE as the "Ismaili century in the history of Islam ''.
The term Fatimite is sometimes used to refer to the citizens of this caliphate. The ruling elite of the state belonged to the Ismaili branch of Shi'ism. The leaders of the dynasty were Ismaili Imams and had a religious significance to Ismaili Muslims. They are also part of the chain of holders of the office of the Caliphate, as recognised by some Muslims. Therefore, this constitutes a rare period in history in which the descendants of Ali (hence the name Fatimid, referring to Ali 's wife Fatima) and the Caliphate were united to any degree, excepting the final period of the Rashidun Caliphate under Ali himself.
The caliphate was reputed to exercise a degree of religious tolerance towards non-Ismaili sects of Islam as well as towards Jews, Maltese Christians and Copts.
During the Umayyad dynasty, the Iberian Peninsula was an integral province of the Umayyad Caliphate ruling from Damascus. The Umayyads lost the position of Caliph in Damascus in 750, and Abd al - Rahman I became Emir of Córdoba in 756 after six years in exile. Intent on regaining power, he defeated the existing Islamic rulers of the area who defied Umayyad rule and united various local fiefdoms into an emirate.
Rulers of the emirate used the title "emir '' or "sultan '' until the 10th century, when Abd al - Rahman III was faced with the threat of invasion by the Fatimid Caliphate. To aid his fight against the invading Fatimids, who claimed the caliphate in opposition to the generally recognised Abbasid Caliph of Baghdad, Al - Mu'tadid, Abd al - Rahman III claimed the title of caliph himself. This helped Abd al - Rahman III gain prestige with his subjects, and the title was retained after the Fatimids were repulsed. The rule of the Caliphate is considered as the heyday of Muslim presence in the Iberian peninsula, before it fragmented into various taifas in the 11th century. This period was characterised by a flourishing in technology, trade and culture; many of the buildings of al - Andalus were constructed in this period.
The Almohad Caliphate (Berber languages: Imweḥḥden, from Arabic الموحدون al - Muwaḥḥidun, "the Monotheists '' or "the Unifiers '') was a Moroccan Berber Muslim movement founded in the 12th century.
The Almohad movement was started by Ibn Tumart among the Masmuda tribes of southern Morocco. The Almohads first established a Berber state in Tinmel in the Atlas Mountains in roughly 1120. The Almohads succeeded in overthrowing the Almoravid dynasty in governing Morocco by 1147, when Abd al - Mu'min (r. 1130 -- 1163) conquered Marrakech and declared himself Caliph. They then extended their power over all of the Maghreb by 1159. Al - Andalus followed the fate of Africa and all Islamic Iberia was under Almohad rule by 1172.
The Almohad dominance of Iberia continued until 1212, when Muhammad al - Nasir (1199 -- 1214) was defeated at the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in the Sierra Morena by an alliance of the Christian princes of Castile, Aragon, Navarre and Portugal. Nearly all of the Moorish dominions in Iberia were lost soon after, with the great Moorish cities of Córdoba and Seville falling to the Christians in 1236 and 1248, respectively.
The Almohads continued to rule in northern Africa until the piecemeal loss of territory through the revolt of tribes and districts enabled the rise of their most effective enemies, the Marinid dynasty, in 1215. The last representative of the line, Idris al - Wathiq, was reduced to the possession of Marrakesh, where he was murdered by a slave in 1269; the Marinids seized Marrakesh, ending the Almohad domination of the Western Maghreb.
The caliphate was claimed by the sultans of the Ottoman Empire beginning with Murad I (reigned 1362 to 1389), while recognising no authority on the part of the Abbasid caliphs of the Mamluk - ruled Cairo. Hence the seat of the caliphate moved to the Ottoman capital of Edirne. In 1453, after Mehmed the Conqueror 's conquest of Constantinople, the seat of the Ottomans moved to Constantinople, present - day Istanbul. In 1517, the Ottoman sultan Selim I defeated and annexed the Mamluk Sultanate of Cairo into his empire. Through conquering and unifying Muslim lands, Selim I became the defender of the Holy Cities of Mecca and Medina, which further strengthened the Ottoman claim to the caliphate in the Muslim world. Ottomans gradually came to be viewed as the de facto leaders and representatives of the Islamic world. However, the earlier Ottoman caliphs did not officially bear the title of caliph in their documents of state, inscriptions, or coinage. It was only in the late eighteenth century that the claim to the caliphate was discovered by the sultans to have a practical use, since it allowed them to counter Russian claims to protect Ottoman Christians with their own claim to protect Muslims under Russian rule.
According to Barthold, the first time the title of "caliph '' was used as a political instead of symbolic religious title by the Ottomans was the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca with the Russian Empire in 1774, when the Empire retained moral authority on territory whose sovereignty was ceded to the Russian Empire.
The British supported and propagated the view that the Ottomans were Caliphs of Islam among Muslims in British India and the Ottoman Sultans helped the British by issuing pronouncements to the Muslims of India telling them to support British rule from Sultan Ali III and Sultan Abdülmecid I.
The outcome of the Russo - Turkish War of 1768 -- 74 was disastrous for the Ottomans. Large territories, including those with large Muslim populations, such as Crimea, were lost to the Russian Empire. However, the Ottomans under Abdul Hamid I claimed a diplomatic victory by being allowed to remain the religious leaders of Muslims in the now - independent Crimea as part of the peace treaty; in return Russia became the official protector of Christians in Ottoman territory.
Around 1880 Sultan Abdul Hamid II reasserted the title as a way of countering Russian expansion into Muslim lands. His claim was most fervently accepted by the Muslims of British India. By the eve of World War I, the Ottoman state, despite its weakness relative to Europe, represented the largest and most powerful independent Islamic political entity. The sultan also enjoyed some authority beyond the borders of his shrinking empire as caliph of Muslims in Egypt, India and Central Asia.
In 1899 John Hay, U.S. Secretary of State, asked the American ambassador to Ottoman Turkey, Oscar Straus, to approach Sultan Abdul Hamid II to use his position as caliph to order the Tausūg people of the Sultanate of Sulu in the Philippines to submit to American suzerainty and American military rule; the Sultan obliged them and wrote the letter which was sent to Sulu via Mecca. As a result, the "Sulu Mohammedans... refused to join the insurrectionists and had placed themselves under the control of our army, thereby recognizing American sovereignty. ''
After the Armistice of Mudros of October 1918 with the military occupation of Constantinople and Treaty of Versailles (1919), the position of the Ottomans was uncertain. The movement to protect or restore the Ottomans gained force after the Treaty of Sèvres (August 1920) which imposed the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire and gave Greece a powerful position in Anatolia, to the distress of the Turks. They called for help and the movement was the result. The movement had collapsed by late 1922.
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On 3 March 1924, the first President of the Turkish Republic, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, as part of his reforms, constitutionally abolished the institution of the caliphate. Its powers within Turkey were transferred to the Grand National Assembly of Turkey, the parliament of the newly formed Turkish Republic. The title was then claimed by Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca and Hejaz, leader of the Arab Revolt, but his kingdom was defeated and annexed by ibn Saud in 1925.
A summit was convened at Cairo in 1926 to discuss the revival of the caliphate, but most Muslim countries did not participate and no action was taken to implement the summit 's resolutions.
Though the title Ameer al - Mumineen was adopted by the King of Morocco and by Mohammed Omar, former head of the Taliban of Afghanistan, neither claimed any legal standing or authority over Muslims outside the borders of their respective countries.
Since the end of the Ottoman Empire, occasional demonstrations have been held calling for the re-establishment of the caliphate. Organisations which call for the re-establishment of the caliphate include Hizb ut - Tahrir and the Muslim Brotherhood.
The Indonesian Sultan of Yogyakarta historically used Khalifatullah (Caliph of God) as one of his many titles. In 2015 sultan Hamengkubuwono X renounced any claim to the Caliphate in order to facilitate his daugther 's inheritance of the throne, as the theological opinion of the time was that a woman may hold the secular office of sultan but not the spiritual office of caliph.
The Sokoto Caliphate was an Islamic state in what is now Nigeria led by Usman dan Fodio. Founded during the Fulani War in the early 19th century, it controlled one of the most powerful empires in sub-Saharan Africa prior to European conquest and colonisation. The caliphate remained extant through the colonial period and afterwards, though with reduced power. The current head of the Sokoto Caliphate is Sa'adu Abubakar.
The Khilafat Movement was launched by Muslims in British India in 1920 to defend the Ottoman Caliphate at the end of the First World War and it spread throughout the British colonial territories. It was strong in British India where it formed a rallying point for some Indian Muslims as one of many anti-British Indian political movements. Its leaders included Mohammad Ali Jouhar, his brother Shawkat Ali and Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, Dr. Mukhtar Ahmed Ansari, Hakim Ajmal Khan and Barrister Muhammad Jan Abbasi. For a time it was supported by Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, who was a member of the Central Khilafat Committee. However, the movement lost its momentum after the abolition of the Caliphate in 1924. After further arrests and flight of its leaders, and a series of offshoots splintered off from the main organisation, the Movement eventually died down and disbanded.
The Sharifian Caliphate (Arabic: خلافة شريفية ) was an Arab caliphate proclaimed by the Sharifian rulers of Hejaz in 1924, in lieu of the Ottoman Caliphate. The idea of the Sharifian Caliphate had been floating around since at least the 15th century. Toward the end of the 19th century, it started to gain importance due to the decline of the Ottoman Empire, which was heavily defeated in the Russo - Turkish War of 1877 -- 78. There is little evidence, however, that the idea of a Sharifian Caliphate ever gained wide grassroots support in the Middle East or anywhere else for that matter.
Though non-political, some Sufi orders and the Ahmadiyya movement define themselves as caliphates. Their leaders are thus commonly referred to as khalifas (caliphs).
In Sufism, tariqas (orders) are led by spiritual leaders (khilafah ruhaniyyah), the main khalifas, who nominate local khalifas to organize zaouias.
Sufi caliphates are not necessarily hereditary. Khalifas are aimed to serve the silsilah in relation to spiritual responsibilities and to propagate the teachings of the tariqa.
The Ahmadiyya Muslim Community is an Islamic revivalist movement founded in 1889 by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad of Qadian, India, who claimed to be the promised Messiah and Mahdi, awaited by Muslims. He also claimed to be a follower - prophet subordinate to Muhammad the prophet of Islam. After his death in 1908, his first successor, Hakeem Noor - ud - Din became the caliph of the community and assumed the title of Khalifatul Masih (Successor or Caliph of the Messiah).
Ahmadi Muslims believe that the Ahmadiyya Caliphate established after the passing of the community 's founder is the re-establishment of the Rashidun Caliphate. The Ahmadiyya caliphate has spanned over a century, seen five caliphs and continues to operate under this structure, with the caliph having overall authority for all religious and organisational matters. According to Ahmadiyya thought, it is not essential for a caliph to be the head of a state, rather the religious and organisational significance of the caliphate is emphasised. It is above all a religious office, with the purpose to uphold, strengthen and spread Islam and maintain the high moral standards within the Muslim community established by Muhammad, who was not merely a political leader but primarily a religious leader. The caliphate is understood as a system dealing with the organisation of believers and relating to the administration (nizām) of the Muslim community whether or not it involves a governmental role. Being based on the ' precepts of Prophethood ', the institution of caliphate can therefore, like prophethood, exist and flourish without a state. If a caliph does happen to bear governmental authority as a head of state, it is incidental and subsidiary in relation to his overall function as caliph which is applicable to believers transnationally and not limited to one particular state or political entity. The system of caliphate in Islam, thus understood, transcends national sovereignty and ethnic divide, forming a universal supra - national entity. According to Ahmadi Muslims, the caliphate seeks to establish God 's authority on earth and the caliph strives to uphold that authority within the community of followers. It is required that the caliph carry out his duties through consultation and taking into consideration the views of the members of the Majlis - ash - Shura (consultative body). However, it is not incumbent upon him to always accept the views and recommendations of the members. The caliph has overall authority for all religious and organisational matters and is bound to decide and act in accordance with the Qur'an and sunnah.
After Hakeem Noor - ud - Din, the first caliph, the title of the Ahmadiyya caliph continued under Mirza Mahmud Ahmad, who led the community for over 50 years. Following him were Mirza Nasir Ahmad and then Mirza Tahir Ahmad who were the third and fourth caliphs respectively. The current caliph is Mirza Masroor Ahmad, who lives in London with a following of 10 to 20 million in over 200 countries and territories of the world.
The Quran uses the term khalifa twice. First, in al - Baqara, 30, it refers to God creating humanity as his khalifa on Earth. Second, in Sad, 26, it addresses King David as God 's khalifa and reminds him of his obligation to rule with justice.
In addition, the following excerpt from the Quran, known as the ' Istikhlaf Verse ', is used by some to argue for a Quranic basis for Caliphate:
God has promised those of you who have attained to faith and do righteous deeds that, of a certainty, He will make them Khulifa on earth, even as He caused (some of) those who lived before them to become Khulifa; and that, of a certainty, He will firmly establish for them the religion which He has been pleased to bestow on them; and that, of a certainty, He will cause their erstwhile state of fear to be replaced by a sense of security (seeing that) they worship Me (alone), not ascribing divine powers to aught beside Me. But all who, after (having understood) this, choose to deny the truth -- it is they, they who are truly iniquitous! '' (An - Nur, 55)
In the above verse, the word Khulifa (the plural of Khalifa) has been variously translated as "successors '' and "ones who accede to power ''.
Several schools of jurisprudence and thought within Sunni Islam argue that to govern a state by Sharia is, by definition, to rule via the Caliphate and use the following verses to sustain their claim.
So govern between the people by that which God has revealed (Islam), and follow not their vain desires, beware of them in case they seduce you from just some part of that which God has revealed to you
O you who believe! Obey God, and obey the messenger and then those among you who are in authority; and if you have a dispute concerning any matter, refer it to God and the messenger 's rulings, if you are (in truth) believers in God and the Last Day. That is better and more seemly in the end.
The following hadith from Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal can be understood to prophesy two eras of Caliphate (both on the lines / precepts of prophethood).
Hadhrat Huzaifa narrated that the Messenger of Allah said: Prophethood will remain among you as long as Allah wills. Then Caliphate (Khilafah) on the lines of Prophethood shall commence, and remain as long as Allah wills. Then corrupt / erosive monarchy would take place, and it will remain as long as Allah wills. After that, despotic kingship would emerge, and it will remain as long as Allah wills. Then, the Caliphate (Khilafah) shall come once again based on the precept of Prophethood.
In the above, the first era of Caliphate is commonly accepted by Muslims to be that of the Rashidun Caliphate.
Nafi'a reported saying:
It has been reported on the authority of Nafi, that ' Abdullah b. Umar paid a visit to Abdullah b. Muti ' in the days (when atrocities were perpetrated on the People Of Medina) at Harra in the time of Yazid b. Mu'awiya. Ibn Muti ' said: Place a pillow for Abu ' Abd al - Rahman (family name of ' Abdullah b. ' Umar). But the latter said: I have not come to sit with you. I have come to you to tell you a tradition I heard from the Messenger of Allah. I heard him say: One who withdraws his band from obedience (to the Amir) will find no argument (in his defence) when he stands before Allah on the Day of Judgment, and one who dies without having bound himself by an oath of allegiance (to an Amir) will die the death of one belonging to the days of Jahiliyyah. -- Sahih Muslim, Book 020, Hadith 4562.
Hisham ibn Urwah reported on the authority of Abu Saleh on the authority of Abu Hurairah that Muhammad said:
Leaders will take charge of you after me, where the pious (one) will lead you with his piety and the impious (one) with his impiety, so only listen to them and obey them in everything which conforms with the truth (Islam). If they act rightly it is for your credit, and if they acted wrongly it is counted for you and against them.
Muslim narrated on the authority of al - A'araj, on the authority of Abu Hurairah, that Muhammad said:
Behold, the Imam (Caliph) is but a shield from behind whom the people fight and by whom they defend themselves.
Muslim reported on the authority of Abdel Aziz al - Muqrin, who said:
I accompanied Abu Hurairah for five years and heard him talking of Muhammd 's saying: The Prophets ruled over the children of Israel, whenever a Prophet died another Prophet succeeded him, but there will be no Prophet after me. There will be Khalifahs and they will number many. They asked: What then do you order us? He said: Fulfil the bay'ah (transaction / sale) to them one after the other and give them their due. Surely God will ask them about what He entrusted them with.
Many Islamic texts, including several ahadith, state that the Mahdi will be elected caliph and rule over a caliphate. A number of Islamic figures titled themselves both "caliph '' and "al - Mahdi '', including the first Abbasid caliph As - Saffah.
Al - Habbab Ibn ul - Munthir said, when the Sahaba met in the wake of the death of Muhammad, (at the thaqifa hall) of Bani Sa'ida:
Let there be one Amir from us and one Amir from you (meaning one from the Ansar and one from the Mohajireen).
Upon this Abu Bakr replied:
It is forbidden for Muslims to have two Amirs (rulers)...
Then he got up and addressed the Muslims.
It has additionally been reported that Abu Bakr went on to say on the day of Al - Saqifa:
It is forbidden for Muslims to have two Amirs for this would cause differences in their affairs and concepts, their unity would be divided and disputes would break out amongst them. The Sunnah would then be abandoned, the bida'a (innovations) would spread and Fitna would grow, and that is in no one 's interests.
The Sahaba agreed to this and selected Abu Bakr as their first Khaleef. Habbab ibn Mundhir who suggested the idea of two Ameers corrected himself and was the first to give Abu Bakr the Bay'ah. This indicates an Ijma as - Sahaba of all of the Sahaba. Ali ibni abi Talib, who was attending the body of Muhammad at the time, also consented to this.
Imam Ali whom the Shia revere said:
People must have an Amir... where the believer works under his Imara (rule) and under which the unbeliever would also benefit, until his rule ended by the end of his life (ajal), the booty (fay'i) would be gathered, the enemy would be fought, the routes would be made safe, the strong one will return what he took from the weak till the tyrant would be contained, and not bother anyone.
Scholars like Al - Mawardi, Ibn Hazm, Ahmad al - Qalqashandi, and Al - Sha ` rani stated that the global Muslim community can have only one leader at any given time. Al - Nawawi and Abd al - Jabbar ibn Ahmad declared it impermissible to give oaths of loyalty to more than one leader.
Al - Joziri said:
The Imams (scholars of the four schools of thought) - may Allah have mercy on them - agree that the Caliphate is an obligation, and that the Muslims must appoint a leader who would implement the injunctions of the religion, and give the oppressed justice against the oppressors. It is forbidden for Muslims to have two leaders in the world whether in agreement or discord.
Shia scholars have expressed similar opinions. However, the Shia school of thought states that the leader must not be appointed by the Islamic ummah, but must be appointed by God.
Al - Qurtubi said that the caliph is the "pillar upon which other pillars rest '', and said of the Quranic verse, "Indeed, man is made upon this earth a Caliph '':
This Ayah is a source in the selection of an Imaam, and a Khaleef, he is listened to and he is obeyed, for the word is united through him, and the Ahkam (laws) of the Caliph are implemented through him, and there is no difference regarding the obligation of that between the Ummah...
An - Nawawi said:
(The scholars) consented that it is an obligation upon the Muslims to select a Khalif
Al - Ghazali when writing of the potential consequences of losing the Caliphate said:
The judges will be suspended, the Wilayaat (provinces) will be nullified,... the decrees of those in authority will not be executed and all the people will be on the verge of Haraam
Ibn Taymiyyah said:
It is obligatory to know that the office in charge of commanding over the people (ie: the post of the Khaleefah) is one of the greatest obligations of the Deen. In fact, there is no establishment of the Deen except by it... this is the opinion of the salaf, such as Al - Fuḍayl ibn ' Iyāḍ, Ahmad ibn Hanbal and others
Once the subject of intense conflict and rivalry amongst Muslim rulers, the caliphate laid dormant and largely unclaimed since the 1920s. For the vast majority of Muslims the caliph as leader of the ummah, "is cherished both as memory and ideal '' as a time when Muslims "enjoyed scientific and military superiority globally ''. The Islamic prophet Muhammad is reported to have prophesied:
Prophethood will remain with you for as long as Allah wills it to remain, then Allah will raise it up whenever he wills to raise it up. Afterwards, there will be a Caliphate that follows the guidance of Prophethood remaining with you for as long as Allah wills it to remain. Then, He will raise it up whenever He wills to raise it up. Afterwards, there will be a reign of violently oppressive rule and it will remain with you for as long as Allah wills it to remain. Then, there will be a reign of tyrannical rule and it will remain for as long as Allah wills it to remain. Then, Allah will raise it up whenever He wills to raise it up. Then, there will be a Caliphate that follows the guidance of Prophethood.
The group Tanzim Qaidat al - Jihad fi Bilad al - Rafidayn (Al - Qaeda in Iraq) formed as an affiliate of Al - Qaeda network of Islamist militants during the Iraq War. The group eventually expanded into Syria and rose to prominence as the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) during the Syrian Civil War. In the summer of 2014, the group launched the Northern Iraq offensive, seizing the city of Mosul. The group declared itself a caliphate under Abu Bakr al - Baghdadi on 29 June 2014 and renamed itself as the "Islamic State ''. ISIL 's claim to be the highest authority of Muslims has been widely rejected. No prominent Muslim scholar has supported its declaration of caliphate; even Salafi - jihadist preachers accused the group of engaging in political showmanship and bringing disrepute to the notion of Islamic state.
ISIL has been at war with armed forces including the Iraqi Army, the Syrian Army, the Free Syrian Army, Al - Nusra Front, Syrian Democratic Forces, and Iraqi Kurdistan 's Peshmerga and People 's Protection Units (YPG) along with a 60 nation coalition in its efforts to establish a de facto state on Iraqi and Syrian territory.
The members of the Ahmadiyya community believe that the Ahmadiyya Caliphate (Arabic: Khilāfah) is the continuation of the Islamic Caliphate, first being the Rāshidūn (rightly guided) Caliphate (of Righteous Caliphs). This is believed to have been suspended with Ali, the son - in - law of Muhammad and re-established with the appearance of Mirza Ghulam Ahmad (1835 -- 1908, the founder of the movement) whom Ahmadis identify as the Promised Messiah and Mahdi.
Ahmadis maintain that in accordance with Quranic verses (such as) and numerous ahadith on the issue, Khilāfah can only be established by God Himself and is a divine blessing given to those who believe and work righteousness and uphold the unity of God, therefore any movement to establish the Khilāfah centered on human endeavours alone is bound to fail, particularly when the condition of the people diverges from the ' precepts of prophethood ' and they are as a result disunited, their inability to establish a Khilāfah caused fundamentally by the lack of righteousness in them. Although the khalifa is elected it is believed that God himself directs the hearts of believers towards an individual. Thus the khalifa is designated neither necessarily by right (i.e. the rightful or competent one in the eyes of the people at that time) nor merely by election but primarily by God.
According to Ahmadiyya thought, a khalifa need not be the head of a state; rather the Ahmadiyya community emphasises the spiritual and organisational significance of the Khilāfah. It is primarily a religious / spiritual office, with the purpose of upholding, strengthening and spreading Islam and of maintaining the high spiritual and moral standards within the global community established by Muhammad -- who was not merely a political leader but primarily a religious leader. If a khalifa does happen to bear governmental authority as a head of state, it is incidental and subsidiary in relation to his overall function as khalifa which is applicable to believers transnationally and not limited to one particular state.
Ahmadi Muslims believe that God has assured them that this Caliphate will endure to the end of time, depending on their righteousness and faith in God. The Khalifa provides unity, security, moral direction and progress for the community. It is required that the Khalifa carry out his duties through consultation and taking into consideration the views of the members of the Shura (consultative body). However, it is not incumbent upon him to always accept the views and recommendations of the members. The Khalifatul Masih has overall authority for all religious and organisational matters and is bound to decide and act in accordance with the Qur'an and sunnah.
A number of Islamist political parties and mujahideen called for the restoration of the caliphate by uniting Muslim nations, either through political action (e.g., Hizb ut - Tahrir), or through force (e.g., al - Qaeda). Various Islamist movements gained momentum in recent years with the ultimate aim of establishing a Caliphate. In 2014, ISIL / ISIS made a claim to re-establishing the Caliphate. Those advocating the re-establishment of a Caliphate differed in their methodology and approach. Some were locally oriented, mainstream political parties that had no apparent transnational objectives.
Abul A'la Maududi believed the caliph was not just an individual ruler who had to be restored, but was man 's representation of God 's authority on Earth:
Khilafa means representative. Man, according to Islam is the representative of "people '', His (God 's) viceregent; that is to say, by virtue of the powers delegated to him, and within the limits prescribed by the Qu'ran and the teaching of the prophet, the caliph is required to exercise Divine authority.
The Muslim Brotherhood advocates pan-Islamic unity and the implementation of Islamic law. Founder Hassan al - Banna wrote about the restoration of the Caliphate.
One transnational group whose ideology was based specifically on restoring the caliphate as a pan-Islamic state is Hizb ut - Tahrir (literally, "Party of Liberation ''). It is particularly strong in Central Asia and Europe and is growing in strength in the Arab world. It is based on the claim that Muslims can prove that God exists and that the Qur'an is the word of God. Hizb ut - Tahrir 's stated strategy is a non-violent political and intellectual struggle.
In Southeast Asia, groups such as Jemaah Islamiyah aimed to establish a Caliphate across Indonesia, Malaysia, Brunei and parts of Thailand, the Philippines and Cambodia.
Al - Qaeda has as one of its clearly stated goals the re-establishment of a caliphate. Its former leader, Osama bin Laden, called for Muslims to "establish the righteous caliphate of our umma ''. Al - Qaeda chiefs released a statement in 2005, under which, in what they call "phase five '' there will be "an Islamic state, or caliphate ''. Al - Qaeda has named its Internet newscast from Iraq "The Voice of the Caliphate ''. According to author and Egyptian native Lawrence Wright, Ayman al - Zawahiri, bin Laden 's mentor and al - Qaeda 's second - in - command until 2011, once "sought to restore the caliphate... which had formally ended in 1924 following the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire but which had not exercised real power since the thirteenth century. '' Zawahiri believes that once the caliphate is re-established, Egypt would become a rallying point for the rest of the Islamic world, leading the jihad against the West. "Then history would make a new turn, God willing '', Zawahiri later wrote, "in the opposite direction against the empire of the United States and the world 's Jewish government ''.
Scholar Olivier Roy writes that "early on, Islamists replace the concept of the caliphate... with that of the emir. '' There were a number of reasons including "that according to the classical authors, a caliph must be a member of the tribe of the Prophet (the Quraysh)... moreover, caliphs ruled societies that the Islamists do not consider to have been Islamic (the Ottoman Empire). '' This is not the view of the majority of Islamist groups, as both the Muslim Brotherhood and Hizb ut - Tahrir view the Ottoman state as a caliphate.
In his book The Early Islamic Conquests (1981), Fred Donner argues that the standard Arabian practice during the early Caliphates was for the prominent men of a kinship group, or tribe, to gather after a leader 's death and elect a leader from amongst themselves, although there was no specified procedure for this shura, or consultative assembly. Candidates were usually from the same lineage as the deceased leader, but they were not necessarily his sons. Capable men who would lead well were preferred over an ineffectual direct heir, as there was no basis in the majority Sunni view that the head of state or governor should be chosen based on lineage alone. Since the Umayyads, all Caliphates have been dynastic.
Traditionally, Sunni Muslim madhhabs all agreed that a Caliph must be a descendant of the Quraysh. Al - Baqillani has said that the leader of the Muslims simply should be from the majority.
Following the death of Muhammad, a meeting took place at Saqifah. At that meeting, Abu Bakr was elected caliph by the Muslim community. Sunni Muslims developed the belief that the caliph is a temporal political ruler, appointed to rule within the bounds of Islamic law (Sharia). The job of adjudicating orthodoxy and Islamic law was left to mujtahids, legal specialists collectively called the Ulama. Many Muslims call the first four caliphs the Rashidun, meaning the Rightly - Guided, because they are believed to have followed the Qur'an and the sunnah (example) of Muhammad.
The Shia believe in the Imamate, a principle by which rulers are Imams who are divinely chosen, infallible and sinless and must come from the Ahl al - Bayt regardless of majority opinion, shura or election. They claim that before his death, Muhammad had given many indications, in the hadith of the pond of Khumm in particular, that he considered Ali, his cousin and son - in - law, as his successor. For the Twelvers, Ali and his eleven descendants, the twelve Imams, are believed to have been considered, even before their birth, as the only valid Islamic rulers appointed and decreed by God. Shia Muslims believe that all the Muslim caliphs following Muhammad 's death to be illegitimate due to their unjust rule and that Muslims have no obligation to follow them, as the only guidance that was left behind, as ordained in the hadith of the two weighty things, was the Islamic holy book, the Quran and Muhammad 's family and offspring, who are believed to be infallible, therefore able to lead society and the Muslim community with complete justice and equity. The Prophet 's own grandson, and third Shia Imam, Hussain ibn Ali led an uprising against injustice and the oppressive rule of the Muslim caliph at the time at the Battle of Karbala. Shia Muslims emphasise that values of social justice, and speaking out against oppression and tyranny are not merely moral values, but values essential to a persons religiosity.
After these Twelve Imams, the potential Caliphs, had passed, and in the absence of the possibility of a government headed by their Imams, some Twelvers believe it was necessary that a system of Shi'i Islamic government based on the Guardianship of the Islamic Jurist be developed, due to the need for some form of government, where an Islamic jurist or faqih rules Muslims, suffices. However this idea, developed by the marja ' Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini and established in Iran, is not universally accepted among the Shia.
Ismailis believe in the Imamate principle mentioned above, but they need not be secular rulers as well.
The Majlis al - Shura (literally "consultative assembly '') was a representation of the idea of consultative governance. The importance of this is premised by the following verses of the Qur'an:
The majlis is also the means to elect a new caliph. Al - Mawardi has written that members of the majlis should satisfy three conditions: they must be just, have enough knowledge to distinguish a good caliph from a bad one and have sufficient wisdom and judgement to select the best caliph. Al - Mawardi also said that in emergencies when there is no caliphate and no majlis, the people themselves should create a majlis and select a list of candidates for caliph; then the majlis should select a caliph from the list of candidates.
Some Islamist interpretations of the role of the Majlis al - Shura are the following: In an analysis of the shura chapter of the Qur'an, Islamist author Sayyid Qutb argues that Islam only requires the ruler to consult with some of the representatives of the ruled and govern within the context of the Sharia. Taqiuddin al - Nabhani, the founder of a transnational political movement devoted to the revival of the Caliphate, writes that although the Shura is an important part of "the ruling structure '' of the Islamic caliphate, "(it is) not one of its pillars '', meaning that its neglect would not make a Caliph 's rule un-Islamic such as to justify a rebellion. However, the Muslim Brotherhood, the largest Islamic movement in Egypt, has toned down these Islamist views by accepting in principle that in the modern age the Majlis al - Shura is democracy but during its governance of Egypt in 2013, the Muslim Brotherhood did not put that principle into practice.
Al - Mawardi said that if the rulers meet their Islamic responsibilities to the public the people must obey their laws, but a Caliph or ruler who becomes either unjust or severely ineffective must be impeached via the Majlis al - Shura. Al - Juwayni argued that Islam is the goal of the ummah, so any ruler who deviates from this goal must be impeached. Al - Ghazali believed that oppression by a caliph is sufficient grounds for impeachment. Rather than just relying on impeachment, Ibn Hajar al - Asqalani stated that the people have an obligation to rebel if the caliph begins to act with no regard for Islamic law. Ibn Hajar al - Asqalani said that to ignore such a situation is haraam and those who can not revolt from inside the caliphate should launch a struggle from outside. Al - Asqalani used two ayahs from the Qur'an to justify this:
"... And they (the sinners on qiyama) will say, ' Our Lord! We obeyed our leaders and our chiefs, and they misled us from the right path. Our Lord! Give them (the leaders) double the punishment you give us and curse them with a very great curse '... ''
Islamic lawyers commented that when the rulers refuse to step down after being impeached through the Majlis, becoming dictators through the support of a corrupt army, if the majority is in agreement they have the option to launch a revolution. Many noted that this option is to be exercised only after factoring in the potential cost of life.
The following hadith establishes the principle of rule of law in relation to nepotism and accountability
Narrated ' Aisha: The people of Quraish worried about the lady from Bani Makhzum who had committed theft. They asked, "Who will intercede for her with Allah 's Apostle? '' Some said, "No one dare to do so except Usama bin Zaid the beloved one to Allah 's Apostle. '' When Usama spoke about that to Allah 's Apostle; Allah 's Apostle said: "Do you try to intercede for somebody in a case connected with Allah 's Prescribed Punishments? '' Then he got up and delivered a sermon saying, "What destroyed the nations preceding you, was that if a noble amongst them stole, they would forgive him, and if a poor person amongst them stole, they would inflict Allah 's Legal punishment on him. By Allah, if Fatima, the daughter of Muhammad (my daughter) stole, I would cut off her hand. ''
Various Islamic lawyers, however, place multiple conditions and stipulations on the execution of such a law, making it difficult to implement. For example, the poor can not be penalised for stealing out of poverty, and during a time of drought in the Rashidun caliphate, capital punishment was suspended until the effects of the drought passed.
Islamic jurists later formulated the concept that all classes were subject to the law of the land, and no person is above the law; officials and private citizens alike have a duty to obey the same law. Furthermore, a Qadi (Islamic judge) was not allowed to discriminate on the grounds of religion, race, colour, kinship or prejudice. In a number of cases, Caliphs had to appear before judges as they prepared to render their verdict.
According to Noah Feldman, a law professor at Harvard University, the system of legal scholars and jurists responsible for the rule of law was replaced by the codification of Sharia by the Ottoman Empire in the early 19th century:
During the Muslim Agricultural Revolution, the Caliphate understood that real incentives were needed to increase productivity and wealth and thus enhance tax revenues. A social transformation took place as a result of changing land ownership giving individuals of any gender, ethnic or religious background the right to buy, sell, mortgage and inherit land for farming or any other purpose. Signatures were required on contracts for every major financial transaction concerning agriculture, industry, commerce and employment. Copies of the contract were usually kept by both parties involved.
There are similarities between Islamic economics and leftist or socialist economic policies. Islamic jurists have argued that privatization of the origin of oil, gas and other fire - producing fuels, as well as lakes, waterways, and grazing land is forbidden. Some have even claimed that "Pasture '' might be applied to all agricultural land, though they are in the minority. The principle of public or joint ownership has been drawn by Muslim jurists from the following hadith of Muhammad: "The Muslims are partners in three, water, pastures and fire '' Islamic jurists hold that "in water, pastures and fire '' includes other natural resources as well, including petroleum, and they specify that "pastures '' means land that is not privately owned, where people graze their animals. It does not include privately owned farm land, orchards, groves, etc, as it is a well known fact that the Companions of Prophet Muhammad, held privately owned orchards and farm lands in the first Islamic state at Medina. They also make exceptions in the case of processing, packaging, and selling water, as long as there is no dire need for it by the people. The legal ruling by the majority of ulema is that water is public property, while it is still in the lake, river, etc, but when it is put into a container, it becomes the property of the owner of the vessel. According to Saleh Al - Fawzan, "If a person has collected water in his vessel or in his pond, then he has taken possession of it and it is permissible for him to sell it, because he has collected it and it has come into his possession, and he has expended effort to acquire it, so it has become his property. '' However, if the Muslim community is in dire need of water, then it must be shared, regardless of whether it came from public waterways or a private well. Aside from similarities to socialism, early forms of proto - capitalism and free markets were present in the Caliphate, since an early market economy and early form of merchant capitalism developed between the 8th and 12th centuries, which some refer to as "Islamic capitalism ''. A vigorous monetary economy developed based on the circulation of a stable high - value currency (the dinar) and the integration of previously independent monetary areas. Business techniques and forms of business organisation employed during this time included early contracts, bills of exchange, long - distance international trade, early forms of partnership (mufawada) such as limited partnerships (mudaraba) and early forms of credit, debt, profit, loss, capital (al - mal), capital accumulation (nama al - mal), circulating capital, capital expenditure, revenue, cheques, promissory notes, trusts (waqf), startup companies, savings accounts, transactional accounts, pawning, loaning, exchange rates, bankers, money changers, ledgers, deposits, assignments, the double - entry bookkeeping system, and lawsuits. Organisational enterprises similar to corporations independent from the state also existed in the medieval Islamic world. Many of these concepts were adopted and further advanced in medieval Europe from the 13th century onwards.
Early Islamic law included collection of Zakat (charity), one of the Five Pillars of Islam, since the time of the first Islamic State, established by Allah 's Messenger at Medina. The taxes (including Zakat and Jizya) collected in the treasury (Bayt al - mal) of an Islamic government were used to provide income for the needy, including the poor, elderly, orphans, widows and the disabled. During the Caliphate of Abu Bakr, a number of the Arab tribes, who had accepted Islam at the hand of The Prophet Muhammad, rebelled and refused to continue to pay the Zakat, leading to the Ridda Wars. Caliph Umar added to the duties of the state an allowance, paid on behalf of every man woman and child, starting at birth, creating the worlds first state run social welfare program.
Maya Shatzmiller states that the demographic behavior of medieval Islamic society varied in some significant aspects from other agricultural societies. Nomadic groups within places like the deserts of Egypt and Morocco maintained high birth rates compared to rural and urban populations, though periods of extremely high nomadic birth rates seem to have occurred in occasional "surges '' rather than on a continuous basis. Individuals living in large cities had much lower birth rates, possibly due to the use of birth control methods and political or economic instability. This led to population declines in some regions. While several studies have shown that Islamic scholars enjoyed a life expectancy of 59 - 75 years between the eleventh and thirteenth centuries, the overall life expectancy of men in the same societies was lower. Factoring in infant mortality, Lawrence Conrad estimates the average lifespan in the early Islamic Caliphate to be above 35 years for the general population, compared to around 40 years for the population of Classical Greece and 31 years for the population of thirteenth century England.
The early Islamic Empire also had the highest literacy rates among pre-modern societies, alongside the city of classical Athens in the 4th century BC, and later, China after the introduction of printing from the 10th century. One factor for the relatively high literacy rates in the early Islamic Empire was its parent - driven educational marketplace, as the state did not systematically subsidize educational services until the introduction of state funding under Nizam al - Mulk in the 11th century. Another factor was the diffusion of paper from China, which led to an efflorescence of books and written culture in Islamic society; thus papermaking technology transformed Islamic society (and later, the rest of Afro - Eurasia) from an oral to scribal culture, comparable to the later shifts from scribal to typographic culture, and from typographic culture to the Internet. Other factors include the widespread use of paper books in Islamic society (more so than any other previously existing society), the study and memorisation of the Qur'an, flourishing commercial activity and the emergence of the Maktab and Madrasah educational institutions.
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mumford and sons i will wait video location | I Will Wait - wikipedia
"I Will Wait '' is a song by British rock band Mumford & Sons. The track was first released in the United States on August 7, 2012 as the lead single from the band 's second studio album, Babel (2012). This is their most successful song to date surpassing their biggest hits, "Little Lion Man '' and "The Cave ''. It reached the top ten in the New Zealand, Irish, Canadian and Scottish national charts, and was voted into fifth place in Australian radio station Triple J 's Hottest 100 of 2012. The song is playable in the video game Guitar Hero Live.
The music video was directed by Fred & Nick. It was filmed at Red Rocks Amphitheatre in Morrison, Colorado.
The song has received generally favourable reviews. Grady Smith of Entertainment Weekly gave the song a positive review, saying how the song "hearkens back to their Grammy - nomination - festooned single "The Cave '' with its shouted refrain, triumphant horns, a driving kick drum, and an earnest lyric about a relationship so perfect it has Marcus Mumford kneeling down in reverence, raising his hands, and wishing for his mind to be "freed from the lies. '' '' Stephanie Middleton of The Celebrity Cafe said, "With untouched vocals and harmonies, the boys manage to create yet another genuine Mumford & Sons track. ''
Katie Hasty of HitFix gave the song a B+, saying "Marcus is a softie, but he 's got a problem with repetition, '' but also said "they bring it home when they jump up an octave and beat the hell out of the chorus. '' She concluded with, "This song could be really huge. '' Liv Carter of Urban Country News awarded the song a ' thumbs - up '. Reviewing the song after it started receiving airplay at country radio, she called it "a perfect piece of folk - rock that more than deserves to be introduced to the wider country radio audience. '' Rolling Stone magazine named the song the 13th best song of 2012.
The song sold 153,000 copies in the United States in its first week of release. It is also their highest - charting song both in the US and the UK to date. It has sold over 2 million copies in the US as of April 2013, their second song to do so.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
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what act allowed british soldiers to stay in colonists homes | Quartering Acts - wikipedia
Quartering Act is a name given to two or more Acts of British Parliament requiring local governments of the American colonies to provide the British soldiers with housing and food. Each of the Quartering Acts was an amendment to the Mutiny Act and required annual renewal by Parliament. They were originally intended as a response to issues that arose during the French and Indian War and soon became a source of tensions between the inhabitants of the Thirteen Colonies and the government in London, England. These tensions would later lead toward the American Revolution.
General Thomas Gage, commander - in - chief of forces in British North America, and other British officers who had fought in the French and Indian War, had found it hard to persuade colonial assemblies to pay for quartering and provisioning of troops on the march. Therefore, he asked Parliament to do something. Most colonies had supplied provisions during the war, but the issue was disputed in peacetime. The Province of New York was their headquarters, because the assembly had passed an Act to provide for the quartering of British regulars, but it expired on January 2, 1764, The result was the Quartering Act of 1765, which went far beyond what Gage had requested. No standing army had been kept in the colonies before the French and Indian War, so the colonies asked why a standing army was needed after the French had been defeated in battle.
This first Quartering Act was given Royal Assent on May 15, 1765, and provided that Great Britain would house its soldiers in American barracks and public houses, as by the Mutiny Act of 1765, but if its soldiers outnumbered the housing available, would quarter them in "inns, livery stables, ale houses, victualing houses, and the houses of sellers of wine and houses of persons selling of rum, brandy, strong water, cider or metheglin '', and if numbers required in "uninhabited houses, outhouses, barns, or other buildings. '' Colonial authorities were required to pay the cost of housing and feeding these soldiers.
When 1,500 British troops arrived at New York City in 1766 the New York Provincial Assembly refused to comply with the Quartering Act and did not supply billeting for the troops. The troops had to remain on their ships. With its great impact on the city, a skirmish occurred in which one colonist was wounded following the Assembly 's refusal to provide quartering. For failure to comply with the Quartering Act, Parliament suspended the Province of New York 's Governor and legislature in 1767 and 1769, but never carried it out, since the Assembly soon agreed to contribute money toward the quartering of troops; the New York Assembly allocated funds for the quartering of British troops in 1771. The Quartering Act was circumvented in all colonies other than Pennsylvania.
This act expired on March 24, 1776.
The Quartering Act of 1774 was known as one of the Coercive Acts in Great Britain, and as part of the intolerable acts in the colonies. This act applied to all colonies.
During the French and Indian War Britain had forcibly seized quarters in private dwellings. In the American Revolutionary War, the New York Provincial Congress barracked Continental Army troops in private homes. The Americans strongly opposed the quartering of British troops in their homes because the British Parliament had created the Mutiny Act under which the British army was supposed to be prohibited against quartering troops in private homes of citizens against their will. Although Parliament passed these laws in 1723, 1754, and 1756 the British Army ignored them in the Colonies. Because of this violation of their rights the colonies believed that liberty itself would be destroyed. Along with the fear of a loss of liberty, the colonists felt that the British army should be subordinate to civil authority since Parliament already stated that the army could n't force quartering through the Mutiny Act.
With the growing worries of illegal quartering by the British, the Pennsylvania Assembly met and denied any quartering bill that guaranteed citizens could deny soldiers to stay in private homes. When the Assembly finally passed the quartering bill, the passage stating how soldiers could or could not be quartered in homes was omitted and it only outlined how the soldiers were to be quartered in public houses. That winter 's harsh conditions led the British commander, Col. Henry Bouquet, to order the colonists to quarter his troops in other places than just private homes. Bouquet felt his troops could n't survive the winter without better living conditions. Bouquet wrote a letter to the governor of Pennsylvania telling him to issue a warrant to allow the quartering of his troops in private homes. The governor issued the warrant but left it blank instead of directly listing what Col. Bouquet could or could not do. The Pennsylvania Assembly was outraged when they learned what their governor had done. But instead of asking for a veto on the warrant they asked for a review on how many troops could be quartered in a single home at a time. But the only response they received was that the king 's troops must and will be quartered. In response to this the Assembly met on a Sunday for the first time. There they wrote a letter to the governor asking why their constitutional rights were being violated when The British Parliament laws favored the colonists.
In response to what was happening to the colonists, Benjamin Franklin opened up an Assembly meeting suggesting that soldiers could be quartered in public houses in the suburbs. This meant instead of the troops be directly in the city they would be in houses on the outskirts of the city on farms where they could potentially have more space. Governor Denny attended this Pennsylvania meeting and bluntly answered that the commander in chief, Lord Loudoun, had requested quartering for the troops in Philadelphia and if anybody had a problem with this then they should talk to him. The committeemen brought to light that they felt Denny was siding with the British military when instead as governor he should work to protect the rights of the colonists. The ongoing quarrel between State Assembly, governor, and Lord Loudoun was n't a dispute between legislature and executive powers; but a contest for political liberty. The colonists had the same rights through British Parliament laws but they were not granted to them and instead threatened by bayonets for personal gain.
In Albany, New York the mayor had allocated $1,000 for the building of barracks for Loudoun 's troops, but the barracks had not been built by the time the troops arrived. The mayor told Loudoun that he knew his rights and refused to let the troops be quartered in Albany. When the mayor stayed adamant on his beliefs of not allowing the troops to be quartered, Loudoun had them forcefully apply themselves in private homes.
In an early August committee meeting in Boston, Massachusetts, the governor was able to get the committee to pass a bill to grant money for the building of barracks. These barracks would accommodate up to one thousand troops. The barracks were built and all that had to be done was convince Loudoun to obey the procedures set by parliament. Everything went smoothly until two recruiting officers complained to governor Pawnall of Massachusetts that they were denied quarters in Boston. The response was that it was illegal to quarter in private homes in Boston and the committeemen suggested that they stay at the newly built barracks at Castle William. The timing of this new meeting with Lord Loudoun was extremely unfortunate. He was currently suffering losses in northern New York while trying to hold off the French and Indians. When he heard of what happened with the committeemen he argued that the current military crisis made it acceptable to quarter troops in private homes. A bill was then brought to the governor to sign that said troops could be quartered in homes but innkeepers had the right to complain to a judge if they felt too many soldiers were there. Loudoun was enraged with this and threatened to force troops upon civilians again. By the end of December, the Massachusetts legislature was able to get Loudoun to agree to quarter his troops at Castle William, which meant through the long process the colonists, were able to uphold their legal rights.
On May 3, 1765 the British Parliament met and finally passed a Quartering Act for the Americans. The act stated that troops could only be quartered in barracks and if there was n't enough space in barracks then they were to be quartered in public houses and inns. If still not enough space then the governor and council were to find vacant space, but at no time was it legal to quarter troops in private homes.
A section of the United States Declaration of Independence listing the colonies ' grievances against the King explicitly notes:
He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his Assent to their Acts of pretended Legislation: For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us.
The Third Amendment to the United States Constitution, expressly prohibited the military from peacetime quartering of troops without consent of the owner of the house. A product of their times, the relevance of the Acts and the Third Amendment has greatly declined since the era of the American Revolution, having been the subject of only one case in over 200 years, Engblom v. Carey in 1982.
The Quartering Act was one of the reasons for the Second Amendment to the United States Constitution, which prohibits infringing on the right of the people to keep and bear arms. Standing armies were mistrusted, and the First Congress considered quartering of troops to have been one of the tools of oppression before and during the American revolution.
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how did czechoslovakia react to germany’s annexation of sudetenland | German occupation of Czechoslovakia - wikipedia
The German occupation of Czechoslovakia (1938 -- 1945) began with the German annexation of Czechoslovakia 's border regions known collectively as the Sudetenland, under terms outlined by the Munich Agreement. German leader Adolf Hitler 's pretext for this action was the alleged privations suffered by the ethnic German population living in those regions. New and extensive Czechoslovak border fortifications were also located in the same area.
Following the Anschluss of Austria to Nazi Germany, in March 1938, the conquest of Czechoslovakia became Hitler 's next ambition. The incorporation of the Sudetenland into Germany that began on 1 October 1938 left the rest of Czechoslovakia weak, and it became powerless to resist subsequent occupation. Part of the borderland region known as Zaolzie was occupied and subsequently returned to Poland after Czechoslovakia previously annexed it from Poland prior during the Polish - Soviet War. On 15 March 1939, the German Wehrmacht moved into the remainder of Czechoslovakia and, from Prague Castle, Hitler proclaimed Bohemia and Moravia the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia. The occupation ended with the surrender of Germany following World War II.
Sudeten German pro-Nazi leader Konrad Henlein offered the Sudeten German Party (SdP) as the agent for Hitler 's campaign. Henlein met with Hitler in Berlin on 28 March 1938, where he was instructed to raise demands unacceptable to the Czechoslovak government led by president Edvard Beneš. On 24 April, the SdP issued the Karlsbader Program, demanding autonomy for the Sudetenland and the freedom to profess National Socialist ideology. If Henlein 's demands were granted, the Sudetenland would then be able to align itself with Nazi Germany.
I am asking neither that Germany be allowed to oppress three and a half million Frenchmen, nor am I asking that three and a half million Englishmen be placed at our mercy. Rather I am simply demanding that the oppression of three and a half million Germans in Czechoslovakia cease and that the inalienable right to self - determination take its place.
As the tepid reaction to the German Anschluss with Austria had shown, the governments of France, the United Kingdom and Czechoslovakia were set on avoiding war at any cost. The French government did not wish to face Germany alone and took its lead from the British government and its prime minister, Neville Chamberlain. Chamberlain contended that Sudeten German grievances were justified and believed that Hitler 's intentions were limited. Britain and France, therefore, advised Czechoslovakia to concede to the German demands. Beneš resisted, and on 20 May 1938 a partial mobilization was under way in response to possible German invasion. It is suggested that mobilization could have been launched on basis of Soviet misinformation about Germany being on verge of invasion, which aimed to trigger war between Western powers. On 30 May, Hitler signed a secret directive for war against Czechoslovakia to begin no later than 1 October.
In the meantime, the British government demanded that Beneš request a mediator. Not wishing to sever his government 's ties with Western Europe, Beneš reluctantly accepted. The British appointed Lord Runciman and instructed him to persuade Beneš to agree to a plan acceptable to the Sudeten Germans. On 2 September, Beneš submitted the Fourth Plan, granting nearly all the demands of the Karlsbader Programm. Intent on obstructing conciliation, however, the SdP held demonstrations that provoked police action in Ostrava on 7 September. The Sudeten Germans broke off negotiations on 13 September, after which violence and disruption ensued. As Czechoslovak troops attempted to restore order, Henlein flew to Germany, and on 15 September issued a proclamation demanding the takeover of the Sudetenland by Germany.
On the same day, Hitler met with Chamberlain and demanded the swift takeover of the Sudetenland by the Third Reich under threat of war. The Czechs, Hitler claimed, were slaughtering the Sudeten Germans. Chamberlain referred the demand to the British and French governments; both accepted. The Czechoslovak government resisted, arguing that Hitler 's proposal would ruin the nation 's economy and lead ultimately to German control of all of Czechoslovakia. The United Kingdom and France issued an ultimatum, making a French commitment to Czechoslovakia contingent upon acceptance. On 21 September, Czechoslovakia capitulated. The next day, however, Hitler added new demands, insisting that the claims of Poland and Hungary also be satisfied. Romania was also invited to share in the division of Carpathian Ruthenia, but refused, because of being an ally of Czechoslovakia (see Little Entente).
The Czechoslovak capitulation precipitated an outburst of national indignation. In demonstrations and rallies, Czechs and Slovaks called for a strong military government to defend the integrity of the state. A new cabinet -- under General Jan Syrový -- was installed, and on 23 September 1938 a decree of general mobilization was issued. The Czechoslovak army -- modern and possessing an excellent system of frontier fortifications -- was prepared to fight. The Soviet Union announced its willingness to come to Czechoslovakia 's assistance. Beneš, however, refused to go to war without the support of the Western powers.
Hitler gave a speech in Berlin on 26 September 1938 and declared that the Sudetenland was "the last territorial demand I have to make in Europe ''. He also stated that he had told Chamberlain, "I have assured him further that, and this I repeat here before you, once this issue has been resolved, there will no longer be any further territorial problems for Germany in Europe! ''
On 28 September, Chamberlain appealed to Hitler for a conference. Hitler met the next day, at Munich, with the chiefs of governments of France, Italy and Britain. The Czechoslovak government was neither invited nor consulted. On 29 September, the Munich Agreement was signed by Germany, Italy, France, and Britain. The Czechoslovak government capitulated on 30 September and agreed to abide by the agreement. The Munich Agreement stipulated that Czechoslovakia must cede Sudeten territory to Germany. German occupation of the Sudetenland would be completed by 10 October. An international commission representing Germany, Britain, France, Italy, and Czechoslovakia would supervise a plebiscite to determine the final frontier. Britain and France promised to join in an international guarantee of the new frontiers against unprovoked aggression. Germany and Italy, however, would not join in the guarantee until the Polish and Hungarian minority problems were settled.
On 5 October 1938, Beneš resigned as President of Czechoslovakia, realising that the fall of Czechoslovakia was a fait accompli. Following the outbreak of World War II, he would form a Czechoslovak government - in - exile in London.
In early November 1938, under the First Vienna Award, which was a result of the Munich agreement, Czechoslovakia (and later Slovakia) -- after it had failed to reach a compromise with Hungary and Poland -- was forced by Germany and Italy to cede southern Slovakia (one third of Slovak territory) to Hungary, while Poland invaded Zaolzie territory shortly after.
As a result, Bohemia, Moravia and Silesia lost about 38 % of their combined area to Germany, with some 3.2 million German and 750,000 Czech inhabitants. Hungary, in turn, received 11,882 km (4,588 sq mi) in southern Slovakia and southern Ruthenia; according to a 1941 census, about 86.5 % of the population in this territory was Hungarian. Meanwhile, Poland annexed the town of Český Těšín with the surrounding area (some 906 km (350 sq mi)), some 250,000 inhabitants, Poles made about 36 % of population, and two minor border areas in northern Slovakia, more precisely in the regions Spiš and Orava. (226 km (87 sq mi), 4,280 inhabitants, only 0.3 % Poles).
Soon after Munich, 115,000 Czechs and 30,000 Germans fled to the remaining rump of Czechoslovakia. According to the Institute for Refugee Assistance, the actual count of refugees on 1 March 1939 stood at almost 150,000.
On 4 December 1938, there were elections in Reichsgau Sudetenland, in which 97.32 % of the adult population voted for the National Socialist Party. About 500,000 Sudeten Germans joined the National Socialist Party, which was 17.34 % of the German population in Sudetenland (the average National Socialist Party participation in Nazi Germany was 7.85 %). This means the Sudetenland was the most pro-Nazi region in the Third Reich. Because of their knowledge of the Czech language, many Sudeten Germans were employed in the administration of the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia and in Nazi organizations (Gestapo, etc.) The most notable was Karl Hermann Frank, the SS and police general and Secretary of State in the Protectorate.
The greatly weakened Czechoslovak Republic was forced to grant major concessions to the non-Czechs. The executive committee of the Slovak People 's Party met at Žilina on 5 October 1938, and with the acquiescence of all Slovak parties except the Social Democrats formed an autonomous Slovak government under Jozef Tiso. Similarly, the two major factions in Subcarpathian Ruthenia, the Russophiles and Ukrainophiles, agreed on the establishment of an autonomous government, which was constituted on 8 October. Reflecting the spread of modern Ukrainian national consciousness, the pro-Ukrainian faction, led by Avhustyn Voloshyn, gained control of the local government and Subcarpathian Ruthenia was renamed Carpatho - Ukraine. In 1939, during the occupation, the Nazis banned Russian ballet.
A last - ditch attempt to save Czechoslovakia from total ruin was made by the British and French governments, who on 27 January 1939, concluded an agreement of financial assistance with the Czechoslovak government. In this agreement, the British and French governments undertook to lend the Czechoslovak government ₤ 8 million and make a gift of ₤ 4 million. Part of the funds were allocated to help resettle Czechs and Slovaks who had fled from territories lost to Germany, Hungary, and Poland in the Munich Agreement or the Vienna Arbitration Award.
In November 1938, Emil Hácha -- succeeding Beneš -- was elected president of the federated Second Republic, renamed Czecho - Slovakia and consisting of three parts: Bohemia and Moravia, Slovakia, and Carpatho - Ukraine. Lacking its natural frontier and having lost its costly system of border fortification, the new state was militarily indefensible. In January 1939, negotiations between Germany and Poland broke down. Hitler -- intent on war against Poland -- needed to eliminate Czechoslovakia first. He scheduled a German invasion of Bohemia and Moravia for the morning of 15 March. In the interim, he negotiated with the Slovak People 's Party and with Hungary to prepare the dismemberment of the republic before the invasion. On 13 March, he invited Tiso to Berlin and on 14 March, the Slovak Diet convened and unanimously declared Slovak independence. Carpatho - Ukraine also declared independence but Hungarian troops occupied it on 15 March and eastern Slovakia on 23 March.
Hitler summoned President Hácha to Berlin and during the early hours of 15 March, informed Hácha of the imminent German invasion. Threatening a Luftwaffe attack on Prague, Hitler persuaded Hácha to order the capitulation of the Czechoslovak army. Hácha suffered a heart attack during the meeting, and had to be kept awake by medical staff, eventually giving in and accepting Hitler 's surrender terms. Then on the morning of 15 March, German troops entered remaining Czech parts of Czechoslovakia (Rest - Tschechei in German), meeting practically no resistance (the only instance of organized resistance took place in Místek where an infantry company commanded by Karel Pavlík fought invading German troops). The Hungarian invasion of Carpatho - Ukraine encountered resistance but the Hungarian army quickly crushed it. On 16 March, Hitler went to Czech lands and from Prague Castle proclaimed the German protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia.
Besides violating his promises at Munich, the annexation of the rest of Czechoslovakia was -- unlike Hitler 's previous actions -- not described in Mein Kampf. After having repeatedly stated that he was only interested in pan-Germanism, Germany had now conquered seven million Czechs. Hitler 's proclamation creating the protectorate claimed that "Bohemia and Moravia have for thousands of years belonged to the Lebensraum of the German people ''. Thus, independent Czechoslovakia collapsed in the wake of foreign aggression and internal tensions.
Subsequently, interwar Czechoslovakia has been idealized by its proponents as the only bastion of democracy surrounded by authoritarian and fascist regimes. It has also been condemned by its detractors as an artificial and unworkable creation of intellectuals supported by the great powers. Interwar Czechoslovakia comprised lands and peoples that were far from being integrated into a modern nation - state. Moreover, the dominant Czechs -- who had suffered political discrimination under the Habsburgs -- were not able to cope with the demands of other nationalities; however, some of the minority demands served as mere pretexts to justify intervention by Germany. Czechoslovakia was able to maintain a viable economy and a democratic political system under the adverse circumstances of the inter-war period.
Shortly before World War II, Czechoslovakia ceased to exist. Its territory was divided into the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia, the newly declared Slovak State and the short - lived Carpathian Ukraine. While much of the former Czechoslovakia came under the control of the Third Reich, Hungarian forces (aided by Poland) swiftly overran the Carpathian Ukraine. Poland and Hungary annexed some areas (e.g., Zaolzie, Southern Slovakia) in the autumn of 1938. The Zaolzie region became part of the Third Reich after the German invasion of Poland in September 1939.
The German economy -- burdened by heavy militarisation -- urgently needed foreign currency. Setting up an artificially high exchange - rate between the Czechoslovak koruna and the Reichsmark brought consumer goods to Germans (and soon created shortages in the Czech lands).
Czechoslovakia had fielded a modern army of 35 divisions and was a major manufacturer of machine guns, tanks, and artillery, most of them assembled in the Škoda factory in Plzeň. Many Czech factories continued to produce Czech designs until converted for German designs. Czechoslovakia also had other major manufacturing companies. Entire steel and chemical factories were moved from Czechoslovakia and reassembled in Linz (which incidentally remains a heavily industrialized area of Austria). In a speech delivered in the Reichstag, Hitler stressed the military importance of occupation, noting that by occupying Czechoslovakia, Germany gained 2,175 field cannons, 469 tanks, 500 anti-aircraft artillery pieces, 43,000 machine guns, 1,090,000 military rifles, 114,000 pistols, about a billion rounds of ammunition and three million anti-aircraft grenades. This amount of weaponry would be sufficient to arm about half of the then Wehrmacht. Czechoslovak weaponry later played a major part in the German conquests of Poland (1939) and France (1940) -- countries that had pressured Czechoslovakia 's surrender to Germany in 1938.
Beneš -- the leader of the Czechoslovak government - in - exile -- and František Moravec -- head of Czechoslovak military intelligence -- organized and coordinated a resistance network. Hácha, Prime Minister Alois Eliáš, and the Czechoslovak resistance acknowledged Beneš 's leadership. Active collaboration between London and the Czechoslovak home front was maintained throughout the war years. The most important event of the resistance was Operation Anthropoid, the assassination of Reinhard Heydrich, SS leader Heinrich Himmler 's deputy and the then Protector of Bohemia and Moravia. Infuriated, Hitler ordered the arrest and execution of 10,000 randomly selected Czechs. Over 10,000 were arrested, and at least 1,300 executed. According to one estimate, 5,000 were killed in reprisals. The assassination resulted in one of the most well - known reprisals of the war. The Nazis completely destroyed the villages of Lidice and Ležáky; all men over 16 years from the village were murdered, and the rest of the population was sent to Nazi concentration camps where many women and nearly all the children were killed.
The Czechoslovak resistance comprised four main groups:
The democratic groups -- ON, PÚ, and PVVZ -- united in early 1940 and formed the Central Committee of the Home Resistance (Ústřední výbor odboje domácího, ÚVOD). Involved primarily in intelligence gathering, the ÚVOD cooperated with a Soviet intelligence organization in Prague. Following the German invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941, the democratic groups attempted to create a united front that would include the KSČ. Heydrich 's appointment in the fall thwarted these efforts. By mid-1942, the Germans had succeeded in exterminating the most experienced elements of the Czechoslovak resistance forces.
Czechoslovak forces regrouped in 1942 -- 1943. The Council of the Three (R3) -- in which the communist underground was also represented -- emerged as the focal point of the resistance. The R3 prepared to assist the liberating armies of the U.S. and the Soviet Union. In cooperation with Red Army partisan units, the R3 developed a guerrilla structure.
Guerrilla activity intensified with a rising number of parachuted units in 1944, leading to establishment of partisan groups such as 1st Czechoslovak Partisan Brigade of Jan Žižka, Jan Kozina Brigade or Master Jan Hus Brigade, and especially after the formation of a provisional Czechoslovak government in Košice on 4 April 1945. "National committees '' took over the administration of towns as the Germans were expelled. More than 4,850 such committees were formed between 1944 and the end of the war under the supervision of the Red Army. On 5 May, a national uprising began spontaneously in Prague, and the newly formed Czech National Council (cs) almost immediately assumed leadership of the revolt. Over 1,600 barricades were erected throughout the city, and some 30,000 Czech men and women battled for three days against 40,000 German troops backed by tanks, aircraft and artillery. On 8 May, the German Wehrmacht capitulated; Soviet troops arrived on 9 May.
There are sources that highlighted the more favorable treatment of the Czechs during the German occupation in comparison to the treatment of the Poles and the Ukrainians. This is attributed to the view within the Nazi hierarchy that a large swath of the populace was "capable of Aryanization, '' hence, the Czechs were not subjected to a similar degree of random and organized acts of brutality that their Polish counterparts experienced. Such capacity for Aryanization was supported by the position that part of the Czech population had German ancestry. On the other hand, the Czechs / Slavs were not considered by the Germans as a racial equal due to its classification as a mixture of races with Jewish and Asiatic influences. This was illustrated in a series of discussion, which denigrated it as less valuable and, specifically, the Czechs as "dangerous and must be handled differently from Aryan peoples. ''
Aside from the inconsistency of animosity towards Slavs, there is also the claim that the forceful but restrained policy in Czechoslovakia was partly driven by the need to keep the population nourished and complacent so that it can carry out the vital work of arms production in the factories. By 1939, the country was already serving as a major hub of military production for Germany, manufacturing aircraft, tanks, artillery, and other armaments.
All these, however, do not indicate that the Czechs were treated lightly as demonstrated in the violent German reprisals to the Czech resistance initiatives and by over 360.000 Czechoslovak wartime casualties.
The Slovak National Uprising ("1944 Uprising '') was an armed struggle between German Wehrmacht forces and rebel Slovak troops August -- October 1944. It was centered at Banská Bystrica.
The rebel Slovak Army, formed to fight the Germans, had an estimated 18,000 soldiers in August, a total which first increased to 47,000 after mobilisation on 9 September 1944, and later to 60,000, plus 20,000 partisans. However, in late August, German troops were able to disarm the Eastern Slovak Army, which was the best equipped, and thus significantly decreased the power of the Slovak Army. Many members of this force were sent to concentration camps in the Third Reich; others escaped and joined partisan units.
The Slovaks were aided in the Uprising by soldiers and partisans from the Soviet Union, United Kingdom, USA, France, the Czech Republic, and Poland. In total, 32 nations were involved in the Uprising.
Edvard Beneš had resigned as president of the first Czechoslovak Republic on 5 October 1938 after the Nazi coup. In London, he and other Czechoslovak exiles organized a Czechoslovak government - in - exile and negotiated to obtain international recognition for the government and a renunciation of the Munich Agreement and its consequences. After World War II broke out, a Czechoslovak national committee was constituted in France, and under Beneš 's presidency sought international recognition as the exiled government of Czechoslovakia. This attempt led to some minor successes, such as the French - Czechoslovak treaty of 2 October 1939, which allowed for the reconstitution of the Czechoslovak army on French territory, yet full recognition was not reached. (The Czechoslovak army in France was established on 24 January 1940, and units of its 1st Infantry Division took part in the last stages of the Battle of France, as did some Czechoslovak fighter pilots in various French fighter squadrons.)
Beneš hoped for a restoration of the Czechoslovak state in its pre-Munich form after the anticipated Allied victory, a false hope. The government in exile -- with Beneš as president of republic -- was set up in June 1940 in exile in London, with the President living at Aston Abbotts. On 18 July 1940, it was recognised by the British government. Belatedly, the Soviet Union (in the summer of 1941) and the U.S. (in the winter) recognised the exiled government. In 1942, Allied repudiation of the Munich Agreement established the political and legal continuity of the First Republic and de jure recognition of Beneš 's de facto presidency. The success of Operation Anthropoid -- which resulted in the British - backed assassination of one of Hitler 's top henchmen, Reichsprotektor of Bohemia and Moravia Reinhard Heydrich, by Jozef Gabčík and Jan Kubiš on 27 May -- influenced the Allies in this repudiation.
The Munich Agreement had been precipitated by the subversive activities of the Sudeten Germans. During the latter years of the war, Beneš worked toward resolving the German minority problem and received consent from the Allies for a solution based on a postwar transfer of the Sudeten German population. The First Republic had been committed to a Western policy in foreign affairs. The Munich Agreement was the outcome. Beneš determined to strengthen Czechoslovak security against future German aggression through alliances with Poland and the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union, however, objected to a tripartite Czechoslovak - Polish - Soviet commitment. In December 1943, Beneš 's government concluded a treaty just with the Soviets.
Beneš 's interest in maintaining friendly relations with the Soviet Union was motivated also by his desire to avoid Soviet encouragement of a post-war communist coup in Czechoslovakia. Beneš worked to bring Czechoslovak communist exiles in Britain into cooperation with his government, offering far - reaching concessions, including nationalization of heavy industry and the creation of local people 's committees at the war 's end. In March 1945, he gave key cabinet positions to Czechoslovak communist exiles in Moscow.
Especially after the German reprisals for the assassination of Reinhard Heydrich, most of the Czech resistance groups demanded, with eerie irony and based on Nazi terror during the occupation, ethnic cleansing or the "final solution of the German question '' (Czech: konečné řešení německé otázky) which would have to be "solved '' by deportation of the ethnic Germans from their homeland. These reprisals included massacres in villages Lidice and Ležáky, although these villages were not connected with Czech resistance.
These demands were adopted by the government - in - exile, which sought the support of the Allies for this proposal, beginning in 1943. During the occupation of Czechoslovakia, the Government - in - Exile promulgated a series of laws that are now referred to as the "Beneš decrees ''. One part of these decrees dealt with the status of ethnic Germans and Hungarians in postwar Czechoslovakia, and laid the ground for the deportation of some 3,000,000 Germans and Hungarians from the land that had been their home for centuries (see expulsion of Germans from Czechoslovakia, and Hungarians in Slovakia). The Beneš decrees declared that German property was to be confiscated without compensation. However, the final agreement authorizing the forced population transfer of the Germans was not reached until 2 August 1945 at the end of the Potsdam Conference.
On 8 May 1944, Beneš signed an agreement with Soviet leaders stipulating that Czechoslovak territory liberated by Soviet armies would be placed under Czechoslovak civilian control.
On 21 September, Czechoslovak troops formed in the Soviet Union liberated the village Kalinov, the first liberated settlement of Czechoslovakia near the Dukla Pass in northeastern Slovakia. Czechoslovakia was liberated mostly by Soviet troops (the Red Army), supported by Czech and Slovak resistance, from the east to the west; only southwestern Bohemia was liberated by other Allied troops from the west. Except for the brutalities of the German occupation in Bohemia and Moravia (after the August 1944 Slovak National Uprising also in Slovakia), Czechoslovakia suffered relatively little from the war. Even at the end of the war, German troops massacred Czech civilians; the Massacre in Trhová Kamenice and the Massacre at Javoříčko are examples of this.
A provisional Czechoslovak government was established by the Soviets in the eastern Slovak city of Košice on 4 April 1945. "National committees '' (supervised by the Red Army) took over the administration of towns as the Germans were expelled. Bratislava was taken by the Soviets on 4 April. Prague was taken on 9 May by Soviet troops during the Prague Offensive. When the Soviets arrived, Prague was already in a general state of confusion due to the Prague Uprising. Soviet and other Allied troops were withdrawn from Czechoslovakia in the same year.
On 5 May 1945, in the last moments of the war in Europe, the Prague uprising (Czech: Pražské povstání) began. It was an attempt by the Czech resistance to liberate the city of Prague from German occupation during World War II. The uprising went on until 8 May 1945, ending in a ceasefire the day before the arrival of the Red Army and one day after Victory in Europe Day.
It is estimated that about 345,000 World War II casualties were from Czechoslovakia, 277,000 of them Jews. As many as 144,000 Soviet troops died during the liberation of Czechoslovakia.
In October 1944, Subcarpathian Ruthenia was taken by the Soviets. A Czechoslovak delegation under František Němec was dispatched to the area. The delegation was to mobilize the liberated local population to form a Czechoslovak army and to prepare for elections in cooperation with recently established national committees. Loyalty to a Czechoslovak state was tenuous in Carpathian Ruthenia. Beneš 's proclamation of April 1944 excluded former collaborationist Hungarians, Germans and the Rusynophile Ruthenian followers of Andrej Brody and the Fencik Party (who had collaborated with the Hungarians) from political participation. This amounted to approximately 1⁄3 of the population. Another 1⁄3 was communist, leaving 1⁄3 of the population presumably sympathetic to the Czechoslovak Republic.
Upon arrival in Subcarpathian Ruthenia, the Czechoslovak delegation set up headquarters in Khust, and on 30 October issued a mobilization proclamation. Soviet military forces prevented both the printing and the posting of the Czechoslovak proclamation and proceeded instead to organize the local population. Protests from Beneš 's government were ignored. Soviet activities led much of the local population to believe that Soviet annexation was imminent. The Czechoslovak delegation was also prevented from establishing a cooperative relationship with the local national committees promoted by the Soviets. On 19 November, the communists -- meeting in Mukachevo -- issued a resolution requesting separation of Subcarpathian Ruthenia from Czechoslovakia and incorporation into the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic. On 26 November, the Congress of National Committees unanimously accepted the resolution of the communists. The congress elected the National Council and instructed that a delegation be sent to Moscow to discuss union. The Czechoslovak delegation was asked to leave Subcarpathian Ruthenia. Negotiations between the Czechoslovak government and Moscow ensued. Both Czech and Slovak communists encouraged Beneš to cede Subcarpathian Ruthenia. The Soviet Union agreed to postpone annexation until the postwar period to avoid compromising Beneš 's policy based on the pre-Munich frontiers.
The treaty ceding Carpathian Ruthenia to the Soviet Union was signed in June 1945. Czechs and Slovaks living in Subcarpathian Ruthenia and Ruthenians (Rusyns) living in Czechoslovakia were given the choice of Czechoslovak or Soviet citizenship.
In May 1945, Czechoslovak troops took possession of the borderland. A Czechoslovak administrative commission composed exclusively of Czechs was established. Sudeten Germans were subjected to restrictive measures and conscripted for compulsory labor. On 15 June, however, Beneš called Czechoslovak authorities to order. In July, Czechoslovak representatives addressed the Potsdam Conference (the U.S., Britain and the Soviet Union) and presented plans for a "humane and orderly transfer '' of the Sudeten German population. There were substantial exceptions from expulsions that applied to about 244,000 ethnic Germans who were allowed to remain in Czechoslovakia.
The following groups of ethnic Germans were not deported:
It is estimated that between 700,000 and 800,000 Germans were affected by "wild '' expulsions between May and August 1945. The expulsions were encouraged by Czechoslovak politicians and were generally carried out by the order of local authorities, mostly by groups of armed volunteers. However, in some cases it was initiated or pursued by assistance of the regular army.
The expulsion according to the Potsdam Conference proceeded from 25 January 1946 until October of that year. An estimated 1.6 million ethnic Germans were deported to the American zone of what would become West Germany. An estimated 800,000 were deported to the Soviet zone (in what would become East Germany). Several thousand died violently during the expulsion and many more died from hunger and illness as a consequence. These casualties include violent deaths and suicides, deaths in "internment camps '' and natural causes. The joint Czech - German commission of historians stated in 1996 the following numbers: The deaths caused by violence and abnormal living conditions amount to approximately 10,000 persons killed. Another 5,000 -- 6,000 people died of unspecified reasons related to expulsion making the total number of victims of the expulsion 15,000 -- 16,000 (this excludes suicides, which make another approximately 3,400 cases).
Approximately 225,000 Germans remained in Czechoslovakia, of whom 50,000 emigrated or were expelled soon after.
ČSR; boundaries and government established by the 1920 constitution. Annexed by Nazi Germany. ČSR; included the autonomous regions of Slovakia and Carpathian Ruthenia. Annexed by Hungary (1939 -- 1945).
ČSR; declared a "people 's democracy '' (without a formal name change) under the Ninth - of - May Constitution following the 1948 coup. ČSSR; from 1969, after the Prague Spring, consisted of the Czech Socialist Republic (ČSR) and Slovak Socialist Republic (SSR). Oblast of the Ukrainian SSR. Oblast of Ukraine.
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maggie and the ferocious beast uk theme song | Maggie and the Ferocious Beast - wikipedia
Maggie and the Ferocious Beast is a Canadian animated children 's television series created by Michael and Betty Paraskevas. The program was based on the 1996 book The Ferocious Beast with the Polka - Dot Hide and its sequels, all of which were also written by the Paraskevases.
The show began as a series of shorts aired on the Canadian channel Teletoon in 1998. The first full - length episode premiered on August 26, 2000.
A young girl named Maggie creates her own map of an imaginary world known as "Nowhere Land '' that, in reality, takes the characters nowhere. She imagines that characters Beast and Hamilton Hocks are her friends.
The theme song for the show is "Maggie and the Ferocious Beast in Nowhere Land, '' which is an original song by Isabella Molley. Maggie and the Ferocious Beast is produced by Nelvana and directed by Jamie Whitney and Stuart Shankly. The series debuted in 2000 and the series aired its last episode in 2002. The show was distributed by Nelvana, which owned the distribution rights. In the UK, the show was dubbed with British voice actors, replacing the original Canadian soundtrack.
In Canada, Maggie and the Ferocious Beast aired on Teletoon and Treehouse TV. In the United States, it aired on Nickelodeon as part of its Nick Jr. block from June 5, 2000 to September 3, 2004 and American children 's channel Noggin (now Nick Jr.) from April 7, 2003 until September 27, 2009 when Noggin was re-branded as Nick Jr. and continued to rerun until October 30, 2010.
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when do you get a play button from youtube | YouTube Play Button - Wikipedia
YouTube Play Buttons, a part of the YouTube Creator Rewards, are a recognition by YouTube of its most popular channels.
These are distinct from the YouTube Awards, which are intended to recognize the best quality videos. YouTube Creator Rewards are based on a channel 's subscriber count, but are awarded at the sole discretion of YouTube. Each channel is reviewed before an award is issued, to ensure that the channel follows the YouTube community guidelines.
When a verified YouTuber reaches a specific milestone and is deemed eligible for a Youtube Creator Reward, they are awarded a relatively flat trophy in a metal casing with a YouTube play button symbol. The trophies are of different sizes: each button and plaque gets progressively bigger the more subscribers the channel gets.
There are currently three different tiers of rewards, plus a fourth that has been awarded only once:
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portal 2 xbox 360 compatible with xbox one | List of Backward compatible games for Xbox One - wikipedia
The Xbox One gaming console has received updates from Microsoft since its launch in 2013 that enable it to play select games from its two predecessor consoles, Xbox and Xbox 360. On June 15, 2015, backward compatibility with supported Xbox 360 games became available to eligible Xbox Preview program users with a beta update to the Xbox One system software. The dashboard update containing backward compatibility was released publicly on November 12, 2015. On October 24, 2017, another such update added games from the original Xbox library. The following is a list of all backward compatible games on Xbox One under this functionality.
At its launch in November 2013, the Xbox One did not have native backward compatibility with original Xbox or Xbox 360 games. Xbox Live director of programming Larry "Major Nelson '' Hryb suggested users could use the HDMI - in port on the console to pass an Xbox 360 or any other device with HDMI output through Xbox One. Senior project management and planning director Albert Penello explained that Microsoft was considering a cloud gaming platform to enable backward compatibility, but he felt it would be "problematic '' due to varying internet connection qualities.
During Microsoft 's E3 2015 press conference on June 15, 2015, Microsoft announced plans to introduce Xbox 360 backward compatibility on the Xbox One at no additional cost. Supported Xbox 360 games will run within an emulator and have access to certain Xbox One features, such as recording and broadcasting gameplay. Games do not run directly from discs. A ported form of the game is downloaded automatically when a supported game is inserted, while digitally - purchased games will automatically appear for download in the user 's library once available. As with Xbox One titles, if the game is installed using physical media, the disc is still required for validation purposes.
Not all Xbox 360 games will be supported; 104 Xbox 360 games were available for the feature 's public launch on November 12, 2015 with Xbox One preview program members getting early access. Microsoft stated that publishers will only need to provide permission to the company to allow the repackaging, and they expect the list to grow significantly over time. Unlike the emulation of original Xbox games on the Xbox 360, the Xbox One does not require game modification, since it emulates an exact replica of its predecessor 's environment -- both hardware and software operating systems. The downloaded game is a repackaged version of the original that identifies itself as an Xbox One title to the console. At Gamescom, Microsoft revealed it has plans to ensure "all future Xbox 360 Games with Gold titles will be playable on Xbox One. '' On December 17, 2015 Microsoft made another sixteen Xbox 360 games compatible with Xbox One, including titles such as Halo: Reach, Fable III and Deus Ex: Human Revolution. On January 21, 2016, Microsoft made another ten Xbox 360 games compatible, including The Witcher 2: Assassins of Kings and Counter-Strike: Global Offensive. On May 13, 2016, Microsoft made Xbox 360 titles with multiple discs compatible, starting with Deus Ex: Human Revolution Director 's Cut.
In January 2016, Microsoft announced that future titles would be added as they became available, instead of waiting until a specific day each month.
During Microsoft 's E3 2017 press conference on June 11, 2017, Microsoft announced that roughly 50 % of Xbox One users had played an Xbox 360 game on Xbox One through the system 's backward - compatibility feature. Based on popular demand, Phil Spencer, Microsoft 's Head of Xbox, announced that Xbox One consoles would be able to play select games made for the original Xbox console, first released in 2001. The compatibility will work on all consoles in the Xbox One family, including the Xbox One X, and will be available as a free update planned for the fall of 2017.
The functionality will be similar to that for back - compatibility with Xbox 360 games. Users insert the Xbox game disc into their Xbox One console to install the compatible version of the game. While players will not be able to access any old game saves or connect to Xbox Live on these titles, system link functions will remain available. Xbox games will not receive achievement support, although when asked about this component, Spencer responded that they had nothing to announce at the current time.
Realizing that game discs for original Xbox consoles could be scarce, Spencer said that plans were in place to make compatible Xbox games available digitally. Spencer also said that such games may also be incorporated into the Xbox Game Pass subscription service. In a later interview, Spencer indicated that the potential library of Xbox titles being playable on Xbox One will be smaller than that currently available from the Xbox 360 library. Spencer noted two reasons for the more limited library were the availability of content rights for the games and the technical difficulties related to the conversion.
Backwards compatible original Xbox and Xbox 360 titles will benefit from becoming Xbox One X enhanced with the following:
There are currently 481 on this list out of 2097 games released for the Xbox 360.
There are currently 32 on this list out of 1047 released for the Xbox. All Original Xbox games run at 4 times the original resolution on Xbox One and Xbox One S consoles (up to 960p), and 16 times on Xbox One X (up to 1920p).
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a place 2 stay big bang theory season 3 | The Big Bang Theory - Wikipedia
The Big Bang Theory is an American television sitcom created by Chuck Lorre and Bill Prady, both of whom serve as executive producers on the series, along with Steven Molaro. All three also serve as head writers. The show premiered on CBS on September 24, 2007. In March 2017, the series was renewed for two additional seasons, bringing its total to twelve, and running through the 2018 -- 19 television season. The twelfth season is set to premiere on September 24, 2018. It was announced on August 22, 2018, that the twelfth season will be the final season, consisting of 24 episodes.
The show originally centered on five characters living in Pasadena, California: Leonard Hofstadter and Sheldon Cooper, both physicists at Caltech, who share an apartment; Penny, a waitress and aspiring actress who lives across the hall; and Leonard and Sheldon 's similarly geeky and socially awkward friends and co-workers, aerospace engineer Howard Wolowitz and astrophysicist Raj Koothrappali. Over time, supporting characters have been promoted to starring roles including: physicist Leslie Winkle, neuroscientist Amy Farrah Fowler, microbiologist Bernadette Rostenkowski, and Stuart Bloom, the cash - strapped owner of the comic book store the characters often visit.
The show is filmed in front of a live audience and is produced by Warner Bros. Television and Chuck Lorre Productions. The Big Bang Theory received mixed reviews from critics throughout its first season, but reception was more favorable in the second and third seasons. Later seasons saw a return to a lukewarm reception, with the show being criticised for a decline in comedic quality. Despite the mixed reviews, seven seasons of the show have ranked within the top ten of the final television season ratings; ultimately reaching the no. 1 spot in its eleventh season. The show was nominated for the Emmy Award for Outstanding Comedy Series from 2011 to 2014 and won the Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series four times for Jim Parsons. It has so far won 7 Emmy Awards from 46 nominations. Parsons also won the Golden Globe for Best Actor in a Television Comedy Series in 2011. The series has so far won 56 awards from 216 nominations. It has also spawned a prequel series in 2017 based on Parsons ' character, Sheldon Cooper, named Young Sheldon which originally aired on CBS.
The show 's pilot episode premiered on September 24, 2007. This was the second pilot produced for the show. A different pilot was produced for the 2006 -- 07 television season but never aired. The structure of the original unaired pilot was substantially different from the series ' current form. The only characters retained in both pilots were Leonard (Johnny Galecki) and Sheldon (Jim Parsons), who are named after Sheldon Leonard, a longtime figure in episodic television as producer, director and actor. Althea (Vernee Watson) was a minor character that appeared in both pilots. The first pilot included two female lead characters who were not used in the second pilot. The characters were Canadian actress Amanda Walsh as Katie, "a street - hardened, tough - as - nails woman with a vulnerable interior, '' and Iris Bahr as Gilda, a scientist colleague and friend of the male characters. Sheldon and Leonard meet Katie after she breaks up with a boyfriend and they invite her to share their apartment. Gilda is threatened by Katie 's presence. Test audiences reacted negatively to Katie, but they liked Sheldon and Leonard. The original pilot used Thomas Dolby 's hit "She Blinded Me with Science '' as its theme song.
Although the original pilot was not picked up, its creators were given an opportunity to retool it and produce a second pilot. They brought in the remaining cast and retooled the show to its final format. Katie was replaced by Penny (Kaley Cuoco). The original unaired pilot never has officially been released, but it has circulated on the Internet. On the evolution of the show, Chuck Lorre said, "We did the ' Big Bang Pilot ' about two and a half years ago, and it sucked... but there were two remarkable things that worked perfectly, and that was Johnny and Jim. We rewrote the thing entirely and then we were blessed with Kaley and Simon and Kunal. '' As to whether the world will ever see the original pilot on a future DVD release, Lorre said, "Wow, that would be something. We will see. Show your failures... ''
The first and second pilots of The Big Bang Theory were directed by James Burrows, who did not continue with the show. The reworked second pilot led to a 13 - episode order by CBS on May 14, 2007. Prior to its airing on CBS, the pilot episode was distributed on iTunes free of charge. The show premiered on September 24, 2007, and was picked up for a full 22 - episode season on October 19, 2007. The show is filmed in front of a live audience, and is produced by Warner Bros. Television and Chuck Lorre Productions. Production was halted on November 6, 2007, due to the Writers Guild of America strike. Nearly three months later, on February 4, 2008, the series was temporarily replaced by a short - lived sitcom, Welcome to The Captain. The series returned on March 17, 2008, in an earlier time slot and ultimately only 17 episodes were produced for the first season.
After the strike ended, the show was picked up for a second season, airing in the 2008 -- 2009 season, premiering in the same time slot on September 22, 2008. With increasing ratings, the show received a two - year renewal through the 2010 -- 11 season in 2009. In 2011, the show was picked up for three more seasons. In March 2014, the show was renewed again for three more years through the 2016 -- 17 season. This marks the second time the series has gained a three - year renewal. In March 2017, the series was renewed for two additional seasons, bringing its total to 12, and running through the 2018 -- 19 television season.
David Saltzberg, a professor of physics and astronomy at the University of California, Los Angeles, checks scripts and provides dialogue, mathematics equations, and diagrams used as props. According to executive producer / co-creator Bill Prady, "We 're working on giving Sheldon an actual problem that he 's going to be working on throughout the (first) season so there 's actual progress to the boards... We worked hard to get all the science right. ''
Several of the actors in The Big Bang Theory previously worked together on the sitcom Roseanne, including Johnny Galecki, Sara Gilbert, Laurie Metcalf (who plays Sheldon 's mother, Mary Cooper), and Meagen Fay (who plays Bernadette 's mother). Additionally, Lorre was a writer on the series for several seasons.
The Canadian alternative rock band Barenaked Ladies wrote and recorded the show 's theme song, which describes the history and formation of the universe and the Earth. Co-lead singer Ed Robertson was asked by Lorre and Prady to write a theme song for the show after the producers attended one of the band 's concerts in Los Angeles. By coincidence, Robertson had recently read Simon Singh 's book Big Bang, and at the concert improvised a freestyle rap about the origins of the universe. Lorre and Prady phoned him shortly thereafter and asked him to write the theme song. Having been asked to write songs for other films and shows, but ending up being rejected because producers favored songs by other artists, Robertson agreed to write the theme only after learning that Lorre and Prady had not asked anyone else.
On October 9, 2007, a full - length (1 minute and 45 seconds) version of the song was released commercially. Although some unofficial pages identify the song title as "History of Everything, '' the cover art for the single identifies the title as "Big Bang Theory Theme. '' A music video also was released via special features on The Complete Fourth Season DVD and Blu - ray set. The theme was included on the band 's greatest hits album, Hits from Yesterday & the Day Before, released on September 27, 2011. In September 2015, TMZ uncovered court documents showing that Steven Page sued former bandmate Robertson over the song, alleging that he was promised 20 % of the proceeds, but that Robertson has kept that money entirely for himself.
For the first three seasons, Galecki, Parsons, and Cuoco, the three main stars of the show, received at most $60,000 per episode. The salary for the three went up to $200,000 per episode for the fourth season. Their per - episode pay went up an additional $50,000 in each of the following three seasons, culminating in $350,000 per episode in the seventh season. In September 2013, Bialik and Rauch renegotiated the contracts they held since they were introduced to the series in 2010. On their old contracts, each was making $20,000 -- $30,000 per episode, while the new contracts doubled that, beginning at $60,000 per episode, increasing steadily to $100,000 per episode by the end of the contract, as well as adding another year for both.
By season seven, Galecki, Parsons, and Cuoco were also receiving 0.25 % of the series ' back - end money. Before production began on the eighth season, the three plus Helberg and Nayyar, looked to renegotiate new contracts, with Galecki, Parsons, and Cuoco seeking around $1 million per episode, as well as more back - end money. Contracts were signed in the beginning of August 2014, giving the three principal actors an estimated $1 million per episode for three years, with the possibility to extend for a fourth year. The deals also include larger pieces of the show, signing bonuses, production deals, and advances towards the back - end. Helberg and Nayyar were also able to renegotiate their contracts, giving them a per - episode pay in the "mid-six - figure range '', up from around $100,000 per episode they each received in years prior. The duo, who were looking to have salary parity with Parsons, Galecki, and Cuoco, signed their contracts after the studio and producers threatened to write the characters out of the series if a deal could not be reached before the start of production on season eight. By season 10, Helberg and Nayyar reached the $1 million per episode parity with Parsons, Galecki, and Cuoco, due to a clause in their deals signed in 2014.
In March 2017, the main cast members (Galecki, Parsons, Cuoco, Helberg, and Nayyar) took a 10 % pay cut to allow Bialik and Rauch an increase in their earnings. This put Galecki, Parsons, Cuoco, Helberg and Nayyar at $900,000 per episode, with Parsons, Galecki, and Helberg also receiving overall deals with Warner Bros. Television. By the end of April, Bialik and Rauch had signed deals to earn $500,000 per episode, each, with the deals also including a separate development component for both actors. The deal was an increase from the $175,000 -- $200,000 the duo had been making per episode.
These actors are credited in all episodes of the series:
These actors were first credited as guest stars and later promoted to main cast:
As the theme of the show revolves around science, many distinguished and high - profile scientists have appeared as guest stars on the show. Famous astrophysicist and Nobel laureate George Smoot had a cameo appearance in the second season. Theoretical physicist Brian Greene appeared in the fourth season, as well as astrophysicist, science populizer, and physics outreach specialist Neil deGrasse Tyson.
Cosmologist Stephen Hawking made a short guest appearance in the fifth - season episode; in the eighth season, Hawking video conferences with Sheldon and Leonard, and makes another appearance in the 200th episode. In the fifth and sixth seasons, NASA astronaut Michael J. Massimino played himself multiple times in the role of Howard 's fellow astronaut. Bill Nye appeared in the seventh season, and Elon Musk made an appearance in the ninth season.
Much of the series focuses on science, particularly physics. The four main male characters are employed at Caltech and have science - related occupations, as do Bernadette and Amy. The characters frequently banter about scientific theories or news (notably around the start of the show), and make science - related jokes.
Science has also interfered with the characters ' romantic lives. Leslie breaks up with Leonard when he sides with Sheldon in his support for string theory rather than loop quantum gravity. When Leonard joins Sheldon, Raj, and Howard on a three - month Arctic research trip, it separates Leonard and Penny at a time when their relationship is budding. When Bernadette takes an interest in Leonard 's work, it makes both Penny and Howard envious and results in Howard confronting Leonard, and Penny asking Sheldon to teach her physics. Sheldon and Amy also briefly end their relationship after an argument over which of their fields is superior.
David Saltzberg, who has a Ph. D. in physics, has served as the science consultant for the show for six seasons and attends every taping. While Saltzberg knows physics, he sometimes needs assistance from Mayim Bialik, who has a Ph. D. in neuroscience. Saltzberg sees early versions of scripts which need scientific information added to them, and he also points out where the writers, despite their knowledge of science, have made a mistake. He is usually not needed during a taping unless a lot of science, and especially the whiteboard, is involved.
The four main male characters are all avid science fiction, fantasy, and comic book fans and memorabilia collectors.
Star Trek in particular is frequently referenced and Sheldon identifies strongly with the character of Spock, so much so that when he is given a used napkin signed by Leonard Nimoy as a Christmas gift from Penny he is overwhelmed with excitement and gratitude ("I possess the DNA of Leonard Nimoy?! ''). Star Trek: The Original Series cast member George Takei has made a cameo, and Leonard Nimoy made a cameo as the voice of Sheldon 's vintage Mr. Spock action figure (both cameos were in dream sequences). Star Trek: The Next Generation cast members Brent Spiner and LeVar Burton have had cameos as themselves, while Wil Wheaton has a recurring role as a fictionalized version of himself.
They are also fans of Star Wars, Battlestar Galactica, and Doctor Who. In the episode "The Ornithophobia Diffusion '', when there is a delay in watching Star Wars on Blu - ray, Howard complains, "If we do n't start soon, George Lucas is going to change it again '' (referring to Lucas ' controversial alterations to the films) and in "The Hot Troll Deviation '', Katee Sackhoff of Battlestar Galactica appeared as Howard 's fantasy dream girl. The characters have different tastes in franchises with Sheldon praising Firefly but disapproving of Leonard 's enjoyment of Babylon 5. With regard to fantasy, the four make frequent references to The Lord of the Rings and Harry Potter novels and movies. Additionally, Howard can speak Sindarin, one of the two Elvish languages from The Lord of the Rings.
Wednesday night is the group 's designated "comic book night '' because that is the day of the week when new comic books are released. The comic book store is run by fellow geek and recurring character Stuart. On a number of occasions, the group members have dressed up as pop culture characters, including The Flash, Aquaman, Frodo Baggins, Superman, Batman, Spock, The Doctor, Green Lantern, and Thor. As a consequence of losing a bet to Stuart and Wil Wheaton, the group members are forced to visit the comic book store dressed as Catwoman, Wonder Woman, Batgirl, and Supergirl. DC Comics announced that, to promote its comics, the company will sponsor Sheldon wearing Green Lantern T - shirts.
Various games have been featured, as well as referenced, on the series (e.g. World of Warcraft, Halo, Mario, Donkey Kong, etc.), including fictional games like Mystic Warlords of Ka'a (which became a reality in 2011) and Rock - paper - scissors - lizard - Spock.
One of the recurring plot lines is the relationship between Leonard and Penny. Leonard becomes attracted to Penny in the pilot episode and his need to do favors for her is a frequent point of humor in the first season. Meanwhile, Penny dates a series of muscular, attractive, unintelligent, and insensitive jocks. Their first long - term relationship begins when Leonard returns from a three - month expedition to the North Pole in the season 3 premiere. However, when Leonard tells Penny that he loves her, she realizes she can not say it back. Both Leonard and Penny go on to date other people; most notably with Leonard dating Raj 's sister Priya for much of season 4. This relationship is jeopardized when Leonard comes to falsely believe that Raj has slept with Penny, and ultimately ends when Priya sleeps with a former boyfriend in "The Good Guy Fluctuation ''.
Penny, who admits to missing Leonard in "The Roommate Transmogrification '', accepts his request to renew their relationship in "The Beta Test Initiation ''. After Penny suggests having sex in "The Launch Acceleration '', Leonard breaks the mood by proposing to her. Penny says "no '' but does not break up with him. She stops a proposal a second time in "The Tangible Affection Proof ''. In the sixth - season episode, "The 43 Peculiarity '', Penny finally tells Leonard that she loves him. Although they both feel jealousy when the other receives significant attention from the opposite sex, Penny is secure enough in their relationship to send him off on an exciting four - month expedition without worrying in "The Bon Voyage Reaction ''. After Leonard returns, their relationship blossoms over the seventh season. In the penultimate episode "The Gorilla Dissolution '', Penny admits that they should marry and when Leonard realizes that she is serious, he proposes with a ring that he had been saving for years. Leonard and Penny decide to elope to Las Vegas in the season 8 finale, but beforehand, wanting no secrets, Leonard admits to kissing another woman, Mandy Chow (Melissa Tang) while on an expedition on the North Sea. Despite this, Leonard and Penny finally elope in the season 9 premiere.
In the third - season finale, Raj and Howard search for a woman compatible with Sheldon and discover neurobiologist Amy Farrah Fowler. Like him, she has a history of social ineptitude and participates in online dating only to fulfill an agreement with her mother. This spawns a storyline in which Sheldon and Amy communicate daily while insisting to Leonard and Penny that they are not romantically involved. In "The Agreement Dissection '', Sheldon and Amy talk in her apartment after a night of dancing and she kisses him on the lips. Instead of getting annoyed, Sheldon says "fascinating '' and later asks Amy to be his girlfriend in "The Flaming Spittoon Acquisition ''. The same night he draws up "The Relationship Agreement '' to verify the ground rules of him as her boyfriend and vice versa (similar to his "Roommate Agreement '' with Leonard). Amy agrees but later regrets not having had a lawyer read through it.
In the episode "The Launch Acceleration '', Amy tries to use her "neurobiology bag of tricks '' to increase the attraction between herself and Sheldon. In the final fifth - season episode "The Countdown Reflection '', Sheldon takes Amy 's hand as Howard is launched into space. In the sixth season first episode "The Date Night Variable '', after a dinner in which Sheldon fails to live up to this expectation, Amy gives Sheldon an ultimatum that their relationship is over unless he tells her something from his heart. Amy accepts Sheldon 's romantic speech even after learning that it is a line from the first Spider - Man movie. In "The Cooper / Kripke Inversion '' Sheldon states that he has been working on his discomfort about physical contact and admits that "it 's a possibility '' that he could one day have sex with Amy. Amy is revealed to have similar feelings in "The Love Spell Potential ''. Sheldon explains that he never thought about intimacy with anyone before Amy.
"The Locomotive Manipulation '' is the first episode in which Sheldon initiates a kiss with Amy. Although initially done in a fit of sarcasm, he discovers that he enjoys the feeling. Consequently, Sheldon slowly starts to open up over the rest of the season, and starts a more intimate relationship with Amy. However, in the season finale, Sheldon leaves temporarily to cope with several changes and Amy becomes distraught. However, in "The Prom Equivalency '', he hides in his room to avoid going to a mock prom reenactment with her. In the resulting stand - off, Amy is about to confess that she loves Sheldon, but he surprises her by saying that he loves her too. This prompts Amy to have a panic attack.
In the season eight finale, Sheldon and Amy get into a fight about commitment on their fifth anniversary. Amy tells Sheldon that she needs to think about the future of their relationship, unaware that Sheldon was about to propose to her. Season nine sees Sheldon harassing Amy about making up her mind until she breaks up with him. Both struggle with singlehood and trying to be friends for the next few weeks until they reunite in episode ten and have sex for the first time on Amy 's birthday.
In the season eleven premiere, Sheldon proposes to Amy and she accepts. The two get married in the eleventh season finale.
In the show, the song "Soft Kitty '' was described by Sheldon as a song sung by his mother when he was ill. Its repeated use in the series popularized the song. A scene depicting the origin of the song in Sheldon 's childhood is depicted in an episode of Young Sheldon, which aired on February 1, 2018. It shows Sheldon 's mother Mary singing the song to her son, who is suffering with the flu.
In scenes set at Howard 's home, he interacts with his rarely - seen mother (voiced by Carol Ann Susi until her death) by shouting from room to room in the house. She similarly interacts with other characters in this manner. She reflects the Jewish mother stereotype in some ways, such as being overly controlling of Howard 's adult life and sometimes trying to make him feel guilty about causing her trouble. She is dependent on Howard, as she requires him to help her with her wig and makeup in the morning. Howard, in turn, is attached to his mother to the point where she still cuts his meat for him, takes him to the dentist, does his laundry and "grounds '' him when he returns home after briefly moving out. Until Howard 's marriage to Bernadette in the fifth - season finale, Howard 's former living situation led Leonard 's psychiatrist mother to speculate that he may suffer from some type of pathology, and Sheldon to refer to their relationship as Oedipal. In season 8, Howard 's mother dies in her sleep while in Florida, which devastates Howard and Stuart, who briefly lived with Mrs. Wolowitz.
In the apartment building where Sheldon, Leonard and Penny (and later Amy) live, the elevator has been out of order throughout the first 11 seasons, forcing characters to have to use the stairs. Stairway conversations between characters occur in almost every episode, often serving as a transition between longer scenes. A season 3 episode reveals that the elevator was broken when Leonard was experimenting with rocket fuel.
Like most shows created by Chuck Lorre, The Big Bang Theory ends by showing a vanity card written by Lorre after the credits, followed by the Warner Bros. Television closing logo. These cards are archived on Lorre 's website.
Initial reception for the series was mixed. The review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 52 % approval rating for the first season based on reviews from 23 critics, with an average rating of 5.18 / 10. The website 's critical consensus reads, "The Big Bang Theory brings a new class of character to mainstream television, but much of the comedy feels formulaic and stiff. '' On Metacritic, the season holds a score of 57 out of 100, based on reviews from 23 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''. Later seasons received more acclaim and in 2013, TV Guide ranked the series # 52 on its list of the 60 Best Series of All Time.
The Big Bang Theory started off slowly in the ratings, failing to make the top 50 in its first season (ranking 68th), and ranking 40th in its second season. When the third season premiered on September 21, 2009, however, The Big Bang Theory ranked as CBS 's highest - rated show of that evening in the adults 18 -- 49 demographic (4.6 / 10) along with a then - series - high 12.83 million viewers. After the first three seasons aired at different times on Monday nights, CBS moved the show to Thursdays at 8: 00 ET for the 2010 -- 2011 schedule, to be in direct competition with NBC 's Comedy Block and Fox 's American Idol (then the longest reigning leading primetime show on U.S. television from 2004 to 2011). During its fourth season, it became television 's highest rated comedy, just barely beating out eight - year champ Two and a Half Men. However, in the age 18 -- 49 demographic (the show 's target age range), it was the second highest rated comedy, behind ABC 's Modern Family. The fifth season opened with viewing figures of over 14 million.
The sixth season boasts some of the highest - rated episodes for the show so far, with a then - new series high set with "The Bakersfield Expedition '', with 20 million viewers, a first for the series, which along with NCIS, made CBS the first network to have two scripted series reach that large an audience in the same week since 2007. In the sixth season, the show became the highest rated and viewed scripted show in the 18 -- 49 demographic, trailing only the live regular NBC Sunday Night Football coverage, and was third in total viewers, trailing NCIS and Sunday Night Football. Season seven of the series opened strong, continuing the success gained in season six, with the second episode of the premiere, "The Deception Verification '', setting the new series high in viewers with 20.44 million.
Showrunner Steve Molaro, who took over from Bill Prady with the sixth season, credits some of the show 's success to the sitcom 's exposure in off - network syndication, particularly on TBS, while Michael Schneider of TV Guide attributes it to the timeslot move two seasons earlier. Chuck Lorre and CBS Entertainment president Nina Tassler also credit the success to the influence of Molaro, in particular the deepening exploration of the firmly established regular characters and their interpersonal relationships, such as the on - again, off - again relationship between Leonard and Penny. Throughout much of the 2012 -- 13 season, The Big Bang Theory placed first in all of syndication ratings, receiving formidable competition from only Judge Judy and Wheel of Fortune (first - run syndication programs). By the end of the 2012 -- 13 television season, The Big Bang Theory had dethroned Judge Judy as the ratings leader in all of syndicated programming with 7.1, Judy descending to second place for that season with a 7.0. The Big Bang Theory did not place first in syndication ratings for the 2013 -- 14 television season, beaten out by Judge Judy.
The show made its United Kingdom debut on Channel 4 on February 14, 2008. The show was also shown as a ' first - look ' on Channel 4 's digital offshoot E4 prior to the main channel 's airing. While the show 's ratings were not deemed strong enough for the main channel, they were considered the opposite for E4. For each following season, all episodes were shown first - run on E4, with episodes only aired on the main channel in a repeat capacity, usually on a weekend morning. From the third season, the show aired in two parts, being split so that it could air new episodes for longer throughout the year. This was due to rising ratings. The first part began airing on December 17, 2009, at 9: 00 p.m. while the second part, containing the remaining eleven episodes, began airing in the same time period from May 6, 2010. The first half of the fourth season began airing on November 4, 2010, at 9: 00 p.m., drawing 877,000 viewers, with a further 256,000 watching on the E4 + 1 hour service. This gave the show an overall total of 1.13 million viewers, making it E4 's most - watched programme for that week. The increased ratings continued over subsequent weeks.
The fourth season 's second half began on June 30, 2011. Season 5 began airing on November 3, 2011, at 8: 00 p.m. as part of E4 's Comedy Thursdays, acting as a lead - in to the channel 's newest comedy, Perfect Couples. Episode 19, the highest - viewed episode of the season, attracted 1.4 million viewers. Season 6 premiered on November 15, 2012, with 1.89 million viewers and a further 469,000 on the time shift channel, bringing the total to 2.31 million, E4 's highest viewing ratings of 2012, and the highest the channel had received since June 2011. The sixth season returned in mid-2013 to finish airing the remaining episodes. Season 7 premiered on E4 on October 31, 2013 at 8: 30pm and hit multiple ratings records this season. The second half of season seven aired in mid 2014. The eighth season premiered on E4 on October 23, 2014 at 8: 30 p.m. During its eighth season, The Big Bang Theory shared its 8: 30 p.m. time period with fellow CBS comedy, 2 Broke Girls. Following the airing of the first eight episodes of that show 's fourth season, The Big Bang Theory returned to finish airing its eighth season on March 19, 2015.
Netflix UK & Ireland announced on February 13, 2016 that seasons 1 -- 8 would be available to stream from February 15, 2016.
The Big Bang Theory started off quietly in Canada, but managed to garner major success in later seasons. The Big Bang Theory is telecast throughout Canada via the CTV Television Network in simultaneous substitution with cross-border CBS affiliates. Now immensely popular in Canada, The Big Bang Theory is also rerun daily on the Canadian cable channel The Comedy Network.
The season 4 premiere garnered an estimated 3.1 million viewers across Canada. This is the largest audience for a sitcom since the series finale of Friends (12.4 million viewers). The Big Bang Theory has pulled ahead and has now become the most - watched entertainment television show in Canada.
The Big Bang Theory premiered in the United States on September 24, 2007 on CBS. The series debuted in Canada on CTV in September 2007. On February 14, 2008, the series debuted in the United Kingdom on channels E4 and Channel 4. In Australia the first seven seasons of the series began airing on the Seven Network and 7mate from October 2015 and also gained the rights to season 8 in 2016, though the Nine Network has rights to air seasons nine & ten. On January 22, 2018, it was announced that Nine had acquired the rights to Season 1 -- 8.
In May 2010, it was reported that the show had been picked up for syndication, mainly among Fox 's owned and operated stations and other local stations, with Warner Bros. Television 's sister cable network TBS holding the show 's cable syndication rights. Broadcast of old shows began airing in September 2011. TBS now airs the series in primetime on Tuesdays, Wednesdays, and Thursdays, with evening broadcasts on Saturdays (TBS 's former local sister station in Atlanta also holds local weeknight rights to the series). Although details of the syndication deal have not been revealed, it was reported the deal "set a record price for a cable off - network sitcom purchase ''. CTV holds national broadcast syndication rights in Canada, while sister cable network The Comedy Network holds cable rights.
Warner Bros. Television controls the online rights for the show. Full episodes are available at tv.com, while short clips and recently aired full episodes are available on cbs.com. In Canada, recent episode (s) and pictures are available on CTV.ca. Additionally in Canada, the first six seasons are available for streaming on Bell Media 's CraveTV. After the show has aired in New Zealand the shows are available in full online at TVNZ 's on demand web service.
The first and second seasons were only available on DVD at their time of release in 2008 and 2009. Starting with the release of the third season in 2010 and continuing every year with every new season, a Blu - ray disc set has also been released in conjunction with the DVD. In 2012, Warner Bros. released the first two seasons on Blu - ray, marking the first time that all episodes were available on the Blu - ray disc format.
In August 2009, the sitcom won the best comedy series TCA award and Jim Parsons (Sheldon) won the award for individual achievement in comedy. In 2010, the show won the People 's Choice Award for Favorite Comedy, while Parsons won a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series. On January 16, 2011, Parsons was awarded a Golden Globe for Best Performance by an Actor in a Television Series -- Comedy or Musical, an award that was presented by co-star Kaley Cuoco. On September 18, 2011, Parsons was again awarded an Emmy for Best Actor in a Comedy Series. On January 9, 2013, the show won People 's Choice Award for Favorite Comedy for the second time. August 25, 2014, Jim Parsons was awarded an Emmy for Best Actor in a Comedy Series. The Big Bang Theory also won the 2016 People 's Choice Awards for under Favorite TV Show and Favorite Network TV Comedy with Jim Parsons winning Favorite Comedic TV Actor. On January 20, 2016, The Big Bang Theory also won the International category at the UK 's National Television Awards.
On March 16, 2014, a Lego Ideas project portraying the living room scene in Lego style with the main cast as mini-figures reached 10,000 supporters on the platform, which qualified it to be considered as an official set by the Lego Ideas review board. On November 7, 2014, Lego Ideas approved the design and began refining it. The set was released in August 2015, with an exclusive pre-sale taking place at the San Diego Comic - Con International.
Through the use of his vanity cards at the end of episodes, Lorre alleged that the program had been plagiarized by a show produced and aired in Belarus. Officially titled Теоретики (The Theorists), the show features "clones '' of the main characters, a similar opening sequence, and what appears to be a very close Russian translation of the scripts. Lorre expressed annoyance and described his inquiry with the Warner Bros. legal department about options. The television production company and station 's close relationship with the Belarus government was cited as the reason that any attempt to claim copyright infringement would be in vain because the company copying the episodes is operated by the government.
However, no legal action was required to end production of the other show: as soon as it became known that the show was unlicensed, the actors quit and the producers canceled it. Dmitriy Tankovich (who plays Leonard 's counterpart, "Seva '') said in an interview, "I 'm upset. At first, the actors were told all legal issues were resolved. We did n't know it was n't the case, so when the creators of The Big Bang Theory started talking about the show, I was embarrassed. I ca n't understand why our people first do, and then think. I consider this to be the rock bottom of my career. And I do n't want to take part in a stolen show ''.
In November 2016, it was reported that CBS was in negotiations to create a spin - off of The Big Bang Theory centered on Sheldon as a young boy. The prequel series, described as "a Malcolm in the Middle-esque single - camera family comedy '' would be executive - produced by Lorre and Molaro, with Prady expected to be involved in some capacity, and intended to air in the 2017 -- 18 season alongside The Big Bang Theory. The initial idea for the series came from Parsons, who passed it along to The Big Bang Theory producers. In early March 2017, Iain Armitage was cast as the younger Sheldon, as well as Zoe Perry as his mother, Mary Cooper. Perry is the real - life daughter of Laurie Metcalf, who portrays Mary Cooper on The Big Bang Theory.
On March 13, 2017, CBS ordered the spin - off Young Sheldon series. Jon Favreau directed and executive produced the pilot. Created by Lorre and Molaro, the series follows 9 - year - old Sheldon Cooper as he attends high school in East Texas. Alongside Armitage as 9 - year - old Sheldon Cooper and Perry as Mary Cooper, Lance Barber stars as George Cooper, Sheldon 's father; Raegan Revord stars as Missy Cooper, Sheldon 's twin sister; and Montana Jordan as George Cooper Jr., Sheldon 's older brother. Jim Parsons reprises his role as adult Sheldon Cooper, as narrator for the series. Parsons, Lorre, Molaro and Todd Spiewak will also serve as executive producers on the series, for Chuck Lorre Productions, Inc. in association with Warner Bros. Television. The show 's pilot episode premiered on September 25, 2017. Subsequent weekly episodes began airing on November 2, 2017 following the broadcast of the 237th episode of The Big Bang Theory.
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when did columbus became the capital of ohio | Columbus, Ohio - Wikipedia
Columbus (/ kəˈlʌmbəs / kə - LUM - bəs) is the state capital and the most populous city of the U.S. state of Ohio. It is the 14th-most populous city in the United States, with a population of 860,090 as of 2016 estimates. This makes Columbus the 3rd-most populous state capital in the United States after Phoenix, Arizona and Austin, Texas, and the second-most populous city in the Midwestern United States, after Chicago. It is the core city of the Columbus, Ohio, Metropolitan Statistical Area, which encompasses ten counties. With a population of 2,021,632, it is Ohio 's third - largest metropolitan area.
Columbus is the county seat of Franklin County. The city proper has also expanded and annexed portions of adjoining Delaware County and Fairfield County. Named for explorer Christopher Columbus, the city was founded in 1812 at the confluence of the Scioto and Olentangy rivers, and assumed the functions of state capital in 1816.
The city has a diverse economy based on education, government, insurance, banking, defense, aviation, food, clothes, logistics, steel, energy, medical research, health care, hospitality, retail, and technology. Columbus is home to the Battelle Memorial Institute, the world 's largest private research and development foundation; Chemical Abstracts Service, the world 's largest clearinghouse of chemical information; NetJets, the world 's largest fractional ownership jet aircraft fleet; and The Ohio State University, one of the largest universities in the United States. As of 2013, the city has the headquarters of five corporations in the U.S. Fortune 500: Nationwide Mutual Insurance Company, American Electric Power, L Brands, Big Lots, and Cardinal Health. The food service corporations Wendy 's, Donatos Pizza, Bob Evans, Max & Erma 's and White Castle and the nationally known companies Red Roof Inn, Rogue Fitness, and Safelite are also based in the metropolitan area.
In 2016, Money Magazine ranked Columbus as one of "The 6 Best Big Cities '', calling it the best in the Midwest, citing a highly educated workforce and excellent wage growth. In 2012, Columbus was ranked in BusinessWeek 's 50 best cities in America. In 2013, Forbes gave Columbus an "A '' rating as one of the top cities for business in the U.S., and later that year included the city on its list of Best Places for Business and Careers. Columbus was also ranked as the No. 1 up - and - coming tech city in the nation by Forbes in 2008, and the city was ranked a top - ten city by Relocate America in 2010. In 2007, fDi Magazine ranked the city no. 3 in the U.S. for cities of the future, and the Columbus Zoo and Aquarium was rated no. 1 in 2009 by USA Travel Guide.
The area including modern - day Columbus once comprised the Ohio Country, under the nominal control of the French colonial empire through the Viceroyalty of New France from 1663 until 1763. In the 18th century, European traders flocked to the area, attracted by the fur trade.
The area found itself frequently caught between warring factions, including American Indian and European interests. In the 1740s, Pennsylvania traders overran the territory until the French forcibly evicted them. In the early 1750s, the Ohio Company sent George Washington to the Ohio Country to survey. Fighting for control of the territory in the French and Indian War (1754 - 1763) became part of the international Seven Years ' War (1756 - 1763). During this period, the region routinely suffered turmoil, massacres, and battles. The 1763 Treaty of Paris ceded the Ohio Country to the British Empire.
After the American Revolution, the Ohio Country became part of the Virginia Military District, under the control of the United States. Colonists from the East Coast moved in, but rather than finding an empty frontier, they encountered people of the Miami, Delaware, Wyandot, Shawnee, and Mingo nations, as well as European traders. The tribes resisted expansion by the fledgling United States, leading to years of bitter conflict. The decisive Battle of Fallen Timbers resulted in the Treaty of Greenville, which finally opened the way for new settlements. By 1797, a young surveyor from Virginia named Lucas Sullivant had founded a permanent settlement on the west bank of the forks of the Scioto River and Olentangy River. An admirer of Benjamin Franklin, Sullivant chose to name his frontier village "Franklinton ''. The location was desirable for its proximity to navigable rivers -- but Sullivant was initially foiled when, in 1798, a large flood wiped out the new settlement. He persevered, and the village was rebuilt.
After Ohio achieved statehood in 1803, political infighting among prominent Ohio leaders led to the state capital moving from Chillicothe to Zanesville and back again. Desiring to settle on a location, the state legislature considered Franklinton, Dublin, Worthington, and Delaware before compromising on a plan to build a new city in the state 's center, near major transportation routes, primarily rivers. Named in honor of Christopher Columbus, the city was founded on February 14, 1812, on the "High Banks opposite Franklinton at the Forks of the Scioto most known as Wolf 's Ridge. '' At the time, this area was a dense forestland, used only as a hunting ground.
The "Burough of Columbus '' (sic) was officially established on February 10, 1816. Nine people were elected to fill the various positions of Mayor, Treasurer, and several others. Although the recent War of 1812 had brought prosperity to the area, the subsequent recession and conflicting claims to the land threatened the new town 's success. Early conditions were abysmal with frequent bouts of fevers and an outbreak of cholera in 1833.
The National Road reached Columbus from Baltimore in 1831, which complemented the city 's new link to the Ohio and Erie Canal and facilitated a population boom. A wave of European immigrants led to the creation of two ethnic enclaves on the city 's outskirts. A large Irish population settled in the north along Naghten Street (presently Nationwide Boulevard), while the Germans took advantage of the cheap land to the south, creating a community that came to be known as the Das Alte Südende (The Old South End). Columbus 's German population constructed numerous breweries, Trinity Lutheran Seminary, and Capital University.
With a population of 3,500, Columbus was officially chartered as a city on March 3, 1834. On that day the legislature carried out a special act, which granted legislative authority to the city council and judicial authority to the mayor. Elections were held in April of that year, with voters choosing one John Brooks as the first mayor. Columbus annexed the then - separate city of Franklinton in 1837.
In 1850, the Columbus and Xenia Railroad became the first railroad into the city, followed by the Cleveland, Columbus and Cincinnati Railroad in 1851. The two railroads built a joint Union Station on the east side of High Street just north of Naghten (then called North Public Lane). Rail traffic into Columbus increased -- by 1875, eight railroads served Columbus, and the rail companies built a new, more elaborate station.
On January 7, 1857, the Ohio Statehouse finally opened after 18 years of construction.
Before the abolition of slavery in the South in 1863, the Underground Railroad was active in Columbus; led, in part, by James Preston Poindexter. Poindexter arrived in Columbus in the 1830s and became a Baptist Preacher and leader in the city 's African - American community until the turn of the century.
During the Civil War, Columbus was a major base for the volunteer Union Army. It housed 26,000 troops and held up to 9,000 Confederate prisoners of war at Camp Chase, at what is now the Hilltop neighborhood of west Columbus. Over 2,000 Confederate soldiers remain buried at the site, making it one of the North 's largest Confederate cemeteries. North of Columbus, along the Delaware Road, the Regular Army established Camp Thomas, where the 18th U.S. Infantry organized and trained.
By virtue of the Morrill Land - Grant Colleges Act, the Ohio Agricultural and Mechanical College (which became The Ohio State University) founded in 1870 on the former estate of William and Hannah Neil.
By the end of the 19th century, Columbus was home to several major manufacturing businesses. The city became known as the "Buggy Capital of the World, '' thanks to the two dozen buggy factories -- notably the Columbus Buggy Company, founded in 1875 by C.D. Firestone. The Columbus Consolidated Brewing Company also rose to prominence during this time, and might have achieved even greater success were it not for the Anti-Saloon League in neighboring Westerville. In the steel industry, a forward - thinking man named Samuel P. Bush presided over the Buckeye Steel Castings Company. Columbus was also a popular location for labor organizations. In 1886, Samuel Gompers founded the American Federation of Labor in Druid 's Hall on S. Fourth Street, and in 1890 the United Mine Workers of America was founded at old City Hall. In 1894, James Thurber, who would go on to an illustrious literary career in Paris and New York City, was born in the city. Today the Ohio State 's theater department has a performance center named in his honor, and his youthful home near the Discovery District is on the National Register of Historic Places.
"The Columbus Experiment '' was an internationally recognized environmental project in 1908, which involved construction of the first water plant in the world to apply filtration and softening, designed and invented by two brothers, Clarence and Charles Hoover. Those working to construct the project included Jeremiah O'Shaughnessy, name - bearer of the Columbus metropolitan area 's O'Shaughnessy Dam. This invention helped drastically reduce typhoid deaths. The essential design is still used today.
Columbus earned one of its nicknames, The Arch City, because of the dozens of wooden arches that spanned High Street at the turn of the 20th century. The arches illuminated the thoroughfare and eventually became the means by which electric power was provided to the new streetcars. The city tore down the arches and replaced them with cluster lights in 1914 but reconstructed them from metal in the Short North district in 2002 for their unique historical interest.
On March 25, 1913, the Great Flood of 1913 devastated the neighborhood of Franklinton, leaving over ninety people dead and thousands of West Side residents homeless. To prevent flooding, the Army Corps of Engineers recommended widening the Scioto River through downtown, constructing new bridges, and building a retaining wall along its banks. With the strength of the post-World War I economy, a construction boom occurred in the 1920s, resulting in a new Civic center, the Ohio Theatre, the American Insurance Union Citadel, and, to the north, a massive new Ohio Stadium. Although the American Professional Football Association was founded in Canton in 1920, its head offices moved to Columbus in 1921 to the New Hayden Building and remained in the city until 1941. In 1922, the association 's name was changed to the National Football League. A decade later, in 1931, at a convention in the city, the Jehovah 's Witnesses took that name by which they are known today.
The effects of the Great Depression were somewhat less severe in Columbus, as the city 's diversified economy helped it fare marginally better than its Rust Belt neighbors. World War II brought a tremendous number of new jobs, and with it another population surge. This time, the majority of new arrivals were migrants from the "extraordinarily depressed rural areas '' of Appalachia, who would soon account for more than a third of Columbus 's rising population. In 1948, the Town and Country Shopping Center opened in suburban Whitehall, and it is now regarded as one of the first modern shopping centers in the United States.
The construction of the interstate highway signaled the arrival of rapid suburb development in central Ohio. To protect the city 's tax base from this suburbanization, Columbus adopted a policy of linking sewer and water hookups to annexation to the city. By the early 1990s, Columbus had grown to become Ohio 's largest city in land area and in population.
Efforts to revitalize downtown Columbus have had some success in recent decades, though like most major American cities, some architectural heritage was lost in the process. In the 1970s, landmarks such as Union Station and the Neil House Hotel were razed to construct high - rise offices and big retail space. The National City Bank building was constructed in 1977, as well as the Nationwide Plazas and other towers that sprouted during this period. The construction of the Greater Columbus Convention Center has brought major conventions and trade shows to the city. The Scioto Mile is a showcase park being developed along the riverfront, an area that already had the Miranova Corporate Center and The Condominiums at North Bank Park. Corporate interests have developed Capitol Square, including the local NBC affiliate at the corner of Broad and High.
The 2010 United States foreclosure crisis forced the city to purchase numerous foreclosed, vacant properties to renovate or demolish them -- at a cost of tens of millions of dollars. As of February 2011, Columbus had 6,117 vacant properties, according to city officials.
In 1907, 14 - year - old Cromwell Dixon built the SkyCycle, a pedal - powered blimp, which he flew at Driving Park. Three years later, one of the Wright Brothers ' exhibition pilots, Phillip Parmalee, conducted the world 's first commercial cargo flight when he flew two packages containing 88 kilograms of silk 70 miles (110 km) from Dayton to Columbus in a Wright Model B.
Military aviators from Columbus distinguished themselves during World War I. Six Columbus pilots, led by top ace Eddie Rickenbacker, achieved forty - two "kills '' -- a full 10 % of all US aerial victories in the war, and more than the aviators of any other American city.
After the war, Port Columbus Airport became the axis of a coordinated rail - to - air transcontinental system that moved passengers from the East Coast to the West. TAT, which later became TWA, provided commercial service, following Charles Lindbergh 's promotion of Columbus to the nation for such a hub. Following the failure of a bond levy in 1927 to build the airport, Lindbergh campaigned in the city in 1928, and the next bond levy passed that year. On July 8, 1929 the airport opened for business with the inaugural TAT west - bound flight from Columbus to Waynoka, Oklahoma. Among the 19 passengers on that flight was Amelia Earhart, with Henry Ford and Harvey Firestone attending the opening ceremonies.
In 1964, Ohio native Geraldine Fredritz Mock became the first woman to fly around the world, leaving from Columbus and piloting the Spirit of Columbus. Her flight lasted nearly a month, and set a record for speed for planes under 3,858 pounds (1,750 kg).
The confluence of the Scioto and Olentangy rivers occurs just north - west of Downtown Columbus. Several smaller tributaries course through the Columbus metropolitan area, including Alum Creek, Big Walnut Creek, and Darby Creek. Columbus is considered to have relatively flat topography thanks to a large glacier that covered most of Ohio during the Wisconsin Ice Age. However, there are sizable differences in elevation through the area, with the high point of Franklin County being 1,132 ft (345 m) above sea level near New Albany, and the low point being 670 ft (200 m) where the Scioto River leaves the county near Lockbourne. Numerous ravines near the rivers and creeks also add variety to the landscape. Tributaries to Alum Creek and the Olentangy River cut through shale, while tributaries to the Scioto River cut through limestone.
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 223.11 square miles (577.85 km), of which 217.17 square miles (562.47 km) is land and 5.94 square miles (15.38 km) is water.
Arena District
Brewery District
Clintonville
Downtown
East Columbus
Easton Town Center
Forest Park
Franklinton
German Village
Harrison West
Italian Village
King - Lincoln Bronzeville
Merion Village
Near East Side
Northland
Old Oaks
Olde Towne East
The Short North
University District
Uptown
Victorian Village
The city 's climate is humid continental (Köppen climate classification Dfa) transitional with the humid subtropical climate to the south characterized by hot, muggy summers and cold, dry winters. Columbus is within USDA hardiness zone 6a. Winter snowfall is relatively light, since the city is not in the typical path of strong winter lows, such as the Nor'easters that strike cities farther east. It is also too far south and west for lake - effect snow from Lake Erie to have much effect, although the lakes to the North do contribute to long stretches of cloudy spells in winter.
The highest temperature ever recorded in Columbus was 106 ° F (41 ° C), which occurred twice during the Dust Bowl of the 1930s -- once on July 21, 1934, and again on July 14, 1936. The lowest temperature ever recorded was − 22 ° F (− 30 ° C), occurring on January 19, 1994. (wind chill was − 63 ° F (− 53 ° C)). Columbus is subject to severe weather typical to the Midwestern United States. Severe thunderstorms can bring lightning, large hail and on rare occasion tornadoes, especially during the spring and sometimes through fall. A tornado which occurred on October 11, 2006 caused F2 damage. Floods, blizzards, and ice storms can also occur from time to time.
In 1900, whites made up 93.4 % of the population. Though European immigration has been on a decline, the Columbus metropolitan area has recently experienced increases in African, Asian, and Latin American immigration, including groups from Mexico, India, Somalia, and China. Although the Asian population is diverse, the city 's Hispanic community is mainly made up of Mexicans, though there is a notable Puerto Rican population as well. Many other countries of origin are represented in lesser numbers, largely due to the international draw of The Ohio State University. 2008 estimates indicate that roughly 116,000 of the city 's residents are foreign - born, accounting for 82 % of the new residents between 2000 -- 2006 at a rate of 105 per week. 40 % of the immigrants came from Asia, 23 % from Africa, 22 % from Latin America, and 13 % from Europe. The city had the second largest Somali and Somali American population in the country, as of 2004.
Due to its demographics, which include a mix of races and a wide range of incomes, as well as urban, suburban, and nearby rural areas, Columbus is considered a "typical '' American city, leading retail and restaurant chains to use it as a test market for new products.
As of the 2000 census, 711,470 people, 301,534 households, and 165,240 families lived in the city. The population density was 3,383.6 inhabitants per square mile (1,306.4 / km). There were 327,175 housing units at an average density of 1,556.0 per square mile (600.8 / km). The racial makeup of the city was 67.93 % White, 24.47 % Black or African American, 0.29 % Native American, 3.44 % Asian, 0.05 % Pacific Islander, 1.17 % from other races, and 2.65 % from two or more races. 2.46 % of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. The five most common ancestries reported were German (19.4 %), Irish (11.7 %), English (7.9 %), Polish (7.2 %), and Italian (5.0 %).
There were 301,534 households out of which 28.0 % had children under the age of 18 living with them, 36.1 % were married couples living together and 45.2 % were non-families. 34.1 % of all households were made up of individuals and 7.0 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.30 and the average family size was 3.01.
The age distribution is 24.2 % under the age of 18, 14.0 % from 18 to 24, 35.1 % from 25 to 44, 17.9 % from 45 to 64, and 8.9 % who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 31 years. For every 100 females there were 94.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 91.9 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $37,897, and the median income for a family was $47,391. Males had a median income of $35,138 versus $28,705 for females. The per capita income for the city was $20,450. About 10.8 % of families and 14.8 % of the population were below the poverty line, including 18.7 % of those under age 18 and 10.9 % of those age 65 or over.
As of the census of 2010, there were 787,033 people, 331,602 households, and 176,037 families residing in the city. The population density was 3,624.0 inhabitants per square mile (1,399.2 / km). There were 370,965 housing units at an average density of 1,708.2 per square mile (659.5 / km). The racial makeup of the city was 61.5 % White, 28.0 % African American, 0.3 % Native American, 4.1 % Asian, 0.1 % Pacific Islander, 2.9 % from other races, and 3.3 % from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 5.6 % of the population.
Of the 331,602 households, 29.1 % had children under the age of 18, 32.0 % were married couples living together, 15.9 % had a female householder with no husband present, 5.1 % had a male householder with no wife present, and 46.9 % were non-families. 35.1 % of all households were made up of individuals and 7.2 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.31 and the average family size was 3.04.
The median age in the city was 31.2 years. 23.2 % of residents were under the age of 18; 14 % were between the ages of 18 and 24; 32.3 % were from 25 to 44; 21.8 % were from 45 to 64; and 8.6 % were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 48.8 % male and 51.2 % female.
According to the "2013 Japanese Direct Investment Survey '' by the Consulate - General of Japan in Detroit, 705 Japanese nationals lived in Columbus, making it the municipality with the state 's second largest Japanese national population, after Dublin.
Columbus was ranked as the 15th most literate city in the country in 2008 by Central Connecticut State University, and the 19th best educated. In 2006, Columbus was ranked by CNN Money as the 8th best big city in the country to live in. In 2012, Columbus was ranked by Bloomberg Businessweek as America 's 20th Best City, the highest - ranked city in Ohio.
In 2010, the city was ranked as the second most manly city in the country by Sperling 's BestPlaces, up from number 7 in 2009. Also, that same year, the Dole Nutrition Institute named Columbus as a top city for salad consumption.
In 2013, the Intelligent Communities Forum named Columbus the most intelligent city in the United States.
According to Sperling 's BestPlaces, 37.6 % of Columbus residents are religious. Of this group, 15.7 % identify as Protestant, 13.7 % as Catholic, 1.5 % as Jewish, 0.6 % as Muslim, and 0.5 % as Mormon. Places of worship include St. Paul 's Lutheran Church and Lamb of God Lutheran Church of the Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod, ISKCON Columbus, Trinity Episcopal Church, Global Community United Methodist Church, Christian Community Church North, the Glenwood United Methodist Church, Broad Street United Methodist Church, First Unitarian Universalist Church of Columbus, Second Presbyterian Church, St. Paul 's Episcopal Church, Shiloh Baptist Church, Roman Catholic Church 's St. Joseph 's Cathedral, (the seat of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Columbus), the St. Thomas More Newman Center (Catholic), Holy Name Catholic Church, Our Lady of Peace Catholic Church, Columbus Chinese Christian Church, All Nations Christian Fellowship (ANCF), Veritas Community Church, the Indianola Church of Christ, the Greek Orthodox Church 's Annunciation Cathedral, North Columbus Friends Meeting (Quaker), The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints Columbus Ohio Temple, Russian Baptist Fellowship in Westerville, Russian Baptist Church of Columbus (in Dublin, OH), the Ahlul Bayt Islamic Center, the Muslim Noor Islamic Cultural Center, Beth Jacob Synagogue (Orthodox Jewish) and the Reform Jewish Temple Israel, the oldest synagogue in Columbus, Life Church at Easton in NE Columbus and The First Baptist Church of Columbus, Ohio, one of the oldest baptist churches in Columbus located in East Columbus.
Megachurches include Xenos Christian Fellowship, Vineyard Columbus, World Harvest Church located in a southeast suburb and the First Church of God located in Southeast Columbus off of State Route 104 and Refugee Road.
Religious teaching institutions include the Trinity Lutheran Seminary and the Pontifical College Josephinum.
Columbus has a generally strong and diverse economy based on education, insurance, banking, fashion, defense, aviation, food, logistics, steel, energy, medical research, health care, hospitality, retail, and technology. In 2010, it was one of the 10 best big cities in the country, according to Relocate America, a real estate research firm. MarketWatch ranked Columbus and its metro area as the No. 7 best place in the country to operate a business in 2008. In 2012, Forbes Magazine ranked the city as the best city for working moms. In 2007, the city was ranked No. 3 in the United States by fDi magazine for "Cities of the Future '', and No. 4 for most business - friendly in the country. Columbus was ranked as the seventh strongest economy in the United States in 2006, and the best in Ohio, according to Policom Corp. In 2011, the Columbus metropolitan area 's GDP was $94.7 billion, up from $90 billion in 2009, up from $85.5 billion in 2006, $75.43 billion in 2005, and $69.98 billion in 2001.
During the recession beginning in late 2007, Columbus 's economy was not impacted as much as the rest of the country, due to decades of diversification work by long - time corporate residents, business leaders, and political leaders. The administration of former mayor Michael B. Coleman continued this work, although the city faced financial turmoil and had to increase taxes, allegedly due in part to fiscal mismanagement. Because Columbus is the state capital, there is a large government presence in the city. Including city, county, state, and federal employers, government jobs provide the largest single source of employment within Columbus.
In 2013, the city had four corporations named to the U.S. Fortune 500 list: Nationwide Mutual Insurance Company, American Electric Power, L Brands, and Big Lots, with Cardinal Health located in suburban Dublin. Other major employers in the area include numerous schools (for example, The Ohio State University) and hospitals, hi - tech research and development including the Battelle Memorial Institute, information / library companies such as OCLC and Chemical Abstracts, steel processing and pressure cylinder manufacturer Worthington Industries, financial institutions such as JP Morgan Chase and Huntington Bancshares, as well as Owens Corning. Wendy 's and White Castle are also headquartered in Columbus. Major foreign corporations operating or with divisions in the city include Germany - based Siemens and Roxane Laboratories, Finland - based Vaisala, Tomasco Mulciber Inc., AY Manufacturing, as well as Switzerland - based ABB Group and Mettler Toledo.
Columbus is home to several notable buildings, including the Greek Revival State Capitol, the art - deco Ohio Judicial Center and the Peter Eisenman - designed Wexner Center and Greater Columbus Convention Center. Other buildings of interest include the Rhodes State Office Tower, LeVeque Tower, and One Nationwide Plaza.
The Ohio Statehouse construction began in 1839 on a 10 - acre (4 ha) plot of land donated by four prominent Columbus landowners. This plot formed Capitol Square, which was not part of the original layout of the city. Built of Columbus limestone from the Marble Cliff Quarry Co., the Statehouse stands on foundations 18 feet (5.5 m) deep, laid by prison labor gangs rumored to have been composed largely of masons jailed for minor infractions. The Statehouse features a central recessed porch with a colonnade of a forthright and primitive Greek Doric mode. A broad and low central pediment supports the windowed astylar drum under an invisibly low saucer dome that lights the interior rotunda. Unlike many U.S. state capitol buildings, the Ohio State Capitol owes little to the architecture of the national Capitol. During the long course of the Statehouse 's 22 years of construction, seven architects were employed. Relations between the legislature and the architects were not always cordial: Nathan B. Kelly, who introduced heating and an ingenious system of natural forced ventilation, was dismissed because the commissioners found his designs too lavish for the original intentions of the committee. The Statehouse was opened to the legislature and the public in 1857 and finally completed in 1861. It is located at the intersection of Broad and High Streets in downtown Columbus.
In 1941, a New Deal artist named Rainey Bennett painted a 13 panel oil on canvas mural for the Neil House Hotel in Columbus. The building was destroyed to make way for the Huntington Center and the whereabouts of the panels are unknown.
Founded in 1975, The Jefferson Center for Learning and the Arts is a campus of nonprofit organizations and a center for research, publications, and seminars on nonprofit leadership and governance. Located at the eastern edge of downtown Columbus, The Jefferson Center has restored 11 turn - of - the - century homes, including the childhood residence of James Thurber. These locations are used for nonprofits in human services, education and the arts.
A to - scale replica of the Santa Maria is found on the Scioto Riverfront. It was installed in 1992 to commemorate the 500 - year anniversary of the discovery of America by Columbus 's namesake. As of 2013, the Santa Maria has been removed from the riverfront to make way for the Scioto Greenways project, a restoration of the Scioto River through downtown. Currently there are no plans to return the replica as it needs significant renovations.
Within the Driving Park heritage district lies the original home of Eddie Rickenbacker, the famous World War I fighter pilot ace. Reconstruction of the home is underway.
Established in 1848, Green Lawn Cemetery is one of the largest cemeteries in the Midwestern United States.
The Ohio Statehouse, Capitol Square
LeVeque Tower, Downtown
Replica of Christopher Columbus 's ship, The Santa Maria, Downtown riverfront
Franklin Park Conservatory, Franklin Park
The Columbus Museum of Art opened in 1931, and has a collection focusing on European and American art up to early modernism that includes extraordinary examples of Impressionism, German Expressionism and Cubism. The Wexner Center for the Arts, a contemporary art gallery and research facility, is located on the Campus of The Ohio State University. Also on campus is the Ohio State University Athletics Hall of Fame, located in the Jerome Schottenstein Center (home of the basketball and men 's ice hockey teams), as well as the Jack Nicklaus museum next door. Located on 88 acres (36 ha), just east of Downtown in Franklin Park, the Franklin Park Conservatory is a botanical garden that opened in 1895. It features over 400 species of plants in a large Victorian style glass greenhouse building that includes rain forest, desert, and Himalayan mountain biomes.
COSI Columbus, (Center of Science and Industry), is a large science museum. The present building, the former Central High School, was completed in November 1999, opposite downtown on the west bank of the River. In 2009, Parents magazine named COSI one of the ten best Science Centers for families in the country.
The Ohio History Connection is headquartered in Columbus, with its flagship museum, the 250,000 - square - foot (23,000 m) Ohio History Center, located 4 mi (6.4 km) north of downtown. Along with the museum is Ohio Village, a replica of a village around the time of the American Civil War.
The Kelton House Museum and Garden is a museum devoted to Victorian life. Built in 1852, it was home to three generations of the Kelton Family and was a documented station on the Underground Railroad. In 1989, Columbus hosted the "Son of Heaven: Imperial Arts of China, '' a cultural exchange display from China featuring the artifacts of the ancient Chinese emperors.
Columbus is the home of many renowned performing arts institutions including the Columbus Symphony Orchestra, Opera Columbus, BalletMet Columbus, the ProMusica Chamber Orchestra, CATCO, Columbus Children 's Theatre, Shadowbox Cabaret and the Columbus Jazz Orchestra. Throughout the summer Actors ' Theatre of Columbus offers free performances of Shakespearean plays in an open - air amphitheatre in Schiller Park, located in historic German Village.
The Columbus Youth Ballet Academy was founded in the 1980s by internationally celebrated ballerina and artistic director Shir Lee Wu, a discovery of Martha Graham. Wu is now the artistic director of the Columbus City Ballet School, while her instruction remains in strong demand globally. Her students of the last couple decades have furthered their education at institutions such as The Juilliard School, School of American Ballet, and the Houston Ballet Academy, while some have gone on to perform with companies including the New York City Ballet, Pacific Northwest Ballet, Martha Graham Contemporary Dance Company, and BalletMet Columbus. Her students have won gold medals at the Youth American Grand Prix competition in New York, while others have been finalists in competitions such as the Concord De Dance de Paris.
There are many large concert venues in Columbus, including arenas such as Nationwide Arena and Jerome Schottenstein Center. The EXPRESS LIVE! (formerly LC Pavilion) (formerly the PromoWest Pavilion), Veterans Memorial Auditorium (currently being rebuilt), Mershon Auditorium, and the Newport Music Hall round out the city 's music performance spaces.
In May 2009, the Lincoln Theatre, which was formerly a center for Black culture in Columbus, was reopened to the public after extensive restoration. Not far from the Lincoln Theatre is the King Arts Complex, which hosts various cultural events. The city also has a number of theatres downtown, including the historic Palace Theatre, the Ohio Theatre, and the Southern Theatre. Broadway Across America frequently presents touring Broadway musicals in these larger venues. The Vern Riffe Center for Government and the Arts houses the Capitol Theatre and three smaller studio theatres, providing a home for resident performing arts companies.
Academy Award - winning movies filmed in Columbus and the central Ohio area include Steven Soderbergh 's Traffic in 2000. Other movies filmed in Columbus and the central Ohio area include Horrors of War (by local filmmakers Peter John Ross, John Whitney, and producer Philip R. Garrett) in 2006, Little Man Tate, Fallen Angels in 2006, Steven Soderbergh 's Bubble in 2005, Criminal Minds in 1998, Wolfgang Petersen 's Air Force One in 1997, Tango & Cash in 1989, Speak in 2004, Parker in 2013 and Teachers in 1984.
Columbus hosts two major league professional sports teams. The Columbus Blue Jackets of the National Hockey League (NHL) which play at Nationwide Arena and Columbus Crew SC of Major League Soccer (MLS) which play at Mapfre Stadium, the first soccer - specific stadium built in the United States for a Major League Soccer team. The Crew were one of the original members of MLS, and won their first MLS Cup in 2008.
The Columbus Clippers, Triple A affiliate of the Cleveland Indians (formerly a long - time affiliate of the New York Yankees through 2006, and the Washington Nationals through 2008), play in Huntington Park, which opened in 2009. The city was home to the Tigers football team from 1901 -- 1926. In the 1990s the Columbus Quest won the only two championships during American Basketball League 's existence.
The Ohio Aviators were based in Obetz, Ohio and began play in the only PRO Rugby season before the league folded.
Columbus is home to one of the most competitive intercollegiate programs in the nation, the Ohio State Buckeyes of The Ohio State University. The program has placed in the top - 10 final standings of the Director 's Cup five times since 2000 -- 2001, including No. 3 for the 2002 -- 2003 season and No. 4 for the 2003 -- 2004 season. The university funds 36 varsity teams, consisting of 17 male, 16 female, and three co-educational teams. In 2007 -- 2008 and 2008 -- 2009, the program generated the second-most revenue for college programs behind the Texas Longhorns of The University of Texas at Austin.
The Ohio State Buckeyes are a member of the NCAA 's Big Ten Conference, and the football team plays home games at Ohio Stadium. The Ohio State - Michigan football game (known colloquially as "The Game '') is the final game of the regular season and is played in November each year, alternating between Columbus and Ann Arbor, Michigan. In 2000, ESPN ranked the Ohio State - Michigan game as the greatest rivalry in North American sports. Moreover, "Buckeye fever '' permeates Columbus culture year - round and forms a major part of Columbus 's cultural identity. Former New York Yankees owner George Steinbrenner, an Ohio native who studied at Ohio State at one point and who coached in Columbus, was a big Ohio State football fan and donor to the university, having contributed for the construction of the band facility at the renovated Ohio Stadium, which bears his family 's name. During the winter months, the Buckeyes basketball and hockey teams are also major sporting attractions.
Columbus hosts the annual Arnold Classic fitness expo and competition in early March. Hosted by Arnold Schwarzenegger, the event has grown to eight Olympic sports and 12,000 athletes competing in 20 events. In conjunction with the Arnold Classic, the city hosted three consecutive Ultimate Fighting Championships events between 2007 -- 2009, as well as other mixed martial arts events.
Automotive racing star Jeff Gordon 's company, Jeff Gordon Inc., along with Arshot Investment Corp., have plans to construct the Center for Automotive Research & Technology at Cooper Park, a proposed racing venue and center just west of downtown. Rahal Letterman Lanigan Racing, a business venture owned by Indianapolis 500 winner Bobby Rahal, television personality David Letterman, and entrepreneur Mike Lanigan, is based in the Columbus metropolitan area.
Columbus has a long history in motorsports, hosting the world 's first 24 - hour car race at the Columbus Driving Park in 1905, organized by the Columbus Auto Club. The Columbus Motor Speedway was built in 1945 and held their first motorcycle race in 1946. In 2010 the Ohio State University student - built Buckeye Bullet 2, a fuel cell vehicle, set a FIA world speed record for electric vehicles in reaching 303.025 mph, eclipsing the previous record of 302.877 mph.
The annual All American Quarter Horse Congress, the largest single breed horse show in the world is held at the Ohio Expo Center each October and attracts approximately 500,000 visitors annually.
The Columbus Bullies were two - time champions of the American Football League (1940 -- 1941). The Columbus Thunderbolts were formed in 1991 for the Arena Football League, and then relocated to Cleveland as the Cleveland Thunderbolts; the Columbus Destroyers were the next team of the AFL, playing from 2004 until the league 's demise in 2008.
The Columbus and Franklin County Metropolitan Park District includes Inniswood Metro Gardens, a collection of public gardens; Highbanks Metro Park; Battelle - Darby Creek Metro Park; as well as many others. Battelle - Darby Creek Metro Park is notable for its re-introduction of wild bison to the park in 2011, a herd that has expanded to 11 bison that are frequently on view for park visitors. The Big Darby Creek in the southwestern part of town is considered to be especially significant for its beauty and ecological diversity. Clintonville is home to Whetstone Park, which includes the Park of Roses, a beautiful 13 - acre (5.3 ha) rose garden. The Chadwick Arboretum is located on the OSU campus, and features a large and varied collection of plants. Downtown, the famous painting Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte is represented in topiary at Columbus 's Old Deaf School Park. Also near downtown, a new Metro Park on the Whittier Peninsula opened in 2009. The park includes a large Audubon nature center focused on the excellent bird watching that the area is known for.
The Columbus Zoo and Aquarium 's collections include lowland gorillas, polar bears, manatees, Siberian tigers, cheetahs, and kangaroos. Its director emeritus, Jack Hanna, frequently appears on national television, including on The Tonight Show and the Late Show with David Letterman. In 2009, it was ranked as the best zoo in the United States. Also in the zoo complex is the Zoombezi Bay water park and amusement park.
Annual festivities in Columbus include the Ohio State Fair -- one of the largest state fairs in the country -- as well as the Columbus Arts festival and the Jazz and Ribs Festival, both of which occur on the downtown riverfront.
In the middle of May, Columbus is home to Rock on the Range, marketed as "America 's Biggest Rock Festival. '' The festival, which takes place on a Friday, Saturday, and Sunday, and has hosted Metallica, Red Hot Chili Peppers, Slipknot, and other notable bands.
During the first weekend in June, the bars of Columbus 's trendy North Market District host the Park Street Festival, which attracts thousands of visitors to a massive party in bars and on the street. June 's second - to - last weekend sees one of the Midwest 's largest gay pride parades, reflecting the city 's sizable gay population. During the last weekend of June, Goodale Park hosts ComFest (short for "Community Festival ''), an immense three - day music festival marketed as the largest non-commercial festival in the U.S., with art vendors, live music on multiple stages, hundreds of local social and political organizations, body painting, and beer.
The Hot Times festival, a celebration of music, arts, food, and diversity, is held annually in the historic Olde Towne East neighborhood.
The city 's largest dining events, Restaurant Week Columbus, are held in mid-July and mid-January. In 2010, more than 40,000 diners went to 40 participating restaurants, and $5,000 was donated the Mid-Ohio Foodbank on behalf of sponsors and participating restaurants.
The Juneteenth Ohio Festival is held each year at Franklin Park on Father 's Day weekend. Started by Mustafaa Shabazz, JuneteenthOhio is one of the largest African American festivals in the United States, including three full days of music, food, dance, and entertainment by local and national recording artists. The festival holds a Father 's Day celebration, honoring local fathers.
Around the Fourth of July, Columbus hosts Red, White, and Boom! on the Scioto riverfront downtown, attracting crowds of over 500,000 people. The popular Doo Dah Parade is held at this time, as well.
During Memorial Day Weekend, the Asian Festival is held in Franklin Park. Hundreds of restaurants, vendors, and companies open up booths, traditional music and martial arts are performed, and cultural exhibits are set up. In recent years, it has drawn more than 100,000 people.
The Jazz and Rib Fest is a free downtown event held each July featuring jazz artists like Randy Weston, D. Bohannon Clark, and Wayne Shorter, along with rib vendors from around the country.
The Short North is host to the monthly "Gallery Hop '', which attracts hundreds to the neighborhood 's art galleries (which all open their doors to the public until late at night) and street musicians. The Hilltop Bean Dinner is an annual event held on Columbus 's West Side that celebrates the city 's Civil War heritage near the historic Camp Chase Cemetery. At the end of September, German Village throws an annual Oktoberfest celebration that features authentic German food, beer, music, and crafts.
The Short North also hosts HighBall Halloween, Masquerade on High, a fashion show and street parade that closes down High Street. In 2011, in its fourth year, HighBall Halloween gained notoriety as it accepted its first Expy award. HighBall Halloween has much to offer for those interested in fashion and the performing and visual arts or for those who want to celebrate Halloween and with food and drinks from all around the city. Each year the event is put on with a different theme and it increases in size and popularity.
Columbus also hosts many conventions in the Greater Columbus Convention Center, a pastel - colored deconstructivist building on the north edge of downtown that resembles jumbled blocks, or a train yard from overhead. Completed in 1993, the 1,700,000 square feet (160,000 m) convention center was designed by architect Peter Eisenman, who also designed the Wexner Center.
Developer Richard E. Jacobs built the area 's first three major shopping malls in the 1960s: Westland, Northland, and Eastland. Of these, only Eastland remains in operation. Columbus City Center was built downtown in 1988, alongside the first location of Lazarus; this mall closed in 2009 and was demolished in 2011. Easton Town Center was built in 1999, and Polaris Fashion Place in 2001.
The city is administered by a mayor and a seven - member unicameral council elected in two classes every two years to four - year terms. The mayor appoints the director of safety and the director of public service. The people elect the auditor, municipal court clerk, municipal court judges and city attorney. A charter commission, elected in 1913, submitted, in May 1914, a new charter offering a modified Federal form, with a number of progressive features, such as nonpartisan ballot, preferential voting, recall of elected officials, the referendum, and a small council elected at large. The charter was adopted, effective January 1, 1916. The current mayor of Columbus is Andrew Ginther.
Municipal police duties are performed by the Columbus Division of Police.
In 2009, Columbus was ranked the 38th-most - dangerous U.S. city in the United States by CQ Press, using weighted crime statistics compiled by the Federal Bureau of Investigation. In 2011, Columbus had 92 homicides, an average year for the city, and 658 violent crimes for every 100,000 people.
The Strategic Analysis and Information Center (SAIC) fusion center, one of the few in the country that uses state, local, federal, and private resources, is the primary public intelligence hub in the state and located in the Hilltop neighborhood.
Columbus is the home of two public colleges: The Ohio State University, one of the largest college campuses in the United States, and Columbus State Community College. In 2009, The Ohio State University was ranked No. 19 in the country by U.S. News & World Report for best public university, and No. 56 overall, scoring in the first tier of schools nationally. Some of OSU 's graduate school programs placed in the top 5, including: No. 5 for best veterinary program and No. 5 for best pharmacy program. The specialty graduate programs of social psychology was ranked No. 2, dispute resolution was ranked No. 5, vocational education No. 2, and elementary education, secondary teacher education, administration / supervision No. 5.
Private institutions located in Columbus include Capital University Law School, the Columbus College of Art and Design, Fortis College, DeVry University, Ohio Business College, Miami - Jacobs Career College, Ohio Institute of Health Careers, Bradford School and Franklin University, as well as the religious schools Bexley Hall Episcopal Seminary, Mount Carmel College of Nursing, Ohio Dominican University, Pontifical College Josephinum, and Trinity Lutheran Seminary. Three major suburban schools also have an influence on Columbus 's educational landscape: Bexley 's Capital University, Westerville 's Otterbein University, and Delaware 's Ohio Wesleyan University.
Columbus City Schools (CCS), formerly Columbus Public Schools, is the largest district in Ohio, with 55,000 pupils. CCS operates 142 elementary, middle, and high schools, including a number of magnet schools (which are referred to as alternative schools within the school system). The suburbs operate their own districts as well, typically serving students in one or more townships, with districts sometimes crossing municipal boundaries. The Roman Catholic Diocese of Columbus also operates numerous parochial elementary and high schools. The second largest school district in the area is South - Western City Schools, which encompasses southwestern Franklin County. There are also several private schools in the area. St. Paul 's Lutheran School is a K - 8 Christian school of the Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod in Columbus.
Some sources claim that the first kindergarten in the United States was established here by Louisa Frankenberg, a former student of Friedrich Fröbel. Frankenberg immigrated to the city in 1838. In addition, Indianola Junior High School (now the Graham Expeditionary Middle School) became the nation 's first junior high in 1909, helping to bridge the difficult transition from elementary to high school at a time when only 48 % of students continued their education after the 9th grade.
The Ohio Chinese School (OCS, 俄 州 新东方 中文 学校) is at 935 Northridge Road serving the greater Columbus communities and offering k - 12 enrichment programs and Chinese language classes.
The Columbus Metropolitan Library (CML) has been serving residents of central Ohio since 1873. With a collection of 3 million items, the system has 22 locations throughout the area. This library is one of the most - used library systems in the country and is consistently among the top - ranked large city libraries according to "Hennen 's American Public Library Ratings. '' CML was rated the No. 1 library system in the nation in 1999, 2005, and 2008. It has been in the top four every year since 1999 when the rankings were first published in American Libraries magazine, often challenging up - state neighbor Cuyahoga County Public Library for the top spot. CML was named Library of the Year by the Library Journal in 2010.
There are a number of weekly and daily newspapers serving Columbus and Central Ohio. The only major daily newspaper in Columbus is The Columbus Dispatch; its erstwhile main competitor, The Columbus Citizen - Journal, ceased publication on December 31, 1985. There are also neighborhood / suburb specific papers, such as the Dispatch Printing Company 's ThisWeek Community News, which serves 23 suburbs and Columbus, the Columbus Messenger, and the independently owned Short North Gazette. The Lantern and UWeekly serves The Ohio State University community. "Alternative '' arts / culture / politics - oriented papers include Outlook Media 's Outlook: Columbus (serving the LGBT community in Columbus), and aLIVE (formerly the independent Columbus Alive and now owned by the Columbus Dispatch). The newest addition to the Columbus media scene is Live Local! Columbus, a free, quarterly magazine that focuses on local arts, culture, and events. The Columbus Magazine, CityScene, (614) Magazine, and Columbus Monthly are the city 's magazines. Online media publication ColumbusUnderground.com also serves the Columbus region as an independently owned alternative voice. The city 's business community is served by The Daily Reporter, central Ohio 's only printed daily business and legal newspaper; Columbus Business First, a daily online / weekly print business publication that is part of the Charlotte - based American City Business Journals, and Columbus CEO, a monthly business magazine. Extensive Statehouse coverage is provided by Gongwer News Service, a daily independent political newsletter.
Columbus is the base for 12 television stations and is the 32nd largest television market as of September 24, 2016.
Warner Cable introduced its two - way interactive QUBE system in Columbus in December 1977, which consisted of specialty channels that would evolve into national networks Nickelodeon, MTV and The Movie Channel. QUBE also displayed one of the earliest uses of Pay - per - view and video on demand.
Columbus is home to the 36th largest radio market. The following box contains all of the radio stations in the area, as well as their current format:
The city 's street plan originates downtown and extends into the old - growth neighborhoods, following a grid pattern with the intersection of High Street (running north -- south) and Broad Street (running east -- west) at its center. North - South streets run 12 degrees west of due North, parallel to High Street; the Avenues (vis. Fifth Avenue, Sixth Avenue, Seventh Avenue, and so on.) run east -- west. The address system begins its numbering at the intersection of Broad and High, with numbers increasing in magnitude with distance from Broad or High. Numbered Avenues begin with First Avenue, about 1 ⁄ mi (2.0 km) north of Broad Street, and increase in number as one progresses northward. Numbered Streets begin with Second Street, which is two blocks west of High Street, and Third Street, which is a block east of High Street, then progress eastward from there. Even - numbered addresses are on the north and east sides of streets, putting odd addresses on the south and west sides of streets. A difference of 700 house numbers means a distance of about 1 mi (1.6 km) (along the same street). For example, 351 W 5th Avenue is approximately ⁄ mi (800 m) west of High Street on the south side of Fifth Avenue. Buildings along north -- south streets are numbered in a similar manner: the building number indicates the approximate distance from Broad Street, the prefixes ' N ' and ' S ' indicate whether that distance is to measured to the north or south of Broad Street and the street number itself indicates how far the street is from the center of the city at the intersection of Broad and High.
This street numbering system does not hold true over a large area. The area served by numbered Avenues runs from about Marble Cliff to South Linden to the Airport, and the area served by numbered Streets covers Downtown and nearby neighborhoods to the east and south, with only a few exceptions. There are quite few intersections between numbered Streets and Avenues. Furthermore, named Streets and Avenues can have any orientation. For example, while all of the numbered avenues run east -- west, perpendicular to High Street, many named, non-numbered avenues run north -- south, parallel to High. The same is true of many named streets: while the numbered streets in the city run north -- south, perpendicular to Broad Street, many named, non-numbered streets run east -- west, perpendicular to High Street.
The addressing system, however, covers nearly all of Franklin County, with only a few older suburbs retaining self - centered address systems. The address scale of 700 per mile results in addresses approaching, but not usually reaching, 10,000 at the county 's borders.
Other major, local roads in Columbus include Main Street, Morse Road, Dublin - Granville Road (SR - 161), Cleveland Avenue / Westerville Road (SR - 3), Olentangy River Road, Riverside Drive, Sunbury Road, Fifth Avenue and Livingston Avenue.
Columbus is bisected by two major Interstate Highways, Interstate 70 running east -- west, and Interstate 71 running north to roughly southwest. The two Interstates combine downtown for about 1.5 mi (2.4 km) in an area locally known as "The Split '', which is a major traffic congestion point within Columbus, especially during rush hour. U.S. Route 40, originally known as the National Road, runs east -- west through Columbus, comprising Main Street to the east of downtown and Broad Street to the west. U.S. Route 23 runs roughly north -- south, while U.S. Route 33 runs northwest - to - southeast. The Interstate 270 Outerbelt encircles the vast majority of the city, while the newly redesigned Innerbelt consists of the Interstate 670 spur on the north side (which continues to the east past the Airport and to the west where it merges with I - 70), State Route 315 on the west side, the I - 70 / 71 split on the south side, and I - 71 on the east. Due to its central location within Ohio and abundance of outbound roadways, nearly all of the state 's destinations are within a 2 or 3 hour drive of Columbus.
The Columbus riverfront hosts a few notable bridges which have been built since 2000. The 700 ft (210 m) Main Street Bridge opened on July 30, 2010 and is the first bridge of its kind in North America. The bridge is located directly south of COSI on the Scioto river, featuring three lanes of traffic (one westbound and two eastbound) and another separated lane for pedestrians and bikes. The Rich Street Bridge opened in July 2012 and is adjacent to the Main Street Bridge connecting Rich Street on the east side of the river with Town Street on the west. The Lane Avenue Bridge is a cable - stayed bridge that opened on November 14, 2003 in the University District and spans the Olentangy river with three lanes of traffic each way.
The city 's primary airport, John Glenn International Airport (CMH), is located on the east side of the city, with several smaller airports in the region as well. John Glenn, formerly known as Port Columbus, provides service to Toronto, Canada and Cancun, Mexico (on a seasonal basis), as well as to most domestic destinations, including all the major hubs except San Francisco, Salt Lake City, and Seattle. The airport was a hub for discount carrier Skybus Airlines and continues to be a home to NetJets, the world 's largest fractional ownership air carrier. According to a 2005 market survey, John Glenn Columbus International Airport attracts about 50 % of its passengers from outside of its 60 - mile (97 km) radius primary service region. It is currently the 52nd - busiest airport in the United States by total passenger boardings. Rickenbacker International Airport, in southern Franklin County, is a major cargo facility and is utilized by the Ohio Air National Guard. Allegiant Air offers nonstop service from Rickenbacker to various Florida destinations. Ohio State University Don Scott Airport and Bolton Field are significant general - aviation facilities in the Columbus area.
Columbus maintains a widespread municipal bus service called the Central Ohio Transit Authority (COTA). Intercity bus service is provided by Greyhound, Barons Bus Lines, Miller Transportation, GoBus, and other carriers.
Currently, Columbus does not have any type of passenger rail service. Columbus used to have a major train station downtown called Union Station, most notably as a stop along Amtrak 's National Limited train service until 1977. The station itself was razed in 1979, and the Greater Columbus Convention Center now stands in its place. Until the founding of Amtrak in 1971 the Penn Central ran the Cincinnati Limited to Cincinnati to the southwest (in prior years train continued to New York City to the east); and the Penn Central ran the Ohio State Limited between Cincinnati and Cleveland, with Union Station serving as a major intermediate stop (the train going unnamed between 1967 and 1971). The station was also a stop along the Pennsylvania Railroad, the New York Central Railroad, the Chesapeake and Ohio Railroad, the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, the Norfolk and Western Railroad, the Cleveland, Columbus and Cincinnati Railroad and the Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, Chicago and St. Louis Railroad. Columbus is now the largest metropolitan area in the U.S. without either a local rail or intercity rail connection (Phoenix opened a light - rail system in 2008, but still lacks an Amtrak connection.)
However, studies are underway towards reintroducing passenger rail service to Columbus via the Ohio Hub project. Plans are in the works to open a high - speed rail service connecting Columbus with Cincinnati and to the proposed hub in Cleveland which offers rail service to the east, including Pittsburgh, Washington, D.C., Philadelphia, and New York City.
Cycling as transportation is steadily increasing in Columbus with its relatively flat terrain, intact urban neighborhoods, large student population, and off - road bike paths. The city has put forth the 2012 Bicentennial Bikeways Plan as well as a move toward a Complete Streets policy. Grassroots efforts such as Bike To Work Week, Consider Biking, Yay Bikes, Third Hand Bicycle Co-op, Franklinton Cycleworks, and Cranksters, a local radio program focused on urban cycling, have contributed to cycling as transportation.
Columbus also hosts urban cycling "off - shots '' with messenger - style "alleycat '' races as well as unorganized group rides, a monthly Critical Mass ride, bicycle polo, art showings, movie nights, and a variety of bicycle - friendly businesses and events throughout the year. All this activity occurs despite Columbus 's frequently inclement weather.
The new Main Street Bridge features a dedicated bike and pedestrian lane separated from traffic, as does the Rich Street Bridge.
The city has its own public bicycle system. CoGo Bike Share system has a network of 335 bicycles and 41 docking stations (2016). PBSC Urban Solutions, a company based in Canada, supplies technology and equipment.
Columbus has ten sister cities, as designated by Sister Cities International. Columbus established its first Sister City relationship in 1955 with Genoa, Italy. To commemorate this relationship, Columbus received as a gift from the people of Genoa, a bronze statue of Christopher Columbus. The statue, sculpted by artist Edoardo Alfieri, overlooks Broad Street in front of Columbus City Hall.
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who is the highest person in the navy | United States military seniority - wikipedia
United States military seniority is the method by which the United States Armed Forces determine precedence among commissioned officers, in particular those who hold the same rank. Seniority is used to determine assignments, tactical commands, promotions and general courtesy. To a lesser extent, historical seniority is used to recognize status of honor given to early United States military leaders such as inaugural holders of certain ranks or those officers who served as leadership during major wars and armed conflicts.
The modern - day seniority system of the United States commissioned officer corps operates on two different levels. For officers of different ranks, seniority is simply determined by who holds the highest rank. For instance, Army colonel is senior to captain and captain senior to lieutenant. Seniority extends across services as for instance major in the Army is senior to captain in the Air Force while commander in the United States Navy is senior to both. For officers in the same rank or paygrade, seniority is determined by the date of whom assumed their rank earlier. If officers of the same grade have the same date of rank, then seniority is determined in order by the officer 's previous rank 's date and so forth. If all promotion dates of ranks are the same, seniority is then determined on order of: previous active duty grade relative seniority (if applicable), total active commissioned service, and finally, total federal commissioned service or date of appointment as a commissioned officer. The secretaries of each service may establish further seniority rules if applicable.
A type of "positional seniority '' exists for military officers who hold top leadership positions of the armed forces. For instance, the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff is considered the senior most officer of the entire United States military, even though it is possible that contemporaries of the same rank may have earlier dates of rank or time in service. Likewise, heads of various armed service branches are considered senior most within their service; unified commanders are also considered senior most in their respective regions yet not necessarily to each other.
The regular United States military hierarchy is as follows:
When compared to each other, seniority is determined among the service heads by lineal number and commissioning date. Externally, the standing of each service head is determined by the date of the creation of the position as follows.
The officers in charge of the Unified Combatant Commands are considered "operational officers '' while the standard military hierarchy is administrative. For instance, the Chief of Naval Operations, who would most likely be senior to a naval admiral in command of the United States Pacific Command, would not be able to issue direct orders to said commander since operational chain of command is separate from regular administrative military hierarchy. Military seniority, within itself, would not be affected.
Tactical seniority, also known as "battlefield seniority '', is the manner in which a senior officer in command of a given tactical situation is determined. For instance, within the United States Navy, groups of ships performing exercises together will have one ship designated as the tactical senior unit. The commander of said ship is the senior tactical officer and may in fact be junior in rank to the other officers of the tactical group. For multi-national exercises, such as the Sharem event in South Korea, ships of foreign nations are sometimes given tactical seniority and thus may issue routine movement orders to United States vessels. Actual combat would fall under the Task Force system, in which a United States admiral, with clear seniority, would take command over all vessels.
Groups of Army units, especially in active combat, may be placed under tactical command of any officer, regardless of rank seniority, for completion of a single mission. During World War II, the term "mixed unit '' was commonly used to denote military formations created from several other smaller units, most often "on the spot '', due to operational confusion and the need for a single battlefield commander to take authority over all units physically present. Army Air Force bomber groups operated on a similar principle, in that tactical command could pass to officers who were not necessarily the senior most present, given the specific needs of the mission or casualties during the mission itself.
Operational seniority refers to the ability to issue long range orders to U.S. forces, such as deployments, general orders, and other administrative matters. Operational seniority is never granted to non-U.S. officers and usually stems from such major offices as the Bureau of Naval Personnel or the Army Personnel Branch.
Historical seniority loosely indicates the general significance of various generals and flag officers within the scope of the history of the United States. Historical seniority is typically only bestowed to those officers who were the inaugural holders of ranks or for those who served as the senior most military officer during a major armed conflict.
The only case where historical seniority has been legally established by the United States Congress are for the two "super ranks '' of the armed forces of the United States, these being the ranks General of the Armies and Admiral of the Navy. By clear precedent, the holders of these two ranks (three persons in all) are senior to all other officers of the United States military, past and present. By special Congressional edict, George Washington is considered the senior most officer of all time meaning he may never be lesser in seniority to any other military officer, although Washington technically shares the same rank with John Pershing.
The office of general was discontinued after the Civil War, but revived in 1919 by the title of "General of the Armies of the United States '' when General John J. Pershing was appointed to that office on 3 September 1919; accepted the appointment on 8 September 1919, was retired with that rank on 13 September 1924, and held it until his death on 15 July 1948. No other officer has occupied this office on active duty. General Pershing held the grade of General of the Armies of the United States under the provisions of the Act of U.S. Congress of 3 September 1919 (Public Law 45). Washington was posthumously appointed General of the Armies of the United States under s: Public Law 94 - 479. Under s: Order 31 - 3, the effective promotion date was on 4 July 1976. Congress specified that no officer of the United States Army should outrank Lieutenant General George Washington on the Army list. While promoted to a lieutenant general only a year before his death, he was the most senior officer and the only lieutenant general in the army. The same is true of Ulysses S. Grant, who was the second person to permanently hold this rank. (Winfield Scott was a brevet lieutenant general for his service in the Mexican -- American War.) Washington was referred to as "commander in chief '' of the Continental Army, a title that since the adoption of the Constitution has been reserved for the (civilian) President.
The five star officers of World War II are technically considered the most senior officers in U.S. history (with the exception of the two "super ranks '' previously mentioned), yet are often considered historically junior to the military leaders of the 19th century, especially the inaugural holders of senior military ranks. Most historical seniority lists also omit three star officers, with some rare exceptions (such as Winfield Scott), and typically avoid comparing two star ranks and below, which are permanent ranks held by hundreds of officers over the past two centuries. In these cases, standard methods of seniority are utilized. Since 1981, the highest rank held by any officer in the U.S. armed forces is four stars, or a pay grade of "O - 10 ''. Modern - day admirals and generals are typically not considered in lists of historical seniority, except for extreme cases such as leaders of wars or other wide scale armed conflicts.
The officers listed below are generally accepted in military history circles as the top twenty five officers of all time in United States military history
Alexander Vandegrift is also frequently included in historical seniority lists due to his status as the first Commandant of the Marine Corps to hold a four - star rank, as is Anna Mae Hays who was the first woman to be promoted to brigadier general in the history of the United States. Historical seniority is rarely referred to after the Korean War since modern military seniority systems had been well - established after the mid 20th century. Expanded seniority lists such as the one listed below do exist mostly in recognition of major military leaders of modern wars and conflicts.
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where has bernadette been on the big bang theory | Melissa Rauch - wikipedia
Melissa Ivy Rauch (born June 23, 1980) is an American actress and comedian. She is known for playing Bernadette Rostenkowski - Wolowitz on the CBS sitcom The Big Bang Theory.
Rauch was born to a Jewish family in Marlboro Township, New Jersey. Her parents are Susan and David Rauch. She has a brother, Ben. She developed an interest in acting while attending Marlboro High School. Rauch graduated from Marymount Manhattan College in New York City in 2002.
Some of Rauch 's early work was as a regular contributor to VH1 's Best Week Ever television show.
In 2009, Rauch began playing the recurring role of Bernadette Rostenkowski, a co-worker of Penny who began to date Howard Wolowitz, in the third season of TV 's The Big Bang Theory. The following season her character became Howard 's fiancée and Rauch was promoted to a series regular. The characters married in the season five finale. In December 2011, Rauch and fellow cast members of The Big Bang Theory received the first of four nominations for the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series.
Other acting credits include True Blood (on which she had a recurring role in 2010 as Summer, a girl who likes Hoyt), The Office, the American remake of the Australian TV series Kath & Kim, Wright v Wrong, and the film I Love You, Man.
Rauch is also part of the cast of the comedic stage show The Realest Real Housewives with Casey Wilson, June Diane Raphael, Jessica St. Clair and Danielle Schneider. The show began running at the Upright Citizens Brigade Theatre in 2011.
Rauch co-wrote and co-produced the film The Bronze, in which she starred as Hope Annabelle Greggory, a bronze medal - winning gymnast clinging to her glory days of 12 years earlier. It opened the 2015 Sundance Film Festival. Variety said, "Rauch, who co-wrote the screenplay with her husband Winston, has never carried a film before. But she delivers the best breakthrough comedic performance by an actress since Melissa McCarthy in Bridesmaids. '' Sony Pictures Classics acquired the film in September 2015.
In 2017, Rauch voiced Harley Quinn in the animated film Batman and Harley Quinn and she voiced Light Thief in Light Riders from Blaze and the Monster Machines.
Rauch is married to writer Winston Rauch (né Beigel), who collaborated with her on The Miss Education of Jenna Bush and other projects. Rauch announced that she was pregnant on July 11, 2017, and disclosed that she had a miscarriage previously. On December 4, 2017 Rauch announced on Instagram that she had given birth to a girl, Sadie.
Rauch modeled the voice of Bernadette after her parents: the "sweet, high - pitched purr '' is modeled after her mother, while the "eerie, haranguing imitation '' of Mrs. Wolowitz is modeled after her father. Both are "very different '' from Rauch 's real voice.
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how many seats did labour win in 2015 | United Kingdom general election, 2015 - Wikipedia
David Cameron Conservative
David Cameron Conservative
The United Kingdom general election of 2015 was held on 7 May 2015 to elect 650 members to the House of Commons. It was the first general election at the end of a fixed - term Parliament. Local elections took place in most areas on the same day.
Polls and commentators had predicted the outcome would be too close to call and would result in a second hung parliament similar to the 2010 election. Opinion polls were eventually proven to have underestimated the Conservative vote as they unexpectedly won an outright majority, which bore resemblance to their victory at the 1992 general election. Having governed in coalition with the Liberal Democrats since 2010, the Conservatives won 330 seats and 36.9 % of the vote, this time winning a working majority of twelve seats.
The British Polling Council began an inquiry into the substantial variance between opinion polls and the actual result. Forming the first Conservative majority government since 1992, David Cameron became the first Prime Minister to continue in office immediately after a term of at least four years with a larger popular vote share since 1900, and the only Prime Minister other than Margaret Thatcher to continue in office immediately after a term of at least four years with a greater number of seats. The Labour Party, led by Ed Miliband, saw a small increase in its share of the vote to 30.4 %, but incurred a net loss of seats to return 232 MPs. This was its lowest seat tally since the 1987 general election. Senior Labour Shadow Cabinet members, notably Ed Balls, Douglas Alexander, and Scottish Labour leader Jim Murphy, were defeated.
The Scottish National Party, enjoying a surge in support since the 2014 Scottish independence referendum, recorded a number of huge swings of over 30 % (including a record - breaking swing of 39.3 % achieved in Glasgow North East) from Labour, as it won 56 of the 59 Scottish seats to become the third - largest party in the Commons. The Liberal Democrats, led by outgoing Deputy Prime Minister Nick Clegg, had their worst result since their formation in 1988, holding just eight out of their previous 57 seats with Cabinet ministers Vince Cable, Ed Davey and Danny Alexander losing their seats. UKIP came third in terms of votes with 12.6 %, but only won one seat, with party leader Nigel Farage failing to win the seat of South Thanet. The Green Party won its highest - ever share of the vote with 3.8 %, and retained the Brighton Pavilion seat with an increased majority, though did not win any additional seats. Labour 's Miliband (as national leader) and Murphy (as Scottish leader) both resigned, as did Clegg. Farage claimed that his resignation was rejected by his party, and he remained in post.
In Northern Ireland, the Ulster Unionist Party returned to the Commons with two MPs after a five - year absence, while the Alliance Party lost its only seat despite an increase in total vote share.
The Conservative Party majority meant that Cameron was able to fulfil a manifesto commitment to renegotiate British membership of the European Union. That renegotiation was followed by a referendum in June 2016, which resulted in the British electorate voting to withdraw from the European Union by 52 % to 48 % and led to the resignation of Cameron as Prime Minister. The new Prime Minister, Theresa May, called in April 2017 for a snap general election with the stated aim of securing a majority for Brexit negotiations; it received parliamentary approval the following day, and was arranged for Thursday 8 June 2017.
The Fixed - term Parliaments Act 2011 (as amended by the Electoral Registration and Administration Act 2013) led to the dissolution of the 55th Parliament on 30 March 2015 and the scheduling of the election on 7 May, the House of Commons not having voted for an earlier date. There were local elections on the same day in most of England, with the exception of Greater London. No other elections were scheduled to take place in Scotland, Wales or Northern Ireland, apart from any local by - elections.
All British, Irish and Commonwealth citizens over the age of 18 on the date of the election were permitted to vote. In general elections, voting takes place in all parliamentary constituencies of the United Kingdom to elect members of parliament (MPs) to seats in the House of Commons, the dominant (historically termed the lower) house of Parliament. Each parliamentary constituency of the United Kingdom elects one MP to the House of Commons using the "first - past - the - post '' system. If one party obtains a majority of seats, then that party is entitled to form the Government. If the election results in no single party having a majority, then there is a hung parliament. In this case, the options for forming the Government are either a minority government or a coalition government.
Although the Conservative Party planned the number of parliamentary seats to be reduced from 650 to 600, through the Sixth Periodic Review of Westminster constituencies under the Parliamentary Voting System and Constituencies Act 2011, the review of constituencies and reduction in seats was delayed by the Electoral Registration and Administration Act 2013 amending the 2011 Act. The next boundary review is now set to take place in 2018; thus, the 2015 general election was contested using the same constituencies and boundaries as in 2010. Of the 650 constituencies, 533 were in England, 59 in Scotland, 40 in Wales and 18 in Northern Ireland.
In addition, the 2011 Act mandated a referendum in 2011 on changing from the current "first - past - the - post '' system to an alternative vote (instant - runoff) system for elections to the Commons. The Conservative -- Liberal Democrat coalition agreement committed the coalition government to such a referendum. The referendum was held in May 2011 and resulted in the retention of the existing voting system. Before the previous general election the Liberal Democrats had pledged to change the voting system, and the Labour Party pledged to have a referendum about any such change. The Conservatives, however, promised to keep the first - past - the - post system, but to reduce the number of constituencies by 10 %. Liberal Democrat plans were to reduce the number of MPs to 500, and for them to be elected using a proportional system.
Ministers increased the amount of money that parties and candidates were allowed to spend on the election by 23 %, a move decided against Electoral Commission advice. The election saw the first cap on spending by parties in individual constituencies during the 100 days before Parliament 's dissolution on 30 March: £ 30,700, plus a per - voter allowance of 9p in county constituencies and 6p in borough seats. An additional voter allowance of more than £ 8,700 is available after the dissolution of Parliament. UK political parties spent £ 31.1 m in the 2010 general election, of which the Conservative Party spent 53 %, the Labour Party spent 25 % and the Liberal Democrats 15 %.
This was the first UK general election to use individual rather than household voter registration.
An election is called following the dissolution of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. The 2015 general election was the first to be held under the provisions of the Fixed - term Parliaments Act 2011. Prior to this, the power to dissolve Parliament was a royal prerogative, exercised by the sovereign on the advice of the prime minister. Under the provisions of the Septennial Act 1716, as amended by the Parliament Act 1911, an election had to be announced on or before the fifth anniversary of the beginning of the previous parliament, barring exceptional circumstances. No sovereign had refused a request for dissolution since the beginning of the 20th century, and the practice had evolved that a prime minister would typically call a general election to be held at a tactically convenient time within the final two years of a Parliament 's lifespan, to maximise the chance of an electoral victory for his or her party.
Prior to the 2010 general election, the Labour Party and the Liberal Democrats pledged to introduce fixed - term elections. As part of the Conservative -- Liberal Democrat coalition agreement, the Cameron ministry agreed to support legislation for fixed - term Parliaments, with the date of the next general election being 7 May 2015. This resulted in the Fixed - term Parliaments Act 2011, which removed the prime minister 's power to advise the monarch to call an early election. The Act only permits an early dissolution if Parliament votes for one by a two - thirds supermajority, or if a vote of no confidence is passed by a majority and no new government is subsequently formed within 14 days. However, the prime minister had the power, by order made by Statutory Instrument under section 1 (5) of the Fixed - term Parliaments Act 2011, to fix the polling day to be up to two months later than 7 May 2015. Such a Statutory Instrument must be approved by each House of Parliament. Under section 14 of the Electoral Registration and Administration Act 2013, the Fixed - term Parliaments Act 2011 was amended to extend the period between the dissolution of Parliament and the following general election polling day from 17 to 25 working days. This had the effect of moving forward the date of the dissolution of the Parliament to 30 March 2015.
The key dates were:
While at the previous election there had been a record 148 MPs not standing for re-election, the 2015 election saw 90 MPs standing down. These comprised 38 Conservative, 37 Labour, 10 Liberal Democrat, 3 Independent, 1 Sinn Féin and 1 Plaid Cymru MP. The highest - profile members of parliament leaving were: Gordon Brown, a former Prime Minister, Leader of the Labour Party (both 2007 -- 2010) and Chancellor of the Exchequer (1997 -- 2007); and William Hague, the outgoing First Secretary of State and Leader of the House of Commons and former Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs (2010 -- 2014), Leader of the Conservative Party and Leader of the Opposition (both 1997 -- 2001). Alongside Brown and Hague, 17 former cabinet ministers stood down at the election, including Stephen Dorrell, Jack Straw, Alistair Darling, David Blunkett, Sir Malcolm Rifkind and Dame Tessa Jowell. The highest profile Liberal Democrat to stand down was former leader Sir Menzies Campbell, while the longest - serving MP (the "Father of the House '') Sir Peter Tapsell also retired, having served from 1959 to 1964 and then continuously since the 1966 general election.
As of 9 April 2015, the deadline for standing for the general election, the Electoral Commission 's Register of Political Parties included 428 political parties registered in Great Britain, and 36 in Northern Ireland. Candidates who did not belong to a registered party could use an "independent '' label, or no label at all.
The Conservative Party and the Labour Party had been the two biggest parties since 1922, and had supplied all UK prime ministers since 1935. Polls predicted that these parties would together receive between 65 % and 75 % of votes, and would together win between 80 % and 85 % of seats; and that, as such, the leader of one of those parties would be the prime minister after the election. The Liberal Democrats had been the third party in the UK for many years; but as described by various commentators, other parties had risen relative to the Liberal Democrats since the 2010 election. The Economist described a "familiar two - and - a-half - party system '' (Conservatives, Labour, and the Liberal Democrats) that "appears to be breaking down '' with the rise of the United Kingdom Independence Party (UKIP), the Greens and the Scottish National Party (SNP). Newsnight and The Economist described the country as moving into a six - party system, with the Liberal Democrats, SNP, UKIP and Greens all being significant. Ofcom, in their role regulating election coverage in the UK, ruled that, for the general election and local elections in May 2015, the major parties in Great Britain were the Conservatives, Labour and Liberal Democrats, with UKIP a major party in England and Wales, the SNP a major party in Scotland, and Plaid Cymru (PC) in Wales, and that the Greens were not a major party. The BBC 's guidelines were similar but excluded UKIP from the category of "larger parties '' in Great Britain, and instead stated that UKIP should be given "appropriate levels of coverage in output to which the largest parties contribute and, on some occasions, similar levels of coverage ''. Seven parties (Conservative, Labour, Liberal Democrat, UKIP, SNP, PC and Green) participated in the election leadership debates.
The main Great Britain - based parties -- several parties operate in Northern Ireland only, which has a mainly separate political culture -- are listed below in order of seats being contested:
Dozens of other minor parties stood in Great Britain. The Trade Unionist and Socialist Coalition, founded as an electoral alliance of socialist parties in 2010, had 135 candidates and was the only other party to have more than 40 candidates. Respect came into the election with one MP (George Galloway), who was elected at the 2012 Bradford West by - election, but stood just four candidates. The British National Party, which finished fifth with 1.9 % of the vote for its 338 candidates at the 2010 general election, stood only eight candidates following a collapse in support. 753 other candidates stood at the general election, including all independents, Northern Ireland - based party candidates, and candidates from other parties.
The main parties in Northern Ireland (which had 18 constituencies) described by Ofcom, the BBC and others, in alphabetical order, were:
Smaller parties in Northern Ireland included Traditional Unionist Voice (standing in seven seats) and the Green Party in Northern Ireland (standing in five seats). In 2015 TUV and the Greens each held one seat in the Legislative Assembly. The North Down seat was retained by independent Sylvia Hermon. The Northern Ireland Conservatives and UKIP fielded candidates, whereas Labour and the Liberal Democrats do not contest elections in Northern Ireland.
Coalitions have been rare in the United Kingdom, because the first - past - the - post system has usually led to one party winning an overall majority in the Commons. However, with the outgoing Government being a coalition and with opinion polls not showing a large or consistent lead for any one party, there was much discussion about possible post-election coalitions or other arrangements, such as confidence and supply agreements.
Some UK political parties that only stand in part of the country have reciprocal relationships with parties standing in other parts of the country. These include:
On 17 March 2015 the Democratic Unionist Party and the Ulster Unionist Party agreed an election pact, whereby the DUP would not stand candidates in Fermanagh and South Tyrone (where Michelle Gildernew, the Sinn Féin candidate, won by only four votes in 2010) and in Newry and Armagh. In return the UUP would stand aside in Belfast East and Belfast North. The SDLP rejected a similar pact suggested by Sinn Féin to try to ensure that an agreed nationalist would win that constituency. The DUP also called on voters in Scotland to support whichever pro-Union candidate was best placed to beat the SNP.
The deadline for parties and individuals to file candidate nomination papers to the acting returning officer (and the deadline for candidates to withdraw) was 4 p.m. on 9 April 2015. The total number of candidates was 3,971; the second - highest number in history, slightly down from the record 4,150 candidates at the last election in 2010.
There were a record number of female candidates standing in terms of both absolute numbers and percentage of candidates: 1,020 (26.1 %) in 2015, up from 854 (21.1 %) in 2010. The proportion of female candidates for major parties ranged from 41 % of Alliance Party candidates to 12 % of UKIP candidates. According to UCL 's Parliamentary Candidates UK project the major parties had the following percentages of black and ethnic minority candidates: the Conservatives 11 %, the Liberal Democrats 10 %, Labour 9 %, UKIP 6 %, the Greens 4 %. The average age of the candidates for the seven major parties was 45.
The youngest candidates were all aged 18: Solomon Curtis (Labour, Wealden); Niamh McCarthy (Independent, Liverpool Wavertree); Michael Burrows (UKIP, Inverclyde); Declan Lloyd (Labour, South East Cornwall); and Laura - Jane Rossington (Communist Party, Plymouth Sutton and Devonport). The oldest candidate was Doris Osen, 84, of the Elderly Persons ' Independent Party (EPIC), who was standing in Ilford North. Other candidates aged over 80 included three long - serving Labour MPs standing for re-election: Sir Gerald Kaufman (aged 84; Manchester Gorton), Dennis Skinner (aged 83; Bolsover) and David Winnick (aged 81; Walsall North).
A number of candidates -- including two for Labour and two for UKIP -- were suspended from their respective parties after nominations were closed. Independent candidate Ronnie Carroll died after nominations were closed.
Hung Parliaments have been unusual in post-War British political history, but with the outgoing Government a coalition and opinion polls not showing a large or consistent lead for any one party, it was widely expected and predicted throughout the election campaign that no party would gain an overall majority, which could have led to a new coalition or other arrangements such as confidence and supply agreements. This was also associated with a rise in multi-party politics, with increased support for UKIP, the SNP and the Greens.
The question of what the different parties would do in the event of a hung result dominated much of the campaign. Smaller parties focused on the power this would bring them in negotiations; Labour and the Conservatives both insisted that they were working towards winning a majority government, while they were also reported to be preparing for the possibility of a second election in the year. In practice, Labour were prepared to make a "broad '' offer to the Liberal Democrats in the event of a hung Parliament. Most predictions saw Labour as having more potential support in Parliament than the Conservatives, with several parties, notably the SNP, having committed to keeping out a Conservative government.
Conservative campaigning sought to highlight what they described as the dangers of a minority Labour administration supported by the SNP. This proved effective at dominating the agenda of the campaign and at motivating voters to support them. The Conservative victory was "widely put down to the success of the anti-Labour / SNP warnings '', according to a BBC article and others. Labour, in reaction, produced ever stronger denials that they would co-operate with the SNP after the election.
The Labour, Conservative and Liberal Democrat parties rejected the idea of a coalition with the SNP. This was particularly notable for Labour, to whom the SNP had previously offered support: their manifesto stated that "the SNP will never put the Tories into power. Instead, if there is an anti-Tory majority after the election, we will offer to work with other parties to keep the Tories out. '' SNP leader Nicola Sturgeon later confirmed in the Scottish leaders ' debate on STV that she was prepared to "help make Ed Miliband prime minister. '' However, on 26 April, Miliband ruled out a confidence and supply arrangement with the SNP too. Miliband 's comments suggested to many that he was working towards forming a minority government.
The Liberal Democrats said that they would talk first to whichever party won the most seats. They later campaigned on being a stabilising influence should either the Conservatives or Labour fall short of a majority, with the slogan "We will bring a heart to a Conservative Government and a brain to a Labour one. ''
Both Labour and the Liberal Democrats ruled out coalitions with UKIP. Ruth Davidson, leader of the Scottish Conservatives, asked about a deal with UKIP in the Scottish leaders ' debate, replied, "No deals with UKIP. '' She continued that her preference and the Prime Minister 's preference in a hung Parliament was for a minority Conservative government. UKIP say they could support a minority Conservative government through a confidence and supply arrangement in return for a referendum on EU membership before Christmas 2015. They also spoke of the DUP joining UKIP in this arrangement. UKIP and DUP said they would work together in Parliament. The DUP welcomed the possibility of a hung Parliament and the influence that this would bring them. The party 's deputy leader, Nigel Dodds, said the party could work with the Conservatives or Labour, but that the party is "not interested in a full - blown coalition government ''. Their leader, Peter Robinson, said that the DUP would talk first to whichever party wins the most seats. The DUP said they wanted, for their support, a commitment to 2 % defence spending, a referendum on EU membership, and a reversal of the under - occupation penalty. They opposed the SNP being involved in government. The UUP also indicated that they would not work with the SNP if it wanted another independence referendum in Scotland.
The Green Party of England & Wales, Plaid Cymru and the Scottish National Party all ruled out working with the Conservatives, and agreed to work together "wherever possible '' to counter austerity. Each would also make it a condition of any agreement with Labour that Trident nuclear weapons was not replaced; the Green Party of England and Wales stated that "austerity is a red line. '' Both Plaid Cymru and the Green Party stated a preference for a confidence and supply arrangement with Labour, rather than a coalition. The leader of the SDLP, Alasdair McDonnell, said, "We will be the left - of - centre backbone of a Labour administration '', and that, "the SDLP will categorically refuse to support David Cameron and the Conservative Party ''. Sinn Féin reiterated their abstentionist stance. In the event, the Conservatives did secure an overall majority, rendering much of the speculation and positioning moot.
The deficit, who was responsible for it and plans to deal with it were a major theme of the campaign. While some smaller parties opposed austerity, the Conservatives, Labour, Liberal Democrats and UKIP all supported some further cuts, albeit to different extents.
Conservative campaigning sought to blame the deficit on the previous Labour government. Labour, in return, sought to establish their fiscal responsibility. With the Conservatives also making several spending commitments (e.g. on the NHS), commentators talked of the two main parties ' "political crossdressing '', each trying to campaign on the other 's traditional territory.
The first series of televised leaders ' debates in the United Kingdom was held in the previous election. After much debate and various proposals, a seven - way debate with the leaders of Labour, the Conservatives, Liberal Democrats, UKIP, Greens, SNP and Plaid Cymru was held. with a series of other debates involving some of the parties.
The campaign was notable for the absence of party posters on roadside hoardings. It was suggested that 2015 saw "the death of the campaign poster ''.
Various newspapers, organisations and individuals endorsed parties or individual candidates for the election.
Throughout the 55th parliament of the United Kingdom, first and second place in the polls without exception alternated between the Conservatives and Labour. Labour took a lead in the polls in the second half of 2010, driven in part by a collapse in Liberal Democrat support. This lead rose up to approximately 10 points over the Conservative Party during 2012, whose ratings dipped alongside an increase in UKIP support. UKIP passed the Liberal Democrats as the third-most popular party at the start of 2013. Following this, Labour 's lead over the Conservatives began to fall as UKIP gained support from them as well, and by the end of the year Labour were polling at 39 %, compared to 33 % for the Conservative Party and 11 % for UKIP.
UKIP received 26.6 % of the vote at the European elections in 2014, and though their support in the polls for Westminster never reached this level, it did rise up to over 15 % through that year. 2014 was also marked by the Scottish independence referendum. Despite the ' No ' vote winning, support for the Scottish National Party rose quickly after the referendum, and had reached 43 % in Scotland by the end of the year, up 23 points from the 2010 general election, largely at the expense of Labour (− 16 points in Scotland) and the Liberal Democrats (− 13 points). In Wales, where polls were less frequent, the 2012 -- 2014 period saw a smaller decline in Labour 's lead over the second - placed Conservative Party, from 28 points to 17. These votes went mainly to UKIP (+ 8 points) and Plaid Cymru (+ 2 points). The rise of UKIP and SNP, alongside the smaller increases for Plaid Cymru and the Green Party (from around 2 % to 6 %) saw the combined support of the Conservative and Labour party fall to a record low of around 65 %. Within this the decline came predominantly from Labour, whose lead fell to under 2 points by the end of 2014. Meanwhile, the Liberal Democrat vote, which had held at about 10 % since late 2010, declined further to about 8 %.
Early 2015 saw the Labour lead continue to fall, disappearing by the start of March. Polling during the election campaign itself remained relatively static, with the Labour and Conservative parties both polling between 33 -- 34 % and neither able to establish a consistent lead. Support for the Green Party and UKIP showed slight drops of around 1 -- 2 points each, while Liberal Democrat support rose up to around 9 %. In Scotland, support for the SNP continued to grow with polling figures in late March reaching 54 %, with the Labour vote continuing to decline accordingly, while Labour retained their (reduced) lead in Wales, polling at 39 % by the end of the campaign, to 26 % for the Conservatives, 13 % for Plaid Cymru, 12 % for UKIP and 6 % for the Liberal Democrats. The final polls showed a mixture of Conservative leads, Labour leads and ties with both between 31 -- 36 %, UKIP on 11 -- 16 %, the Lib Dems on 8 -- 10 %, the Greens on 4 -- 6 %, and the SNP on 4 -- 5 % of the national vote.
In addition to the national polls, Lord Ashcroft funded from May 2014 a series of polls in marginal constituencies, and constituencies where minor parties were expected to be significant challengers. Among other results, Lord Ashcroft 's polls suggested that the growth in SNP support would translate into more than 50 seats; that there was little overall pattern in Labour and Conservative Party marginals; that the Green Party MP Caroline Lucas would retain her seat; that both Liberal Democrat leader Nick Clegg and UKIP leader Nigel Farage would face very close races to be elected in their own constituencies; and that Liberal Democrat MPs would enjoy an incumbency effect that would lose fewer MPs than their national polling implied. As with other smaller parties, their proportion of MPs remained likely to be considerably lower than that of total, national votes cast. Several polling companies included Ashcroft 's polls in their election predictions, though several of the political parties disputed his findings.
The first - past - the - post system used in UK general elections means that the number of seats won is not closely related to vote share. Thus, several approaches were used to convert polling data and other information into seat predictions. The table below lists some of the predictions. ElectionForecast was used by Newsnight and FiveThirtyEight. May2015.com is a project run by the New Statesman magazine.
Seat predictions draw from nationwide polling, polling in the constituent nations of Britain and may additionally incorporate constituency level polling, particularly the Ashcroft polls. Approaches may or may not use uniform national swing (UNS). Approaches may just use current polling, i.e. a "nowcast '' (e.g. Electoral Calculus, May2015.com and The Guardian), or add in a predictive element about how polling shifts based on historical data (e.g. ElectionForecast and Elections Etc.). An alternative approach is to use the wisdom of the crowd and base a prediction on betting activity: the Sporting Index column below covers bets on the number of seats each party will win with the midpoint between asking and selling price, while FirstPastThePost.net aggregates the betting predictions in each individual constituency. Some predictions cover Northern Ireland, with its distinct political culture, while others do not. Parties are sorted by current number of seats in the House of Commons:
as of 12 April 2015
as of 3 April 2015
as of 12 April 2015
(including 18 NI seats)
(including 18 NI seats)
(including 18 NI seats & Respect 1)
Respect 0.5 UUP 0.9 Speaker 1 Sinn Féin 4.5 Independent Unionist 1
Other predictions were published. An election forecasting conference on 27 March 2015 yielded 11 forecasts of the result in Great Britain (including some included in the table above). Averaging the conference predictions gives Labour 283 seats, Conservatives 279, Liberal Democrats 23, UKIP 3, SNP 41, Plaid Cymru 3 and Greens 1. In that situation, no two parties (excluding a Lab - Con coalition) would have been able to form a majority without the support of a third. On 27 April, Rory Scott of the bookmaker Paddy Power predicted Conservatives 284, Labour 272, SNP 50, UKIP 3, and Greens 1. LucidTalk for the Belfast Telegraph predicted for Northern Ireland: DUP 9, Sinn Féin 5, SDLP 3, Sylvia Hermon 1, with the only seat change being the DUP gaining Belfast East from Alliance.
Percentage shares of votes, as predicted in the first week of May:
Seats predicted on 7 May:
A surprising exit poll, collected by Ipsos MORI and GfK on behalf of the BBC, ITN and Sky News, was published at 10 pm at the end of voting:
This predicted the Conservatives to be 10 seats short of an absolute majority, although with the 5 predicted Sinn Féin MPs not taking their seats, it was likely to be enough to govern. (In the event, Michelle Gildernew lost her seat, reducing the number of Sinn Féin MPs to 4.)
The exit poll was markedly different from the pre-election opinion polls, which had been fairly consistent; this led many pundits and MPs to speculate that the exit poll was inaccurate, and that the final result would have the two main parties closer to each other. Former Liberal Democrat leader Paddy Ashdown vowed to "eat his hat '' and former Labour "spin doctor '' Alastair Campbell promised to "eat his kilt '' if the exit poll, which predicted huge losses for their respective parties, was right.
As it turned out, the results were even more favourable to the Conservatives than the poll predicted, with the Conservatives obtaining 330 seats, an absolute majority. Ashdown and Campbell were presented with hat - and kilt - shaped cakes (labelled "eat me '') on BBC Question Time on 8 May.
With the eventual outcome in terms of both votes and seats varying substantially from the bulk of opinion polls released in the final months before the election, the polling industry received criticism for their inability to predict what was a surprisingly clear Conservative victory. Several theories have been put forward to explain the inaccuracy of the pollsters. One theory was that there had simply been a very late swing to the Conservatives, with the polling company Survation claiming that 13 % of voters made up their minds in the final days and 17 % on the day of the election. The company also claimed that a poll they carried out a day before the election gave the Conservatives 37 % and Labour 31 %, though they said they did not release the poll (commissioned by the Daily Mirror) on the concern that it was too much of an outlier with other poll results.
However, it was reported that pollsters had in fact picked up a late swing to Labour immediately prior to polling day, not the Conservatives. It was reported after the election that private pollsters working for the two largest parties actually gathered more accurate results, with Labour 's pollster James Morris claiming that the issue was largely to do with surveying technique. Morris claimed that telephone polls that immediately asked for voting intentions tended to get a high "Do n't know '' or anti-government reaction, whereas longer telephone conversations conducted by private polls that collected other information such as views on the leaders ' performances placed voters in a much better mode to give their true voting intentions. Another theory was the issue of ' shy Tories ' not wanting to openly declare their intention to vote Conservative to pollsters. A final theory, put forward after the election, was the ' Lazy Labour ' factor, which claimed that Labour voters tend to not vote on polling day whereas Conservative voters have a much higher turnout.
The British Polling Council announced an inquiry into the substantial variance between the opinion polls and the actual election result. The inquiry published preliminary findings in January 2016, concluding that "the ways in which polling samples are constructed was the primary cause of the polling miss ''. Their final report was published in March 2016.
The British Election Study team have suggested that weighting error appears to be the cause.
Votes, of total, by party
MPs, of total, by party
After all 650 constituencies had been declared, the results were:
The following table shows final election results as reported by BBC News and The Guardian.
One result of the 2015 general election was that a different political party won the popular vote in each of the countries of the United Kingdom. This was reflected in terms of MPs elected: The Conservatives won in England with 319 MPs out of 533 constituencies, the SNP won in Scotland with 56 out of 59, Labour won in Wales with 25 out of 40, and the Democratic Unionist Party won in Northern Ireland with 8 out of 18.
Turn out
Conservatives
Labour
UKIP
Liberal Democrat
Green
SNP / Plaid Cymru / Mebyon Kernow / Sinn Féin
Despite most opinion polls predicting that the Conservatives and Labour were neck and neck, the Conservatives secured a surprise victory after having won a clear lead over their rivals and incumbent Prime Minister David Cameron was able to form a majority single - party government with a working majority of 12 (in practice increased to 15 due to Sinn Féin 's 4 MPs ' abstention). Thus the result bore resemblance to 1992. The Conservatives gained 38 seats while losing 10, all to Labour, with Employment Minister Esther McVey the most senior Conservative to lose her seat. Cameron became the first Prime Minister since Lord Salisbury in 1900 to increase his popular vote share after a full term, and is sometimes credited as being the only Prime Minister other than Margaret Thatcher (in 1983) to be re-elected with a greater number of seats for his party after a ' full term '.
The Labour Party polled below expectations and won 30.4 % of the vote and 232 seats, 24 fewer than their previous result in 2010, even though in 222 constituencies there was a Conservative to Labour swing, as against 151 constituencies where there was a Labour to Conservative swing. Their net loss of seats were mainly a result of their resounding defeat in Scotland, where the Scottish National Party took 40 of their 41 seats, unseating key Labour politicians such as shadow Foreign Secretary Douglas Alexander and Scottish Labour leader Jim Murphy. Labour also lost a further nine seats to the Conservatives to record their lowest share of the seats since the 1987 general election. Ed Miliband subsequently tendered his resignation as Labour leader.
The Scottish National Party had a stunning election, rising from just 6 seats to 56 -- winning all but 3 of the constituencies in Scotland and securing 50 % of the popular vote in Scotland. They recorded a number of record breaking swings of over 30 % including the new record of 39.3 % in Glasgow North East. They also won the seat of former Prime Minister, Gordon Brown, overturning a majority of 23,009 to win by a majority of 9,974 votes and saw Mhairi Black, then a 20 - year - old student, defeat Labour 's Shadow Foreign Secretary Douglas Alexander with a swing of 26.9 %.
The Liberal Democrats, who had been in government as coalition partners, suffered the worst defeat they or the previous Liberal Party had suffered since the 1970 general election. Winning just eight seats, the Liberal Democrats lost their position as the UK 's third party and found themselves tied in fourth place with the Democratic Unionist Party of Northern Ireland in the House of Commons, with Nick Clegg being one of the few MPs from his party to retain his seat. The Liberal Democrats gained no seats, and lost 49: 27 to the Conservatives, 12 to Labour and 10 to the SNP.
The United Kingdom Independence Party (UKIP) were only able to hold one of their two seats and gain no new ones, despite increasing their vote share to 12.9 % (which was third in terms of votes.) Party leader Nigel Farage, having failed to win the constituency of South Thanet, tendered his resignation, though this was rejected by his party 's executive council and he stayed on as leader.
In Northern Ireland, the Ulster Unionist Party returned to the Commons with two MPs after a five - year absence, gaining one seat from the Democratic Unionist Party and one from Sinn Féin, while Alliance lost its only Commons seat to the DUP despite an increase in total vote share.
Polling after the election suggested the following demographic breakdown:
The election led to an increase in the number of female MPs, to 191 (29 % of the total, including 99 Labour; 68 Conservative; 20 SNP; 4 other) from 147 (23 % of the total, including 87 Labour; 47 Conservative; 7 Liberal Democrat; 1 SNP; 5 other). As before the election, the region with the largest proportion of women MPs was North East England.
111 seats changed hands compared to the result in 2010 plus three by - election gains reverted to the party that won the seat at the last general election in 2010.
On 8 May, three party leaders announced their resignations within an hour of each other: Ed Miliband (Labour) and Nick Clegg (Liberal Democrat) resigned due to their parties ' worse - than - expected results in the election, although both had been re-elected to their seats in Parliament. Nigel Farage (UKIP) offered his resignation because he had failed to be elected as MP for Thanet South, but said he might re-stand in the resulting leadership election. However, on 11 May, the UKIP executive rejected his resignation on the grounds that the election campaign had been "a great success '', and Farage agreed to continue as party leader.
Alan Sugar, a Labour peer in the House of Lords, also announced his resignation from the Labour Party for running what he perceived to be an anti-business campaign.
In response to Labour 's poor performance in Scotland, Scottish Labour leader Jim Murphy initially resisted calls for his resignation by other senior party members. Despite surviving a no - confidence vote by 17 -- 14 from the party 's national executive, Murphy announced he would step down as leader on or by 16 May.
Financial markets reacted positively to the result, with the pound sterling rising against the Euro and US dollar when the exit poll was published, and the FTSE 100 stock market index rising 2.3 % on 8 May. The BBC reported: "Bank shares saw some of the biggest gains, on hopes that the sector will not see any further rises in levies. Shares in Lloyds Banking Group rose 5.75 % while Barclays was 3.7 % higher '', adding, "Energy firms also saw their share prices rise, as Labour had wanted a price freeze and more powers for the energy regulator. British Gas owner Centrica rose 8.1 % and SSE shares were up 5.3 % ''. BBC economics editor Robert Peston noted: "To state the obvious, investors love the Tories ' general election victory. There are a few reasons. One (no surprise here) is that Labour 's threat of breaking up banks and imposing energy price caps has been lifted. Second is that investors have been discounting days and weeks of wrangling after polling day over who would form the government -- and so they are semi-euphoric that we already know who 's in charge. Third, many investors tend to be economically Conservative and instinctively Conservative. ''
The disparity between the numbers of votes and the number of seats obtained by the smaller parties gave rise to increased calls for replacement of the ' first - past - the - post ' voting system with a more proportional system. For example, UKIP had 3.9 million votes per seat, whereas SNP had just 26,000 votes per seat, about 150 times greater representation for each vote cast. It is worth noting, however, that UKIP stood in 10 times as many seats as the SNP. Noting that UKIP 's 13 % share of the overall votes cast had resulted in the election of just one MP, Nigel Farage argued that the UK 's voting system needed reforming, saying, "Personally, I think the first - past - the - post system is bankrupt ''.
Re-elected Green Party MP Caroline Lucas agreed, saying "The political system in this country is broken (...) It 's ever clearer tonight that the time for electoral reform is long overdue, and it 's only proportional representation that will deliver a Parliament that is truly legitimate and better reflects the people it is meant to represent. ''
Following the election, The Daily Telegraph detailed changes to Wikipedia pages made from computers with IP addresses inside Parliament raising suspicion that "MPs or their political parties deliberately hid information from the public online to make candidates appear more electable to voters '' and a deliberate attempt to hide embarrassing information from the electorate.
On 21 December 2015, the UK Information Commissioner 's Office fined the Telegraph Media Group £ 30,000 for sending ' hundreds of thousands of emails on the day of the general election urging readers to vote Conservative... in a letter from Daily Telegraph editor Chris Evans, attached to the paper 's usual morning e-bulletin '. The ICO concluded that subscribers had not expressed their consent to receive this kind of direct marketing.
Four electors from Orkney and Shetland lodged an election petition on 29 May 2015 attempting to unseat Alistair Carmichael and force a by - election over what became known as ' Frenchgate '. The issue centred around the leaking of a memo from the Scotland Office about comments allegedly made by the French ambassador Sylvie Bermann about Nicola Sturgeon, claiming that Sturgeon had privately stated she would "rather see David Cameron remain as PM '', in contrast to her publicly stated opposition to a Conservative government. The veracity of the memo was quickly denied by the French ambassador, French consul general and Sturgeon. At the time of the leak, Carmichael denied all knowledge of the leaking of the memo in a television interview with Channel 4 News. but after the election Carmichael accepted the contents of the memo were incorrect, admitted that he had lied, and that he had authorised the leaking of the inaccurate memo to the media after a Cabinet Office enquiry identified Carmichael 's role in the leak. On 9 December, an Election Court decided that although he had told a "blatant lie '' in a TV interview, it had not been proven beyond reasonable doubt that he had committed an "illegal practice '' under the Representation of the People Act and he was allowed to retain his seat.
At national party level, the Electoral Commission fined the three largest parties for breaches of spending regulations, levying the highest fines since its foundation: £ 20,000 for Labour in October 2016, £ 20,000 for the Liberal Democrats in December 2016, and £ 70,000 for the Conservative Party in March 2017.
The higher fine for the Conservatives reflected both the extent of the wrongdoing (which extended to the 2014 parliamentary by - elections in Clacton, Newark and Rochester and Strood) and ' the unreasonable uncooperative conduct by the Party '. The Commission also found that the Party Treasurer, Simon Day, may not have fulfilled his obligations under the Political Parties, Elections and Referendums Act 2000 and referred him for investigation to the Metropolitan Police Service.
At constituency level, related alleged breaches of spending regulations led to ' unprecedented ' police investigations for possible criminal conduct of between 20 and 30 Conservative Party MPs. However, on 9 May 2017, the Crown Prosecution service decided not to prosecute the vast majority of suspects, saying that ' in order to bring a charge, it must be proved that a suspect knew the return was inaccurate and acted dishonestly in signing the declaration. Although there is evidence to suggest the returns may have been inaccurate, there is insufficient evidence to prove to the criminal standard that any candidate or agent was dishonest. ' However, on 2 June 2017, charges were brought under the Representation of the People Act 1983 against Craig Mackinlay, who was elected Conservative MP for South Thanet in 2015, his agent Nathan Gray, and a party activist, Marion Little. Appearing at Westminster Magistrates ' Court on 4 July 2017, the three pleased not guilty and were released on unconditional bail pending an appearance at Southwark Crown Court on 1 August 2017. The investigation of Party Treasurer Simon Day remained ongoing.
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sajan re phir jhoot mat bolo real names | Sajan Re Jhoot Mat Bolo - Wikipedia
Season 1
Season 2
480i (SDTV)
Sajan Re Jhoot Mat Bolo (SRJMB), is a Hindi sitcom telecast on SAB TV. The serial name was based on a famous song "Sajan re jhoot mat bolo '' from the movie Teesri Kasam '.
A Second Season, Sajan Re Phir Jhoot Mat Bolo (SRPJMB), began airing from 23 May 2017.
Apoorva is looking for a job. He lands a job with the Dhirubhai 's Global Sanskar Group of Industries. Apoorva meets Aarti (niece of Dhirubhai) and falls in love with her. Apoorva lies to Dhirubhai and Aarti about his family. Raju, Apoorva 's best friend, builds up a fake family. After a month Aarti gets married to Apoorva. It shows how Apoorva and other family members try to hide the truth of this fake family from Dhirubhai and his niece Aarti.
Sajan Re Jhoot Mat Bolo revolves around the humor that comes from situational lies and liars. It is a situational comedy that arises from a small lie that the protagonist, Apoorva, had to tell his employer Dhirubhai Jhaveri to get a job. Dhirubhai is a very successful businessman who hates lies and liars and believes in family bonding and values. His belief in these values at times crosses levels of normalcy and are unbelievably rigid. Apoorva was raised in an orphanage and, to get the job in Dhirubhai 's company, lies that he has a full - fledged family in India. Apoorva 's description of his imaginary family makes Dhirubhai fall in love with each and every member.
Dhirubhai has a niece Aarti, who is young, beautiful and believes in the same values as her uncle. They both trust Apoorva blindly: He has earned this trust and respect on the basis of his hard work. Over time he has become the Man Friday for Dhirubhai as well as Aarti. Apoorva has also developed a liking for Aarti but has refrained from expressing his feelings to her.
Dhirubhai fixes Aarti 's marriage but, in a dramatic turn of events, it is called off at the last moment. Dhirubhai decides to marry Aarti with Apoorva. He announces that the marriage will take place in India, in the presence of Apoorva 's family. Apoorva tries to convey the truth to Aarti but realizes that it will break her heart. He asks his best friend Raju to set up his fake family in India before the marriage, which has to take place in a few days.
Raju does the needful and when Apoorva arrives in India with Dhirubhai and Aarti, he comes face to face with family for the first time. From here starts a non-stop comical journey in which the family members, who are from varied backgrounds, try to find their feet in their new characters and live up to Dhirubhai and Aarti 's expectations. And the fake family never speaks truth to Dhirubhai.
In a series of episodes particularly for a Valentine 's Day special, the family was shown on a trip to Goa. On the trip, Dhirubhai crashes with Preeti who is roaming around in modern clothes. What follows is a series of attempts by Apoorva to make him believe that doubles do exist in this world. Dhirubhai refuses to accept it but, in the end, as Apoorva was about to unfold the secret of his family, Dhirubhai meets his own look - alike and believes Apoorva. Once again the family is saved from being destroyed.
Tiku Talsania plays the character of Dhirubhai Jhaveri: a 55 - year - old, rich, very honest, god - fearing, truthful man. He is a diamond merchant in London with business in eight countries including India is a firm believer in Indian culture, traditions and family values. He hates lies.
Has lost his wife and three kids, his brother and bhabhi and their three kids in a tragic bus accident 15 years ago. Only his brother 's daughter survived whom he raised as his daughter. He has inculcated the same family values in her in which he believes. He wants to fulfill his responsibility of getting her married and settle her in a good family who believes in the traditional family values.
He dislikes Raju very much.
Portrayed by Anchal Sabharwal, a 23 - year - old daughter of Dhirubhai 's brother who died in the tragic bus accident. She was in shock and had gone into depression. It took Dhirubhai 15 years to bring her out of the shock to normal life.
Now she is full of zest for life, bubbly, chirpy, charming and full of energy and optimism. She is a firm believer in god and that life is beautiful and future is optimistic. She is a little short - tempered and a firm believer in Indian traditions and family values. She wants to fulfill her father 's dream and settle down in a good joint family after marriage.
Anchal Sabharwal has replaced Mugdha Chaphekar for Aarti 's character.
Sumeet Raghavan has played the character of Apoorva Shah.
A 25 - year - old gentleman, handsome very practical, having worldly wisdom, with a great sense of humour and always lively. His best friend Raju 's father is Dhirubhai 's friend. Raju arranges the job for him. On seeing his sharpness, Dhirubhai gradually puts him in business as it was expanding; he is now the right hand of Dhirubhai who has seen the spark of business acumen in him. He has seen Apoorva taking wise business decisions and so is rightly called "Man Friday '' who has solutions of any problems under the sun. He always talks highly of his (non-existent) family; a father, mother, two brothers, two bhabhis, and one sister -- who are residing in Mumbai. He constantly talks about them and believing in him Dhirubhai feels closely connected to his family. Whenever Dhirubhai faces difficult situations in life, Apoorva has Raju talk to him as his father. Raju does the needful and so Dhirubhai has great regards for Apoorva 's father.
He has a fondness for Arti Jhaveri of which Dhirubhai is aware.
Gradually Dhirubhai marries of his daughter Arti to him as he believes in Apoorva and that his daughter will be happy in that joint family of Apurva in Mumbai.
In the 3 November 2010 episode, Usha Dhirubhai Jhaveri reappears. She first is seen upon as a ghost but later, after lodging a case against her, Dhirubhai and the family learns that she had not died but was injured and had lost memory. She has now rejoined the family. She forgets things at a short interval. She discovers the secret of Apoorva 's fake family and threatens to reveal it. However after close observation, she decides to not reveal the secret and calls the family as "Sabse Pyara Parivaar '' -- the most lovable family. She is loved by the family as a mother.
This character of Apoorva 's father is played by Raju (Rajiv Thakur), best friend of Apoorva who helped to create this family. After setting up a fake family he realises that there was no one to play the role of Apoorva 's father, so he is playing the role of Apoorva 's father. When he is asked to give pravachan, he sings Hindi songs of olden days. He always helps Apoorva when there is any trouble.
This character of Apoorva 's mother is played by Damini Dewaan (Apara Mehta). She is a 42 - year - old theatre artist who now portrays the role of a mother in most plays. Damini is always seen creating trouble. Her innocence and inability to hold the truth makes her spill the beans about the family, but the other family members cover her mistakes humorously. She is often seen enacting her "Jhansi ki Rani '' play, which she claims had stirred the then theater scene. Little is known about her past except in one episode it is revealed that she has a brother, who was lost in a village fair when they were kids. He persuades her to leave the fake family and return to Gujarat with him, where he has a cycle repair shop, but the family members refuse to part with their mother. Regardless of her blunders, the other members of the family are fond of her. The brothers Apoorva, Poresh and Pankaj decide to adopt her as their mother in an episode. Damini is often seen reminiscing about her past exploits as a theater artist in plays called "Uova satham manj '' and "Jhansi ki Rani ''. Damini likes to play "Jhansi ki Rani '' and is seen repeating the dialogue "mein meri Jhansi nahi doongi '' (I shall not give up my kingdom of Jhansi). Apart from acting she is fond of sweets and is chided by her family members for her vast consumption of gulab jamoon and jalebee.
Pankaj is Apoorva elder brother. His character portrayed by Manish Goyal. He runs an "anath ashram '' (orphanage) and is a staunch bachelor (brahmachari). He was selected to play Apoorva 's elder brother after the chosen elder brother ran away after getting a role in a Bollywood movie. He speaks pure Hindi. Preeti falls in love with him and always tries to persuade him to marry her. Later he starts loving Preeti. Preeti 's mother does not accept their marriage. So Pankaj leaves the house and comes back as Peter. After taking the agreement of Preeti 's mother, they marry each other and become a real couple. The family members are often troubled by his language.
Preeti Shah is the wife of Pankaj Shah and Apoorva 's sister - in - law. She is portrayed by Melissa Pais. She was a backstage dancer earlier and knows dancing very well. She starts dancing with Ishwarlal starts singing Pravachan. She loves her fake husband and wants to marry him, but Pankaj is not ready. Later Pankaj starts loving her and marries her after her mother agrees, as she wanted Preeti to marry a Christian boy of the same religion, and not Pankaj, who is a Hindu.
Apoorva 's second elder brother. This character is portrayed by Sukesh Anand. He is a Bengali guy, who had been a thief before joining this family. He tried to steal valuables of the family members too out of his habits. But as he started loving his fake wife, Pallavi, he has now left theft habits and trying to improve himself. He loves the family and always tries to save Apoorva 's fake family. His real name is Gondogol. When Pallavi 's fiance Mohit arrives to take Pallavi, Apoorva tells him that if he really wants to see Pallavi happy, he should let her go with Mohit. A heart broken Paresh agrees, but soon he finds out that Mohit is a crook and wants Pallavi 's jewellery. He then decides to expose him but gets failed. He then leaves the home but is known that he is safe and together with Apoorva he reveals Mohit 's mystery.
She plays Paresh 's wife. She is portrayed by Shalini Khanna. She is a Rajasthani girl, who is already engaged to be married with a person in Rajasthan. As her marriage is not scheduled yet, she has joined Apoorva 's fake family. Paresh loves her but she does n't like it as she 's dedicated to her fiance. She 's so shy that she never addresses directly the person she 's talking to and addresses the objects near them like "kangan sa, katori sa, sookhe hue phool sa, '' etc.
She plays the role of Apoorva 's sister in his fake family. this character is portrayed by Ami Trivedi. She is smart, a beautiful banjanran (a vagabond tribeswomen) who was picked up by Raju from the street side while she was performing acrobatics to earn money. Her father is a drunk and rude character who made her perform on the streets to fund his drinking habit. He leaves her and never vows to return once. He is told that she is married to Raju (a lie to get rid of her father). She is known to have the knowledge of making potions from herbs and roots and other quack remedies.
Mehul Bhojak portrays role of Mohit. He was a fiancé of Pallavi but is a wanted criminal. Apoorva and Paresh get him arrested. He has returned and as an antagonist is trying to reveal Apoorva 's secret. He tricks Dhirubhai Jhaveri and takes all his flats, cars, bungalows and other property and Mohit have power of attorney paper. Disguising as Lucky Singh, Apoorva gets him arrested by fooling him to make a film Badla: The Revenge. Apoorva takes Dhirubhai Jhaveri 's flats, cars bungalows and other property back from him.
Sumeet Raghavan and Pallavi Pradhan earlier worked opposite each other for one episode in Dilip Joshi and Sumeet Raghavan starrer show Shubh Mangal Savadhan in 2002.
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what album is believer by imagine dragons on | Believer (Imagine Dragons song) - wikipedia
"Believer '' is a song by American rock band Imagine Dragons. The song was released on February 1, 2017 through Interscope and KIDinaKORNER as the lead single from the band 's third studio album, Evolve.
"Believer '' peaked at number four on the US Billboard Hot 100, becoming the band 's third top ten hit after "Radioactive '' and "Demons ''. The song played heavily on advertisements such for the Nintendo Switch and various movie trailers and television shows.
In November 2016, Dan Reynolds told People that the song was inspired by his experiences with ankylosing spondylitis in 2015. He said that, "The meaning of the song is really reflecting on specific things in my life that were painful, whether it was anxiety and dealing with crowds, feeling overwhelmed by that or the success of the band, disease, going through depression -- anything that was a source of pain in my life. And just rising above that, finding a place of perspective where I could be appreciative of the pain in my life and make it my greatest strength. ''
The music video was released on March 7, 2017 and features a boxing match between Dan Reynolds and Dolph Lundgren. It was directed by Matt Eastin and it features what seems to be a young Dan drawing on his notepad in scenes. It is obvious that Dan is losing, and he says that he wants to stop, with Dolph replying, "We ca n't, '' making it sound like they are forced to fight by a higher authority. It ends with Dan barely conscious, and we get to see what young Dan sketched: a symbol identical to the one on his chest as an adult.
"Believer '' reached number four on the Billboard Hot 100, and topped the Billboard Hot Rock Songs (29 weeks so far), Alternative Songs (13 weeks so far), and Adult Pop Songs (6 weeks). Among component charts, it also topped Rock Airplay, Rock Streaming Songs, Rock Digital Sale Songs, and Top TV Commercials Charts. It also topped the Canada Alternative Rock Chart. "Believer '' broke the 14 - year - old record for the most spins on the Mediabase Alternative chart. "Believer '' has reached the top ten in Austria, Canada, Czech Republic, France, Hungary, Italy, Poland, Portugal, Slovakia, Switzerland, and the United States.
As of September 28, 2017, the song has sold 1,361,877 copies in the United States.
Kaskade remixed "Believer '' in June 2017.
The first televised performance of "Believer '' was executed on the March 22, 2017 airing of ABC late - night talk show Jimmy Kimmel Live!. They then performed the song at BBC Radio 1 's Big Weekend.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
The song was used in a Nintendo Switch commercial shown during Super Bowl LI. The song was also used in a Bleacher Report video tribute to the NBA Slam Dunk Contest. Dancing with the Stars contestant Bonner Bolton and his partner Sharna Burgess performed a tango to the song during the May 8, 2017 airing. "Believer '' also played during the season one finale of Riverdale and on the WWE 24: Finn Bálor documentary. The song appeared in the trailer for Murder on the Orient Express where its usage was met with mixed response. It is also used in the Jeep Celebration Event TV Commercial.
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what was the nature of the new leadership in russia | Government of Russia - wikipedia
The Government of Russia exercises executive power in the Russian Federation. The members of the government are the Prime Minister, the deputy prime ministers, and the federal ministers. It has its legal basis in the Constitution of the Russian Federation and the federal constitutional law "On the Government the Russian Federation ''.
According to the 1991 amendment to the 1978 Russian Constitution, the President of Russia was the head of the executive branch and headed the Council of Ministers of Russia. According to the current 1993 Constitution of Russia, the President is not a part of the Government of Russia, which exercises executive power. But, the President does appoint the Prime Minister. The Chapter 6 of the Constitution of Russia says, that "The Government of the Russian Federation consists of the Chairman of the Government of the Russian Federation (Prime Minister), Deputy Chairman of the Government of the Russian Federation and federal ministries ''.
After the fall of the Soviet Union, the Russian Council of Ministers had become the main executive body. At some points it contained over 69 state committees, 16 -- 17 ministers, 5 federal services, and over 46 governmental agencies. After the 2004 reform, government duties were split between 17 ministries, 5 federal services, and over 30 governmental agencies. The Russian Federation practices asymmetrical federalism. This means that not all regions are treated equally and that some regions have been given more autonomy than others. There are 7 super regions (federal districts) with a super governor that answers to the President. Those super regions include the South, Central, North - West, Far East, Siberia, Ural, Volga, and North Caucasus. They were established in May 2000.
The prime minister, currently Dmitry Medvedev, is appointed by the president (currently Vladimir Putin), and confirmed by the State Duma. He or she succeeds to the presidency if the current president dies, is incapacitated, or resigns.
Corruption is common and widespread in the government. According to 2016 results of Corruption Perception Index of Transparency International, Russia ranked 131st place out of 176 countries with score 29. Multiple anti biggest stances taken against corruption is the formation of the Anti-Corruption Council in 2008.
The large body was preceded by Government of the Soviet Union. Since the Russian Federation emerged in 1991 to 1992, the government 's structure has undergone several major changes. In the initial years, a large amount of government bodies, primarily the different ministries, underwent massive reorganization as the old Soviet governing networks were adapted to the new state. Many reshuffles and renamings occurred.
On 28 November 1991, President of the RSFSR Boris Yeltsin signed presidential decree No. 242 "On reorganization of the government bodies of the RSFSR ''. Yeltsin officially declared the end of the Soviet Union and became the President of the Russian Federation. Yeltsin was a reformer and promised Western - styled democracy.
In 1993 the new Russian Constitution was adopted. The new Constitution gained legitimacy through its bicameral legislature, independent judiciary, the position of the president and the prime minister, and democratic features. These democratic features included competitive multi-party elections, separation of powers, federalism, and protection of civil liberties.
In 1999, Yeltsin appointed Vladimir Putin as the Prime Minister. Later in that year, Yeltsin resigned from the presidency and Putin took over. In 2000 Putin won the presidential election.
The most recent change took place on 21 May 2012, when President Vladimir Putin signed a presidential decree on forming Dmitry Medvedev 's Cabinet.
The Government is the subject of the 6th chapter of the Constitution of the Russian Federation. According to the constitution, the government of the Russian Federation must:
The government issues its acts in the way of decisions (Постановления) and orders (Распоряжения). These must not contradict the constitution, federal constitutional laws, federal laws, and Presidential decrees, and are signed by the Prime Minister.
The cabinet consists of the following members:
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when did the new shape audi a6 come out | Audi A6 - wikipedia
The Audi A6 is an executive car made by the German automaker Audi, now in its fifth generation. As the successor to the Audi 100, the A6 is manufactured in Neckarsulm, Germany -- and is available in sedan and wagon configurations, the latter marketed by Audi as the Avant. Audi 's internal numbering treats the A6 as a continuation of the Audi 100 lineage, with the initial A6 designated as a member of the C4 - series, followed by the C5, C6, C7 and the C8. The related Audi A7 is essentially a sportback (fastback) version of the C7 - series and C8 - series A6, but is marketed under its own separate identity and model designation.
All generations of the A6 have offered either front - wheel drive or Torsen - based four - wheel drive -- marketed by Audi as their quattro system. Second - and third - generation A6 models have shared their platform with the company 's Allroad models.
Both petrol and diesel versions of the A6 are supplied. A wide range of engines make power units with a capacity of 150 to 333 horsepower. These are inline 4 - cylinder 16 - valve turbocharged engines and more powerful 3 - litre units in a V6 configuration with a mechanical compressor.
Audi 's executive car was previously named the Audi 100 (or Audi 5000 in the United States), and was released in three successive generations (Audi C1, Audi C2 and Audi C3). In 1994, the latest generation (C4) of the Audi 100 received a facelift and was renamed as the Audi A6, to fit in with Audi 's new alphanumeric nomenclature (as the full - size A8 had just been introduced). The exterior was changed only slightly from the "C4 '' Audi 100 -- new front and rear lights, new radiator grille, similarly with chassis and engine and transmission choices. The United Kingdom was the first market to receive the A6, as stock of RHD Audi 100s had run out before expected, and before the rest of mainland Europe.
The new engines for the A6 were 1.8 - litre 20v inline four - cylinder, 2.0 - litre 8v inline four - cylinder, 2.6 - litre 12V V6 and 2.8 - litre 30v V6 petrol engines, with the 2.3 - litre inline five engine being dropped on most markets. For the diesel engines, an inline four 1.9 Turbocharged Direct Injection (TDI), and the inline five (R5) 2.5 TDI (103 kilowatts (140 PS; 138 bhp)) were available.
Until 1997, the A6 came with several different engines, two of them turbodiesel, and most of them available with Audi 's Torsen - based quattro permanent four - wheel drive system. The A6 was available with saloon and Avant bodies.
The C4 design was available with the following engines:
Upon introducing the C4 series A6, Audi made small revisions to what was previously known as the Audi S4, renaming it the Audi S6; the S4 name would eventually be re-used for a completely different model derived from Audi 's smaller Volkswagen Group B platform - based Audi A4. As this was the first S6 model from Audi, it is commonly referred to as the Ur - S6, derived from the German augmentive, "Ursprünglich '' (meaning: original). It was available as both a saloon / sedan (typ 4A5), and an "Avant '' (typ 4A9) (estate / wagon) to European and United States customers, but only as a saloon in Canada, Asia and Australia.
From its launch in late 1994, the Audi S6 was powered by a 2,226 cubic centimetres (135.8 cu in) turbocharged inline five - cylinder petrol engine (parts code prefix: 034, identification code: AAN) with a Bosch Motronic electronic engine control unit (ECU), producing a motive power output of 169 kilowatts (230 PS; 227 bhp) at 5,900 revolutions per minute (rpm), and 326 newton metres (240 lbf ⋅ ft) at around 1,950 rpm, whilst consuming high octane "Super Plus '' 98RON unleaded petrol. This powerful engine gave the S6 good performance with a top speed of 235 kilometres per hour (146.0 mph), and 0 to 100 km / h (62.1 mph) in 6.7 seconds; with 160 km / h (99.4 mph) being reached in 17.5 seconds. The vehicle was available with a standard six - speed manual transmission (five - speed only in North America), and Audi 's dynamic Torsen T - 1 quattro permanent four - wheel drive system.
Audi made a high - performance, 4.2 - litre V8 engine (parts code prefix: 077, identification code: AEC) with a Bosch KE - Motronic ECU available as an option in the original European S4s, and made the decision to continue to do so with the S6, making a 213 kilowatts (290 PS; 286 bhp) version of the 4.2 available as an optional upgrade over the 2.2 - litre inline five - cylinder turbo. Unlike the five - cylinder turbocharged version, the V8 - powered S6 was supplied with a four - speed automatic transmission as standard, but kept the quattro four wheel drive. A six - speed manual gearbox was also available as an option.
As a swan song to the C4 platform, an even more powerful, and very limited - production Audi S6 PLUS was briefly available to European customers. The S6 PLUS, developed by Audi 's wholly owned high performance subsidiary, quattro GmbH, was available for sale during the 1997 model year only (production from June 1996 to October 1997). A total of 952 cars were produced -- 855 Avant, and 97 saloons.
It was powered by another version of the 32 - valve (four valves per cylinder) 4.2 - litre V8 engine (parts code prefix: 077, identification code: AHK, later to be seen in the Audi S8 as AKH). Audi 's performance division reworked key parts of the engine, increasing the motive power to 240 kilowatts (326 PS; 322 bhp). It was only available with a revised six - speed manual transmission (parts code prefix: 01E, identification code: DGU) (gear ratios -- 1st: 3.500, 2nd: 1.889, 3rd: 1.320, 4th: 1.034, 5th: 0.857, 6th: 0.730), with a final drive ratio of 4.111.
Further revisions were made to the suspension, brakes and wheels. The front brake discs were enlarged to 323 millimetres (12.7 in) in diameter by 30 mm (1.18 in) thick. Standard wheels were 8Jx17 "Avus '' cast aluminium alloy wheels, with an optional 7Jx16 alloy wheel for use with winter tyres was also available.
With so much power on tap, the S6 Plus saloon could reach 100 kilometres per hour (62.1 mph) from a standstill in 5.6 seconds, with the Avant a tenth of a second slower at 5.7 seconds.
In February 1997, the introduction of a new A6 (Typ 4B), based on a new design automobile platform -- the Volkswagen Group C5 platform, with a new range of engines was announced and appeared in March at the 1997 Geneva Motor Show. This new A6 moved up a notch in quality, and was marketed in the same categories as the BMW 5 Series and the Mercedes - Benz E-Class. The redesigned body presented a modern design, with a fastback styling which set the trend for the Audi lineup, and gave the relatively large saloon an aerodynamic shell with a low coefficient of drag of 0.28.
In 2000 and 2001, the "C5 '' A6 was on Car and Driver magazine 's Ten Best list. This new A6 was available with a wide range of engines and configurations. The 30 - valve 2.4 - and 2.8 - litre V6 engines represented the bulk of the A6 's development programme, with a multitude of other engine configurations available throughout the globe. As an alternative to the manual transmission, a five - speed tiptronic automatic transmission was also available.
The C5 saloon variant arrived in mid-1997 in Europe, late 1997 in North America and Australia, and the Avant in 1998. In Canada, there was no Avant (Audi 's name for an estate / wagon) available at all in 1998 -- Audi dropped the C4 Avant at the end of the 1997 model year, and jumped straight to the C5 Avant in 1998 in conjunction with its release in the US. As a result of complying with FMVSS, the North American models were equipped with front and rear bumpers that protruded several inches further than their European counterparts, with modified brackets and bumper suspension assemblies as result, and child - seat tethers for occupant safety. In compliance with Canadian law, Canadian models received daytime running lights as standard equipment. North American C5 A6 models received the 2.8 - litre, 30 - valve V6 engine, the 2.7 - litre "biturbo '' V6 (also found in the B5 platform S4, 250 PS (180 kW; 250 hp)), and the 4.2 - litre 40 - valve V8 petrol engine (300 PS (220 kW; 300 hp)); the two higher - spec. engines were only offered with quattro permanent four - wheel drive. The V8 models arrived with significantly altered exterior body panels, with slightly more flared wheel arches (fenders), revised headlamps and grille design (before being introduced in 2002 to all other A6 models), larger wheels (8Jx17 - inch), larger brakes and Torsen - based quattro permanent four - wheel drive as standard.
In 2002, the A6 received a facelift, with revised headlight and grille design, exposed exhaust tips, and slight changes to accessory body moldings, and tail light colour from red to amber in North American models. A new host of engines were also introduced. The 1.8 - litre engine was deleted and replaced by a 2.0 - litre powerplant with 96 kilowatts (131 PS; 129 bhp). The 1.9 - litre Turbocharged Direct Injection (TDI) was tweaked to produce a maximum motive power output of 96 kilowatts (131 PS; 129 bhp), and 310 newton metres (229 lbf ⋅ ft) of torque, receiving a six - speed manual gearbox in the process. The 2.4 - litre V6 gained an extra 5 hp and better balancing, and the 2.8 - litre V6 engine was replaced by a 3.0 - litre engine with 162 kilowatts (220 PS; 217 bhp). The turbocharged 2.7 - litre was revised, resulting in 184 kilowatts (250 PS; 247 bhp) and 330 newton metres (243 lbf ⋅ ft), controlled by standard quattro. The V6 diesel was also slightly modified resulting in 120 kilowatts (163 PS; 161 bhp) (after the second modification) and 350 newton metres (258 lbf ⋅ ft). A new more powerful V6 diesel was also introduced with 132 kilowatts (179 PS; 177 bhp) and 370 newton metres (273 lbf ⋅ ft). The 4.2 - litre V8 engine which arrived in 2001 remained unchanged.
Also new was the multitronic continuously variable transmission, available in most front - wheel drive models. All models, except the 2.0 - litre petrol and 1.9 - litre TDI, were available with Audi 's trademark four - wheel - drive system, quattro. A four - wheel - drive version of the Avant, with raised ground clearance and slightly altered styling was sold as the Audi allroad quattro, Audi 's first crossover SUV.
The second - generation A6 was on Car and Driver magazine 's Ten Best list for 2000 and 2001. The updated 2005 A6 won the World Car of the Year award for 2005. In addition, the facelifted third - generation A6 3.0 T won two Car and Driver "comparos '' that pitted it against other sedans like BMW 5 Series, Mercedes - Benz E-Class, Jaguar XF, and Infinti M.
The Audi S6 was a high - powered variant of the A6, featuring a modified version of the 4.2 - litre V8 engine producing 250 kilowatts (340 PS; 335 bhp) and 420 newton metres (310 lbf ⋅ ft). It was available as a saloon and Avant although the Avant version was the only one sold in North America.
In the late years of the A6 C5 design, an ultra-high - performance limited - run Audi RS6 model was presented. Weighing in excess of 1,840 kilograms (4,057 lb) and producing 331 kilowatts (450 PS; 444 bhp) and 560 newton metres (413 lbf ⋅ ft), the RS6 was capable of 0 - 100 kilometres per hour (62.1 mph) in 4.5 seconds, and on to 200 km / h (124.3 mph) in under 17 seconds. Initially available as only an Avant, a saloon variant was later added; the saloon version being the only version available to the North American market. The RS6 saloon finished first in a May 2003 Car and Driver comparison test against the BMW M5 (E39), Mercedes - Benz E55 AMG (W210), and Jaguar S - Type R. ".
Audi 's C5 series A6 Avant formed the basis for a semi-offroad model in 1999, labeled "Audi allroad quattro ''. Compared to the regular A6, the allroad featured an advanced air suspension system, allowing for increased ground clearance; larger wheels with all - terrain tyres, and flared and unpainted bumpers, giving it a distinct appearance and more overall flexibility over varying terrain. As the name "allroad quattro '' suggests, Audi 's Torsen - based quattro permanent four - wheel drive system was standard equipment for all versions.
The standard adjustable air suspension system can lift the car high enough to provide 208 mm (8 in) of ground clearance; a low - range mode (an option with manual transmission), absent from other quattro - equipped vehicles, can be selected with the touch of a button. When used together, the two systems made it possible for the allroad to complete an official Land Rover test - course, thus far it is the only car - based SUV that has been proven capable of doing so in testing. Conversely, the air suspension can lower the vehicle down to only 142 mm (6 in) above road level, and simultaneously stiffen the spring and damper rates to provide a sporty driving experience, much like that of the conventional A6 with the sports suspension.
Audi 's 2.7 - litre, twin - turbo V6 petrol engine with 250 PS (184 kW; 247 hp) of power and 350 N ⋅ m (258 lb ⋅ ft) of peak torque was available initially, alongside the 2.5 - litre TDI diesel unit with 132 kW (177 hp) and 370 N ⋅ m (273 lb ⋅ ft) of torque. A variant of the corporate 4.2 - litre V8 petrol engine, was made available in 2003, and a less powerful TDI (163 bhp) followed in 2004.
Audi stopped production of the allroad in July 2005. Although the model continued to be available for sale throughout 2006 in Europe, there was no 2006 model year for North America.
With the return of the "allroad '' nameplate to North America, in the form of the 2013 A4 allroad quattro, the C5 - Platform allroad quattro has begun to take the name "Ur - allroad. '' The ' Ur - ' is used in the German language, as a prefix to signify ' ancient ' or ' early ancestor ' (e.g., great - grandmother is Urgroßmutter), and is used informally by car enthusiasts worldwide to refer to the original Audi Quattro that was produced from 1980 -- 1991 (the "Ur - Quattro ''). The use of the term was then extended to the original S4 and S6 models to differentiate them from later models with the same name; and more recently to the C5 allroad models ("Ur - allroad ''). The need for differentiating the models is apparent because the new B8 A4 allroad lacks the C5 's adjustable height / load leveling suspension with shock rate adjustment to load and reinforced uni-body, sports only a nominal towing capacity, and lacks a non-allroad A4 wagon counterpart. Some feel that for these reasons it does not live up to the allroad nameplate and is nothing more than an A4 wagon with a trim package.
In Europe, Audi offers the A6 allroad quattro as well as the A4 allroad quattro. It is unclear why the A6 allroad quattro was discontinued for the North American market.
The C5 design was available with the following engines:
The Typ 4F A6 was released in 2004. Designed by Satoshi Wada in 2001, this model is visually an evolution of the C5, but was lengthened to 4,927 millimetres (194.0 in), and has the new Audi "single - frame grille ''. Like other contemporary Audis, the A6 has a "tornado line '' that runs from the front lights to the rear lights just below the body shoulders.
The C6 iteration of the A6 features more sophisticated technology. Most notable is the Multi Media Interface (MMI), which is a system controlling in - car entertainment, satellite navigation, climate control, car settings such as suspension configuration and optional electronic accessories through a central screen interface. This has the advantage of minimising the wealth of buttons normally found on a dashboard by replacing them with controls which operate multiple devices using the integrated display.
On the engines, the new Fuel Stratified Injection (FSI) direct injection technology was introduced. Although the line of engines represents the same progression as the former model, all engines were new. The multitronic continuously variable transmission continues as an alternative for front - wheel drive models, alongside a new six - speed tiptronic automatic transmission available in the four - wheel drive models. Audi 's "trademark '' Torsen - based quattro permanent four - wheel drive is available in most of the lineup, and standard in the most powerful models. quattro is not available on the multitronic variants of the A6, but is available on the manual and tiptronic gear systems. Conversely the tiptronic system is not available on the front - wheel drive variants of the car. The six - speed manual gearbox is available with the 3.2 - litre V6 engine, but not for the North American market.
The Avant was previewd by the Audi Avantissimo concept in 2001 and arrived during the course of 2005. The A6 allroad quattro made its debut in 2006, and as before, is an off - road ready version of the Avant, available with either a 2.7 - litre V6 or 3.0 - litre V6 Turbocharged Direct Injection diesel engines, or a 3.2 - litre V6 or 4.2 - litre V8 petrol engine.
This is a long wheelbase version of the A6 sedan for the Chinese market. The vehicle was unveiled in 2005 at the Shanghai Motor Show.
The vehicles went on sale in the middle of 2005. Early models include A6L 2.4, with A6L 2.0 TFSI (170PS) followed shortly after. A6L 3.0 quattro (218PS) and A6L 4.2 quattro (335PS) were introduced in 2005. Other models include A6 3.0.
The Audi S6 performance variant was introduced in the Frankfurt Motor Show, and produced from early 2006 until 2011. It is powered by a 5.2 - litre Fuel Stratified Injection (FSI) V10 engine producing a 320 kilowatts (435 PS; 429 bhp) and 540 newton metres (398 lbf ⋅ ft). The S6 reaches 100 kilometres per hour (62.1 mph) from a standstill in 5.2 seconds, and the quarter mile 13.5 seconds.
Audi announced the C6 series allroad in the spring of 2005 and released it in the summer of 2006. This model was called the Audi A6 allroad quattro (unlike the previous version, which was merely called Audi allroad quattro, with no reference to the A6 nomenclature).
The Audi A6 allroad quattro again featured adaptive air suspension and quattro permanent four - wheel drive system. The A6 allroad was powered by a choice of two Fuel Stratified Injection (FSI) petrol engines, a 3.2 - litre V6 and a 4.2 - litre V8, and two TDI diesel engines, a 180 PS (132 kW) 2.7 L and a 225 PS (233 only in the US) (162 kW) 3.0 L. The tiptronic gearbox is standard on the 4.2 V8 and the 2.7 TDI, but optional on the 3.2 FSI and 3.0 TDI.
The 6 - speed tiptronic transmission system converted high - torque engine power into both sporty performance and operating convenience, with crisp, fast gear changes. Advanced electronics respond efficiently to all driver input in both D (Drive) and S (Sport) programmes, helping to prevent unwanted upshifts when cornering. The five - mode air suspension can be raised by up to 60 mm (2.36 in) to provide ground clearance of 185 mm (7.28 in) which is better than the older four - mode.
The car featured a number of off - road styling cues including larger bumpers and sills.
In some European markets, this A6 allroad quattro was more expensive than the larger Audi Q7, but air suspension is an expensive option in the Q7. In its native country, Germany, it cost a few hundred Euros less than the Q7.
In 2005, the A6 won the World Car of the Year award, and has also won the Practical Caravan "Towcar of the Year '' awards, due to its array of towing features such as adjustable suspension height and damping, and the presence of a 123 Trailer Stability Programme.
Audi unveiled a facelifted "C6 '' Audi A6 on 12 August 2008, at the Moscow International Motor Show. The refresh incorporates some modern Audi design cues to keep the A6 current with the rest of the Audi lineup.
There are minor cosmetic changes to the front and rear lights which now have daytime running LEDs, the taillights extend towards the center of the trunk lid and pinch off at the license plate mount, however their shape remains rectangular compared to the more sculpted light clusters found in the 2008 Audi A5, 2008 Audi A4, and 2009 Audi Q5 (the latter three being all - new generations).
The intakes below the headlamps are inspired by the Audi RS5. The A6 's six (per side) front light - emitting diode (LED) daytime running lights (DRLs) are located within the main headlamp housing, similar to RS6 's placement of the LEDs (ten per side), whereas on the S6 these front LEDs (five per side) are found adjacent to the fog lamps in the lower front bumper.
The new front and rear fascias from RS6 would be used on the facelifted A6 and S6 lineup.
Also updated for 2009 is the Quattro all - wheel drive setup, which is already found on the 2008 Audi A5 and 2008 Audi A4. This new system features a 40 / 60 front - to - rear torque split and offers a more balanced feel, reducing the understeer that comes from 50 / 50 AWD platforms.
There are now six petrol and four diesel engines available for the upgraded A6. All petrol engines now feature cylinder - direct Fuel Stratified Injection (FSI) technology, and all diesel engines now feature common rail (CR) and Turbocharged Direct Injection (TDI) technologies. There is a new petrol engine, a 300 PS (221 kW; 296 bhp) 3.0 - litre supercharged V6, badged as 3.0 TFSI or 3.0 T. This new engine is shared with the 2010 Audi S4 and S5 Cabriolet, although in the latter two applications in a higher state of tune and mated to a 7 - speed S - tronic dual - clutch transmission.
The new engine and revised quattro system give the 2009 Audi A6 3.0 TFSI almost equivalent performance to the Audi S6 5.2 FSI (which is unchanged except for receiving the cosmetic tweaks like the rest of the Audi A6 lineup). Moreover, the S6 's weight is 4,500 pounds and 59 percent of weight is distributed to the front which increases understeer.
US models went on sale as 2009 model year vehicles, and arrived in U.S. dealerships by the beginning of January. Early models include A6 3.2 FSI (sedan), A6 3.0 TFSI quattro (sedan / Avant), A6 4.2 FSI quattro (sedan), S6 5.2 FSI (sedan).
The latest version of ultra-high - performance Audi RS6 was launched in September 2008 and produced until the third quarter of 2010. Based upon the V10 engine powering the S6, the RS6 features an all - aluminium alloy 4,991 cc (304.6 cu in) V10 twin - turbocharged, Fuel Stratified Injection engine with a dry sump lubrication system. It produces a power output of 426 kilowatts (579 PS; 571 bhp), and 650 newton metres (479 lbf ⋅ ft) of torque, making it the most powerful vehicle ever produced by Audi at the time. This has now been surpassed by the Audi R8.
Initially available only as an Avant, the saloon version went on sale in mid-October 2008.
The A6L is a longer wheelbase version of the A6 sedan for the Chinese market. The vehicle was unveiled at Auto Shanghai 2009. Early models included the 2.7 TDI powerplant (189PS).
The Audi A6L was also converted into the form of a pickup truck although only two examples are known to exist on the roads.
The fourth generation C7 series Audi A6 (internally designated Typ 4G) was launched in early 2011 for the European market and in other markets soon after. It is heavily influenced by the Audi A8 (D4), pulling elements from its exterior details. The A6 shares its interior, platform, and powertrain (Modular Longitudinal Platform) with the Audi A7 four door sedan, which had been released shortly before also in 2011. Compared to the A8 and A7, the A6 has the most aggressive front fascia and LED headlights (optional full LED headlamps). Design work began in 2006, with Jurgen Loffler 's exterior design being chosen in 2008.
The new A6 increased its wheelbase by nearly 3 inches (76 mm) and its width by 2.7 inches (69 mm). The redesign also decreased the car 's drag coefficient to 0.25.
European engine choices for the C7 include two petrol engines -- a 2.8 - litre FSI V6 with 204 horsepower (152 kW) and a 300 horsepower (224 kW), 3.0 - litre supercharged FSI engine -- and three diesel engines -- a 2.0 - litre inline four - cylinder and a 3.0 - litre turbocharged diesel engine in three states of tune. The European A6 3.0 TFSI will have optional a seven - speed dual - clutch transmission and an air suspension, two features that will not be available on the United States model.
For North America, the Audi A6 3.0 TFSI quattro will be powered by a 3.0 - litre supercharged V6 putting out 310 PS (228 kW; 306 hp) 325 lb ⋅ ft (441 N ⋅ m), the same engine carried over from the previous - generation A6 3.0 TFSI, but in a higher state of tune and mated to an eight - speed automatic transmission. For the United States but not the Canadian market, there will be an entry - level Audi A6 2.0 TFSI FrontTrak (front - wheel drive) with a 2.0 - litre turbocharged inline - four, the same engine in the Audi A4 and Q5, but mated to the Multitronic CVT (continuous variable transmission).
The 2012 model year A6 features all the driver assistance systems from the A8, plus it adds automotive head - up display, active lane assist. Full LED headlamps with Automatic high beam switching or Audi adaptive light (Xenon) with variable headlight range control.
Audi A6 3.0 TFSI quattro (Japan; pre-facelift)
Audi A6 2.0 TDI Avant (Europe; pre-facelift)
Interior.
2015 Audi A6 avant
2015 Audi A6 sedan
2015 Audi A6 avant
Audi unveiled the 2015 C7 mid-life facelift at the 2014 Paris Motor Show. The refresh includes styling tweaks to the car 's exterior, engine line - up, transmission and MMI infotainment system with faster Tegra 3 processor, Handwriting recognition, Audi connect Telematics with state of the art 4G mobile internet (and online updates for the navigation map), and advanced Matrix LED headlights.
All three TFSI 1.8 tfsi and five TDI engines now meet the Euro 6 emission standard. The new TDI Ultra model now comes with glass fiber - reinforced polymer (GFRP) springs and both ultra models now come with S - tronic (dual clutch) transmission.
A hybrid electric variant was also available for the first time in the A6, offering a 2 - litre TFSI 211 metric horsepower (155 kW) engine combined with a 45 PS (33 kW) electric motor. Electric power is supplied via 1.3 kWh lithium - ion battery, with electric - only range of 3 km for constant 60 km / h (37.28 mph) drive and top speed of 100 km / h (62.14 mph).
The market launch of the A6 Hybrid was scheduled for 2012. However, production of the US model was delayed.
The 2013 A6 allroad quattro was launched at the 2012 Geneva Motor Show, along with the 2012 RS4 Avant. Sales began in 2012. The first UK deliveries arrived in July 2012.
The allroad model contains several unique features. Audi designed more than 1,100 new, unique parts for the allroad, setting it apart from the standard A6 and making it a true all - terrain vehicle. Most obvious, the allroad received special bumpers and fender flares, giving it an aggressive offroad appearance. The bumpers and fender flares feature a tough - wearing, matte finish, contrasting the rest of the body. The roof received this same coating, as well as four longitudinal ribs for increased strength. The unique bumpers also have integrated aluminum skid plates. The allroad featured larger diameter tires than the standard A6 for improved offroad capabilities. Redesigned headlights, larger side mirrors, and a lack of door "rub strips '' are unique to the allroad.
The allroad comes standard with an adjustable air suspension system can lift the car high enough to provide 208 mm (8 in) of ground clearance; a low - range mode (an option with manual transmission), absent from other quattro - equipped vehicles, can be selected with the touch of a button. When used together, the two systems made it possible for the allroad to complete an official Land Rover test - course, thus far it is the only car - based SUV that has been proven capable of doing so in testing.
Conversely, the air suspension can lower the vehicle down to only 142 mm (6 in) above road level, and simultaneously stiffen the spring and damper rates to provide a sporty driving experience, much like that of the conventional A6 with the sports suspension.
German model went on sale in spring 2012. Early models included 3.0 TFSI quattro (310PS), 3.0 TDI quattro (204PS), 3.0 TDI quattro (245PS), 3.0 TDI quattro (313PS).
The A6 L (built in China for the Chinese market as a long wheelbase alternative to the standard A6) was unveiled in 2012 in Guangzhou International Sports Arena. Early models include A6 L TFSI, A6 L 30 FSI, A6 L 35 FSI, A6 L 35 FSI quattro, A6 L 50 TFSI quattro.
Audi A6 L (China) Front
Audi A6 L (China) Rear
Audi A6 L Facelift (China)
Available in S6 sedan and S6 Avant, they included twin - turbo V8 engine rated 420 PS (309 kW; 414 hp) @ 5500 -- 6400rpm and 550 N ⋅ m (406 lbf ⋅ ft) @ 1450 -- 5250rpm, recuperation and start - stop systems, cylinder deactivation, Active Noise Cancellation system, seven - speed S tronic transmission, quattro permanent all - wheel drive system with a self - locking center differential and torque vectoring (optional sport differential), adaptive air suspension lowers the body by 10 mm (0 in), internally ventilated brake discs (optional carbon fiber - ceramic discs), matte black calipers with S6 logos, 8.5 Jx19 - inch cast aluminum wheels in a unique five parallel - spoke design (optional seven different 19 - or 20 - inch wheels (four from quattro GmbH), including 20 - inch titanium - look wheels with a five - arm rotor design), 255 / 40 - series tires, Audi drive select driving dynamics system, optional dynamic steering, single - frame grille with aluminum applications and chromed horizontal double bars, exterior mirrors feature aluminum - look housings, S6 sedan with spoiler on the trunk (S6 Avant has a roof spoiler), diffuser on the rear bumper in platinum gray with an aluminum - look offset edge, four elliptical chrome - tipped tailpipes, choice of eight body colors (including exclusive shades Estoril Blue, crystal effect and Prism Silver, crystal effect), body decorated with S6 and V8T badges, leather sport steering wheel with colored stitching, footrest and pedals and soft keys of the MMI operating system in an aluminum - look finish, decorative inlays in matt brushed aluminum (optional carbon, fine grain ash natural brown, layered Beaufort oak), choice of 3 colours for headlining, instrument panel, carpet and seats (black, lunar silver and goa beige (only for the seat upholstery)); Pearl Nappa leather and Alcantara seat upholstery (optional Milano and Valcona leather), height - adjustable sport seats with power lumbar supports and embossed S logos (optional power - adjustable comfort seats with memory function, power - adjustable S sport seats with integrated head restraints).
Other options include xenon plus headlights with an all - weather light, LED rear lights, an electromechanical parking brake, driver information system with color display, MMI radio plus includes a Bluetooth interface, Audi sound system with ten speakers, MMI navigation plus (hard drive, an eight - inch monitor, MMI touch input system), 15 - speaker Bang & Olufsen Advanced Sound System.
The S6 sedan was unveiled in the 2011 Frankfurt Motor Show.
S6 sedan and Avant models went on sale in spring 2012.
2015 Avant (S6)
2015 Avant (S6)
2015 sedan (S6)
The concept vehicle was unveiled in Auto China 2012 in Beijing.
It is a plug - in hybrid version of A6 L with 2.0 TFSI 211 PS (155 kW) engine combined with a 95 PS (70 kW) electric motor. Electric power is supplied via lithium - ion battery, with all - electric range of 80 km (49.71 mi) for constant 60 km / h (37.28 mph) drive. Other features include MMI navigation plus developed in Audi Infotainment Tech Center (ITC) in Beijing.
The series production plug - in hybrid car will be available in China in 2016 on the long - wheelbase version, using the same hybrid vehicle powertrain like the concept vehicle. Output of 180 kW (245 hp), with 500 Nm maximum torque, all - electric range will be 50 km (31.1 mi). Acceleration from 0 -- 60 mph in 8, 4 seconds. Fuel consumption will be 2, 2 l / 100 km (106.9 US mpg).
Available in Saloon and Avant bodies, they are versions of A6 S line with 177PS 2.0 - litre TDI or higher engines (excluding S6) in front - wheel - drive or quattro all - wheel - drive configurations, for the UK market. It included 20 - inch rotor - design alloy wheels with a dark titanium finish, black grille and number plate surrounds and the window frame strips, and by privacy glass extending from the B - pillar rearwards; black roof rails Piano Black inlays, sports seats upholstered in black Valcona leather, black headlining, BOSE audio system with DAB radio, Audi Music Interface (AMI) for iPod connection.
Sales began in November 2012, with deliveries began in early 2013.
It is a version of S6 Avant with increased engine power to 560 PS (412 kW; 552 hp) @ 5700 -- 6700rpm and 700 N ⋅ m (516.29 lbf ⋅ ft) @ 1750 -- 5500rpm, cylinder on demand system deactivates intake and exhaust valves of 4 cylinders (2, 3, 5 and 8), eight - speed tiptronic transmission with shortened shift times and D and S driving modes, quattro permanent all - wheel drive system with torque vectoring with self - locking center differential with an elevated locking value and oil cooler, adaptive air suspension lowering body by 20 mm (1 in) (optional tauter sport suspension plus with Dynamic Ride Control), option is dynamic steering, four internally vented 390 mm (15 in) diameter brake discs in wave design with a wave - like outer contour (optional 420 mm (17 in) diameter carbon fiber - ceramic brake discs with anthracite gray calipers), black six - piston brake calipers (optional red brake calipers), electronic stabilization control with Sport and off modes, high - gloss 20 - inch forged wheels in a seven twin - spoke design (optional 21 - inch cast wheels in high - gloss silver, polished black or polished titanium - look), matte aluminum applications on the body, high - gloss black protective grille at the front of the car, the bumpers, the fender, sill flares and the large roof spoiler; rear diffuser with two large elliptical exhaust tailpipes, a choice of 9 body colours (including exclusive shade Daytona Gray matte), dial instruments feature black faces and white dials and red needles, flat - bottomed three - spoke multifunction steering wheel, illuminated entry sills, driver information system (DIS) sport RS logos, RS 6 - specific driver information system, footrest and pedals and switches in the MMI navigation plus terminal in aluminum finish, decorative bezel surrounding the retractable monitor in a piano finish, interior door openers in a delicate double - bar design, standard Carbon inlays (with six additional materials as options), standard black headlining (optional Silver or black Alcantara), RS sport seats with side bolsters and integrated head restraints and RS 6 logos upholstered in black Alcantara and leather with diamond quilting at center sections (optional honeycomb - quilted Valcona leather in either black or Moon Silver), optional power - adjustable deluxe seats with memory function, two sportily molded rear seats (optional three - person bench seat), xenon plus headlights, LED rear lights, a tire - pressure control system, illuminated entry sills, custom driver - information system, parking system plus, cruise control, three - zone automatic air conditioning, MMI navigation plus with MMI touch and the 10 - speaker Audi sound system.
Optional appearance packages (in Matte Aluminum or Carbon) includes customized quattro badges on the central front air inlet. Carbon appearance package includes alternate front splitter and diffuser shapes. Optional Dynamic package increases top speed to 280 km / h (173.98 mph). Optional Dynamic plus package increases top speed to 305 km / h (189.52 mph). Other options include LED headlights with a unique design, the sport differential on the rear axle, Comfort package, head - up display, the high - performance driver assistance systems, Bang & Olufsen Advanced Sound System with 15 speakers and 1,200 watts of total power, Bluetooth online car phone.
UK model was available to order from early 2013, with deliveries beginning in next summer.
A6L with 2.0 TFSI (180PS) was sold as A6L TFSI in China.
In USA, Canada, UK A6 Saloon with 3.0 TFSI quattro (310PS) replaced the A6 3.0 TFSI quattro (300PS).
In UK, A6 Avant with 3.0 TFSI quattro (310PS) replaced the A6 3.0 TFSI quattro (300PS).
245 PS (180 kW; 242 hp) @ 4000 -- 4500, 580 N ⋅ m (427.79 lbf ⋅ ft) @ 1750 -- 2500 (2012)
For A6 3.0 TDI quattro (245PS), 580Nm model replaced 500Nm model in UK.
For A6 Saloon 3.0 TFSI quattro (310PS), 7 - speed S tronic is used in UK model, 8 - speed tiptronic is used in US, Canada models.
A6 3.0 TDI quattro (313PS) was sold as A6 3.0 BiTDI quattro in the UK.
As part of Audi A6 Avant launch in the UK, BBH London, Knucklehead, The Whitehouse, The Mill produced the ' Hummingbird ' TV commercial, directed by Daniel Barber. The commercial premiered on Saturday 2011 - 10 - 01 during ITV1 's coverage of the Rugby World Cup. The commercial was to imagine what a bird designed by Audi would look like and to reflect the car 's ultra-lightweight technology. Johann Strauss 's ' Open Road, Open Sky ' was sung by legendary American baritone and automobile lover John Charles Thomas. In addition, 60 second and 30 versions of the ads were supported by press, print and radio campaigns, as well as a presence on the Daily Telegraph 's iPad app.
As part of Audi A6 launch in Taiwan, 2011 Audi Fashion Festival featured the theme of ' A6 - The sum of Progress ', including Shiatzy Chen, Kiki Huang, Robyn Hung and an artistic jewelry brand, Chen Chan.
As part of 2013 Audi S6 sedan launch in the US market, 3 different versions of ' Prom ' commercial were premiered during 2013 Super Bowl game. The 60 - second ad, created by Venables Bell & Partners, features a teenage boy. Voters were to decide their favourite version of the commercial 24 hours on Friday before the Super Bowl game, with winning entry shown on Saturday at Audi 's YouTube channel and during the actual game at CBS.
As part of RS 6 Avant launch, Audi Land of quattro Alpen Tour 2013 featured RS 6 Avant begins on September 23, travelling across twelve driving stages in 6 countries (Klagenfurt -- the capital of Carinthia, Austria, Monaco).
In the Audi RS 6 Avant TV commercial titled ' Perfect Fit ', it featured a 2012 Audi R18 with the high downforce sprint bodywork in the guise of Audi R18 e-tron quattro.
The fifth generation A6 was unveiled ahead of the 2018 Geneva Motor Show. It will launch in Germany in June 2018. All engines offered come with a mild hybrid drivetrain that can reduce fuel consumption by up to 0.7 litres per 100 kilometres for the V6 - engined vehicles. The A6 will be offered in 7 new exterior colors and 7 colors which are available in current models. After introduction Audi officially stopped production of A6 and A7 diesel models due to a new investigation on a newly discovered emissions cheating software.
All models get mild hybrid engines as standard.
All models will receive 7 - speed S - tronic DCT and 8 - speed tiptronic automatic.
The 2019 Audi A6 made its North American debut at the 2018 New York International Auto Show. Also the a6 allroad will be sold in the U.S fall 2019
According to Dunne & Company, a research company, as of 2011, purchases in China and Hong Kong make up about half of the 229,200 Audi A6s sold in the world. By 2012 many government officials in China began driving with Audi A6s. After a 1994 campaign from the Chinese government to have officials stop driving Mercedes stretch limousines, the officials began using black Audi A6 cars. Michael Wines of The New York Times wrote that "More than a perk, the black Audi is a rolling advertisement for its occupant 's importance and impunity in a nation obsessed with status. ''
A3 Sportback e-tron
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who played tiny tim in a christmas carol | Tiny Tim (a Christmas Carol) - wikipedia
Timothy Cratchit, called "Tiny Tim '', is a fictional character from the 1843 novella A Christmas Carol by Charles Dickens in the Victorian era. He is a minor character, the youngest son of Bob Cratchit, and is seen only briefly, but serves as an important symbol of the consequences of the protagonist 's choices.
When Ebenezer Scrooge is visited by the Ghost of Christmas Present he is shown just how ill the boy really is (the family can not afford to properly treat him on the salary Scrooge pays Cratchit). When visited by the Ghost of Christmas Yet to Come, Scrooge sees that Tiny Tim has died. This, and several other visions, lead Scrooge to reform his ways. At the end of the story, Dickens makes it explicit that Tiny Tim does n't die, and Scrooge becomes a "second father '' to him.
In the story, Tiny Tim is known for the statement, "God bless us, every one! '' which he offers as a blessing at Christmas dinner. Dickens repeats the phrase at the end of the story; this is symbolic of Scrooge 's change of heart.
Dickens often used his characters to demonstrate the disparity between social classes that existed in England during the Victorian era, and the hardships suffered at that time by the poor. These representative characters are typically children, presumably because children are most dependent upon others for survival, especially when they come from the lower social classes. Tiny Tim is among these characters, and is the most notable example in A Christmas Carol.
When the audience first meet Tiny Tim, he rests upon his father 's shoulder, suggesting that while the Cratchits love their boy dearly, his situation is nonetheless a burden on the family. Further representative of this burden is Tiny Tim 's crippled condition. That he is crippled evokes the financial issues that many poor families faced in 19th - century England. Although his spirit is robust, Tiny Tim 's life expectancy is questionable. His crutch and iron frame support his frail body -- he "bore a little crutch, and had his limbs supported by an iron frame '', but more support is needed for Tim if he is to survive, as pointed out by the Ghost of Christmas Present in stave III: "I see a vacant seat in the poor chimney corner, and a crutch without an owner, carefully preserved. If these shadows remain unaltered by the future, the child will die. '' These are a microcosm of the impoverished population: without support or charity, their family will be reduced.
The relationship between Scrooge and Tiny Tim is a condensed depiction of the relationship between two social classes: the wealthy and the impoverished. Tiny Tim plays a large part in Scrooge 's change. Tiny Tim 's fate is linked very closely to Scrooge 's fate, which tightens the connection that Dickens establishes between the two social classes. If Scrooge does not change his miserly ways, Tiny Tim is sure to die. Likewise, if the wealthy do not do their part to support the impoverished, the impoverished are sure to struggle. That Dickens framed this relationship with Christmas seems to suggest the immense need for decreasing the distance between English social strata. The proximity of the Christmas spirit to the issue of social strata lends a sense of community to Dickens ' message, urging the well - to - do upper class to consider the dependent poor, especially during the holiday, but year - round as well.
In early drafts, the character 's name was "Little Fred ''. It has been claimed that the character is based on the son of a friend of Dickens who owned a cotton mill in Ardwick, Manchester. However, Dickens had two younger brothers both with "Fred '' in the name; one called Frederick and another named Alfred. Alfred died young. Also, Dickens had a sister named Fanny who had a disabled son named Henry Burnett Jr. Tiny Tim did not take his name from Fanny 's child, but the actual aspects of Tiny Tim 's character are taken from Henry Burnett Jr.
Dickens tried other names such as "Tiny Mick '' after "Little Fred '' but eventually decided upon "Tiny Tim ''. After dropping the name "Little Fred, '' Dickens instead named Scrooge 's nephew "Fred ''.
Dickens did not explicitly say what Tiny Tim 's illness was. However, renal tubular acidosis (type 1), which is a type of kidney failure causing the blood to become acidic, has been proposed as one possibility, another being rickets (caused by a lack of vitamin D). Either illness was treatable during Dickens ' lifetime, but fatal if not treated, thus following in line with the comment of the Ghost of Christmas Present that Tiny Tim would die "only if the present remain unchanged ''.
The child actor Dennis Holmes played the role of Tiny Tim on Ronald Reagan 's General Electric Theater in the 1957 episode "The Trail to Christmas ''.
The role of Tiny Tim has been performed (live action, voiced or animated) by, among others:
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what did each of the big four really want in the peace conference | The Big Four (World war I) - wikipedia
The Big Four or The Four Nations refer to the four top Allied powers of the World War I and their leaders who met at the Paris Peace Conference in January 1919. The Big Four is also known as the Council of Four. It was composed of Woodrow Wilson of the United States, David Lloyd George of Britain, Vittorio Emanuele Orlando of Italy, and Georges Clemenceau of France.
Woodrow Wilson (28 December 1856 -- 3 February 1924) was elected President on the basis of domestic issues in 1912, and re-elected in 1916. He based his 1916 re-election campaign around the slogan "he kept us out of war '', and had worked hard to broker a compromise peace. In early 1917 Berlin decided to launch all - out submarine warfare designed to sink American ships bringing supplies to Britain; in the Zimmermann Telegram it proposed a military alliance with Mexico to fight a war against the US. The nation was poorly armed when it went to war in April 1917, but it had millions of potential fresh soldiers, billions of dollars, and huge supplies of raw materials needed by the Allies. Officially Wilson kept the US independent of the Allies. In 1918 Wilson took personal control of negotiations with Germany, including the armistice. He issued his Fourteen Points, his view of a post-war world that could avoid another terrible conflict. It had an enormous impact on both sides in Europe, and made him the man of the hour in Paris. A leader of the Progressive Movement, he assembled a high - powered group of academic advisors to help him in Paris but his distrustful personality led him to break with a series of close advisors, most notably Colonel House. He made a major blunder by refusing to bring along any prominent Republicans to Paris, which politicised the American debate and weakened his support. His main goal was a long - term solution to end warfare based on the League of Nations and self - determination of nations. He paid special attention to creating new nations out of defunct empires, and was opposed to harsh terms and reparations imposed on Germany. A Presbyterian of deep religious faith, Wilson appealed to a gospel of service and infused a profound sense of moralism into his idealistic internationalism, now referred to as "Wilsonianism ''. Wilsonianism calls for the United States to enter the world arena to fight for democracy, and has been a contentious position in American foreign policy.
David Lloyd George, (1863 -- 1945) from the British Liberal Party was a highly effective leader of the coalition government that took power in late 1916 and managed the British war effort. However his coalition premiership was supported more by Conservatives than by his own Liberals, and the subsequent split was a key factor in the decline of the Liberal Party as a serious political force.
He won by a landslide in the election of 1918, held just after the war ended, where he spoke out for harsh terms against Germany. However, he was much more moderate at Paris. Unlike Clemenceau and Orlando, Lloyd George did not want to destroy the German economy and political system -- as Clemenceau demanded -- with massive reparations. When asked how he had done at the peace conference, he commented, "Not badly, considering I was seated between Jesus Christ and Napoleon (Wilson and Clemenceau). ''
It has been said that "Lloyd George was the most affable and the most resilient, and he was probably the best at negotiating ''. In an article from the New York Times, it says that "Lloyd George was a pragmatist determined to protect and expand the interests of the British Empire. ''
Vittorio Emanuele Orlando (19 May 1860 -- 1 December 1952) was an Italian diplomat and political figure. He was born in Palermo, Sicily. His father, a landed gentleman, delayed venturing out to register his son 's birth for fear of Giuseppe Garibaldi 's 1,000 patriots who had just stormed into Sicily on the first leg of their march to build an Italian state. He is commonly nicknamed "The Premier of Victory ''.
In 1897 he was elected in the Italian Chamber of Deputies (Italian: Camera dei Deputati) for the district of Partinico for which he was constantly re-elected until 1925. He aligned himself with Giovanni Giolitti, who was Prime Minister of Italy five times between 1892 and 1921.
As Prime Minister of Italy, he went to the Paris Peace Conference in 1919. He demanded the fulfilment of the "secret Treaty of London of 1915, by which the Allies had promised Italy ample territorial compensation in Dalmatia for its entry into World War I. '' However, Woodrow Wilson brought forth considerable opposition to Orlando 's demands. Therefore, Orlando failed to secure British or French support. This caused him to leave the Peace Conference. However, he returned a month later. "Even then no solution satisfactory to Italy was found; Orlando resigned and was succeeded as premier by Francesco Nitti. The so - called "Mutilated victory '' was used propaganda in the rise of Benito Mussolini. Opposing Fascism, Orlando gave up (1925) his seat in parliament and devoted himself to teaching and writing. ''
Aside from his prominent political role Orlando is also known for his writings, over a hundred works, on legal and judicial issues; Orlando was himself a professor of law.
He was among the fathers of the Republican Constitution being member of the Constitutional assembly also as speaker of the house. He was a candidate to be the first Italian President elected by the Parliament.
Georges Benjamin Clemenceau (French pronunciation: (ʒɔʁʒ klemɑ̃so); 28 September 1841 -- 24 November 1929) was a French statesman, physician, and journalist. He served as the Prime Minister of France from 1906 to 1909, and again from 1917 to 1920. He is commonly nicknamed "Le Tigre '' (The Tiger) and "Père - la - Victoire '' (Father Victory) for his determination as a wartime leader.
"Succeeding Paul Painlevé as premier in November 1917, Clemenceau formed a coalition cabinet in which he was also minister of war. He renewed the dispirited morale of France, persuaded the allies to agree to a unified command, and pushed the war vigorously until the final victory. Leading the French delegation at the Paris Peace Conference, Clemenceau insisted on Germany 's disarmament and was never satisfied with the Versailles Treaty. He was the main antagonist of Woodrow Wilson, whose ideas he viewed as too idealistic. '' For nearly the final year of World War I he led France, and was one of the major voices behind the Treaty of Versailles at the Paris Peace Conference in the aftermath of the war. Clemenceau was hoping that there would be more punishment put on Germany.
While the Allies at the Paris Peace Conference made up more than twenty nations, the Big Four entered Versailles and were leading architects of the Treaty of Versailles which was signed by Germany; the Treaty of St. Germain, with Austria; the Treaty of Neuilly, with Bulgaria; the Treaty of Trianon, with Hungary; and the Treaty of Sèvres, with the Ottoman Empire. During the decision - making of the Treaty of Versailles, Orlando temporarily pulled out of the conference because Italian demands were not met, leaving the other three countries as the sole major architects of the talk, referred to as the "Big Three ''. The Italian delegation returned after 11 days.
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who are king gizzard and the lizard wizard | King Gizzard & the Lizard Wizard - Wikipedia
King Gizzard & the Lizard Wizard is an Australian psychedelic rock band formed in 2010 in Melbourne, Victoria. The band consists of Stu Mackenzie (vocals, guitar, keyboards, flute), Ambrose Kenny - Smith (vocals, harmonica, keyboards), Cook Craig (guitar, vocals), Joey Walker (guitar, vocals), Lucas Skinner (bass), Michael Cavanagh (drums, percussion), and Eric Moore (drums, percussion, management). They are known for their prolific recording output, having released 14 studio albums since their formation, as well as their energetic live performances.
The release of their first two albums, 12 Bar Bruise (2012) and Eyes Like the Sky (2013) primarily blended surf music, garage rock and psychedelic rock into the band 's sound. They were also the debut releases of the band 's independent record label, Flightless, founded by Moore in 2012. Their third to eighth albums -- Float Along - Fill Your Lungs (2013), Oddments, I 'm in Your Mind Fuzz (2014), Quarters!, Paper Mâché Dream Balloon (2015) and Nonagon Infinity (2016) -- expanded their sound, including elements of film music, progressive rock, folk, jazz, soul and heavy metal.
In 2017, the band promised to release five studio albums within the year: Flying Microtonal Banana in February, Murder of the Universe in June, Sketches of Brunswick East, a collaboration with the music project of Alex Brettin, Mild High Club, in August, Polygondwanaland, which was released into the public domain, in November, and Gumboot Soup in December.
The band members all grew up and went to school in the Deniliquin, Melbourne and Geelong areas. The band started off as a group of friends jamming together, before a mutual friend asked them to play at a show. The band 's name was created "last minute ''. Mackenzie wanted to name the band "Gizzard Gizzard '' while another band member wanted Jim Morrison 's nickname "Lizard King ''. They eventually compromised with King Gizzard and the Lizard Wizard. The artist Jason Galea has created all of the band 's album art, and a majority of their music videos.
The band 's first release, 2011 's Anglesea, was released as a four - track EP on CD. It is named after Anglesea, the coastal town where Mackenzie grew up, and is currently not available for purchase, physically or digitally. The band 's second release, Willoughby 's Beach, was released by Shock Records on 21 October 2011. Beat Magazine described the 9 - track garage rock EP as "filled to the teeth with consistently killer hooks. '' In December 2011, the band appeared at the Meredith Music Festival for the first time.
The band 's first full - length album, 12 Bar Bruise, was released on 7 September 2012. The 12 - track garage rock album was self - recorded, and several tracks used unconventional recording methods. For example, the vocals for the album 's title track were recorded through four iPhones placed around a room while Mackenzie sang into one of them.
King Gizzard & the Lizard Wizard 's second full - length album, Eyes Like the Sky, was released on 22 February 2013. Described as a "cult western audio book '', the album is narrated by Broderick Smith and tells a story of outlaws, child soldiers, Native Americans and gun fights, all set in the American frontier. The album was written collaboratively by Smith and Stu Mackenzie. When asked about the album 's influences, Mackenzie said: "I love Western films. I love bad guys and I love Red Dead Redemption. Oh, and I love evil guitars ''.
The band 's third full - length album, Float Along - Fill Your Lungs, was released on 27 September 2013. King Gizzard shifted from garage rock to a more mellow folk and psychedelic sound on this eight track album.
Float Along -- Fill Your Lungs was followed by Oddments, released on 7 March 2014. Over the course of this 12 - track album, the band takes a more melodic approach, and Mackenzie 's vocals are more prominent. Oddments has been described as being "recorded through a woolen sock in an adjacent room ''.
The band 's fifth full - length album, I 'm in Your Mind Fuzz, was released on 31 October 2014. The 10 - track album touches on elements of fantasy and lyrically delves into the concept of mind control. This was the first time the band took a "traditional '' approach to writing and recording an album; the songs were written, the band rehearsed together, and they recorded the songs "as a band '' in the studio. Pitchfork described the album as "open (ing) with a sprint '' and ending "with some of their best slow jams. ''
Quarters!, King Gizzard 's sixth full - length album, was released on 1 May 2015. The album features four songs, each running for ten minutes and ten seconds, making each song a quarter of the album. Drawing upon jazz - fusion and acid rock, the album 's more laid - back sound was described as "unlike anything they 've released before '' and as "an album more likely to get your head bobbing and hips shaking as opposed to losing footwear in a violent mosh ''.
Later in the year, on 13 November 2015, the band released its seventh full - length album, Paper Mâché Dream Balloon. This "concept-less concept album '' features only acoustic instruments and was recorded on Mackenzie 's parents ' farm in country Victoria. The album features "a collection of short unrelated songs '' described as "mellow, defuzzed psychedelia ''. The band released a music video for the song "Trapdoor ''. It was the band 's first album to be released in the United States via ATO Records.
The band 's eighth full - length album, Nonagon Infinity, was released worldwide on 29 April 2016. Described by Mackenzie as a "never - ending album '', it features nine songs connected by musical motifs which flow "seamlessly '' into each other with the last track "linking straight back into the top of the opener like a sonic mobius strip ''. On 8 March the band released a video for the first single, "Gamma Knife ''. It contained a riff from the song "People Vultures '' which was premiered on 4 April with a music video released on 6 May. The album received high praise from critics, with Pitchfork 's Stuart Berman writing it "yields some of the most outrageous, exhilarating rock ' n ' roll in recent memory. '' The band earned its first ARIA Award when Nonagon Infinity won the 2016 ARIA Award for Best Hard Rock or Heavy Metal Album.
Stu Mackenzie, November 2017
The band 's ninth full - length album, Flying Microtonal Banana, was recorded in the band 's own studio and released on 24 February 2017. Originally conceived as a record to be played on the Turkish baglama (a stringed instrument with movable frets), Flying Microtonal Banana has been described as "a soaring take on microtonal music ''. Three tracks were issued in advance: "Rattlesnake, '' the opening track, in October 2016; "Nuclear Fusion '' in December 2016; and "Sleep Drifter '' in January 2017. The band released a music video for "Rattlesnake '', directed by Jason Galea.
Another full - length album, Murder of the Universe, was released on 23 June 2017. Described by the band as a "concept album to end all concepts '', it is divided into 3 chapters: The Tale Of The Altered Beast; The Lord Of Lightning vs Balrog; released 30 May 2017; and Han - Tyumi And The Murder Of The Universe released 11 April 2017. It is narrated by Leah Senior for the first two chapters, and a text - to - speech program for the final chapter. The band made their international television debut on 17 April 2017 performing "The Lord of Lightning '' on Conan on TBS in the United States.
King Gizzard 's next full - length album, Sketches of Brunswick East, a collaboration with Alex Brettin 's psychedelic jazz project Mild High Club, was released on 18 August 2017. Taking inspiration from Miles Davis ' 1960 album Sketches Of Spain, as well as the band 's base recording location of Brunswick East in Melbourne, it is a jazz - improvisational album. Mackenzie described the record as "perhaps representing greater changes that are happening in the wider world, and (this is) our attempt to find beauty within a place that we spend so much time '', referring to the constant changes in their neighbourhood.
King Gizzard 's twelfth studio album, Polygondwanaland, was released as a free download on 17 November 2017. The band encouraged fans and independent record labels to create their own pressings of the album, stating that "(Polygondwanaland) is FREE. Free as in, free. Free to download and if you wish, free to make copies. Make tapes, make CD 's, make records... Ever wanted to start your own record label? GO for it! Employ your mates, press wax, pack boxes. We do not own this record. You do. Go forth, share, enjoy. '' The album was promoted with the release of the first track, "Crumbling Castle, '' on 18 October 2017. A music video created by Jason Galea accompanied its release on YouTube.
Mackenzie confirmed on 7 December 2017 that the fifth and final album to be released in 2017 would be coming "very, very late in the year ''. Two singles were digitally released less than a week later: "All is Known, '' which had previously been performed live; and "Beginner 's Luck, '' an entirely new song. On 30 December, the band posted on Facebook that Gumboot Soup, their fifth and final album of the year, would be released the following day. Mackenzie explained in an interview that the songs on Gumboot Soup are "definitely not B - sides or anything. They 're more songs that did n't work in any of the rest of the four records, or they did n't fit into any of those categories that well, or they came together slightly after when those records came together. ''
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what were the social economic and political characteristics of spanish and portuguese rule | Casta - wikipedia
A casta (Spanish: (ˈkasta), Portuguese: (ˈkastɐ, ˈkaʃtɐ)) was a term to describe mixed - race individuals in Spanish America, resulting from unions of European whites (espanoles), Amerinds (indios), and Africans (negros). Racial categories had legal and social consequences, since racial status was an organizing principle of Spanish colonial rule. During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, European elites created a complex hierarchical system of race classification. The sistema de castas or the sociedad de castas was used in 17th and 18th centuries in Spanish America and Spanish Philippines to describe as a whole and formally socially rank the mixed - race people who were born during the post-Conquest period. The process of mixing ancestries in the union of people of different races was known as mestizaje. In Spanish colonial law, mixed - race castas were classified as part of the República de españoles and not the República de indios, which set Amerindians outside the Hispanic sphere. Other terminology for classification is categorization based on the degree of acculturation to Hispanic culture, which distinguished between gente de razón (Hispanics, literally, "people of reason '') and gente sin razón (non-acculturated natives), concurrently existed and supported the idea of the racial classification system.
Created by Hispanic elites, the sistema de castas or the sociedad de castas, varied largely due to their birth, color, race and origin of ethnic types. The system of castas was more than socio - racial classification. It had an effect on every aspect of life, including economics and taxation. Both the Spanish colonial state and the Church required more tax and tribute payments from those of lower socio - racial categories. Related to Spanish ideas about purity of blood (which historically also related to its reconquest of Spain from the Moors), the colonists established a caste system in Latin America by which a person 's socio - economic status generally correlated with race or racial mix in the known family background, or simply on phenotype (physical appearance) if the family background was unknown. From the colonial period, when the Spanish imposed control, many wealthy persons and high government officials were of peninsular (Iberian) and / or European background, while African or indigenous ancestry, or dark skin, generally was correlated with inferiority and poverty. The "whiter '' the heritage a person could claim, the higher in status they could claim; conversely, darker features meant less opportunity.
Casta paintings were a new, secular art form primarily produced in eighteenth - century Mexico. A notable exception to the secular nature of the genre is Luis de Mena 's 1750 painting of Virgin of Guadalupe with castas.
Casta is an Iberian word (existing in Spanish, Portuguese and other Iberian languages since the Middle Ages), meaning "lineage '', "breed '' or "race ''. It is derived from the older Latin word castus, "chaste '', implying that the lineage has been kept pure. Casta gave rise to the English word caste during the Early Modern Period.
The idea of "purity of blood '', limpieza de sangre, originating under Moorish rule, developed in Christian Spain to denote those without the "taint '' of Jewish (or, later Muslim / Moorish) heritage ("blood ''). It was directly linked to religion and notions of legitimacy, lineage and honor following Spain 's reconquest of Moorish territory. It was institutionalized during the Inquisition. The Inquisition only allowed those Spaniards who could demonstrate not to have Jewish and Moorish blood to emigrate to Latin America. Both in Spain and in the New World crypto - Jews (Converts who continued to practice Judaism) were aggressively prosecuted. Some emigrated as Portuguese merchants to Mexico City and Lima, following the successful revolt of Portugal in 1640 against the Castillian Crown. Several spectacular autos de fe in New Spain in the mid-seventeenth century featured the public punishment of those convicted of being "Judaizers '' (judaizantes).
In Spanish America, the idea of purity of blood was in a complex fashion linked to ideas of race, particularly pertaining to mixing of whites ("españoles '') and non-whites (Indians and mixed - race castas). Spaniards had become obsessed with lineage, following the expulsion of Moors and Jews, and forced conversion of those who chose to remain. Evidence of lack of purity of blood had consequences for marriage, eligibility for office, entrance into the priesthood, and emigration to Spain 's overseas territories. Having to produce genealogical records to prove one 's pure ancestry gave rise to a trade in the creation of false genealogies.
When the concept of purity of blood was transferred overseas, it retained the concerns about tainted ancestry of Jews or Muslims in a family line. During the early colonial decades, the Spanish in the New World had unions and marriages with indigenous women, resulting in generations of mixed - race children. In the late sixteenth century, some investigations of ancestry classified as "stains '' any connection with Black Africans ("negros '', which resulted in "mulatos '') and sometimes mixtures with indigenous that produced Mestizos. While some illustrations from the period show men of African descent dressed in fashionable clothing, as aristocrats in upper - class surroundings, the idea that any hint of Blacks in a lineage was a stain developed by the end of the colonial period. It was illustrated in eighteenth - century paintings of racial hierarchy, known as casta paintings.
The idea in New Spain that Indian (indio) blood in a lineage was an impurity may well have come about as the optimism of the early Franciscans faded about creating Indian Christian priests trained at the Colegio de Santa Cruz de Tlatelolco, which ceased that function in the mid-sixteenth century. In addition, the Indian nobility, which was recognized by the Spanish colonists, had declined in importance, and there were fewer formal marriages between Spaniards and indigenous women than during the early decades of the colonial era. In the seventeenth century in New Spain, the ideas of purity of blood became associated with "Spanishness and whiteness, but it came to work together with socio - economic categories '', such that a lineage with someone engaged in work with their hands was tainted by that connection.
Indians in Central Mexico were affected by ideas of purity of blood from the other side. Crown decrees on purity of blood were affirmed by indigenous communities, which barred Indians from holding office who had any non-Indians (Spaniards and / or Blacks) in their lineage. In indigenous communities "local caciques (rulers) and principales were granted a set of privileges and rights on the basis of their pre-Hispanic noble bloodlines and acceptance of the Catholic faith. '' Indigenous nobles submitted proofs (probanzas) of their purity of blood to affirm their rights and privileges that were extended to themselves and their communities. This supported the república de indios, a legal division of society that separated indigenous from non-Indians (república de españoles).
In the mid to late eighteenth century, the pace of race mixture (mestizaje) increased in New Spain, political changes of the Bourbon Reforms privileged peninsular Spaniards over American - born Spaniards, and casta paintings began to be produced in great numbers in Mexico. It was also the period when the power of the sistema de castas declined significantly.
In Spanish America (and many other places), racial categories were formal legal classifications. Initially in Spanish America there were three racial categories. They generally referred to the multiplicity of indigenous American peoples as "Indians '' (indios), a Spanish term applied to, but seldom used by Amerinds themselves. Those from Spain called themselves españoles, which in the late colonial period was further refined to those born in Iberia, called politely peninsulares, while American - born españoles were called criollos. The third group were black Africans, called negros ("Blacks ''), brought as slaves from the earliest days of Spanish empire in the Caribbean. There were fewer Spanish women than men who immigrated to the New World and fewer black women than men, so that mixed - race offspring of Spaniards and of Blacks were often the product of liaisons with indigenous women. The process of race mixture was termed mestizaje.
In the sixteenth century, the term casta, a collective category for mixed - race individuals, came into existence as the numbers grew, particularly in urban areas. The crown had divided the population of its overseas empire into two categories, separating Indians from non-Indians. Indigenous were the República de Indios, the other the República de Españoles, essentially the Hispanic sphere, so that Spaniards, Blacks, and mixed - race castas were lumped into this category. Official censuses and ecclesiastical records noted an individual 's racial category, so that these sources can be used to chart socio - economic standard, residence patterns, and other important data.
General racial groupings had their own set of privileges and restrictions, both legal and customary. So, for example, only Spaniards and indigenous, who were deemed to be the original societies of the Spanish dominions, had recognized aristocracies. Also, in America and other overseas possessions, all Spaniards, regardless of their family 's class background in Europe, came to consider themselves equal to the Peninsular hidalgía and expected to be treated as such.
Access to these privileges and even a person 's perceived and accepted racial classification, however, were also determined by that person 's socioeconomic standing in society.
Long lists of different terms found in casta paintings do not appear in official documentation, which count Spaniards, mestizos, Blacks and mulattoes, and indigenous (indios) were found in censuses. By the end of the colonial period in 1821, over one hundred categories of possible variations of mixture existed.
In his analysis of the 1790 census of Mexico City and its surrounding area, Dennis Nodin Valdés shows that the major colonial metropolis had a higher proportion of Spaniards and castas than Indians. In addition, there were higher rates of persons of mixed race, or mestizaje, than in the surrounding countryside, which was dominated by indios. He compared the population of the capital of New Spain with the census of the Intendancy of Mexico in 1794. The total number of Mexico City residents counted in 1793 was 104,760 (which excludes 8,166 officials) and in the intendancy as a whole 1,043,223, excluding 2,299 officials. In both the capital and the intendancy, the European population was the smallest percentage, with 2,335 in the capital (2.2 %) and the intendancy 1,330 (. 1 %). The listing for Spaniard (español) was 50,371 (48.1 %), with the intendancy showing 134,695 (12.9 %). For mestizos (in which he has merged the castizos), in the capital there were 19,357 (18.5 %) and in the intendancy 112,113 (10.7 %). For the mulatto category, the capital listed 7,094 (6.8 %) with the intendancy showing 52,629 (5.0 %). There is apparently no separate category for blacks (Negros). The category Indian showed 25,603 (24.4 %) in the capital, with the intendancy having 742,186 (71.1). The capital had the largest concentration of Spaniards and castas, and the countryside was overwhelmingly Indian. The population of the capital "indicates that conditions favoring mestizaje were more favorable in the city than the outlying area ''. In the 1811 census of Mexico City by residential sectors, there is no evidence of absolute segregation by race, an important finding. The highest concentration of Spaniards was around the traza, the central sector of the city where the civil and religious institutions were based and where there was the highest concentration of wealthy merchants. But non-Spaniards also lived there. Indians were found in higher concentrations in the sectors on the fringes of the capital. Castas appear as residents in all sectors of the capital.
Although the system could contain in excess of thirty categories, practical necessity reduced this number to seven groups ranked as follows: Spaniards, castizos, moriscos, mestizos, mulattoes, Indians, and Africans. The terms for the more complex racial mixtures tended to vary in meaning and use and from region to region. (For example, different sets of casta paintings will give a different set of terms and interpretations of their meaning.) For the most part, only the first few terms in the lists were used in documents and everyday life, the general descending order of precedence being:
These were people of Spanish descent. People of other European descent who had settled in Spanish America and adapted to Hispanic culture, such as Pedro de Gante (from Ghent) and the Marquises of Osorno and Croix, would have also been considered Españoles. Also, as noted above, and below under "Mestizos '' and "Castizos '', many people with some Amerindian ancestry were considered Españoles.
Españoles were one of the three original "races '', the other two being Amerindians and Blacks. Both immigrant and American - born Españoles (criollos) generally shared the same rights and privileges, although there were a few cases in which the law differentiated between them. For example, it became customary in some municipal councils for the office of alcalde to alternate between a European and an American. Spaniards were therefore divided into:
Persons of Spanish descent born in Spain (i.e., from the Iberian Peninsula, hence their name). Generally, there were two groups of Peninsulares. The first group includes those who were appointed to important jobs in the government, the army, and the Catholic Church by the Crown. This system was intended to perpetuate the ties of the governing elite to the Spanish crown. The theory was that an outsider should be appointed to rule over a certain society, therefore a New Spaniard would not be appointed Viceroy of New Spain. These officials usually had a long history of service to the Crown and were moved around the Empire frequently, as in career civil service positions. They usually did not live permanently in any one place in Latin America.
The second group of Peninsulares did settle permanently in a specific region and came to be associated with it. The first wave were the original settlers, the Conquistadors, who became lords of an area through their act of conquest. In the centuries after the Conquest, more Peninsulares continued to immigrate to New Spain under different circumstances, usually for commercial reasons. Some came as indentured servants to established Criollo families in order to gain passage. Peninsulares were of all socioeconomic classes in America. Once they settled, they tended to form families, so Peninsulares and Criollos were united and divided by family ties and tensions.
A Spanish term meaning "native born and raised '', criollo historically was applied to both white and black non-indigenous persons born in the Americas, in addition to animals and products. Because of the lack of white people in the Spanish colonies, during the first generations after the conquest, legitimately - born biological criollos were simply considered españoles criollos (see, Hyperdescent). In today 's historiography, the term "criollo '' means only the white people Born in the Americas, who had unmixed Spanish or European ancestry both matrilineal and patrilineal. In the reality of the period, as noted, many criollos ended up interbreeding with the financially successful mestizos and castizos, who physically appeared white, but had some native ancestry. The knowledge of mixed ancestry was usually disregarded for families that had maintained a certain status and they were accepted as criollos.
Many of the second - or third - generation criollos became wealthy from the mines, ranches, or haciendas they owned. Criollo families who became extremely wealthy joined the ranks of the high nobility of the Spanish Empire. Still, most were part of what could be termed the petite bourgeoisie and some were poor. As lifelong residents of America, they, like all other residents of these areas, often participated in trading contraband, since the traditional monopolies of Seville, and later Cádiz, could not supply all their trade needs. (They were more than occasionally aided by royal officials turning a blind eye to this activity).
Criollos tended to be appointed to the lower - level government jobs -- they had sizable representation in the municipal councils. But, with the sale of offices that began in the late 16th century, they gained access to high - level posts, such as judges on the regional audiencias. The 19th - century wars of independence have often been characterized as a struggle between Peninsulares and Criollos, but both groups can be found on both sides of the wars.
The original inhabitants of the Americas were considered to be one of the three "pure races '' in Spanish America; under Spanish colonial law, they were classified and regulated as minors, and as such were to be protected by royal officials. In practice, they often suffered repression and abuse by the local elites. After the initial conquest, the elites of the Inca, Aztec and other Amerindian states were assimilated into the Spanish nobility through intermarriage.
The regional Native nobility, where it existed, was recognized and redefined along European standards by the Spanish. It had to deal with the difficulty of existing in a colonial society, but it remained in place until independence in 1821. Amerindians could belong to any economic class depending on their personal wealth, but most were peasants and poor.
Persons with one Spanish parent and one Amerindian parent. The term was originally associated with illegitimacy because in the generations after the Conquest, mixed - race children born in wedlock were assigned either a simple Amerindian or Spanish identity, depending with which culture they were raised. (See Hyperdescent and Hypodescent.) The number of official Mestizos rises in censuses only after the second half of the 17th century, when a sizable and stable community of mixed - race people with no claims on being either Amerindian or Spanish appeared.
One of the many terms, like the ones below, used to describe people with varying degrees of racial mixture. In this case Castizos were people with one Mestizo parent and one Spanish parent. The children of a Castizo and a Spaniard, or a Castizo him - or herself, were often classified and accepted as a Criollo Spaniard.
Persons with one Amerindian parent and one Mestizo parent.
People who are the product of the mixing over the generations of the European, Black African, and Amerindians. This mix may come about from a white Spaniard mating with a Zambo, an Amerindian mating with a Mulatto, or a Black African mating with a Mestizo. The term is in current use in Brazil, where they form slightly less than one - half the population. Pardos in Spanish America were common in the Caribbean, such as Puerto Rico (see here), Dominican Republic, and Cuba.
Persons of the first generation of a Spanish and Black / African ancestry. If they were born into slavery (that is their mother was a slave), they would be slaves, unless freed by their master or were manumitted. In popular parlance, mulato could also denote an individual of mixed African and Native American ancestry.
Further terms to describe other degrees of mixture included, among many others, Morisco, (not to be confused with the peninsular Morisco, from which the term was borrowed) a person of Mulatto and Spanish parents, i.e., a quadroon, and Albino (derived from albino), a person of Morisco and Spanish parents, i.e., an octoroon.
Persons who were of mixed Amerindian and Black ancestry. As with Mulattoes, many other terms existed to describe the degree of mixture. These included Chino and Lobo. Chino usually described someone as having Mulatto and Amerindian parents. The word chino derives from the Spanish word cochino, meaning "pig '', and the phrase pelo chino, meaning "curly hair '', is a reference to the casta known as chino that possessed kinky or curly hair.
Since there was some immigration from the Spanish East Indies during the colonial period, chino is often confused, even by contemporary historians, as a word for Asian peoples, which is the primary meaning of the word, but not usually in the context of the castas. Lobo could describe a person of Black and Amerindian parents (and therefore, a synonym for Zambo), as in the image gallery below, or someone of Amerindian and Torna atrás parents.
With Spaniards and Amerindians, this was the third original race in this paradigm, but low on the social scale because of their association with slavery. These were people of full Sub-Saharan African descent. Many, especially among the first generation, were slaves, but there were sizable free - Black communities. Distinction was made between Blacks born in Africa (negros bozales) and therefore possibly less acculturated, Blacks born in the Iberian Peninsula (Black Ladinos), and Blacks born in the Indies, these sometimes referred to as negros criollos.
Their low social status was enforced legally. They were prohibited by law from many positions, such as entering the priesthood, and their testimony in court was valued less than others. But they could join militias created especially for them. In contrast with the binary "one - drop rule '', which evolved in the late - 19th - century United States, people of mixed - Black ancestry were recognized as multiple separate groups, as noted above.
Other fanciful or derogatory terms existed, such as a torna atrás (literally, "turns back '', but equivalent to the English term "throwback '') and tente en el aire ("hold - yourself - in - midair '') in New Spain or a requinterón in Peru, which implied that a child of only one - sixteenth Black ancestry is born looking Black to seemingly white parents. These terms were rarely used in legal documents and existed mostly in the New Spanish phenomenon of casta paintings (pinturas de castas), which showed possible mixtures down to several generations.
The interest of the Spanish Enlightenment in organizing knowledge and scientific description, resulted in the commission of many series of pictures that document the racial combinations that existed in the exotic lands that Spain possessed on the other side of the world. Many sets of these paintings still exist (around one hundred complete sets in museums and private collections and many more individual paintings), of varying artistic quality, usually consisting of sixteen paintings representing as many racial combinations. Some of the finer sets were done by prominent Mexican artists, such as Miguel Cabrera, José Joaquín Magón (who painted two sets), José de Ibarra, and Juan Patricio Morlete Ruiz. These artists worked together in the painting guilds of New Spain. They were important transitional artists in 18th - century casta painting. At least one Spaniard, Francisco Clapera, also contributed to the casta genre. In general, little is known of most artists who did sign their work; most casta paintings are unsigned.
The overall themes that emerge in these paintings are the "supremacy of the Spaniards '', the possibility that Indians could become Spaniards through miscegenation with Spaniards and the "regression to an earlier moment of racial development '' that mixing with Blacks would cause to Spaniards. These series generally depict the descendants of Indians becoming Spanish after three generations of intermarriage with Spaniards (usually the, "De español y castiza, español '' painting).
In contrast, mixtures with Blacks, both by Indians and Spaniards, led to a bewildering number of combinations, with "fanciful terms '' to describe them. Instead of leading to a new racial type or equilibrium, they led to apparent disorder. Terms such as the above - mentioned tente en el aire and no te entiendo ("I do n't understand you '') -- and others based on terms used for animals: mulato (mule) and lobo (wolf), chino (derived from cochino meaning "pig '') -- reflect the fear and mistrust that Spanish officials, society and those who commissioned these paintings saw these new racial types.
At the same time, it must be emphasized that these paintings reflected the views of the economically established Criollo society and officialdom. Castas defined themselves in different ways, and how they were recorded in official records was a process of negotiation between the casta and the person creating the document, whether it was a birth certificate, a marriage certificate or a court deposition. In real life, many casta individuals were assigned different racial categories in different documents, revealing the fluid nature of racial identity in colonial, Spanish American society.
In New Spain, one of the Viceroyalties of the Spanish Empire, casta paintings illustrated where each person in the New World ranked in the system. These paintings from 18th and 19th centuries were popular in Spain and other parts of Europe. They reflected the Spaniards ' sense of racial superiority by illustrating an orderly hierarchical society where socio - economic status depended on skin color and limpieza de sangre (purity of blood).
Some paintings depicted the innate character and quality of people because of their birth and ethnic origin. For example, according to one painting by José Joaquín Magón, a mestizo (mixed Indian + Spanish) was considered generally humble, tranquil, and straightforward; while another painting claims from Lobo and Indian woman is born the Cambujo, one usually slow, lazy, and cumbersome. Ultimately, the casta paintings are reminders of the colonial biases in modern human history that linked a caste / ethnic society based on descent, skin color, social status, and one 's birth.
Often, casta paintings depicted commodity items from Latin America like pulque, the fermented alcohol drink of the lower classes. Painters depicted interpretations of pulque that were attributed to specific castas. Pulque abuse was shown in some casta paintings as a social criticism of the lower castas, and the Spanish desire for regulation over pulque consumption and distribution.
Presented here are casta lists from three sets of paintings. Note that they only agree on the first five combinations, which are essentially the Indian - White ones. There is no agreement on the Black mixtures, however. Also, no one list should be taken as "authoritative ''. These terms would have varied from region to region and across time periods. The lists here probably reflect the names that the artist knew or preferred, the ones the patron requested to be painted, or a combination of both.
Canbujo con Yndia sale Albaracado / Notentiendo con Yndia sale China, óleo sobre lienzo, 222 x 109 cm, Madrid, Museo de América
Miguel Cabrera "From Spaniard and Mulatta: Morisca ''
"from Mulatto and Mestiza, produce Mulatto, he is Torna Atrás '' by Juan Rodríguez Juárez
José Joaquín Magón, The Mulatta - from the series The Mexican Castes
De español e india, produce mestizo (From a Spanish man and an Amerindian woman, a Mestizo is produced).
De negro y española, sale mulato (From a Black man and a Spanish woman, a Mulatto is begotten).
De mestizo e india, sale coiote (From a Mestizo man and an Amerindian woman, a Coyote is begotten).
De negro e india, sale lobo (From a Black man and an Amerindian woman, a Lobo is begotten).
Mestizo, Mestiza, Mestizo Sample of a Peruvian casta painting, showing intermarriage within a casta category.
The discussion of Limpieza de sangre makes it appear as if differentiation based upon privileges applied only to the distinction between Christians and Jews and Muslims; this was later extended to distinguish clearly between Catholics and Protestants. (The New World was originally divided between Spain and Portugal, both Catholic countries.) However, certificates of Limpieza de sangre could be bought, and were extended to mulattoes, blacks and others in the Americas.
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when was the last time us had a draft | Conscription in the United States - wikipedia
Military service National service Conscription crisis Conscientious objector
Conscription in the United States, commonly known as the draft, has been employed by the federal government of the United States in four conflicts: the American Civil War, World War I, World War II, and the Cold War (including both the Korean War and the Vietnam War). The third incarnation of the draft came into being in 1940 through the Selective Training and Service Act. It was the country 's first peacetime draft. From 1940 until 1973, during both peacetime and periods of conflict, men were drafted to fill vacancies in the United States Armed Forces that could not be filled through voluntary means. The draft came to an end when the United States Armed Forces moved to an all - volunteer military force. However, the Selective Service System remains in place as a contingency plan; all male civilians between the ages of 18 and 25 are required to register so that a draft can be readily resumed if needed. United States Federal Law also provides for the compulsory conscription of men between the ages of 17 and 45 and certain women for militia service pursuant to Article I, Section 8 of the United States Constitution and 10 U.S. Code § 246.
In colonial times, the Thirteen Colonies used a militia system for defense. Colonial militia laws -- and after independence those of the United States and the various states -- required able - bodied males to enroll in the militia, to undergo a minimum of military training, and to serve for limited periods of time in war or emergency. This earliest form of conscription involved selective drafts of militiamen for service in particular campaigns. Following this system in its essentials, the Continental Congress in 1778 recommended that the states draft men from their militias for one year 's service in the Continental army; this first national conscription was irregularly applied and failed to fill the Continental ranks.
For long - term operations, conscription was occasionally used when volunteers or paid substitutes were insufficient to raise the needed manpower. During the American Revolutionary War, the states sometimes drafted men for militia duty or to fill state Continental Army units, but the central government did not have the authority to conscript except for purposes of naval impressment. President James Madison and his Secretary of War James Monroe unsuccessfully attempted to create a national draft of 40,000 men during the War of 1812. This proposal was fiercely criticized on the House floor by antiwar Congressman Daniel Webster of New Hampshire.
The United States first employed national conscription during the American Civil War. The vast majority of troops were volunteers; of the 2,100,000 Union soldiers, about 2 % were draftees, and another 6 % were substitutes paid by draftees.
The Confederacy had far fewer inhabitants than the Union, and Confederate President Jefferson Davis proposed the first conscription act on March 28, 1862; it was passed into law the next month. Resistance was both widespread and violent, with comparisons made between conscription and slavery.
Both sides permitted conscripts to hire substitutes to serve in their place. In the Union, many states and cities offered bounties and bonuses for enlistment. They also arranged to take credit against their draft quota by claiming freed slaves who enlisted in the Union Army.
Although both sides resorted to conscription, the system did not work effectively in either. The Confederate Congress on April 16, 1862, passed an act requiring military service for three years from all males aged eighteen to thirty - five not legally exempt; it later extended the obligation. The U.S. Congress followed with the Militia Act of 1862 authorizing a militia draft within a state when it could not meet its quota with volunteers. This state - administered system failed in practice and in 1863 Congress passed the Enrollment Act, the first genuine national conscription law, setting up under the Union Army an elaborate machinery for enrolling and drafting men between twenty and forty - five years of age. Quotas were assigned in each state, the deficiencies in volunteers required to be met by conscription.
Still, men drafted could provide substitutes, and until mid-1864 could even avoid service by paying commutation money. Many eligible men pooled their money to cover the cost of any one of them drafted. Families used the substitute provision to select which member should go into the army and which would stay home. The other popular means of procuring a substitute was to pay a soldier whose period of enlistment was about to expire - the advantage of this method was that the Army could retain a trained veteran in place of a raw recruit. Of the 168,649 men procured for the Union Army through the draft, 117,986 were substitutes, leaving only 50,663 who had their personal services conscripted. There was much evasion and overt resistance to the draft, and the New York City draft riots were in direct response to the draft and were the first large - scale resistance against the draft in the United States.
The problem of Confederate desertion was aggravated by the inequitable inclinations of conscription officers and local judges. The three conscription acts of the Confederacy exempted certain categories, most notably the planter class, and enrolling officers and local judges often practiced favoritism, sometimes accepting bribes. Attempts to effectively deal with the issue were frustrated by conflict between state and local governments on the one hand and the national government of the Confederacy.
In 1917 the administration of President Woodrow Wilson decided to rely primarily on conscription, rather than voluntary enlistment, to raise military manpower for World War I when only 73,000 volunteers enlisted out of the initial 1 million target in the first six weeks of the war. One claimed motivation was to head off the former President, Theodore Roosevelt, who proposed to raise a volunteer division, which would upstage Wilson. However, there is no evidence that even Roosevelt had the popularity to overcome the unpopular war, also, since Wilson had just started his second term in office the former President 's prospects for substantial political gain would seem dubious.
The Selective Service Act of 1917 was carefully drawn to remedy the defects in the Civil War system and -- by allowing exemptions for dependency, essential occupations, and religious scruples -- to place each man in his proper niche in a national war effort. The act established a "liability for military service of all male citizens ''; authorized a selective draft of all those between 21 and 31 years of age (later from 18 to 45); and prohibited all forms of bounties, substitutions, or purchase of exemptions. Administration was entrusted to local boards composed of leading civilians in each community. These boards issued draft calls in order of numbers drawn in a national lottery and determined exemptions.
In 1917 10 million men were registered. This was deemed to be inadequate, so age ranges were increased and exemptions reduced, and so by the end of 1918 this increased to 24 million men that were registered with nearly 3 million inducted into the military services, with little of the resistance that characterized the Civil War, thanks to a huge campaign by the government to build support for the war, and shut down newspapers and magazines that published articles against the war.
The draft was universal and included blacks on the same terms as whites, although they served in different units. In all 367,710 black Americans were drafted (13.0 % of the total), compared to 2,442,586 white (86.9 %). Along with a general opposition to American involvement in a foreign conflict, Southern farmers objected to unfair conscription practices that exempted members of the upper class and industrial workers.
Draft boards were localized and based their decisions on social class: the poorest were the most often conscripted because they were considered the most expendable at home. African - Americans in particular were often disproportionately drafted, though they generally were conscripted as laborers and not sent into combat to avoid the tensions that would arise from mixing races in military units. Forms of resistance ranged from peaceful protest to violent demonstrations and from humble letter - writing campaigns asking for mercy to radical newspapers demanding reform. The most common tactics were dodging and desertion, and many communities sheltered and defended their draft dodgers as political heroes.
Nearly half a million immigrants were drafted, which forced the military to develop training procedures that took ethnic differences into account. Military leaders invited Progressive reformers and ethnic group leaders to assist in formulating new military policies. The military attempted to socialize and Americanize young immigrant recruits, not by forcing "angloconformity '', but by showing remarkable sensitivity and respect for ethnic values and traditions and a concern for the morale of immigrant troops. Sports activities, keeping immigrant groups together, newspapers in various languages, the assistance of bilingual officers, and ethnic entertainment programs were all employed.
The Conscription Act of 1917 was passed in June. Conscripts were court - martialed by the Army if they refused to wear uniforms, bear arms, perform basic duties, or submit to military authority. Convicted objectors were often given long sentences of 20 years in Fort Leavenworth. In 1918 Secretary Baker created the Board of Inquiry to question the conscientious objectors ' sincerity. Military tribunals tried men found by the Board to be insincere for a variety of offenses, sentencing 17 to death, 142 to life imprisonment, and 345 to penal labor camps.
In 1917, a number of radicals and anarchists, including Emma Goldman, challenged the new draft law in federal court, arguing that it was a direct violation of the Thirteenth Amendment 's prohibition against slavery and involuntary servitude. The Supreme Court unanimously upheld the constitutionality of the draft act in the Selective Draft Law Cases on January 7, 1918. The decision said the Constitution gave Congress the power to declare war and to raise and support armies. The Court, relying partly on Vattel 's The Law of Nations, emphasized the principle of the reciprocal rights and duties of citizens:
It may not be doubted that the very conception of a just government and its duty to the citizen includes the reciprocal obligation of the citizen to render military service in case of need, and the right to compel it. To do more than state the proposition is absolutely unnecessary in view of the practical illustration afforded by the almost universal legislation to that effect now in force.
Conscription was unpopular from left - wing sectors at the start, with many Socialists jailed for "obstructing the recruitment or enlistment service ''. The most famous was Eugene Debs, head of the Socialist Party of America, who ran for president in 1920 from his Atlanta prison cell. He had his sentence commuted to time served and was released on December 25, 1921, by President Warren G. Harding.
The Industrial Workers of the World mobilized to obstruct the war effort through strikes in war - related industries and not registering.
Conscientious objector (CO) exemptions were allowed for the Amish, Mennonites, Quakers, and Church of the Brethren only. All other religious and political objectors were forced to participate. Some 64,700 men claimed conscientious objector status; local draft boards certified 57,000, of whom 30,000 passed the physical and 21,000 were inducted into the U.S. Army. About 80 % of the 21,000 decided to abandon their objection and take up arms, but 3,989 drafted objectors refused to serve. Most belonged to historically pacifist denominations, especially Quakers, Mennonites, and Moravian Brethren, as well as a few Seventh - day Adventists and Jehovah 's Witnesses. About 15 % were religious objectors from non-pacifist churches.
Ben Salmon was a nationally known political activist who encouraged men not to register and personally refused to comply with the draft procedures. He rejected the Army Review Board proposal that he do noncombatant farm work. Sentenced to 25 years in prison, he again refused a proposed desk job. He was pardoned and released in November 1920 with a "dishonorable discharge ''.
The draft ended in 1918 but the Army designed the modern draft mechanism in 1926 and built it based on military needs despite an era of pacifism. Working where Congress would not, it gathered a cadre of officers for its nascent Joint Army - Navy Selective Service Committee, most of whom were commissioned based on social standing rather than military experience. This effort did not receive congressionally approved funding until 1934 when Major General Lewis B. Hershey was assigned to the organization. The passage of a conscription act was opposed by some, including Dorothy Day and George Barry O'Toole, who were concerned that such conscription would not provide adequate protection for the rights of conscientious objectors. However, much of Hershey 's work was codified into law with the Selective Training and Service Act of 1940 (STSA).
By the summer of 1940, as Germany conquered France, Americans adapted to
The World War I system served as a model for that of World War II. The 1940 STSA instituted national conscription in peacetime, requiring registration of all men between 21 and 35, with selection for one year 's service by a national lottery. The term of service was extended by one year in August 1941. After Pearl Harbor the STSA was further amended (December 19, 1941), extending the term of service to the duration of the war and six months and requiring the registration of all men 18 to 64 years of age. In the massive draft of World War II, 49 million men were registered, 36 million classified, and 10 million inducted. President Roosevelt 's signing of the STSA on September 16, 1940, began the first peacetime draft in the United States. It also established the Selective Service System as an independent agency responsible for identifying and inducting young men into military service. Roosevelt named Hershey to head the Selective Service on July 31, 1941, where he remained until 1969. This preparatory act came when other preparations, such as increased training and equipment production, had not yet been approved. Nevertheless, it served as the basis for the conscription programs that would continue to the present. The act set a cap of 900,000 men to be in training at any given time and limited military service to 12 months. An amendment increased this 18 more months in August 1941. Later legislation on December 20, 1942 amended the act to require all men from 18 to 64 to register, with those aged 20 to 44 being able for induction. 18 and 19 year olds were made liable for induction and the upper age limit for the draft was reduced to 37 beginning on November 13, 1942. Service commitments for inductees were set at the length of the war plus six months.
As manpower need increased during World War II, draftees were inducted into the Army, Navy, and Marine Corps. The Navy and Marine Corps enlisted inductees and volunteers under the same service agreements, but with different service obligations, while the Army (and Army Air Forces) placed inductees into a special service component known as the Army of the United States, commonly known as the "AUS ''.
By 1942, the Selective Service System moved away from administrative selection by its more than 6,000 local boards to a system of lottery selection. Rather than filling quotas by local selection, the boards now ensured proper processing of men selected by the national lottery. On December 5, 1942, presidential Executive Order 9279 made it so that men from the ages of 18 to 37 could not voluntarily enlist even if they had not been drafted, providing protection for the nation 's home front manpower pool. Paul V. McNutt, head of the War Manpower Commission, estimated that the changes would increase the ratio of men drafted from one out of nine to one out of five. The commission 's goal was to have nine million men in the armed forces by the end of 1943. This facilitated the massive requirement of up to 200,000 men per month and would remain the standard for the length of the war. The World War II draft operated from 1940 until 1947 when its legislative authorization expired without further extension by Congress. During this time, more than 10 million men had been inducted into military service. With the expiration, no inductions occurred in 1947. However, the SSS remained intact.
Scattered opposition was encountered especially in the northern cities where African - Americans protested the system. The young Nation of Islam was at the forefront, with many Black Muslims jailed for refusing the draft, and their leader Elijah Muhammed was sentenced to federal prison for 5 years for inciting draft resistance. Organized draft resistance also developed in the Japanese American internment camps, where groups like the Heart Mountain Fair Play Committee refused to serve unless they and their families were released. 300 Nisei men from eight of the ten War Relocation Authority camps were arrested and stood trial for felony draft evasion; most were sentenced to federal prison. American Communists also opposed the war until Germany attacked the Soviet Union in June 1941, whereupon they became supporters.
Of the more than 72,000 men registering as conscientious objectors (CO), nearly 52,000 received CO status. Of these, over 25,000 entered the military in noncombatant roles, another 12,000 went to civilian work camps, and nearly 6,000 went to prison. Draft evasion only accounted for about 4 % of the total inducted. About 373,000 alleged evaders were investigated with just over 16,000 being imprisoned.
The second peacetime draft began with passage of the Selective Service Act of 1948 after the STSA expired. The new law required all men, ages 18 to 26, to register. It also created the system for the "Doctor Draft '' aimed at inducting health professionals into military service. Unless otherwise exempted or deferred, these men could be called for up to 21 months of active duty and five years of reserve duty service. Congress further tweaked this act in 1950 although the post -- World War II surplus of military manpower left little need for draft calls until Truman 's declaration of national emergency in December 1950. Only 20,348 men were inducted in 1948 and only 9,781 in 1949.
Between the Korean War 's outbreak in June 1950 and the armistice agreement in 1953, Selective Service inducted over 1.5 million men. Another 1.3 million volunteered, usually choosing the Navy or Air Force. Congress passed the Universal Military Training and Service Act in 1951 to meet the demands of the war. It lowered the induction age to 181⁄2 and extended active - duty service commitments to 24 months. Despite the early combat failures and later stalemate in Korea, the draft has been credited by some as playing a vital role in turning the tide of war. A February 1953 Gallup Poll showed 70 percent of Americans surveyed felt the SSS handled the draft fairly. Notably, Gallup reported that 64 percent of the demographic group including all draft age men (males 21 to 29) believed the draft to be fair.
To increase equity in the system, President Dwight D. Eisenhower signed an executive order on July 11, 1953, that ended the paternity deferment for married men. In large part, the change in the draft served the purposes of the burgeoning Cold War. From a program that had just barely passed congressional muster during the fearful prelude to World War II, a more robust draft continued as fears now focused on the Soviet threat. Nevertheless, some dissenting voices in Congress continued to appeal to the history of voluntary American military service as preferable for a democracy. The Korean War was the first time any form of student deferment was used. During the Korean War a student carrying at least twelve semester hours was spared until the end of his current semester.
The United States breathed easier with the Korean War Armistice on July 27, 1953; however, technology brought new promises and threats. U.S. air and nuclear power fueled the Eisenhower doctrine of "massive retaliation ''. This strategy demanded more machines and fewer foot soldiers, so the draft slipped to the back burner. However, the head of the SSS, Maj. Gen. Hershey, urged caution fearing the conflict looming in Vietnam. In May 1953, he told his state directors to do everything possible to keep SSS alive in order to meet upcoming needs.
Following the 1953 Korean War Armistice, Congress passed the Reserve Forces Act of 1955 with the aim of improving National Guard and federal Reserve Component readiness while also constraining its use by the president. Towards this end, it mandated a six - year service commitment, in a combination of reserve and active duty time, for every line military member regardless of their means of entry. Meanwhile, the SSS kept itself alive by devising and managing a complex system of deferments for a swelling pool of candidates during a period of shrinking requirements. The greatest challenge to the draft came not from protesters but rather lobbyists seeking additional deferments for their constituency groups such as scientists and farmers.
Government leaders felt the potential for a draft was a critical element in maintaining a constant flow of volunteers. On numerous occasions Gen. Hershey told Congress for every man drafted, three or four more were scared into volunteering. Assuming his assessment was accurate, this would mean over 11 million men volunteered for service because of the draft between January 1954 and April 1975.
The policy of using the draft as a club to force "voluntary '' enlistment was unique in U.S. history. Previous drafts had not aimed at encouraging individuals to sign up in order to gain preferential placement or less dangerous postings. However, the incremental buildup of Vietnam without a clear threat to the country bolstered this. Some estimates suggest conscription encompassed almost one - third of all eligible men during the period of 1965 -- 69. This group represented those without exemption or resources to avoid military service. During the active combat phase, the possibility of avoiding combat by selecting their service and military specialty led as many as four out of 11 eligible men to enlist. The military relied upon this draft - induced volunteerism to make its quotas, especially the Army, which accounted for nearly 95 percent of all inductees during Vietnam. For example, defense recruiting reports show 34 % of the recruits in 1964 up to 50 % in 1970 indicated they joined to avoid placement uncertainty via the draft. These rates dwindled to 24 % in 1972 and 15 % in 1973 after the change to a lottery system. Accounting for other factors, it can be argued up to 60 percent of those who served throughout the Vietnam War did so directly or indirectly because of the draft.
In addition, deferments provided an incentive for men to follow pursuits considered useful to the state. This process, known as channeling, helped push men into educational, occupational, and family choices they might not otherwise have pursued. Undergraduate degrees were valued. Graduate work had varying value over time, though technical and religious training received near constant support. War industry support in the form of teaching, research, or skilled labor also received deferred or exempt status. Finally, marriage and family were exempted because of its positive social consequences. This included using presidential orders to extend exemptions again to fathers and others. Channeling was also seen as a means of preempting the early loss of the country 's "best and brightest '' who had historically joined and died early in war.
In the only extended period of military conscription of U.S. males during a major peacetime period, the draft continued on a more limited basis during the late 1950s and early 1960s. While a far smaller percentage of eligible males were conscripted compared to war periods, draftees by law served in the Army for two years. Elvis Presley and Willie Mays were two of the most famous people drafted during this period.
Public protests in the United States were few during the Korean War. However, the percentage of CO exemptions for inductees grew to 1.5 % compared to a rate of just 0.5 % in the past two wars. The Justice Department also investigated more than 80,000 draft evasion cases.
President Kennedy 's decision to send military troops to Vietnam as "advisors '' was a signal that Selective Service Director Lewis B. Hershey needed to visit the Oval Office. From that visit emerged two wishes of JFK with regard to conscription. The first was that the names of married men with children should occupy the very bottom of the callup list. Just above them should be the names of men who are married. This Presidential policy, however, was not to be formally encoded into Selective Service Status. Men who fit into these categories became known as Kennedy Husbands. When President Lyndon Johnson decided to rescind this Kennedy policy, there was a last - minute rush to the altar by thousands of American couples.
Many early rank - and - file anti-conscription protesters had been allied with the National Committee for a SANE Nuclear Policy. The completion in 1963 of a Limited Nuclear Test Ban Treaty left a mass of undirected youth in search of a cause. Syndicated cartoonist Al Capp portrayed them as S.W.I.N.E, (Students Wildly Indignant About Nearly Everything). The catalyst for protest reconnection was the 1964 Gulf of Tonkin Resolution.
Consequently, there was some opposition to the draft even before the major U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War began. The large cohort of Baby Boomers who became eligible for military service during the Vietnam War was responsible for a steep increase in the number of exemptions and deferments, especially for college students. Besides being able to avoid the draft, college graduates who volunteered for military service (primarily as commissioned officers) had a much better chance of securing a preferential posting compared to less - educated inductees.
As U.S. troop strength in South Vietnam increased, more young men were drafted for service there, and many of those still at home sought means of avoiding the draft. Since only 15,000 National Guard and Reserve soldiers were sent to South Vietnam, enlistment in the Guard or the Reserves became a popular means of avoiding serving in a war zone. For those who could meet the more stringent enlistment standards, service in the Air Force, Navy, or Coast Guard was a means of reducing the chances of being killed. Vocations to the ministry and the rabbinate soared, because divinity students were exempt from the draft. Doctors and draft board members found themselves being pressured by relatives or family friends to exempt potential draftees.
The marriage deferment ended suddenly on August 26, 1965. Around 3: 10pm President Johnson signed an order allowing the draft of men who married after midnight that day, then around 5pm he announced the change for the first time.
Some conscientious objectors objected to the war based on the theory of Just War. One of these, Stephen Spiro, was convicted of avoiding the draft, but given a suspended sentence of five years. He was later pardoned by President Gerald Ford.
There were 8,744,000 servicemembers between 1964 and 1975, of whom 3,403,000 were deployed to Southeast Asia. From a pool of approximately 27 million, the draft raised 2,215,000 men for military service (in the United States, South Vietnam, and elsewhere) during the Vietnam War era. The majority of servicemembers deployed to South Vietnam were volunteers, even though hundreds of thousands of men opted to join the Army, Air Force, Navy, and Coast Guard (for three or four year terms of enlistment) rather than risk being drafted, serve for two years, and have no choice over their military occupational specialty (MOS).
Of the nearly 16 million men not engaged in active military service, 57 % were exempted (typically because of jobs including other military service), deferred (usually for educational reasons), or disqualified (usually for physical and mental deficiencies but also for criminal records including draft violations). The requirements for obtaining and maintaining an educational deferment changed several times in the late 1960s. For several years, students were required to take an annual qualification test. In 1967 educational deferments were changed for graduate students. Those starting graduate studies in the fall of 1967 were given two semester deferments becoming eligible in June 1968. Those further along in their graduate study who entered prior to the summer of 1967 could continue to receive a deferment until they completed their studies. Peace Corps Volunteers were no longer given deferments and their induction was left to the discretion of their local boards. However most boards allowed Peace Corps Volunteers to complete their two years assignment before inducting them into the service. On December 1, 1969, a lottery was held to establish a draft priority for all those born between 1944 and 1950. Those with a high number no longer had to be concerned about the draft. Nearly 500,000 men were disqualified for criminal records, but less than 10,000 of them were convicted of draft violations. Finally, as many as 100,000 draft eligible men fled the country.
During the 1968 presidential election, Richard Nixon campaigned on a promise to end the draft. He had first become interested in the idea of an all - volunteer army during his time out of office, based upon a paper by Martin Anderson of Columbia University. Nixon also saw ending the draft as an effective way to undermine the anti-Vietnam war movement, since he believed affluent youths would stop protesting the war once their own probability of having to fight in it was gone. There was opposition to the all - volunteer notion from both the Department of Defense and Congress, so Nixon took no immediate action towards ending the draft early in his presidency.
Instead, the Gates Commission was formed, headed by Thomas S. Gates, Jr., a former Secretary of Defense in the Eisenhower administration. Gates initially opposed the all - volunteer army idea, but changed his mind during the course of the 15 - member commission 's work. The Gates Commission issued its report in February 1970, describing how adequate military strength could be maintained without having conscription. The existing draft law was expiring at the end of June 1971, but the Department of Defense and Nixon administration decided the draft needed to continue for at least some time. In February 1971, the administration requested of Congress a two - year extension of the draft, to June 1973.
Senatorial opponents of the war wanted to reduce this to a one - year extension, or eliminate the draft altogether, or tie the draft renewal to a timetable for troop withdrawal from Vietnam; Senator Mike Gravel of Alaska took the most forceful approach, trying to filibuster the draft renewal legislation, shut down conscription, and directly force an end to the war. Senators supporting Nixon 's war efforts supported the bill, even though some had qualms about ending the draft. After a prolonged battle in the Senate, in September 1971 cloture was achieved over the filibuster and the draft renewal bill was approved. Meanwhile, military pay was increased as an incentive to attract volunteers, and television advertising for the U.S. Army began. With the end of active U.S. ground participation in Vietnam, December 1972 saw the last men conscripted, who were born in 1952 and who reported for duty in June 1973. On February 2, 1972, a drawing was held to determine draft priority numbers for men born in 1953, but in early 1973 it was announced by Secretary of Defense Melvin Laird that no further draft orders would be issued. In March 1973, 1974, and 1975, the Selective Service assigned draft priority numbers for all men born in 1954, 1955, and 1956, in case the draft was extended, but it never was.
Command Sergeant Major Jeff Mellinger, believed to be the last drafted enlisted ranked soldier still on active duty, retired in 2011.
Chief Warrant Officer 5 Ralph E. Rigby, the last Vietnam War - era drafted soldier of Warrant Officer rank, retired from the army in November 10, 2014 after a 42 - year career.
On July 2, 1980, President Carter issued Presidential Proclamation 4771 and re-instated the requirement that young men register with the Selective Service System. At that time it was required that all males, born on or after January 1, 1960, register with the Selective Service System. Those now in this category are male U.S. citizens and male immigrant non-citizens between the ages of 18 and 25, who are required to register within 30 days of their 18th birthday even if they are not eligible to join the military.
The Selective Service System describes its mission as "to serve the emergency manpower needs of the Military by conscripting untrained manpower, or personnel with professional health care skills, if directed by Congress and the President in a national crisis ''. Registration forms are available either online or at any U.S. Post Office.
The Selective Service registration form states that failure to register is a felony punishable by up to five years imprisonment or a $250,000 fine. In practice, no one has been prosecuted for failure to comply with draft registration since 1986, in part because prosecutions of draft resisters proved counter-productive for the government, and in part because of the difficulty of proving that noncompliance with the law was "knowing and wilful ''. In interviews published in U.S. News & World Report in May 2016, current and former Selective Service System officials said that in 1988, the Department of Justice and Selective Service agreed to suspend any further prosecutions of nonregistrants. Many men do not register at all, register late, or change addresses without notifying the Selective Service System. Registration is a requirement for employment by the federal government and some states, as well as for receiving some state benefits such as driver 's licenses. Refusing to register can also cause a loss of eligibility for federal financial aid for college.
On December 1, 1989, Congress ordered the Selective Service System to put in place a system capable of drafting "persons qualified for practice or employment in a health care and professional occupation '', if such a special - skills draft should be ordered by Congress. In response, Selective Service published plans for the "Health Care Personnel Delivery System '' (HCPDS) in 1989 and has had them ready ever since. The concept underwent a preliminary field exercise in Fiscal Year 1998, followed by a more extensive nationwide readiness exercise in Fiscal Year 1999. The HCPDS plans include women and men ages 20 -- 54 in 57 different job categories. As of May 2003, the Defense Department has said the most likely form of draft is a special skills draft, probably of health care workers.
In 1918, the Supreme Court ruled that the World War I draft did not violate the United States Constitution in the Selective Draft Law Cases. The Court summarized the history of conscription in England and in colonial America, a history that it read as establishing that the Framers envisioned compulsory military service as a governmental power. It held that the Constitution 's grant to Congress of the powers to declare war and to create standing armies included the power to mandate conscription. It rejected arguments based on states ' rights, the 13th Amendment, and other provisions of the Constitution.
Later, during the Vietnam War, a lower appellate court also concluded that the draft was constitutional. United States v. Holmes, 387 F. 2d 781 (7th Cir.), cert. denied, 391 U.S. 936 (1968). Justice William O. Douglas, in voting to hear the appeal in Holmes, agreed that the government had the authority to employ conscription in wartime, but argued that the constitutionality of a draft in the absence of a declaration of war was an open question, which the Supreme Court should address.
During the World War I era, the Supreme Court allowed the government great latitude in suppressing criticism of the draft. Examples include Schenck v. United States, 249 U.S. 47 (1919) and Gilbert v. Minnesota, 254 U.S. 325 (1920). In subsequent decades, however, the Court has taken a much broader view of the extent to which advocacy speech is protected by the First Amendment. Thus, in 1971 the Court held it unconstitutional for a state to punish a man who entered a county courthouse wearing a jacket with the words "Fuck the Draft '' visible on it. Cohen v. California, 403 U.S. 15 (1971). Nevertheless, protesting the draft by the specific means of burning a draft registration card can be constitutionally prohibited, because of the government 's interest in prohibiting the "nonspeech '' element involved in destroying the card. United States v. O'Brien, 391 U.S. 367 (1968).
Since the reinstatement of draft registration in 1980, the Supreme Court has heard and decided four cases related to the Military Selective Service Act: Rostker v. Goldberg, 453 U.S. 57 (1981), upholding the Constitutionality of requiring men but not women to register for the draft; Selective Service v. Minnesota Public Interest Research Group (MPIRG), 468 U.S. 841 (1984), upholding the Constitutionality of the first of the federal "Solomon Amendment '' laws, which requires applicants for Federal student aid to certify that they have complied with draft registration, either by having registered or by not being required to register; Wayte v. United States, 470 U.S. 598 (1985), upholding the policies and procedures which the Supreme Court thought the government had used to select the "most vocal '' nonregistrants for prosecution, after the government refused to comply with discovery orders by the trial court to produce documents and witnesses related to the selection of nonregistrants for prosecution; and Elgin v. Department of the Treasury, 567 U.S. ____ (2012), regarding procedures for judicial review of denial of Federal employment for nonregistrants.
In 1981, several men filed lawsuit in the case Rostker v. Goldberg, alleging that the Military Selective Service Act violates the Due Process Clause of the Fifth Amendment by requiring that men only and not also women register with the Selective Service System. The Supreme Court upheld the act, stating that Congress 's "decision to exempt women was not the accidental byproduct of a traditional way of thinking about women '', that "since women are excluded from combat service by statute or military policy, men and women are simply not similarly situated for purposes of a draft or registration for a draft, and Congress ' decision to authorize the registration of only men therefore does not violate the Due Process Clause '', and that "the argument for registering women was based on considerations of equity, but Congress was entitled, in the exercise of its constitutional powers, to focus on the question of military need, rather than ' equity. ' ''
The Rostker v. Goldberg opinion 's dependence upon deference on decision of the executive to exclude women from combat has garnered renewed scrutiny since the Department of Defense announced its decision in January 2013 to do away with most of the federal policies that have kept women from serving in combat roles in ground war situations. Both the U.S. Navy and the U.S. Air Force had by then already opened up virtually all positions in sea and air combat to women. At least two lawsuits have been filed challenging the continued Constitutionality of requiring men but not women to register with the Selective service System: National Coalition for Men v. Selective Service System (filed April 4, 2013, U.S. District Court for the Central District of California; dismissed by the District Court July 29, 2013 as not "ripe '' for decision; appeal argued December 8, 2015 before the 9th Circuit Court of Appeals; reversed and remanded February 19, 2016), and Kyle v. Selective Service System (filed July 3, 2015, U.S. District Court for the District of New Jersey), brought on behalf of Elizabeth Kyle - LaBell, who tried to register but was turned away because she is female.
According to the Selective Service System,
The Supreme Court has ruled in cases United States v. Seeger (1965) and Welsh v. United States (1970) that conscientious objection can be by non-religious beliefs as well as religious beliefs; but it has also ruled in Gillette v. United States (1971) against objections to specific wars as grounds for conscientious objection.
There is currently no mechanism to indicate that one is a conscientious objector in the Selective Service system. According to the SSS, after a person is drafted, he can claim Conscientious Objector status and then justify it before the Local Board. This is criticized because during the times of a draft, when the country is in emergency conditions, there could be increased pressure for Local Boards to be more harsh on conscientious objector claims.
There are two types of status for conscientious objectors. If a person objects only to combat but not to service in the military, then the person could be given noncombatant service in the military without training of weapons. If the person objects to all military service, then the person could be ordered to "alternative service '' with a job "deemed to make a meaningful contribution to the maintenance of the national health, safety, and interest ''.
The poverty draft is a controversial belief in some circles that low - income demographics are either intentionally targeted by the military for recruitment, or that their low socioeconomic status makes enlistment especially attractive, such that they are overrepresented in the armed forces. The "poverty draft '' is a term describing U.S. military recruiters ' purposeful tendency to focus their recruiting efforts on inner - city and poor rural schools. The low - income youth and young people of color who attend these schools generally have fewer good educational and job opportunities than middle - class and wealthy youth and are therefore more likely to enlist. Proponents of the poverty draft view often claim that because of this the U.S. armed forces are disproportionally men and women of color and from poor and working - class backgrounds.
The Selective Service System has maintained that they have implemented several reforms that would make the draft more fair and equitable.
Some of the measures they have implemented include:
The effort to enforce Selective Service registration law was abandoned in 1986. Since then, no attempt to reinstate conscription has been able to attract much support in the legislature or among the public. Since early 2003, when the Iraq War appeared imminent, there had been attempts through legislation and campaign rhetoric to begin a new public conversation on the topic. Public opinion since 1973 has been largely negative.
In 2003, several Democratic congressmen (Charles Rangel of New York, Jim McDermott of Washington, John Conyers of Michigan, John Lewis of Georgia, Pete Stark of California, Neil Abercrombie of Hawaii) introduced legislation that would draft both men and women into either military or civilian government service, should there be a draft in the future. The Republican majority leadership suddenly considered the bill, nine months after its introduction, without a report from the Armed Services Committee (to which it had been referred), and just one month prior to the 2004 presidential and congressional elections. The Republican leadership used an expedited parliamentary procedure that would have required a two - thirds vote for passage of the bill. The bill was defeated on October 5, 2004, with two members voting for it and 402 members voting against.
In 2004, the platforms of both the Democratic and Republican parties opposed military conscription, but neither party moved to end draft registration. John Kerry in one debate criticized Bush 's policies, "You 've got stop - loss policies so people ca n't get out when they were supposed to. You 've got a backdoor draft right now. ''
This statement was in reference to the U.S. Department of Defense use of "stop - loss '' orders, which have extended the Active Duty periods of some military personnel. All enlistees, upon entering the service, volunteer for a minimum eight - year Military Service Obligation (MSO). This MSO is split between a minimum active duty period, followed by a reserve period where enlistees may be called back to active duty for the remainder of the eight years. Some of these active duty extensions have been for as long as two years. The Pentagon stated that as of August 24, 2004, 20,000 soldiers, sailors, airmen, and Marines had been affected. As of January 31, 2006 it has been reported that more than 50,000 soldiers and reservists had been affected.
Despite arguments by defense leaders that they had no interest in re-instituting the draft, Representative Neil Abercrombie 's (D - HI) inclusion of a DOD memo in the Congressional Record which detailed a meeting by senior leaders signaled renewed interest. Though the conclusion of the meeting memo did not call for a reinstatement of the draft, it did suggest Selective Service Act modifications to include registration by women and self - reporting of critical skills that could serve to meet military, homeland - defense, and humanitarian needs. This hinted at more targeted draft options being considered, perhaps like that of the "Doctor Draft '' that began in the 1950s to provide nearly 66 % of the medical professionals who served in the Army in Korea. Once created, this manpower tool continued to be used through 1972. The meeting memo gave DOD 's primary reason for opposing a draft as a matter of cost effectiveness and efficiency. Draftees with less than two years ' retention were said to be a net drain on military resources providing insufficient benefit to offset overhead costs of using them.
Mentions of the draft during the presidential campaign led to a resurgence of anti-draft and draft resistance organizing. One poll of young voters in October 2004 found that 29 % would resist if drafted.
In November 2006, Representative Charles B. Rangel (D - NY) again called for the draft to be reinstated; Speaker of the House Nancy Pelosi rejected the proposal.
On December 19, 2006, President George W. Bush announced that he was considering sending more troops to Iraq. The next day, the Selective Service System 's director for operations and chief information officer, Scott Campbell, announced plans for a "readiness exercise '' to test the system 's operations in 2006, for the first time since 1998.
On December 21, 2006, Veterans Affairs Secretary Jim Nicholson, when asked by a reporter whether the draft should be reinstated to make the military more equal, said, "I think that our society would benefit from that, yes sir. '' Nicholson proceeded to relate his experience as a company commander in an infantry unit which brought together soldiers of different socioeconomic backgrounds and education levels, noting that the draft "does bring people from all quarters of our society together in the common purpose of serving ''. Nicholson later issued a statement saying he does not support reinstating the draft.
On August 10, 2007, with National Public Radio on "All Things Considered '', Lieutenant General Douglas Lute, National Security Adviser to the President and Congress for all matters pertaining to the United States Military efforts in Iraq and Afghanistan, expressed support for a draft to alleviate the stress on the Army 's all - volunteer force. He cited the fact that repeated deployments place much strain upon one soldier 's family and himself which, in turn, can affect retention.
A similar bill to Rangel 's 2003 one was introduced in 2007, called the Universal National Service Act of 2007 (H.R. 393), but it has not received a hearing or been scheduled for consideration.
At the end of June 2014 in Pennsylvania 14,250 letters of conscription were erroneously posted to men born in the 19th century calling upon them to register for the US military draft. This was attributed to a clerk at the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation who failed to select a century during a transfer of 400,000 records to the Selective Service. The Selective Service identified 27,218 records of men born in the 19th century made errantly applicable by the change of century and began sending out notices to them on June 30.
On June 14, 2016, the Senate voted to require women to register for the draft, though language requiring this was dropped from later versions of the bill.
The Selective Service (and the draft) in the United States is not limited to citizens. Howard Stringer, for example, was drafted six weeks after arriving from his native Britain in 1965. Today, non-citizen males of appropriate age in the United States, who are permanent residents (holders of green cards), seasonal agricultural workers not holding an H - 2A Visa, refugees, parolees, asylees, and illegal immigrants, are required to register with the Selective Service System. Refusal to do so is grounds for denial of a future citizenship application. In addition, immigrants who seek to naturalize as citizens must, as part of the Oath of Citizenship, swear to the following:
... that I will bear arms on behalf of the United States when required by the law; that I will perform noncombatant service in the armed forces of the United States when required by the law; that I will perform work of national importance under civilian direction when required by the law;
The United States Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS) website also states however:
However, since 1975, USCIS has allowed the oath to be taken without the clauses: "... that I will bear arms on behalf of the United States when required by law; that I will perform noncombatant service in the Armed Forces of the United States when required by law... ''
Non-citizens who serve in the United States military enjoy several naturalization benefits which are unavailable to non-citizens who do not, such as a waiver of application fees. Permanent resident aliens who die while serving in the U.S. Armed Forces may be naturalized posthumously, which may be beneficial to surviving family members.
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