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when is lizard lick towing coming back on tv | Lick Life - wikipedia
Lick Life (also known simply as Lizard Lick previously known as Lizard Lick Towing) is an American reality television show that originated as a spin - off of the series All Worked Up and ran for four seasons on truTV from February 7, 2011, to August 18, 2014. The show follows Ron and Amy Shirley, Bobby Brantley, and their team of repossession actors in the Raleigh suburb of Wendell, North Carolina, the town that has jurisdiction over the Lizard Lick unincorporated area. The show is known for staged fights and scripted brawls that take place during the carefully choreographed repossessions of vehicles.
It was announced in 2017 that Ronnie Shirley had been approached by UK channel Dave to make a TV series based on Lizard Lick Towing for the UK. The series, called Ronnie 's Redneck Road Trip, will begin airing in the UK April 14, 2017.
It was announced on May 4, 2017 via Lizard Lick Towing Facebook page that a reboot of Lizard Lick Towing is in production as of May 2017. The new series will be titled Lick Life, an air date is yet to be confirmed. The reboot series will follow the same format but will also add new parts to the show as well. Monty Hobbs has signed on to produce Lick Life as well as guest star. Lick Life will be 6 episodes focusing on the Shirleys ' lives with Hobbs brainstorming their creative adventures.
Lizard Lick Towing and Recovery is a local towing and recovery company owned and operated by Lizard Lick Mayor Pro-tem Ronnie Shirley and his wife Amy Shirley.
Ron Shirley started Lizard Lick Towing in 1998 with a single truck, along with his wife Amy Shirley. In 10 years, the company grew to 15 staff members and a fleet of 20 trucks. Bobby Brantley is Ron 's friend and longtime co-worker, who started out as a dissatisfied customer after Ron towed his truck, then began working at Lizard Lick to pay off his debt.
Ron and Amy originally were going to be part of Wife Swap.
According to the local Eastern Wake News, the television series got its start at the end of August 2008, when the station sent a cameraman down for one day of shooting and that was all it took for a contract to be written. Those at the network were merely scouting out prospects at the time, but after realizing Amy Shirley was not only a power lifter, but a mortician and co-owner of the recovery business, they realized there was more color to the picture than originally anticipated. Robyn Hutt, the truTV executive in charge of the show, was quoted by the Raleigh News and Observer "We really fell in love with Lizard Lick ''. The Shirleys are "dynamic and entertaining characters ''.
The first television series following Ronnie and his company operations was All Worked Up. TruTV later developed a new show solely dedicated to the Shirleys. The show premiered on February 7, 2011. The second season debuted on December 5, 2011. The third season premiered on January 21, 2013. The fourth season premiered on December 16, 2013. The series was canceled at the end of the fourth season.
It was announced in 2016 that Ronnie and Amy were in talks about a new TV series after Lizard Lick Towing was cancelled. They announced the new series on Facebook Live but did n't reveal much information due to contracts and rules. On May 4, 2017 the couple did another live stream video all about the new show which was revealed to be titled Lick Life. It 's a soft reboot of Lizard Lick Towing due to the new show having the same format with other Lizard Lick staff towing and repossessing cars. The series began filming in April 2016 and is expected to air in the fall of 2017 or early 2018. An air date is yet to be confirmed.
It was also revealed that Big Juicy would also be returning to the show along side Ronnie and Amy with new cast members to join. It 's unknown whether or not any of the old cast would return to the series.
This is a list of the main cast members and guest stars who have appeared and currently appearing on Lizard Lick Towing & Lick Life.
During the course of the original series, 91 episodes have aired.
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an sds sheet that was created on february 3rd 2013 is considered | Safety data sheet - wikipedia
A safety data sheet (SDS), material safety data sheet (MSDS), or product safety data sheet (PSDS) is an important component of product stewardship, occupational safety and health, and spill - handling procedures. SDS formats can vary from source to source within a country depending on national requirements.
SDSs are a widely used system for cataloging information on chemicals, chemical compounds, and chemical mixtures. SDS information may include instructions for the safe use and potential hazards associated with a particular material or product. The SDS should be available for reference in the area where the chemicals are being stored or in use.
There is also a duty to properly label substances on the basis of physico - chemical, health or environmental risk. Labels can include hazard symbols such as the European Union standard symbols.
A SDS for a substance is not primarily intended for use by the general consumer, focusing instead on the hazards of working with the material in an occupational setting.
It is important to use an SDS specific to both country and supplier, as the same product (e.g. paints sold under identical brand names by the same company) can have different formulations in different countries. The formulation and hazard of a product using a generic name may vary between manufacturers in the same country.
The Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals contains a standard specification for safety data sheets. The SDS follows a 16 section format which is internationally agreed and for substances especially, the SDS should be followed with an Annex which contains the exposure scenarios of this particular substance. The 16 sections are:
In Canada, the program known as the Workplace Hazardous Materials Information System (WHMIS) establishes the requirements for SDSs in workplaces and is administered federally by Health Canada under the Hazardous Products Act, Part II, and the Controlled Products Regulations.
Safety data sheets have been made an integral part of the system of Regulation (EC) No 1907 / 2006 (REACH). The original requirements of REACH for SDSs have been further adapted to take into account the rules for safety data sheets of the Global Harmonised System (GHS) and the implementation of other elements of the GHS into EU legislation that were introduced by Regulation (EC) No 1272 / 2008 (CLP) via an update to Annex II of REACH.
The SDS must be supplied in an official language of the Member State (s) where the substance or mixture is placed on the market, unless the Member State (s) concerned provide (s) otherwise (Article 31 (5) of REACH).
The European Chemicals Agency (ECHA) has published a guidance document on the compilation of safety data sheets.
The German Federal Water Management Act requires that substances be evaluated for negative influence on the physical, chemical or biological characteristics of water. These are classified into numeric water hazard classes (WGK or WHC, depending on whether you use the German or English abbreviation).
This section contributes to a better understanding of the regulations governing SDS within the South African framework. As regulations may change, it is the responsibility of the reader to verify the validity of the regulations mentioned in text.
As globalisation increased and countries engaged in cross-border trade, the quantity of hazardous material crossing international borders amplified. Realising the detrimental effects of hazardous trade, the United Nations established a committee of experts specialising in the transportation of hazardous goods. The committee provides best practises governing the conveyance of hazardous materials and goods for land including road and railway; air as well as sea transportation. These best practises are constantly updated to remain current and relevant.
There are various other international bodies who provide greater detail and guidance for specific modes of transportation such as the International Maritime Organisation (IMO) by means of the International Maritime Code and the International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO) via the Technical Instructions for the safe transport of dangerous goods by air as well as the International Air Transport Association (IATA) who provides regulations for the transport of dangerous goods.
These guidelines prescribed by the international authorities are applicable to the South African land, sea and air transportation of hazardous materials and goods. In addition to these rules and regulations to International best practice, South Africa has also implemented common laws which are laws based on custom and practise. Common laws are a vital part of maintaining public order and forms the basis of case laws. Case laws, using the principles of common law are interpretations and decisions of statutes made by courts. Acts of parliament are determinations and regulations by parliament which form the foundation of statutory law. Statutory laws are published in the government gazette or on the official website. Lastly, subordinate legislation are the bylaws issued by local authorities and authorised by parliament.
Statutory law gives effect to the Occupational Health and Safety Act of 1993 and the National Road Traffic Act of 1996. The Occupational Health and Safety Act details the necessary provisions for the safe handling and storage of hazardous materials and goods whilst the transport act details with the necessary provisions for the transportation of the hazardous goods.
Relevant South African legislation includes the Occupational Health and Safety Act of 1993, the National Road Traffic Act of 1996, and the Standards Act of 2008.
There has been selective incorporation of aspects of the Globally Harmonised System (GHS) of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals into South African legislation. At each point of the chemical value chain, there is a responsibility to manage chemicals in a safe and responsible manner. SDS is therefore required by law. A SDS is included in the requirements of Occupational Health and Safety Act, 1993 (Act No. 85 of 1993) Regulation 1179 dated 25 August 1995.
The categories of information supplied in the SDS are listed in SANS 11014: 2010; dangerous goods standards -- Classification and information. SANS 11014: 2010 supersedes the first edition SANS 11014 - 1: 1994 and is an identical implementation of ISO 11014: 2009. According to SANS 11014: 2010:
Dutch Safety Data Sheets are well known as veiligheidsinformatieblad nl: Veiligheidsinformatieblad or Chemiekaarten. This is a collection of Safety Data Sheets of the most widely used chemicals. The Chemiekaarten boek is commercially available, but also made available through educational institutes, such as the web site offered by the university of Groningen
In the U.K., the Chemicals (Hazard Information and Packaging for Supply) Regulations 2002 - known as CHIP Regulations - impose duties upon suppliers, and importers into the EU, of hazardous materials.
NOTE: Safety data sheets (SDS) are no longer covered by the CHIP regulations. The laws that require a SDS to be provided have been transferred to the European REACH Regulations.
The Control of Substances Hazardous to Health (COSHH) Regulations govern the use of hazardous substances in the workplace in the UK and specifically require an assessment of the use of a substance. Regulation 12 requires that an employer provides employees with information, instruction and training for people exposed to hazardous substances. This duty would be very nearly impossible without the data sheet as a starting point. It is important for employers therefore to insist on receiving a data sheet from a supplier of a substance.
The duty to supply information is not confined to informing only business users of products. SDSs for retail products sold by large DIY shops are usually obtainable on those companies ' web sites.
Web sites of manufacturers and large suppliers do not always include them even if the information is obtainable from retailers but written or telephone requests for paper copies will usually be responded to favourably.
The United Nations (UN) defines certain details used in SDSs such as the UN numbers used to identify some hazardous materials in a standard form while in international transit...
In the U.S., the Occupational Safety and Health Administration requires that SDSs be readily available to all employees for potentially harmful substances handled in the workplace under the Hazard Communication regulation. The SDS is also required to be made available to local fire departments and local and state emergency planning officials under Section 311 of the Emergency Planning and Community Right - to - Know Act. The American Chemical Society defines Chemical Abstracts Service Registry Numbers (CAS numbers) which provide a unique number for each chemical and are also used internationally in SDSs.
Reviews of material safety data sheets by the U.S. Chemical Safety and Hazard Investigation Board have detected dangerous deficiencies.
The board 's Combustible Dust Hazard Study analyzed 140 data sheets of substances capable of producing combustible dusts. None of the SDSs contained all the information the board said was needed to work with the material safely, and 41 percent failed to even mention that the substance was combustible.
As part of its study of an explosion and fire that destroyed the Barton Solvents facility in Valley Center, Kansas, in 2007, the safety board reviewed 62 material safety data sheets for commonly used nonconductive flammable liquids. As in the combustible dust study, the board found all the data sheets inadequate.
In 2012, the US adopted the 16 section Safety Data Sheet to replace Material Safety Data Sheets. This became effective on December 1, 2013. These new Safety Data Sheets comply with the Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labeling of Chemicals (GHS). By June 1, 2015, employers were required to have their workplace labeling and hazard communication programs updated as necessary -- including all MSDSs replaced with SDS - formatted documents.
Many companies offer the service of collecting, or writing and revising, data sheets to ensure they are up to date and available for their subscribers or users. Some jurisdictions impose an explicit duty of care that each SDS be regularly updated, usually every three to five years. However, when new information becomes available, the SDS must be revised without delay.
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who sings once twice three times a lady | Three Times a Lady - wikipedia
"Three Times a Lady '' is a song by American soul group the Commodores, from their 1978 album Natural High. It was produced by James Anthony Carmichael and the Commodores. It was also the only Motown song to reach the Top 10 on the US Billboard Hot 100 that year and the Commodores 's first Billboard Hot 100 number - one hit, topping the chart for two weeks on August 12, 1978 and also went to number one on the soul chart for two weeks. The song spent three weeks at # 1 on the adult contemporary chart.
The song also reached # 1 on the Canadian RPM Singles Chart for four weeks, and was one of only a few Motown singles to reach the top spot in the UK Singles Chart, staying there for five weeks. The song was also successful in Ireland, staying at # 1 in the charts for three consecutive weeks. It was # 1 in Australia for five weeks, and reached # 2 in New Zealand.
The original Commodores ' version of the song was included as the final track on Lionel Richie 's greatest hits compilation album Back To Front, released in 1992.
In an appearance on The Early Show on June 12, 2009, Lionel Richie said he was inspired to write the song because of a comment his father made about his mother. His father said to his mother "I love you. I want you. I need you. Forever '' hence the three times a lady.
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who does ann from parks and rec marry | Ann Perkins - wikipedia
Ann Meredith Perkins, RN (born July 21, 1976 and portrayed by Rashida Jones) is a fictional character in the NBC comedy Parks and Recreation. She is a nurse and Leslie Knope 's best friend.
At the start of the series, Ann Perkins was dating Andy Dwyer, her live - in boyfriend. Ann matured faster than Andy did and, while Ann entered into a career in nursing, Andy remained lazy, spoiled, and unemployed. After Andy falls into a large pit next to her house and breaks his legs, Ann is inspired to attend Parks and Recreation meetings to advocate for filling in the pit, which leads Ann to befriend the department 's deputy director Leslie Knope. Eventually, after Andy 's leg casts are removed, Ann learns he could have taken them off weeks prior, but did not because he enjoyed being pampered and spoiled by Ann. This leads to an angry confrontation, and eventually the two break up, much to Andy 's despair.
After Andy, Pawnee city planner Mark fell into the construction pit (at the end of season one) and is nursed by Ann during his time at the hospital. The two develop a romantic interest in each other and start dating only after Leslie, who previously harbored feelings for Mark, assures Ann she is fine with the pairing. At first, Ann seems to be happy with Mark, but as time goes on, she starts getting bored having a normal and healthy relationship, remembering that her relationship with Andy, while terrible, was more interesting. Furthermore, she shows a hint of jealousy toward Andy 's budding relationship with April. However, she continues to date Mark unsure of what her true feelings are for him. Yet, when Mark attempts to propose to her, she realises that her feelings for Mark have left and wants to be with Andy. She and Mark break up, and Mark leaves his government job to work in the private sector. In the season finale episode, after Andy crashes his motorcycle, Ann kisses him while nursing him at the hospital. On another night, she gets drunk and kisses state auditor Chris Traeger, which prompts him to continually ask her out on a date, which invitations she declines because she is put off by his excessive positivity.
Ann continues to be asked out by Chris but continually declines. Leslie sees an opportunity to utilize Chris ' positivity to bring more funds into the Parks Department by having Ann bring it up on a date. While out, Ann learns of the reason for Chris ' positivity: he had a rare blood disorder and was expected to die as a baby, and so he is happy to still be alive many years later; as a result, she takes a genuine liking to him. Their date is ruined when both Leslie and Ben crash it, and Leslie accidentally reveals the motive behind the date. Ann later apologizes to Chris and asks him out on another date, and the two soon enter into a relationship. Initially, Ann was intimidated by Chris ' intensity, calling him "the perfect human man ''. But after he is incapacitated by a serious flu virus and so drops his appearance of perfection, Ann relaxes. After a few weeks of dating Ann is infatuated enough with Chris to have no issues with the idea of leaving Pawnee and following him to Indianapolis. When the two discuss the issue of a long distance relationship or the notion of Ann 's moving with him, Ann believes that things are a bit cleared up although she came up with no definite solution on the issue. Ann later tells Leslie Chris became distant after their "talk '', which prompts Leslie to search his house for items that could suggest his infidelity, when she and Ron visit his house in Indianapolis. There, she finds a pink razor and pink swim cap, and calls Ann about it. Ann then storms into Chris ' house drilling him about whether he is cheating on her, only to find out that he had actually broken up with her in their conversation the week before; Ann did not realize he had dumped her, because Chris was so cheerful about it, and Ann had never been dumped in her life before that point. (The razor and swim cap both actually belonged to Chris.) Ann is shown to be emotionally affected by the break up, and she begins engaging in impulsive behaviors, such as dyeing part of her hair red and making out with a patient during the Harvest Festival. When Chris returns to Pawnee as the temporary city manager, the two of them discuss their relationship over dinner, where Ann is fooled again by his positive attitude into thinking their relationship is back on. In order to cope, she decides to start dating again, which causes her to be more distant from Leslie. Leslie, in response, recommends her as the new Health Department public relations director. Ann ends up taking the job part - time so she can still be a nurse at the hospital.
In season four, Ann moves on from Chris after they shoot a PSA. Ann gets closer to Ron and April after she tells them a disgusting medical story. This results from several failed attempts to engage in small talk, over fact - checking Leslie 's book. Ann is again a big supporter in Leslie and Ben getting back together. She also agrees to help Leslie with her campaign and temporarily became her campaign manager. In Operation Ann, Leslie tries to help Ann meet a date. She ends up going out with Tom Haverford, even though almost everything he does frustrates her and they frequently break up. On election night, a drunken Ann agrees to move in with Tom.
In season five, Ann and Tom have moved in together. Despite realizing, within two days, that it was a mistake, they stay together to thwart their co-workers ' expectations that it would n't last, and so Tom wo n't lose his $1,000 bet with Donna. They publicly break up when Donna tells them she knows the truth and lets Tom off the hook.
Ann decides she wants to have a child and begins the process of fertilization, asking Chris Traeger to father her child. Chris accepts her offer in the episode "Bailout ''. Ann and April 's friendship expands this season, culminating in a hug and an admission on April 's part that she considers Ann a friend.
In the season six premiere, Ann reveals that she is back together with Chris, and she is pregnant.
In the episode "New Beginnings '', Chris and Ann briefly get engaged but decide that they do n't need to be married since they 're both happy with their relationship. They also learn they 're having a boy.
Chris and Ann decide to move to Ann Arbor, Michigan, as Chris is offered a job at the University of Michigan coupled with their desire to be closer to Ann 's family, who reside in Michigan. Upon hearing the news, Leslie decides to throw Ann a goodbye party and start groundbreaking on "Pawnee Commons '', the lot that was a pit at the start of the series, which Leslie vowed to turn into a park. On Ann and Chris ' final day in Pawnee, Ann tells Leslie she will always be her best friend and invites her to come and visit, then she and Chris leave Pawnee for good.
On "Galentine 's Day '', Ann hangs up on Leslie from their scheduled phone call. Leslie later finds out that Ann did this because she was in labor and did n't want Leslie to drop everything to come see her. Ann is later visited by Leslie at the hospital, and she is seen holding her newborn son Oliver Perkins - Traeger. Chris is not featured in the episode because he was asked to be the birthing coach for another patient, since he did such a great job with Ann.
Ann and Chris, now married, return for a guest appearance in the series finale in order to advise Leslie in 2025. It is revealed that after Oliver, the couple had a second child, a daughter named Leslie.
While in early stages of developing Parks and Recreation, Greg Daniels and Michael Schur had been considering ideas for a possible show involving Rashida Jones before the concept of the series was even established. Both Daniels and Schur had worked with Jones on the Daniels - created NBC comedy series, The Office, in which Jones played the character Karen Filippelli. It was only after Amy Poehler was cast as protagonist Leslie Knope that the concept of the show and Ann 's character were fully developed. While most of the Parks and Recreation character work for the local Pawnee government, Ann Perkins was initially conceived as a political outsider who became indirectly involved in municipal government and, in Schur 's words, "got drawn into Leslie 's world ''.
Ann Perkins appeared in every episode of Parks and Recreation until Season 6, except for "Woman of the Year '', which she missed because she was filming scenes for the David Fincher film The Social Network (2010). Her last name was inspired by Nancy Perkins, one of the casting directors who worked on the show. In crafting the Ann Perkins character, the staff were drawn to the idea of building a show around a female relationship, namely Ann and Leslie Knope 's.
While most reviewers have praised Rashida Jones ' performance, the character of Ann Perkins initially received mixed reviews from critics. Ann often serves as a straight man to the other characters, particularly Leslie Knope, and some reviewers have said Rashida Jones ' talent has been under - utilized in the role. Steve Heisler of The A.V. Club wrote, "While I like Rashida Jones in the part, her character usually does best when she 's got some wacky person to play off of. '' Entertainment Weekly writer Hillary Busis said, "Even Parks and Rec lovers often agree that Rashida Jones 's character can seem, well, kind of boring. '' Matt Fowler of IGN wrote, "Ann is n't necessarily the funniest character on the show, to say the least '', but he said she is capable of being very humorous, adding: "Rashida Jones is sexy and funny, but a lot of her humor is subtle and thankless. '' New York magazine writer Steve Kandell said he did not believe the Ann character was necessary for the show because she was too far removed from the other characters. He added, "The Parks and Recreation writers are the smartest in the business, and even they seem at a loss as to what to do with Ann Perkins. '' However, Los Angeles Times reporter Robert Lloyd said he felt Jones and Amy Poehler had a good comedic rhythm with each other, and The Atlantic writer Scott Meslow said Jones has a "natural comic sensibility '' who rarely gets the best material due to her straight man role. Television columnist Alan Sepinwall said Jones not only plays a good straight man, but particularly excels in bringing the best comedic potential out of her fellow cast members. The character was listed in Wetpaint 's "10 Hottest TV Nurses ''.
Many reviewers were critical of the pairing of Mark and Ann, feeling the couple lacked chemistry and were often the least funny parts of the individual episodes. Entertainment Weekly writer Margaret Lyons called Mark and Ann the show 's "Achilles ' heel '', and Sandra Gonzalez, also from Entertainment Weekly, wrote, "No matter what they do with these two, I ca n't help but be bored. '' Alan Sepinwall said the relationship was ineffective because both Mark and Ann are "straight man '' characters, and he called the pairing one of the few mistakes of the second season. In his review of "94 Meetings '', in which Mark discusses his intentions to marry Ann, Leonard Pierce of The A.V. Club wrote of the couple, "their scenes just seemed to lay there and die: action was set up but never resolved, and the deferral contained no laughs to compensate for the dramatic fizzle ''. Matt Fowler of IGN called the pairing one of the "lesser elements '' of the second season, but said it had more to do with Mark than Ann: "Mark just wound up feeling extraneous, (but) I can also appreciate the nuanced realism of Ann just realizing that she was n't ultimately that ' into him ' as a way to break them up. ''
Ann would receive much more positive reviews in the later seasons. Many reviewers claimed Ann 's relationship with Chris in the third season was a major improvement, with several writing that Chris ' near - perfection took the normally composed Ann out of her comfort zone, giving Rashida Jones more comedic material to work with. Several commentators felt Ann 's character in general saw major improvements during the third season, such as in subplots where she started acting eccentricly after her break - up with Chris, or her phase of dating several random men. Steve Heisler of The A.V. Club wrote that by the middle of the third season, "Ann 's character defies all the expectations heaped on her from two previous seasons ''. Eric Sundermann of Hollywood.com wrote: "Rashida Jones has n't been given too much opportunity to shine within the ensemble, so pushing her off the deep - end seems to be a good decision. Jones is a really funny actress if given the right material, and it 's quickly becoming apparent that the ' crazy, almost slutty ' approach is one that works in a comedic way for her very, very well. '' Matt Fowler of IGN wrote, "While Ann still is n't the best of the bunch as far as characters go, she was able to be a part of more great scenes this year by getting paired up with Chris in the first half of the season and getting to have some great moments of drunken anger in ' The Fight '. '' Several reviews also praised the pairing of Ann and Donna Meagle, who gives her dating advice in the episode "Harvest Festival '' and "April and Andy 's Fancy Party ''.
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what are the largest states in the us by population | List of U.S. States and territories by population - wikipedia
As of April 1, 2010, the date of the 2010 United States Census, the nine most populous U.S. states contain slightly more than half of the total population. The 25 least populous states contain less than one - sixth of the total population. California, the most populous state, contains more people than the 21 least populous states combined.
The United States Census counts most persons residing in the United States including citizens, non-citizen permanent residents, and non-citizen long - term visitors. Civilian and military federal employees serving abroad and their dependents are counted in their home state.
Based on data from the decennial census, each state is allocated a proportion of the 435 seats in the United States House of Representatives, although each state is guaranteed a minimum of one seat, regardless of population. This apportionment is based on the proportion of each state 's population to that of the Fifty States together (without regard to the populations of the District of Columbia, the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico or other U.S. dependencies). The Electoral College is the body that, every four years, elects the President and Vice President of the United States. Each state 's representation in the Electoral College is equal to that state 's total number of members in both houses of the United States Congress. The Twenty - third Amendment to the United States Constitution effectively grants the District of Columbia, which is separate from any state, three votes. More precisely, the district gets as many votes in the Electoral College as it would have if it were a state, with the caveat that the district can have no more votes than the least populous state (which is currently Wyoming). Currently, this caveat is a moot point since the District would only be entitled to one Representative if it were a state, and is more populous than only two of the seven states with a single member in the House since 2013. Since the Constitution guarantees every state at least one Representative and guarantees every state two Senators, it effectively guarantees every state (and, since the ratification of the 23rd Amendment, the District of Columbia) at least three electoral votes. Thus, the total representation in the College is 538 members (equal to 100 senators plus 435 representatives, plus 3 members for the District of Columbia).
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who played captain carl on pee wee's playhouse | Pee - wee 's Playhouse - wikipedia
Pee - wee 's Playhouse is an American children 's television program starring Paul Reubens as the childlike Pee - wee Herman which ran from 1986 to 1990 on Saturday mornings on CBS, and airing in reruns until July 1991. The show was developed from Reubens ' popular stage show and the TV special The Pee - wee Herman Show, produced for HBO, which was similar in style but featured much more adult humor.
In 2004 and 2007, Pee - wee 's Playhouse was ranked # 10 and # 12 on TV Guide 's Top Cult Shows Ever.
The Pee - wee Herman character was developed by Reubens into a live stage show entitled The Pee - wee Herman Show in 1980. It featured many characters that would go on to appear in Playhouse, including Captain Carl, Jambi the Genie, Miss Yvonne, Pterri the Pterodactyl and Clocky. While enjoying continuous popularity with the show, Reubens teamed with young director Tim Burton in 1985 to make the comedy film Pee - wee 's Big Adventure. It became one of the year 's surprise hits, costing a relatively modest $6 million to make but taking in $45 million at the box office.
After seeing the success of Pee - wee 's Big Adventure, the CBS network approached Reubens with an ill - received cartoon series proposal. In 1986, CBS agreed to sign Reubens to act, produce and direct his own live - action Saturday morning children 's program, Pee - wee 's Playhouse, with a budget of $325,000 per episode, (comparable to that of a half - hour prime - time sitcom) and full creative control (although CBS did request a few minor changes over the years).
Reubens assembled a supporting troupe that included ex-Groundlings and cast members from The Pee - wee Herman Show, including Phil Hartman, John Paragon, Lynne Marie Stewart, Laurence Fishburne and S. Epatha Merkerson. Production began in New York City in the summer of 1986 in a converted loft on Broadway, which one of the show 's writers, George McGrath, described as a "sweatshop ''. Reubens moved the production to Los Angeles for season two in 1987, resulting in a new set and a more relaxed work atmosphere.
Playhouse was designed as an educational yet entertaining and artistic show for children, and its conception was greatly influenced by 1950s shows Reubens had watched as a child, like The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, The Mickey Mouse Club, Captain Kangaroo, and Howdy Doody. The show quickly acquired a dual audience of kids and grownups. Reubens, always trying to make of Pee - wee a positive role model, sought to make a significantly moral show that would teach children the ethics of reciprocity. Reubens believed that children liked the Playhouse because it was fast - paced, colorful and "never talked down to them '', while parents liked the Playhouse because it reminded them of the past.
The premise of the show was that host Pee - wee Herman went to play in a fantastic house (situated in Puppetland) known as the Playhouse, which was filled with toys, gadgets, talking furniture and appliances (e.g., Magic Screen and Chairy) and puppet characters such as Conky The Robot, Pterri the baby Pteranodon and Jambi the Genie (John Paragon), a disembodied genie 's head who lives in a jeweled box. The Playhouse was also visited by a regular cast of human characters, including Miss Yvonne (Lynne Marie Stewart), Reba The Mail Lady (S. Epatha Merkerson), Captain Carl (Phil Hartman), Cowboy Curtis (Laurence Fishburne) and a small group of children, The Playhouse Gang.
Although primarily a live - action comedy, each episode included segments featuring puppetry, video animation and prepared sequences using Chroma - key and stock footage, e.g., when Pee - wee jumps into the Magic Screen, as well as inserted clay animation sequences (some made by Aardman Animations, who would late make Wallace & Gromit) and excerpts from cartoons from the Golden Age of American animation, usually presented by the character "The King of Cartoons ''. Each episode also featured specially written soundtrack music by noted rock / pop musicians such as Mark Mothersbaugh (Devo), Todd Rundgren, Mitchell Froom and The Residents. The show 's theme song performance was credited to "Ellen Shaw '', though in her autobiography, Cyndi Lauper admits to being the actual singer.
Each episode usually contained a running gag particular to that episode, and / or a specific event or dilemma that would send Pee - wee into an emotional frenzy. The show had many recurring gags, themes, and devices. For example, at the beginning of each episode, viewers were told the day 's "secret word '' (often issued by Conky the Robot) and were instructed to "scream real loud '' every time a character on the show said the word. Pee - wee would often say the word himself at the end of the episode, just before launching himself and his little scooter out of the playhouse through a hidden exit. During the closing credits, images of him were chroma - keyed together with footage of various roads and highways to make it appear that he was traveling along them.
CBS and Reubens mutually agreed to end the show at the end of the 1990 - 91 season after 5 seasons and 45 episodes. The last original episode aired on November 17, 1990. In July 1991, Reubens was arrested for exposing himself in a Sarasota, Florida adult movie theater, prompting CBS to immediately stop airing its Playhouse re-runs, which were originally intended to air until Fall of that year. The show was replaced by reruns of The Adventures of Raggedy Ann and Andy.
The creative design of the show was concocted by a troupe of artists including Wayne White, Gary Panter, Craig Bartlett, Richard Goleszowski, Gregory Harrison, Ric Heitzman, and Phil Trumbo. The first day of production, right as Panter began reading the scripts to find out where everything would be situated, set workers hurriedly asked him, "Where 's the plans? All the carpenters are standing here ready to build everything. '' Panter responded, "You just have to give us 15 minutes to design this thing! '' When asked about the styles that went into the set design, Panter said, "This was like the hippie dream... It was a show made by artists... We put art history all over the show. It 's really like... I think Mike Kelley said, and it 's right, that it 's kind of like the Googie style - it 's like those LA types of coffee shops and stuff but kind of psychedelic, over-the - top. '' Several artistic filmmaking techniques were featured on the program including chroma key, stop - motion animation, and clay animation.
The music for the show was provided by a diverse set of musicians, including Mark Mothersbaugh, The Residents, Todd Rundgren, Danny Elfman (who provided the score for both of the Pee - wee movies), Mitchell Froom, Van Dyke Parks, George S. Clinton and Dweezil Zappa with Scott Thunes (spelled ' Tunis ' in the credits).
Mothersbaugh, who later went on to become a fixture in composing music for children 's shows like Rugrats, joined the show on hiatus from recording with Devo:
Pee - wee 's Playhouse was really chaotic. They 'd send me the tape from New York on Tuesday. I 'd watch it Tuesday night; Wednesday I 'd write the music. Thursday I 'd record the music, it 'd go out Thursday night to them, they 'd have Friday to cut it into the picture, and then Saturday we 'd watch it on TV. And it was like really fast, and instead of writing an album once a year I was writing an album 's worth of music once a week, and it was really exciting. It was a new experience and it was a different creative process.
The opening prelude theme is an interpretation of Les Baxter 's "Quiet Village ''. The theme song, which originally followed the prelude, was performed by Cyndi Lauper (credited as "Ellen Shaw ''), imitating Betty Boop.
For the final season in 1990, a new version of the prelude theme was recorded, and the opening theme was slightly edited. This plastered the season 2 opening on the season 4 episodes in all post-1990 airings and video releases.
Many now - well - known TV and film actors appeared on the show, including Sandra Bernhard, Laurence Fishburne, Phil Hartman, Natasha Lyonne, S. Epatha Merkerson, Jimmy Smits, and Lynne Stewart. Future heavy metal musician and filmmaker Rob Zombie was also a production assistant, and future filmmaker John Singleton was a security guard.
Season 3 (which consisted of only three episodes) included an all - star Christmas special featuring the regular cast, with appearances by Annette Funicello, Frankie Avalon, Magic Screen 's Cousin played by Magic Johnson, Dinah Shore, Joan Rivers, Zsa Zsa Gabor, Oprah, Whoopi Goldberg, Little Richard, Cher, Charo, k.d. lang, the Del Rubio triplets, and Grace Jones.
William H. Marshall (subsequent seasons)
(first season only)
At the start of season two, the show moved from its New York City warehouse studio to facilities at the Hollywood Center Studios, creating changes in personnel and a change to the set that allowed the show to take advantage of the additional space. The show changed production facilities again in 1989 during its fourth season, this time at the Culver Studios, also in Los Angeles.
As soon as it first aired, Pee - wee 's Playhouse fascinated media theorists and commentators, many of whom championed the show as a postmodernist hodgepodge of characters and situations which appeared to soar in the face of domineering racist and sexist presumptions. For example, Pee - wee 's friends, both human and not, were of diverse cultural and racial origins. In its entire run, Pee - wee 's Playhouse won 15 Emmys, as well as other awards. Captain Kangaroo 's Bob Keeshan hailed the show 's "awesome production values ''. Adding, "with the possible exception of the Muppets, you ca n't find such creativity anywhere on TV. ''
"I 'm just trying to illustrate that it 's okay to be different -- not that it 's good, not that it 's bad, but that it 's all right. I 'm trying to tell kids to have a good time and to encourage them to be creative and to question things, '' Reubens told an interviewer in Rolling Stone.
On November 1, 2011, in commemoration of the 25th anniversary of the show, a book by Caseen Gaines called Inside Pee - wee 's Playhouse: The Untold, Unauthorized, and Unpredictable Story of a Pop Phenomenon, was released by ECW Press.
During the show 's run, many cartoons were shown from the "Golden Age '' of animation, usually courtesy of the King of Cartoons. However, they were not featured with their respective titles, nor credited, and generally only brief clips were shown. As Reubens stated in a 2004 radio interview, almost all of the cartoons they obtained were in the public domain.
* These episodes had more than one classic cartoon each
Hi - Tops Video releases Vol. 1 - Ice Cream Soup Vol. 2 - Luau for Two Vol. 3 - Rainy Day / Now You See Me, Now You Do n't / Cowboy Fun (Just Another Day) Vol. 4 - Beauty Makeover Vol. 5 - Restaurant Vol. 6 - Ants in Your Pants Vol. 7 - Monster in the Playhouse Festival of Fun - The Gang 's All Here / Stolen Apples / Party / The Cowboy and the Cowntess / Monster in the Playhouse Vol. 8 - Open House Vol. 9 - Puppy in the Playhouse Vol. 10 - Pajama Party Vol. 11 - Pee - wee 's Store Vol. 12 - Pee - wee Catches a Cold Vol. 13 - Tons of Fun Pee - wee 's Playhouse Christmas Special Vol. 14 - School Vol. 15 - Why Was n't I Invited?
Hi - Tops Video laserdisc releases Fun - o-Rama - Ice Cream Soup / Luau for Two / Rainy Day / Now You See Me, Now You Do n't Potpurri - Just Another Day / Beauty Makeover / The Restaurant / Ants in Your Pants Pee - wee 's Playhouse Christmas Special (Also released by MGM / UA Home Video in 1996)
MGM / UA Home Video Releases Vol. 1 - Open House / Pee - wee Catches a Cold Vol. 2 - I Remember Curtis / Conky 's Breakdown Vol. 3 - Store / Playhouse in Outer Space Vol. 4 - Pajama Party / To Tell the Tooth Vol. 5 - The Gang 's All Here / Party Vol. 6 - Luau for Two / Now You See Me, Now You Do n't Vol. 7 - Fire in the Playhouse / Love That Story Vol. 8 - Sick? Did Somebody Say Sick? / Miss Yvonne 's Visit Pee - wee 's Playhouse Christmas Special Vol. 9 - Dr. Pee - wee and the Del Rubios / Rebarella Vol. 10 - Let 's Play Office / Mystery Vol. 11 - Front Page Pee - wee / Tango Time Vol. 12 - Playhouse Day / Accidental Playhouse Vol. 13 - Ice Cream Soup / Puppy in the Playhouse Vol. 14 - The Cowboy and the Cowntess / Reba Eats and Pterri Runs Vol. 15 - Tons of Fun / School Vol. 16 - Why Was n't I Invited? / Ants in Your Pants
Image Entertainment has released all 45 episodes of Pee - wee 's Playhouse on DVD as NTSC Region 0 discs.
On July 3, 2013, Shout! Factory announced that they had acquired the rights to the entire series from Paul Reubens, which was released on Blu - ray on October 21, 2014. In addition, the entire series was digitally remastered from the original 35mm film elements and original audio tracks.
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who plays in its a boy girl thing | Stranger Things - wikipedia
Stranger Things is an American science fiction - horror web television series created, written, directed and co-executive produced by the Duffer Brothers, as well as co-executive produced by Shawn Levy and Dan Cohen. The first season, released in July 2016, stars Winona Ryder, David Harbour, Finn Wolfhard, Millie Bobby Brown, Gaten Matarazzo, Caleb McLaughlin, Natalia Dyer, Charlie Heaton, Cara Buono and Matthew Modine, with Noah Schnapp and Joe Keery in recurring roles. For the second season, Schnapp and Keery were promoted to series regulars, along with the additions of Sadie Sink, Dacre Montgomery, Sean Astin and Paul Reiser.
Set in the fictional town of Hawkins, Indiana in the 1980s, the first season focuses on the investigation into the disappearance of a young boy amid supernatural events occurring around the town including the appearance of a girl with psychokinetic abilities who helps the missing boy 's friends in their own search. The second season, titled Stranger Things 2, is set a year after the first, and deals with attempts of the characters to return to normal and consequences from that season.
The Duffer Brothers developed the series as a mix of investigative drama alongside supernatural elements with childlike sensibilities, establishing its time frame in the 1980s and creating a homage to pop culture of that decade. Several themes and directorial aspects were inspired and aesthetically informed by the works of Steven Spielberg, John Carpenter, and Stephen King, among others.
The first season was released on Netflix on July 15, 2016. It received critical acclaim for its characterization, pacing, atmosphere, acting, soundtrack, directing, writing, and homages to 1980s genre films. The series has received several industry nominations and awards, including winning the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series in 2016, and receiving eighteen nominations for the 69th Primetime Emmy Awards, including Outstanding Drama Series. On August 31, 2016, Netflix renewed the series for a second season of nine episodes, which was released on October 27, 2017. The Duffer Brothers have confirmed that the series will continue with a third season, pursuing a desire to conclude Stranger Things with a fourth or fifth season.
Stranger Things is set in the fictional rural town of Hawkins, Indiana, during the early 1980s. The nearby Hawkins National Laboratory ostensibly performs scientific research for the United States Department of Energy, but secretly does experiments into the paranormal and supernatural, including those that involve human test subjects. Inadvertently, they have created a portal to an alternate dimension called "the Upside Down ''. The influence of the Upside Down starts to affect the unknowing residents of Hawkins in calamitous ways.
The first season begins in November 1983, when Will Byers is abducted by a creature from the Upside Down. His mother, Joyce, and the town 's police chief, Jim Hopper, search for Will. At the same time, a young psychokinetic girl called Eleven escapes from the laboratory and assists Will 's friends, Mike, Dustin, and Lucas, in their own efforts to find Will. The second season is set a year later, starting in October 1984. Will had been rescued, but few know of the details of the events. When Will is found to be still influenced by entities from the Upside Down, his friends and family learn there is a larger threat to their universe from the Upside Down.
Executive producer Shawn Levy cameos as a morgue worker.
Stranger Things was created by Matt and Ross Duffer, known professionally as the Duffer Brothers. The two had completed writing and producing their 2015 film Hidden, which they had tried to emulate the style of M. Night Shyamalan, however, due to changes at Warner Bros., its distributor, the film did not see a wide release and the Duffers were unsure of their future. To their surprise, television producer Donald De Line approached them, impressed with Hidden 's script, and offered them the opportunity to work on episodes of Wayward Pines alongside Shyamalan. The brothers were mentored by Shyamalan during the episode 's production, so that when they finished, they felt they were ready to produce their own television series.
The Duffer Brothers prepared a script that would essentially be similar to the series ' actual pilot episode, along with a 20 - page pitch book to help shop the series around for a network. They pitched the story to a number of cable networks, all of which rejected the script on the basis that they felt a plot centered around children as leading characters would not work, asking them to make it a children 's show or to drop the children and focus on Hopper 's investigation in the paranormal. In early 2015, Dan Cohen, the VP of 21 Laps Entertainment, brought the script to his colleague Shawn Levy. They subsequently invited the Duffer Brothers to their office and purchased the rights for the series, giving full authorship of it to the brothers. After reading the pilot, the streaming service Netflix purchased the whole season for an undisclosed amount; the show was subsequently announced for a planned 2016 release by Netflix in early April 2015. The Duffer Brothers stated that at the time they had pitched to Netflix, the service had already gotten recognized for its original programming, such as House of Cards and Orange Is the New Black, with well - recognized producers behind them, and were ready to start giving upcoming producers like them a chance. The brothers started to write out the series and brought Levy and Cohen in as executive producers to start casting and filming.
The series was originally known as Montauk, as the setting of the script was in Montauk, New York and nearby Long Island locations. The brothers had chosen Montauk as it had further Spielberg ties with the film Jaws, where Montauk was used for the fictional setting of Amity Island. After deciding to change the narrative of the series to take place in the fictional town of Hawkins instead, the brothers felt they could now do things to the town, such as placing it under quarantine, that they really could not envision with a real location. With the change in location, they had to come up with a new title for the series under direction from Netflix 's Ted Sarandos so that they could start marketing it to the public. The brothers started by using a copy of Stephen King 's Firestarter novel to consider the title 's font and appearance, and came up with a long list of potential alternatives. Stranger Things came about as it sounded similar to another King novel, Needful Things, though Matt noted they still had a "lot of heated arguments '' over this final title.
With the critical success of the first season after its release in July 2016, speculation on a possible second season was raised. By the end of July, the Duffer Brothers had outlined a plan for such a season if it was green - lit, and Netflix 's CEO Reed Hastings said in early August that the company "would be dumb not to '' renew Stranger Things for a second season. On August 31, 2016, Netflix announced it had renewed Stranger Things for a second season of nine episodes, to be released in 2017. The Duffer Brothers revealed that the series had been renewed for a second season before the first premiered. Regarding the decision to wait more than a month after the first season premiered to announce the renewal, Matt Duffer said, "it actually ended up working because it had built up to this fever pitch. I guess that 's what (Netflix) were intending to do all the time. ''
The Duffers wrote the second season to make the combined first and second season feel like a complete work, but setting elements in place to go forward with additional seasons if they are green - lit. While most of the story for the second season had been decided before the first season aired, the Duffers took in the audience reactions from the first season to adjust some of the details within the second season. They knew they would not have the same element of audience surprise as when the show aired anew, and were aware fans wanted to see certain elements, but Ross said "... the point is not to give everyone what they think they want. Because I do n't think they really know what they want. '' The Duffers felt that the second season should be treated more as a sequel rather than a continuation, and thus have opted to call the second Stranger Things 2. This approach had some trepidation from Netflix, since the company felt movie sequels typically have a bad reputation, but the Duffers pointed out that there had been many successful sequels that surpassed the original film, and felt confident with this name. Despite revealing episode titles for the season in the announcement teaser in order "to provide some hint of where we were going in season two without giving anything away, '' Matt Duffer stated that some of the titles would change, since there were some things "we did n't want to put on there because we felt like it would give too much away, '' and because "people are smart on the fucking internet '' with fan - created "videos analyzing the chapter titles... right on a lot '' of how the titles related to the plot of the season. In early October 2017, the Duffers revealed the final titles for the first six episodes of the season.
Levy noted in November 2016 that he and the Duffer Brothers had already begun planning a potential third season, saying, "We are not gon na be caught off guard and we do n't wan na be making stuff up like the day before we have to write it and make it, so we are definitely optimistic and we have started thinking ahead. '' The Duffers anticipate having about four to five seasons to work with, but do want to "have a really finite ending '' while the show is still at a height of success, according to Matt, rather than letting it draw out indefinitely. In August 2017, the Duffers confirmed there would be a third season, with the likelihood of one more season following that, with Ross saying, "We 're thinking it will be a four - season thing and then out ''.
The idea of Stranger Things started with how the brothers felt they could take the concept of the 2013 film Prisoners, detailing the moral struggles a father goes through when his daughter is kidnapped, and expand it out over eight or so hours in a serialized television approach. As they focused on the missing child aspect of the story, they wanted to introduce the idea of "childlike sensibilities '' they could offer, and toyed around with the idea of a monster that could consume humans. The brothers thought the combination of these things "was the best thing ever ''. To introduce this monster into the narrative, they considered "bizarre experiments we had read about taking place in the Cold War '' such as Project MKUltra, which gave a way to ground the monster 's existence in science rather than something spiritual. This also helped them to decide on using 1983 as the time period, as it was a year before the film Red Dawn came out, which focused on Cold War paranoia. Subsequently, they were able to use all their own personal inspirations from the 1980s, the decade they were born, as elements of the series, crafting it in the realm of science fiction and horror. The Duffer Brothers have cited as influence for the show (among others): Stephen King novels; films produced by Steven Spielberg, John Carpenter, Wes Craven, Robert Zemeckis, George Lucas and Guillermo del Toro; films such as Alien and Stand by Me; Japanese anime such as Akira and Elfen Lied; and video games such as Silent Hill and The Last of Us. The Duffers also believe that they may have brought influences from other works unintentionally, including Beyond the Black Rainbow and D.A.R.Y.L., discovered by reviewing fan feedback on the show.
With Netflix as the platform, the Duffer Brothers were not limited to a typical 22 - episode format, opting for the eight - episode approach. They had been concerned that a 22 - episode season on broadcast television would be difficult to "tell a cinematic story '' with that many episodes. Eight episodes allowed them to give time to characterization in addition to narrative development; if they had less time available, they would have had to remain committed to telling a horror film as soon as the monster was introduced and abandon the characterization. Within the eight episodes, the brothers aimed to make the first season "feel like a big movie '' with all the major plot lines completed so that "the audience feels satisfied '', but left enough unresolved to indicate "there 's a bigger mythology, and there 's a lot of dangling threads at the end '', something that could be explored in further seasons if Netflix opted to create more.
Regarding writing for the children characters of the series, the Duffer Brothers considered themselves as outcasts from other students while in high school and thus found it easy to write for Mike and his friends, and particularly for Barb. Joyce was fashioned after Richard Dreyfuss 's character Roy Neary in Close Encounters of the Third Kind, as she appears "absolutely bonkers '' to everyone else as she tries to find Will. Other characters, such as Billy in the second season, have more villainous attributes that are not necessarily obvious from the onset; Matt explained that they took further inspiration from Stephen King for these characters, as King "always has really great human villains '' that may be more malicious than the supernatural evil.
In June 2015, it was announced that Winona Ryder and David Harbour had joined the series as Joyce and as the unnamed chief of police, respectively. The brothers ' casting director Carmen Cuba had suggested Ryder for the role of Joyce, which the two were immediately drawn to because of her predominance in the films of the 1980s. Levy believed Ryder could "wretch up the emotional urgency and yet find layers and nuance and different sides of (Joyce) ''. Ryder praised that the show 's multiple storylines required her to act for Joyce as "she 's out of her mind, but she 's actually kind of onto something '', and that the producers had faith she could pull off the difficult role. The Duffer Brothers had been interested in Harbour before, who until Stranger Things primarily had smaller roles as villainous characters, and they felt that he had been "waiting too long for this opportunity '' to play a lead, while Harbour himself was thrilled by the script and the chance to play "a broken, flawed, anti-hero character ''.
Additional casting followed two months later with Finn Wolfhard as Mike, Millie Bobby Brown in an undisclosed role, Gaten Matarazzo as Dustin, Caleb McLaughlin as Lucas, Natalia Dyer as Nancy, and Charlie Heaton as Jonathan. In September 2015, Cara Buono joined the cast as Karen, followed by Matthew Modine as Martin Brenner a month later. Additional cast who recur for the first season include Noah Schnapp as Will, Shannon Purser as Barbara "Barb '' Holland, Joe Keery as Steve Harrington, and Ross Partridge as Lonnie, among others.
Actors auditioning for the children roles read lines from Stand By Me. The Duffer Brothers estimated they went through about a thousand different child actors for the roles. They noted that Wolfhard was already "a movie buff '' of the films from the 1980s period and easily filled the role, while they found Matarazzo 's audition to be much more authentic than most of the other audition tapes, and selected him after a single viewing of his audition tape. As casting was started immediately after Netflix greenlit the show, and prior to the scripts being fully completed, this allowed some of the actor 's takes on the roles to reflect into the script. The casting of the young actors for Will and his friends had been done just after the first script was completed, and subsequent scripts incorporated aspects from these actors. The brothers said Modine provided significant input on the character of Dr. Brenner, whom they had not really fleshed out before as they considered him the hardest character to write for given his limited appearances within the narrative.
In October 2016, it was announced that Schnapp and Keery had been promoted to the main cast for the second season, after each recurring in the first season, and that Sadie Sink and Dacre Montgomery would join the main cast as Max and Billy, respectively. Ryder, Harbour, Wolfhard, Brown, Matarazzo, McLaughlin, Dyer and Heaton also return for the season. Sean Astin as Bob Newby and Paul Reiser as Sam Owens are also part of the main cast in the season. For Owens, the Duffer Brothers had referred to the character in their pitch to Netflix for the season as "Paul Reiser '', and specifically alluded to Reiser 's character Burke in Aliens, with Ross referencing James Cameron 's casting choice for that film, saying, "(Cameron) thought people would inherently trust (Reiser) and it would be a twist ''. Reiser 's son was a fan of Stranger Things, and gave his father an early appreciation of the series, so that by when the production called his agent about the role, Reiser was excited for the part. Joining them in recurring roles are Linnea Berthelsen as Kali / Eight and Brett Gelman as Murray Bauman.
The brothers had desired to film the series around the Long Island area to match the initial Montauk concept. However, with filming scheduled to take place in November 2015, it was difficult to shoot in Long Island in the cold weather, and the production started scouting locations in and around the Atlanta, Georgia area. The brothers, who grew up in North Carolina, found many places that reminded them of their own childhoods in that area, and felt the area would work well with the narrative shift to the fictional town of Hawkins, Indiana.
The filming of the first season began in November 2015 and was extensively done in Atlanta, Georgia, with the Duffer Brothers and Levy handling the direction of individual episodes. Jackson served as the basis of the fictional town of Hawkins, Indiana. Other shooting locations included the Georgia Mental Health Institute as the Hawkins National Laboratory site, Bellwood Quarry, Patrick Henry High School in Stockbridge, Georgia, for the middle and high school scenes, Emory University 's Continuing Education Department, the former city hall in Douglasville, Georgia, Georgia International Horse Park, the probate court in Butts County, Georgia, Old East Point Library and East Point First Baptist Church in East Point, Georgia, Fayetteville, Georgia, Stone Mountain Park, Palmetto, Georgia, and Winston, Georgia. Set work was done at Screen Gem Studios in Atlanta. The series was filmed with a Red Dragon digital camera. Filming for the first season concluded in early 2016.
While filming, the brothers tried to capture shots that could be seen as homages to many of the 1980s references they recalled. Their goal was not necessarily to fill the work with these references, but instead make the series seem to the viewer as a 1980s film. They spent little time reviewing those works and instead went by memory. Matt further recognized that some of their filming homages were not purposely done but were found to be very comparable, as highlighted by a fan - made video comparing the show to several 1980s works side - by - side. Matt commented on the video that "Some were deliberate and some were subconscious. '' The brothers recognized that many of the iconic scenes from these 1980s films, such as with Poltergeist, was about "taking a very ordinary object that people deal with every day, their television set, and imbuing it with something otherworldly '', leading to the idea of using the Christmas light strings for Will to communicate with Joyce.
The brothers attributed much of the 1980s feel to set and costume designers and the soundtrack composers that helped to recreate the era for them. Lynda Reiss, the head of props, had about a $220,000 budget, similar to most films, to acquire artifacts of the 1980s, using eBay and searching through flea markets and estate sales around the Atlanta area. The bulk of the props were original items from the 1980s with only a few pieces, such as the Dungeons & Dragons books made as replicas. Costume designer Kimberly Adams - Galligan for the first season aimed for capturing authenticity of the clothes choices by the characters, such as reflecting that the Byers would likely use hand - me - down clothes compared to the other families; in this case, while the costume department did distress the outfits for all the characters, they spent more time for Will 's clothes compared to Mike 's. Frequently, they needed to create outfits for the kids themselves since many were still growing during the time of filming, and could not readily acquire period fashion across a range of sizes. Director of photography Tim Ives shot the first season with Leica lens and the 6K Red Scarlet Dragon to "make sure that our images had the soft and round tones that are in ' 80s films ''; this is achieved through digital image processing. Ives said that these cameras allow them to create an adaptable quality to the recorded film that is adaptable to a wide range of viewing experiences, including support for newer and future television technologies such as high dynamic range video that was just becoming adopted at the time of filming.
Filming for the second season began on November 7, 2016, once again in and around the Atlanta Metro area. While parts of Season 2 were set in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, these were actually filmed in downtown Atlanta, with skylines of Pittsburgh added in post-production. Andrew Stanton, director of Pixar 's Finding Nemo and WALL - E, will direct the fifth and sixth episode of the second season. Levy stated that Stanton was a big fan of the show and called up Levy, offering his directorial abilities for the show. Rebecca Thomas will direct the seventh episode of the season. Unlike the first season, which they were able to film without any real security issues, the heightened awareness of the show required the producers to take significant steps to keep the show 's production in secret while filming the second season. They spoke to the production team of HBO 's Game of Thrones for tips and advice for securing filming sites, and have adopted code names for the series and various parts to allow the actors to speak to others without revealing details of the show 's plot. Kim Wilcox took over for costumes in the second season, finding many of the same problems with designing for the child actors that were aging. Furthermore, she wanted to create the 80 's aestetic but as reflected in a small rural town, with the trends of period slowly filtering into it rather that immediately jump on elements like neon colors. The second season concluded filming on June 2, 2017. Ives once again used Leica lens to film the season, while upgrading to the Red Weapon 8K S35 camera.
To create the aged effect for the series, a film grain was added over the footage, which was captured by scanning in film stock from the 1980s. The Duffers wanted to scare the audience, but not to necessarily make the show violent or gory, following in line with how the 1980s Amblin Entertainment films drove the creation of the PG - 13 movie rating. It was "much more about mood and atmosphere and suspense and dread than they are about gore '', though they were not afraid to push into more scary elements, particularly towards the end of the first season. The brothers had wanted to avoid any computer - generated effects for the monster and other parts of the series and stay with practical effects. However, the six - month filming time left them little time to plan out and test practical effects rigs for some of the shots. They went with a middle ground of using constructed props including one for the monster whenever they could, but for other shots, such as when the monster bursts through a wall, they opted to use digital effects. Post-production on the first season was completed the week before it was released to Netflix.
The title sequence uses closeups of the letters in the Stranger Things title with a red tint against a black background as they slide into place within the title. The sequence was created by the studio Imaginary Forces, formerly part of R / GA, led by creative director Michelle Doughtey. Levy introduced the studio to the Duffer Brothers, who explained their vision of the 1980s - inspired show, which helped the studio to fix the concept the producers wanted. Later, but prior to filming, the producers sent Imaginary Forces the pilot script, the synth - heavy background music for the titles, as well as the various book covers from King and other authors that they had used to establish the title and imagery, and were looking for a similar approach for the show 's titles, primarily using a typographical sequence. They took inspiration from several title sequences of works from the 1980s that were previously designed by Richard Greenberg under R / GA, such as Altered States and The Dead Zone. They also got input from Dan Perri, who worked on the title credits of several 1980s films. Various iterations included having letters vanish, to reflect the "missing '' theme of the show, and having letters cast shadows on others, alluding to the mysteries, before settling into the sliding letters. The studio began working on the title sequence before filming, and took about a month off during the filming process to let the producers get immersed in the show and come back with more input. Initially they had been working with various fonts for the title and used close - ups of the best features of these fonts, but near the end the producers wanted to work with ITC Benguiat, requiring them to rework those shots. The final sequence is fully computer generated, but they took inspiration from testing some practical effects, such as using Kodalith masks as would have been done in the 1980s, to develop the appropriate filters for the rendering software. The individual episode title cards used a "fly through '' approach, similar to the film Bullitt, which the producers had suggested to the studio.
The Stranger Things original soundtrack was composed by Michael Stein and Kyle Dixon of the electronic band Survive. It makes extensive use of synthesizers in homage to 1980s artists and film composers including Jean - Michel Jarre, Tangerine Dream, Vangelis, Goblin, John Carpenter, Giorgio Moroder, and Fabio Frizzi.
According to Stein and Dixon, the Duffer Brothers had been fans of Survive 's music, and used their song "Dirge '' for the mock trailer that was used to sell the show to Netflix. Once the show was green - lit, the Duffers contacted Survive around July 2015 to ask if they were still doing music; the two provided the production team with dozens of songs from their band 's past to gain their interest, helping to land them the role. Once aboard, the two worked with producers to select some of their older music to rework for the show, while developing new music, principally with character motifs. The two had been hired before the casting process, so their motif demos were used and played over the actors ' audition tapes, aiding in the casting selection. The show 's theme is based on an unused work Stein composed much earlier that ended up in the library of work they shared with the production staff, who thought that with some reworking would be good for the opening credits.
In addition to original music, Stranger Things features period music from artists including The Clash, Joy Division, Toto, New Order, The Bangles, Foreigner, Echo and the Bunnymen, Peter Gabriel, and Corey Hart, as well as excerpts from Tangerine Dream, John Carpenter, and Vangelis. In particular, The Clash 's "Should I Stay or Should I Go '' was specifically picked to play at pivotal moments of the story, such as when Will is trying to communicate with Joyce from the Upside Down.
Stranger Things 's original soundtrack, consisting of 75 songs from Stein and Dixon split across two volumes, was released by Lakeshore Records. Digital release and streaming options were released on August 10 and 19, 2016 for the two volumes, respectively, while retail versions were available on September 16 and 23, 2016. Limited editions of the soundtrack on vinyl, in both individual and a boxed set, are set for release in July 2017. A cassette version of the soundtrack, sold exclusively by Urban Outfitters, was released on July 14, 2017. The cassette packaging features a cardboard cover that emulates an old VHS sleeves, while the cassette case is made to look like a VHS tape.
Both volumes were nominated individually for the Best Score Soundtrack Category for the 2017 Grammy Awards, though neither won.
The soundtrack for the second season of Stranger Things was released digitally on October 20, 2017. The soundtrack, once again composed by Stein and Dixon, consists of 34 songs and was released by Lakeshore Records in the United States and Invada Records internationally. The soundtrack is intended to be released on physical formats, such as compact disc, vinyl, and cassette as well. On the soundtrack 's composition, Stein and Dixon together said that the score for the season introduces "new styles of composition, while still revisiting old themes when appropriate... We 've created new elements that are necessary to support the story, but still want to remain true to the sound of Season 1. '' The first track from the soundtrack, "Walkin ' in Hawkins '', was released on October 12.
The first season consisted of eight one - hour - long episodes which were released worldwide on Netflix on July 15, 2016, in Ultra HD 4K. The second season, consisting of nine episodes, was released on October 27, 2017 in HDR. A teaser for the second season, which also announced the release date, aired during Super Bowl LI.
The first season of Stranger Things was released on a Blu - ray / DVD combo pack exclusively to Target retailers on October 17, 2017, which includes a vintage VHS - inspired packaging.
As Netflix does not reveal subscriber viewership numbers for any of their original series, Symphony Technology Group compiled data for the season based on people using software on their phones that measures television viewing by detecting a program 's sound. According to Symphony, within the first 35 days of release, Stranger Things averaged ratings around 14.07 million adults between the ages 18 -- 49 in the United States. This made it the third most - watched season of Netflix original content in the U.S. at the time behind the first season of Fuller House and fourth season of Orange Is the New Black. In a September 2016 analysis, Netflix found that Stranger Things "hooked '' viewers by the second episode of the first season, indicating that the second episode was "the first installment that led at least 70 percent of viewers who watched that episode to complete the entire first season of a show. ''
In August 2017, the marketing analytics firm Jumpshot determined the season was the seventh-most viewed Netflix season in the first 30 days after it premiered, garnering slightly more than 20 % of the viewers that the second season of Daredevil received, which was the most viewed season according to Jumpshot. Jumpshot, which "analyzes click - stream data from an online panel of more than 100 million consumers '', looked at the viewing behavior and activity of the company 's U.S. members, factoring in the relative number of U.S. Netflix viewers who watched at least one episode of the season.
Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gave the first season an approval rating of 96 % based on 68 reviews, and a weighted average rating of 8.04 / 10. The site 's critical consensus states, "Exciting, heartbreaking, and sometimes scary, Stranger Things acts as an addictive homage to Spielberg films and vintage 1980s television. '' Review aggregator Metacritic gave the first season a normalized score of 76 out of 100 based on 34 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''.
IGN gave the score of 8 out of 10 and called the series "Great '' saying, "Stranger Things is an easy recommendation, offering viewers an atmospheric and endearing series that is a nostalgic throwback without feeling like a simple copy. '' In a review of San Francisco Chronicle Dave Wiegand wrote: "Stranger Things reminds us of a time marked by a kind of no - strings escapism. And as it does so, we find ourselves yearning for it because the Duffers have made it so irresistibly appealing. There may be other equally great shows to watch this summer, but I guarantee you wo n't have more fun watching any of them than you will watching Stranger Things. '' Joshua Alston of The A.V. Club also reviewed it positively saying, "Balancing style and substance is always challenging for a series like Stranger Things, but the show is perfectly calibrated. It feels like watching a show produced during the era in which it 's set, but with the craft of today 's prestige television. '' Reviewing for HitFix, Alan Sepinwall said, "Over the course of the eight hours, the story and characters take on enough life of their own so that the references do n't feel self - indulgent, and so that the series can be appreciated even if you do n't know the plot of E.T. or the title font of Stephen King 's early novels (a huge influence on the show 's own opening credits) by heart. ''
Emily Nussbaum of The New Yorker also applauded the series and wrote, "This is astoundingly efficient storytelling, eight hours that pass in a blink, with even minor characters getting sharp dialogue, dark humor, or moments of pathos. '' Television critic Mary McNamara of Los Angeles Times said, "For the most part, and in absolute defiance of the odds, Stranger Things honors its source material in the best way possible: By telling a sweet ' n ' scary story in which monsters are real but so are the transformative powers of love and fealty. '' The Wall Street Journal 's Brian Kelly said, "Matt Duffer and Ross Duffer, brothers and the show 's creators, have done their homework when it comes to ' 80s cinema. Whether you 're a fan of John Carpenter 's The Thing or The Goonies is more your speed, there 's plenty to like in Stranger Things. ''
In a negative review, cultural critic Grafton Tanner called the series "wish fulfillment '' and "a window through which the present - shocked can gaze at a clichéd past. '' Similarly, Marinna Guzy of The Establishment wrote: "When confronted with a story like Stranger Things, a recycled retelling of an old story being marketed as homage and good, clean nostalgia, one has to wonder whether or not studios and content creators like the Duffer Brothers ever ask themselves whether or not the story they are telling is the one that should be told. What purpose does Stranger Things serve beyond reinforcing the status quo in the media landscape and perpetuating the dangerous delusion that things were better way back when? ''
On Rotten Tomatoes, the second season has an approval rating of 94 % based on 104 reviews, and an average rating of 7.79 / 10. The site 's critical consensus states, "Stranger Things ' slow - building sophomore season balances moments of humor and a nostalgic sweetness against a growing horror that 's all the more effective thanks to the show 's full - bodied characters and evocative tone. '' On Metacritic, the second season has a normalized score of 78 out of 100, based on 32 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''.
Shortly after its release, Stranger Things gained a dedicated fanbase. One area of focus from these fans was the character of Barb, the nerdy friend and classmate of Nancy who is taken and killed by the monster early in the season. According to actress Shannon Purser, Barb "was n't supposed to be a big deal '', and the Duffer Brothers had not gone into great detail about the character since the focus was on finding Will. However, many fans sympathized with the character, with Laura Bradley of Vanity Fair suggesting that these people found that Barb would be a similar misfit in society, and "looks more like someone you might actually meet in real life '' compared to the other characters, particularly Nancy, in the series. A hashtag "# ImWithBarb '' grew in popularity after the series ' release, and several fan sites and forums were created to support her. While Purser will not return for the second season, the Duffer Brothers used the real - life "Justice for Barb '' movement as inspiration for narrative at the start of the second season, with Nancy addressing the fact "that no one ever cares about '' Barb. Purser and several media outlets took her nomination as Barb for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series in the 69th Primetime Emmy Awards as achieving "justice for Barb '', highlighting how well her character was received.
Another impact of the series has been an increase demand for Eggo waffles, as they are shown to be Eleven 's favorite food in several episodes and are seen as a representation of the show. The Kellogg Company, which manufactures Eggo, had not been part of the production prior to the first season 's release, but recognized the market impact of the series. It provided a vintage 1980s Eggo television advertisement for Netflix to use in its Super Bowl LI commercial, and is looking to become more involved with cross-promotion.
With the release of the second season of the series, Netflix also released Beyond Stranger Things, an aftershow hosted by Jim Rash. The guests of the aftershow are composed of cast and crew from the series, including the Duffer Brothers and the series ' stars, to discuss the development and behind - the - scenes production of the series and its larger mythology. Unlike previous aftershows created by Embassy Row, such as Talking Dead and Talking Bad, Beyond Stranger Things is intended to be watched after a screening of the entire current season.
Netflix and BonusXP developed a free mobile game tie - in for Stranger Things, released to iOS and Android devices on October 4, 2017. The game uses a retro - pixel style of art, similar to games for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System. The game is loosely based on the Stranger Things story after season one, with the player starting as Chief of Police Jim Hopper looking for the missing boys. Once these characters are found, they become playable and have special abilities that allow the player to access more areas in the game. BonusXP had less than a year to complete the game. The team decided to make the game in a similar style to The Legend of Zelda because it "was a perfect match because both (Stranger Things and Zelda) are about exploration, and it 's kind of a mysterious fit that fit the mood of the show, '' according to BonusXP president Dave Pottinger. The map of Hawkins in the game was based off of a Google street view map of Jackson, Georgia where the series is filmed. In order to help keep the game a secret, BonusXP did not hire game testers for their quality assurance, instead having family members from the design team provide feedback; this process helped create the two difficulty levels in the game. Completing the game gives players a clip from the Season 2 premiere episode of the show. The game was downloaded 3 million times in the first week, becoming a top download and receiving critical praise. With the release of season two, an update to the game added Max as a playable character, and a release for the Amazon Fire TV, which included controller support.
United States Representative David Cicilline compared the state of the nation during the presidency of Donald Trump to that of Stranger Things during a speech given in Congress on February 16, 2017, using a sign "Trump Things '' in the same format as the title card of the show and saying "Like the main characters in Stranger Things, we are now stuck in the Upside Down ''.
As part of its release on Netflix on April 14, 2017, the cast of the rebooted version of Mystery Science Theater 3000 riffed on the first part of "Chapter 1 '' of Stranger Things. Google used augmented reality (AR) "stickers '' of Stranger Things characters to introduce its ARCore technology announced alongside its Pixel 2 phone in October 2017.
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according to the classical model of aggregate demand an increase in real gdp must come from | Aggregate demand - wikipedia
In macroeconomics, aggregate demand (AD) or domestic final demand (DFD) is the total demand for final goods and services in an economy at a given time. It specifies the amounts of goods and services that will be purchased at all possible price levels. This is the demand for the gross domestic product of a country. It is often called effective demand, though at other times this term is distinguished.
The aggregate demand curve is plotted with real output on the horizontal axis and the price level on the vertical axis. It is downward sloping as a result of three distinct effects: Pigou 's wealth effect, Keynes ' interest rate effect and the Mundell -- Fleming exchange - rate effect. The Pigou effect states that a higher price level implies lower real wealth and therefore lower consumption spending, giving a lower quantity of goods demanded in the aggregate. The Keynes effect states that a higher price level implies a lower real money supply and therefore higher interest rates resulting from financial market equilibrium, in turn resulting in lower investment spending on new physical capital and hence a lower quantity of goods being demanded in the aggregate.
The Mundell -- Fleming exchange - rate effect is an extension of the IS -- LM model. Whereas the traditional IS - LM Model deals with a closed economy, Mundell -- Fleming describes a small open economy. The Mundell -- Fleming model portrays the short - run relationship between an economy 's nominal exchange rate, interest rate, and output (in contrast to the closed - economy IS -- LM model, which focuses only on the relationship between the interest rate and output)
The aggregate demand curve illustrates the relationship between two factors: the quantity of output that is demanded and the aggregate price level. Aggregate demand is expressed contingent upon a fixed level of the nominal money supply. There are many factors that can shift the AD curve. Rightward shifts result from increases in the money supply, in government expenditure, or in autonomous components of investment or consumption spending, or from decreases in taxes.
According to the aggregate demand - aggregate supply model, when aggregate demand increases, there is movement up along the aggregate supply curve, giving a higher level of prices.
John Maynard Keynes in The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money argued during the Great Depression that the loss of output by the private sector as a result of a systemic shock (the Wall Street Crash of 1929) ought to be filled by government spending. First, he argued that with a lower ' effective aggregate demand ', or the total amount of spending in the economy (lowered in the Crash), the private sector could subsist on a permanently reduced level of activity and involuntary unemployment, unless there were active intervention. Business lost access to capital, so it had dismissed workers. This meant workers had less to spend as consumers, consumers bought less from business, which because of additionally reduced demand, had found the need to dismiss workers. The downward spiral could only be halted and rectified by external action. Second, people with higher incomes have a lower marginal propensity to consume their incomes. People with lower incomes are inclined to spend their earnings immediately to buy housing, food, transport and so forth, while people with much higher incomes can not consume everything. They save instead, which means that the velocity of money, meaning the circulation of income through different hands in the economy, is decreased. This lowered the rate of growth. Spending should therefore target public works programmes on a large enough scale to speed up growth to its previous levels.
An aggregate demand curve is the sum of individual demand curves for different sectors of the economy. The aggregate demand is usually described as a linear sum of four separable demand sources:
where
These four major parts, which can be stated in either ' nominal ' or ' real ' terms, are:
In sum, for a single country at a given time, aggregate demand (D (\ displaystyle D) or A D (\ displaystyle AD)) is given by C + I p + G + (X − M) (\ displaystyle C + I_ (p) + G+ (X-M)).
These macroeconomic variables are constructed from varying types of microeconomic variables from the price of each, so these variables are denominated in (real or nominal) currency terms.
Understanding of the aggregate demand curve depends on whether it is examined based on changes in demand as income changes, or as price change.
Sometimes, especially in textbooks, "aggregate demand '' refers to an entire demand curve that looks like that in a typical Marshallian supply and demand diagram.
Thus, we could refer to an "aggregate quantity demanded '' (Y d = C + I p + G + N X (\ displaystyle Y ^ (d) = C + I_ (p) + G + NX) in real or inflation - corrected terms) at any given aggregate average price level (such as the GDP deflator), P (\ displaystyle P).
In these diagrams, typically the Y d (\ displaystyle Y ^ (d)) rises as the average price level (P (\ displaystyle P)) falls, as with the A D (\ displaystyle AD) line in the diagram. The main theoretical reason for this is that if the nominal money supply (M) is constant, a falling P (\ displaystyle P) implies that the real money supply (M s P (\ displaystyle (\ frac (M ^ (s)) (P)))) rises, encouraging lower interest rates and higher spending. This is often called the "Keynes effect. ''
Carefully using ideas from the theory of supply and demand, aggregate supply can help determine the extent to which increases in aggregate demand lead to increases in real output or instead to increases in prices (inflation). In the diagram, an increase in any of the components of A D (\ displaystyle AD) (at any given P (\ displaystyle P)) shifts the A D (\ displaystyle AD) curve to the right. This increases both the level of real production (Y (\ displaystyle Y)) and the average price level (P (\ displaystyle P)).
But different levels of economic activity imply different mixtures of output and price increases. As shown, with very low levels of real gross domestic product and thus large amounts of unemployed resources, most economists of the Keynesian school suggest that most of the change would be in the form of output and employment increases. As the economy gets close to potential output (Y ∗ (\ displaystyle Y ^ (*))), we would see more and more price increases rather than output increases as A D (\ displaystyle AD) increases.
Beyond Y ∗ (\ displaystyle Y ^ (*)), this gets more intense, so that price increases dominate. Worse, output levels greater than Y ∗ (\ displaystyle Y ^ (*)) can not be sustained for long. The A S (\ displaystyle AS) is a short - term relationship here. If the economy persists in operating above potential, the A S (\ displaystyle AS) curve will shift to the left, making the increases in real output transitory.
At low levels of Y (\ displaystyle Y), the world is more complicated. First, most modern industrial economies experience few if any falls in prices. So the A S (\ displaystyle AS) curve is unlikely to shift down or to the right. Second, when they do suffer price cuts (as in Japan), it can lead to disastrous deflation.
A post-Keynesian theory of aggregate demand emphasizes the role of debt, which it considers a fundamental component of aggregate demand; the contribution of change in debt to aggregate demand is referred to by some as the credit impulse. Aggregate demand is spending, be it on consumption, investment, or other categories. Spending is related to income via:
Rearranging this yields:
In words: What you spend is what you earn, plus what you borrow. If you spend $110 and earned $100, then you must have net borrowed $10. Conversely if you spend $90 and earn $100, then you have net savings of $10, or have reduced debt by $10, for a net change in debt of -- $10.
If debt grows or shrinks slowly as a percentage of GDP, its impact on aggregate demand is small. Conversely, if debt is significant, then changes in the dynamics of debt growth can have significant impact on aggregate demand. Change in debt is tied to the level of debt: if the overall debt level is 10 % of GDP and 1 % of loans are not repaid, this impacts GDP by 1 % of 10 % = 0.1 % of GDP, which is statistical noise. Conversely, if the debt level is 300 % of GDP and 1 % of loans are not repaid, this impacts GDP by 1 % of 300 % = 3 % of GDP, which is significant: a change of this magnitude will generally cause a recession.
Similarly, changes in the repayment rate (debtors paying down their debts) impact aggregate demand in proportion to the level of debt. Thus, as the level of debt in an economy grows, the economy becomes more sensitive to debt dynamics, and credit bubbles are of macroeconomic concern. Since write - offs and savings rates both spike in recessions, both of which result in shrinkage of credit, the resulting drop in aggregate demand can worsen and perpetuate the recession in a vicious cycle.
This perspective originates in, and is intimately tied to, the debt - deflation theory of Irving Fisher, and the notion of a credit bubble (credit being the flip side of debt), and has been elaborated in the Post-Keynesian school. If the overall level of debt is rising each year, then aggregate demand exceeds Income by that amount. However, if the level of debt stops rising and instead starts falling (if "the bubble bursts ''), then aggregate demand falls short of income, by the amount of net savings (largely in the form of debt repayment or debt writing off, such as in bankruptcy). This causes a sudden and sustained drop in aggregate demand, and this shock is argued to be the proximate cause of a class of economic crises, properly financial crises. Indeed, a fall in the level of debt is not necessary -- even a slowing in the rate of debt growth causes a drop in aggregate demand (relative to the higher borrowing year). These crises then end when credit starts growing again, either because most or all debts have been repaid or written off, or for other reasons as below.
From the perspective of debt, the Keynesian prescription of government deficit spending in the face of an economic crisis consists of the government net dis - saving (increasing its debt) to compensate for the shortfall in private debt: it replaces private debt with public debt. Other alternatives include seeking to restart the growth of private debt ("reflate the bubble ''), or slow or stop its fall; and debt relief, which by lowering or eliminating debt stops credit from contracting (as it can not fall below zero) and allows debt to either stabilize or grow -- this has the further effect of redistributing wealth from creditors (who write off debts) to debtors (whose debts are relieved).
Austrian theorist Henry Hazlitt argued that aggregate demand is "a meaningless concept '' in economic analysis. Friedrich Hayek, another Austrian, wrote that Keynes ' study of the aggregate relations in an economy is "fallacious, '' arguing that recessions are caused by micro-economic factors.
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who sang love don't live here anymore | Love Do n't Live Here Anymore - wikipedia
"Love Do n't Live Here Anymore '' is a song written by Miles Gregory and originally recorded by Rose Royce. It was produced by former Motown songwriter and producer Norman Whitfield for Whitfield Records. Lead vocals were sung by Gwen Dickey and the song was released as the second single from their third studio album Rose Royce III: Strikes Again! The song was developed as a result of producer Whitfield 's interest to work with Paul Buckmaster, the British arranger and composer. Together they asked songwriter Miles Gregory to write a song for them. Gregory was undergoing medications for his deteriorating physical health became the inspiration behind the song. "Love Do n't Live Here Anymore '' incorporated the use of the Electronic LinnDrum machine, and was one of the first songs to effectively use the sound reverbs of the instrument. The song was mainly recorded at music contractor Gene Bianco 's house, where Dickey was present during the recording.
After its release, the song was critically appreciated, but was only moderately successful commercially. It reached a peak of 32 on the Billboard Hot 100 and five on the Hot Black Singles chart. It achieved its highest position in both New Zealand and the United Kingdom, where it reached number two. "Love Do n't Live Here Anymore '' has been covered by a number of artists, including Madonna, Morrissey -- Mullen and Faith Evans. Madonna 's version was included in her second studio album Like a Virgin (1984), and it was the idea of Michael Ostin, the head of the A&R department of Warner Bros. Records, that Madonna record a cover version of the song to include in the album. A remix of Madonna 's cover was included in her 1995 ballad compilation album Something to Remember.
The original and the remixed version of the Madonna song differ in that the latter uses more classical instruments. The 1995 version also received a number of club remix treatments. Critics were not impressed with the version present in Like a Virgin, calling it "awful '', while they warmed to the version present in Something to Remember. However, it was a commercial disappointment, reaching a peak of only 78 on the Billboard Hot 100. It was promoted by a music video shot by Jean - Baptiste Mondino, which portrayed Madonna in an empty suite of an abandoned hotel, and was shot in a single take.
Producer Norman Whitfield had always wanted to work with Paul Buckmaster, the British arranger and composer. One day he called Buckmaster and invited him to work on some recordings he had finished. After meeting, they decided to contact songwriter Miles Gregory to use one of his songs for Whitfield 's record group Rose Royce. Buckmaster found that Gregory was under medication from overuse of drugs and "was in considerable discomfort, if not in outright pain. He did n't write a song and dance about his pain, but I remember him sitting at the piano and wincing. So before jumping on the thing that Miles was merely indulging himself and writing, one has to remember that the guy was in a lot of pain. '' Nevertheless, Whitfield and Buckmaster encouraged Gregory to write the song and the result was "Love Do n't Live Here Anymore '', inspired by Gregory 's own situation and his deteriorating physical health.
"Love Do n't Live Here Anymore '' incorporated the use of the Electronic LinnDrum machine, and was one of the first songs to effectively use the sound reverbs of the instrument. LinnDrum had been used sparingly in their previous single "Do Your Dance '', but in "Love Do n't Live Here Anymore '' its use was more spontaneous, which Dave Thompson, author of Funk noted as if "it virtually duetted with Dickey, creating one of the most distinctive records of the year -- and one of the most imitated of the age. '' The song was mainly recorded at music contractor Gene Bianco 's house, where Rose Royce lead singer Gwen Dickey was present during the recording. Buckmaster recalled: "I was over at (Gene 's) place almost every day with Norman, and some days I stayed away to write, or to mix the music. Gene had given me the keys to his apartment, and also let me use the piano to record the song. I did n't want to work on at Miles ' because his piano was falling to bits. ''
Kenny Hill from The San Diego Union - Tribune said that the song "was a lasting impression of Rose Royce 's brilliance as a group '' and it proved that disco and R&B soul music was not dead. '' Frederick Douglas from The Baltimore Sun complimented the song saying that "with their soul ballad ' Love Do n't Live Here Anymore ', Rose Royce is poised to take their place in the musical landscape as the greatest soul group. '' Bob Kostanczuk from Post-Tribune listed "Love Do n't Live Here Anymore '' as Rose Royce 's greatest song. Jim Mortimer from Deseret News felt that "Love Do n't Live Here Anymore '' was a perfect example of how gospel and soul music can be clubbed together and complimented producer Buckmaster. Shannon Kingly from Los Angeles Daily News felt that "Love Do n't Live Here Anymore '' is "a tad bit overrated, and is full of shouting. '' "Love Do n't Live Here Anymore '' debuted at 91 on the Billboard Hot 100, and made a slow climb, ultimately reaching a peak of 32. It was more successful on the Hot Black Singles chart, where it reached five, and stayed there for four weeks. In Canada, the song debuted at 100 on the RPM Singles Chart on December 23, 1978. The song began a slow climb, and after nine weeks reached a peak of 41 on the chart. It was present for a total of 12 weeks on the chart. In the United Kingdom, "Love Do n't Live Here Anymore '' became Rose Royce 's biggest hit, reaching two on the UK Singles Chart while in Ireland it reached a peak of number seven. Across Europe, the song failed to chart except in Netherlands, where it reached eleven. The song was successful in Australia and New Zealand, where it reached positions four and two on the charts, respectively.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
An instrumental cover was recorded by the UK jazz - funk duo Morrissey -- Mullen at EMI 's London Abbey Road Studios in 1979 and was the first digital recording to be made of a non-classical ensemble. It was released as the first of the EMI Digital series in a limited edition 12 '' single. Jimmy Nail 's version was released in 1985 in his native United Kingdom, reaching number three on the UK Singles Chart. British dance music producers Double Trouble released a version of ' Love Do n't Live Here Anymore ' as a single in 1990. Their arrangement had the vocals mixed over a House - influenced backing track. A reggae version was released in 1997 by dancehall artist Bounty Killer and Swedish singer Robyn. Faith Evans recorded it on her 1995 album Faith. American Hardcore band Lionheart named their fourth and final album which was released in 2016 after that song. Australian band I 'm Talking covered the song and released it as the B - side on the 12 '' single "Lead the Way '', before releasing it as an individual single. The song peaked at number 21 on the Australian Kent Music Report.
Madonna had originally covered "Love Do n't Live Here Anymore '' for her second studio album, Like a Virgin (1984). The idea to cover the song originated from Michael Ostin, the head of the A&R department of Warner Bros. Records. In author Warren Zanes book Revolutions in Sound: Warner Bros. Records, the First 50 Years, he recalled:
"I had the good fortune of finding material that Madonna really responded to, ' Love Do n't Live Here Anymore ' for instance, which was the old Rose Royce record. I was driving into work one day and heard it on the radio, I called producer Nile Rodgers and Madonna, they were in the studio. I said, ' I have an idea,. You know the old Rose Royce record, ' Love Do n't Live Here Anymore '? Why do n't you try and record a version of it for Like a Virgin? ''
Initially both Rodgers and Madonna were apprehensive of tackling an already well - known ballad, but in the last minute they decided that if Madonna wanted to bring diversity to the album, there could be no better song than "Love Do n't Live Here Anymore ''. According to Rodgers, although Like a Virgin was mainly driven by Madonna, he was instrumental in adding "Love Do n't Live Here Anymore '' to the track list. The song was a favorite of Madonna, so when in 1995 she released the ballad compilation album Something to Remember, she included a reworked version of "Love Do n't Live Here Anymore '' produced by David Reitzas. The version was released as the second single from the album in North America and the third single in Europe and Australia. The original 1984 release was included in the 1996 Japanese box set CD Single Collection on 3 '' CD single and includes the track listing from the 7 '' vinyl version.
Madonna 's version of the song begins with the sound of acoustic guitars and synth strings. Madonna 's voice sounds high - pitched, eluding the deeper resonance of the tune. After the first verse, Tony Thompson starts playing the drums, which moves along the rhythm of the song. Towards the end, Madonna sings the song like a soul singer and the song ends with a gasp of breath. The song was recorded at Power Station Studio in Manhattan, New York. Rodgers recalled: "Madonna had never performed with a live orchestra before. I was very much into doing everything live, so I just said, ' Madonna, you go out there and sing and we will follow you. ' At first Madonna was hesitant, but the live setting ended up producing memorable results. She sang and she was overcome with emotions and she started crying, but I left it on the record. ''
The 1995 remix was quite different from the 1984 version. It began with the sound of violins and Uilleann pipes, followed by Madonna beginning the first verse. As the song progresses, the sound of the violin fades in and the drum machine starts, and the piano is played along with it. As the chorus is sung the third time, a bass drum is also added in the flow. The violin again fades in as Madonna sings "Through the windmills of my eye, Everyone can see the loneliness inside me. '' Near the end, she utters the chorus a number of times, emphasizing on the word "anymore '' and the phrase "live here anymore ''. It ends with the Uilleann pipes fading out. The song was also treated with remixes in various formats. SoulShock & Karlin made an R&B styled remix; while Marcus Schulz created a house remix. Madonna 's voice was paired with an energetic beat, coupled with vibrant organ lines and blipping synth effects. The remixes were released as promotional 12 '' and CD singles on May 6, 1996.
Author Rikky Rooksby wrote in his book The Complete Guide to the Music of Madonna that Madonna 's singing in the song "deserved a commendation for bravery and was a sign that she was going to set herself challenges. '' Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic, while reviewing Like a Virgin, wrote that the cover of the song was "well worth hearing ''. Debbie Bull from Rolling Stone, meanwhile, opined that "her torchy ballad ' Love Do n't Live Here Anymore ' is awful. '' Larry Flick from Billboard complimented both the versions of the song, calling the first version "a lush slice of symphonic pop '', and the other an "old - school, jeep - soul cruiser. Both arrangements perfectly suit her vocal, which is rife with emotional belts and theatrical gasps. (...) David Reitzas string - laden version will please those who never got enough of the previous single ' You 'll See '. The bottom line is that this will likely be another smash for an artist whose stock as a credible musical entity deservedly rises with each release. '' He also complimented the dance remixes of the song, saying that "when combined, (Marcus Schultz house remix) keyboard lines add up to a very pastel, tea - dance ready twirler. His five mixes lean largely towards the middle of the club road. '' Liz Smith, while reviewing the Something to Remember album in Newsday, felt that all of Madonna 's vocal trainings that she received while shooting for the film Evita, had "paid off, because the La M 's second single sounds wonderful, and is a step up from the previous haunting ' You 'll See '. '' Dorothy Holmes from Telegram & Gazette said that "' Love Do n't Live Here Anymore ' sounds like her perfect adult contemporary staple. ''
In the United States, "Love Do n't Live Here Anymore '' debuted at the top of the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles, a position comparable to 101 on the main Billboard Hot 100. After two weeks, it debuted at 91 on the Billboard Hot 100, becoming Madonna 's 36th entry on the chart, and her first entry with a remake of someone else 's single. The song ultimately reached only a peak of 78, and was present for only eight weeks on the chart. On June 8, 1996, the song was one of the breakout tracks for the Hot Dance Music / Club Play chart. It debuted at 39 on the chart and reached 30 the next week, becoming the Power Pick song of the chart. It ultimately reached a peak of 16 on the chart. It debuted on the Hot Adult Contemporary Chart at 30, and reached a peak of 29, the next week. In Canada, the song debuted at 99 on the RPM Singles Chart, on May 6, 1996. After eight weeks, the song reached a peak of 24 on the chart. It was present on the chart for 12 weeks. Across Europe, the song charted in France at 48, and also reached 27 in Australia.
The music video was directed by Jean - Baptiste Mondino, who worked with Madonna in her videos for "Open Your Heart '', "Justify My Love '' and "Human Nature '', and shot on March 4, 1996, at the Confitería El Molino in Buenos Aires, Argentina, during her day off from filming Evita. Maria Gallagher was the producer, with Jean - Yves Escoffier serving as director of photography. It was a Bandits Production. In her Evita diaries, published by Vanity Fair magazine in 1996, Madonna made reference to the video shoot. In her writings, she specifically mentioned forgetting the lyrics of the song, suggesting she was having an identity crisis of sorts, trying to juggle her own identity with that of her role of Eva Perón in Evita. Madonna was also in the early stages of her pregnancy with daughter Lourdes while making the video. Hence, she felt great stress while shooting it, which led her to forget the lyrics.
The video features Madonna at the empty suite of an abandoned hotel, a similar setting to her "Like a Virgin '' music video. It was shot in a single frame, with the camera approaching Madonna, as she stands behind a pillar. She rotates around it and sings the song, as air blows through the room. The video ends with Madonna looking up towards the camera the last time, and then closing her eyes. It was treated with sepia color. Carol Vernallis, author of Experiencing music video: aesthetics and cultural context felt that the video was a good example of how image can direct the viewer 's attention towards the shift in instrumentation and arrangement of the song. She noted the aimless movement of the camera towards her as "bringing focus to the main subject, with the viewer 's attention fully captured. ''
A mashup of "HeartBreakCity '', a track from her 13th studio album Rebel Heart, and "Love Do n't Live Here Anymore '' was performed on Madonna 's 2015 -- 16 Rebel Heart Tour. It began with the singer dancing with a male back - up dancer as she sang "HeartBreakCity ''; then, she chased him up a long spiral staircase and pushed him backwards before merging into "Love Do n't Live Here Anymore ''. Erik Kabik from The Las Vegas Sun, praised the performance for its simplicity.
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when is agents of shield episode 11 coming out | Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. (Season 5) - wikipedia
The fifth season of the American television series Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D., based on the Marvel Comics organization S.H.I.E.L.D. (Strategic Homeland Intervention, Enforcement, and Logistics Division), revolves around the character of Phil Coulson and other S.H.I.E.L.D. agents and allies as they try to save humanity. It is set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU), sharing continuity with the films of the franchise. The season is produced by ABC Studios, Marvel Television, and Mutant Enemy Productions, with Jed Whedon, Maurissa Tancharoen, and Jeffrey Bell serving as showrunners.
The season was ordered in May 2017. Alongside Clark Gregg, who reprises his role as Coulson from the film series, principal cast members Ming - Na Wen, Chloe Bennet, Iain De Caestecker, Elizabeth Henstridge, and Henry Simmons return from previous seasons, while Natalia Cordova - Buckley is promoted to the principal cast after appearing in a recurring role since season three. Due to its broadcast schedule, the season was split into two "pods '': the first sees the S.H.I.E.L.D. team transported to the year 2091; in the second, they return to the present and attempt to prevent that future. The season also saw Gregg make his directorial debut on the series, and features Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. 's 100th episode, which was promoted with a special commemorative art program.
The fifth season began airing on December 1, 2017, and is set to run for 22 episodes on ABC until May 18, 2018.
In January 2017, ahead of the mid-season premiere of the fourth season, ABC 's Channing Dungey said that she was "very bullish '' about S.H.I.E.L.D. 's future, feeling that "the episodes just keep getting better and stronger ''. The series was renewed for a fifth season of 22 episodes on May 11, with ABC looking to lower the cost of the series moving forward, by reducing its budget and licensing fee. Asked whether she had considered giving the season a shorter episode order, Dungey noted that every season of the series had been 22 episodes long, and she felt its prior success in delayed viewership and overseas justified continuing that. She added that the "show has continued to grow creatively every season. I feel like last season (was) its strongest creatively yet. I 'm very excited for what we have planned for Season 5. '' It was reported that Disney, the parent company of Marvel Television, ABC Studios, and ABC, had given a mandate to ABC to renew Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. "despite the desire by some at the network to end the series ''.
In May 2017, ahead of the fifth season renewal, showrunner and executive producer Jed Whedon said the writers were not sure what would happen in the season, and that it would be "by the seat of our pants. '' The season explores the ramifications of Phil Coulson making a deal with Ghost Rider at the end of the previous season, as well as the groundwork laid by Aida for humans to fear S.H.I.E.L.D. and Inhumans. Whedon stated, "The public perception of S.H.I.E.L.D. is at an all - time low, so we have not resolved that, and there will be still more fallout from it. '' Moving beyond the Framework reality established at the end of season four, Tancharoen said the emotional impact from the characters ' experiences would "be something that resonates throughout the season '', especially for Fitz and Mack. When asked if the season would be broken into pods as with season four, executive producer Jeffrey Bell said, "A 22 - episode arc is a lot for people to hold onto. By breaking it up into either smaller arcs or different pods, by introducing a set of antagonists and putting them down, or moving from space to space, our experience has been that it 's something the viewers enjoy, and it makes it a little easier to digest when you 're telling some of these stories. '' However, Whedon noted that it would depend on how the season would be aired as to where the story is broken up. The season ultimately was broken into two pod story arcs, with each pod having a different emphases, but the whole season having an arc "that will pay off ''. The writers for the season began work at the end of May 2017.
The first pod of the season was informally referred to by the production team as S.H.I.E.L.D. in Space. Ahead of the season premiere, executive producer Maurissa Tancharoen said that "every year we reset the series, and this year we definitely knew that it would be the most giant reset to date (with the characters going to space). Just creatively across the board for everyone, art direction, all of it, our sets, you 'll see an overhaul. '' On the move to space, Whedon commented, "Last year was about tearing everybody apart. We spent a lot of time doing that... So our goal this year was... putting (this) family together in an intense situation (that) will end up causing drama internally, inevitably... we 've spent this many years with them, let 's throw them on the craziest roller coaster adventure we could think of. '' The main characters eventually return home to their time period.
The second pod of the season includes the series ' 100th episode, which Whedon and Tancharoen described as a "game changer '' that would "shake up '' the rest of the pod emotionally, to the point that "nothing will be the same after '' it. Bell added the episode featured "a device that grows out of our current storyline and plot that allows us to look back and reflect on where we 've come from, turn over a couple cards that people will be excited about and then also celebrate the show and people on it. '' Loeb also felt the episode "finishes up some stories that perhaps (viewers) did n't even know we have n't revealed ''. The episode featured Fitz and Simmons getting married, which Tancharoen said was included because "it was about damn time. After 100 episodes, they needed to get married. '' Coulson 's deal with Ghost Rider was also revealed, which was to have the Kree serum that revived him after his death be burned off, resulting in his chest wound slowly killing him. Whedon said that Coulson has "come to terms with it. It 's something he actually had to come to terms with a long time ago when he was discovering the T.A.H.I.T.I. Project and everything that had been done to him. I do n't think he wants to go through any of that again. He 's ready for nature to take its course... he seems as much at peace with it as you can be considering there 's so much he 's done in a world that thinks he 's dead. ''
At the end of February 2018, the writers were planning the end of the pod, and were planning for the final episode to be able to serve as both a season and series finale, with some elements that could be adjusted based on whether the series was renewed for a sixth season or not. Whedon added, "we 're ready for if this is the end. We 're definitely going to make it rewarding either way. ''
Main cast members Clark Gregg, Ming - Na Wen, Chloe Bennet, Iain De Caestecker, Elizabeth Henstridge, and Henry Simmons return from previous seasons as Phil Coulson, Melinda May, Daisy Johnson / Quake, Leo Fitz, Jemma Simmons, and Alphonso "Mack '' MacKenzie, respectively. Before the 2017 New York Comic - Con, it was revealed that Natalia Cordova - Buckley had been promoted to series regular for the season, after recurring in the past two seasons as Elena "Yo - Yo '' Rodriguez. De Caestecker also portrays "The Doctor '', the version of Fitz from the Framework reality.
In September 2017, former series regular Nick Blood was announced as returning to reprise his role of Lance Hunter. Blood left the series during the third season, to star in the spin - off series Marvel 's Most Wanted, which never came to fruition. Adrianne Palicki, who portrayed Bobbi Morse and also left in the third season for Most Wanted with Blood, expressed interest in October 2017 in returning to guest star in the season, saying she "would absolutely come back '' if asked. Also returning from earlier in the series are Joel Stoffer as Enoch, who was simply credited as "silhouetted man '' in his previous appearance, and Lola Glaudini as Polly Hinton. Polly 's daughter Robin also appears, portrayed by multiple actresses, after the character made an uncredited appearance in "Ascension '': Lexy Kolker appears as 7 - years - old Robin, Ava Kolker appears as 12 - year - old Robin, and Willow Hale appears as an older Robin, when she is also known as The Seer.
Additional returning actors include Brian Patrick Wade as Carl Creel, J. August Richards as Mike Peterson / Deathlok, Spencer Treat Clark as Werner von Strucker, Zach McGowan as Anton Ivanov / The Superior, Adrian Pasdar as Glenn Talbot, Reed Diamond as Daniel Whitehall, and Raquel Gardner as Carla Talbot, along with Briana Venskus and Maximilian Osinski as S.H.I.E.L.D. agents Piper and Davis. The characters Lash and Hive return from earlier seasons for the series ' 100th episode. Younger versions of Jasper Sitwell and Wolfgang von Strucker also appear, portrayed by Adam Faison and Joey Defore, respectively. Older versions of the characters had been respectively portrayed by Maximiliano Hernández (in the MCU films and first season of the series) and Thomas Kretschmann (in the MCU films).
Jeff Ward was cast in a recurring role in August 2017, and was revealed in October to be portraying Deke Shaw, alongside other newcomers Eve Harlow as Tess, Coy Stewart as Flint, and Pruitt Taylor Vince as Grill. The next month, Marvel revealed that Dove Cameron had joined the season in an unspecified role, which was revealed in January 2018 to be the character Ruby, the daughter of Catherine Dent 's General Hale. Other recurring guests for the season include Dominic Rains as Kasius, Florence Faivre as Sinara, Jay Hunter as a Kree watch commander, Tunisha Hubbard as Ava, and Shontae Saldana as Candice Lee.
After leaving the series during the fourth season, costume designer Ann Foley returned for the first two episodes of the fifth season, before handing over to Whitney Galitz, who had assisted her on the previous few seasons, and Christann Chanell. The opening for "Orientation '' is reminiscent of the sequence for "4,722 Hours '', forgoing the title card and having the typeface silently fading onto the screen. The subsequent episodes of the season feature a title card with the series name against a backdrop of a destroyed Earth.
Filming for the season began on July 20, 2017. In May 2017, Gregg expressed interest in directing an episode in the season, and confirmed that September he would be directing an episode, which was the sixth of the season, "Fun & Games ''. Gregg felt the idea of directing was "daunting '' as he would need to be doing "five weeks of double duty '', needing to act in addition to the various aspects of directing the episode. He reached out to fellow S.H.I.E.L.D. directors Kevin Tancharoen, Billy Gierhart, and Jesse Bochco to get tips on filming for the series. Bennet felt Gregg was able to bring out performances from the cast "that another director probably would n't have been able to because he knows the characters so well. '' Gregg added that he had "shorthand with (the other actors) about what we want to try to do, ways the script could give us a chance to push us into new territory. They all also have deep and interesting ideas that helped me. '' Gregg also received a deeper appreciation for some of the other departments on the series he normally does not encounter on a regular basis and the work they contribute to each episode. The scene for Fitz and Simmons ' wedding in "The Real Deal '' was filmed in "a very remote location '' in Placerita Canyon State Park.
In terms of having connections to Marvel 's Inhumans, Whedon felt it was doubtful, but noted "we also want there to be a bigger reward for people who watch all of (the MCU series), so they 'll start to see that there 's lines connecting it. It 's more fun for people who are playing the whole game, but if you do n't, you 'll still have a great rollercoaster ride. '' In November 2017, Whedon said that the season would not have moved the characters to space if the recent MCU films like Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2 and Thor: Ragnarok had not been exploring that part of the MCU, but that this would remain a "thematic tie ''. He explained that they had moved on from the overt tie - ins with the MCU films that the series utilized in earlier seasons because "we have our own mythology. That started to be much more interesting to us, and hopefully to the audience, just digging that stuff up. No one wants to come to see our show to see another show. '' Whedon added in March 2018 that the then - upcoming release of Avengers: Infinity War would similarly "open a new playground '' for the series to explore.
The season features the Kree, an alien race that previously appeared in the first, second and third seasons, and in the film Guardians of the Galaxy. The fictional element Gravitonium also returns, having first appeared in the first season.
The season began airing in the United States on ABC on December 1, 2017, beginning once Inhumans finished airing its episodes. It is set to run for 22 episodes, with a short hiatus for the airing of the 2018 Winter Olympics between "Past Life '' and "All the Comforts of Home ''. The season is intended to conclude on May 18, 2018.
The fifth season moved to a Friday timeslot, alongside the seventh season of ABC 's Once Upon a Time, with ABC chief Channing Dungey explaining, "We 've turned Friday into more of a destination for our fantasy and science fiction fans. Once Upon a Time and S.H.I.E.L.D. are airing on the same night for the first time, which is giving many fans of both shows what they 've been asking for for a long time. '' Andy Kubitz, executive vice president for program planning and scheduling at ABC, added that ABC had "confidence that (the S.H.I.E.L.D.) core audience... (would) travel with it '' to its new Friday time slot. He continued, "The great thing about Friday night for these shows is it gives three days of downtime for a lot of these younger viewers to be able to catch up on it. You 've got Saturday and Sunday viewing that will be able to be counted into our C3 to help us monetize it. ''
The main cast of the season appeared at New York Comic Con on October 7, 2017, where they promoted the season and debuted the first 20 minutes of the first episode of the season. A shortened version of the footage was released by ABC and Marvel on November 26, 2017, as a sneak peek before the season premiere later that week. The cast and executive producers will appear at WonderCon 2018 on March 24, to promote the rest of the season, and show a sneak peek of an upcoming episode. Marvel released three roundtable discussions in support of the series reaching 100 episodes. Hosted by Patton Oswalt, who has portrayed The Koenigs in the series, the first was released on March 8, 2018 with the women of the series. The second, which release on March 9, featured the full cast, while the third debuted on March 12 with the executive producers. All premiered on Marvel.com while also being available on Marvel and the series ' social media platforms and Marvel 's YouTube channel. The executive producers, main cast members except Gregg, and Ward appeared at WonderCon 2018 to promote the remainder of the season and answer fan questions. A clip from the end of "Rise and Shine '' was also shown.
In December 2017, Marvel announced the "Marvel 's Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D.: The Road to 100 '' art program to commemorate the series reaching 100 episodes. The program features five posters, one for each season of the series, representing "key pivotal moments of each season ''. The art also appeared as variant covers to select titles published by Marvel Comics in March 2018. Megan Thomas Bradner, Vice President of Development and Production, Live Action at Marvel Television, called reaching 100 episodes "quite a feat... and it felt special enough to share with the fans that got us here. By working with some of our favorite comic artists, we felt we could show a large variety of meaningful moments and the characters that helped get us to a 100. '' She added that the program "commemorates these creators, the actors, the characters and a hundred amazing stories ''.
The first poster, highlighting season one, was created by Dale Keown. It features four panels, showcasing the moment Coulson and Grant Ward approached Skye in her van from the pilot, Coulson learning he survived the Battle of New York from the T.A.H.I.T.I. program and a drug from a half - dissected Kree alien corpse, the moment Grant Ward revealed he was a Hydra agent by killing Victoria Hand, and Fitz giving Simmons the last remaining oxygen tank and declaring his love for her in the season one finale. The second poster, highlighting season two, was created by Daniel Acuña. The scenes depicted are Coulson writing the Inhuman map on a wall; Daisy coming out of her Terrigenesis; the S.H.I.E.L.D. team, Bobbi Morse, Lance Hunter, and the "real S.H.I.E.L.D. '' logo; and May cradling the deceased body of Katya Belyakov. The third poster, highlighting season three, was created by Nick Bradshaw. The poster shows the S.H.I.E.L.D. team and Hive, along with the Hydra logo breaking the S.H.I.E.L.D. logo and its tentacles covering much of the poster. Specific moments highlighted include Fitz and Simmons after she has been pulled from the portal to Maveth, Coulson killing Ward on Maveth, and the formation of the Secret Warriors. The fourth poster, highlighting season four, was created by Rahzzah. It highlighted the introduction of Ghost Rider, Life Model Decoys (LMD) and the Framework reality, Jeffrey Mace sacrificing himself in the Framework, and Coulson 's kiss with the May LMD. The fifth and final poster, highlighting this season, was created by Stonehouse. Flanked on either side are Kasius and Sinara, with the S.H.I.E.L.D. team and Deke in the center in front of the destroyed Earth of the future as well as Fitz reuniting with Simmons.
The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reports a 100 % approval rating, with an average rating of 7.71 out of 10, based on 11 reviews.
Reviewing the premiere episodes, Merrill Barr of Forbes felt moving the series to space was not a reboot of the series, rather "a continuation, in some form, of the story set - up at the end of last season. The show is not different. The team is still trying to save the world. They 're just doing it in a new place and new way. Overall, there 's a lot to love about what S.H.I.E.L.D. is doing in the new season. It 's a crazy ride fans are going to be glad they 've stayed aboard for. The "Agents of Hydra '' run (at the end of season four) was a bit weak. The space run is so far proving to be anything but. '' Jon Negroni of We Got This Covered praised the show for its delightful twists and turns and for not relying on what 's already worked, adding that "it 's a testament to the show 's ongoing experimentation that we can watch these characters get to space and believe that this is far from their final frontier. '' He felt, however, that there was "little room for pathos and seeds for character development '' and that "we know almost nothing about where these individuals are at emotionally because of how fast we blazed through the finale. '' Alex McLevy of The A.V. Club praised the move to space, saying that "if season four was Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. firing on all cylinders, especially during its stellar ' Agents of Hydra ' arc in the Framework, then this is the look of a show that knows it has mastered its storytelling, and is confidently expanding the scope of its ambition. ''
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who introduced the dual system of administration in bengal | Nawabs of Bengal and Murshidabad - Wikipedia
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The Nawabs of Bengal (full title, the Nawab Nizam of Bengal and Orissa) were the rulers of the then provinces of Bengal and Orissa. Between 1717 and 1765, they served as the rulers of the subah (or province) of Bengal. However, they were only nominally subordinate to the Mughal Empire. Siraj ud - Daulah, the last independent Nawab of Bengal was betrayed in the Battle of Plassey by Mir Jafar. He lost to the British, who took over the charge of Bengal in 1757, installed Mir Jafar on the Masnad (throne) and established itself to a political power in Bengal.
In 1765 the system of Dual Government was established, in which the Nawabs ruled on behalf of the British and were mere puppets to the British. In 1772 the system was abolished and Bengal was brought under direct control of the British. In 1793, when the Nizamat (governorship) of the Nawab was also taken away from them, they remained as the mere pensioners of the British East India Company. The last Nawab of Bengal, Mansur Ali Khan abdicated on 1 November 1880 in favour of his eldest son, Hassan Ali Mirza.
Nawabs of Murshidabad succeeded the Nawabs of Bengal as Nawab Bahadur of Murshidabad, following Mansur Ali Khan 's abdication They got the title changed as the title of the Nawab of Bengal was abolished in 1880. They had little or no say in the share of the revenue collected and were ceased to use any force. After Indian Independence in 1947 it was declared that the princely states must accede to either India or Pakistan (East / West Pakistan). Murshidabad (the capital city) became a part of East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) for two days, as it had a Muslim majority. It became a part of India on 17 August 1947, following which the Pakistani flag was brought down from the Hazarduari Palace and the Indian tricolour was hoisted atop it. After merging with India, they had no power as the Government of India took over all the princely states in India. The house of the Nawabs appeared to have come to end in 1969 with Waris Ali Mirza being the last reigning Nawab and with no clear succession. Although he left three sons and three daughters there was no clear successor to the title after his death because he disinherited one and the others disputed his will.
Eventually, in August 2014, the Supreme Court of India declared Syed Mohammed Abbas Ali Mirza (born 1942) to be the heir to the erstwhile Nawab Bahadur of Murshidabad and lawful heir to the Nawab 's property and office which had been in abeyance since the death of Abbas Ali Mirza 's maternal uncle Waris Ali Mirza (the third Nawab Bahadur of Murshidabad) in 1969. However, it is to be noted that after Indian independence in 1947, followed by the promulgation of the Indian Constitution on 26 January 1950, which marked the transformation of the Dominion of India into the Republic of India, the Article 18 of the Indian Constitution abolished all titles, except those given by the Government of India to those who have made their mark in military and academic fields. However, under the policy of Privy Purse nobles were allowed to enjoy certain privileges and keep their titles. But this policy was abolished in 1971 by the twenty - sixth Amendment of the Constitution of India. Thus the title of the "Nawab Bahadur of Murshidabad '' was officially, constitutionally and legally abolished in 1971.
The term "Bengal '' incorporates to delineate the ethno - linguistic region of Bengal which including but not limited is all districts within the People 's Republic of Bangladesh, as well as West Bengal, India. During the first partition of Bengal in the early 20th century a new province, Eastern Bengal was created as a Lieutenant - Governorship along with Assam. In 1911, East Bengal (now Bangladesh) was reunited with Bengal, and the new provinces in the east became: Assam, Bengal Province. The Nawab thus gained rule over Orissa, which were earlier part of Bengal. So sometimes That is why the Nawabs of Bengal were also mentioned as "Nawab of Bengal '' - where Nazim (or, Subahdar) means the provincial governor - as they ruled over three subahs while the Nawabs of Murshidabad were the local ruler of the city of Murshidabad. The majority of modern Bengal is inhabited by Bengali people who speak the Bengali language.
Modern Bengal include the present day country of Bangladesh and the present day Indian states of West Bengal and Tripura
1893 map of Bengal
1831 map of Hindustan showing the then Bengal in green in the north east
The early Sultans of Bengal ruled until 1282 which was followed by the rule of several successive dynasties. Ilyas Shah founder of the Ilyas Shahi dynasty, took complete charge of the then Bengal and the capital was shifted to Sonargaon (near present day, Dhaka in Bangladesh). He was one of the independent rulers of Bengal. His son, Sikandar Shah, who succeeded him, built the Adina Mosque at Pandua, near Gour, Adina Mosque in the medieval times, was considered to be the largest in undivided Bengal, as well as the entire Indian subcontinent.
The Mughal Empire emerged as a powerful Empire in northern India. Babur, who was related to two legendary warriors -- Timur and Genghis Khan, invaded north India and defeated Ibrahim Lodi of the Lodi dynasty. Babur thus became the first Mughal emperor. He was succeeded by his son, Humayun. At the same time, Sher Shah Suri (alias Farid Khan) of the Suri dynasty rose to prominence and established himself as the ruler of the present day Bihar by defeating Ghiyasuddin Shah. But he lost to capture the kingdom because of sudden expedition of Humayun. In 1539, Sher Khan faced Humayun in the Battle of Chausa. He forced Humayun out of India. Assuming the title Sher Shah, he ascended the throne of Delhi. He also captured Agra and established control from Bengal in the east, to the Indus River in the west. After his death he was succeeded by his son, Islam Shah Suri. But in 1544 the Suris were torn apart by internal conflicts. Humayun took this advantage and captured Lahore and Delhi, but he died in 1556 AD. He was succeeded by Akbar, who defeated Daud Khan Karrani of Bengal 's Karrani Dynasty (or, Karnani Dynasty). After this, the administration of the entire region of Bengal passed into the hands of governors appointed by the Mughal emperors, who ruled Bengal till 1716 AD.
There were several posts under the Mughal administrative system during Akbar 's reign. Diwani was a system of provincial revenue administration under the Mughals. Nizamat (civil administration) and Diwani (revenue administration) were the two main branches of the provincial administration under the Mughals. A Subahdar (provincial viceroy or governor), also called a Nizam was in - charge of the Nizamat. There was a chain of subordinate officials under the Nizams on the executive side and under Diwans on the revenue and judicial side.
Murshid Quli Khan arrived as the Diwan of Bengal in 1717 AD. Before his arrival, there were four Diwans. And, after his arrival, Azim - ush - Shan held the Nizam 's office. Azim got into conflict with Murshid Quli Khan over imperial financial control. Considering the complaint of Khan, the then Mughal emperor, Aurangzeb ordered Azim to move to Bihar. Upon his departure the two posts united in one and Murshid Quli Khan became the first Nizam cum Diwan of Bengal. Murshid Khan was appointed the "Nawab Nizam of Bengal '' and he emerged as the ruler of Bengal under the Mughals. Murshidabad remained the capital of the Nawabs of Bengal until their rule. The Nawab Siraj ud - Daulah, was betrayed in the Battle of Plassey by Mir Jaffer. He lost to the British East India Company, who took installed Mir Jaffer on the Masnad (throne), as a "puppet ruler '' and established itself to a political power in Bengal.
In 1765, Robert Clive, of the British East India Company, became the first British Governor of Bengal. He secured in perpetuity for the Company the Diwani (revenue and civil justice) of the then Bengal subah from the then Mughal Emperor, Shah Alam II and thus the system of Dual Government was established and the Bengal Presidency was formed. In 1772 the Dual Government system was abolished and Bengal was brought under direct control of the British. In 1793, when the Nizamat (military power and criminal justice) of the Nawab was also taken away from them, they remained as the mere pensioners of the British East India Company. After the Revolt of 1857, Company rule in India ended and the British Crown took over the territories which were under the direct rule of the British East India Company in 1858, which marked the beginning of the British Raj. These territories, including the territory of the Nawab Nazims came under the direct rule of the British Crown and British Raj was established in India. Thus, the Nawab Nizams remained just the titular heads of their territory, which was now ruled by the British Crown, and they had no political or any other kind of control over the territory. The last Nawab of Bengal, Mansoor Ali Khan abdicated on 1 November 1880 in favour of his eldest son.
From 1717 until 1880, three successive Islamic dynasties -- Nasiri, Afshar and Najafi -- ruled what was then known as Bengal.
The first dynasty, the Nasiri, ruled from 1717 until 1740. The founder of the Nasiri, Murshid Quli Khan, was born a poor Deccani Odia Brahmin before being sold into slavery and bought by one Haji Shafi Isfahani, a Persian merchant from Isfahan who converted him to Islam. He entered the service of Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb and rose through the ranks before becoming the Nawab Nizam of Bengal in 1717, a post he held until his death in 1727. He in turn was succeeded by his son - in - law, Shuja - ud - Din Muhammad Khan. After Shuja - ud - Din 's death in 1739 he was succeeded by his son, Sarfaraz Khan, who held the rank, until he was killed in the Battle of Giria in 1741, and was succeeded by Alivardi Khan, former ruler of Patna, of the Afshar Dynasty in 1740.
The second dynasty, the Afshar, ruled from 1740 to 1757. Siraj ud - Daulah (Alivardi Khan 's grandson), the last Afshar Nawab was killed in the Battle of Plassey in 1757. They were succeeded by the third and final dynasty to rule the whole Bengal, the Najafi.
Bengal Subah was one of the wealthiest parts of the Mughal empire. As the Mughal empire began to decline, the Nawabs grew in power, although nominally subordinate to the Mughal emperor. They wielded great power in their own right and finally became independent rulers of the Bengal region, for all practical purposes, by the early 1700s.
Marathas undertook six expeditions in Bengal from 1741 -- 1748. Maratha general, Raghunath Rao was able to annex Orissa to his kingdom and the larger confederacy permanently as he successfully exploited the chaotic conditions prevailing in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa after the death of Murshid Quli Khan in 1727. Constantly harassed by the Bhonsles, Orissa, Bengal and parts of Bihar were economically ruined. Alivardi Khan made peace with Raghunathrao in 1751 ceding in perpetuity Orissa up to the river Suvarnarekha, and agreeing to pay ₹ 12 lacs annually in lieu of the Chauth of Bengal and Bihar.
The treaty included ₹ 20 lacs as Chauth for Bengal (includes both West Bengal and Bangladesh) and ₹ 12 lacs for Bihar (including Jharkhand). After this, Maratha promised never to cross the boundary of the Nawab of Bengal 's territory.
Thus, Baji Rao is hailed as the greatest Maratha chief after Shivaji because of his success in subjecting Muslim rulers of east India in states such as Bengal, Bihar and Orissa to the Maratha rule.
The break - up of the centralised Mughal empire by 1750, led to the creation of numerous semi-independent kingdoms (all provinces of the former Mughal empire). Nawab Siraj ud - Daulah was defeated by the British forces of Sir Robert Clive in the Battle of Plassey in 1757. Thereafter the Nawab of Bengal became a "puppet ruler '' depending on military support from British East India company to secure their throne. Siraj - ud - Daulah was replaced by Mir Jaffer. He was personally led to the throne by Robert Clive, after triumph of the British in the battle. He briefly tried to re-assert his power by allying with the Dutch, but this plan was ended by the Battle of Chinsurah. After the defeat at Battle of Buxar and grant of the Diwani (revenue collection) of Bengal by the then Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II, to the British East India Company in August 1765 and the appointment of Warren Hastings by the East India Company as their first Governor General of Bengal in 1773, the Nawabs authority became restricted. By 1773, British East India company asserted much authority and formed the Bengal Presidency over areas ruled by the Nawabs i.e. the Bengal subah, along with some other regions and abolished the system of Dual Government. In 1793 (during Nawab Mubarak ud - Daulah 's reign), the Nizamat (military power, civil and criminal justice) was abolished, British East India company thus annexed this former Mughal province as part of their empire and took complete control of the region, and the Nawabs of Bengal became mere pensioners of the British East India Company. All the Diwan offices except the Diwan Ton were also abolished.
After the Revolt of 1857, Company rule in India ended, and all the territories which were under the rule of the British East India Company came under the British Crown in 1858, which marked the beginning of the British Raj. And administrative control of India came under the Indian Civil Service, which had administrative control over all areas in India, except the Princely States.
Mansoor Ali Khan (aka Feradun Jah) was the last Nawab of Bengal. During his reign the Nizamat at Murshidabad became involved in debts. The then Government of India involved it into an action of preventing further claims. Feradun Jah left Murshidabad in February 1869 and started living in England. The title of "Nawab of Bengal '' was abolished in 1880. He returned to Bombay in October 1880 but spent most of his time pleading his case against the orders of the Government of India. After it was not resolved the Nawab renounced his styles and titles of Nawab Nizam of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa and abdicated in favour of his eldest son at St. Ives, Maidenhead, on 1 November 1880.
The Nawabs of Murshidabad succeeded the Nawab Nizams of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa as Nawab Bahadur of Murshidabad, following Mansoor Ali Khan 's abdication Nawabs of Murshidabad were the successors of the Nawabs of Bengal. After Lord Clive secured the Diwani of Bengal from Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II in 1765 for the East India Company they did not have any effective authority. So they lavishly enjoyed their title, privileges alongside with the honours they received. They got the title changed as the title of the Nawab of Bengal was abolished in 1880. They had little or no say and ceased to control any significant force.
After Indian Independence in 1947, all the non-princely states were subject to a test of religious majority in which the Muslim majority areas formed the Dominion of Pakistan, while the other regions formed the Dominion of India. Murshidabad (the capital city for both, the Nawabs of Bengal and the Nawabs of Murshidabad) became a part of East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) for two days, as it had a Muslim majority. However, it became a part of India on 17 August 1947. The Pakistani flag was brought down from the Hazarduari Palace and the Indian tricolour was hoisted atop the palace. The Nawabs, after the takeover by the British had no actual power and after merging with India too, they had yielded power, as the Government of India took over control of all the areas that merged with India. Furthermore, with the promulgation of the Indian Constitution on 26 January 1950, the Dominion of India was transformed into the Republic of India, and the Article 18 of the Indian Constitution (which is a part of the Right to Equality, a fundamental right in India), titles were abolished. The Article prevents the state from confirming any title except those titles given by the Government to those who have made their mark in military and academic fields. Such titles and awards include the Bharat Ratna, the Padma Shri and the Padma Vibhushan (the Supreme Court of India, on 15 December 1995, upheld the validity of such awards). Thus, with the promulgation of the Constitution, the title of the Nawab Bahadur of Murshidabad was abolished. And although, the Nawab Waris Ali Meerza held titles such as Raes ud - Daulah, they were not officially or legally recognised.
Although, the Nawab Bahadur of Murshidabad had no political power the office continued to be held by the second Nawab Bahadur Syed Wasif Ali Meerza Khan Bahadur, who had held the office since 1906, and after his death in 1959, he was succeeded by his son, Syed Wasif Ali Meerza Khan Bahadur. Waris Ali Meerza died in 1969, survived by his three sons and three daughters. According to the Nawab 's law, the eldest son of the Nawab succeeded him, however, Waris Ali 's eldest son, Wakif Ali Meerza Bahadur, was excluded from the succession by his father for contracting a non-Muslim marriage and for not professing the Muslim religion.
Waris Ali Meerza, the third Nawab Bahadur of Murshidabad, died in 1969, and he took no steps during his lifetime to establish his succession. And before declaring his successor Waris Ali died. There was no clear successor to Waris Ali.
Since then there was no clear successor to Waris Ali and the titular office / post was in dispute, and a legal battle ensued. And following this as the title was in dispute, a legal battle ensued. Abbas Ali Meerza claimed to be the legal heir of Waris Ali on the basis of being the son of the daughter of Waris Alis ' father, the second Nawab Bahadur of Murshidabad, Wasif Ali Meerza; while Sajid Ali Meerza claimed the same on the basis of being the son by mut'ah marriage of Wasif Ali. The case reached the Supreme Court and finally, the Supreme Court judges, Justice Ranjan Gogoi and Justice RK Agrawal, gave their judgement on 13 August 2014, declaring the then 72 - year - old Abbas Ali Meerza (full name, Syed Mohammed Abbas Ali Meerza), who happened to be the son of the only daughter of Waris Ali 's father, Wasif Ali Meerza (the third Nawab Bahadur of Murshidabad), the successor and the legal heir to the former Nawab of Murshidabad, Waris Ali Meerza. The Court directed Abbas Ali Meerza, son of Syed Muhammad Sadeque Ali Meerza, to be the direct descendant of Waris Ali Meerza. However, the case against the state 's annexation of the Murshidabad Estate, which is worth several thousand crores, is still on, as of 2014.
However, it is to be noted that after Indian independence in 1947, followed by the promulgation of the Indian Constitution on 26 January 1950, which marked the transformation of the Dominion of India into the Republic of India, the Article 18 of the Indian Constitution abolished all titles, except those given by the Government of India to those who have made their mark in military and academic fields. However, under the policy of Privy Purse nobles were allowed to enjoy certain privileges and keep their titles. But this policy was abolished in 1971 by the twenty - sixth Amendment of the Constitution of India. Thus the title of the "Nawab Bahadur of Murshidabad '' was officially, constitutionally and legally abolished in 1971. Thus, as titles have been abolished in India, the title of the Nawab Bahadur of Murshidabad no longer exists. However, Abbas Ali Meerza can now succeed Waris Ali Meerza 's office legally, but his title of the fourth Nawab Bahadur of Murshidabad would be unofficial, as the title is not legally and officially recognised.
The following is a list of all the Nawabs of Bengal. Sarfaraz Khan and Mir Mohammad Jaffer Ali Khan (Mir Jaffer) were the only Nawabs to become the Nawab twice. The chronology started in 1717 with Murshid Quli Khan and ended in 1881 with Mansoor Ali Khan 's abdication.
The Nawabs of Murshidabad succeeded the Nawabs of Bengal after the abdication in 1881 and the abolition of the title of Nawab of Bengal in 1880. There have been four Nawabs of Murshidabad, as of 2014, as follows. However, it is to be noted that Waris Ali Mirza was the last official Nawab Bahadur of Murshidabad, for titles like these were abolished in 1971. Though Abbas Ali Mirza is the legal heir to Waris Ali Mirza 's office, the title no longer enjoys legal sanctity owing to the abolition of the policy of Privy Purse by the twenty - sixth amendment to the Indian Constitution:
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when do meredith and derek get back together season 5 | Grey 's Anatomy (season 5) - wikipedia
The fifth season of the American television medical drama Grey 's Anatomy, created by Shonda Rhimes, commenced airing on American Broadcasting Company (ABC) in the United States on September 25, 2008 and concluded on May 14, 2009 with twenty - four aired episodes. The season follows the story of a group of surgeons as they go through their residency, while they also deal with the personal challenges and relationships with their mentors. Season five had thirteen series regulars with twelve of them returning from the previous season. The season aired in the Thursday night timeslot at 9: 00 pm. The season was officially released on DVD as seven - disc boxset under the title of Grey 's Anatomy: The Complete Fifth Season -- More Moments on September 9, 2009 by Buena Vista Home Entertainment.
The season was produced by Touchstone Television ABC Studios, The Mark Gordon Company, ShondaLand, and was distributed by Buena Vista International, Inc... The executive producers were creator Shonda Rhimes, Betsy Beers, Mark Gordon, Krista Vernoff, Rob Corn, Mark Wilding, Joan Rater, and James D. Parriott. The regular directors were Rob Corn, Eric Stoltz, and Tom Verica.
The fifth season had thirteen roles receiving star billing, with twelve of them returning from the previous season, out of which eight are part of the original cast from the first season. All of the thirteen regulars portray surgeons who work in the fictional Seattle Grace Hospital. Ellen Pompeo continued her role as protagonist and narrator of the series, Dr. Meredith Grey, a resident physician and a surgeon. Sandra Oh played resident Dr. Cristina Yang, best friend of Meredith and fellow surgeon. Katherine Heigl portrayed resident Dr. Isobel "Izzie '' Stevens whose previous relationship with the now deceased patient Denny Duquette threatens her career once again. Justin Chambers acted as surgical resident Dr. Alexander "Alex '' Karev who becomes Izzie 's husband, while T.R. Knight portrayed Dr. George O'Malley, an insecure resident whose sensitive personality puts his life in danger. General surgeon and Chief Resident Dr. Miranda Bailey was portrayed by Chandra Wilson, while general surgeon and Chief of Surgery Dr. Richard Webber was played by James Pickens, Jr. Sara Ramirez portrayed orthopedic surgeon Dr. Calliope "Callie '' Torres whose storylines during the season revolve around her recently discovered bisexuality. Eric Dane 's character, plastic surgeon Dr. Mark Sloan, begins a relationship with intern Dr. Lexie Grey, Meredith 's half - sister portrayed by Chyler Leigh. Brooke Smith appeared in seven episodes as cardiothoracic surgeon Dr. Erica Hahn, Callie 's love interest, who eventually resigns and moves away. Patrick Dempsey portrayed neurosurgeon Dr. Derek Shepherd whose relationship with Meredith Grey is the series ' main storyline.
Although originally introduced as a recurring character in the season premiere, trauma surgeon Dr. Owen Hunt was promoted to a series regular in the fourteenth episode of the season "Beat Your Heart Out ''. He was portrayed by Kevin McKidd and was conceived as a love interest to resident Cristina Yang. Originally only signed onto the show until December 2008, Kevin McKidd was upgraded to regular status after appearing in five episodes. Shonda Rhimes said, "I am excited to have Kevin McKidd joining us for the season, he 's been a delight to collaborate with and brings incredible passion, talent and creativity to his work. '' Weeks after Hunt 's first appearance on the show, Matt Roush of TVGuide comments that "Hunt / McKidd is the most encouraging thing to happen to Grey 's Anatomy in quite a while. '' Robert Rorke of the New York Post states that McKidd was brought in as Hunt to "boost the sagging fortunes '' of the show 's ratings. Kelley L. Carter of USA Today, describes Hunt as "hardcore '' and "the antithesis of the other males on the show. ''
Numerous supporting characters have been given expansive and recurring appearances in the progressive storyline, including: Melissa George as Sadie Harris, Kimberly Elise as Dr. Jo Swender, Jessica Capshaw as Dr. Arizona Robbins, Amy Madigan as Dr. Wyatt, Mary McDonnell as Dr. Virginia Dixon, Eric Stoltz as William Dunn, Jennifer Westfeldt as Jen Harmon, Ben Shenkman as Rob Harmon, Shannon Lucio as Amanda and Samantha Mathis as Melinda. Jeffrey Dean Morgan reappeared as the deceased Denny Duquette in Izzie 's hallucinations due to a brain tumor. Former series regular Kate Walsh returned to the show with a special guest star billing as Dr. Addison Montgomery along with fellow Private Practice stars Audra McDonald portraying Naomi Bennett, Taye Diggs in the role of Sam Bennett and Grant Show portraying Dr. Archer Montgomery. Tyne Daly also appeared receiving a special guest star in the role of Carolyn Maloney Shepherd, Derek 's mother, while Héctor Elizondo appeared as Carlos Torres, Callie 's father.
While few critics weighed in their point of view on the fourth season, several had opinions on the fifth season. Alan Sepinwall from the Newark Star - Ledger said "Overall, it really feels more like the good old days than Grey 's has in a long time '' referring to season five. Also regarding season five, Misha Davenport from Chicago Sun - Times said "Tonight 's premiere hits on all the things the show does so well. There is romance, heartbreak, humor and a few moments that will move fans to tears. '' Robert Bianco from USA Today said "Happily, it now seems to have landed on solid ground, with its best ensemble and most engaging stories in years '' regarding the show 's seventh season. Chandra Wilson won the 2009 "NAACP Outstanding Actress in a Drama Series '' for her portrayal of Dr. Miranda Bailey during the season.
The return of Izzie 's deceased fiancé Denny and the resumption of their romance during the season also proved unpopular with fans, and was deemed "the world 's worst storyline '' by Mary McNamara of the Los Angeles Times. McNamara was also critical of the episode "Now or Never '', which saw Izzie flatline following neurosurgery, opining that Izzie ought to die. The episode in which Izzie married long - term love Alex received 15.3 million viewers, the largest television audience of the night.
Izzie 's cancer storyline received a mixed response from the medical community. Otis Brawley, chief medical officer at the American Cancer Society, commented that Izzie 's treatment options were unrealistic. Whereas in the show she was offered the drug interleukin - 2, in reality the drug is never recommended to patients when melanoma has spread to the brain, as it can cause bleeding and strokes. Brawley explained that such patients would instead be offered radiosurgery. Conversely however, Tim Turnham, executive director of the Melanoma Research Foundation, praised Grey 's Anatomy for bringing about greater public awareness of melanoma, stating: "We welcome the national spotlight Grey 's Anatomy has created for melanoma and its efforts to encourage viewers to learn more about the importance of prevention, early detection and research. ''
The number in the "No. in series '' column refers to the episode 's number within the overall series, whereas the number in the "No. in season '' column refers to the episode 's number within this particular season. "U.S. viewers in millions '' refers to the number of Americans in millions who watched the episodes live. The fifth season 's episodes are altogether 1080 minutes in length.
Addison (Kate Walsh) arrives with her brother Archer (Grant Show), who has worms in his brain. While Addison is there, she discovers the truth about Mark and Lexie. Cristina learns of Owen 's pre-Iraq past. Cristina and Webber treat a man who wants to keep his cancer a secret from his daughter, who is Owen 's ex-fiance. Bailey considers a pediatric surgery fellowship. Izzie enlists the help of the attendings and her fellow residents in a game to boost camaraderie amongst the interns, and George finds out that Sadie is behind with her skills. When he reports her to Webber, she quits the program. Meredith 's pregnant patient is annoyed when she learns that her surgery has been postponed because of Addison 's brother. Alex begins to suspect that something is wrong with Izzie when she begins experiencing short - sightedness. Derek and Mark spend the evening reminiscing on their med school days with Addison, Naomi Bennett, and Sam Bennett.
The fifth season was released as a widescreen seven - disc Region 1 DVD box set in the USA on September 15, 2009, with the title Grey 's Anatomy: The Complete Fifth Season -- More Moments. Each of these releases also contained DVD extras, including footage from behind the scenes, deleted scenes and extended episodes. The same set was released on November 4, 2009 in Region 4 and on August 23, 2010 in Region 2.
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where is the most tobacco grown in the world | Tobacco - wikipedia
Tobacco is a product prepared from the leaves of the tobacco plant by curing them. The plant is part of the genus Nicotiana and of the Solanaceae (nightshade) family. While more than 70 species of tobacco are known, the chief commercial crop is N. tabacum. The more potent variant N. rustica is also used around the world.
Tobacco contains the alkaloid nicotine, which is a stimulant, and harmala alkaloids. Dried tobacco leaves are mainly used for smoking in cigarettes, cigars, pipe tobacco, and flavored shisha tobacco. They can also be consumed as snuff, chewing tobacco, dipping tobacco and snus.
Tobacco use is a risk factor for many diseases, especially those affecting the heart, liver, and lungs, as well as many cancers. In 2008, the World Health Organization named tobacco as the world 's single greatest preventable cause of death.
The English word "tobacco '' originates from the Spanish and Portuguese word "tabaco ''. The precise origin of this word is disputed, but it is generally thought to have derived at least in part, from Taino, the Arawakan language of the Caribbean. In Taino, it was said to mean either a roll of tobacco leaves (according to Bartolomé de las Casas, 1552) or to tabago, a kind of Y - shaped pipe used for sniffing tobacco smoke (according to Oviedo; with the leaves themselves being referred to as cohiba).
However, perhaps coincidentally, similar words in Spanish, Portuguese and Italian were used from 1410 to define medicinal herbs believed to have originated from the Arabic طُبّاق ṭubbāq (also طُباق ṭubāq), a word reportedly dating to the 9th century, as a name for various herbs.
Tobacco has long been used in the Americas, with some cultivation sites in Mexico dating back to 1400 -- 1000 BC. Many Native American tribes have traditionally grown and used tobacco. Eastern North American tribes historically carried tobacco in pouches as a readily accepted trade item, as well as smoking it, both socially and ceremonially, such as to seal a peace treaty or trade agreement. In some populations, tobacco is seen as a gift from the Creator, with the ceremonial tobacco smoke carrying one 's thoughts and prayers to the Creator.
Following the arrival of the Europeans to the Americas, tobacco became increasingly popular as a trade item. Hernández de Boncalo, Spanish chronicler of the Indies, was the first European to bring tobacco seeds to the Old World in 1559 following orders of King Philip II of Spain. These seeds were planted in the outskirts of Toledo, more specifically in an area known as "Los Cigarrales '' named after the continuous plagues of cicadas (cigarras in Spanish). Before the development of the lighter Virginia and white burley strains of tobacco, the smoke was too harsh to be inhaled. Small quantities were smoked at a time, using a pipe like the midwakh or kiseru or smoking newly invented waterpipes such as the bong or the hookah (see thuốc lào for a modern continuance of this practice). Tobacco became so popular that the English colony of Jamestown used it as currency and began exporting it as a cash crop; tobacco is often credited as being the export that saved Virginia from ruin.
The alleged benefits of tobacco also account for its considerable success. The astronomer Thomas Harriot, who accompanied Sir Richard Grenville on his 1585 expedition to Roanoke Island, explains that the plant "openeth all the pores and passages of the body '' so that the natives ' "bodies are notably preserved in health, and know not many grievous diseases, wherewithall we in England are often times afflicted. ''
Tobacco smoking, chewing, and snuffing became a major industry in Europe and its colonies by 1700.
Tobacco has been a major cash crop in Cuba and in other parts of the Caribbean since the 18th century. Cuban cigars are world - famous.
In the late 19th century, cigarettes became popular. James Bonsack created a machine that automated cigarette production. This increase in production allowed tremendous growth in the tobacco industry until the health revelations of the late - 20th century.
Following the scientific revelations of the mid-20th century, tobacco became condemned as a health hazard, and eventually became encompassed as a cause for cancer, as well as other respiratory and circulatory diseases. In the United States, this led to the Tobacco Master Settlement Agreement, which settled the lawsuit in exchange for a combination of yearly payments to the states and voluntary restrictions on advertising and marketing of tobacco products.
In the 1970s, Brown & Williamson cross-bred a strain of tobacco to produce Y1. This strain of tobacco contained an unusually high amount of nicotine, nearly doubling its content from 3.2 - 3.5 % to 6.5 %. In the 1990s, this prompted the Food and Drug Administration to use this strain as evidence that tobacco companies were intentionally manipulating the nicotine content of cigarettes.
In 2003, in response to growth of tobacco use in developing countries, the World Health Organization successfully rallied 168 countries to sign the Framework Convention on Tobacco Control. The convention is designed to push for effective legislation and its enforcement in all countries to reduce the harmful effects of tobacco. This led to the development of tobacco cessation products.
Many species of tobacco are in the genus of herbs Nicotiana. It is part of the nightshade family (Solanaceae) indigenous to North and South America, Australia, south west Africa, and the South Pacific.
Most nightshades contain varying amounts of nicotine, a powerful neurotoxin to insects. However, tobaccos tend to contain a much higher concentration of nicotine than the others. Unlike many other Solanaceae species, they do not contain tropane alkaloids, which are often poisonous to humans and other animals.
Despite containing enough nicotine and other compounds such as germacrene and anabasine and other piperidine alkaloids (varying between species) to deter most herbivores, a number of such animals have evolved the ability to feed on Nicotiana species without being harmed. Nonetheless, tobacco is unpalatable to many species due to its other attributes. For example, although the cabbage looper is a generalist pest, tobacco 's gummosis and trichomes can harm early larvae survival. As a result, some tobacco plants (chiefly N. glauca) have become established as invasive weeds in some places.
The types of tobacco include:
Tobacco is cultivated similarly to other agricultural products. Seeds were at first quickly scattered onto the soil. However, young plants came under increasing attack from flea beetles (Epitrix cucumeris or E. pubescens), which caused destruction of half the tobacco crops in United States in 1876. By 1890, successful experiments were conducted that placed the plant in a frame covered by thin cotton fabric. Today, tobacco is sown in cold frames or hotbeds, as their germination is activated by light.
In the United States, tobacco is often fertilized with the mineral apatite, which partially starves the plant of nitrogen, to produce a more desired flavor.
After the plants are about 8 inches (20 cm) tall, they are transplanted into the fields. Farmers used to have to wait for rainy weather to plant. A hole is created in the tilled earth with a tobacco peg, either a curved wooden tool or deer antler. After making two holes to the right and left, the planter would move forward two feet, select plants from his / her bag, and repeat. Various mechanical tobacco planters like Bemis, New Idea Setter, and New Holland Transplanter were invented in the late 19th and 20th centuries to automate the process: making the hole, watering it, guiding the plant in -- all in one motion.
Tobacco is cultivated annually, and can be harvested in several ways. In the oldest method still used today, the entire plant is harvested at once by cutting off the stalk at the ground with a tobacco knife. It is then speared onto sticks, four to six plants a stick and hung in a curing barn. In the 19th century, bright tobacco began to be harvested by pulling individual leaves off the stalk as they ripened. The leaves ripen from the ground upwards, so a field of tobacco harvested in this manner involves the serial harvest of a number of "primings '', beginning with the volado leaves near the ground, working to the seco leaves in the middle of the plant, and finishing with the potent ligero leaves at the top. Before this, the crop must be topped when the pink flowers develop. Topping always refers to the removal of the tobacco flower before the leaves are systematically removed, and eventually, entirely harvested. As the industrial revolution took hold, harvesting wagons used to transport leaves were equipped with man - powered stringers, an apparatus that used twine to attach leaves to a pole. In modern times, large fields are harvested mechanically, although topping the flower and in some cases the plucking of immature leaves is still done by hand. Most tobacco in the U.S. is grown in North Carolina, Kentucky, and Virginia.
Curing and subsequent aging allow for the slow oxidation and degradation of carotenoids in tobacco leaf. This produces certain compounds in the tobacco leaves, and gives a sweet hay, tea, rose oil, or fruity aromatic flavor that contributes to the "smoothness '' of the smoke. Starch is converted to sugar, which glycates protein, and is oxidized into advanced glycation endproducts (AGEs), a caramelization process that also adds flavor. Inhalation of these AGEs in tobacco smoke contributes to atherosclerosis and cancer. Levels of AGEs are dependent on the curing method used.
Tobacco can be cured through several methods, including:
Some tobaccos go through a second stage of curing, known as fermenting or sweating. Cavendish undergoes fermentation pressed in a casing solution containing sugar and / or flavoring.
Production of tobacco leaf increased by 40 % between 1971, when 4.2 million tons of leaf were produced, and 1997, when 5.9 million tons of leaf were produced. According to the Food and Agriculture organization of the UN, tobacco leaf production was expected to hit 7.1 million tons by 2010. This number is a bit lower than the record - high production of 1992, when 7.5 million tons of leaf were produced. The production growth was almost entirely due to increased productivity by developing nations, where production increased by 128 %. During that same time, production in developed countries actually decreased. China 's increase in tobacco production was the single biggest factor in the increase in world production. China 's share of the world market increased from 17 % in 1971 to 47 % in 1997. This growth can be partially explained by the existence of a high import tariff on foreign tobacco entering China. While this tariff has been reduced from 64 % in 1999 to 10 % in 2004, it still has led to local, Chinese cigarettes being preferred over foreign cigarettes because of their lower cost.
Every year, about 6.7 million tons of tobacco are produced throughout the world. The top producers of tobacco are China (39.6 %), India (8.3 %), Brazil (7.0 %) and the United States (4.6 %).
Around the peak of global tobacco production, 20 million rural Chinese households were producing tobacco on 2.1 million hectares of land. While it is the major crop for millions of Chinese farmers, growing tobacco is not as profitable as cotton or sugarcane, because the Chinese government sets the market price. While this price is guaranteed, it is lower than the natural market price, because of the lack of market risk. To further control tobacco in their borders, China founded a State Tobacco Monopoly Administration (STMA) in 1982. The STMA controls tobacco production, marketing, imports, and exports, and contributes 12 % to the nation 's national income. As noted above, despite the income generated for the state by profits from state - owned tobacco companies and the taxes paid by companies and retailers, China 's government has acted to reduce tobacco use.
India 's Tobacco Board is headquartered in Guntur in the state of Andhra Pradesh. India has 96,865 registered tobacco farmers and many more who are not registered. In 2010, 3,120 tobacco product manufacturing facilities were operating in all of India. Around 0.25 % of India 's cultivated land is used for tobacco production.
Since 1947, the Indian government has supported growth in the tobacco industry. India has seven tobacco research centers, located in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Punjab, Bihar, Mysore, and West Bengal houses the core research institute.
In Brazil, around 135,000 family farmers cite tobacco production as their main economic activity. Tobacco has never exceeded 0.7 % of the country 's total cultivated area. In the southern regions of Brazil, Virginia, and Amarelinho, flue - cured tobacco, as well as burley and Galpão Comum air - cured tobacco, are produced. These types of tobacco are used for cigarettes. In the northeast, darker, air - and sun - cured tobacco is grown. These types of tobacco are used for cigars, twists, and dark cigarettes. Brazil 's government has made attempts to reduce the production of tobacco, but has not had a successful systematic antitobacco farming initiative. Brazil 's government, however, provides small loans for family farms, including those that grow tobacco, through the Programa Nacional de Fortalecimento da Agricultura Familiar.
The International Labour Office reported that the most child - laborers work in agriculture, which is one of the most hazardous types of work. The tobacco industry houses some of these working children. Use of children is widespread on farms in Argentina, Brazil, China, India, Indonesia, Malawi, and Zimbabwe. While some of these children work with their families on small, family - owned farms, others work on large plantations. In late 2009, reports were released by the London - based human - rights group Plan International, claiming that child labor was common on Malawi (producer of 1.8 % of the world 's tobacco) tobacco farms. The organization interviewed 44 teens, who worked full - time on farms during the 2007 - 8 growing season. The child - laborers complained of low pay and long hours, as well as physical and sexual abuse by their supervisors. They also reported suffering from Green tobacco sickness, a form of nicotine poisoning. When wet leaves are handled, nicotine from the leaves gets absorbed in the skin and causes nausea, vomiting, and dizziness. Children were exposed to 50 - cigarettes - worth of nicotine through direct contact with tobacco leaves. This level of nicotine in children can permanently alter brain structure and function.
Major tobacco companies have encouraged global tobacco production. Philip Morris, British American Tobacco, and Japan Tobacco each own or lease tobacco - manufacturing facilities in at least 50 countries and buy crude tobacco leaf from at least 12 more countries. This encouragement, along with government subsidies, has led to a glut in the tobacco market. This surplus has resulted in lower prices, which are devastating to small - scale tobacco farmers. According to the World Bank, between 1985 and 2000, the inflation - adjusted price of tobacco dropped 37 %. Tobacco is the most widely smuggled legal product.
Tobacco production requires the use of large amounts of pesticides. Tobacco companies recommend up to 16 separate applications of pesticides just in the period between planting the seeds in greenhouses and transplanting the young plants to the field. Pesticide use has been worsened by the desire to produce larger crops in less time because of the decreasing market value of tobacco. Pesticides often harm tobacco farmers because they are unaware of the health effects and the proper safety protocol for working with pesticides. These pesticides, as well as fertilizers, end up in the soil, waterways, and the food chain. Coupled with child labor, pesticides pose an even greater threat. Early exposure to pesticides may increase a child 's lifelong cancer risk, as well as harm his or her nervous and immune systems.
Tobacco crops extract nutrients (such as phosphorus, nitrogen, and potassium) from soil, decreasing its fertility.
Furthermore, the wood used to cure tobacco in some places leads to deforestation. While some big tobacco producers such as China and the United States have access to petroleum, coal, and natural gas, which can be used as alternatives to wood, most developing countries still rely on wood in the curing process. Brazil alone uses the wood of 60 million trees per year for curing, packaging, and rolling cigarettes.
In 2017 WHO released a study on the environmental effects of tobacco.
Several tobacco plants have been used as model organisms in genetics. Tobacco BY - 2 cells, derived from N. tabacum cultivar ' Bright Yellow - 2 ', are among the most important research tools in plant cytology. Tobacco has played a pioneering role in callus culture research and the elucidation of the mechanism by which kinetin works, laying the groundwork for modern agricultural biotechnology. The first genetically modified plant was produced in 1982, using Agrobacterium tumefaciens to create an antibiotic - resistant tobacco plant. This research laid the groundwork for all genetically modified crops.
Because of its importance as a research tool, transgenic tobacco was the first GM crop to be tested in field trials, in the United States and France in 1986; China became the first country in the world to approve commercial planting of a GM crop in 1993, which was tobacco.
Many varieties of transgenic tobacco have been intensively tested in field trials. Agronomic traits such as resistance to pathogens (viruses, particularly to the tobacco mosaic virus (TMV); fungi; bacteria and nematodes); weed management via herbicide tolerance; resistance against insect pests; resistance to drought and cold; and production of useful products such as pharmaceuticals; and use of GM plants for bioremediation, have all been tested in over 400 field trials using tobacco.
Currently, only the US is producing GM tobacco. The Chinese virus - resistant tobacco was withdrawn from the market in China in 1997. In the US, cigarettes made with GM tobacco with reduced nicotine content are available under the market name Quest.
Tobacco is consumed in many forms and through a number of different methods. Some examples are:
Smoking in public was, for a long time, reserved for men, and when done by women was sometimes associated with promiscuity; in Japan, during the Edo period, prostitutes and their clients often approached one another under the guise of offering a smoke. The same was true in 19th - century Europe.
Following the American Civil War, the use of tobacco, primarily in cigars, became associated with masculinity and power. Today, tobacco use is often stigmatized; this has spawned quitting associations and antismoking campaigns. Bhutan is the only country in the world where tobacco sales are illegal. Due to its propensity for causing detumescence and erectile dysfunction, some studies have described tobacco as an anaphrodisiacal substance.
Research on tobacco use is limited mainly to smoking, which has been studied more extensively than any other form of consumption. An estimated 1.1 billion people, and up to one - third of the adult population, use tobacco in some form. Smoking is more prevalent among men (however, the gender gap declines with age), the poor, and in transitional or developing countries
Rates of smoking continue to rise in developing countries, but have leveled off or declined in developed countries. Smoking rates in the United States have dropped by half from 1965 to 2006, falling from 42 % to 20.8 % in adults. In the developing world, tobacco consumption is rising by 3.4 % per year.
Tobacco smoking poses a risk to health due to the inhalation of poisonous chemicals in tobacco smoke such as carbon monoxide, cyanide, and carcinogens which have been proven to cause heart and lung diseases and Cancer. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), tobacco is the single greatest cause of preventable death globally. The WHO estimates that tobacco caused 5.4 million deaths in 2004 and 100 million deaths over the course of the 20th century. Similarly, the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention describe tobacco use as "the single most important preventable risk to human health in developed countries and an important cause of premature death worldwide. ''
The harms caused by inhalation of poisonous chemicals such as carbon monoxide in tobacco smoke include diseases affecting the heart and lungs, with smoking being a major risk factor for heart attacks, strokes, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (emphysema), and cancer (particularly lung cancer, cancers of the larynx and mouth, and pancreatic cancers). Cancer is caused by inhaling carcinogenic substances present in tobacco smoke.
Inhaling secondhand tobacco smoke can cause lung cancer in nonsmoking adults. In the United States, about 3,000 adults die each year due to lung cancer from secondhand smoke exposure. Heart disease caused by secondhand smoke kills around 46,000 nonsmokers every year.
The addictive alkaloid nicotine is a stimulant, and popularly known as the most characteristic constituent of tobacco. Nicotine is known to produce conditioned place preference, a sign of enforcement value. Nicotine scores almost as highly as opioids on drug effect questionnaire liking scales, which are a rough indicator of addictive potential. Users may develop tolerance and dependence. Thousands of different substances in cigarette smoke, including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (such as benzopyrene), formaldehyde, cadmium, nickel, arsenic, tobacco - specific nitrosamines, and phenols contribute to the harmful effects of smoking. Tobacco 's overall harm to user and self score as determined by a multi-criteria decision analysis was determined at 3 percent below cocaine, and 13 percent above amphetamines, ranking 6th most harmful of the 20 drugs assessed.
Polonium 210 is a natural contaminant of tobacco, providing additional evidence for the link between smoking and bronchial cancer. It is also extremely toxic, with one microgram being enough to kill the average adult (250,000 times more toxic than hydrogen cyanide by weight).
Thinkers such as Noam Chomsky often describe tobacco as the second most lethal substance consumed by humans, the most lethal being sugar. This is primarily due to their long term impact on general health, the abundance in which they are consumed, and their legality which facilitates and promotes consumption.
Tobacco has a significant economic impact. The global tobacco market has been approximated to be US $760 billion (excluding China). Statistica estimates that in the U.S. alone the tobacco industry has a market of US $121 billion despite the fact the CDC reports that US smoking rates are declining steadily. In the US, the decline in the number of smokers, the end of the Tobacco Transition Payment Program in 2014, and competition from growers in other countries, made tobacco farming economics more challenging.
"Much of the disease burden and premature mortality attributable to tobacco use disproportionately affect the poor '', and of the 1.22 billion smokers, 1 billion of them live in developing or transitional economies.
Smoking of tobacco is practised worldwide by over one billion people. However, while smoking prevalence has declined in many developed countries, it remains high in others and is increasing among women and in developing countries. Between one - fifth and two - thirds of men in most populations smoke. Women 's smoking rates vary more widely but rarely equal male rates.
In Indonesia, the lowest income group spends 15 % of its total expenditures on tobacco. In Egypt, more than 10 % of households ' expenditure in low - income homes is on tobacco. The poorest 20 % of households in Mexico spend 11 % of their income on tobacco.
Tobacco advertising of tobacco products by the tobacco industry is through a variety of media, including sponsorship, particularly of sporting events. It is now one of the most highly regulated forms of marketing. Some or all forms of tobacco advertising are banned in many countries.
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where do i get a citizen card from | Citizen card (Portugal) - wikipedia
The Citizen Card (Portuguese: Cartão de Cidadão) or CC is an identity card issued by the Portuguese government to its citizens. The card replaces several previous documents, including the Bilhete de Identidade (BI; Identity Card), Social Security card, National Health Service card, Taxpayer card and voter registration card, in one secure card. The Citizen Card was first issued in the Azores in mid-2006.
However, as of 2017 BIs continued to be issued in some cases.
The main reason to introduce the new card was to reduce the number of separate documents required by citizens in dealings with the various institutions of the state. The CC is a smart card with a data storage chip capable of storing encrypted personal data. According to the Portuguese government, this device guarantees its privacy: for example, stored medical information can not be accessed by officials with access to the financial database of the citizen, to prevent abuse of power in obtaining data and protecting citizens ' privacy.
Another problem with the Bilhete de Identidade was that it was widely counterfeited. In addition to introducing the newer, more secure, CC, from 2008 identity documents could no longer be issued by Portuguese consulates as previously; identity documents could only be issued in Lisbon (although applied for elsewhere).
In many circumstances, a passport or driver 's license can still be used as an identification document. However, the "identity card '' or "citizen card '' is required by the Portuguese authorities. Foreigners, including European Union nationals, must carry a passport or valid identity card of their country of origin, and show it whenever required by officials.
The card is of similar size and appearance to a credit card. It contains a variety of information about the card holder.
The front of the card
The back of the card
On the chip
Citing the Council of the European Union PRADO database: Under the Porto Seguro Agreement, an identical model of Citizen Card can be issued to nationals of the Federative Republic of Brazil, who enjoy equal rights and duties. In that case, in the "Nacionalidade '' (nationality) field, the code "BRA '' appears and, on the back, the designation "CIDADÃO BRASILEIRO AO ABRIGO DO TRATADO DE PORTO SEGURO '', "BRAZILIAN CITIZEN UNDER PORTO SEGURO AGREEMENT ''. The document does not have optically readable lines (MRZ), but instead bears the indications "NÃO SERVE DE DOCUMENTO DE VIAGEM '' and "NOT VALID AS A TRAVEL DOCUMENT ''.
Open border with Schengen Area.
Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The vast majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia, therefore Russia as a whole is included as a European country here.
Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has a small part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace.
Azerbaijan (Nagorno - Karabakh) and Georgia (Abkhazia; South Ossetia) are transcontinental countries. Both have a small part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus.
Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has a small part of its territories located west of the Urals in Eastern Europe.
Armenia and Cyprus (Northern Cyprus) are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe.
Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has a small part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai Peninsula.
Partially recognized.
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attorney general of india has right of audience in | Attorney General of India - Wikipedia
The Attorney General of India is the Indian government 's chief legal advisor, and its primary lawyer in the Supreme Court of India. He can be said as the lawyer from government 's side. He is appointed by the President of India under Article 76 (1) of the Constitution and holds office during the pleasure of the President. He must be a person qualified to be appointed as a Judge of the Supreme Court, also must have been a judge of some high court for five years or an advocate of some high court for ten years or an eminent jurist, in the opinion of the President and must be a citizen of India.
The 15th and current Attorney General is K.K. Venugopal. He was appointed by Pranab Mukherjee, the President of India at that time. He was formally appointed as with effect from 30 June 2017 and shall have a tenure of 3 years.
The Attorney General is necessary for giving advice to the Government of India in legal matters referred to him. He also performs other legal duties assigned to him by the President. The Attorney General has the right of audience in all Courts in India as well as the right to participate in the proceedings of the Parliament, though not to vote. The Attorney General appears on behalf of Government of India in all cases (including suits, appeals and other proceedings) in the Supreme Court in which Government of India is concerned. He also represents the Government of India in any reference made by the President to the Supreme Court under Article 143 of the Constitution.
Unlike the Attorney General of the United States, the Attorney General for India does not have any executive authority. Those functions are performed by the Law Minister of India. Also the AG is not a government servant and is not debarred from private legal practice.
The Attorney General can accept briefs but can not appear against the Government. He can not defend an accused in the criminal proceedings and accept the directorship of a company without the permission of the Government.
The Attorney General is assisted by a Solicitor General and four additional Solicitors General. The Attorney General is to be consulted only in legal matters of real importance and only after the Ministry of Law has been consulted. All references to the Attorney General are made by the Law Ministry.
Fee and allowances payable to the law officers (including Attorney General for India, Solicitor General of India and the Additional Solicitors General) of the Government of India are as under:
In addition to the above fee payable for cases, a retainer fee is paid to the Attorney General for India, Solicitor General of India and the Additional Solicitors General at the rate of ₹ 50,000, ₹ 40,000 and ₹ 30,000 per month respectively. Moreover, the Attorney General for India is also paid a sumptuary allowance of ₹ 4,000 per month, except during the period of his leave.
It has become a tradition that the Attorney General resigns when a new government is formed. The Attorney General is selected by the Government and acts as its advocate, and hence is not a neutral person. Nevertheless, it is a constitutional authority, and his or her opinions are subject to public scrutiny. On several occasions however, the opinions pursued by the Attorney General appear to have been extremely politicised.
During some of the AG tenures, it has been felt that the attorney general has gone too far. Niren De during Indira Gandhi replied to a question by Hans Raj Khanna stating that even the right to life can be suspended during emergency.
Similarly, in 2005, when the UPA government was planning a possible coalition with Mayawati, Milon K. Banerjee 's opinion absolving Mayawati in the Taj corridor case was ignored by the Supreme Court. In a direct condemnation of the government which asked the CBI to heed attorney general Milon Banerjee 's opinion and close the case against Mayawati, the Supreme Court told the agency not to go solely on the AG 's opinion and place all evidence before it.
In 2009, Milon K. Banerjee 's opinion absolving Ottavio Quattrocchi in the Bofors scandal has also been viewed as "devaluing and eroding the Attorney General 's position ''.
During the UPA - II government (2009 -- 2014), the conduct of Attorney General Goolam Vahanvati was criticised in a number of cases. In 2G spectrum case, he became the first Attorney General in India 's history who had to testify as a witness in a corruption case in a trial court. In late April 2013, in Coal-gate scandal, Vahanvati was accused of misrepresenting facts in the top most court of India. Again in the same case, Vahanvati 's role came under scrutiny after allegations of impropriety and coercion emerged from his junior law officer, Harin P. Raval, who resigned from the post of Additional Solicitor General as a result.
The Attorneys General for India since independence are listed below:
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who sings intro to alaska the last frontier | Jewel (singer) - wikipedia
Jewel Kilcher (born May 23, 1974), known mononymously as Jewel, is an American singer - songwriter, guitarist, producer, actress, author, and poet. She has received four Grammy Award nominations and, as of 2008, has sold over 30 million albums worldwide. Kilcher was raised in Homer, Alaska, where she grew up singing and yodeling as a duo with her father, a local musician. At age fifteen, she received a partial scholarship at the Interlochen Arts Academy in Michigan, where she studied operatic voice.
After graduating, Kilcher began writing and performing at clubs and coffeehouses in San Diego, California. Based on local media attention, she was offered a recording contract with Atlantic Records, who released her debut album, Pieces of You, in 1995; it went on to become one of the best - selling debut albums of all time, going 12 - times platinum. The debut single from the album, "Who Will Save Your Soul '', peaked at number 11 on the Billboard Hot 100; two others, "You Were Meant for Me '' and "Foolish Games '', reached number two on the Hot 100, and were listed on Billboard 's 1997 year - end singles chart, as well as Billboard 's 1998 year - end singles chart.
Her subsequent album, Spirit, was released in 1998, followed by This Way (2001). In 2003, she released 0304, which marked a departure from her previous folk - oriented records, figuring electronic arrangements and elements of dance - pop. In 2008, she released Perfectly Clear, her first country album; it debuted atop Billboard 's Top Country Albums chart and featured three singles, "Stronger Woman '', "I Do '', and "' Til It Feels Like Cheating ''. Jewel released her first independent album, Lullaby, in 2009.
Jewel has also had endeavors in writing and acting; in 1998 she released a collection of poetry, and the following year appeared in a supporting role in Ang Lee 's Western film Ride with the Devil (1999) which earned her critical acclaim.
Jewel was born May 23, 1974 in Payson, Utah, the second child of Attila Kuno "Atz '' Kilcher and Lenedra Jewel Kilcher (née Carroll). At the time of her birth, her parents had been living in Utah with her elder brother, Shane; her father was attending Brigham Young University. She is a first cousin once removed of actress Q'orianka Kilcher. Her father, originally from Alaska, was a Mormon, though the family stopped attending The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints after her parents ' divorce when she was eight years old. Her paternal grandfather, Yule Kilcher, was a delegate to the Alaska Constitutional convention and a state senator of German descent who settled in Alaska after emigrating from Switzerland. He was also the first recorded person to cross the Harding Icefield.
Shortly after her birth, the family relocated to Anchorage, Alaska, settling on the Kilcher family 's 770 - acre (310 ha) homestead. There, her younger brother, Atz Jr., was born. She also has a half - brother, Nikos, who was primarily raised in Oregon by his mother, with whom her father had a brief relationship; she would later become close to him in adulthood. After her parents ' divorce in 1981, Kilcher lived with her father in Homer, Alaska. The house she grew up in lacked indoor plumbing and had only a simple outhouse. The Kilcher family is featured on the Discovery Channel show Alaska: The Last Frontier, which chronicles their day - to - day struggles living in the Alaskan wilderness. Recalling her upbringing, she said:
We lived far from town. We had to walk 2 miles (3.2 km) just to get to the saddle barn I was raised in... No running water, no heat -- we had a coal stove and an outhouse and we mainly lived off of what we could kill or can. We picked berries and made jam. We caught fish to freeze and had gardens and cattle to live on. I rode horses every day in the summer beneath the Alaskan midnight sun. I loved it there.
Kilcher and her father sometimes earned a living by performing music in roadhouses and taverns as a father - daughter duo; they also often sang at hotels in Anchorage, including the Hotel Captain Cook and the Hilton Anchorage. It was during this time that Kilcher learned yodel from her father. She would later credit the time she spent in bars as integral to her formative years: "I saw women who would compromise themselves for compliments, for flattery; or men who would run away from themselves by drinking until they ultimately killed themselves. ''
At age fifteen, while working at a dance studio in Anchorage, she was referred by the studio instructor to Interlochen Arts Academy in Interlochen, Michigan, where she applied and received a partial scholarship to study operatic voice. Local businesses in her hometown of Homer donated items for auction to help allocate additional funds, and raised a total of $11,000 to pay the remainder of her first year 's tuition. She subsequently relocated to Michigan to attend Interlochen, where she received classical training, and also learned to play guitar. She began writing songs on guitar at age sixteen. While in school, she would often perform live in coffeehouses. After graduating, she relocated to San Diego, California, where she worked in a coffee shop and as a phone operator at a computer warehouse.
For a time, Kilcher lived in her car while traveling around the country doing street performances and small gigs, mainly in Southern California. She gained recognition by singing at The Inner Change Cafe and Java Joe 's in San Diego; she would later make her debut record at Java Joe 's when it was in Poway, where she had worked as a barista. Her friend Steve Poltz 's band, The Rugburns, played the same venues. She later collaborated with Poltz on some of her songs, including "You Were Meant for Me ''. (He also appeared in the song 's second, better - known video.) The Rugburns opened for Jewel on her Tiny Lights tour in 1997. Poltz appeared in Jewel 's band on the Spirit World Tour 1999 playing guitar.
Kilcher was discovered by Inga Vainshtein in August 1993 when John Hogan, lead singer from the local San Diego band Rust, whom Vainshtein was managing, called to tell her about a girl surfer who sang at a local coffee shop on Thursdays. Vainshtein drove to The Inner Change with a representative from Atlantic Records, and after the show they called Danny Goldberg, the head of Atlantic Record 's West Coast operations, and asked him to pay for her demo, since at the time she was living in a van and lacked the means to record any of her own music. Vainshtein, who at the time was working as a film executive at Paramount, eventually became her manager and was instrumental in creating a major bidding war that led to her deal with Atlantic Records. She continued to manage Jewel until the end of the first album cycle. Her debut album Pieces of You was released the eponym of Jewel, in 1995 when she was 21 years old. Recorded in a studio on singer Neil Young 's ranch, it included Young 's backing band, The Stray Gators, who played on his Harvest and Harvest Moon albums. Part of the album was recorded live at The Inner Change Cafe in San Diego, where she had risen to local fame. The album stayed on the Billboard 200 for two years, reaching number four at its peak. The album spawned the Top 10 hits "You Were Meant for Me '', "Who Will Save Your Soul '', and "Foolish Games ''. The album eventually sold over 12 million copies in the United States alone.
In the late 1990s, Mike Connell created an electronic mailing list for fans, known as "Everyday Angels ''. Although Jewel herself does not subscribe to this mailing list, she maintained communication with her EA fans. On July 18 and 19, 1996, she gave a two - day concert known as "JewelStock '' at the Bearsville Theatre. Jewel allowed the concert to be taped, and fans circulated the concert without profit.
Jewel was chosen to sing the American national anthem at the opening of the Super Bowl XXXII in January 1998 in San Diego. She was introduced as "San Diego 's own Jewel! '' but criticized for lip syncing the anthem to a digitally - recorded track of her own voice. This was especially noticeable due to her missing her cue and not mouthing the first words. Super Bowl producers have since admitted that they attempt to have all performers pre-record their vocals. She performed the "Star - Spangled Banner '' again in the 2003 NBA Finals in one of the New Jersey Nets ' home games.
From her second album, Spirit, the song "Hands '' hit No. 6 on the Hot 100. Other singles followed, including a new version of "Jupiter (Swallow the Moon) '', "What 's Simple Is True '' (the theme song to her upcoming movie), and the charity single "Life Uncommon ''.
A year later, in November 1999, Jewel released Joy: A Holiday Collection. The album sold over a million copies and peaked at No. 32 on the Billboard 200. She released a cover of "Joy to the World '' from the album as a single.
In November 2001 the album This Way was released. The album peaked at No. 9 on the Billboard 200 and sold over 1.5 million copies in the U.S. A song from the album "Standing Still '' hit the Top 30. Other singles released were "Break Me '', "This Way '', and "Serve the Ego '', the latter giving Jewel her first number one club hit.
In 2003 Jewel released the album 0304. Following the limited success of "Serve the Ego '', Jewel moved to a more pop - oriented sound with the release of the single "Intuition ''. The song reached No. 5 on the Billboard Adult Pop Songs chart and No. 20 on the Billboard Hot 100.
On May 2, 2006, Jewel released her sixth album Goodbye Alice in Wonderland. The album received mixed reviews, but still managed to debut at No. 8 on the Billboard Albums Chart and sold 82,000 copies in its first week. The lead single "Again and Again '' had success on Adult Top 40 Radio, peaking at No. 16. The second single "Good Day '' was released to radio in late June and peaked at No. 30 on the Adult Pop Songs charts. A video for "Stephenville, TX '', her next single, was seen on Yahoo! Launch. After a photo shoot at her Texas ranch, Jewel spontaneously decided to have photographer Kurt Markus shoot the music video for the song "Goodbye Alice in Wonderland ''. According to an Atlantic Records press release, "The homegrown clip beautifully reflects both the song 's organic, intimate sound and its powerfully autobiographical story. ''
CMT music critic Timothy Duggan praised the album: "This album showcases Jewel 's unique talent as a lyricist, alongside a definite growth in her musicianship. It is what Pieces of You might have been had Jewel had the musical knowledge then that she has now. A very satisfying work, all in all. '' Rolling Stone, however, called the album "overdone and undercooked '' with a rating of 2 stars out of 5.
Jewel released a video for "Quest for Love '', the lead single from the movie Arthur and the Invisibles, recorded in 2006; the song is only available on the soundtrack for the film, which was released in January 2007. In early February 2007 Jewel recorded a duet with Jason Michael Carroll, "No Good in Goodbye '', that was featured on Carroll 's debut CD, Waitin ' in the Country. She also made a promotional appearance on the T in Boston for the Verizon Yellow Pages, playing songs on a moving subway car and then doing an hour - long acoustic concert in South Station.
In a 2007 interview with The Boston Globe, Jewel stated that she was no longer affiliated with a record label, confirming rumors that Atlantic Records had failed to renew her contract after the lackluster sales of her then - latest album. She also hinted that she would like to do a country album next. She worked with John Rich of Big & Rich fame, who said that she was "probably one of the greatest American singer - songwriters we have had. '' He also said that "every label in Nashville '' was talking to her at the time.
In November 2007 Jewel was signed to Valory Records, a newly formed division of the independent Big Machine Records label. Her first country album, Perfectly Clear, was released on June 3, 2008, selling 48,000 units in its first week. It debuted at No. 1 on the Billboard Country Album Chart and No. 8 on the Billboard 200 Album Chart. In its second week on the charts, the album dropped to No. 25 on the Billboard 200 and No. 5 on the Country Albums chart, with estimated second week sales of 75,000 units.
Its lead single, "Stronger Woman '', was released to country radio on January 17, 2008, and entered the Top 20 on the Billboard Hot Country Songs charts. On the April 26, 2008 country charts it peaked at No. 13. The next single, "I Do '', was released to radio on June 23, 2008. The video for the single featured her cowboy then - husband, Ty Murray. This song peaked at No. 28. Following it was "' Til It Feels Like Cheating '', which peaked at No. 57. Perfectly Clear was released in Australia in late May 2009. It was then released across Europe by Humphead Records in June 2009.
In early 2009 it was announced that Jewel would release a new studio album titled Lullaby, a collection of lullabies which she described as "not just for children, but also adults ''. Its lead single, "Somewhere Over the Rainbow '', was released on iTunes on March 17, 2009. The album was released on May 5, 2009. "Somewhere Over The Rainbow '' was No. 1 on The Top Children 's Songs the week of release. Like 2011 's The Merry Goes ' Round, it is sold under the Fisher Price brand which Jewel described as "a great partnership ''.
She also recorded the "Make It Last '' with R&B singer Tyrese in conjunction with the release of his comic book Mayhem!. It was intended to be used for the soundtrack to Transformers: Revenge of the Fallen but did not appear on the final track listing.
In January 2010 Jewel released "Stay Here Forever '' from the soundtrack to the film Valentine 's Day. It also served as the lead - off single to Jewel 's ninth studio album Sweet and Wild released on June 8, 2010. The single debuted at No. 48 on the Hot Country Songs chart and reached No. 34 in May 2010. "Satisfied '' was released as the album 's second single on May 17, 2010, reaching its highest peak of No. 57. On October 10, 2010, Jewel released the third single from Sweet and Wild, "Ten ''. It made its debut on the Hot Country Songs Chart at No. 55 on the week of October 15, 2010, and peaked at No. 51 two weeks later.
Jewel 's second children 's album, The Merry Goes ' Round, was released in August 2011. Like 2009 's Lullaby, it is sold under the Fisher - Price brand.
On October 16, 2012, Jewel announced via Twitter a Greatest Hits album would be released in 2013. The album features new duets from Kelly Clarkson and the Pistol Annies. Jewel and Clarkson recorded a fresh rendition of Jewel 's song "Foolish Games '' while Jewel and the Pistol Annies recut "You Were Meant for Me ''. The Greatest Hits album was released February 5, 2013.
On August 6, 2013, Jewel announced the release of her second Christmas album, titled Let It Snow: A Holiday Collection, scheduled for release on November 12, 2013. In an interview with The Wall Street Journal, Jewel was quoted as saying "I wanted this record to have a resemblance to the first album. It 's a continuation of mood and spirit of that record, with the mood and feel of the album artwork with an image and tone that evokes that spirit. ''
In February 2014, Jewel began work on her next album and confirmed that it will not be released by a major record label, and that she will be producing it herself. It will reportedly have a sound similar to Pieces of You. On June 28, Jewel revealed in a Q&A on Facebook that the new album will be released in the second week of September. It will have a folk sound and was recorded with a live band. On July 21, Jewel confirmed the title as Picking Up the Pieces. Picking Up the Pieces was released on September 11, 2015.
In 2015, Jewel appeared on Blues Traveler 's album Blow Up the Moon, co-writing the song "Hearts Still Awake. ''
In July 2016, Jewel appeared on ABC 's Greatest Hits performing "You Were Meant For Me '' with Tori Kelly.
On November 4, 2017, Jewel sang "Where the Turf Meets the Surf '' before the running of the Breeders ' Cup Classic at Del Mar racetrack.
Owning a wide variety of Taylor Guitars, Jewel uses a Taylor 912 - C most often. Acoustic Guitar writer Jeffery Pepper Rodgers called the guitar her "steady companion ''.
All of her guitars are strung with D'Addario products. To strum, she employs a unique self - created fingerpicking technique or a hard pick.
Jewel made her acting debut in 1999 playing the character Sue Lee Shelley in Ang Lee 's Western film Ride with the Devil, opposite Tobey Maguire. The film received mixed - positive reviews, though critic Roger Ebert praised her performance, writing: "Jewel deserves praise for, quite simply, performing her character in a convincing and unmannered way. She is an actress here, not a pop star trying out a new hobby. ''
She later had a cameo as herself in Walk Hard (2007). In June 2012, Jewel was cast in the lead role as June Carter Cash in the Lifetime original movie Ring of Fire. In 2017, she appeared in two television mystery films on the Hallmark Channel: Framed for Murder: A Fixer Upper Mystery, and Concrete Evidence: A Fixer Upper Mystery, both in which she plays the character Shannon Hughes, a contractor and investigator.
Jewel has also had ventures into writing; she published a book of poetry titled A Night Without Armor in 1998. Although it sold over 1 million copies and was a New York Times best seller, it received mixed reviews. During an MTV interview in 1998, Kurt Loder pointed out the incorrect usage in her book of poetry of the word "casualty '' (intended as something to the effect of "of a casual nature '') to which Jewel responded, "You 're a smartass for pointing that out. Next topic. '' In the fall of ' 98, the poet Beau Sia composed a book - length response to "A Night Without Armor '' entitled "A Night Without Armor II: the Revenge. '' The reviewer Edna Gundersen, writing in USA Today, noted, "Hers is flowery and sensitive. His is wry and absurd. ''
She went on to write an autobiography titled Chasing Down the Dawn in 2000, a collection of diary entries and musings detailing her life growing up in Alaska, her struggle to learn her craft and life on the road. She was scheduled to release a third book called Love Poems, which was supposed to be an extremely intimate portrayal of her relationship with her then - boyfriend, Ty Murray. It was canceled several months before release because Jewel was worried about Murray 's mother 's reaction to her intimate confessions. On September 15, 2015, Jewel released a new memoir entitled Never Broken: Songs Are Only Half the Story.
Jewel formed a nonprofit organization called Higher Ground for Humanity with her mother, Lenedra J. Carroll, and her older brother, Shane Kilcher. The organization 's focus is education, sustainable improvements, and building alliances with like - minded organizations. Jewel donates a portion of her income to the organization and often holds events to benefit the organization. The organization tends to parallel Jewel 's career since she provides the majority of the organization 's funding. As of 2005, the activities of the organization were reduced. One early grantee was the Global Youth Action Network, which has become one of the largest youth movements around the United Nations.
In September 2006, as part of Lifetime 's "Stop Breast Cancer for Life '' campaign, Jewel delivered more than 12 million petition signatures to Capitol Hill, urging Congress to pass the bipartisan Breast Cancer Patient Protection Act of 2005 (S 910 / HR1849). The bill would ban the practice of "drive - through '' mastectomies, when women are discharged from the hospital just hours after their surgeries.
Jewel served as the honorary chairperson of the 2006 Help the Homeless Walk in Washington, D.C.
In November 2008, Jewel began work on a project with several dozen singer - songwriters to write and auction their lyrics with donations benefiting her "Project Clean Water '' charity. Many singers and songwriters besides herself have donated their written lyrics including Patrick Davis, Alabama 's Randy Owen, John Mellencamp, Jason Mraz, Gretchen Wilson, and Marv Green. The majority of the lyrics were written on paper and signed by the songwriter, with the exception of Katy Perry 's "I Kissed a Girl ''. Many of the artists in addition to writing and signing lyrics, drew pictures to illustrate their lyrics. The auction ran from December 1, 2008, to December 18, 2008, promoted by CMT and Virgin Music. Some of the lyrics that were up for auction included hits such as "So Small '', "Foolish Games '', "I 'm Yours '', "I Kissed a Girl '', "St. Elmo 's Fire (Man in Motion) '', "Live Like You Were Dying '', "I Do n't Need a Man '', "Superman (It 's Not Easy) '' and "Redneck Woman ''. The highest bought lyrics being Jewel 's signature song "You Were Meant For Me '' sold for US $1,505, and "Who Will Save Your Soul '' and "Hands '', raising more than $1,005 each. Jewel promised that all items sold by December 18 would be delivered by Christmas. After the majority of the auctions ended on December 18 two new lyrics by Craig Wiseman and Ernie Ashworth were put up for auction ending in January 2009.
In May 2013 Jewel served as ambassador for the ReThink: Why Housing Matters initiative. She was included in the initiative 's public service announcement (PSA) which asked Americans to rethink their views on public housing and consider how it benefits people in their own communities.
Jewel was in a relationship with actor Sean Penn in 1995 after he spotted her performing on Late Night with Conan O'Brien. He invited her to compose a song for his film The Crossing Guard and followed her on tour.
Jewel married pro rodeo cowboy Ty Murray on August 7, 2008, in the Bahamas after 10 years together. Their son, Kase Townes Murray, was born on July 11, 2011. On July 2, 2014, after nearly 6 years of marriage, Jewel announced on her website that she and Murray were divorcing.
Jewel is the daughter of Atz Kilcher, who stars in the Discovery Channel show Alaska: The Last Frontier. All three of her brothers live in Alaska. Her cousin is actress Q'orianka Kilcher who is best known for her role as Pocahontas opposite Colin Farrell and Christian Bale in director Terrence Malick 's Academy Award - nominated motion picture The New World (2005).
Jewel has been estranged from her mother and former business manager Nedra since 2003; the singer has accused her mother of stealing millions of dollars from her.
Jewel identifies as a feminist and has said, "I do n't think I started off young as a feminist. I read a lot of books in Alaska, I was pretty isolated where I grew up, and I think that I never thought I was any different than a man; I was raised in a place where pioneer women were very strong still. They 'd shoe horses and build their own homes and were very self - sufficient. It was n't really until I 've gotten older that I really became a fan of women. And a fan of what women are capable of balancing and achieving, by just being them. ''
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when is the new power rangers coming out | Power Rangers (film) - wikipedia
Saban 's Power Rangers, simply known as Power Rangers, is a 2017 American superhero film based on the franchise of the same name, directed by Dean Israelite and written by John Gatins. It is the third Power Rangers film, and is a reboot. The film features the main characters of the Mighty Morphin Power Rangers television series with a new cast, starring Dacre Montgomery, Naomi Scott, RJ Cyler, Becky G, Ludi Lin, Bill Hader, Bryan Cranston, and Elizabeth Banks.
It is the first blockbuster film to feature LGBTQ and autistic superheroes. Franchise creator Haim Saban returned to produce the film under his investment firm. The film premiered at the Regency Village Theater in Los Angeles on March 22, 2017, and was released in the United States on March 24, 2017. It wet with mixed reviews upon release, with criticism primarily focusing on its uneven tone, product placement and divergences from its source material, but praise aimed at the performances (particularly Montgomery 's and Cyler 's). It was also a box office disappointment, grossing $142 million worldwide against a budget of $100 million.
In the Cenozoic era, six interplanetary warriors, the Power Rangers, are tasked with protecting life on Earth and the Zeo Crystal. The Green Ranger, Rita Repulsa, betrays them and plans to dominate the universe. The Red Ranger, Zordon, survives Rita 's attack and hides five of the Rangers ' power source, the Power Coins. He orders Alpha 5, his robotic assistant, to perform a meteor strike that kills him, the dinosaurs, and sends Rita to the bottom of the sea, foiling her scheme.
In 21st - century Angel Grove, high school football star Jason Scott is dismissed from the team and placed under house arrest after a failed prank. In detention, he encounters Billy Cranston and Kimberly Hart. After defending Billy from a bully, Billy offers to deactivate Jason 's ankle monitor for help at an old gold mine that evening. Once there, Jason leaves to explore and runs into Kimberly. Billy detonates explosives to break some rock, attracting the attention of Jason, Kimberly and nearby students Trini and Zack. The five discover the Power Coins and each take one. While escaping mine security, their car is hit by a train. The five find themselves at home the next morning and discover that the coins have granted them superhuman abilities. Elsewhere, Rita 's body is found. Waking, she goes on a rampage, hunting pieces of gold to raise her minion Goldar to find the Zeo Crystal.
The five teenagers return to the mine and discover an ancient spaceship where they meet Alpha 5 and Zordon 's consciousness. They inform the teenagers about the Rangers history and Rita, warning that they have eleven days until Rita has her full power, finds the Zeo Crystal, and uses it to destroy life on Earth. The five leave the ship with no intention of returning until Zordon pleads with Jason to convince the team.
The five return to train the next day, but they can not morph. They spend the next week training against simulated Putties and trying unsuccessfully to morph. To inspire the Rangers, Alpha reveals the Zords. Zack takes his Zord out for a joyride and almost kills the other Rangers when he crashes it. This angers Jason, and they fight. While trying to separate the two, Billy spontaneously morphs. However, when he becomes conscious of it, the armor disappears. Angered at their lack of progress, Zordon dismisses the group. Jason returns to the ship to confront Zordon and discovers that once the Rangers morph, it will open the Morphing Grid and allow Zordon to restore himself in a physical body. Feeling betrayed, Jason accuses Zordon of using the team for his own benefit. That night, the team camp at the mine and bond with each other.
Later that night, Rita attacks Trini and orders her to bring the Rangers to the docks. Trini informs them about Rita and they arrive to fight, but are quickly defeated. Rita forces Billy to reveal the location of the Zeo Crystal, which he 'd figured out, kills him, and releases the others. The Rangers take Billy 's body to the ship and ask Zordon to resurrect him. The Rangers agree they would give their lives for each other and resolve to defeat Rita. In doing so, they unlock the Morphing Grid. Zordon revives Billy, sacrificing being able to restore his physical self. With the team restored and confident, the Rangers morph into their armor.
Rita creates Goldar, raises an army of Putties, and attacks Angel Grove to find the Zeo Crystal. The Rangers battle the Putties and head to Angel Grove in their Zords. After the Rangers destroy the Putties, Goldar pushes the Rangers and their Zords into a fiery pit. In the pit, the Zords combine and form the Megazord. Rita merges with Goldar. The Rangers battle and destroy Goldar. After refusing Jason 's offer to surrender, a defiant Rita tells the Rangers that more will come for the crystal and leaps at the Megazord only to be slapped into space. The Rangers are praised as local heroes, and with Rita 's threats foiled, they return to their normal lives while keeping their powers.
In a mid-credits scene, in detention, the teacher announces that Tommy Oliver will be joining them, but the desk is empty save for a green jacket.
Jason David Frank and Amy Jo Johnson, two of the stars of the original TV series, make cameo appearances as Angel Grove citizens.
Saban Capital Group and Lionsgate announced the film in May 2014, with Roberto Orci originally attached to produce. Ashley Miller and Zack Stentz were hired to write the film 's script. Orci eventually left the project to work on Star Trek Beyond. On April 10, 2015, TheWrap reported that Dean Israelite was in negotiations to direct the film. Israelite told IGN in an interview that the film would be "completely playful, and it needs to be really fun and funny. But like Project Almanac, it 's going to feel very grounded at the same time, and very contemporary and have a real edge to it, and a real gut to it, it 's going to be a fun, joyful (movie) but one that feels completely grounded in a real world, with real characters going through real things ''. Brian Tyler was brought on to compose the film 's music. Israelite has said that the film updates itself from the original series, being more character - driven and incorporating naturalism and a grounded nature.
Actors began testing for the roles of the five Power Rangers on October 2, 2015. On October 7, 2015, Naomi Scott was cast as Kimberly. Newcomers Dacre Montgomery, Ludi Lin and RJ Cyler were then cast as Jason, Zack, and Billy, respectively. At the month 's end, Becky G was chosen to play Trini. When it came to casting the Rangers, director Dean Israelite said, "From the very beginning, diversity was a very important part of the whole process, '' and that while the characters ' races were switched around, he added that, "We made sure that the essence of each of those characters are who they were in the original show, and this really will be an origin story of those characters. '' On February 2, 2016, it was announced that Elizabeth Banks would portray Rita Repulsa. Four months later, Bryan Cranston, who voiced Twin Man and Snizard in the original series, announced he was cast as Zordon. Cranston revealed that he would perform motion - capture and CGI. In September 2016, Walter Emanuel Jones, the actor who played Zack in the original series, stated none of the original cast would cameo in the film. Towards the end of the month, comedian Bill Hader was cast as Alpha 5. In March 2017, it was reported that Amy Jo Johnson and Jason David Frank, who played Kimberly and Tommy in the original series, would cameo in the film, despite Jones ' earlier comments.
Filming was originally set to begin in January 2016 but was rescheduled and began on February 29 in Vancouver. On May 28, 2016, filming was complete. Additional filming occurred in October 2016. A cast member claims that the film has broken the record for the longest wire jump, but this has not been independently confirmed.
The film was released in Dolby Vision and Dolby Atmos sound.
The official soundtrack, with music by Brian Tyler, was released digitally on March 24, 2017, and on CD on April 4, distributed by Varèse Sarabande.
All music composed by Brian Tyler.
Originally scheduled for release on July 22, 2016, Lionsgate delayed it to March 24, 2017. The film received its world premiere in Berlin, Germany on March 17, 2017. All five of the surviving actors who originally portrayed the Rangers in the series attended the film 's Los Angeles premiere on March 22, 2017. It was the first time they had been together publicly since 1995.
On March 3, 2016, Lionsgate released the first official photo of the five Rangers, and the following month, the company released the first official photo of Banks as Rita Repulsa. On May 5, the company unveiled the first official images of the Rangers ' suits. Speaking of the suits, director Dean Israelite said that "The show was about kids coming of age, about metamorphosis, these suits needed to feel like they were catalyzed by these kids and their energy, their spirit '', while production designer Andrew Menzies commented that the new suits are "an alien costume that grows on them, that 's not man - made. You ca n't win everyone over, but we are trying to appeal to a more mature audience and gain new fans. '' A teaser poster was released in June, with additional character posters released in July, September, and October. On October 8, 2016, a Discover The Power teaser trailer for the film was released.
A fictional Angel Grove High School Newspaper website was created, alongside the official Power Rangers website, which features a GIF creator that allows users to make a GIF out of scenes from the teaser trailer. There is also an official toyline, produced by Bandai, and an extensive merchandising range was produced to promote the film.
Max Landis, who was fired from writing the film, criticized the trailer, saying that it looked like Chronicle, a film that he had written. The trailer garnered mixed reactions, with some praising it for its darker, contemporary reimagining of the classic characters, while still looking action - packed and fun at the same time, and others criticizing it for its lack of connection to the original series, saying it appeared "brooding ''. The trailer received over 150 million views in the first two days after it was uploaded. Lionsgate revealed the T - Rex zord toy, among others, on October 28, 2016, and the Power Rangers Twitter account revealed the Megazord toy on November 4, 2016. On November 15, 2016, Lionsgate revealed the toys based on the film 's individual Zords.
On December 8, 2016, a new poster debuted, as well as a photo of Rita Repulsa. On December 19, 2016, Lionsgate and Boom! Studios announced that they would release a graphic novel titled Power Rangers: Aftershock, set immediately after the events of the movie. An international trailer was released on December 22, 2016. Qualcomm and Lionsgate produced a virtual reality mobile app of the film Power Rangers Movie Command Center that was exhibited at the CES 2017, from January 5 -- 8, 2017, and was released in the App Store on March 8, 2017. On January 19, a second trailer, titled It 's Morphin Time!, was released. Lionsgate debuted yet another trailer, which it called the All - Star Trailer, on February 17. New TV spots were released on February 27, two about the Power Rangers, and one about Rita Repulsa. A clip was released on March 6, followed by two more on March 9. Thirty - seven stills were then released. Another TV spot was released on March 10. In the final week before the movie premiered, two more clips, as well as photos, were released.
A Build - A-Bear Workshop Power Ranger product range was announced on March 9, 2017. Krispy Kreme released doughnuts to promote the film, and served as an advertising partner. Placement of Krispy Kreme products and locations were featured in the film numerous times.
The group collaborated with YouTube sports entertainment group Dude Perfect ahead of the film 's release, in a video titled Dude Perfect vs. Power Rangers.
Lionsgate and Saban, in collaboration with nWay Games, released a PvP fighting mobile game called Power Rangers: Legacy Wars on March 24, 2017, to coincide with the film 's release. The game was featured on both Android and the Apple Store and got to the top spot on the Apple App Store for both iPhones and iPads, for two consecutive days and number two on the Google Play Store.
Power Rangers was released on Digital HD on June 13, 2017, and was followed by a release on Ultra HD, Blu - ray and DVD on June 27, 2017 with retail exclusive variants being made available at Best Buy, Target and Wal - Mart. The film debuted at the No. 1 spot on the NPD VideoScan overall disc sales chart, which tracks combined DVD and Blu - ray Disc sales; NPD 's dedicated Blu - ray Disc sales chart; and Home Media Magazine 's video rental chart for the week ending July 2, 2017. The film retained the top spot on the NPD VideoScan 's overall disc sales chart for the week ending on July 9, 2017.
Power Rangers grossed $85.4 million in the United States and Canada and $57 million in other territories for a worldwide gross of $142.3 million, against a production budget of $100 million.
In the United States and Canada, Power Rangers opened alongside Life, CHiPs and Wilson, and was projected to gross $30 -- 35 million from 3,693 theaters on its opening weekend. The film made $3.6 million from Thursday night previews and $15 million on its first day. It went on to debut to $40.3 million, finishing second at the box office behind Beauty and the Beast ($90.4 million). The audience was notably diverse and mostly 18 -- 34 years old. In its second weekend the film grossed $14.5 million (a drop of 64 %), finishing 4th at the box office. In June 2017, Dean Israelite said that the film 's PG - 13 rating probably contributed to the film 's underperformance at the box office.
Power Rangers received mixed reviews from critics. On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 45 % based on 143 reviews, and an average rating of 5.1 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Power Rangers has neither the campy fun of its TV predecessor nor the blockbuster action of its cinematic superhero competitors, and sadly never quite manages to shift into turbo for some good old - fashioned morphin time. '' On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating, the film has a score 44 out of 100, based on 30 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A '' on an A+ to F scale, while PostTrak reported 66 % of audience members gave the film a "definite recommend ''.
IGN gave the film a 7 / 10, saying, "Power Rangers does n't quite pull off everything it wants to, but it 's a fun time at the theater nonetheless. '' Mike McCahill of The Guardian wrote that "the film achieves a functioning mediocrity we perhaps might have thought beyond this franchise, '' and gave it 2 out of 5 stars.
Mike Ryan of Uproxx gave the film a negative review, writing: "Power Rangers has one of the most zig - zagged tones of any big budget studio film I 've seen in a long time. It 's jarring at times how often it goes back and forth between ' gritty ' and ' silly '. '' Writing for Variety, Owen Gleiberman also criticized the film 's conflicting tones, saying: "... 25 years ago, Mighty Morphin Power Rangers was launched as superhero fodder for kids, and there was indeed a place for it, but we 're now so awash in superhero culture that kids no longer need the safe, lame, pandering junior - league version of it. They can just watch Ant - Man or the PG - 13 Suicide Squad. Safe, lame, and pandering have all grown up. '' In a review for The Telegraph, Robbie Collin gave it 1 / 5 stars, criticizing the "abjectly embarrassing frenzy of product placement ''.
In a May 2016 conference call to analysts, Lionsgate CEO Jon Feltheimer stated, "We could see doing five or six or seven. '' On March 22, 2017, Haim Saban said that he and Lionsgate already have a six - film story arc. However in May 2017, Forbes noted that due to the underwhelming performance of the film in most markets, it was unlikely any sequels would be made. Later that same month, it was reported that the sequels could still be made thanks to record - breaking merchandise sales. Prior to the home release of the movie, Israelite confirmed that talks were taking place regarding a sequel and that he would like to include Lord Zedd in it. The possibility of a sequel increased once more in early July 2017 when it was reported that the film held the number one spot in home media sales and rentals in its first week. In August 2017, Saban abandoned its trademark for the film 's logo. A Saban Brands representative stated in October 2017 that "Power Rangers continues to own and renew hundreds of trademark registrations worldwide, including for the 2017 movie logo. The trademark registration process is very nuanced, and the status of the single application has no bearing on our ownership of or the future plans for Power Rangers. The franchise remains as strong and enthusiastic about its future as ever. '' On May 1, 2018, Saban Brands agreed to sell Power Rangers and other entertainment assets to Hasbro (who came close but failed to buy Lionsgate) for US $522 million in cash and stock with the sale expect to closed in the second quarter.
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when is harry potter and the cursed child releasing | Harry Potter and the Cursed Child - Wikipedia
Harry Potter and the Cursed Child is a two - part stage play written by Jack Thorne based on an original new story by Thorne, J.K. Rowling and John Tiffany. Previews of the play began at the Palace Theatre, London on 7 June 2016, and it officially premiered on 30 July 2016.
The play will open at Broadway on April 22, 2018, at the Lyric Theatre in New York. Its cast will be similar to that of the first year on West - End, with actors including Sam Clemmett, Jamie Parker, Anthony Boyle, Noma Dumezweni and Paul Thornley.
The rehearsal script, which was not a novelisation of the play, was published.
The story begins nineteen years after the events of Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows and follows Harry Potter, now a Ministry of Magic employee, and his younger son Albus Severus Potter, who is about to attend Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry.
At the 2017 Laurence Olivier Awards, the London production received a record - breaking eleven nominations and an again record - breaking nine awards, including Best New Play, Best Actor, Best Actor in a Supporting Role, Best Actress in a Supporting Role and Best Director.
The play 's official summary was released by the publisher (Pottermore) on 23 October 2015:
It was always difficult being Harry Potter and it is n't much easier now that he is an overworked employee of the Ministry of Magic, a husband, and the father of three school - age children.
While Harry grapples with a past that refuses to stay where it belongs, his youngest son Albus must struggle with the weight of a family legacy he never wanted. As past and present fuse ominously, both father and son learn the uncomfortable truth: sometimes, darkness comes from unexpected places.
Act 1
In the opening scene, set during the final chapter of Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows in the fictional year 2017, Harry Potter and Ginny Weasley send their second son, Albus Severus Potter, on the Hogwarts Express to begin his first year at Hogwarts. Harry is now working in a desk job as the Head of Magical Law Enforcement at the Ministry of Magic, while Ginny is the editor of the sports section of the Daily Prophet. Ron Weasley and Hermione Granger also send their daughter Rose Granger - Weasley, on the train. Hermione is now Minister for Magic, while Ron manages Weasley 's Wizard Wheezes in Diagon Alley. Albus makes an unlikely friend in Slytherin with Scorpius Malfoy, the son of Harry 's unknown friend Draco Malfoy and Astoria Greengrass. Surprisingly, as all Potters before him were sorted into Gryffindor, Albus is sorted into Slytherin house alongside Scorpius. Both boys are bullied by other students over the next few years, Albus due to his perceived failure to live up to his parents, Scorpius due to unproven rumours that he is the son of Lord Voldemort. In addition, Albus and Harry begin to drift apart, owing to Albus 's struggles with his father 's shadow and Harry 's uncertainty on how to deal with his son 's issues. Albus also drifts apart from Rose, with whom he was friends before meeting Scorpius. Prior to Albus and Scorpius 's fourth year, Albus gets into a fight with his father after he is given Harry 's baby blanket and a love potion from Ron. During the fight, Harry accidentally says that he sometimes wishes Albus was not his son, and Albus spills potion on the blanket.
Harry obtains a prototype of a more powerful version of the Time Turner that allows one to travel back several years into the past and change history. Simultaneously, Harry 's scar begins to hurt again, causing him to become concerned that Voldemort may somehow be returning. Amos Diggory, who has become old and is cared for by his niece Delphi Diggory, asks Harry to use the Time Turner to prevent Cedric Diggory 's death. After overhearing Harry refuse to help the Diggorys, Albus is inspired to do so himself, and convinces Scorpius to help him. The two escape from the Hogwarts Express and the trolley operator, who is revealed to be a monster placed on the train to prevent students from escaping. The two arrive at St. Oswald 's Home for Old Witches and Wizards in Yorkshire, where Amos lives, and team up with Delphi to steal the Time Turner from Hermione 's office while disguised with Polyjuice Potion.
Act 2
Knowing that Cedric 's death was the result of him winning the Triwizard Tournament alongside Harry, the boys use the Time Turner to travel back to the first challenge of the Triwizard Tournament in 1995, and sabotage Cedric during the tournament 's first task in the hope of preventing his victory. Instead, they only succeed in creating an alternate reality in which Ron and Hermione never married and Albus was sorted into Gryffindor, and Ron Weasley and Hermione never got together, and thus Rose was never born. Albus discovers that this was because they chose to disguise themselves as Durmstrang students, causing Hermione to become suspicious of Viktor Krum and go to the Yule Ball with Ron instead of Viktor. As a result, Ron never experienced the jealousy fundamental to his relationship with Hermione, fell in love with Padma Patil at the Ball, and eventually became married to her, having a son named Panju. Hermione, in turn, became a frustrated and mean professor at Hogwarts.
At around the same time, Harry 's fear that Voldemort may return increases as his scar continues to hurt and as he has Voldemort - related nightmares. After speaking with a portrait of Dumbledore, he becomes convinced that Scorpius is a threat to Albus and tries to have the boys kept apart at Hogwarts by forcing McGonagall to keep tabs on Albus using the Marauders ' Map. Albus and Scorpius 's friendship is destroyed, but the two eventually reconcile after Albus steals Harry 's old Invisibility Cloak from James Sirius Potter (Albus ' older brother), and after McGonagall refuses to enforce Harry 's request. Harry himself is persuaded to relent after a conversation with Draco and Ginny. Meanwhile, Albus and Scorpius decide to make another attempt to use the Time Turner to change Cedric 's fate, this time by humiliating him during the Triwizard Tournament 's second task. When Scorpius returns to the present day however, Albus is not with him, and Scorpius finds himself in a reality in which Harry is dead and Voldemort rules the wizarding world.
Act 3
Scorpius discovers that - as a result of his actions - an embittered Cedric joined the Death Eaters and killed Neville Longbottom during the events of Deathly Hallows, preventing him from killing Nagini and allowing Voldemort to win the Battle of Hogwarts. With Harry now dead, Albus subsequently never existed, while Voldemort was able to completely consolidate power and transform the Ministry of Magic into a fascistic regime. In the new timeline, Scorpius became a popular Head Boy and Quidditch star, helping the staff and students torment Muggle - borns. Dolores Umbridge became the new Headmistress of Hogwarts, and patrols the school with Dementors and a revived Inquisitorial Squad led by Scorpius. Draco Malfoy occupies Harry 's old position as the Head of Magical Law Enforcement, using his post to encourage routine attacks on Muggles and bribe the Prime Minister to remain silent on the actions of the Death Eaters. With help from Ron, Hermione, and Severus Snape, now the final members of a dwindling anti-Voldemort resistance movement, Scorpius is able to use the Time Turner to prevent the interference of Albus and his past self and restore the events of the original timeline, the alternate Ron, Hermione, and Snape sacrificing themselves to the Dementors in order to allow him to do so. Scorpius reunites with Albus, and the two boys are eventually found by their parents, as well as Ron and Hermione. Following these events, Harry scolds Albus for his actions, but the two nevertheless begin to reconcile.
Recognizing the danger the Time Turner poses, and deciding their parents will continue to keep it, Scorpius and Albus attempt to destroy it themselves, but they are joined by Delphi. Scorpius realizes Delphi was in charge of the Ministry of Magic in the alternate timeline, and she takes them captive, later revealing her intention of restoring the alternate timeline. After the adults learn Albus and Scorpius were seen disappearing with Delphi, they confront Amos, only to discover Delphi is not his niece, but the daughter of Voldemort and Bellatrix Lestrange. Searching her room, they discover she is following a prophecy that, if fulfilled, would lead to Voldemort 's return. Delphi takes the boys to the final challenge of the Triwizard Tournament, but Albus and Scorpius prevent her from acting, and Delphi uses the Time Turner to travel further back in time. She inadvertently takes the boys with her, and destroys the Time Turner to leave them stranded in time.
Act 4
Abandoned by Delphi, Albus and Scorpius discover they have been taken back to the night Harry 's parents were killed, and assume Delphi is planning to kill Harry before Voldemort can do so. Albus and Scorpius write an invisible message on Harry 's baby blanket, knowing in the present, the blanket would become stained with love potion and expose the message to Harry. Meanwhile, Draco reveals the Time - Turner was actually a prototype for a perfected model owned by him, but they remain unable to rescue the boys due to their uncertainty over which time period they have entered. After Harry receives the message from the boys, he and his allies use Draco 's Time Turner to travel back in time to save them and stop Delphi. While waiting for Delphi, they deduce she intends to convince Voldemort to abandon his doomed attempt to kill Harry, ensuring her father 's survival and allowing her to be with him.
Harry disguises himself as Voldemort using Transfiguration to distract Delphi, and the group subdues her. They allow the murder of Harry 's parents to play out, unwilling to risk the consequences of altering the past. After returning to the present day, Delphi is sent to Azkaban Prison. Albus and Scorpius now decide to be more active at Hogwarts, with Scorpius expressing interest in trying out for Quidditch and asking Rose on a date. Harry and Albus visit Cedric 's grave, with Harry apologizing for his role in Cedric 's death.
In December 2013, it was revealed that a stage play based on Harry Potter had been in development for around a year, with the view to bringing it to the stage sometime in 2016. At the time of the announcement, Rowling revealed that the play would "explore the previously untold story of Harry 's early years as an orphan and outcast ''. The following May, Rowling began establishing the creative team for the project.
On 26 June 2015, the project was officially confirmed under the title of Harry Potter and the Cursed Child, and it was revealed it would receive its world premiere in mid-2016 at London 's Palace Theatre. The announcement marked the eighteenth anniversary of the publication of the first Harry Potter novel, Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone, published on 26 June 1997.
On announcing plans for the project, Rowling stated that the play would not be a prequel. In response to queries regarding the choice of a play rather than a new novel, Rowling has stated that she "is confident that when audiences see the play they will agree that it is the only proper medium for the story ''. Rowling has also assured audiences that the play will contain an entirely new story and will not be a rehashing of previously explored content. On 24 September 2015, Rowling announced that the play had been split into two parts. The parts are designed to be viewed on the same day or consecutively over two evenings.
On 23 October, it was confirmed the plays were set nineteen years after the conclusion of the final novel Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, and would open at London 's Palace Theatre in July 2016. The plays principally follow Harry, now Head of the Department of Magical Law Enforcement, and his younger son Albus Severus Potter. As of 22 July, little more had been revealed about the plot even by those who had attended the previews since 7 June.
Harry Potter and the Cursed Child, a two - part play, was written by British playwright Jack Thorne based on an original story by Thorne, John Tiffany and Rowling. Some websites were listing all three as authors of the script but by July 26, 2016, the official web site for the play and many others (including the BBC) were listing Thorne as the sole script writer.
Harry Potter and the Cursed Child is directed by John Tiffany with choreography by Steven Hoggett, set design by Christine Jones, costume design by Katrina Lindsay, lighting design by Neil Austin, music by Imogen Heap, and sound design by Gareth Fry. In addition, special effects were created by Jeremy Chernick, with illusions by Jamie Harrison, and musical supervision by Martin Lowe.
Previews at the West End Palace Theatre, London began on June 7, 2016, with the official opening night for both parts on July 30, and originally booking until September 18, 2016. Tickets went on sale to pre-registered priority bookers on October 28, 2015, with a public sale scheduled to commence on 30 October. In just under 8 hours of priority booking 175,000 tickets were sold for the world premiere production, with the play 's booking period extended to January 2017. On commencement of the public sale booking was extended until April 30, 2017, with a further extension issued the same day to May 27, 2017. At opening tickets were priced from £ 30 up to £ 130 for a ticket for both parts, although ticket resale agencies were selling seats for up to £ 3,000. Ticket resale has been banned by the producers, with tickets no longer valid if sold on. In mid-July 2016, the theatre began holding a ticket lottery at 1pm each Friday, releasing 40 for sale on their website for ' some of the best seats ' in the theatre for the lowest price, advertised at £ 20 per part. For example, the "Friday Forty '' tickets sold on July 29, 2016 were for performances on August 3, 5, 6, and 7. On December 20, 2015, initial casting was announced with Jamie Parker playing Harry Potter, Noma Dumezweni playing Hermione Granger and Paul Thornley playing Ron Weasley. The casting of the dark - skinned Noma Dumezweni as Hermione sparked fervent discussion, to which Rowling responded that Hermione 's skin was never specified as white. Further notable casting includes Poppy Miller as Ginny Potter and Sam Clemmett as Albus Severus Potter. The production features an overall cast of 42.
The production will open at the Lyric Theatre on April 22nd, 2018 with previews beginning March 16th. Clemmett, Boyle, Dumezweni, Parker, Thornley and Miller will reprise their roles. The theatre removed 400 seats from the auditorium, and moved the entrance to 43rd Street. The production is produced by Sonia Friedman Productions, Sir Colin Callender and Harry Potter Theatrical Productions. The initial ticket block went on sale through Ticketmaster Verified Fan on October 18th 2017 for performances from March 16th through to November 18, 2018.
On the 24 October 2017, the Michael Cassel Group announced that it will be producing the Australian premiere of Harry Potter and the Cursed Child. The production will begin performances early 2019 in Melbourne 's Princess Theatre, currently home to the Australian premiere of The Book of Mormon. No casting or ticketing information has been announced.
Jamie Glover is to take over from Jamie Parker as Harry Potter, while Emma Lowndes will play his wife Ginny Potter. Thomas Aldridge is to play Ron Weasley, replacing Paul Thornley, while Rakie Ayola will play Hermione Granger, replacing Noma Dumezweni. Annabel Baldwin, previously playing Moaning Myrtle will take over from Esther Smith as Delphi.
Original cast members Helen Aluko and James Howard will play Rose Granger - Weasley and Draco Malfoy respectively. Samuel Blenkin and Theo Ancient - making their professional debut - will play Scorpius Malfoy and Albus Potter, respectively.
The lead cast are joined by new cast members David Annen, Ruthxjiah Bellenea, Danny Dalton, Leah Haile, Rupert Henderson, Elizabeth Hill, April Hughes, James McGregor, Sarah Miele, Jordan Paris, James Phoon, Henry Rundle, Ged Simmons, Mark Theodore, Gideon Turner and Ed White.
Original cast members who will continue include Nicola Alexis, Rosemary Annabella, Phoebe Austen, Annabel Baldwin, Jabez Cheeseman, Morag Cross, Esme Grace, Lowri James, Martin Johnston, Alfred Jones, Barry McCarthy, Sandy McDade, Tom Mackley, Harrison Noble, Ben Roberts, Nuno Silva, Hope Sizer and Joshua Wyatt.
The new cast took over on 24 May, with the original cast having their final performance on 21 May.
Both parts of the stage play 's script have been released in print and digital formats as Harry Potter and the Cursed Child Parts I & II.
The first edition, entitled "Special Rehearsal Edition '', corresponded to the script used in the preview shows and was scheduled to be published on 31 July 2016, the date of Harry 's birthday in the series and Rowling 's birthday, as well. Since revisions to the script continued after the book was printed, an edited version was released on 25 July 2017, as the "Definitive Collector 's Edition ''. According to CNN, this was the most preordered book of 2016.
In the United States and Canada, the book sold over 2 million copies in its first two days of release. 847,885 copies were sold during the book 's first week of release in the United Kingdom. By June 2017, the book had sold over 4.5 million copies in the United States.
Harry Potter and the Cursed Child has received extremely positive reviews from critics. Audiences and critics have complimented the casting and performances, while many debate the quality of the piece and how it compares to entries in the main Harry Potter series.
Publications awarding five star ratings included The Independent, the London Evening Standard, The Stage and WhatsOnStage.com. The Telegraph also gave five, although "there are some quibbles, '' while The Guardian 's Michael Billington awarded four stars.
Anthony Boyle 's performance as Scorpius Malfoy garnered particular acclaim. WhatsOnStage.com wrote that "Boyle gives a career - making performance, '' while The Wall Street Journal described him as "the break - out performance. '' Variety 's critic, Matt Trueman, agreed, writing, "it 's Boyle who really stands out '', and both Trueman and Henry Hitchings, in the Evening Standard, noted that his performance was sure to be a fan favourite.
The response to the play within the Harry Potter fandom was mixed, although some have called it unquestionably negative, some even calling it ' like a work of fan fiction '. Some fans claim that the story diverged from previously established rules of the universe, criticising the play 's characterization. Some also took issue with the style and plot of the play, with some complaining that the Time Turner storylines had already been used, as had Cedric Diggory 's death, and that the writers were merely using old storylines. These criticisms have led some of the fandom to reject the play as separate from the Potter canon. Many have noticed significant plot holes to be found in the story, such as the likelihood of Lord Voldemort 's infertility, the speed at which Polyjuice Potion is created, Cedric Diggory 's supposedly nonsensical turn to becoming a Death Eater (in addition to other character flaws noted, such as in Ron, Hermione and Albus) and Dolores Umbridge 's support of dark magic, amongst others. Others have argued that the play is successful on stage owing to its special effects, yet does not succeed on paper owing to the above reasons.
However, other fans responded positively to the play and its characters, with Scorpius Malfoy being particularly popular. Notably, the published script was voted Best Fantasy in Good Reads Choice Awards 2016. Some fans commented that the dialogue between the familiar characters was "spot on. '' Others celebrated it as a faithful continuation of the books. Others have noted that the play sheds light on some of the relationships between the characters, such as Harry and Dumbledore 's. The response had been particularly positive among fans who watched the play on stage.
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where was the magic of ordinary days filmed | The Magic of Ordinary Days - wikipedia
The Magic of Ordinary Days is a Hallmark Hall of Fame production based on a novel of the same name by Ann Howard Creel and adapted as a teleplay by Camille Thomasson. It was directed by Brent Shields, produced by Andrew Gottlieb and stars Keri Russell, Skeet Ulrich, and Mare Winningham.
The film first aired on CBS on January 30, 2005, and received an encore broadcast on the same network exactly five years later.
Livvy (Olivia Dunne) (Keri Russell) is a young woman of Denver who has become pregnant by a naval flight instructor on furlough during the war. Embarrassed by his daughter 's out of wedlock pregnancy, her father decides to deal with the issue by quietly arranging for her to marry. Livvy is sent off to a rural town in southeastern Colorado, there to be married to a young farmer in need of a wife. The groom is Ray Singleton (Skeet Ulrich), who farms a remote section of land on a family farm. Hearing of Livvy 's dilemma from his pastor, Ray is moved by the story and agrees to marry without even having met her. Unbeknownst to Livvy, Ray has suffered the loss of both his father and mother, and the further loss of his younger brother when he was killed during the attack on Pearl Harbor. Though young, handsome and a family man at heart, Ray has lacked the opportunity to find a wife in this remote region. His sister Martha (Mare Winningham), her husband and their three children are the only family he has left.
Ray and Livvy are an unlikely couple. Livvy has the benefit of a good education and until recently had been in graduate school studying archeology. The possesser of a broad formal education, she knows nothing of cooking or farming and is not particularly devoted to her religious beliefs. Though outwardly sophisticated, she has felt bereft and lonely since the death of her mother. Ray is a man of few words. A hard worker, he is kind, honest and patient. Family life and faith in God have been the central features of Ray 's life. His daily activity is focused on working his family 's farm. Livvy and Ray strive hard to be polite and courteous to one another, but are nevertheless awkward in each other 's company.
Though she agreed to marry to please her father, Livvy never intended to remain in this stark life. She secretly writes to Lieutenant Edward Brown, the flight instructor who is the father of her child. A visit by her sister brings sharp contrast between the life Livvy came from and the life she is living now, but it is also apparent how much Livvy has changed her view of her surroundings. Her sister has no news of Lt. Brown, who has yet to answer Livvy 's letters. Now without her husband who has been called up to serve, her sister finds herself lonely. She asks Livvy to leave Ray to come stay with her, suggesting they make up stories of Ray drinking and being violent to cover her leaving him. Livvy can not bring herself to do this.
With most of the young men gone for the war effort, Ray 's farm is lacking in farm hands. Needing to maintain production of food, the government supplies laborers to the farms. Ray 's farm is supplemented by Japanese Americans interned at nearby Camp Amache. Life in the high country leaves Livvy feeling isolated and alone. She comes to befriend two sisters from the camp, Florence and Rose Umahara (Tania Gunadi and Gwendoline Yeo). Both are well - educated, and Livvy finds familiarity and comfort in their friendship.
Ray 's sister Martha and her family give Livvy new insight into the lives of people in rural America. Throughout Ray proves to be a caring husband, both patient and supportive. He quietly does things to make her more comfortable in her surroundings, and it is clear that he is much brighter than Livvy had first suspected. Over time Livvy comes to value the life people like Martha and Ray lead. The love and forbearance shown to her stand in marked contrast with what she had known at home since the passing of her mother. With the baby coming she must choose the course her life will take.
The premiere broadcast on CBS in 2005 attracted 18.7 million viewers, making it the highest - rated television film since the 2001 - 2 season. According to the author of the original novel, "as of early 2009, the screenplay for a sequel has been written and approved. Hallmark Hall of Fame is waiting for principal actors to become available to begin production and filming. ''
In 2005, Robert Bianco of USA Today gave the film (31⁄2 out of 4 stars), saying:
If only TV movies this good were ordinary events... Days does sometimes stress a link between "country '' and "uncomplicated '' that probably never existed. But underneath the contrasts between Ray 's simple ways and Livvy 's more cultured upbringing is a binding, universal message about the need to accept the consequences of our acts. An ordinary lesson, perhaps, but it takes an extraordinary movie to make us listen.
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where were the treaty of versailles meetings held | Treaty of Versailles - wikipedia
Central Powers Germany
Allied Powers United States British Empire France Italy Japan
The Treaty of Versailles (French: Traité de Versailles) was the most important of the peace treaties that brought World War I to an end. The Treaty ended the state of war between Germany and the Allied Powers. It was signed on 28 June 1919 in Versailles, exactly five years after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand which directly led to World War I. The other Central Powers on the German side of World War I signed separate treaties. Although the armistice, signed on 11 November 1918, ended the actual fighting, it took six months of Allied negotiations at the Paris Peace Conference to conclude the peace treaty. The treaty was registered by the Secretariat of the League of Nations on 21 October 1919.
Of the many provisions in the treaty, one of the most important and controversial required "Germany (to) accept the responsibility of Germany and her allies for causing all the loss and damage '' during the war (the other members of the Central Powers signed treaties containing similar articles). This article, Article 231, later became known as the War Guilt clause. The treaty forced Germany to disarm, make substantial territorial concessions, and pay reparations to certain countries that had formed the Entente powers. In 1921 the total cost of these reparations was assessed at 132 billion marks (then $31.4 billion or £ 6.6 billion, roughly equivalent to US $442 billion or UK £ 284 billion in 2018). At the time economists, notably John Maynard Keynes (a British delegate to the Paris Peace Conference), predicted that the treaty was too harsh -- a "Carthaginian peace '' -- and said the reparations figure was excessive and counter-productive, views that, since then, have been the subject of ongoing debate by historians and economists from several countries. On the other hand, prominent figures on the Allied side such as French Marshal Ferdinand Foch criticized the treaty for treating Germany too leniently.
The result of these competing and sometimes conflicting goals among the victors was a compromise that left no one content: Germany was neither pacified nor conciliated, nor was it permanently weakened. The problems that arose from the treaty would lead to the Locarno Treaties, which improved relations between Germany and the other European powers, and the re-negotiation of the reparation system resulting in the Dawes Plan, the Young Plan, and the indefinite postponement of reparations at the Lausanne Conference of 1932.
Although it is often referred to as the "Versailles Conference '', only the actual signing of the treaty took place at the historic palace. Most of the negotiations were in Paris, with the "Big Four '' meetings taking place generally at the Quai d'Orsay.
On 28 June 1914 the Bosnian - Serb Gavrilo Princip assassinated the heir to the throne of Austria - Hungary, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, in the name of Serbian nationalism. This caused a diplomatic crisis, resulting in Austria - Hungary declaring war on Serbia and sparking the First World War. Due to a variety of reasons, within weeks the major powers of Europe -- divided into two alliances known as the Central Powers and the Triple Entente -- went to war. As the conflict progressed, additional countries from around the globe became drawn into the conflict on both sides. Fighting would rage across Europe, the Middle East, Africa and Asia for the next four years. In 1917, two revolutions occurred within the Russian Empire, which led to the collapse of the Imperial Government and the rise of the Bolshevik Party led by Vladimir Lenin.
On 6 April 1917, the United States entered the war against the Central Powers. The reasons were twofold: German submarine warfare against merchant ships trading with France and Britain, which led to the sinking of the RMS Lusitania and the loss of 128 American lives; and the interception of the German Zimmerman Telegram, urging for Mexico to declare war against the United States. The American war aim was to detach the war from nationalistic disputes and ambitions after the Bolshevik disclosure of secret treaties between the Allies. The existence of these treaties tended to discredit Allied claims that Germany was the sole power with aggressive ambitions.
On 8 January 1918, United States President Woodrow Wilson issued a statement that became known as the Fourteen Points. This speech outlined a policy of free trade, open agreements, democracy, and self - determination. It also called for a diplomatic end to the war, international disarmament, the withdrawal of the Central Powers from occupied territories, the creation of a Polish state, the redrawing of Europe 's borders along ethnic lines, and the formation of a League of Nations to guarantee the political independence and territorial integrity of all states. Wilson 's speech also responded to Vladimir Lenin 's Decree on Peace of November 1917, which proposed an immediate withdrawal of Russia from the war and called for a just and democratic peace uncompromised by territorial annexations. The Fourteen Points were based on the research of the Inquiry, a team of about 150 advisors led by foreign - policy advisor Edward M. House, into the topics likely to arise in the anticipated peace conference.
After the Central Powers launched Operation Faustschlag on the Eastern Front, the new Soviet Government of Russia signed the Treaty of Brest - Litovsk with Germany on 3 March 1918. This treaty ended the war between Russia and the Central powers and annexed 1,300,000 square miles (3,400,000 km) of territory and 62 million people. This loss equated to a third of the Russian population, a quarter of its territory, around a third of the country 's arable land, three - quarters of its coal and iron, a third of its factories (totalling 54 percent of the nation 's industrial capacity), and a quarter of its railroads.
During the autumn of 1918, the Central Powers began to collapse. Desertion rates within the German army began to increase, and civilian strikes drastically reduced war production. On the Western Front, the Allied forces launched the Hundred Days Offensive and decisively defeated the German western armies. Sailors of the Imperial German Navy at Kiel mutinied, which prompted uprisings in Germany, which became known as the German Revolution. The German government tried to obtain a peace settlement based on the Fourteen Points, and maintained it was on this basis that they surrendered. Following negotiations, the Allied powers and Germany signed an armistice, which came into effect on 11 November while German forces were still positioned in France and Belgium.
The terms of the armistice called for an immediate evacuation of German troops from occupied Belgium, France, and Luxembourg within fifteen days. In addition, it established that Allied forces would occupy the Rhineland. In late 1918, Allied troops entered Germany and began the occupation.
Both the German Empire and Great Britain were dependent on imports of food and raw materials, primarily from the Americas, which had to be shipped across the Atlantic Ocean. The Blockade of Germany (1914 -- 1919) was a naval operation conducted by the Allied Powers to stop the supply of raw materials and foodstuffs reaching the Central Powers. The German Kaiserliche Marine was mainly restricted to the German Bight and used commerce raiders and unrestricted submarine warfare for a counter-blockade. The German Board of Public Health in December 1918 stated that 763,000 German civilians had died during the Allied blockade, although an academic study in 1928 put the death toll at 424,000 people.
In late 1918, a Polish government was formed and an independent Poland proclaimed. In December, Poles launched an uprising within the German province of Posen. Fighting lasted until February, when an armistice was signed that left the province in Polish hands, but technically still a German possession.
Talks between the Allies to establish a common negotiating position started on 18 January 1919, in the Salle de l'Horloge at the French Foreign Ministry on the Quai d'Orsay in Paris. Initially, 70 delegates from 27 nations participated in the negotiations. Russia was excluded due to their signing of a separate peace (the Treaty of Brest - Litovsk) and early withdrawal from the war. Furthermore, German negotiators were excluded to deny them an opportunity to divide the Allies diplomatically.
Initially, a "Council of Ten '' (comprising two delegates each from Britain, France, the United States, Italy, and Japan) met officially to decide the peace terms. This council was replaced by the "Council of Five '', formed from each countries foreign ministers, to discuss minor matters. Prime Minister of France Georges Clemenceau, Prime Minister of Italy Vittorio Emanuele Orlando, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom David Lloyd George, and President of the United States Woodrow Wilson formed the "Big Four '' (at one point becoming the "Big Three '' following the temporally withdrawal of Vittorio Emanuele Orlando). These four men met in 145 closed sessions to make all the major decisions, which were later ratified by the entire assembly. The minor powers attended a weekly "Plenary Conference '' that discussed issues in a general forum but made no decisions. These members formed over 50 commissions that made various recommendations, many of which were incorporated into the final text of the treaty.
France had lost 1.3 million soldiers killed, including 25 % of French men aged 18 -- 30 and 400,000 civilians. France had also been more physically damaged than any other nation (the so - called zone rouge (Red Zone)); the most industrialized region and the source of most coal and iron ore in the north - east had been devastated and in the final days of the war mines had been flooded and railways, bridges and factories destroyed. Clemenceau intended to ensure the security of France, by weakening Germany economically, militarily, territorially and by supplanting Germany as the leading producer of steel in Europe. A position, British economist and Versailles negotiator, John Maynard Keynes summarized as attempting to "set the clock back and undo what, since 1870, the progress of Germany had accomplished. ''
Clemenceau told Wilson: "America is far away, protected by the ocean. Not even Napoleon himself could touch England. You are both sheltered; we are not ''. The French wanted a frontier on the Rhine, to protect France from a German invasion and compensate for French demographic and economic inferiority. American and British representatives refused the French claim and after two months of negotiations, the French accepted a British pledge to provide an immediate alliance with France if Germany attacked again, and Wilson agreed to put a similar proposal to the Senate. Clemenceau had told the Chamber of Deputies, in December 1918, that his goal was to maintain an alliance with both countries. Clemenceau accepted the offer, in return for an occupation of the Rhineland for fifteen years and that Germany would also demilitarise the Rhineland.
French negotiators wanted reparations, to make Germany pay for the damage caused during the war and to weaken Germany. The French also wanted the iron ore and coal of the Saar Valley, by annexation to France. The French were willing to accept a smaller amount of reparations than the Americans would concede and Clemenceau was willing discuss Germany capacity to pay with the German delegation, before the final settlement was drafted. In April and May 1919, the French and Germans held separate talks, on mutually acceptable arrangements on issues like reparation, reconstruction and industrial collaboration. France, along with the British Dominions and Belgium, opposed mandates and favored annexation of former Germany colonies.
Britain had suffered little land devastation during the war. However, the British wartime coalition was re-elected during the so - called Coupon election at the end of 1918, with a policy of squeezing the German "' til the pips squeak ''. Public opinion favoured a "just peace '', which would force Germany to pay reparations and be unable to repeat the aggression of 1914, although those of a "liberal and advanced opinion '' shared Wilson 's ideal of a peace of reconciliation.
In private Lloyd George opposed revenge and attempted to compromise between Clemenceau 's demands and the Fourteen Points, because Europe would eventually have to reconcile with Germany. Lloyd George wanted terms of reparation that would not cripple the German economy, so that Germany would remain a viable economic power and trading partner. By arguing that British war pensions and widows ' allowances should be included in the German reparation sum, Lloyd George ensured that a large amount would go to the British Empire.
Lloyd George also intended to maintain a European balance of power to thwart a French attempt to establish itself as the dominant European Power. A revived Germany would be a counterweight to France and a deterrent to Bolshevik Russia. Lloyd George also wanted to neutralize the German navy to keep the Royal Navy as the greatest naval power in the world; dismantle the German colonial empire with several of its territorial possessions ceded to Britain and others being established as League of Nations mandates, a position opposed by the Dominions.
Prior to the American entry into the war, Wilson had talked of a ' peace without victory '. This position fluctuated following the US entry into the war. Wilson talked of the German aggressors who there could be no compromised peace with. However, on 8 January 1918, Wilson delivered a speech (known as the Fourteen Points) that declared the American peace objectives: the rebuilding of the European economy, self - determination of European ethnic groups, the promotion of free trade, the creation of appropriate mandates for former colonies, and above all, the creation of a powerful League of Nations that would ensure the peace. The aim of the latter was to provide a forum to revise the peace treaties as needed, and deal with problems that arose as a result of the peace and the rise of new states.
Wilson brought along top intellectuals as advisors to the American peace delegation, and the overall American position echoed the Fourteen Points. Wilson firmly opposed harsh treatment on Germany. While the British and French wanted to largely annex the German colonial empire, Wilson saw that as a violation of the fundamental principles of justice and human rights of the native populations, and favored them having the right of self - determination via the creation of mandates. The promoted idea called for the major powers to act as disinterested trustees over a region, aiding the native populations until they could govern themselves. In spite of this position and in order to ensure that Japan did not refuse to join the League of Nations, Wilson favored turning over the former German colony of Shandong, in Eastern China, to Japan rather than return the area to Chinese control. Further confounding the Americans, was US internal partisan politics. In November 1918, the Republican Party won the Senate election by a slim margin. Wilson, a Democrat, refused to include prominent Republicans in the American delegation making his efforts seem partisan, and contributed to a risk of political defeat at home.
In June 1919, the Allies declared that war would resume if the German government did not sign the treaty they had agreed to among themselves. The government headed by Philipp Scheidemann was unable to agree on a common position, and Scheidemann himself resigned rather than agree to sign the treaty. Gustav Bauer, the head of the new government, sent a telegram stating his intention to sign the treaty if certain articles were withdrawn, including Articles 227, 230 and 231. In response, the Allies issued an ultimatum stating that Germany would have to accept the treaty or face an invasion of Allied forces across the Rhine within 24 hours. On 23 June, Bauer capitulated and sent a second telegram with a confirmation that a German delegation would arrive shortly to sign the treaty. On 28 June 1919, the fifth anniversary of the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand (the immediate impetus for the war), the peace treaty was signed. The treaty had clauses ranging from war crimes, the prohibition on the merging of Austria with Germany without the consent of the League of Nations, freedom of navigation on major European rivers, to the returning of a Koran to the king of Hedjaz.
The treaty stripped Germany of 25,000 square miles (65,000 km) of territory and 7 million people. It also required Germany to give up the gains made via the Treaty of Brest - Litovsk and grant independence to the protectorates that had been established. In Western Europe Germany was required to recognize Belgian sovereignty over Moresnet and cede control of the Eupen - Malmedy area. Within six months of the transfer, Belgium was required to conduct a plebiscite on whether the citizens of the region wanted to remain under Belgian sovereignty or return to German control, communicate the results to the League of Nations and abide by the League 's decision. To compensate for the destruction of French coal mines, Germany was to cede the output of the Saar coalmines to France and control of the Saar to the League of Nations for 15 years; a plebiscite would then be held to decide sovereignty. The treaty "restored '' the provinces of Alsace - Lorraine to France by rescinding the treaties of Versailles and Frankfurt of 1871 as they pertained to this issue. The sovereignty of Schleswig - Holstein was to be resolved by a plebiscite to be held at a future time (see Schleswig Plebiscites).
In Eastern Europe, Germany was to recognize the independence of Czechoslovakia and cede parts of the province of Upper Silesia. Germany had to recognize the independence of Poland and renounce "all rights and title over the territory ''. Portions of Upper Silesia were to be ceded to Poland, with the future of the rest of the province to be decided by plebiscite. The border would be fixed with regard to the vote and to the geographical and economic conditions of each locality. The province of Posen (now Poznan), which had come under Polish control during the Greater Poland Uprising, was also to be ceded to Poland. Pomerelia (Eastern Pomerania), on historical and ethnic grounds, was transferred to Poland so that the new state could have access to the sea and became known as the Polish Corridor. The sovereignty of part of southern East Prussia was to be decided via plebiscite while the East Prussian Soldau area, which was astride the rail line between Warsaw and Danzig, was transferred to Poland outright without plebiscite. An area of 51,800 square kilometres (20,000 square miles) was granted to Poland at the expense of Germany. Memel was to be ceded to the Allied and Associated powers, for disposal according to their wishes. Germany was to cede the city of Danzig and its hinterland, including the delta of the Vistula River on the Baltic Sea, for the League of Nations to establish the Free City of Danzig.
Article 119 of the treaty required Germany to renounce sovereignty over former colonies and Article 22 converted the territories into League of Nations mandates under the control of Allied states. Togoland and German Kamerun (Cameroon) were transferred to France. Ruanda and Urundi were allocated to Belgium, whereas German South - West Africa went to South Africa and the United Kingdom obtained German East Africa. As compensation for the German invasion of Portuguese Africa, Portugal was granted the Kionga Triangle, a sliver of German East Africa in northern Mozambique. Article 156 of the treaty transferred German concessions in Shandong, China, to Japan, not to China. Japan was granted all German possessions in the Pacific north of the equator and those south of the equator went to Australia, except for German Samoa, which was taken by New Zealand.
The treaty was comprehensive and complex in the restrictions imposed upon the post-war German armed forces (the Reichswehr). The provisions were intended to make the Reichswehr incapable of offensive action and to encourage international disarmament. Germany was to demobilize sufficient soldiers by 31 March 1920 to leave an army of no more than 100,000 men in a maximum of seven infantry and three cavalry divisions. The treaty laid down the organisation of the divisions and support units, and the General Staff was to be dissolved. Military schools for officer training were limited to three, one school per arm, and conscription was abolished. Private soldiers and Non-commissioned officers were to be retained for at least twelve years and officers for a minimum of 25 years, with former officers being forbidden to attend military exercises. To prevent Germany from building up a large cadre of trained men, the number of men allowed to leave early was limited.
The number of civilian staff supporting the army was reduced and the police force was reduced to its pre-war size, with increases limited to population increases; paramilitary forces were forbidden. The Rhineland was to be demilitarized, all fortifications in the Rhineland and 50 kilometres (31 miles) east of the river were to be demolished and new construction was forbidden. Military structures and fortifications on the islands of Heligoland and Düne were to be destroyed. Germany was prohibited from the arms trade, limits were imposed on the type and quantity of weapons and prohibited from the manufacture or stockpile of chemical weapons, armoured cars, tanks and military aircraft. The German navy was allowed six pre-dreadnought battleships and was limited to a maximum of six light cruisers (not exceeding 6,000 long tons (6,100 t)), twelve destroyers (not exceeding 800 long tons (810 t)) and twelve torpedo boats (not exceeding 200 long tons (200 t)) and was forbidden submarines. The manpower of the navy was not to exceed 15,000 men, including manning for the fleet, coast defences, signal stations, administration, other land services, officers and men of all grades and corps. The number of officers and warrant officers was not allowed to exceed 1,500 men. Germany surrendered eight battleships, eight light cruisers, forty - two destroyers, and fifty torpedo boats for decommissioning. Thirty - two auxiliary ships were to be disarmed and converted to merchant use. Article 198 prohibited Germany from having an air force, including naval air forces, and required Germany to hand over all aerial related materials. In conjunction, Germany was forbidden to manufacture or import aircraft or related material for a period of six months following the signing of the treaty.
In Article 231 Germany accepted responsibility for the losses and damages caused by the war "as a consequence of the... aggression of Germany and her allies. '' The treaty required Germany to compensate the Allied powers, and it also established an Allied "Reparation Commission '' to determine the exact amount which Germany would pay and the form that such payment would take. The commission was required to "give to the German Government a just opportunity to be heard '', and to submit its conclusions by 1 May 1921. In the interim, the treaty required Germany to pay an equivalent of 20 billion gold marks ($5 billion) in gold, commodities, ships, securities or other forms. The money would help to pay for Allied occupation costs and buy food and raw materials for Germany.
To ensure compliance, the Rhineland and bridgeheads east of the Rhine were to be occupied by Allied troops for fifteen years. If Germany had not committed aggression, a staged withdrawal would take place; after five years, the Cologne bridgehead and the territory north of a line along the Ruhr would be evacuated. After ten years, the bridgehead at Coblenz and the territories to the north would be evacuated and after fifteen years remaining Allied forces would be withdrawn. If Germany reneged on the treaty obligations, the bridgeheads would be reoccupied immediately.
Part I of the treaty, as per all the treaties signed during the Paris Peace Conference, was the Covenant of the League of Nations, which provided for the creation of the League, an organization for the arbitration of international disputes. Part XIII organized the establishment of the International Labour Officer, to regulate hours of work, including a maximum working day and week; the regulation of the labour supply; the prevention of unemployment; the provision of a living wage; the protection of the worker against sickness, disease and injury arising out of his employment; the protection of children, young persons and women; provision for old age and injury; protection of the interests of workers when employed abroad; recognition of the principle of freedom of association; the organization of vocational and technical education and other measures. The treaty also called for the signatories to sign or ratify the International Opium Convention.
The surrender of the German High Seas Fleet following the Armistice and its internment (and eventual scuttling) in Scapa Flow meant that Britain had already accomplished her primary war goal even before the Paris Peace Conference opened. With the German naval threat removed, Britain began focusing on Germany as a bulwark against the threat posed by the new Soviet Union.
Thus, British policy towards Germany began diverging from France 's almost from the moment the guns fell silent. British officials at the conference declared French policy to be "greedy '' and "vindictive, '' with Ramsay MacDonald later announcing, after Hitler 's re-militarisation of the Rhineland in 1936, that he was "pleased '' that the treaty was "vanishing '', expressing his hope that the French had been taught a "severe lesson ''. In 1938, Lloyd George published a massive two - volume memoir titled The Truth About the Peace Treaties, in which he effectively repudiated the terms of the treaty that bore his signature.
The signing of the treaty was met with roars of approval, singing, and dancing from a crowd outside the Palace of Versailles. In Paris proper, people rejoiced at the official end of the war. The French people rejoiced that Alsace and Lorraine had been returned to France, and that Germany had agreed to pay reparations.
Clemenceau faced a political backlash. The French Right saw the treaty as being too lenient and were dissatisfied with the treaty and saw it as failing to achieve all of France 's demands. Left - wing politicians attacked the treaty and Clemenceau for being too harsh (the latter turning into a ritual condemnation of the treaty, for politicians remarking on French foreign affairs, as late as August 1939). Marshal Ferdinand Foch stated "this (treaty) is not peace. It is an Armistice for twenty years. ''; a criticism over the failure to annex the Rhineland and for compromising French security for the benefit of the United States and Britain. When Clemenceau stood for election as President of France in January 1920, he was defeated.
Reaction in Italy to the treaty was extremely negative. The country had suffered high casualties, yet failed to achieve most of its major war goals, notably gaining control of the Dalmatian coast and Fiume. President Wilson rejected Italy 's claims on the basis of "national self - determination. '' For their part, Britain and France -- who had been forced in the war 's latter stages to divert their own troops to the Italian front to stave off collapse -- were disinclined to support Italy 's position at the peace conference. Differences in negotiating strategy between Premier Vittorio Orlando and Foreign Minister Sidney Sonnino further undermined Italy 's position at the conference. A furious Vittorio Orlando suffered a nervous collapse and at one point walked out of the conference (though he later returned). He lost his position as prime minister just a week before the treaty was scheduled to be signed, effectively ending his active political career. Anger and dismay over the treaty 's provisions helped pave the way for the establishment of Benito Mussolini 's dictatorship three years later.
Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in 1916 primarily to ensure the security of its African colonies, which were threatened with seizure by both Britain and Germany. To this extent, she succeeded in her war aims. The treaty recognized Portuguese sovereignty over these areas and awarded her small portions of Germany 's bordering overseas colonies. Otherwise, however, Portugal obtained little at the peace conference. Her promised share of German reparations never materialized, and a seat she coveted on the executive council of the new League of Nations went instead to Spain -- which had remained neutral in the war. In the end, Portugal ratified the treaty, but got little out of the war, which cost more than 8,000 Portuguese troops and as many as 100,000 of her African colonial subjects their lives.
After the Versailles conference, Democratic President Woodrow Wilson claimed that "at last the world knows America as the savior of the world! '' However, the Republican Party, led by Henry Cabot Lodge, controlled the US Senate after the election of 1918, and the senators were divided into multiple positions on the Versailles question. It proved possible to build a majority coalition, but impossible to build a two - thirds coalition that was needed to pass a treaty.
A discontent bloc of 12 -- 18 "Irreconcilables '', mostly Republicans but also representatives of the Irish and German Democrats, fiercely opposed the treaty. One block of Democrats strongly supported the Versailles Treaty, even with reservations added by Lodge. A second group of Democrats supported the treaty but followed Wilson in opposing any amendments or reservations. The largest bloc, led by Senator Lodge, comprised a majority of the Republicans. They wanted a treaty with reservations, especially on Article 10, which involved the power of the League of Nations to make war without a vote by the US Congress. All of the Irreconcilables were bitter enemies of President Wilson, and he launched a nationwide speaking tour in the summer of 1919 to refute them. However, Wilson collapsed midway with a serious stroke that effectively ruined his leadership skills.
The closest the treaty came to passage was on 19 November 1919, as Lodge and his Republicans formed a coalition with the pro-Treaty Democrats, and were close to a two - thirds majority for a Treaty with reservations, but Wilson rejected this compromise and enough Democrats followed his lead to permanently end the chances for ratification. Among the American public as a whole, the Irish Catholics and the German Americans were intensely opposed to the treaty, saying it favored the British.
After Wilson 's presidency, his successor Republican President Warren G. Harding continued American opposition to the formation of the League of Nations. Congress subsequently passed the Knox -- Porter Resolution bringing a formal end to hostilities between the United States and the Central Powers. It was signed into law by President Harding on 2 July 1921. Soon after, the US -- German Peace Treaty of 1921 was signed in Berlin on 25 August 1921, the US -- Austrian Peace Treaty of 1921 was signed in Vienna on 24 August 1921, and the US -- Hungarian Peace Treaty of 1921 was signed in Budapest on 29 August 1921.
China felt betrayed as the German territory in China was handed to Japan. The sense of betrayal led to great demonstrations in China and the fall of the nascent Chinese Republic 's government and poisoned relations with the West.
Wilson 's former friend Edward Mandell House, present at the negotiations, wrote in his diary on 29 June 1919:
I am leaving Paris, after eight fateful months, with conflicting emotions. Looking at the conference in retrospect, there is much to approve and yet much to regret. It is easy to say what should have been done, but more difficult to have found a way of doing it. To those who are saying that the treaty is bad and should never have been made and that it will involve Europe in infinite difficulties in its enforcement, I feel like admitting it. But I would also say in reply that empires can not be shattered, and new states raised upon their ruins without disturbance. To create new boundaries is to create new troubles. The one follows the other. While I should have preferred a different peace, I doubt very much whether it could have been made, for the ingredients required for such a peace as I would have were lacking at Paris.
On 29 April, the German delegation under the leadership of the Foreign Minister Ulrich Graf von Brockdorff - Rantzau arrived in Versailles. On 7 May, when faced with the conditions dictated by the victors, including the so - called "War Guilt Clause '', von Brockdorff - Rantzau replied to Clemenceau, Wilson and Lloyd George: "We know the full brunt of hate that confronts us here. You demand from us to confess we were the only guilty party of war; such a confession in my mouth would be a lie. '' Because Germany was not allowed to take part in the negotiations, the German government issued a protest against what it considered to be unfair demands, and a "violation of honour '', soon afterwards withdrawing from the proceedings of the peace conference.
Germans of all political shades denounced the treaty -- particularly the provision that blamed Germany for starting the war -- as an insult to the nation 's honor. They referred to the treaty as "the Diktat '' since its terms were presented to Germany on a take - it - or - leave - it basis. Germany ′ s first democratically elected head of government, Philipp Scheidemann, resigned rather than sign the treaty. In a passionate speech before the National Assembly on 21 March 1919, he called the treaty a "murderous plan '' and exclaimed,
Which hand, trying to put us in chains like these, would not wither? The treaty is unacceptable.
After Scheidemann ′ s resignation, a new coalition government was formed under Gustav Bauer. President Friedrich Ebert knew that Germany was in an impossible situation. Although he shared his countrymen 's disgust with the treaty, he was sober enough to consider the possibility that the government would not be in a position to reject it. He believed that if Germany refused to sign the treaty, the Allies would invade Germany from the west -- and there was no guarantee that the army would be able to make a stand in the event of an invasion. With this in mind, he asked Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg if the army was capable of any meaningful resistance in the event the Allies resumed the war. If there was even the slightest chance that the army could hold out, Ebert intended to recommend against ratifying the treaty. Hindenburg -- after prodding from his chief of staff, Wilhelm Groener -- concluded the army could not resume the war even on a limited scale. However, rather than inform Ebert himself, he had Groener inform the government that the army would be in an untenable position in the event of renewed hostilities. Upon receiving this, the new government recommended signing the treaty. The National Assembly voted in favour of signing the treaty by 237 to 138, with five abstentions (there were 421 delegates in total). This result was wired to Clemenceau just hours before the deadline. Foreign minister Hermann Müller and colonial minister Johannes Bell travelled to Versailles to sign the treaty on behalf of Germany. The treaty was signed on 28 June 1919 and ratified by the National Assembly on 9 July by a vote of 209 to 116.
Conservatives, nationalists and ex-military leaders condemned the treaty. Politicians of the Weimar Republic who supported the treaty, socialists, communists, and Jews were viewed with suspicion as persons of questionable loyalty. It was rumored that Jews had not supported the war and had played a role in selling Germany out to its enemies. Those who seemed to benefit from a weakened Germany and the newly formed Weimar Republic were regarded as having "stabbed Germany in the back ''. Those who instigated unrest and strikes in the critical military industries on the home front or who opposed German nationalism were seen to have contributed to Germany 's defeat. These theories were given credence by the fact that when Germany surrendered in November 1918, its armies were still on French and Belgian territory. Furthermore, on the Eastern Front, Germany had already won the war against Russia and concluded the Treaty of Brest - Litovsk. In the West, Germany had seemed to have come close to winning the war with the Spring Offensive earlier in 1918. Its failure was blamed on strikes in the arms industry at a critical moment of the offensive, leaving soldiers with an inadequate supply of materiel. The strikes were regarded by nationalists as having been instigated by traitors, with the Jews taking most of the blame.
In February and March 1920, the Schleswig Plebiscites were held. The people of Schleswig were presented with only two choices: Danish or German sovereignty. The northern Danish - speaking area voted for Denmark while the southern German - speaking area voted for Germany, resulting in the province being partitioned. The East Prussia plebiscite was held on 11 July 1920. There was a 90 % turn out with 99.3 % of the population wishing to remain with Germany. Further plebiscites were held in Eupen, Malmedy, and Prussian Moresnet. On 20 September 1920, the League of Nations allotted these territories to Belgium. These latter plebiscites were followed by a boundary commission in 1922, followed by the new Belgian - German border being recognized by the German Government on on 15 December 1923. The transfer of the Hultschin area, of Silesia, to Czechoslovakia was completed on 3 February 1921.
Following the implementation of the treaty, Upper Silesia was initially governed by Britain, France, and Italy. Between 1919 - 1921, three major outbreaks of violence took place between German and Polish civilians, resulting in German and Polish military forces also becoming involved. In March 1921, the Inter-Allied Commission held the Upper Silesia plebiscite, which was peaceful despite the previous violence. The plebiscite resulted in c. 60 per cent of the population voting for the province to remain part of Germany. Following the vote, the League of Nations debated the future of the province. In 1922, Upper Silesia was partitioned: Oppeln, in the north - west, remained with Germany while Silesia Province, in the south - east, was transferred to Poland.
Memel remained under the authority of the League of Nations, with a French military garrison, until January 1923. On 9 January 1923, Lithuanian forces invaded the territory during the Klaipėda Revolt. The French garrison withdrew, and in February the Allies agreed to attach Memel as an "autonomous territory '' to Lithuania. On 8 May 1924, after negotiations between the Lithuanian Government and the Conference of Ambassadors and action by the League of Nations, the annexation of Memel was ratified. Lithuania accepted the Memel Statute, a power - sharing arrangement to protect non-Lithuanians in the territory and its autonomous status while responsibility for the territory remained with the great powers. The League of Nations mediated between the Germans and Lithuanians on a local level, helping the power - sharing arrangement last until 1939.
On 13 January 1935, 15 years after the Saar Basin had been placed under the protection of the League of Nations, a plebiscite was held to determine the future of the area. 528,105 votes were cast, with 477,119 votes (90 per cent of the ballot) in favour of union with Germany; 46,613 votes were cast for the status quo, and 2,124 votes for union with France. The region returned to German sovereignty on 1 March 1935. When the result was announced 4,100 people, including 800 refugees from Germany fled to France.
The German economy was so weak that only a small percentage of reparations was paid in hard currency. Nonetheless, even the payment of this small percentage of the original reparations (132 billion gold marks) still placed a significant burden on the German economy. Although the causes of the devastating post-war hyperinflation are complex and disputed, Germans blamed the near - collapse of their economy on the treaty, and some economists estimated that the reparations accounted for as much as one - third of the hyper - inflation.
In March 1921, French and Belgian troops occupied Duisburg, which formed part of the demilitarized Rhineland, according to the Treaty of Versailles. In January 1923, French and Belgian forces occupied the rest of the Ruhr area as a reprisal after Germany failed to fulfill reparation payments demanded by the Versailles Treaty. The German government answered with "passive resistance '', which meant that coal miners and railway workers refused to obey any instructions by the occupation forces. Production and transportation came to a standstill, but the financial consequences contributed to German hyperinflation and completely ruined public finances in Germany. Consequently, passive resistance was called off in late 1923. The end of passive resistance in the Ruhr allowed Germany to undertake a currency reform and to negotiate the Dawes Plan, which led to the withdrawal of French and Belgian troops from the Ruhr Area in 1925.
Some significant violations of the provisions of the treaty were:
According to David Stevenson, since the opening of French archives, most commentators have remarked on French restraint and reasonableness at the conference, though Stevenson notes that "(t) he jury is still out '', and that "there have been signs that the pendulum of judgement is swinging back the other way. ''
In his book The Economic Consequences of the Peace, John Maynard Keynes referred to the Treaty of Versailles as a "Carthaginian peace '', a misguided attempt to destroy Germany on behalf of French revanchism, rather than to follow the fairer principles for a lasting peace set out in President Woodrow Wilson 's Fourteen Points, which Germany had accepted at the armistice. He stated: "I believe that the campaign for securing out of Germany the general costs of the war was one of the most serious acts of political unwisdom for which our statesmen have ever been responsible. '' Keynes had been the principal representative of the British Treasury at the Paris Peace Conference, and used in his passionate book arguments that he and others (including some US officials) had used at Paris. He believed the sums being asked of Germany in reparations were many times more than it was possible for Germany to pay, and that these would produce drastic instability.
French economist Étienne Mantoux disputed that analysis. During the 1940s, Mantoux wrote a posthumously published book titled The Carthaginian Peace, or the Economic Consequences of Mr. Keynes in an attempt to rebut Keynes ' claims. More recently economists have argued that the restriction of Germany to a small army saved it so much money it could afford the reparations payments.
It has been argued (for instance by historian Gerhard Weinberg in his book A World At Arms) that the treaty was in fact quite advantageous to Germany. The Bismarckian Reich was maintained as a political unit instead of being broken up, and Germany largely escaped post-war military occupation (in contrast to the situation following World War II). In a 1995 essay, Weinberg noted that with the disappearance of Austria - Hungary and with Russia withdrawn from Europe, that Germany was now the dominant power in Eastern Europe.
The British military historian Correlli Barnett claimed that the Treaty of Versailles was "extremely lenient in comparison with the peace terms that Germany herself, when she was expecting to win the war, had had in mind to impose on the Allies ''. Furthermore, he claimed, it was "hardly a slap on the wrist '' when contrasted with the Treaty of Brest - Litovsk that Germany had imposed on a defeated Russia in March 1918, which had taken away a third of Russia 's population (albeit of non-Russian ethnicity), one - half of Russia 's industrial undertakings and nine - tenths of Russia 's coal mines, coupled with an indemnity of six billion marks. Eventually, even under the "cruel '' terms of the Treaty of Versailles, Germany ′ s economy had been restored to its pre-war status.
Barnett also claims that, in strategic terms, Germany was in fact in a superior position following the Treaty than she had been in 1914. Germany ′ s eastern frontiers faced Russia and Austria, who had both in the past balanced German power. Barnett asserts that its post-war eastern borders were safer, because the former Austrian Empire fractured after the war into smaller, weaker states, Russia was wracked by revolution and civil war, and the newly restored Poland was no match for even a defeated Germany. In the West, Germany was balanced only by France and Belgium, both of which were smaller in population and less economically vibrant than Germany. Barnett concludes by saying that instead of weakening Germany, the treaty "much enhanced '' German power. Britain and France should have (according to Barnett) "divided and permanently weakened '' Germany by undoing Bismarck 's work and partitioning Germany into smaller, weaker states so it could never have disrupted the peace of Europe again. By failing to do this and therefore not solving the problem of German power and restoring the equilibrium of Europe, Britain "had failed in her main purpose in taking part in the Great War ''.
The British historian of modern Germany, Richard J. Evans, wrote that during the war the German right was committed to an annexationist program which aimed at Germany annexing most of Europe and Africa. Consequently, any peace treaty that did not leave Germany as the conqueror would be unacceptable to them. Short of allowing Germany to keep all the conquests of the Treaty of Brest - Litovsk, Evans argued that there was nothing that could have been done to persuade the German right to accept Versailles. Evans further noted that the parties of the Weimar Coalition, namely the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD), the social liberal German Democratic Party (DDP) and the Christian democratic Centre Party, were all equally opposed to Versailles, and it is false to claim as some historians have that opposition to Versailles also equalled opposition to the Weimar Republic. Finally, Evans argued that it is untrue that Versailles caused the premature end of the Republic, instead contending that it was the Great Depression of the early 1930s that put an end to German democracy. He also argued that Versailles was not the "main cause '' of National Socialism and the German economy was "only marginally influenced by the impact of reparations ''.
Ewa Thompson points out that the treaty allowed numerous nations in Central and Eastern Europe to liberate themselves from oppressive German rule, a fact that is often neglected by Western historiography, more interested in understanding the German point of view. In nations that found themselves free as the result of the treaty -- such as Poles or Czechs -- it is seen as a symbol of recognition of wrongs committed against small nations by their much larger aggressive neighbours.
Regardless of modern strategic or economic analysis, resentment caused by the treaty sowed fertile psychological ground for the eventual rise of the Nazi Party. The German historian Detlev Peukert wrote that Versailles was far from the impossible peace that most Germans claimed it was during the interwar period, and though not without flaws was actually quite reasonable to Germany. Rather, Peukert argued that it was widely believed in Germany that Versailles was a totally unreasonable treaty, and it was this "perception '' rather than the "reality '' of the Versailles treaty that mattered. Peukert noted that because of the "millenarian hopes '' created in Germany during World War I when for a time it appeared that Germany was on the verge of conquering all of Europe, any peace treaty the Allies of World War I imposed on the defeated German Reich were bound to create a nationalist backlash, and there was nothing the Allies could have done to avoid that backlash. Having noted that much, Peukert commented that the policy of rapprochement with the Western powers that Gustav Stresemann carried out between 1923 and 1929 were constructive policies that might have allowed Germany to play a more positive role in Europe, and that it was not true that German democracy was doomed to die in 1919 because of Versailles. Finally, Peukert argued that it was the Great Depression and the turn to a nationalist policy of autarky within Germany at the same time that finished off the Weimar Republic, not the Treaty of Versailles.
French historian Raymond Cartier states that millions of Germans in the Sudetenland and in Posen - West Prussia were placed under foreign rule in a hostile environment, where harassment and violation of rights by authorities are documented. Cartier asserts that, out of 1,058,000 Germans in Posen - West Prussia in 1921, 758,867 fled their homelands within five years due to Polish harassment. In 1926, the Polish Ministry of the Interior estimated the remaining number of Germans at fewer than 300,000. These sharpening ethnic conflicts would lead to public demands to reattach the annexed territory in 1938 and become a pretext for Hitler ′ s annexations of Czechoslovakia and parts of Poland.
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who drives the number 95 car in sprint cup | Michael McDowell (Racing driver) - wikipedia
Michael Christopher McDowell (born December 21, 1984) is an American professional stock car racing driver. He currently competes full - time in the Monster Energy NASCAR Cup Series driving the No. 34 Ford Fusion for Front Row Motorsports. He most recently competed for Leavine Family Racing, but left the team at the end of the 2017 season.
McDowell started out his career at the age of three racing BMX bicycles. He would always win his division because there were not any other three - or four - year - olds to compete against. At the start of each race, someone would have to hold him in the starting gate because his feet did not reach the ground. Then, when McDowell was eight years old, he moved to karting with help from his mother Tracy, his father Bill, and his older brother Billy, who were all avid race fans. After ten years in karts, he would win not only the World Karting Association championship, but he would also take back to back undefeated International Kart Federation championships, along with 18 consecutive feature wins.
From karts McDowell moved into Formula Renault with World Speed Motorsports in 2002 and won the Infineon Raceway, Las Vegas, and Firebird International Raceway events in his rookies season. Moving up the ladder, Michael would move to the Star Mazda Series in 2003. He took victories at Sebring and Road America en route to a runner - up finish in the points. McDowell won seven races in 2004 en route to winning the series championship. McDowell would be picked up by Champ Car team Rocketsports for Surfer 's Paradise and Mexico City, but decided to move on in 2005 to the Grand - Am Cup Series.
During his run for the Star Mazda championship, Michael would meet businessman Rob Finlay at the Bob Bondurant School of High Performance Driving, where McDowell was an instructor. McDowell and Finlay soon established a partnership, and McDowell would drive his first sports car, a Porsche 996 in the Grand - Am Cup Series for Finlay Motorsports. In 2005, Michael would stay at Finlay, but moved up to the Rolex Sports Car Series, joining veteran Memo Gidley in a BMW powered Riley sponsored by the Make A Wish Foundation. Together, they finished sixth in the overall points and took the team 's first victory at Mexico City. McDowell made history by becoming the youngest driver to stand on podium for a Grand - Am race at Barber Motorsports Park, and became the first driver since Mario Andretti to compete in both an open wheel race and a sports car race in the same weekend. Michael would also drive the team 's No. 60 BMW M3 in the Grand - Am Cup series to a podium finish at Daytona. McDowell would stick with Finlay for 2006, and was again partnered with Gidley. The duo would improve to fourth in points despite being winless. Michael would also drive a No. 15 Ford Mustang with owner Finlay, driving the car to a win at Barber. He would cap off his Grand - Am year with a second - place finish at Miller Motorsports Park.
McDowell returned to the series for the 2012 24 Hours of Daytona, driving for Michael Shank Racing and finishing third.
ARCA RE / MAX Series owner Eddie Sharp would put McDowell behind the wheel of his No. 2 Dodge for five races of the 2006 season, starting with the Governor 's Cup 200 at the Milwaukee Mile, where he scored a 34th - place finish. McDowell finished in sixth place at Salem, fifth at Talladega, and fourth at Iowa. Michael would return to ESR to run the full schedule for Rookie of the Year honors in 2007. McDowell was involved in controversy at Toledo when his ESR teammate, Ken Butler III spun him late in the race. Butler would take his first win while McDowell would rally for a top ten finish. Michael got his first stock car win at Kentucky Speedway. He followed that up with wins at Pocono, Chicago, and the season finale at Toledo. Although Michael was in contention for the ARCA Re / Max Seroes championship all season, he was unable to pose a serious threat to Frank Kimmel for Kimmel 's ninth championship. Michael would score a second - place finish in the points along with Rookie of the Year honors, as well as scoring nine pole positions during the season. As McDowell moved to NASCAR, his ESR ride was taken over by former Formula One driver Scott Speed.
McDowell would make his NASCAR debut in the Craftsman Truck Series. Driving the No. 17 for Darrell Waltrip Motorsports, McDowell would qualify 29th and finish 30th after a late wreck. McDowell moved to the Busch Series as a developmental driver for Nextel Cup Series team Michael Waltrip Racing. Driving the No. 00 Toyota, McDowell drove at Texas, Phoenix, and Homestead, finishing respectively 20th, 14th, and 32nd.
McDowell was chosen to drive the No. 00 Cup Series car in 2008 after Dale Jarrett 's retirement; David Reutimann replaced Jarrett in the No. 44 UPS car. McDowell started 34th and finished 26th in his Sprint Cup debut, the Goody 's Cool Orange 500, after a flat tire near the end of the race. After the race, he was criticized by veteran driver Jeff Burton for having blocked Burton 's way to leader Denny Hamlin near the end of the race (McDowell was racing for the Lucky Dog free pass, which Burton did not realize at the time of his comments). In early August 2008, McDowell was pulled from the No. 00 Toyota Camry Sprint Cup car in favor of veteran NASCAR driver Mike Skinner for three races. Skinner helped evaluate the team 's progress, while trying to get the No. 00 into the top 35 in owner points, though McDowell returned to the ride at Richmond on September 6, 2008. McDowell was again pulled from the No. 00 Toyota Camry when he failed to qualify for the Camping World RV 400 at Kansas on September 28. McDowell 's contract was not renewed by MWR for 2009, when Michael Waltrip decided not to retire and the team did not have sponsorship for another car.
While performing a qualifying attempt for the 2008 Samsung 500 at Texas Motor Speedway on April 4, 2008 McDowell had an accident that was strikingly similar to that of another racer with a road - racing background; Gordon Smiley (who died in a crash during Indianapolis 500 time trials in 1982). McDowell 's right front sway bar broke entering Turn 1, which caused the car to hit the SAFER barrier almost head on at approximately 185 miles per hour (298 km / h), according to data obtained and reported by SPEED channel (185 mph to zero mph in one foot, as reported by SPEED 's Bob Dillner, before reaccelerating the other direction). The car spun around once while tipping onto its roof, and then barrel - rolled eight times with fire coming out of the engine compartment, shedding debris in all directions, until coming to a stop back onto its tires. A huge dark mark was seen on the SAFER barrier, which showed how hard the car hit the barrier, which had to be repaired (the barrier moved inward when the car hit it), and as a result, qualifying for the race was delayed by an hour. The safety features of the barrier, the HANS device and the Car of Tomorrow racecar protected him. Because of this, he walked away from the crash without injury, and waved to the stunned crowd. Since his old car was destroyed, he had to switch to a backup, and ended up starting at the back of the pack in the race.
In 2009, McDowell drove a part - time schedule for JTG Daugherty Racing in the NASCAR Nationwide Series. On February 25, 2009 McDowell 's first child, Trace Christopher, was born, named after Michael 's late mother, Tracy. The baby boy was 7 pounds, 7 ounces and born at 7: 00 a.m. McDowell next attempted the April 2009 race at Talladega for Prism Motorsports in the Sprint Cup Series, as regular driver Dave Blaney had a family obligation. After JTG Daugherty Racing ran out of sponsorship support after the second race at Daytona International Speedway, it was announced that he would drive the next two races for MacDonald Motorsports. He also competed several races with Tommy Baldwin Racing in the No. 36 Toyota Camry. McDowell remained in the top 10 for most of the season. McDowell also competed in the Camping World Truck Series in 2009 for ThorSport Motorsports driving the No. 98 Chevy Silverado.
In 2010, McDowell started the season for Prism Motorsports. He drove the No. 55 car, then moved to the No. 46 team of Whitney Motorsports. In 2011, McDowell drove the No. 66 Toyota for HP Racing in the Sprint Cup Series. JGR also added the Bucyrus 200 at Road America to McDowell 's schedule, leaving open the possibility of more races added. McDowell also drove one race for Joe Gibbs in the Sprint Cup Series at Texas after NASCAR parked Kyle Busch following his actions at a Truck Series event.
In 2012, McDowell ran the Joe Gibbs Racing No. 18 Nationwide Series car in select races, and competed in the Sprint Cup Series for Phil Parsons Racing (formerly HP Racing) full - time; the team secured full sponsorship for the first five races of the season. It formed a partnership with Whitney Motorsports and Mike Curb to field McDowell 's car, which carried the No. 98.
In the 2013 Daytona 500, McDowell recorded a then - career high 9th - place finish. Later in the season in the Nationwide Series, McDowell won the pole for the inaugural Nationwide Children 's Hospital 200 at Mid-Ohio. McDowell finished 2nd behind A.J. Allmendinger.
In October 2013, it was announced that McDowell would be moving to Leavine Family Racing 's No. 95 Ford for the 2014 NASCAR Sprint Cup Series season. McDowell failed to qualify for the Daytona 500. McDowell had a Sprint Cup career - best seventh - place finish in the Coke Zero 400.
In the Cheez - It 355 at The Glen, on lap 64, Greg Biffle came up on Ryan Newman 's front bumper, turning him into the outside retaining wall. His car ricocheted off the wall into McDowell 's path, and with the force of the impact, the rear end housing was snapped, causing him to get airborne. His housing was then forced into the wall. The race was red - flagged, though both drivers were unharmed.
McDowell returned to the LFR No. 95 car for a 20 - race schedule in 2015. The team merged with Circle Sport in 2016 and switched to Chevrolet, with McDowell splitting the schedule with Ty Dillon with sponsorship from Thrivent Financial, Cheerios, and WRL Contractors among others. McDowell was able to get a 10th place finish in the 2016 Coke Zero 400, his best finish of the season so far. At the end of the season at Homestead, McDowell drove the No. 59 Chevrolet after CSLFR purchased a charter from the closing Tommy Baldwin Racing. McDowell ran decent all night and towards the end, he was able to avoid the big wreck involving Championship contender Carl Edwards, and was able to get a 10th place finish, his first non restrictor plate top 10 finish.
McDowell drove for Richard Childress Racing in the No. 2 Rheem Chevrolet in a one - race deal at Road America which got McDowell his first NASCAR victory. McDowell led the final 24 laps en route to the win.
McDowell returned to Leavine Family Racing 's No. 95 Chevrolet in 2017. He started the season with a 15th place finish in the Daytona 500. At Kansas, McDowell scored a season - best 13th place finish. At Dover, McDowell scored his third straight top 20 finish, a career first, after avoiding a last lap crash, finishing 19th. At Daytona for the Coke Zero 400, McDowell spent most of race towards the front and competed late for the win, before ending the race with a career - best 4th place finish, his first career top 5 finish. It was also the best finishing result for Leavine Family Racing as a team.
On September 19, 2017, Leavine announced Kasey Kahne would be replacing McDowell in the No. 95 for the 2018 season. On November 24, 2017, Front Row Motorsports announced that McDowell would drive their No. 34 car full - time in 2018, replacing Landon Cassill.
McDowell is married to Jami and they have three children, Trace, Emma and Rylie.
McDowell and Justin Marks currently own a karting facility called the GoPro Motorplex, located 30 miles north of Charlotte, North Carolina. The facility opened in October 2012 and is inspired by another karting track located in Parma, Italy.
McDowell in 2008
2010 Nationwide car
Racing at Road America in 2011
McDowell at Road America in 2012
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(key) (Bold -- Pole position awarded by qualifying time. Italics -- Pole position earned by points standings or practice time. * -- Most laps led.)
Season still in progress Ineligible for series points
(key) (Bold -- Pole position awarded by qualifying time. Italics -- Pole position earned by points standings or practice time. * -- Most laps led.)
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where is the movie something gotta give filmed | Something 's Gotta Give (film) - wikipedia
Something 's Gotta Give is a 2003 American romantic comedy film written, produced and directed by Nancy Meyers. It stars Jack Nicholson and Diane Keaton as a successful 60 - something and 50 - something, who find love for each other in later life, despite being complete opposites. Keanu Reeves and Amanda Peet co-star, with Frances McDormand, Paul Michael Glaser, Jon Favreau, and KaDee Strickland playing key supporting roles.
The film received generally favorable reviews from critics, and was a box office hit following its North American release, eventually grossing over $266 million mostly from its international run. For her performance Keaton earned a Golden Globe, a Satellite Award, as well as an Academy Award nomination and a SAG Award nomination for Best Actress, among other recognitions. Nicholson also received a Golden Globe nomination for Best Actor in a Motion Picture - Musical or Comedy. This was Nicholson and Keaton 's second film together since 1981 's Reds.
Harry Sanborn is a wealthy New York music mogul who has had a 40 - year habit of dating women under 30, including his latest conquest, Marin Klein. The two drive to her mother 's Hamptons beach house expecting to be alone, but are surprised by Marin 's mother, successful playwright Erica Barry, who is there with her sister Zoe.
After an awkward dinner, the night turns disastrous when -- during foreplay with Marin -- Harry has a heart attack and is rushed to a hospital. The doctor, Julian Mercer, tells Harry to stay nearby for a few days, so Harry ends up staying with Erica. Their personalities clash and create awkward living arrangements -- until they get to know each other. The fact that Harry is dating her daughter and that Julian has fallen for Erica leave the two struggling to deal with relationships.
Marin and Harry agree to break up. He and Erica spend more time together and eventually consummate their relationship. Harry discovers that his improving health means that he no longer has to stay with Erica, so he heads home.
Marin receives news that her father, Dave Klein, Erica 's ex-husband, whom Erica still allows to direct her plays, is getting remarried to Kristen, an ear, nose and throat doctor who is only two years older than Marin. Although Erica is unaffected by the news, Marin is devastated and pressures her mother into accompanying her to a family dinner. Erica is the life of the party until she sees Harry at another table with another woman. In the argument that follows, Harry suffers from what he believes is another heart attack, but he is told by the young ER physician, Dr. Martinez, who treats him like her father, that it was only a panic attack.
Although she is heartbroken, Erica figures that these events would be great to use in a play. Harry hears about it and rushes to the NYC theater where it is being rehearsed. Despite her denials, it is quickly obvious that she has used the most personal details of their affair in the play. Erica coolly rebuffs his every insinuation that he cares about her and hints that his character will die in the play -- for a laugh. He then has another panic attack and is again treated by Dr. Martinez, who warns him that he needs to learn to "decompress ''.
Six months pass. Erica 's play is a huge success. Harry pays Marin a visit to apologize for anything he ever did to hurt her. She replies that he was nothing but nice to her and happily tells him that she is pregnant and has a new husband. Harry expresses a desire to see Erica. Marin tells him that her mother is in Paris celebrating her birthday. Harry decides to surprise Erica. Remembering how they had once planned to spend their birthdays together there, he shows up at the Parisian restaurant where she is seated at a table. Harry explains that over the past six months he reached out to all of the women he ever had affairs with, and even though repeatedly rebuffed at first, finally broke through. They all had identical harsh stories that helped him learn how "I arrived at being me. '' He tells Erica that his trip to find her was the last and the farthest. Julian appears. All along, Erica has been waiting at the restaurant for Julian, whom she is now dating.
Harry and Erica get along well during the dinner, but they part outside the restaurant. While he is gazing in heartache over the river Seine, Erica pulls up in a taxi. She explains that Julian figured out what was happening between them and decided to step aside to let her be with Harry. Harry explains that his search the last six months has made him realize he truly loves Erica. Harry and Erica kiss.
A year later, at a New York restaurant, Erica and Harry, now married, are out with Marin, her husband and her new baby daughter, as one big happy family.
Something 's Gotta Give was a co-production between Columbia Pictures and Warner Bros. Both companies have released soundtracks for the movie.
The following soundtrack was released on December 9, 2003 by Warner Bros. Records.
The following soundtrack was released on February 23, 2004 by Columbia Records.
The film was originally scored by Alan Silvestri and orchestrated by Tony Blondal, however creative differences led to Silvestri being replaced at the last minute by members of Remote Control Productions. As Alan 's music was already recorded some of it remains in the film.
The film holds a 71 % "Fresh '' rating from the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, based on 166 critics ' reviews, with the summary: "Though it occasionally stumbles into sitcom territory, Something 's Gotta Give is mostly a smart, funny romantic comedy, with sharp performances from Jack Nicholson, Diane Keaton, and Keanu Reeves. '' The San Francisco Chronicle 's reviewer felt the performances of the film 's stars, Diane Keaton and Jack Nicholson, were among their best, and that Nicholson 's acting, as his role covered a wider range of emotions, was the more complex. The reviewer praised the film for being a romantic comedy for adults:
The adult romance is a dying genre in our era, but movies as wise and fun as Something 's Gotta Give have always been rare. It 's a comedy with hilarious moments, and yet with an essential seriousness at its core: Two people in the autumn of life find love.
Roger Ebert describes the film 's dialog as "smart ''. Although noting that Keanu Reeves 's role "seems like nothing more than a walking plot complication '', he praises the performances of Keaton and Nicholson: "A movie like this depends crucially on its stars. To complain that Nicholson is playing "himself '' -- or that Keaton is also playing a character very much like her public persona -- is missing the point. Part of the appeal depends on the movie 's teasing confusion of reality and fiction. ''
The film is recognized by American Film Institute in these lists:
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who plays the villain in dark knight rises | The Dark Knight Rises - Wikipedia
The Dark Knight Rises is a 2012 superhero film directed by Christopher Nolan, who co-wrote the screenplay with his brother Jonathan Nolan, and the story with David S. Goyer. Featuring the DC Comics character Batman, the film is the final installment in Nolan 's Batman film trilogy, and the sequel to Batman Begins (2005) and The Dark Knight (2008). Christian Bale reprises the lead role of Bruce Wayne / Batman, with a returning cast of allies: Michael Caine as Alfred Pennyworth, Gary Oldman as James Gordon, and Morgan Freeman as Lucius Fox. The film introduces Selina Kyle (Anne Hathaway), and Bane (Tom Hardy). Eight years after the events of The Dark Knight, merciless revolutionary Bane forces an older Bruce Wayne to resume his role as Batman and save Gotham City from nuclear destruction.
Christopher Nolan was hesitant about returning to the series for a second time, but agreed after developing a story with his brother and Goyer that he felt would conclude the series on a satisfactory note. Nolan drew inspiration from Bane 's comic book debut in the 1993 "Knightfall '' storyline, the 1986 series The Dark Knight Returns, and the 1999 storyline "No Man 's Land ''. Filming took place in locations including Jodhpur, London, Nottingham, Glasgow, Los Angeles, New York City, Newark, and Pittsburgh. Nolan used IMAX 70 mm film cameras for much of the filming, including the first six minutes of the film, to optimize the quality of the picture. A vehicle variation of the Batplane and Batcopter termed the "Bat '', an underground prison set, and a new Batcave set were created specifically for the film. As with The Dark Knight, viral marketing campaigns began early during production. When filming concluded, Warner Bros. refocused its campaign: developing promotional websites, releasing the first six minutes of the film, screening theatrical trailers, and sending out information regarding the film 's plot.
The Dark Knight Rises premiered in New York City on July 16, 2012. The film was released in the United States and the United Kingdom on July 20, 2012. It received positive reviews from critics, many of whom named it one of the best films of 2012. Like its predecessor, the film grossed over $1 billion worldwide at the box office, making it the second film in the Batman film series to earn $1 billion. It is the 19th - highest - grossing film of all time, the third - highest - grossing film of 2012, and the fifth - highest - grossing superhero film of all time.
Eight years after the death of District Attorney Harvey Dent, Batman has disappeared and organized crime has been eradicated in Gotham City thanks to the Dent Act, which gives the Gotham City Police Department expanded powers. Police Commissioner James Gordon has kept secret Dent 's murderous rampage as "Two - Face '' and allowed blame for Dent 's crimes to fall on Batman, but feels guilty about lying to the public. He writes a resignation speech revealing the truth, but decides that the city is not ready to hear it.
Bruce Wayne has become a recluse, broken by the death of his childhood sweetheart Rachel Dawes, and Wayne Enterprises is losing profits after Wayne discontinued his fusion reactor project when he learned that it could be weaponized. Cat burglar Selina Kyle obtains Wayne 's fingerprints from his home and kidnaps Congressman Byron Gilley. She sells the fingerprints to Wayne 's corporate rival John Daggett. As payment, she requests a "clean slate '': a computer program that can wipe all traces of a person 's criminal record. Kyle is double - crossed at the exchange, but she uses Gilley 's phone to alert the police. Gordon and the police arrive to find the congressman, and then pursue Daggett 's henchmen into the sewers while Selina flees. The men capture Gordon and take him to Bane, a masked terrorist and former member of the League of Shadows, who has set up his base of operations in the sewers. Gordon escapes and is found by rookie officer John Blake. Blake, a fellow orphan, confronts Bruce and convinces him to return as Batman.
Bane attacks the Gotham Stock Exchange, using Bruce 's fingerprints in a transaction that leaves Wayne bankrupt. He then kills Daggett. Wayne 's butler, Alfred Pennyworth, reveals that Rachel Dawes had intended to marry Dent before she died, and then resigns in an attempt to convince Bruce to move on with his life. Wayne finds comfort in Wayne Enterprises CEO Miranda Tate, who becomes his lover.
Kyle agrees to take Batman to Bane but instead leads him into Bane 's trap. Bane reveals that he intends to fulfill Ra 's al Ghul 's mission to destroy Gotham, and then steals Batman 's technology from Wayne Enterprises armorer Lucius Fox. Bane fights Batman and delivers a crippling blow to his back, before taking him abroad to an underground prison. There, the inmates tell Wayne the story of Ra 's al Ghul 's child, who was born and raised in the prison before finally escaping -- the only prisoner to have ever done so.
Bane lures Gotham 's police underground and uses explosives to trap them and destroy the bridges surrounding the city. He kills Mayor Anthony Garcia and forces Dr. Leonid Pavel, a Russian nuclear physicist he kidnapped from Uzbekistan, to convert the reactor core into an atomic bomb before killing him as well. Bane then uses the bomb to hold the city hostage and isolate Gotham from the world. Using Gordon 's stolen speech, Bane reveals the cover - up of Dent 's crimes to the public, and releases the prisoners of Blackgate Penitentiary, initiating anarchy. The wealthy and powerful are then taken captive and given show trials presided over by Jonathan Crane, where all are sentenced to death.
Months later, a recovered Wayne escapes from the prison. He returns to Gotham and enlists Gordon and Fox to help stop the bomb 's detonation, while tasking Blake and Kyle with helping to evacuate the city, giving the Batpod to Kyle so she can create an escape route. Batman frees the trapped police and they clash with Bane 's army in the streets; during the battle, Batman overpowers Bane. Tate intervenes and stabs Batman, revealing herself to be Talia al Ghul, Ra 's al Ghul 's daughter; Bane was her protector, who aided her escape from the prison, and she had been plotting to avenge her father and destroy Gotham as he intended. She uses the detonator, but Gordon blocks her signal, preventing remote detonation. Talia leaves to find the bomb while Bane prepares to kill Batman, but Kyle arrives and kills Bane with the Batpod 's cannons. Batman and Kyle pursue Talia, hoping to bring the bomb back to the reactor chamber where it can be stabilized. Talia 's truck crashes, but she remotely floods and destroys the reactor chamber before dying. With no way to stop the detonation, Batman uses the Bat to haul the bomb over the bay, where it finally explodes.
In the aftermath, Batman is presumed dead and is honored as a hero. With Wayne presumed killed in the riots, Wayne Manor becomes an orphanage, and his remaining estate is left to Alfred. Fox discovers that Wayne had fixed the Bat 's autopilot and Gordon finds the Bat - Signal refurbished. While visiting Florence, Alfred discovers that Wayne is alive, and in a relationship with Selina Kyle. Blake resigns from the police force and, in accordance to Wayne 's will, inherits the Batcave.
Matthew Modine appears as Peter Foley, Gordon 's second - in - command that disdains Batman. Ben Mendelsohn portrays John Daggett, a rival billionaire socialite who employs Bane in his plan to take control of Wayne Enterprises, and Burn Gorman appears as Daggett 's assistant and Executive Vice President Philip Stryver. Alon Abutbul portrays Leonid Pavel, a Russian nuclear physicist who is kidnapped from Uzbekistan by Bane and forced to convert the new Wayne Enterprises reactor core into a bomb. Juno Temple plays Jen, Kyle 's friend and accomplice, and Daniel Sunjata portrays Mark Jones, a U.S. Special Ops officer who leads a task force into Gotham to assist Gordon and the GCPD in freeing the city from Bane 's rule. Chris Ellis appears as Father Reilly, a priest at the orphanage that Blake grew up in. Brett Cullen portrays Byron Gilley, a U.S. congressman who is kidnapped on Harvey Dent Day by Kyle.
Cillian Murphy reprises his role as Jonathan Crane / Scarecrow from previous films, as does Liam Neeson as Ra 's al Ghul, who appears to Bruce in a hallucination. Josh Pence portrays Ra 's al Ghul in scenes set thirty years before the events of Batman Begins. Nestor Carbonell also returns as Anthony Garcia, Gotham 's mayor. Other cast members include Aidan Gillen as CIA agent Bill Wilson (referred to solely as "CIA '' in the film 's dialogue; the character 's name is revealed in the film 's novelization); Rob Brown and Desmond Harrington as police officers; Josh Stewart as Bane 's right - hand man Barsad, Christopher Judge as one of Bane 's henchmen, Noel Gugliemi as Bane 's exile compeller, and Tom Conti as a prisoner. William Devane portrays the President of the United States. Aaron Eckhart expressed enthusiasm in returning for a sequel if asked, although he later stated Nolan verified that his character, Harvey Dent / Two - Face, is dead, and only archive footage of Eckhart from The Dark Knight appears in the film.
Several members of the Pittsburgh Steelers have cameo appearances as members of the fictional Gotham Rogues football team in the film, including Ben Roethlisberger, Hines Ward, Troy Polamalu, Willie Colon, Maurkice Pouncey, Mike Wallace, Heath Miller, Aaron Smith, Ryan Clark, James Farrior, LaMarr Woodley, and Casey Hampton, and former Steelers head coach Bill Cowher as the head coach of the Rogues. Pittsburgh mayor Luke Ravenstahl, a kicker in college, appears as the kicker for the Rogues ' opponents, the Rapid City Monuments. In 2008, the Rooney family sold a minority stake in the team to Thomas Tull, the CEO and president of Legendary Pictures, which produced The Dark Knight Rises. United States Senator Patrick Leahy, who had made a cameo appearance in The Dark Knight, returned in The Dark Knight Rises, as a Wayne Enterprises board member. Thomas Lennon, who had appeared as a doctor in Memento, once again plays a doctor. India Wadsworth plays the wife of Ra 's al Ghul and the mother of Talia.
Warner Bros. president of production Jeff Robinov had hoped a third film would be released in 2011 or 2012. Nolan wanted the story for the third installment to keep him emotionally invested. "On a more superficial level, I have to ask the question, '' he reasoned, "how many good third movies in a franchise can people name? '' Nolan said that he never even thought a third film was possible in the foreword for his book The Art and Making of the Dark Knight Trilogy. Nolan only agreed to a third film on the basis of finding a worthwhile story, fearing that he would become bored halfway through production if he discovered the film to be unnecessary. By December 2008, Nolan completed a rough story outline, before he committed himself to Inception. Later in December, Alan F. Horn confirmed that while discussions with Nolan about a third film were ongoing, no casting had been done, and Horn denied all such rumors. Before Nolan confirmed his involvement, Gary Oldman had said he was confident Nolan would return.
Following the success of the Joker in The Dark Knight, studio executives wished for the Riddler to be included as the primary villain as he was considered a similar character and encouraged the casting of Leonardo DiCaprio. However, Nolan wanted the antagonist to be vastly different from the previous incarnations and committed to using Bane instead, citing the need for a character with a physical presence within the film. He was initially unfamiliar with the character 's back - story, but pointed out the appeal of an archetype, labelling it as "the extreme of some type of villainy ''. When comparing the choice of Bane with the Joker, Nolan highlighted the Joker as an example of "diabolical, chaotic anarchy and has a devilish sense of humor '', juxtaposing him against Bane, whom he likened to "a classic movie monster (...) with a terrific brain. '' Nolan has said that his draft of the script was inspired by Charles Dickens ' 1859 novel A Tale of Two Cities, which centers around the French Revolution. This homage to Dickens was briefly illustrated by having Bane inconspicuously finger knit paracord in the film, symbolizing his literary character Madame Defarge, and more overtly by Commissioner Gordon 's eulogy for Bruce Wayne at the end of the film, which is taken directly from the classic book.
It was not until February 9, 2010, that it was announced that Nolan had "cracked '' the story of a sequel to The Dark Knight and was committed to return to the project. Shortly afterward, it was announced David S. Goyer and Jonathan Nolan were working on a screenplay. Goyer would leave the project during pre-production to begin work on Man of Steel; Jonathan continued writing the script based on the story by his brother Chris and Goyer. Chris Nolan said that his brother 's original draft was about 400 pages. The film 's storyline has been compared with the Batman comic book series ' story arc "Knightfall '' (1993), which showcased Bane; the mini-series The Dark Knight Returns (1986), in which Batman returns to Gotham City after a ten - year absence; and the story arc "No Man 's Land '' (1999), which depicts a Gotham cut off from the rest of the world and overrun by gangs. The nickname "the Dark Knight '' was first applied to Batman in Batman # 1 (1940), in a story written by Bill Finger. Nolan confirmed the Joker would not return in the third film, and dismissed rumors that he considered using unused footage of Heath Ledger from The Dark Knight. The Dark Knight Rises reunited Nolan with many of his past collaborators, including cinematographer Wally Pfister, production designer Nathan Crowley, editor Lee Smith, costume designer Lindy Hemming, special effects supervisors Paul Franklin and Chris Corbould, and composer Hans Zimmer.
During location scouting in December 2010, Nolan began searching for locations such as India, Romania, and Michigan. According to the Romania Insider, Nolan was interested in Bucharest 's historical centers, Edgar Quinet Street, the Palace of the Parliament, and the Turda salt mine. The film had an estimated budget of $250 -- 300 million, coming down to about $230 million after tax credits. Nolan elected not to film in 3 - D, but instead stated that he intended to focus on improving image quality and scale using the IMAX format. The Dark Knight Rises featured over an hour of footage shot in IMAX (by comparison, The Dark Knight contained 28 minutes). Nolan had several meetings with IMAX Vice-President David Keighley to work on the logistics of projecting films in digital IMAX venues. Wally Pfister had expressed interest in shooting the film entirely in IMAX, but because of the considerable noise made by IMAX cameras, 35mm and 70mm cameras had to be used for shooting the film 's dialogue scenes, as dialogue had to be dubbed when shot with IMAX cameras. Chairman and president of the IMAX Corporation Greg Foster stated that IMAX planned to run the film in its theatres for two months, despite only being contractually committed to run the film for two weeks. Nolan also bypassed the use of a digital intermediate for the film, resulting in less manipulation of the filmed image and higher film resolution.
Filming was scheduled to start in May and conclude in November 2011. Principal photography commenced on May 6, 2011, in Jodhpur, India at the Mehrangarh Fort before moving to Pittsburgh, where it operated under the working title Magnus Rex to reduce the visibility of the production. Shooting locations within the city included Heinz Field, the site of an American football game, with members of the Pittsburgh Steelers playing the Gotham Rogues football team. More than 11,000 extras were used to depict the shot sequence. Filming in Pittsburgh also took place at the Mellon Institute and Software Engineering Institute at Carnegie Mellon University. A letter sent out to residents and business owners detailing road closures revealed that the streets of the city would be featured "as the start of (the) film ''. 9 - 1 - 1 operators were told to expect an increase in calls related to gunshots and explosions in the film 's production. The Pittsburgh leg of production wrapped after three weeks on August 21, 2011. The next portion of the filming began in Los Angeles in late August and finished up on October 23 after nine weeks of filming. New York and New Jersey were the next places of filming. The Trump Tower replaced the Richard J. Daley Center as the location for the headquarters of Wayne Enterprises. In November 2011, shooting shifted to Newark, New Jersey. Newark City Hall and Military Park were among the locations used for filming. Other shooting locations include London and Glasgow, the latter of which was used for "additional exterior filming ''. Principal photography concluded on November 14, 2011. The external waterfall scene at the end of the film was shot at Sgwd Henrhyd falls, on the edge of the Brecon Beacons National Park in Wales.
Production photos from filming in Pittsburgh showed a second Tumbler chassis after the first was destroyed, indicating that a new Batmobile would be in the film, following the destruction of the first in The Dark Knight. Further set photos revealed a "new vehicle '' being transported to Wabash Tunnel, prompting speculation as to its nature. In June 2011, Autoblog confirmed the presence of the new Lamborghini Aventador on the film set.
Several accidents occurred during the production of the film. While filming at Wollaton Hall, Nottingham, a tractor - trailer crashed into the main entrance, though no one was injured. A stuntman parachutist later crashed through the roof of a home in Cairngorm Gliding Club, Feshiebridge in Scotland, and became wedged there after a failed landing during a skydiving stunt; he was not seriously injured. While filming scenes in Pittsburgh, Hathaway 's stunt double crashed into an IMAX camera while filming a sequence that required her to ride a Batpod down a flight of stairs during a riot. There were no injuries, but the camera was destroyed. A second accident took place in Pittsburgh when the truck carrying the then - unidentified vehicle later termed "the Bat '' went off - course and crashed into a lighting array, damaging the model of the aircraft. Production was delayed while the model was repaired.
Shortly before Christmas of 2011, Christopher Nolan invited several prominent directors, including Edgar Wright, Michael Bay, Bryan Singer, Jon Favreau, Eli Roth, Duncan Jones and Stephen Daldry, to Universal CityWalk 's IMAX theatre for a private screening of the first six minutes of The Dark Knight Rises, which had been shot on IMAX film and edited from the original camera negative. Nolan, feeling that the use of film stock in cinema is currently being phased out due to the introduction of digital cinematography and projection, used this screening to make a case for the continued use of film, which he asserts still offers superior image quality to any digital format, and warned the filmmakers that unless they continued to assert their choice to use film in their productions, they may eventually lose it as an option. Nolan explained; "I wanted to give them a chance to see the potential, because I think IMAX is the best film format that was ever invented. It 's the gold standard and what any other technology has to match up to, but none have, in my opinion. The message I wanted to put out there was that no one is taking anyone 's digital cameras away. But if we want film to continue as an option, and someone is working on a big studio movie with the resources and the power to insist (on) film, they should say so. I felt as if I did n't say anything, and then we started to lose that option, it would be a shame. When I look at a digitally acquired and projected image, it looks inferior against an original negative anamorphic print or an IMAX one. ''
Costume designer Lindy Hemming explained that Bane uses a mask to inhale an analgesic gas, which, in director Christopher Nolan 's words, "keeps his pain just below the threshold so he can function. '' In designing Bane 's costume, Hemming needed it to look "like an amalgam of all sorts of bits and pieces he cobbled together, as he passed through some very remote places. We made parts of his vest, for example, from fragments of an old military tent. His clothes are militaristic, but are not in any way a uniform. '' Hemming also designed Bane 's mask to look "animalistic ''. Costume effects supervisor Graham Churchyard created a three - dimensional model of actor Tom Hardy 's face and skull to design the mask, allowing the mask to perfectly conform to the contours of Hardy 's face. Hemming personally designed Bane 's coat, which she admitted took two years to complete. Taking inspiration from a Swedish army jacket and a frock coat from the French Revolution, it was designed to make Bane look like equal parts dictatorial and revolutionary. The design was difficult as Hemming struggled to find a tailor in Los Angeles who could work with shearling.
The Batsuit consisted of 110 separate pieces, each of which had to be replicated dozens of times over the course of the production. The base layer was made of a polyester mesh that is utilized by the military and high - tech sports manufacturers because of its breathability and moisture - wicking properties. Molded pieces of flexible urethane were then attached to the mesh, to form the overall body armor plating. Carbon fiber panels were placed inside the sections on the legs, chest and abdomen. The cowl was sculpted from a cast of Bale 's face and head to become a perfect fit for Christian Bale. The suit remained unchanged for the film since The Dark Knight.
In creating Selina Kyle 's catsuit, two layers of material were used, with the outer layer being polyurethane coated spandex, embossed with a hexagonal pattern. The catsuit also consisted of elbow - length gloves, a utility belt, and thigh - high boots with spike heels.
Concept artist Tully Summers commented on Nolan 's style of cinematography when asked about the difference between his designs for this film and fantasy - based designs for Men in Black 3: "The difference for me was Christopher Nolan 's visual style. One of the things that makes his Batman movies so compelling is their tone of plausibility. He will often prefer a raw, grittier design over one that is very sleek and product design pretty. It 's sort of a practical military aesthetic. This stuff is made to work, not impress shoppers. The Dark Knight Rises is a war film. '' Producer Emma Thomas stated this Batman film has a different visual aesthetic from the first two Nolan - directed features, explaining that "it 's meant to be winter in Gotham, so that right there is going to lend a whole different look to the film. ''
The film introduces a vehicle that has been compared with the Batplane and the Batcopter, dubbed "the Bat ''. In designing the Bat, Nathan Crowley approached it as if it were an actual military project, emphasising the need for it to "fit into the same family '' as the Tumbler and the Batpod. The final version of the Bat takes its design cues from the Harrier Jump Jet, Bell Boeing V - 22 Osprey and the Boeing AH - 64 Apache. Chris Corbould described the Bat 's size and shape as presenting a major challenge for filming given Christopher Nolan 's emphasis on practical effects over computer - generated imagery. In order to make the Bat "fly '', it was variously supported by wires, suspended from cranes and helicopters, and mounted on a purpose - built vehicle with hydraulic controls to simulate movement.
When designing the Batcave set, Crowley and fellow production designer Kevin Kavanaugh hit upon the idea of flooding the Batcave and having Batman 's equipment, the Batsuit and a supercomputer rise from the water. Another set was designed at Cardington as an "underground prison '', a rough - hewn labyrinth of stone cells in a vast abyss with a 120 foot (37 m) vertical shaft leading to the surface. Exteriors above the prison were filmed in Jodhpur, India, chosen because the "forbidding landscape added to the desolation ''.
In an interview in October 2010, composer Hans Zimmer confirmed that he would be returning to score The Dark Knight Rises. James Newton Howard was offered to return and write the score with Zimmer as he did for Batman Begins and The Dark Knight, but he chose not to because he noted that the chemistry established between Zimmer and Nolan during the making of Inception would make him seem like a "third wheel ''. Zimmer included several cues from the earlier scores, but explains that he wanted to go in a "completely different direction '' for Bane 's theme. While the theme accompanying Selina Kyle is deliberately ambiguous, the musical thread spanning throughout the trilogy was composed exclusively for Bruce Wayne.
The film features a prevalent Moroccan chant of the phrase deshi basara (proper transliteration: Tījī basara'ah) (Arabic: تيجي بسرعة), which translates to "rise up '' (literally: "come quickly ''). In November 2011, Zimmer crowdsourced online audio recordings of the chant to be used in the film 's score. When asked about the chant for clarification, Zimmer said, "The chant became a very complicated thing because I wanted hundreds of thousands of voices, and it 's not so easy to get hundreds of thousands of voices. So, we tweeted and we posted on the internet, for people who wanted to be part of it. It seemed like an interesting thing. We 've created this world, over these last two movies, and somehow I think the audience and the fans have been part of this world. We do keep them in mind. ''
The official website launched in May 2011, introducing a viral marketing campaign similar to the one used to promote The Dark Knight. The website streamed an encrypted audio file described by users as chanting. Users decrypted the audio to the Twitter hashtag, "# TheFireRises ''. Warner Bros. removed a pixel from the webpage for every tweet using the hashtag. The website revealed the first official image of Bane.
In July 2011, a teaser trailer leaked online before its official release with Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows -- Part 2. The studio released the teaser three days after the leak. The trailer received mixed responses; Stephen Spencer Davis of Slate wrote it successfully built hype, while Kofi Outlaw of ScreenRant showed disappointment, claiming it was more of an "announcement trailer '' than an actual teaser trailer. Outlaw criticized the quality, writing that a scene depicting Commissioner Gordon in a hospital bed was overly dramatic, had "hammy '' dialogue, and was difficult to understand due to Gordon 's labored breathing. Outlaw wrote that the sweeping shot of Gotham City had poor CGI and was too reminiscent of the Inception trailer. The theatrical trailer leaked online, like the teaser trailer, before being released the following week attached to theatrical prints of Sherlock Holmes: A Game of Shadows. Critics noted political undertones with dialogue foreshadowing the theme of income inequality and an "Occupy Gotham '' campaign within the world of the story. Receiving more than 12.5 million views in the first 24 hours after its release, the trailer set the record for most combined downloads from iTunes, beating the previous record held by The Avengers. However, the second trailer for The Avengers again set the record with 13.7 million downloads. Warner Bros. attached a second theatrical trailer for The Dark Knight Rises to theatrical prints of The Avengers. An "unnamed '' Warner Brothers executive clarified that "We see this placement as a good strategic decision. We always want our trailers to be seen with films that people want to see -- and a lot of people will be going to The Avengers! '' The executive also commented that the trailer will "provide the best potential exposure for TDKR. '' Warner Bros. released the trailer online on April 30, 2012, approximately four days before they attached it to theatrical prints of The Avengers.
Continuing a method used with The Dark Knight whereby the opening sequence of the film was attached to IMAX prints of I Am Legend seven months before release, a six - minute prologue of The Dark Knight Rises was attached to 70mm IMAX prints of Mission: Impossible -- Ghost Protocol, again approximately seven months before release. Critical reaction to the prologue was positive, with one critic commenting that "no one gets to make a film on this kind of scale anymore. Except for Christopher Nolan, '' though a round - up of reviews highlighted the way many critics found Tom Hardy 's dialogue very difficult to hear. Addressing the issue in an interview with Entertainment Weekly, Nolan said "I think when people see the film, things will come into focus. Bane is very complex and very interesting and when people see the finished film people will be very entertained by him. ''
Viral marketing campaigns for the film continued as magazine companies Empire and Wired received "CIA documents '' concerning a "Dr. Leonid Pavel '', with its mugshot connected to actor Alon Abutbul. According to the first document, Pavel is a missing Russian nuclear physicist, while the second document appears to be an edited transcript of a conversation discussing the handover of Dr. Pavel to the CIA by Georgian separatists, but with most of the conversation redacted. These were later shown to be plot elements of the six - minute prologue. The official Twitter account later linked to another censored document, this time, referencing "Operation Early Bird ''. A website of the same name was discovered, revealing a countdown timer. When the countdown finished, the site presented a map showing all available theaters that would be screening the film 's prologue earlier than its release. Various websites received a package that included a cylinder map of "strike zones '', and a "fire rises '' T - shirt. In April 2012, the film 's official website was updated with a "dossier '' on a suspect named "John Doe '' also known as "the Batman '' for an arrest, with a list of several accusations. The premise of the campaign starts when the mayor of Gotham City "redoubles '' the effort to capture Batman and anyone supporting his return in preparation for the upcoming "Harvey Dent Day ''. The site also includes an extensive list of real - world locations where "graffiti related to movement in support of the vigilante 's return '' is located. For each tweet of a specific location marked on the list, a frame of the second theatrical trailer for the film was released on a separate website.
In January 2012, six months prior to the film 's release, tickets for midnight IMAX showings in New York, San Francisco, and Los Angeles went on sale and sold out immediately. Purchased tickets surfaced for sale online for over $100, compared with their original price of $17.50.
At the American International Toy Fair, Mattel unveiled figures for Batman, Bane, and Catwoman, and Batman 's flying vehicle, the Bat. The Mattel figures were also released in the "Movie Masters '' line, featuring more highly detailed and articulated presentation, and Quiktek versions that feature interchangeable accessories. Lego released building sets and mini-figures based on the film and incorporating other DC Comic characters. Additionally, Funko released a series of plush toys, Mezco Toyz released vinyl figures, and Hornby released the Batman Tumbler car. Other partners include Jakks Pacific, who created novelty and large - scale figures and plush toys, and PPW Toys, who created a Batman themed Mr. Potato Head. Various clothing items including shoes, T - shirts, hats and wallets were also produced.
A video game of the same name was released on the same day as the release of the film for the iOS and Android devices for promoting the movie. The game features an open world with primary focus on stealth and combat. The combat system of the game is inspired from Arkham Asylum and Arkham City. It takes place in Gotham City, with a somewhat similar but still significantly different plot from that of the movie. IGN gave it a mediocre score of 5.5 / 10.
The film novelization, written by author Greg Cox and published by Titan Books, was released alongside the film on July 24, 2012.
Warner Bros. partnered with Mountain Dew to do a cross-promotion that included a special paint scheme on the number 88 Chevrolet Impala owned by Hendrick Motorsports and driven by Dale Earnhardt, Jr. in the NASCAR Sprint Cup Series. On June 17, 2012, the car won the 2012 Quicken Loans 400 at Michigan International Speedway. On July 4, 2012, the studio signed a deal with Formula One team Lotus F1 to have the film 's logos appear on the Lotus E20s driven by Kimi Räikkönen and Romain Grosjean at the 2012 British Grand Prix. Räikkönen and Grosjean went on to finish the race in fifth and sixth place respectively. Warner Bros. had previously followed a similar promotion at the 2008 British Grand Prix, when the now - defunct Toyota F1 carried a livery to promote The Dark Knight.
Two digital comic books entitled Batman Origins and The Dark Knight: Prologue were released exclusively for Nokia Lumia devices. A special movie application has also been released, featuring trailers, wallpapers, movie schedules and Batman trivias. Limited editions of the Lumia 710, Lumia 800 and Lumia 900 were also released featuring a laser - etched Batman logo.
On July 20, 2012, during a midnight showing of The Dark Knight Rises at the Century 16 cinema in Aurora, Colorado, a gunman wearing a gas mask opened fire inside the theater, killing 12 people and injuring 58 others. Police responding to the shooting apprehended a suspect later identified as 24 - year - old James Eagan Holmes shortly after arriving on the scene. Initial reports stated that Holmes identified himself as "the Joker '' at the time of his arrest.
Warner Bros. cancelled the Paris, Mexico, and Japan premieres of The Dark Knight Rises, and suspended the film 's marketing campaign in Finland. Several broadcast networks also suspended television ads for the film in the United States. The trailer for Gangster Squad, another Warner Bros. movie included in the screening of The Dark Knight Rises, was removed as it contains a scene which shows gangsters shooting submachine guns at moviegoers through the screen, similar to the shooting in Aurora.
Director Christopher Nolan released a public statement calling the shooting "unbearably savage ''. Other stars of the film released statements expressing their condolences, with star Christian Bale paying a personal visit to the survivors and the memorial in Aurora.
On July 6, 2012, Warner Bros. held a special IMAX screening of The Dark Knight Rises for more than one hundred reporters and critics. However, technical issues with the computer device synchronizing the sound and picture forced the studio to postpone the screening by a day. The film later premiered on July 16 at the AMC Lincoln Square Theater in New York City, New York, followed by a European premiere on July 18 at Leicester Square in London, England. The film was released in Australia and New Zealand on July 19, and was later released in North America and the United Kingdom on July 20.
The Dark Knight Rises received positive reviews from critics. Film review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gave The Dark Knight Rises a score of 87 % based on 335 reviews and a rating average of 8 / 10. The site 's consensus reads, "The Dark Knight Rises is an ambitious, thoughtful, and potent action film that concludes Christopher Nolan 's franchise in spectacular fashion. '' Metacritic, another review aggregator, assigned the film a weighted score of 78 out of 100, based on 45 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. CinemaScore reported that audiences gave the film an A grade.
The Telegraph granted the film a maximum score of five stars, stating that it is "a superhero film without a superhero, '' comparing it with The Godfather Part II and praising Hardy 's performance as well as the film 's intricate plot and narrative. Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times thought the film was "potent, persuasive and hypnotic '' and that it was "more than an exceptional superhero movie, it is masterful filmmaking by any standard. '' The Playlists Todd Gilchrist wrote "A cinematic, cultural and personal triumph, The Dark Knight Rises is emotionally inspiring, aesthetically significant and critically important for America itself -- as a mirror of both sober reflection and resilient hope. '' IGN gave it a 9 out of 10, noting similarities in tone and theme to Batman Begins over the trilogy 's second installment The Dark Knight, but also describing Bane as "that bit less interesting to watch '' than Ledger 's Joker, despite praising his "menacing voice '' and "body language - driven performance ''. The Guardian scored the film four out of five stars, calling it a film of "granite, monolithic intensity '', yet also calling it a "hammy, portentous affair ''. Andrew O'Hehir of Salon writes "if The Dark Knight Rises is a fascist film, it 's a great fascist film, and arguably the biggest, darkest, most thrilling and disturbing and utterly balls - out spectacle ever created for the screen ''. Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun - Times gave the film three out of four stars, stating "the film begins slowly with a murky plot and too many new characters, but builds to a sensational climax. '' Film critic Richard Roeper gave the film an "A '', calling it "a majestic, gorgeous, brutal and richly satisfying epic '', and citing the final scenes of the picture as "the best five minutes of any film this year. '' The London Film Review gave the film a B and said "Nolan 's film is a reminder that superheroes are n't merely a frivolous distraction, but an embodiment of our best selves. '' The film was crowned by Forbes as the best modern comic book superhero adaption on screen, outranking both its main summer blockbuster competitor, Marvel 's The Avengers, and the trilogy 's previous installment The Dark Knight. In 2014, Empire ranked The Dark Knight Rises the 72nd greatest film ever made on their list of "The 301 Greatest Movies Of All Time '' as voted by the magazine 's readers.
The Daily Mail 's Chris Tookey said that the film was bloated and overly long, and criticized the sombre tone and lack of humor, despite praising the film 's visually - impressive set pieces. CNN 's Tom Charity said the film was a "disappointingly clunky and bombastic conclusion to a superior series '' and called it Nolan 's worst film. Anthony Lane of The New Yorker says that the "story is dense, overlong, and studded with references that will make sense only to those intimate with Nolan 's previous excursions into Batmanhood ''.
In reaction to fan backlash to some of the negative reviews, Rotten Tomatoes chose to disable user commentary for the film leading up to its release. Some fans had threatened violence against critics while others threatened to take down the websites of movie critics who had given the film a negative review.
In 2014, Aidan Gillen 's character in the film, CIA agent Bill Wilson, became the subject of an Internet meme popular among 4chan users known as "Baneposting '', which references the dialogue between Wilson and Bane in the film 's opening plane scene.
Writing in Salon, David Sirota, a progressive political commentator compared The Dark Knight Rises and the game Call of Duty to 1980s popular culture reflecting the political period of the time, accusing them of perpetuating a conservative agenda: "Just as so many 1980s pop culture products reflected the spirit of the Reagan Revolution 's conservative backlash, we are now seeing two blockbuster, genre - shaping products not - so - subtly reflect the Tea Party 's rhetorical backlash to the powerful Occupy Wall Street zeitgeist. '' An article in Variety reported Chuck Dixon, the co-creator of the Bane character, as saying that Bane is "far more akin to an Occupy Wall Street type if you 're looking to cast him politically. '' Catherine Shoard of the center - left British publication The Guardian claimed the film "is a quite audaciously capitalist vision, radically conservative, radically vigilante, that advances a serious, stirring proposal that the wish - fulfilment of the wealthy is to be championed if they say they want to do good. '' In contrast, liberal commentator Jonathan Chait opined in New York that "What passes for a right - wing movie these days is The Dark Knight Rises, which submits the rather modest premise that, irritating though the rich may be, actually killing them and taking all their stuff might be excessive. '' Writing in USA Today, Bryan Alexander called Bane "the ultimate occupier '' and reported that Christian Bale was amazed that the script had "foreseen '' the Occupy movement.
Nolan has denied the film criticizes the Occupy movement and insists that none of his Batman films are intended to be political: "I 've had as many conversations with people who have seen the film the other way round. We throw a lot of things against the wall to see if it sticks. We put a lot of interesting questions in the air, but that 's simply a backdrop for the story. What we 're really trying to do is show the cracks of society, show the conflicts that somebody would try to wedge open. We 're going to get wildly different interpretations of what the film is supporting and not supporting, but it 's not doing any of those things. It 's just telling a story. If you 're saying, ' Have you made a film that 's supposed to be criticizing the Occupy Wall Street movement? ' -- well, obviously, that 's not true. ''
Alternatively, politically - conservative commentator Rush Limbaugh alleged that the film was biased against 2012 Republican presidential nominee Mitt Romney due to Bane 's name being a homophone for Bain Capital, the financial service company Romney used to head, despite the fact that the character has existed as a major Batman foe since 1993. In response, Nolan said that the comments were "bizarre '', while Dixon and Freeman said that the comments were "ridiculous ''. Democratic adviser Christopher Lehane has noted the similarities between the narratives of the film and the presidential campaign.
On January 20, 2017, multiple media outlets noted that a small but key part of U.S. president Donald Trump 's inaugural address "had an uncanny echo '' of Bane 's speech after he takes control of Gotham in The Dark Knight Rises. Trump had given the film a positive review in 2012.
Hours before the midnight release, several box office analysts suggested as much as a $198 million domestic opening weekend. However, in the wake of the mass shooting during a midnight screening of the film, Warner Bros. decided to not report further box office figures for the movie until Monday, July 23, 2012. As a result, other distributors also delayed the release of their official estimates as well. The shooting is also speculated to have hurt the ticket sales as E! Online reported that a North Carolina audience member had stated that "this theater was kinda empty ''. Some reports released on July 21, 2012 said that rival studios estimated that the film grossed $75 million to $77 million on its opening day. Warner Brothers shortly after released a statement to ABC News stating that they delayed the release of their estimates for the opening day total of the film "out of respect for the victims and their families, '' and added "Warner Bros. Pictures will not be reporting box office numbers for The Dark Knight Rises throughout the weekend. Box office numbers will be released on Monday. ''
The Dark Knight Rises earned $448 million in North America, and $636 million in other countries, summing up to a worldwide total of $1 billion ($1084 million). Worldwide, it is the sixteenth - highest - grossing film of all time and the third - highest - grossing film of 2012. It had a worldwide opening weekend of $248.9 million. The film set a worldwide IMAX opening - weekend record with $23.8 million (overtaken by Avengers: Age of Ultron) and also broke the record for the fastest movie to make over $50 million in IMAX theatres. IMAX CEO Richard L. Gelfond explained this by claiming, "Audiences are clearly seeking out and embracing the film the way it was meant to be seen -- in IMAX. '' On the 2012 Labor Day weekend, it became the third film distributed by Warner Bros. and the thirteenth film in cinematic history to cross the $1 billion mark. The film also became the second movie (after Avatar) to reach $100 million in worldwide IMAX grosses.
The Dark Knight Rises opened on Friday, July 20, 2012. It earned an estimated $30.6 million in midnight showings, which was the second - highest midnight gross behind Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows -- Part 2 ($43.5 million). It did, however, set an IMAX midnight - gross record with $2.3 million (overtaken by Avengers: Age of Ultron). The film made $75.8 million during its opening day, achieving, at the time, the third - highest single and opening day tally of all time. On July 23, 2012, it was announced that the film grossed $160.9 million for its debut weekend, which was the third - highest opening weekend ever, at the time, behind Marvel 's The Avengers ($207.4 million) and Deathly Hallows -- Part 2 ($169.2 million). However, it did set an opening - weekend record for a 2D film (previously held by The Dark Knight) and an IMAX opening - weekend record with $19.0 million (previously held by Marvel 's The Avengers). The film also held the top spot at the box office for its second and third weekends. In North America, it is the thirteenth - highest - grossing film, the second - highest - grossing 2012 film, as well as the fourth - highest - grossing superhero film and film based on comics. Box Office Mojo estimates that the film sold more than 50 million tickets in the US.
Outside North America, the film opened with $88.0 million from 7,173 theaters in just 17 markets. It was in first place at the box office outside North America for four consecutive weekends. Its three largest markets are the UK, Ireland and Malta ($90.3 million), where it is the highest - grossing superhero film, China ($52.8 million) and Australia ($44.2 million).
The Dark Knight Rises was released on November 28, 2012 in Hong Kong and New Zealand. On December 3, it was released in the United Kingdom, and on December 4, it was released in the United States. It is available on Blu - ray, DVD, and as a digital download. Coinciding with the release of this film, a box set of The Dark Knight trilogy was released. Nolan is overseeing the remastering process of The Dark Knight Rises into 4K resolution.
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list of districts in northern region of ghana | Northern region (Ghana) - wikipedia
The Northern Region is one of the ten regions of Ghana. It is located in the north of the country and is the largest of the ten regions, covering an area of 70,384 square kilometres or 31 percent of Ghana 's area. The Northern Region is divided into 26 districts. The region 's capital is Tamale.
The Northern Region is bordered on the north by the Upper West region and the Upper East region, on the east by the eastern Ghana - Togo international border, on the south by the Black Volta River and the Volta region, and on the north - west by the Upper West region and Burkina Faso, and on the west by the western Ghana - Ivory Coast international border. Northern region is the largest region in total area, and is made up of 26 districts.
The Northern Region is much drier than southern areas of Ghana, due to its proximity to the Sahel, and the Sahara. The vegetation consists predominantly of grassland, especially savanna with clusters of drought - resistant trees such as baobabs or acacias. Between January and March is the dry season. The wet season is between about July and December with an average annual rainfall of 750 to 1050 mm (30 to 40 inches). The highest temperatures are reached at the end of the dry season, the lowest in December and January. However, the hot Harmattan wind from the Sahara blows frequently between December and the beginning of February. The temperatures can vary between 14 ° C (59 ° F) at night and 40 ° C (104 ° F) during the day.
More than 75 % of the economically active population are agricultural. The low population density is partly caused by emigration, in addition to geography and climate.
The Northern Region has a low population density, and, along with the official language of English, most inhabitants (52 %) speak a language of the Oti -- Volta subfamily in the Niger -- Congo language family, such as Dagbani, Mamprusi or Konkomba. The Dagbon Kingdom, of the Dagomba people, is located in the region.
The Northern Region of Ghana contains 26 districts. 24 are ordinary districts in addition to 1 municipal and 1 metropolitan district.:
Coordinates: 9 ° 30 ′ N 1 ° 00 ′ W / 9.500 ° N 1.000 ° W / 9.500; - 1.000
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when was the last time the cowboys were at the super bowl | Dallas Cowboys - wikipedia
National Football League (1960 -- present)
Navy Blue, Metallic Silver, White, Royal Blue
League championships (5)
Conference championships (10)
Division championships (22)
The Dallas Cowboys are a professional American football team based in the Dallas -- Fort Worth metroplex. The Cowboys compete in the National Football League (NFL) as a member club of the league 's National Football Conference (NFC) East division. The team is headquartered in Frisco, Texas, and plays its home games at AT&T Stadium in Arlington, Texas, which opened for the 2009 season. The stadium took its current name prior to the 2013 season. The Cowboys joined the NFL as an expansion team in 1960. The team 's national following might best be represented by its NFL record of consecutive sell - outs. The Cowboys ' streak of 190 consecutive sold - out regular and post-season games (home and away) began in 2002. The franchise has made it to the Super Bowl eight times, tied with the Pittsburgh Steelers and the Denver Broncos for second most Super Bowl appearances in history, just behind the New England Patriots record ten Super Bowl appearances. This has also corresponded to eight NFC championships, most in the NFC. The Cowboys have won five of those Super Bowl appearances, tying them with their NFC rivals, the San Francisco 49ers, and the AFC 's Patriots; all three are second to Pittsburgh 's record six Super Bowl championships. The Cowboys are the only NFL team to record 20 straight winning seasons (1966 -- 85), in which they only missed the playoffs twice (1974 and 1984), an NFL record that remains unchallenged.
In 2015, the Dallas Cowboys became the first sports team to be valued at $4 billion, making it the most valuable sports team in the world, according to Forbes. The Cowboys also generated $620 million in revenue in 2014, a record for a U.S. sports team.
Prior to the formation of the Dallas Cowboys, there had not been an NFL team south of Washington, D.C. since the Dallas Texans folded in 1952. Oilman Clint Murchison Jr. had been trying to get an NFL expansion team in Dallas (as was Lamar Hunt -- who ended up with an AFL franchise), but George Preston Marshall, owner of the Washington Redskins, had a monopoly in the South.
Murchison had tried to purchase the Washington Redskins from Marshall in 1958. An agreement was struck, but as the deal was about to be finalized, Marshall called for a change in terms. This infuriated Murchison and he called off the deal. Marshall then opposed any franchise for Murchison in Dallas. Since NFL expansion needed unanimous approval from team owners at that time, Marshall 's position would prevent Murchison from joining the league.
Marshall had a falling out with the Redskins band leader Barnee Breeskin. Breeskin had written the music to the Redskins fight song "Hail to the Redskins '' and Marshall 's wife had penned the lyrics. Breeskin owned the rights to the song and was aware of Murchison 's plight to get an NFL franchise. Angry with Marshall, Breeskin approached Murchison 's attorney to sell him the rights to the song before the expansion vote in 1959. Murchison purchased "Hail to the Redskins '' for $2,500. Before the vote to award franchises in 1959, Murchison revealed to Marshall that he owned the song and Marshall could not play it during games. After a few Marshall expletives, Murchison gave the rights to "Hail to the Redskins '' to Marshall for his vote, the lone one against Murchison getting a franchise at that time, and a rivalry was born.
From 1970 through 1979, the Cowboys won 105 regular season games, more than any other NFL franchise during that span. In addition, they appeared in 5 and won two Super Bowls, at the end of the 1971 and 1977 regular seasons.
Danny White became the Cowboys ' starting quarterback in 1980 after quarterback Roger Staubach retired. Despite going to 12 -- 4 in 1980, the Cowboys came into the playoffs as a Wild Card team. In the opening round of the 1980 -- 81 NFL playoffs they avenged their elimination from the prior year 's playoffs by defeating the Rams. In the Divisional Round they squeaked by the Atlanta Falcons 30 -- 27. For the NFC Championship they were pitted against division rival Philadelphia, the team that won the division during the regular season. The Eagles captured their first conference championship and Super Bowl berth by winning 20 -- 7.
1981 brought another division championship for the Cowboys. They entered the 1981 - 82 NFL playoffs as the number 2 seed. Their first game of the postseason saw them blowout and shutout Tampa Bay 38 -- 0. For the Conference Title game they were pitted against the San Francisco 49ers, the number 1 seed. Despite having a late 4th quarter 27 -- 21 lead, they would lose to the 49ers 28 -- 27. 49ers quarterback Joe Montana led his team to an 89 - yard game - winning touchdown drive connecting to Dwight Clark in a play known as The Catch.
The 1982 season was shortened after a player strike. With a 6 -- 3 record Dallas made it to the playoffs for the 8th consecutive season. As the number 2 seed for the 1982 -- 83 NFL playoffs they eliminated the Buccaneers 30 -- 17 in the Wild Card round and dispatched the Packers 37 -- 26 in the Divisional round to advance to their 3rd consecutive Conference championship game. 3 times was not a charm for the Cowboys as they fell 31 -- 17 to division rival and eventual Super Bowl XVII champions Redskins.
For the 1983 season the Cowboys went 12 -- 4 and made it once again to the playoffs but were defeated at home in the Wild Card by the Rams 24 -- 17. Prior to the 1984 season, H.R. "Bum '' Bright purchased the Dallas Cowboys from Clint Murchison Jr. Dallas posted a 9 -- 7 record that season but missed the playoffs for the first time in 10 seasons. After going 10 -- 6 in 1985 and winning a division title, the Cowboys were blown out in the Divisional round at home to the Rams 20 -- 0.
Hard times came for the organization as they went 7 -- 9 in 1986, 7 -- 8 in 1987, and 3 -- 13 in 1988. During this time period Bright became disenchanted with the team. During the Savings and Loan crisis, the team and Mr. Bright 's Savings and Loan were taken over by the FSLIC. During an embarrassing home loss to Atlanta in 1987, Bright told the media that he was "horrified '' at coach Tom Landry 's play calling. The FSLIC forced Mr. Bright to sell the Cowboys to Jerry Jones on February 25, 1989.
Jones immediately fired Tom Landry, the only head coach in franchise history, replacing him with University of Miami head coach Jimmy Johnson, who was also Jerry Jones ' teammate in University of Arkansas as a fellow defensive lineman and Michael Irvin was under his tutelage in college. With the first pick in the draft, the Cowboys selected UCLA quarterback Troy Aikman. Later that same year, they would trade veteran running back Herschel Walker to the Minnesota Vikings for five veteran players and eight draft choices. Although the Cowboys finished the 1989 season with a 1 -- 15 record, their worst in almost 30 years, "The Trade '' later allowed Dallas to draft a number of impact players to rebuild the team.
Johnson quickly returned the Cowboys to the NFL 's elite. Skillful drafts added fullback Daryl Johnston and center Mark Stepnoski in 1989, running back Emmitt Smith in 1990, defensive tackle Russell Maryland and offensive tackle Erik Williams in 1991, and safety Darren Woodson in 1992. The young talent joined holdovers from the Landry era such as wide receiver Michael Irvin, guard Nate Newton, linebacker Ken Norton Jr., and offensive lineman Mark Tuinei, defensive lineman Jim Jeffcoat, and veteran pickups such as tight end Jay Novacek and defensive end Charles Haley.
Things started to look up for the franchise in 1990. On Week 1 Dallas won their first home game since September 1988 when they defeated the San Diego Chargers 17 -- 14. They went 2 -- 7 in their next 9 games but won 4 of their last 6 games to finish the season with a 4th place 7 -- 9 record.
Coming into 1991 the Cowboys replaced offensive coordinator Dave Shula with Norv Turner; the Cowboys raced to a 6 -- 5 start, then defeated the previously - unbeaten Redskins despite injury to Troy Aikman. Backup Steve Beuerlein took over and the Cowboys finished 11 -- 5. In the Wild Card round they defeated the Bears 17 -- 13 for the Cowboys first playoff win since 1982. In the Divisional round their season ended in a 38 -- 6 playoff rout by the Lions.
In 1992 Dallas set a team record for regular season wins with a 13 -- 3 mark. They started off the season by defeating the defending Super Bowl champion Redskins 23 -- 10. Going into the playoffs as the number 2 seed they had a first round bye before facing division rival the Philadelphia Eagles. The Cowboys won that game 34 -- 10 to advance to the NFC Conference Championship game for the first time in 10 years. They were pitted against the San Francisco 49ers, the number 1 seed. On January 17, 1993 the Cowboys went to Candlestick Park and defeated the 49ers 30 -- 20 to clinch their first Super Bowl berth since 1978. Dallas defeated the Buffalo Bills 52 -- 17 in Super Bowl XXVII, during which they forced a record nine turnovers. Johnson became the first coach to claim a national championship in college football and a Super Bowl victory in professional football.
Despite starting the 1993 season 0 -- 2, they again defeated the Buffalo Bills in Super Bowl XXVIII, 30 -- 13 (becoming the first team in NFL history to win a Super Bowl after starting 0 -- 2). Dallas finished the regular season 12 -- 4 as the number 1 seed of the NFC. They defeated the Green Bay Packers 27 -- 17 in the divisional round. In the NFC Conference Championship, Dallas beat the 49ers in Dallas, 38 -- 21. Dallas sent a then - NFL record 11 players to the Pro Bowl in 1993: Aikman, safety Thomas Everett, Irvin, Johnston, Maryland, Newton, Norton, Novacek, Smith, Stepnoski and Williams.
Only weeks after Super Bowl XXVIII, however, friction between Johnson and Jones culminated in Johnson stunning the football world by announcing his resignation. Jones then hired former University of Oklahoma head coach Barry Switzer to replace Johnson. The Cowboys finished 12 -- 4 in 1994. They once again clinched a first round bye and defeated Green Bay 35 -- 9 in the Divisional Round. They missed the Super Bowl, however, after losing to the 49ers in the NFC Championship Game, 38 -- 28.
Prior to the start of 1995 season Jerry Jones lured All - Pro cornerback Deion Sanders away from San Francisco. Dallas started the season 4 -- 0 including shutting out their division rival New York Giants 35 -- 0 at Giants Stadium to open their season. Emmitt Smith set an NFL record with 25 rushing touchdowns that season. They ended the season 12 -- 4 and went into the playoffs as the number 1 seed. In the Divisional round they dispatched their division rival Eagles 30 -- 11 to advance to their 4th consecutive NFC Conference Championship Game, in which they defeated Green Bay, 38 -- 27. In Super Bowl XXX the Cowboys defeated the Pittsburgh Steelers 27 -- 17 at Sun Devil Stadium for their fifth Super Bowl championship. Switzer joined Johnson as the only coaches to win a college football national championship and a Super Bowl.
The glory days of the Cowboys were again beginning to dim as free agency, age, and injuries began taking their toll. Star receiver Michael Irvin was suspended by the league for the first five games of 1996 following a drug - related arrest; he came back after the Cowboys started the season 2 -- 3. They finished the regular season with a 10 -- 6 record, won the NFC East title, and entered the playoffs as the number 3 seed in the NFC. They defeated Minnesota 40 -- 15 in the Wild Card round but were eliminated in the Divisional round of the playoffs 26 -- 17 by the Carolina Panthers.
The Cowboys went 6 -- 10 in 1997 (including losing their last 6 games of the season), with discipline and off - field problems becoming major distractions. As a result, Switzer resigned as head coach in January 1998 and former Steelers offensive coordinator Chan Gailey was hired to take his place.
Gailey led the team to two playoff appearances with a 10 -- 6 record in 1998 and an NFC East championship, but the Cowboys were defeated in the playoffs by the Arizona Cardinals 20 -- 7.
In 1999 Dallas went 8 -- 8 (during which Irvin suffered a career - ending spinal injury in a loss to the Philadelphia Eagles) ending in another playoff loss (this time to the Minnesota Vikings 27 -- 10). Gailey was fired and became the first Cowboys coach who did not take the team to a Super Bowl.
Defensive coordinator Dave Campo was promoted to head coach for the 2000 season. Prior to the season starting cornerback Deion Sanders was released after 5 seasons with the team. He later signed with division rival Washington. In Week 1, they were blown out 41 -- 14 by Philadelphia. That game was very costly when veteran quarterback Troy Aikman suffered a serious concussion which ultimately ended his career. Longtime NFL QB Randall Cunningham filled in for Aikman for the rest of the season at QB. The Cowboys finished the season in 4th place with a 5 -- 11 record. The only highlights of 2000 were Emmitt Smith having his 10th consecutive 1,000 yard rushing season and a season sweep over the Redskins.
2001 was another hard year in Dallas. Prior to the season starting Aikman was released from the team and he retired due to the concussions he had received. Jerry Jones signed Tony Banks as a QB. Banks had been a starter for half of the season the previous year for the Super Bowl Champion Baltimore Ravens before being benched. Jones also drafted QB Quincy Carter in the second round of that year 's draft, but Banks was released during the preseason. Ryan Leaf, Anthony Wright, and Clint Stoerner all competed for the quarterback position that season. Dallas again finished at 5 -- 11, last place in the NFC East. They did sweep the Redskins for the 4th consecutive season.
Prior to the 2002 season Dallas drafted safety Roy Williams with the 8th overall pick. The season started out low as the Cowboys lost to the expansion Houston Texans 19 -- 10 on Week 1. By far the highlight of 2002 was on October 28, when during a home game against the Seattle Seahawks, Emmitt Smith broke the all - time NFL rushing record previously held by Walter Payton. Their Thanksgiving Day win over the Redskins was their 10th consecutive win against Washington. However, that was their final win of 2002: Dallas lost their next 4 games to finish with another last place 5 -- 11 record. The losing streak was punctuated with a Week 17 20 -- 14 loss against Washington. That game was Smith 's last game as a Cowboys player: he was released during the offseason. Campo was immediately fired as head coach at the conclusion of the season.
Jones then lured Bill Parcells out of retirement to coach the Cowboys. The Cowboys became the surprise team of the 2003 season getting off to a hot 7 -- 2 season, but went 3 -- 4 for the rest of the season. They were able to win the division with a 10 -- 6 record but lost in the Wild Card round to eventual conference champion Carolina Panthers 29 -- 10.
In 2004 Dallas was unable to replicate their 2003 success, and ended 6 -- 10. Quincy Carter was released during the preseason and was replaced at QB by Vinny Testaverde.
Dallas got off to a hot 7 -- 3 start for the 2005 season but ended the season in 3rd place with a 9 -- 7 record. Prior to the season starting the Cowboys signed veteran Drew Bledsoe as a quarterback.
2006 was an interesting year for the Cowboys. Prior to the season Dallas signed free agent wide receiver Terrell Owens who was talented yet controversial. The Cowboys started the season 3 -- 2. During a week 7 matchup against the Giants, Bledsoe, who had been struggling since the start of the season, was pulled from the game and was replaced by backup Tony Romo. Romo was unable to salvage that game and Dallas lost 38 -- 22. However, Romo was named the starter for team and went 5 -- 1 in his first 6 games. Dallas ended the season with a 9 -- 7 2nd - place finish. They were able to clinch the number 5 playoff seed. They traveled to play Seattle where the Seahawks won 21 -- 20. After the season Parcells retired and was replaced as head coach by Wade Phillips.
Dallas started off the 2007 season with a bang. They began the season with a 12 -- 1 start, including winning their first five games. Their only loss during that time span came against New England, who went undefeated that season. Despite dropping two of their last three regular season games, the Cowboys clinched their first number 1 NFC seed in 12 years, which also granted them a first round bye and home field advantage throughout the playoffs. The Cowboys lost in the divisional round 21 -- 17 to the eventual Super Bowl champion New York Giants.
In the tumultuous 2008 season, the Cowboys started off strong, going 3 -- 0 for the second straight year, en route to a 4 -- 1 start. However, things soon went downhill from there, after quarterback Tony Romo suffered a broken pinkie in an overtime loss to the Arizona Cardinals. With Brad Johnson and Brooks Bollinger playing as backups, Dallas went 1 -- 2 during a three - game stretch. Romo 's return showed promise, as Dallas went 3 -- 0. However, injuries mounted during the season with the team losing several starters for the year, such as Kyle Kosier, Felix Jones, safety Roy Williams and punter Mat McBriar, and several other starters playing with injuries. Entering December, the 8 -- 4 Cowboys underperformed, finishing 1 -- 3. They failed to make the playoffs after losing at Philadelphia in the final regular season game which saw the Eagles reach the playoffs instead.
On May 2, 2009, the Dallas Cowboys ' practice facility collapsed during a wind storm. The collapse left twelve Cowboys players and coaches injured. The most serious injuries were special teams coach Joe DeCamillis, who suffered fractured cervical vertebrae and had surgery to stabilize fractured vertebrae in his neck, and Rich Behm, the team 's 33 - year - old scouting assistant, who was permanently paralyzed from the waist down after his spine was severed.
The 2009 season started on a positive with a road win against Tampa Bay, but fortunes quickly changed as Dallas fell to a 2 -- 2 start. In week five, with starting wide receiver Roy Williams sidelined by injury, receiver Miles Austin got his first start of the season and had a record setting day (250 yards receiving and 2 touchdowns) to help lead Dallas to an overtime win over Kansas City. Following their bye week, Dallas went on a three - game winning streak including wins over Atlanta and NFC East division rival Philadelphia. Despite entering December with a record of 8 -- 3, Dallas lost its slim grip on 1st place in the division with losses to the New York Giants and San Diego. Talks of past December collapses resurfaced, and another collapse in 2009 seemed validated. However, the Dallas team surged in the final three weeks of the season with a 24 -- 17 victory at the Superdome, ending New Orleans ' previously unbeaten season in week 15. For the first time in franchise history, Dallas posted back - to - back shutouts when they beat division rivals Washington (17 -- 0) and Philadelphia (24 -- 0) to end the season. In the process, the Cowboys clinched their second NFC East title in three years as well as the third seed in the NFC Playoffs. Six days later, in the wild - card round of the playoffs, Dallas played the Eagles in a rematch of week 17. The Cowboys defeated the Eagles for the first Cowboys ' post-season win since the 1996 season, ending a streak of six consecutive NFL post-season losses. Dallas ended their playoff run after a hard divisional playoff loss to the Minnesota Vikings.
After beginning the 2010 season at 1 -- 7, Phillips was fired as head coach and was replaced by offensive coordinator Jason Garrett as the interim head coach. The Cowboys finished the season 6 -- 10.
With the 9th pick of the 1st round of the 2011 draft, the Cowboys selected USC tackle Tyron Smith.
To start the 2011 season the Cowboys played the New York Jets on a Sunday night primetime game in New York, on September 11, 2011. The Cowboys held the lead through most of the game, until a fumble, blocked punt, and interception led to the Jets coming back to win the game. In week 2 Dallas traveled to San Francisco to play the 49ers. In the middle of the 2nd quarter, while the Cowboys trailed 10 -- 7, Tony Romo suffered a rib injury and was replaced by Jon Kitna. Kitna threw 1 Touchdown and 2 interceptions until Romo returned in the 3rd quarter as Dallas trailed 17 -- 7. Romo then threw 3 touchdown passes to Miles Austin as the Cowboys rallied to send the game into overtime. On the Cowboys opening possession after 49ers punt, Romo found WR Jesse Holley on a 78 - yard pass, which set up the game - winning field goal by rookie kicker Dan Bailey.
Dallas ended the season 8 -- 8. They were in a position to win the NFC East but lost to the Giants in a Week 17 primetime Sunday Night game on NBC which allowed New York to win the division. The Giants would go on to win Super Bowl XLVI.
The Cowboys started off the 2012 season on a high note by defeating the defending Super Bowl Champion New York Giants 24 -- 17 on the opening night of the season. They would hover around the. 500 mark for the majority of the season. They lost a close Week 6 game to eventual Super Bowl XXVII Champion Baltimore Ravens 31 -- 29 at M&T Bank Stadium in Baltimore.
Going into Week 17 they found themselves once again one win away from winning the division. Standing in their way was the Redskins who had beat them on Thanksgiving at AT&T Stadium and whom were also one win away from their first division title since 1999. Led by Robert Griffin III the Redskins defeated the Cowboys at home 28 - 18. Dallas once again finished the season 8 -- 8.
In the 2013 season Dallas started off by defeating the Giants for the second straight year this time 36 -- 31. It was the first time since AT&T Stadium had opened back in 2009 that the Cowboys were able to defeat New York at home. The win was punctuated by Brandon Carr returning an Eli Manning interception to a touchdown late in the 4th quarter.
For the third straight year Dallas once again found themselves stuck in the. 500 area. In Week 5, they lost a shootout to eventual AFC Champion Denver Broncos 51 -- 48. They battled it out with Philadelphia for control of the division throughout the season. In December however they lost 2 crucial back to back games to Chicago and Green Bay. They were very successful in division games having a 5 -- 0 division record heading into another Week 17 showdown for the NFC East crown against the Eagles. That included beating Washington 24 -- 23 on Week 16 thanks to late game heroics of Tony Romo. However Romo received a severe back injury in that game which prematurely ended his season. The Cowboys called upon backup QB Kyle Orton to lead them into battle on the final week of the season. Orton was unsuccessful who threw a game ending interception to the Eagles which allowed Philly to win 24 -- 22. Dallas ended the year at 8 -- 8 for the third year in a row. The only difference of this 8 -- 8 ending compared to the others was that Dallas ended the season in second place compared to the 2 previous 3rd - place finishes.
To start off the 2014 season Dallas began by losing to San Francisco 28 -- 17. After that they went on a 6 - game winning streak. The highlight of this streak was defeating the Seahawks at CenturyLink Field 30 -- 23. In Week 8, the Redskins won in overtime 20 -- 17, and Romo 's back became once again injured. He missed next week, a home loss to the Arizona Cardinals 28 -- 17 with backup QB Brandon Weeden. Romo returned in Week 9 to lead a 31 -- 17 victory of the Jacksonville Jaguars which was played at Wembley Stadium in London, England as part of the NFL International Series.
Dallas played into their traditional Thanksgiving home game, this time against division rival Philadelphia. Both teams were vying for first place in the division with identical 8 -- 3 records. The Eagles got off to a fast start and the Cowboys were unable to catch up, losing 33 -- 10. They would rebound the next week where on the road Thursday night game they defeated Chicago 41 -- 28 for their 9th win of the year to clinch their first winning season since 2009. This was the first time that Dallas played on back to back Thursdays. Week 15 was a rematch against 1st place Philadelphia. This time it was the Cowboys who got off to a fast start going up 21 -- 0. Then the Eagles put up 24 answered points but Dallas came back to win 38 -- 27 to go into first place for the first time in the season and improve to 10 -- 4. Going into their Week 16 matchup at home against Indianapolis, Dallas was in a position to clinch their first division title since 2009 by defeating the Colts thanks to the Eagles losing that week to the Redskins. They would not disappoint as they blew out the Colts 42 -- 7 to become the 2014 NFC East Champions, eliminating the Eagles from the playoffs. Dallas would end the regular season with a 12 -- 4 record and an 8 -- 0 away record when they won on the road against Washington 44 -- 17. They would also finish December 4 -- 0 which was huge for the Cowboys since they had struggled in the recent years in the month of December.
On January 4, 2015, the Cowboys, as the number 3 seed, hosted the number 6 seed Detroit Lions in the wild card round of the NFL playoffs. In the game, the Lions got off to a hot start, going up 14 -- 0 in the first quarter. Dallas initially struggled on both sides of the ball. However, towards the end of the second quarter Romo threw a 76 - yard touchdown pass to Terrance Williams. Matt Prater of the Lions would kick a field goal before halftime to go up 17 -- 7. Dallas came out swinging to start the second half by picking off Detroit quarterback Matthew Stafford on the first play of the third quarter. However, the Cowboys failed to capitalize on the turnover, as Dan Bailey missed a field goal during Dallas 's ensuing drive. Detroit then kicked another field goal to make the score 20 -- 7. A DeMarco Murray touchdown later in that quarter closed the gap to 20 -- 14. A 51 - yard Bailey field goal almost 3 minutes into the fourth quarter trimmed the Cowboys ' deficit to 3. The Lions got the ball back and started driving down the field. On 3rd down - and - 1 of that Lions drive, Stafford threw a 17 - yard pass intended for Lions tight end Brandon Pettigrew, but the ball hit Cowboys linebacker Anthony Hitchens in the back a fraction of a second before he ran into Pettigrew. The play was initially flagged as defensive pass interference against Hitchens. However, the penalty was then nullified by the officiating crew. The Cowboys got the ball back on their 41 - yard line and had a successful 59 - yard drive which was capped off by an 8 - yard touchdown pass from Romo to Williams to give the Cowboys their first lead of the game at 24 -- 20. The Lions got the ball back with less than 2: 30 to play in regulation. Stafford fumbled the ball at the 2 minute mark. The fumble was recovered by Cowboys defensive end DeMarcus Lawrence, who then fumbled the ball which was recovered by the Lions. Lawrence would redeem himself by sacking Stafford on a 4th down - and - 3 play. The sack led to Stafford fumbling the ball again, which Lawrence recovered to seal the game for the Cowboys, who won 24 -- 20. This was the first time in franchise playoff history that Dallas had been down by 10 or more points at halftime and rallied to win the game. The following week, the Cowboys traveled to Lambeau Field in Green Bay, Wisconsin to play the Packers in the divisional round. Despite having a 14 -- 7 halftime lead, the Cowboys fell to the Packers 26 -- 21, thus ending their season. The season ended on an overturned call of a completed catch by Dez Bryant. The catch was challenged by the Packers, and the referees overturned the call because of the "Calvin Johnson rule. ''
During the 2015 offseason the Cowboys allowed running back DeMarco Murray to become a free agent. Murray signed with the division rival Philadelphia Eagles. On July 15 wide receiver Dez Bryant signed a 5 - year, $70 million contract.
At home against the New York Giants, Dallas won 27 -- 26. Dez Bryant left the game early with a fractured bone in his foot. On the road against the Philadelphia Eagles, Romo suffered a broken left collarbone, the same one he injured in 2010, and Brandon Weeden replaced him. Dallas won 20 -- 10 to begin the season 2 -- 0, but then went on a seven - game losing streak. Dallas finished the season 4 -- 12 and last in their division.
After a preseason injury to Tony Romo, rookie quarterback Dak Prescott was slated as the starting quarterback, as Romo was expected to be out 6 -- 8 weeks. In game 1 against the New York Giants, Dallas lost 20 -- 19. After this loss, Dallas would go on an eleven - game winning streak. After much speculation leading to a potential quarterback controversy, Romo made an announcement that Prescott has earned the right to take over as Cowboys quarterback.
In game 10, Romo suited up for the first time this season and was the backup quarterback. Dallas defeated the Baltimore Ravens to win their 9th straight game, breaking a franchise record of 8 straight games set in 1977. It also marked rookie running back Ezekiel Elliott breaking Tony Dorsett 's single season rushing record for a Cowboys rookie. Prescott also tied an NFL rookie record held by Russell Wilson and Dan Marino by throwing multiple touchdowns in 5 straight games. Dallas finished 13 -- 3, tying their best 16 - game regular season record. While Dallas defeated Green Bay at Lambeau Field in week 6, the Packers would win at AT&T Stadium in the divisional round of the NFL playoffs on a last - second field goal, ending their season.
Dak Prescott was named NFL Rookie of the Year in the NFL honors on February 4, 2017, and Ezekiel Elliott led the league in rushing yards. Both Prescott and Elliott made the 2017 Pro Bowl. This is the first time the Cowboys sent two rookies to the Pro Bowl.
2017 was the first season since 2002 without quarterback Tony Romo, who retired on April 4 after 14 seasons with the Cowboys. The season also featured second - year running back Ezekiel Elliott being suspended for 6 games after violating the league 's conduct policy. The suspension was to begin at the start of the year but was pushed back to November. The Cowboys finished the year at 9 - 7 without making the playoffs. Wide receiver Dez Bryant left the team after eight seasons.
The Dallas Cowboys ' blue star logo, representative of Texas as "The Lone Star State '', is one of the most well - known team logos in professional sports. The blue star originally was a solid shape until a white line and blue border was added in 1964. The logo has remained the same since. Today, the blue star has been extended to not only the Dallas Cowboys, but owner Jerry Jones ' AFL team, the Dallas Desperados that have a similar logo based on the Cowboys. The blue star also is used on other entries like an imaging facility and storage facility.
The Dallas Cowboys ' white home jersey has royal blue (PMS 287 C) solid socks, numbers, lettering, and two stripes on the sleeves outlined in black. The home pants are a common metallic silver - green color (PMS 8280 C) that help bring out the blue in the uniform. The navy (PMS 289 C) road jerseys (nicknamed the "Stars and Stripes '' jersey) have white lettering and numbers with navy pinstripes. A white / gray / white stripe are on each sleeve as well as the collared V - neck, and a Cowboys star logo is placed upon the stripes. A "Cowboys '' chest crest is directly under the NFL shield. The away pants are a pearlish metallic - silver color (PMS 8180 C) and like the home pants, enhance the navy in the uniforms. The team uses a serifed font for the lettered player surnames on the jersey nameplates.
The team 's helmets are also a unique silver with a tint of blue known as "Metallic Silver Blue '' (PMS 8240 C) and have a blue / white / blue vertical stripe placed upon the center of the crown. The Cowboys also include a unique, if subtle, feature on the back of the helmet: a blue strip of Dymo tape with the player 's name embossed, placed on the white portion of the stripe at the back of the helmet.
Front of Dallas Cowboys helmet
Back of Dallas Cowboys helmet
When the Dallas Cowboys franchise debuted in 1960, the team 's uniform included a white helmet adorned with a simple blue star and a blue - white - blue stripe down the center crown. The team donned blue jerseys with white sleeves and a small blue star on each shoulder for home games and the negative opposite for away games. Their socks also had two horizontal white stripes overlapping the blue.
c1960 -- 1963
Blue home uniforms
White away uniforms
In 1964 the Cowboys opted for a simpler look (adopting essentially the team 's current uniform) by changing their jersey / socks to one solid color with three horizontal stripes on the sleeves; the white jersey featured royal blue stripes with a narrow black border, the royal blue jersey white stripes with the same black outline. The star - shouldered jerseys were eliminated; "TV '' numbers appeared just above the jersey stripes. The new helmet was silverblue, with a blue - white - blue tri-stripe down the center (the middle white stripe was thicker). The blue "lone star '' logo was retained, but with a white border setting it off from the silver / blue. The new pants were silverblue, with a blue - white - blue tri-stripe. In 1964 the NFL allowed teams to wear white jerseys at home; several teams did so, and the Cowboys have worn white at home ever since, except on certain "throwback '' days.
In 1966, the team modified the jerseys, which now featured only two sleeve stripes, slightly wider; the socks followed the same pattern. In 1967 the "lone star '' helmet decal added a blue outline to the white - bordered star, giving the logo a bigger, bolder look. The logo and this version of the uniform has seen little change to the present day.
c1964 -- 1966
White home uniforms
Blue away uniforms
The only notable changes in the last 40 years were:
During the 1976 season, the blue - white - blue stripe on the crown of the helmets were temporarily changed to red - white - blue to commemorate the United States ' bicentennial anniversary.
In 1994, the NFL celebrated their 75th Anniversary, and the Dallas Cowboys celebrated their back - to - back Super Bowl titles by unveiling a white "Double - Star '' jersey on Thanksgiving Day. This jersey was used for special occasions and was worn throughout the 1994 -- 1995 playoffs. During the same season, the Cowboys also wore their 1960 -- 63 road jersey with a silver helmet for one game as part of a league - wide "throwback '' policy.
During the 1995 season, the team wore the navy "Double - Star '' jersey for games at Washington and Philadelphia and permanently switched to solid color socks (royal blue for the white uniform, and navy blue for the dark uniform). The navy "Double - Star '' jersey was not seen again until the NFL 's Classic Throwback Weekend on Thanksgiving Day 2001 -- 2003.
In 2004, the Cowboys resurrected their original 1960 -- 1963 uniform on Thanksgiving Day. This uniform became the team 's alternate or "third jersey '' and was usually worn at least once a year, primarily Thanksgiving Day. Two exceptions were when the Cowboys wore their normal white uniforms on Thanksgiving in 2007 and 2008. While the team did n't wear the throwback uniform exactly on Thanksgiving Day in those two years, Dallas wore them on a date around Thanksgiving for those two years. In 2007 Dallas wore the throwback uniform on November 29, 2007 against the Green Bay Packers. In 2008 Dallas wore the throwback uniform on November 23, 2008 against the San Francisco 49ers. The team went back to wearing this uniform at home on Thanksgiving Day in 2009 while their opponent was the Oakland Raiders who wore their AFL Legacy Weekend throwbacks. Dallas wore this alternate uniform on October 11, 2009 as part of one of the NFL 's AFL Legacy Weekends when they traveled to Kansas City to play the Chiefs who were sporting their AFL Dallas Texans ' uniforms. This created a rare game in which neither team wore a white jersey and the first time the Cowboys wore the alternative uniform as a visiting team. The 1960 -- 1963 uniform may also be used on other special occasion. Other instances include the 2005 Monday Night game against the Washington Redskins when the team inducted Troy Aikman, Emmitt Smith, and Michael Irving into the Cowboys Ring of Honor, and the 2006 Christmas Day game against the Philadelphia Eagles.
In 2013, the NFL issued a new helmet rule stating that players will no longer be allowed to use alternate helmets due to the league 's enhanced concussion awareness. This caused the Cowboys ' white 1960s throwback helmets to become non-compliant. The team instead decided to wear their normal blue jerseys at home for Thanksgiving, which has since become an annual tradition. In 2017, the team initially announced that they will wear blue jerseys at home on a more regular basis, only to rescind soon after.
In 2015, the Cowboys released their Color Rush uniform, featuring a variation of the 1990s "Double Star '' alternates with white pants and socks. The uniform was first used in a Thanksgiving game against the Carolina Panthers and in subsequent Thursday Night Football games during the 2016 and 2017 seasons.
The Cowboys also unveiled a navy uniform - white pants combination which was first used on December 10, 2017 against the Giants.
In 1964, Tex Schramm started the tradition of the Cowboys wearing their white jersey at home, contrary to an unofficial rule that teams should wear colored jerseys at home. Schramm did this because he wanted fans to see a variety of opponents ' colors at home games. Since then, a number of other teams have worn their white uniforms at home, including the Miami Dolphins. According to Mike McCord, the Cowboys ' equipment director, one of the reasons why the Cowboys started wearing white at home was because of the intense heat during Cowboys ' home games at Texas Stadium.
Throughout the years, the Cowboys ' blue jersey has been popularly viewed to be "jinxed '' because the team often seemed to lose when they wore them. This purported curse drew attention after the team lost Super Bowl V with the blue jerseys. However, the roots of the curse likely date back earlier to the 1968 divisional playoffs, when the blue - shirted Cowboys were upset by the Cleveland Browns in what turned out to be Don Meredith 's final game with the Cowboys. Dallas 's lone victory in a conference championship or Super Bowl wearing the blue jerseys was in the 1978 NFC Championship game against the Los Angeles Rams.
Since the 1970 NFL - AFL merger, league rules were changed to allow the Super Bowl home team to pick their choice of jersey. Most of the time, Dallas will wear their blue jerseys when they visit Washington, Philadelphia (sometimes), Miami, or one of the handful of other teams that traditionally wear their white jerseys at home during the first half of the season due to the hot climates in their respective cities or other means. Occasionally opposing teams will wear their white jerseys at home to try to invoke the curse, such as when the Philadelphia Eagles hosted the Cowboys in the 1980 NFC Championship Game, as well as their November 4, 2007 meeting. Various other teams followed suit in the 1980s.
Although Dallas has made several tweaks to their blue jerseys over the years, Schramm said he did not believe in the curse. Since the league began allowing teams to use an alternate jersey, the Cowboys ' alternates have been primarily blue versions of past jerseys and the Cowboys have generally had success when wearing these blue alternates. With the implementation of the 2013 NFL helmet rule for alternate jerseys, the team decided instead to wear their regular blue jerseys for their Thanksgiving game, something they have not done at home since Schramm started the white - jersey - at - home tradition.
With the Cowboys traditionally hosting Thanksgiving Day games, separate uniform practices have been used for these games in recent years. Through the 2000 season, the Cowboys continued the usual practice of wearing white at home. In 2001, the Cowboys wore blue at home for the first time in years, but it was an older design of the blue jersey. Dallas would lose the game, but again wore the older blue jersey at home on Thanksgiving the next year and won. With the 2002 victory, it seems an exception the theory of the blue jersey jinx is invoked on Thanksgiving.
Thus, the Cowboys continued wearing blue at home on Thanksgiving from 2003 -- 2006, however it was always an older - styled blue jersey. In 2007 and 2008, the Cowboys returned to wearing white at home for their Thanksgiving game. Since 2009, the Cowboys returned to wearing blue at home on Thanksgiving only (From 2009 -- 2012, the team again decided to go with an older - styled blue uniform as they had in previous years on Thanksgiving, and since 2013 have worn the newer - styled blue jersey).
In the 2015 season, the Cowboys wore their Color Rush variation of the 1990s "Double Star '' jerseys for a Thanksgiving game against the Carolina Panthers.
The Cotton Bowl is a stadium which opened in 1932 and became known as "The House That Doak Built '' due to the immense crowds that former SMU running back Doak Walker drew to the stadium during his college career in the late 1940s. Originally known as the Fair Park Bowl, it is located in Fair Park, site of the State Fair of Texas. Concerts or other events using a stage allow the playing field to be used for additional spectators. The Cotton Bowl was the longtime home of the annual Cotton Bowl Classic college football bowl game, for which the stadium is named. (Beginning with the January 2010 game, the Cotton Bowl Classic has been played at Cowboys Stadium in Arlington.) The Dallas Cowboys called the Cotton Bowl home for 11 years, from the team 's formation in 1960 until 1971, when the Cowboys moved to Texas Stadium. It is the only Cowboys stadium within the Dallas city limits. The Cowboys hosted the Green Bay Packers for the 1966 NFL Championship at the Cotton Bowl.
For the majority of the franchise 's history the Cowboys played their home games at Texas Stadium. Just outside the city of Dallas, the stadium was located in Irving, Texas. The stadium opened on October 24, 1971, at a cost of $35 million and with a seating capacity of 65,675. The stadium was famous for its hole - in - the - roof dome. The roof 's worn paint had become so unsightly in the early 2000s that it was repainted in the summer of 2006 by the City of Irving. It was the first time the famed roof was repainted since Texas Stadium opened. The roof was structurally independent from the stadium it covered. The Cowboys lost their final game at Texas Stadium to the Baltimore Ravens, 33 -- 24, on December 20, 2008. After Cowboys Stadium was opened in 2009, the Cowboys turned over the facility to the City of Irving.
In 2009, it was replaced as home of the Cowboys by Cowboys Stadium, which officially opened on May 27, 2009 in Arlington, Texas. Texas Stadium was demolished by implosion on April 11, 2010.
AT&T Stadium, previously named Cowboys Stadium, is a domed stadium with a retractable roof in Arlington, Texas. After failed negotiations to build a new stadium on the site of the Cotton Bowl, Jerry Jones along with the city of Arlington, Texas a suburb of Fort Worth, funded the stadium at a cost of $1.3 billion. The stadium is located in Tarrant County, the first time the Cowboys will call a stadium home outside of Dallas County. It was completed on May 29, 2009 and seats 80,000, but is expandable to seat up to 100,000. AT&T Stadium is the largest domed stadium in the world.
A highlight of AT&T Stadium is its gigantic, center - hung high - definition television screen, the largest in the world. The 160 by 72 feet (49 by 22 m), 11,520 - square - foot (1,070 m) scoreboard surpasses the 8,736 sq ft (812 m) screen that opened in 2009 at the renovated Kauffman Stadium in Kansas City, Missouri as the world 's largest.
At the debut pre-season game of Cowboys Stadium, a punt by Tennessee Titans kicker, A.J. Trapasso, hit the 2,100 in. screen above the field. The punt deflected and was ruled in - play until Titans coach Jeff Fisher informed the officials that the punt struck the scoreboard. (Many believe Trapasso was trying to hit the suspended scoreboard, based on replays and the angle of the kick.) The scoreboard is, however, within the regulation of the NFL guidelines -- hanging approximately five feet above the minimum height. No punts hit the scoreboard during the entire 2009 regular season during an actual game. Also, on August 22, 2009, the day after AJ Trapasso hit the screen, many fans touring the facility noted that half of the field was removed with large cranes re-positioning the screen. According to some fans, a tour guide explained that Jerry Jones invited a few professional soccer players to drop kick soccer balls to try to hit the screen. Once he observed them hitting it consistently he had the screen moved up another 10 feet.
The first regular season home game of the 2009 season was against the New York Giants. A league record - setting 105,121 fans showed up to fill Cowboys Stadium for the game before which the traditional "blue star '' at the 50 - yard line was unveiled for the first time; however, the Cowboys lost in the final seconds, 33 -- 31.
The Cowboys got their first regular season home win on September 28, 2009. They beat the Carolina Panthers 21 -- 7 with 90,588 in attendance. The game was televised on ESPN 's Monday Night Football and marked a record 42nd win for the Cowboys on Monday Night Football.
On July 25, 2013, the Cowboys announced that AT&T will take over the naming rights for the stadium.
Dallas Cowboys training camp locations:
The NFC East, composed of the Cowboys, Philadelphia Eagles, Washington Redskins and New York Giants, is one of the least - changed divisions of the original six formed in the wake of the NFL - AFL merger (its only major changes being the relocation of the Cardinals franchise from St. Louis to Arizona and its subsequent move to the NFC West in the league 's 2002 realignment). Three of the four teams have been division rivals since the Cowboys ' entry into the NFL. As such, the Cowboys have some of the longest and fiercest rivalries in the sport.
The Redskins and Dallas Cowboys enjoy what has been called by Sports Illustrated the top NFL rivalry of all time and "one of the greatest in sports. '' Some sources trace the enmity to before the Cowboys were even formed, due to a longstanding disagreement between Redskins owner George Preston Marshall and Cowboys founder Clint Murchison Jr. over the creation of a new football team in the South, due to Preston 's TV monopoly in that region. The two teams ' storied on - field rivalry goes back to 1960 when the two clubs first played each other, resulting in a 26 -- 14 Washington victory. Since that time, the two teams have met in 116 regular season contests and two NFC Championships. Dallas leads the regular season all - time series 70 -- 42 -- 2, and the Redskins lead the all - time playoff series 2 -- 0. The Cowboys currently have a 14 -- 7 advantage over the Redskins at FedEx Field. Some notable moments in the rivalry include Washington 's victory over Dallas in the 1982 NFC Championship and the latter 's 1989 win over the Redskins for their only victory that season. The last Cowboys game with Tom Landry as coach was a win over Washington on December 11, 1988. In the 2010s, the Redskins have struggled to consistently compete for the Division title, but still play the Cowboys particularly tough, posting an impressive upset victory against Dallas in 2014, despite being outclassed by the Cowboys in the overall standings.
The competition with Philadelphia has been particularly intense since the late 1970s, when the long - moribund Eagles returned to contention. In January 1981, the two teams faced off in the NFC Championship, with Philadelphia winning 20 -- 7. A series of other factors heightened tensions during the 1980s and 1990s, including several provocative actions by Philadelphia fans and Eagles head coach Buddy Ryan. Among these were the 1989 "Bounty Bowls '', in which Ryan allegedly placed a bounty on Dallas kicker Luis Zendejas and Veterans Stadium fans pelted the Cowboys with snowballs and other debris. A 1999 game at Philadelphia saw Eagles fans cheering as Michael Irvin lay motionless and possibly paralyzed on the field. In 2008 the rivalry became more intense when in the last game of the year in which both teams could clinch a playoff spot with a victory, the Philadelphia Eagles defeated the Cowboys 44 -- 6. The following season, the Cowboys avenged that defeat by beating the Eagles three times: twice during the regular season to claim the title as NFC East champions and once more in a wild - card playoff game by a combined score of 78 -- 30, including a 24 -- 0 shutout in week 17. That three game sweep was Dallas ' first over any opponent and the longest winning streak against the Eagles since 1992 -- 1995 when Dallas won seven straight matches against Philadelphia. During the 2013 season Dallas won the first meeting 17 -- 3 at Lincoln Financial Field in Philadelphia. They would meet again in Week 17 at AT&T Stadium with the winner clinching the 2013 NFC East title. The Cowboys came into the game at a disadvantage with starting quarterback Tony Romo out with a season ending back injury which put backup Kyle Orton as the starter. It was a tight game with the Eagles up 24 -- 22 with less than 2 minutes to go in regulation. Orton got the ball and started driving down the field when he was intercepted by the Eagles defense, which ended the game and the Cowboys season. In 2014, the Cowboys and Eagles both won against each other on the road, with Philadelphia posting a dominant 33 -- 10 win on Thanksgiving Day in Dallas, and Dallas returning the favor two weeks later by defeating the Eagles 38 -- 27 in Philadelphia. The second game between these rivals clenched a playoff spot for Dallas and led to formerly first place Philadelphia missing out on the post-season. Dallas leads the regular season all - time series 63 -- 50.
The first game ever played between the Giants and Cowboys was a 31 -- 31 tie on December 4, 1960. Dallas logged its first win in the series on October 29, 1961 and New York 's first was on November 11, 1962. Among the more notable moments in the rivalry was the Giants ' defeat of Dallas in the 2007 playoffs en route to their victory in Super Bowl XLII and winning the first regular season game played at Cowboys Stadium in 2009. Dallas currently leads the all - time series 64 -- 45 -- 2.
The two teams met in the first regular season game the Cowboys ever played in 1960 (a 35 -- 28 loss to the Steelers), the first - ever regular season victory for the expansion Cowboys in 1961, and would later meet in three Super Bowls, all of them closely contested events. The Steelers - Cowboys is to date the Super Bowl matchup with the most contests. The Steelers won Super Bowl X and Super Bowl XIII; both games were decided in the final seconds, first on a last - second throw by Roger Staubach, then as a fourth - quarter rally by Dallas fell short on an onside kick. The Cowboys won Super Bowl XXX in January 1996. It is said that the rivalry was fueled in the 1970s due to the stark contrast of the teams: the Cowboys, being more of a "flashy '' team with Roger Staubach 's aerial attack and the "flex '' Doomsday Defense; while the Steelers were more of a "blue - collar '' team with a strong running game and the 1970s-esque Steel Curtain defense, a contrast that still exists today. In addition, both teams have national fan bases rivaled by few NFL teams, and both come from areas with a strong following for football at all levels. Dallas leads the all - time series 16 -- 13 including the playoffs.
The bitter rivalry between the Dallas Cowboys and San Francisco 49ers has been going on since the 1970s. The NFL Top 10 ranked this rivalry to be the tenth best in the history of the NFL. San Francisco has played Dallas in seven postseason games. The Cowboys defeated the 49ers in the 1970 and 1971 NFC Championship games, and again in the 1972 Divisional Playoff Game. The 1981 NFC Championship Game in San Francisco, which saw the 49ers ' Joe Montana complete a game - winning pass to Dwight Clark in the final minute (now known as The Catch) is one of the most famous games in NFL history. The rivalry became even more intense during the 1992 -- 1994 seasons. San Francisco and Dallas faced each other in the NFC Championship Game three separate times. Dallas won the first two match - ups, and San Francisco won the third. In each of these pivotal match - ups, the game 's victor went on to win the Super Bowl. Both the Cowboys and the 49ers (and the New England Patriots) are second all time in Super Bowl victories to the Pittsburgh Steelers with five each. The 49ers - Cowboys rivalry is also part of the larger cultural rivalry between California and Texas. The 49ers lead the series all - time series with a record of 15 -- 13 -- 1.
The Cowboys -- Packers rivalry is rivalry between the Dallas Cowboys and the Green Bay Packers. It is one of the best known intra-conference rivalry games in the NFL. The two teams do not play every year; instead, they play once every three years due to the NFL 's rotating division schedules, or if the two teams finish in the same place in their respective divisions, they would play the ensuing season. The rivalry has also resulted in notable playoff games.
The all time regular seasons series record is 15 -- 13 in favor of the Packers, and the postseason series is tied 4 -- 4.
Running backs
Wide receivers
Tight ends
Defensive linemen
Defensive backs
Special teams
Roster updated April 16, 2018 Depth chart Transactions 64 Active, 1 Inactive
Unlike many NFL teams, the Cowboys do not retire jersey numbers of past standouts as a matter of policy. Instead, the team has a "Ring of Honor '', which is on permanent display encircling the field. Originally at Texas Stadium, the ring is now on display at AT&T Stadium in Arlington. The first inductee was Bob Lilly in 1975 and by 2005, the ring contained 17 names, all former Dallas players except for one head coach and one general manager / president. Although the team does not officially retire jersey numbers, some are kept "unofficially inactive '', so it is uncommon to find any current players wearing the number of one of the "Ring of Honor '' inductees. For instance, the jersey numbers of inductees Aikman (8), Staubach (12), Hayes and Smith (22), Irvin (88), and Lilly (74) were not worn during the 2008 season. For the 2010 season, number 88 was issued to rookie Dez Bryant.
The Ring of Honor has been a source of controversy over the years. Tex Schramm was believed to be a "one - man committee '' in choosing inductees and many former Cowboys players and fans felt that Schramm deliberately excluded linebacker Lee Roy Jordan because of a bitter contract dispute the two had during Jordan 's playing days. When Jerry Jones bought the team he inherited Schramm 's Ring of Honor "power '' and immediately inducted Jordan.
Jones also has sparked controversy regarding his decisions in handling the "Ring of Honor ''. For four years he was unsuccessful in convincing Tom Landry to accept induction. Meanwhile, he refused to induct Tex Schramm (even after Schramm 's induction to the Pro Football Hall of Fame). In 1993, thanks in part to the efforts of Roger Staubach as an intermediary, Landry accepted induction and had a ceremony on the day of that year 's Cowboys - Giants game (Landry had played and coached for the Giants). In 2003, Jones finally chose to induct Tex Schramm. Schramm and Jones held a joint press conference at Texas Stadium announcing the induction. Unfortunately, Schramm did not live to see his ceremonial induction at the Cowboys - Eagles game that fall.
Some of the more recent inductees were Troy Aikman, all - time NFL leading rusher Emmitt Smith, and Michael Irvin, known as "The Triplets ''. The Cowboys waited until Smith had retired as a player before inducting Aikman and Irvin, so all three could be inducted together, which occurred during halftime at a Monday Night Football home game against the arch - rival Washington Redskins on September 19, 2005.
The most recent inductees are defensive end Charles Haley, offensive lineman Larry Allen, and wide receiver Drew Pearson, who were inducted into the Ring of Honor during halftime of the Cowboys ' game vs. the Seattle Seahawks on November 6, 2011, and safety Darren Woodson, who was inducted on November 1, 2015.
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As of 2010, the Cowboys ' flagship radio station is KRLD - FM. Brad Sham is the team 's longtime play - by - play voice. Working alongside him is former Cowboy quarterback Babe Laufenberg, who returned in 2007 after a one - year absence to replace former safety Charlie Waters. The Cowboys, who retain rights to all announcers, chose not to renew Laufenberg 's contract in 2006 and brought in Waters. However, Laufenberg did work as the analyst on the "Blue Star Network '', which televises Cowboys preseason games not shown on national networks. The anchor station is KTVT, the CBS owned and operated station in Dallas. Previous stations which aired Cowboys games included KVIL - FM, KRLD, and KLUV - FM. Kristi Scales is the sideline reporter on the radio broadcasts.
During his tenure as Cowboys coach, Tom Landry co-hosted his own coach 's show with late veteran sportscaster Frank Glieber and later with Brad Sham. Landry 's show was famous for his analysis of raw game footage and for he and his co-host making their NFL "predictions '' at the end of each show. Glieber is one of the original voices of the Cowboys Radio Network, along with Bill Mercer, famous for calling the Ice Bowl of 1967 and both Super Bowl V and VI. Mercer is perhaps best known as the ringside commentator of World Class Championship Wrestling in the 1980s. Upon Mercer 's departure, Verne Lundquist joined the network, and became their play - by - play announcer by 1977, serving eight years in that capacity before handing those chores permanently over to Brad Sham, who joined the network in 1977 as the color analyst and occasional fill - in for Lundquist.
Longtime WFAA - TV sports anchor Dale Hansen was the Cowboys color analyst with Brad Sham as the play - by - play announcer from 1985 -- 1996.
Dave Garrett served as the Cowboys ' play - by - play announcer from 1995 -- 97, when Brad Sham left the team and joined the Texas Rangers ' radio network team as well as broadcast Sunday Night Football on Westwood One.
Seeking to expand its radio broadcasting scope nationally, the Cowboys began a five - year partnership with Compass Media Networks on February 2, 2011. The result was the America 's Team Radio Network, a supplement to the franchise 's regional one. Beginning with the 2011 season, Kevin Burkhardt and Danny White handled the broadcasts, with Jerry Recco as the studio host.
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when did cats in the cradle come out | Cat 's in the Cradle - wikipedia
"Cat 's in the Cradle '' (spelled "Cats in the Cradle '' in Ugly Kid Joe 's version) is a 1974 folk rock song by Harry Chapin from the album Verities & Balderdash. The single topped the Billboard Hot 100 in December 1974. As Chapin 's only No. 1 hit song, it became the best known of his work and a staple for folk rock music. Chapin 's recording of the song was nominated for the 1975 Grammy Award for Best Male Pop Vocal Performance and was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame in 2011.
The song 's lyrics began as a poem written by Harry 's wife, Sandra "Sandy '' Gaston; the poem itself was inspired by the awkward relationship between her first husband, James Cashmore, and his father, John, a politician who served as Brooklyn borough president. She was also inspired by a country music song she had heard on the radio. Chapin also said the song was about his own relationship with his son, Josh, admitting, "Frankly, this song scares me to death. ''
In 1992, the hard rock band Ugly Kid Joe included a cover of the song, renamed "Cats in the Cradle '', on their debut album America 's Least Wanted. The cover was issued as a single in 1993 and peaked at number six on the Billboard Hot 100, the group 's highest ever position on that chart. The song also peaked at number three on the Billboard Mainstream Rock Tracks chart. The single sold 500,000 copies domestically, earning a gold certification from the Recording Industry Association of America.
In Chapin 's version, the chorus changes from "when you coming home, dad? '' to "when you coming home, son? '', as the child grows up, and the situation changes from a busy father neglecting his son to a busy son neglecting his father. In Ugly Kid Joe 's version, all the choruses use the same words with a subtle change from "When you coming home? Son, I do n't know when '', to "When you coming home, son? I do n't know when. ''
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which is an example of a renewable energy source | Renewable energy - wikipedia
Renewable energy is energy that is collected from renewable resources, which are naturally replenished on a human timescale, such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides, waves, and geothermal heat. Renewable energy often provides energy in four important areas: electricity generation, air and water heating / cooling, transportation, and rural (off - grid) energy services.
Based on REN21 's 2016 report, renewables contributed 19.2 % to humans ' global energy consumption and 23.7 % to their generation of electricity in 2014 and 2015, respectively. This energy consumption is divided as 8.9 % coming from traditional biomass, 4.2 % as heat energy (modern biomass, geothermal and solar heat), 3.9 % hydro electricity and 2.2 % is electricity from wind, solar, geothermal, and biomass. Worldwide investments in renewable technologies amounted to more than US $286 billion in 2015, with countries like China and the United States heavily investing in wind, hydro, solar and biofuels. Globally, there are an estimated 7.7 million jobs associated with the renewable energy industries, with solar photovoltaics being the largest renewable employer. As of 2015 worldwide, more than half of all new electricity capacity installed was renewable.
Renewable energy resources exist over wide geographical areas, in contrast to other energy sources, which are concentrated in a limited number of countries. Rapid deployment of renewable energy and energy efficiency is resulting in significant energy security, climate change mitigation, and economic benefits. The results of a recent review of the literature concluded that as greenhouse gas (GHG) emitters begin to be held liable for damages resulting from GHG emissions resulting in climate change, a high value for liability mitigation would provide powerful incentives for deployment of renewable energy technologies. In international public opinion surveys there is strong support for promoting renewable sources such as solar power and wind power. At the national level, at least 30 nations around the world already have renewable energy contributing more than 20 percent of energy supply. National renewable energy markets are projected to continue to grow strongly in the coming decade and beyond. Some places and at least two countries, Iceland and Norway generate all their electricity using renewable energy already, and many other countries have the set a goal to reach 100 % renewable energy in the future. For example, in Denmark the government decided to switch the total energy supply (electricity, mobility and heating / cooling) to 100 % renewable energy by 2050.
While many renewable energy projects are large - scale, renewable technologies are also suited to rural and remote areas and developing countries, where energy is often crucial in human development. Former United Nations Secretary - General Ban Ki - moon has said that renewable energy has the ability to lift the poorest nations to new levels of prosperity. As most of renewables provide electricity, renewable energy deployment is often applied in conjunction with further electrification, which has several benefits: Electricity can be converted to heat (where necessary generating higher temperatures than fossil fuels), can be converted into mechanical energy with high efficiency and is clean at the point of consumption. In addition to that electrification with renewable energy is much more efficient and therefore leads to a significant reduction in primary energy requirements, because most renewables do n't have a steam cycle with high losses (fossil power plants usually have losses of 40 to 65 %).
Renewable energy systems are rapidly becoming more efficient and cheaper. Their share of total energy consumption is increasing. Growth in consumption of coal and oil could end by 2020 due to increased uptake of renewables and natural gas.
Renewable energy flows involve natural phenomena such as sunlight, wind, tides, plant growth, and geothermal heat, as the International Energy Agency explains:
Renewable energy is derived from natural processes that are replenished constantly. In its various forms, it derives directly from the sun, or from heat generated deep within the earth. Included in the definition is electricity and heat generated from solar, wind, ocean, hydropower, biomass, geothermal resources, and biofuels and hydrogen derived from renewable resources.
Renewable energy resources and significant opportunities for energy efficiency exist over wide geographical areas, in contrast to other energy sources, which are concentrated in a limited number of countries. Rapid deployment of renewable energy and energy efficiency, and technological diversification of energy sources, would result in significant energy security and economic benefits. It would also reduce environmental pollution such as air pollution caused by burning of fossil fuels and improve public health, reduce premature mortalities due to pollution and save associated health costs that amount to several hundred billion dollars annually only in the United States. Renewable energy sources, that derive their energy from the sun, either directly or indirectly, such as hydro and wind, are expected to be capable of supplying humanity energy for almost another 1 billion years, at which point the predicted increase in heat from the sun is expected to make the surface of the earth too hot for liquid water to exist.
Climate change and global warming concerns, coupled with high oil prices, peak oil, and increasing government support, are driving increasing renewable energy legislation, incentives and commercialization. New government spending, regulation and policies helped the industry weather the global financial crisis better than many other sectors. According to a 2011 projection by the International Energy Agency, solar power generators may produce most of the world 's electricity within 50 years, reducing the emissions of greenhouse gases that harm the environment.
As of 2011, small solar PV systems provide electricity to a few million households, and micro-hydro configured into mini-grids serves many more. Over 44 million households use biogas made in household - scale digesters for lighting and / or cooking, and more than 166 million households rely on a new generation of more - efficient biomass cookstoves. United Nations ' Secretary - General Ban Ki - moon has said that renewable energy has the ability to lift the poorest nations to new levels of prosperity. At the national level, at least 30 nations around the world already have renewable energy contributing more than 20 % of energy supply. National renewable energy markets are projected to continue to grow strongly in the coming decade and beyond, and some 120 countries have various policy targets for longer - term shares of renewable energy, including a 20 % target of all electricity generated for the European Union by 2020. Some countries have much higher long - term policy targets of up to 100 % renewables. Outside Europe, a diverse group of 20 or more other countries target renewable energy shares in the 2020 -- 2030 time frame that range from 10 % to 50 %.
Renewable energy often displaces conventional fuels in four areas: electricity generation, hot water / space heating, transportation, and rural (off - grid) energy services:
Prior to the development of coal in the mid 19th century, nearly all energy used was renewable. Almost without a doubt the oldest known use of renewable energy, in the form of traditional biomass to fuel fires, dates from 790,000 years ago. Use of biomass for fire did not become commonplace until many hundreds of thousands of years later, sometime between 200,000 and 400,000 years ago. Probably the second oldest usage of renewable energy is harnessing the wind in order to drive ships over water. This practice can be traced back some 7000 years, to ships on the Nile. Moving into the time of recorded history, the primary sources of traditional renewable energy were human labor, animal power, water power, wind, in grain crushing windmills, and firewood, a traditional biomass. A graph of energy use in the United States up until 1900 shows oil and natural gas with about the same importance in 1900 as wind and solar played in 2010.
In the 1860s and ' 70s there were already fears that civilization would run out of fossil fuels and the need was felt for a better source. In 1873 Professor Augustine Mouchot wrote:
The time will arrive when the industry of Europe will cease to find those natural resources, so necessary for it. Petroleum springs and coal mines are not inexhaustible but are rapidly diminishing in many places. Will man, then, return to the power of water and wind? Or will he emigrate where the most powerful source of heat sends its rays to all? History will show what will come.
In 1885, Werner von Siemens, commenting on the discovery of the photovoltaic effect in the solid state, wrote:
In conclusion, I would say that however great the scientific importance of this discovery may be, its practical value will be no less obvious when we reflect that the supply of solar energy is both without limit and without cost, and that it will continue to pour down upon us for countless ages after all the coal deposits of the earth have been exhausted and forgotten.
Max Weber mentioned the end of fossil fuel in the concluding paragraphs of his Die protestantische Ethik und der Geist des Kapitalismus, published in 1905.
Development of solar engines continued until the outbreak of World War I. The importance of solar energy was recognized in a 1911 Scientific American article: "in the far distant future, natural fuels having been exhausted (solar power) will remain as the only means of existence of the human race ''.
The theory of peak oil was published in 1956. In the 1970s environmentalists promoted the development of renewable energy both as a replacement for the eventual depletion of oil, as well as for an escape from dependence on oil, and the first electricity generating wind turbines appeared. Solar had long been used for heating and cooling, but solar panels were too costly to build solar farms until 1980.
The IEA 2014 World Energy Outlook projects a growth of renewable energy supply from 1,700 gigawatts in 2014 to 4,550 gigawatts in 2040. Fossil fuels received about $550 billion in subsidies in 2013, compared to $120 billion for all renewable energies.
Airflows can be used to run wind turbines. Modern utility - scale wind turbines range from around 600 kW to 5 MW of rated power, although turbines with rated output of 1.5 -- 3 MW have become the most common for commercial use. The largest generator capacity of a single installed onshore wind turbine reached 7.5 MW in 2015. The power available from the wind is a function of the cube of the wind speed, so as wind speed increases, power output increases up to the maximum output for the particular turbine. Areas where winds are stronger and more constant, such as offshore and high altitude sites, are preferred locations for wind farms. Typically full load hours of wind turbines vary between 16 and 57 percent annually, but might be higher in particularly favorable offshore sites.
Wind - generated electricity met nearly 4 % of global electricity demand in 2015, with nearly 63 GW of new wind power capacity installed. Wind energy was the leading source of new capacity in Europe, the US and Canada, and the second largest in China. In Denmark, wind energy met more than 40 % of its electricity demand while Ireland, Portugal and Spain each met nearly 20 %.
Globally, the long - term technical potential of wind energy is believed to be five times total current global energy production, or 40 times current electricity demand, assuming all practical barriers needed were overcome. This would require wind turbines to be installed over large areas, particularly in areas of higher wind resources, such as offshore. As offshore wind speeds average ~ 90 % greater than that of land, so offshore resources can contribute substantially more energy than land stationed turbines. In 2014 global wind generation was 706 terawatt - hours or 3 % of the worlds total electricity.
In 2015 hydropower generated 16.6 % of the worlds total electricity and 70 % of all renewable electricity. Since water is about 800 times denser than air, even a slow flowing stream of water, or moderate sea swell, can yield considerable amounts of energy. There are many forms of water energy:
Hydropower is produced in 150 countries, with the Asia - Pacific region generating 32 percent of global hydropower in 2010. For countries having the largest percentage of electricity from renewables, the top 50 are primarily hydroelectric. China is the largest hydroelectricity producer, with 721 terawatt - hours of production in 2010, representing around 17 percent of domestic electricity use. There are now three hydroelectricity stations larger than 10 GW: the Three Gorges Dam in China, Itaipu Dam across the Brazil / Paraguay border, and Guri Dam in Venezuela.
Wave power, which captures the energy of ocean surface waves, and tidal power, converting the energy of tides, are two forms of hydropower with future potential; however, they are not yet widely employed commercially. A demonstration project operated by the Ocean Renewable Power Company on the coast of Maine, and connected to the grid, harnesses tidal power from the Bay of Fundy, location of world 's highest tidal flow. Ocean thermal energy conversion, which uses the temperature difference between cooler deep and warmer surface waters, has currently no economic feasibility.
Solar energy, radiant light and heat from the sun, is harnessed using a range of ever - evolving technologies such as solar heating, photovoltaics, concentrated solar power (CSP), concentrator photovoltaics (CPV), solar architecture and artificial photosynthesis. Solar technologies are broadly characterized as either passive solar or active solar depending on the way they capture, convert and distribute solar energy. Passive solar techniques include orienting a building to the Sun, selecting materials with favorable thermal mass or light dispersing properties, and designing spaces that naturally circulate air. Active solar technologies encompass solar thermal energy, using solar collectors for heating, and solar power, converting sunlight into electricity either directly using photovoltaics (PV), or indirectly using concentrated solar power (CSP).
A photovoltaic system converts light into electrical direct current (DC) by taking advantage of the photoelectric effect. Solar PV has turned into a multi-billion, fast - growing industry, continues to improve its cost - effectiveness, and has the most potential of any renewable technologies together with CSP. Concentrated solar power (CSP) systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam. Commercial concentrated solar power plants were first developed in the 1980s. CSP - Stirling has by far the highest efficiency among all solar energy technologies.
In 2011, the International Energy Agency said that "the development of affordable, inexhaustible and clean solar energy technologies will have huge longer - term benefits. It will increase countries ' energy security through reliance on an indigenous, inexhaustible and mostly import - independent resource, enhance sustainability, reduce pollution, lower the costs of mitigating climate change, and keep fossil fuel prices lower than otherwise. These advantages are global. Hence the additional costs of the incentives for early deployment should be considered learning investments; they must be wisely spent and need to be widely shared ''. Italy has the largest proportion of solar electricity in the world, in 2015 solar supplied 7.8 % of electricity demand in Italy. In 2016, after another year of rapid growth, solar generated 1.3 % of global power.
High Temperature Geothermal energy is from thermal energy generated and stored in the Earth. Thermal energy is the energy that determines the temperature of matter. Earth 's geothermal energy originates from the original formation of the planet and from radioactive decay of minerals (in currently uncertain but possibly roughly equal proportions). The geothermal gradient, which is the difference in temperature between the core of the planet and its surface, drives a continuous conduction of thermal energy in the form of heat from the core to the surface. The adjective geothermal originates from the Greek roots geo, meaning earth, and thermos, meaning heat.
The heat that is used for geothermal energy can be from deep within the Earth, all the way down to Earth 's core -- 4,000 miles (6,400 km) down. At the core, temperatures may reach over 9,000 ° F (5,000 ° C). Heat conducts from the core to surrounding rock. Extremely high temperature and pressure cause some rock to melt, which is commonly known as magma. Magma convects upward since it is lighter than the solid rock. This magma then heats rock and water in the crust, sometimes up to 700 ° F (371 ° C).
From hot springs, geothermal energy has been used for bathing since Paleolithic times and for space heating since ancient Roman times, but it is now better known for electricity generation.
Low Temperature Geothermal refers to the use of the outer crust of the earth as a Thermal Battery to facilitate Renewable thermal energy for heating and cooling buildings, and other refrigeration and industrial uses. In this form of Geothermal, a Geothermal Heat Pump and Ground - coupled heat exchanger are used together to move heat energy into the earth (for cooling) and out of the earth (for heating) on a varying seasonal basis. Low temperature Geothermal (generally referred to as "GHP '') is an increasingly important renewable technology because it both reduces total annual energy loads associated with heating and cooling, and it also flattens the electric demand curve eliminating the extreme summer and winter peak electric supply requirements. Thus Low Temperature Geothermal / GHP is becoming an increasing national priority with multiple tax credit support and focus as part of the ongoing movement toward Net Zero Energy. New York City has even just passed a law to require GHP anytime is shown to be economical with 20 year financing including the Socialized Cost of Carbon.
Biomass is biological material derived from living, or recently living organisms. It most often refers to plants or plant - derived materials which are specifically called lignocellulosic biomass. As an energy source, biomass can either be used directly via combustion to produce heat, or indirectly after converting it to various forms of biofuel. Conversion of biomass to biofuel can be achieved by different methods which are broadly classified into: thermal, chemical, and biochemical methods. Wood remains the largest biomass energy source today; examples include forest residues -- such as dead trees, branches and tree stumps --, yard clippings, wood chips and even municipal solid waste. In the second sense, biomass includes plant or animal matter that can be converted into fibers or other industrial chemicals, including biofuels. Industrial biomass can be grown from numerous types of plants, including miscanthus, switchgrass, hemp, corn, poplar, willow, sorghum, sugarcane, bamboo, and a variety of tree species, ranging from eucalyptus to oil palm (palm oil).
Plant energy is produced by crops specifically grown for use as fuel that offer high biomass output per hectare with low input energy. Some examples of these plants are wheat, which typically yield 7.5 -- 8 tonnes of grain per hectare, and straw, which typically yield 3.5 -- 5 tonnes per hectare in the UK. The grain can be used for liquid transportation fuels while the straw can be burned to produce heat or electricity. Plant biomass can also be degraded from cellulose to glucose through a series of chemical treatments, and the resulting sugar can then be used as a first generation biofuel.
Biomass can be converted to other usable forms of energy like methane gas or transportation fuels like ethanol and biodiesel. Rotting garbage, and agricultural and human waste, all release methane gas -- also called landfill gas or biogas. Crops, such as corn and sugarcane, can be fermented to produce the transportation fuel, ethanol. Biodiesel, another transportation fuel, can be produced from left - over food products like vegetable oils and animal fats. Also, biomass to liquids (BTLs) and cellulosic ethanol are still under research. There is a great deal of research involving algal fuel or algae - derived biomass due to the fact that it 's a non-food resource and can be produced at rates 5 to 10 times those of other types of land - based agriculture, such as corn and soy. Once harvested, it can be fermented to produce biofuels such as ethanol, butanol, and methane, as well as biodiesel and hydrogen. The biomass used for electricity generation varies by region. Forest by - products, such as wood residues, are common in the United States. Agricultural waste is common in Mauritius (sugar cane residue) and Southeast Asia (rice husks). Animal husbandry residues, such as poultry litter, are common in the United Kingdom.
Biofuels include a wide range of fuels which are derived from biomass. The term covers solid, liquid, and gaseous fuels. Liquid biofuels include bioalcohols, such as bioethanol, and oils, such as biodiesel. Gaseous biofuels include biogas, landfill gas and synthetic gas. Bioethanol is an alcohol made by fermenting the sugar components of plant materials and it is made mostly from sugar and starch crops. These include maize, sugarcane and, more recently, sweet sorghum. The latter crop is particularly suitable for growing in dryland conditions, and is being investigated by International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics for its potential to provide fuel, along with food and animal feed, in arid parts of Asia and Africa.
With advanced technology being developed, cellulosic biomass, such as trees and grasses, are also used as feedstocks for ethanol production. Ethanol can be used as a fuel for vehicles in its pure form, but it is usually used as a gasoline additive to increase octane and improve vehicle emissions. Bioethanol is widely used in the United States and in Brazil. The energy costs for producing bio-ethanol are almost equal to, the energy yields from bio-ethanol. However, according to the European Environment Agency, biofuels do not address global warming concerns. Biodiesel is made from vegetable oils, animal fats or recycled greases. It can be used as a fuel for vehicles in its pure form, or more commonly as a diesel additive to reduce levels of particulates, carbon monoxide, and hydrocarbons from diesel - powered vehicles. Biodiesel is produced from oils or fats using transesterification and is the most common biofuel in Europe. Biofuels provided 2.7 % of the world 's transport fuel in 2010.
Biomass, biogas and biofuels are burned to produce heat / power and in doing so harm the environment. Pollutants such as sulphurous oxides (SO), nitrous oxides (NO), and particulate matter (PM) are produced from the combustion of biomass; the World Health Organisation estimates that 7 million premature deaths are caused each year by air pollution. Biomass combustion is a major contributor.
Energy storage is a collection of methods used to store electrical energy on an electrical power grid, or off it. Electrical energy is stored during times when production (especially from intermittent power plants such as renewable electricity sources such as wind power, tidal power, solar power) exceeds consumption, and returned to the grid when production falls below consumption. Pumped - storage hydroelectricity is used for more than 90 % of all grid power storage.
Renewable power has been more effective in creating jobs than coal or oil in the United States.
From the end of 2004, worldwide renewable energy capacity grew at rates of 10 -- 60 % annually for many technologies. In 2015 global investment in renewables rose 5 % to $285.9 billion, breaking the previous record of $278.5 billion in 2011. 2015 was also the first year that saw renewables, excluding large hydro, account for the majority of all new power capacity (134 GW, making up 53.6 % of the total). Of the renewables total, wind accounted for 72 GW and solar photovoltaics 56 GW; both record - breaking numbers and sharply up from 2014 figures (49 GW and 45 GW respectively). In financial terms, solar made up 56 % of total new investment and wind accounted for 38 %.
Projections vary. The EIA has predicted that almost two thirds of net additions to power capacity will come from renewables by 2020 due to the combined policy benefits of local pollution, decarbonisation and energy diversification. Some studies have set out roadmaps to power 100 % of the world 's energy with wind, hydroelectric and solar by the year 2030.
According to a 2011 projection by the International Energy Agency, solar power generators may produce most of the world 's electricity within 50 years, reducing the emissions of greenhouse gases that harm the environment. Cedric Philibert, senior analyst in the renewable energy division at the IEA said: "Photovoltaic and solar - thermal plants may meet most of the world 's demand for electricity by 2060 -- and half of all energy needs -- with wind, hydropower and biomass plants supplying much of the remaining generation ''. "Photovoltaic and concentrated solar power together can become the major source of electricity '', Philibert said.
In 2014 global wind power capacity expanded 16 % to 369,553 MW. Yearly wind energy production is also growing rapidly and has reached around 4 % of worldwide electricity usage, 11.4 % in the EU, and it is widely used in Asia, and the United States. In 2015, worldwide installed photovoltaics capacity increased to 227 gigawatts (GW), sufficient to supply 1 percent of global electricity demands. Solar thermal energy stations operate in the USA and Spain, and as of 2016, the largest of these is the 392 MW Ivanpah Solar Electric Generating System in California. The world 's largest geothermal power installation is The Geysers in California, with a rated capacity of 750 MW. Brazil has one of the largest renewable energy programs in the world, involving production of ethanol fuel from sugar cane, and ethanol now provides 18 % of the country 's automotive fuel. Ethanol fuel is also widely available in the USA.
Renewable energy technologies are getting cheaper, through technological change and through the benefits of mass production and market competition. A 2011 IEA report said: "A portfolio of renewable energy technologies is becoming cost - competitive in an increasingly broad range of circumstances, in some cases providing investment opportunities without the need for specific economic support, '' and added that "cost reductions in critical technologies, such as wind and solar, are set to continue. ''
Hydro - electricity and geothermal electricity produced at favourable sites are now the cheapest way to generate electricity. Renewable energy costs continue to drop, and the levelised cost of electricity (LCOE) is declining for wind power, solar photovoltaic (PV), concentrated solar power (CSP) and some biomass technologies. Renewable energy is also the most economic solution for new grid - connected capacity in areas with good resources. As the cost of renewable power falls, the scope of economically viable applications increases. Renewable technologies are now often the most economic solution for new generating capacity. Where "oil - fired generation is the predominant power generation source (e.g. on islands, off - grid and in some countries) a lower - cost renewable solution almost always exists today ''. A series of studies by the US National Renewable Energy Laboratory modeled the "grid in the Western US under a number of different scenarios where intermittent renewables accounted for 33 percent of the total power. '' In the models, inefficiencies in cycling the fossil fuel plants to compensate for the variation in solar and wind energy resulted in an additional cost of "between $0.47 and $1.28 to each MegaWatt hour generated ''; however, the savings in the cost of the fuels saved "adds up to $7 billion, meaning the added costs are, at most, two percent of the savings. ''
Only a quarter of the worlds estimated hydroelectric potential of 14,000 TWh / year has been developed, the regional potentials for the growth of hydropower around the world are, 71 % Europe, 75 % North America, 79 % South America, 95 % Africa, 95 % Middle East, 82 % Asia Pacific. However, the political realities of new reservoirs in western countries, economic limitations in the third world and the lack of a transmission system in undeveloped areas, result in the possibility of developing 25 % of the remaining potential before 2050, with the bulk of that being in the Asia Pacific area. There is slow growth taking place in Western counties, but not in the conventional dam and reservoir style of the past. New projects take the form of run - of - the - river and small hydro, neither using large reservoirs. It is popular to repower old dams thereby increasing their efficiency and capacity as well as quicker responsiveness on the grid. Where circumstances permit existing dams like the Russell Dam built in 1985 may be updated with "pump back '' facilities for pumped - storage which is useful for peak loads or to support intermittent wind and solar power. Countries with large hydroelectric developments like Canada and Norway are spending billions to expand their grids to trade with neighboring countries having limited hydro.
Wind power is widely used in Europe, China, and the United States. From 2004 to 2014, worldwide installed capacity of wind power has been growing from 47 GW to 369 GW -- a more than sevenfold increase within 10 years with 2014 breaking a new record in global installations (51 GW). As of the end of 2014, China, the United States and Germany combined accounted for half of total global capacity. Several other countries have achieved relatively high levels of wind power penetration, such as 21 % of stationary electricity production in Denmark, 18 % in Portugal, 16 % in Spain, and 14 % in Ireland in 2010 and have since continued to expand their installed capacity. More than 80 countries around the world are using wind power on a commercial basis.
The United States conducted much early research in photovoltaics and concentrated solar power. The U.S. is among the top countries in the world in electricity generated by the Sun and several of the world 's largest utility - scale installations are located in the desert Southwest.
The oldest solar thermal power plant in the world is the 354 megawatt (MW) SEGS thermal power plant, in California. The Ivanpah Solar Electric Generating System is a solar thermal power project in the California Mojave Desert, 40 miles (64 km) southwest of Las Vegas, with a gross capacity of 377 MW. The 280 MW Solana Generating Station is a solar power plant near Gila Bend, Arizona, about 70 miles (110 km) southwest of Phoenix, completed in 2013. When commissioned it was the largest parabolic trough plant in the world and the first U.S. solar plant with molten salt thermal energy storage.
The solar thermal power industry is growing rapidly with 1.3 GW under construction in 2012 and more planned. Spain is the epicenter of solar thermal power development with 873 MW under construction, and a further 271 MW under development. In the United States, 5,600 MW of solar thermal power projects have been announced. Several power plants have been constructed in the Mojave Desert, Southwestern United States. The Ivanpah Solar Power Facility being the most recent. In developing countries, three World Bank projects for integrated solar thermal / combined - cycle gas - turbine power plants in Egypt, Mexico, and Morocco have been approved.
Worldwide growth of PV capacity grouped by region in MW (2006 -- 2014)
Photovoltaics (PV) uses solar cells assembled into solar panels to convert sunlight into electricity. It 's a fast - growing technology doubling its worldwide installed capacity every couple of years. PV systems range from small, residential and commercial rooftop or building integrated installations, to large utility - scale photovoltaic power station. The predominant PV technology is crystalline silicon, while thin - film solar cell technology accounts for about 10 percent of global photovoltaic deployment. In recent years, PV technology has improved its electricity generating efficiency, reduced the installation cost per watt as well as its energy payback time, and has reached grid parity in at least 30 different markets by 2014. Financial institutions are predicting a second solar "gold rush '' in the near future.
At the end of 2014, worldwide PV capacity reached at least 177,000 megawatts. Photovoltaics grew fastest in China, followed by Japan and the United States, while Germany remains the world 's largest overall producer of photovoltaic power, contributing about 7.0 percent to the overall electricity generation. Italy meets 7.9 percent of its electricity demands with photovoltaic power -- the highest share worldwide. For 2015, global cumulative capacity is forecasted to increase by more than 50 gigawatts (GW). By 2018, worldwide capacity is projected to reach as much as 430 gigawatts. This corresponds to a tripling within five years. Solar power is forecasted to become the world 's largest source of electricity by 2050, with solar photovoltaics and concentrated solar power contributing 16 % and 11 %, respectively. This requires an increase of installed PV capacity to 4,600 GW, of which more than half is expected to be deployed in China and India.
Commercial concentrated solar power plants were first developed in the 1980s. As the cost of solar electricity has fallen, the number of grid - connected solar PV systems has grown into the millions and utility - scale solar power stations with hundreds of megawatts are being built. Solar PV is rapidly becoming an inexpensive, low - carbon technology to harness renewable energy from the Sun.
Many solar photovoltaic power stations have been built, mainly in Europe, China and the USA. The 579 MW Solar Star, in the United States, is the world 's largest PV power station.
Many of these plants are integrated with agriculture and some use tracking systems that follow the sun 's daily path across the sky to generate more electricity than fixed - mounted systems. There are no fuel costs or emissions during operation of the power stations.
However, when it comes to renewable energy systems and PV, it is not just large systems that matter. Building - integrated photovoltaics or "onsite '' PV systems use existing land and structures and generate power close to where it is consumed.
Biofuels provided 3 % of the world 's transport fuel in 2010. Mandates for blending biofuels exist in 31 countries at the national level and in 29 states / provinces. According to the International Energy Agency, biofuels have the potential to meet more than a quarter of world demand for transportation fuels by 2050.
Since the 1970s, Brazil has had an ethanol fuel program which has allowed the country to become the world 's second largest producer of ethanol (after the United States) and the world 's largest exporter. Brazil 's ethanol fuel program uses modern equipment and cheap sugarcane as feedstock, and the residual cane - waste (bagasse) is used to produce heat and power. There are no longer light vehicles in Brazil running on pure gasoline. By the end of 2008 there were 35,000 filling stations throughout Brazil with at least one ethanol pump. Unfortunately, Operation Car Wash has seriously eroded public trust in oil companies and has implicated several high ranking Brazilian officials.
Nearly all the gasoline sold in the United States today is mixed with 10 % ethanol, and motor vehicle manufacturers already produce vehicles designed to run on much higher ethanol blends. Ford, Daimler AG, and GM are among the automobile companies that sell "flexible - fuel '' cars, trucks, and minivans that can use gasoline and ethanol blends ranging from pure gasoline up to 85 % ethanol. By mid-2006, there were approximately 6 million ethanol compatible vehicles on U.S. roads.
Geothermal power is cost effective, reliable, sustainable, and environmentally friendly, but has historically been limited to areas near tectonic plate boundaries. Recent technological advances have expanded the range and size of viable resources, especially for applications such as home heating, opening a potential for widespread exploitation. Geothermal wells release greenhouse gases trapped deep within the earth, but these emissions are much lower per energy unit than those of fossil fuels. As a result, geothermal power has the potential to help mitigate global warming if widely deployed in place of fossil fuels.
The International Geothermal Association (IGA) has reported that 10,715 MW of geothermal power in 24 countries is online, which is expected to generate 67,246 GWh of electricity in 2010. This represents a 20 % increase in geothermal power online capacity since 2005. IGA projects this will grow to 18,500 MW by 2015, due to the large number of projects presently under consideration, often in areas previously assumed to have little exploitable resource.
In 2010, the United States led the world in geothermal electricity production with 3,086 MW of installed capacity from 77 power plants; the largest group of geothermal power plants in the world is located at The Geysers, a geothermal field in California. The Philippines follows the US as the second highest producer of geothermal power in the world, with 1,904 MW of capacity online; geothermal power makes up approximately 18 % of the country 's electricity generation.
Renewable energy technology has sometimes been seen as a costly luxury item by critics, and affordable only in the affluent developed world. This erroneous view has persisted for many years, but 2015 was the first year when investment in non-hydro renewables, was higher in developing countries, with $156 billion invested, mainly in China, India, and Brazil.
Renewable energy can be particularly suitable for developing countries. In rural and remote areas, transmission and distribution of energy generated from fossil fuels can be difficult and expensive. Producing renewable energy locally can offer a viable alternative.
Technology advances are opening up a huge new market for solar power: the approximately 1.3 billion people around the world who do n't have access to grid electricity. Even though they are typically very poor, these people have to pay far more for lighting than people in rich countries because they use inefficient kerosene lamps. Solar power costs half as much as lighting with kerosene. As of 2010, an estimated 3 million households get power from small solar PV systems. Kenya is the world leader in the number of solar power systems installed per capita. More than 30,000 very small solar panels, each producing 12 to 30 watts, are sold in Kenya annually. Some Small Island Developing States (SIDS) are also turning to solar power to reduce their costs and increase their sustainability.
Micro-hydro configured into mini-grids also provide power. Over 44 million households use biogas made in household - scale digesters for lighting and / or cooking, and more than 166 million households rely on a new generation of more - efficient biomass cookstoves. Clean liquid fuel sourced from renewable feedstocks are used for cooking and lighting in energy - poor areas of the developing world. Alcohol fuels (ethanol and methanol) can be produced sustainably from non-food sugary, starchy, and cellulostic feedstocks. Project Gaia, Inc. and CleanStar Mozambique are implementing clean cooking programs with liquid ethanol stoves in Ethiopia, Kenya, Nigeria and Mozambique.
Renewable energy projects in many developing countries have demonstrated that renewable energy can directly contribute to poverty reduction by providing the energy needed for creating businesses and employment. Renewable energy technologies can also make indirect contributions to alleviating poverty by providing energy for cooking, space heating, and lighting. Renewable energy can also contribute to education, by providing electricity to schools.
U.S. President Barack Obama 's American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 includes more than $70 billion in direct spending and tax credits for clean energy and associated transportation programs. Leading renewable energy companies include First Solar, Gamesa, GE Energy, Hanwha Q Cells, Sharp Solar, Siemens, SunOpta, Suntech Power, and Vestas.
Many national, state, and local governments have also created green banks. A green bank is a quasi-public financial institution that uses public capital to leverage private investment in clean energy technologies. Green banks use a variety of financial tools to bridge market gaps that hinder the deployment of clean energy.
The military has also focused on the use of renewable fuels for military vehicles. Unlike fossil fuels, renewable fuels can be produced in any country, creating a strategic advantage. The US military has already committed itself to have 50 % of its energy consumption come from alternative sources.
The International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) is an intergovernmental organization for promoting the adoption of renewable energy worldwide. It aims to provide concrete policy advice and facilitate capacity building and technology transfer. IRENA was formed on 26 January 2009, by 75 countries signing the charter of IRENA. As of March 2010, IRENA has 143 member states who all are considered as founding members, of which 14 have also ratified the statute.
As of 2011, 119 countries have some form of national renewable energy policy target or renewable support policy. National targets now exist in at least 98 countries. There is also a wide range of policies at state / provincial and local levels.
United Nations ' Secretary - General Ban Ki - moon has said that renewable energy has the ability to lift the poorest nations to new levels of prosperity. In October 2011, he "announced the creation of a high - level group to drum up support for energy access, energy efficiency and greater use of renewable energy. The group is to be co-chaired by Kandeh Yumkella, the chair of UN Energy and director general of the UN Industrial Development Organisation, and Charles Holliday, chairman of Bank of America ''.
The incentive to use 100 % renewable energy, for electricity, transport, or even total primary energy supply globally, has been motivated by global warming and other ecological as well as economic concerns. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change has said that there are few fundamental technological limits to integrating a portfolio of renewable energy technologies to meet most of total global energy demand. Renewable energy use has grown much faster than even advocates anticipated. At the national level, at least 30 nations around the world already have renewable energy contributing more than 20 % of energy supply. Also, Professors S. Pacala and Robert H. Socolow have developed a series of "stabilization wedges '' that can allow us to maintain our quality of life while avoiding catastrophic climate change, and "renewable energy sources, '' in aggregate, constitute the largest number of their "wedges ''.
Using 100 % renewable energy was first suggested in a Science paper published in 1975 by Danish physicist Bent Sørensen. It was followed by several other proposals, until in 1998 the first detailed analysis of scenarios with very high shares of renewables were published. These were followed by the first detailed 100 % scenarios. In 2006 a PhD thesis was published by Czisch in which it was shown that in a 100 % renewable scenario energy supply could match demand in every hour of the year in Europa and North Africa. In the same year Danish Energy professor Henrik Lund published a first paper in which he addresses the optimal combination of renewables, which was followed by several other papers on the transition to 100 % renewable energy in Denmark. Since then Lund has been publishing several papers on 100 % renewable energy. After 2009 publications began to rise steeply, covering 100 % scenarios for countries in Europa, America, Australia and other parts of the world.
In 2011 Mark Z. Jacobson, professor of civil and environmental engineering at Stanford University, and Mark Delucchi published a study on 100 % renewable global energy supply in the journal Energy Policy. They found producing all new energy with wind power, solar power, and hydropower by 2030 is feasible and existing energy supply arrangements could be replaced by 2050. Barriers to implementing the renewable energy plan are seen to be "primarily social and political, not technological or economic ''. They also found that energy costs with a wind, solar, water system should be similar to today 's energy costs.
Similarly, in the United States, the independent National Research Council has noted that "sufficient domestic renewable resources exist to allow renewable electricity to play a significant role in future electricity generation and thus help confront issues related to climate change, energy security, and the escalation of energy costs... Renewable energy is an attractive option because renewable resources available in the United States, taken collectively, can supply significantly greater amounts of electricity than the total current or projected domestic demand. ''.
The most significant barriers to the widespread implementation of large - scale renewable energy and low carbon energy strategies are primarily political and not technological. According to the 2013 Post Carbon Pathways report, which reviewed many international studies, the key roadblocks are: climate change denial, the fossil fuels lobby, political inaction, unsustainable energy consumption, outdated energy infrastructure, and financial constraints.
Other renewable energy technologies are still under development, and include cellulosic ethanol, hot - dry - rock geothermal power, and marine energy. These technologies are not yet widely demonstrated or have limited commercialization. Many are on the horizon and may have potential comparable to other renewable energy technologies, but still depend on attracting sufficient attention and research, development and demonstration (RD&D) funding.
There are numerous organizations within the academic, federal, and commercial sectors conducting large scale advanced research in the field of renewable energy. This research spans several areas of focus across the renewable energy spectrum. Most of the research is targeted at improving efficiency and increasing overall energy yields. Multiple federally supported research organizations have focused on renewable energy in recent years. Two of the most prominent of these labs are Sandia National Laboratories and the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), both of which are funded by the United States Department of Energy and supported by various corporate partners. Sandia has a total budget of $2.4 billion while NREL has a budget of $375 million.
Renewable electricity production, from sources such as wind power and solar power, is sometimes criticized for being variable or intermittent, but is not true for concentrated solar, geothermal and biofuels, that have continuity. In any case, the International Energy Agency has stated that deployment of renewable technologies usually increases the diversity of electricity sources and, through local generation, contributes to the flexibility of the system and its resistance to central shocks.
There have been "not in my back yard '' (NIMBY) concerns relating to the visual and other impacts of some wind farms, with local residents sometimes fighting or blocking construction. In the USA, the Massachusetts Cape Wind project was delayed for years partly because of aesthetic concerns. However, residents in other areas have been more positive. According to a town councilor, the overwhelming majority of locals believe that the Ardrossan Wind Farm in Scotland has enhanced the area.
A recent UK Government document states that "projects are generally more likely to succeed if they have broad public support and the consent of local communities. This means giving communities both a say and a stake ''. In countries such as Germany and Denmark many renewable projects are owned by communities, particularly through cooperative structures, and contribute significantly to overall levels of renewable energy deployment.
The market for renewable energy technologies has continued to grow. Climate change concerns and increasing in green jobs, coupled with high oil prices, peak oil, oil wars, oil spills, promotion of electric vehicles and renewable electricity, nuclear disasters and increasing government support, are driving increasing renewable energy legislation, incentives and commercialization. New government spending, regulation and policies helped the industry weather the 2009 economic crisis better than many other sectors.
While renewables have been very successful in their ever - growing contribution to electrical power there are no countries dominated by fossil fuels who have a plan to stop and get that power from renwables. Only Scotland and Ontario have stopped burning coal, largely due to good natural gas supplies. In the area of transportation, fossil fuels are even more entrenched and solutions harder to find. It 's unclear if there are failures with policy or renewable energy, but twenty years after the Kyoto Protocol fossil fuels are still our primary energy source and consumption continues to grow.
The ability of biomass and biofuels to contribute to a reduction in CO emissions is limited because both biomass and biofuels emit large amounts of air pollution when burned and in some cases compete with food supply. Furthermore, biomass and biofuels consume large amounts of water. Other renewable sources such as wind power, photovoltaics, and hydroelectricity have the advantage of being able to conserve water, lower pollution and reduce CO emissions.
Burbo, NW - England
Sunrise at the Fenton Wind Farm in Minnesota, USA
The CSP - station Andasol in Andalusia, Spain
Ivanpah solar plant in the Mojave Desert, California, United States
Three Gorges Dam and Gezhouba Dam, China
Shop selling PV panels in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso
Stump harvesting increases recovery of biomass from forests
A small, roof - top mounted PV system in Bonn, Germany
The community - owned Westmill Solar Park in South East England
Komekurayama photovoltaic power station in Kofu, Japan
Krafla, a geothermal power station in Iceland
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most steals in nba game by one player | List of National Basketball Association single - game steals leaders - wikipedia
This is a complete listing of National Basketball Association players who have recorded nine or more steals in a game.
51 different players have recorded nine or more steals in a game. It has occurred 72 times in total in NBA history.
Allen Iverson is the only player to record nine or more steals in a playoff game.
The NBA did not record steals until the 1973 -- 74 season.
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where does the phrase without a shadow of a doubt come from | Reasonable doubt - wikipedia
Reasonable doubt is a term used in jurisdiction of common law countries. Evidence that is beyond reasonable doubt is the standard of evidence required to validate a criminal conviction in most adversarial legal systems.
Generally, prosecutors bear the burden of proof and are required to prove their version of events to this standard. This means that the proposition being presented by the prosecution must be proven to the extent that there could be no "reasonable doubt '' in the mind of a "reasonable person '' that the defendant is guilty. There can still be a doubt, but only to the extent that it would not affect a reasonable person 's belief regarding whether or not the defendant is guilty. Beyond "the shadow of a doubt '' is sometimes used interchangeably with beyond reasonable doubt, but this extends beyond the latter, to the extent that it may be considered an impossible standard. The term "reasonable doubt '' is therefore used.
If doubt does affect a "reasonable person 's '' belief that the defendant is guilty, the jury is not satisfied beyond "reasonable doubt ''. The precise meaning of words such as "reasonable '' and "doubt '' are usually defined within jurisprudence of the applicable country. A related idea is Blackstone 's formulation "It is better that ten guilty persons escape than that one innocent suffer ''.
Beyond a reasonable doubt is the highest burden of proof in any court in the United States. Criminal cases must be proven beyond a reasonable doubt.
In English common law prior to the "reasonable doubt '' standard, passing judgment in criminal trials had severe religious repercussions for jurors. According to judicial law prior to the 1780s: "the Juryman who finds any other person guilty, is liable to the Vengeance of God upon his Family and Trade, Body and Soul, in this world and that to come. '' It was also believed "In every case of doubt, where one 's salvation is in peril, one must always take the safer way... A judge who is in doubt must refuse to judge. '' It was in reaction to these "religious fears '' that "reasonable doubt '' was introduced in the late 18th century to English common law, thereby allowing jurors to more easily convict. Therefore, the original use of the "reasonable doubt '' standard was opposite to its modern use of limiting a juror 's ability to convict.
However, juries in criminal courts in England are no longer customarily directed to consider whether there is "reasonable doubt '' about a defendant 's guilt. Indeed, a 2008 conviction was appealed after the judge had said to the jury "You must be satisfied of guilt beyond all reasonable doubt. '' The conviction was upheld but the Appeal Court made clear their unhappiness with the judge 's remark, indicating that the judge should instead have said to the jury simply that before they can return a verdict of guilty, they "must be sure that the defendant is guilty ''.
The principle of ' beyond reasonable doubt ' was expounded in Woolmington v DPP (1935) UKHL 1:
Juries are always told that, if conviction there is to be, the prosecution must prove the case beyond reasonable doubt. This statement can not mean that in order to be acquitted the prisoner must "satisfy '' the jury. This is the law as laid down in the Court of Criminal Appeal in Rex v. Davies 29 Times LR 350; 8 Cr App R 211, the headnote of which correctly states that where intent is an ingredient of a crime there is no onus on the defendant to prove that the act alleged was accidental. Throughout the web of the English Criminal Law one golden thread is always to be seen, that it is the duty of the prosecution to prove the prisoner 's guilt subject to what I have already said as to the defence of insanity and subject also to any statutory exception. If, at the end of and on the whole of the case, there is a reasonable doubt, created by the evidence given by either the prosecution or the prisoner, as to whether the prisoner killed the deceased with a malicious intention, the prosecution has not made out the case and the prisoner is entitled to an acquittal. No matter what the charge or where the trial, the principle that the prosecution must prove the guilt of the prisoner is part of the common law of England and no attempt to whittle it down can be entertained.
In Canada, the expression "beyond a reasonable doubt '' requires clarification for the benefit of the jury. The leading decision is R. v. Lifchus, where the Supreme Court discussed the proper elements of a charge to the jury on the concept of "reasonable doubt '' and noted that "(t) he correct explanation of the requisite burden of proof is essential to ensure a fair criminal trial. '' While the Court did not prescribe any specific wording that a trial judge must use to explain the concept, it recommended certain elements that should be included in a jury charge, as well as pointing out comments that should be avoided.
The Supreme Court suggested that the concept of proof beyond a reasonable doubt should be explained to juries as follows:
The Court also warned trial judges that they should avoid explaining the concept in the following ways:
The Supreme Court of Canada has since emphasized in R. v. Starr that an effective way to explain the concept is to tell the jury that proof beyond a reasonable doubt "falls much closer to absolute certainty than to proof on a balance of probabilities. '' It is not enough to believe that the accused is probably guilty, or likely guilty. Proof of probable guilt, or likely guilt, is not proof beyond a reasonable doubt.
In New Zealand, jurors are typically told throughout a trial that the offence must be proved "beyond reasonable doubt '', and judges usually include this in the summing - up. There is no absolute prescription as to how judges should explain reasonable doubt to juries. Judges usually tell jurors that they will be satisfied beyond reasonable doubt if they "feel sure '' or "are sure '' that the defendant is guilty. In line with appellate court direction, judges do little to elaborate on this or to explain what it means.
Research published in 1999 found that many jurors were uncertain what "beyond reasonable doubt '' meant. "They generally thought in terms of percentages, and debated and disagreed with each other about the percentage certainty required for ' beyond reasonable doubt ', variously interpreting it as 100 per cent, 95 per cent, 75 per cent and even 50 per cent. Occasionally this produced profound misunderstandings about the standard of proof. ''
In R v Wanhalla, President Young of the Court of Appeal set out a model jury direction on the standard of proof required for a criminal conviction.
In the United States, juries must be instructed to apply the reasonable doubt standard when determining the guilt or innocence of a criminal defendant, but there is much disagreement as to whether the jury should be given a definition of "reasonable doubt. '' In Victor v. Nebraska (1994), the U.S. Supreme Court expressed disapproval of the unclear reasonable doubt instructions at issue, but stopped short of setting forth an exemplary jury instruction.
The U.S. Supreme Court first discusses the term in Miles v. United States (1880): "The evidence upon which a jury is justified in returning a verdict of guilty must be sufficient to produce a conviction of guilt, to the exclusion of all reasonable doubt. '' In re Winship (1970) establishes that the doctrine also applies to juvenile criminal proceedings, and indeed to all the essential facts necessary to prove the crime: "(W) e explicitly hold that the Due Process Clause protects the accused against conviction except upon proof beyond a reasonable doubt of every fact necessary to constitute the crime with which he is charged. ''
Since 1945, Japan has also operated by a "reasonable doubt '' standard, including the doctrine of in dubio pro reo, which was instituted by the Supreme Court during a controversial murder trial in 1975 (the Shiratori case brought before the Supreme Court of Japan, see for example notes on Shigemitsu Dandō). However, this is not considered an essential standard in Japan and lower level judges sometimes disregard it.
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summary of riders to the sea by john millington synge | Riders to the Sea - wikipedia
Riders to the Sea is a play written by Irish Literary Renaissance playwright John Millington Synge. It was first performed on 25 February 1904 at the Molesworth Hall, Dublin, by the Irish National Theater Society. A one - act tragedy, the play is set in the Aran Islands, Inishmaan, and like all of Synge 's plays it is noted for capturing the poetic dialogue of rural Ireland. The plot is based not on the traditional conflict of human wills but on the hopeless struggle of a people against the impersonal but relentless cruelty of the sea.
In 1897, J.M. Synge was encouraged by his friend and colleague William Butler Yeats to visit the Aran Islands. He went on to spend the summers from 1898 to 1903 there. While on the Aran island of Inishmaan, Synge heard the story of a man from Inishmaan whose body washed up on the shore of an island of County Donegal, which inspired Riders to the Sea.
Riders to the Sea is written in the Hiberno - English dialect of the Aran Islands. Synge 's use of the native Irish language is part of the Irish Literary Revival, a period when Irish literature looked to encourage pride and nationalism in Ireland.
Maurya has lost her husband, and five of her sons to the sea. As the play begins Nora and Cathleen receive word from the priest that a body, that may be their brother Michael, has washed up on shore in Donegal, on the Irish mainland north of their home island of Inishmaan. Bartley is planning to sail to Connemara to sell a horse, and ignores Maurya 's pleas to stay. He leaves gracefully. Maurya predicts that by nightfall she will have no living sons, and her daughters chide her for sending Bartley off with an ill word. Maurya goes after Bartley to bless his voyage, and Nora and Cathleen receive clothing from the drowned corpse that confirms it is Michael. Maurya returns home claiming to have seen the ghost of Michael riding behind Bartley and begins lamenting the loss of the men in her family to the sea, after which some villagers bring in the corpse of Bartley, who has fallen off his horse into the sea and drowned.
This speech of Maurya 's is famous in Irish drama:
(raising her head and speaking as if she did not see the people around her) They 're all gone now, and there is n't anything more the sea can do to me... I 'll have no call now to be up crying and praying when the wind breaks from the south, and you can hear the surf is in the east, and the surf is in the west, making a great stir with the two noises, and they hitting one on the other. I 'll have no call now to be going down and getting Holy Water in the dark nights after Samhain, and I wo n't care what way the sea is when the other women will be keening. (To Nora) Give me the Holy Water, Nora; there 's a small sup still on the dresser.
The pervading theme of this work is the subtle paganism Synge observed in the people of rural Ireland. Following his dismissal of Christianity, Synge found that the predominantly Roman Catholic Ireland still retained many of the folktales and superstitions born out of the old Celtic paganism. This play is an examination of that idea as he has a set of deeply religious characters find themselves at odds with an unbeatable force of nature (this being the sea). While the family is clearly Catholic, they still find themselves wary of the supernatural characteristics of natural elements, an idea very present in Celtic paganism.
At least two motion picture versions of the play have been made:
The composer Ralph Vaughan Williams (1872 -- 1958) made an almost verbatim setting of the play as an opera, using the same title (1927).
Bruce Montgomery (1927 -- 2008) wrote a light opera, Spindrift (1963), that was based on Riders to the Sea.
German composer Eduard Pütz (1911 -- 2000) also set the play as an opera, using the same title (1972).
American composer Marga Richter (born 1926) also set the play as a one - act opera, using the same title (1996).
Mary Anthony 's piece titled Threnody
Señora Carrar 's Rifles is a one - act play adaptation.
The play has been translated in French by Georgette Sable and it has been published by Anthropomare
Other translations include: À cheval vers la mer (Riders to the Sea, 1903; 1904) translated by Maurice Bourgeois, Cavaliers à la mer, translated by Fouad El - Etr, and Cavaliers vers la mer (combined with L'Ombre de la vallée), translated by Françoise Morvan.
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who plays myrcella in game of thrones season 5 | List of Game of Thrones characters - wikipedia
The characters from the American medieval fantasy television series Game of Thrones are based on their respective counterparts from author George R.R. Martin 's A Song of Ice and Fire series of novels. Set in a fictional universe that has been referred to so far as "The Known World, '' the series follows a civil war for the Iron Throne of the continent of Westeros, fought between the rival royal and noble families and their respective supporters.
The following cast members have been credited as main cast in the opening credits:
In seasons 6 and 7, Sebastian Croft portrays Ned Stark as a child and Robert Aramayo portrays him as a young man. In season 5, Nell Williams portrays Cersei Lannister in a flashback scene. In season 3, Daario Naharis is portrayed by Ed Skrein. In season 1, Jaqen H'ghar appears in one scene, portrayed by an uncredited extra. In seasons 1 and 2, Tommen Baratheon is portrayed by Callum Wharry.
Additionally the following cast members have appeared in 10 or more episodes of the show while maintaining a ' recurring ' status:
In season 6, Sam Coleman portrays Hodor as a child (originally named Wylis). In season 1, Gregor Clegane is portrayed by Conan Stevens and by Ian Whyte in season 2. In seasons 1 and 2, Myrcella Baratheon is portrayed by Aimee Richardson. In season 6, Rodrik Cassel is portrayed by Fergus Leathem in flashback scenes. In season 1, Beric Dondarrion is portrayed by David Michael Scott. In season 2, Selyse Florent is portrayed by uncredited extra Sarah MacKeever.
Ned Stark (season 1, 6 - 7) portrayed by Sean Bean in season 1 as an adult, and by Sebastian Croft in season 6 as a child, and Robert Aramayo in season 6 and 7 as a young adult. Eddard "Ned '' Stark of House Stark, Lord of Winterfell and Warden of the North, becomes the Hand of the King after Lord Jon Arryn 's death. He is known for his sense of honor and justice. He took part in Robert 's Rebellion after his sister Lyanna was kidnapped by Crown Prince Rhaegar Targaryen. When Ned 's father and brother went south to reclaim her, the "Mad King '' Aerys Targaryen burned both of them alive. Ned and Robert Baratheon led the rebellion to unseat him from the throne. As the show opens, Ned has been content to remain in the north, but after the death of Lord Jon Arryn, he is convinced that it is his duty to accept the position of Hand of the King. Ned is not interested in politics, and prefers to rule with honor and follow the law. While investigating the reason for the death of Jon Arryn, he discovers that all three of Robert 's children with Queen Cersei were fathered by Cersei 's twin brother Jaime. When Ned confronts Cersei about the truth, she has him imprisoned for treason after he publicly denounces Joffrey. Ned is convinced by Varys that if he goes to his death honorably, as he is prepared to do, his daughters will suffer for it. To protect them, he sacrifices his honor and publicly declares that he was plotting to steal the throne and that Joffrey is the true king. Despite Cersei 's promise that Ned would be allowed to join the Night 's Watch in exile, Joffrey orders Ned 's execution for his own amusement and later torments Sansa by forcing her to look at her father 's head. His bones are later returned to Catelyn in the Stormlands by Petyr Baelish, who laments Ned 's downfall and that he was too honorable to seize power through force, rather insisting the throne pass to Lord Stannis Baratheron, Robert 's younger brother. Baelish 's preferred course of action, revealed only to Ned, had been to seize Cersei and her children first and rule in Joffrey 's name as Regent and Lord Protector. Ned 's execution, however, is not in vain, since he notifies Stannis of the truth of Joffrey 's parentage, and Stannis informs all of Westeros, which sets into motion the War of Five Kings against House Lannister.
Robert Baratheon (season 1) portrayed by Mark Addy. Robert Baratheon of House Baratheon, formerly a fierce warrior, became King of the Seven Kingdoms after leading a rebellion against Aerys II Targaryen. He was betrothed to Ned Stark 's sister Lyanna and loved her deeply, and she was kidnapped by Rhaegar Targaryen. Her father and another brother were killed when they went to King 's Landing to reclaim her, which resulted in Robert and Ned Stark 's revolt known as Robert 's Rebellion, whereupon the Targaryens were all slaughtered or routed from the Kingdoms. Since Robert 's family had closer ties to the former Royal family, this put Robert on the Iron Throne. Now, Robert has grown fat and miserable; he has no more wars to fight, is surrounded by plotters and sycophants, hates and is bored by the constant work needed to manage the Kingdoms properly, and trapped in a political marriage to the scheming Cersei Lannister, whom he has never loved. He is unaware that none of his three children are his, but instead Jaime Lannister 's. Under his reign, the realm has been bankrupted, and Robert is deeply in debt to his wife 's family. Killed while hunting, he unknowingly leaves no rightful heir behind. His bastards are ordered dead by Joffrey, many of which are killed, and Gendry is subsequently forced to flee the capital.
Jaime Lannister (season 1 -- present) portrayed by Nikolaj Coster - Waldau. Ser Jaime Lannister of House Lannister is a member of the Kingsguard and an exceptionally skilled swordsman. He is the Queen 's twin brother and has carried on an incestuous love affair with her all his life, fathering all three of her living children. He truly does love his sister and will do anything, no matter how rash, to stay close to her. He is nicknamed "Kingslayer '' for killing the previous King, Aerys II, whom he was sworn to protect. He was allowed to keep his post in the current Kingsguard as he and his influential father helped Robert win the war, but no one feels he deserves this post, which frustrates Jaime. Despite Eddard Stark 's animosity against him for forsaking his oath to protect the King during Robert 's Rebellion, Jaime has great respect for Eddard, whom he considers a great warrior and his equal. Unlike his father and sister, Jaime cares deeply about his younger brother Tyrion. In Season 2, Catelyn releases and sends Jaime to King 's Landing under Brienne of Tarth 's watch in exchange for a pledge to send her daughters home. On the journey, they are captured by the violent Locke, a man - at - arms under Roose Bolton, a Northern Lord. On their way to Harrenhal, now held by Bolton, the lowborn Locke cuts off Jaime 's sword hand to taunt his position and privilege. Jaime survives and is allowed to depart Harrenhal on condition that he acquits Bolton from any guilt. During his time in Harrenhal, Jaime reveals to Brienne on why he killed King Aerys II. Once freed, Jaime travels to King 's Landing with Brienne and disgraced Maester Qyburn, given by Bolton to tend to his injury, in tow. At the end of Season 3, they arrive at the gates and Jaime reunites with Cersei. In season 4, Jaime is fitted with a golden prosthetic hand and given a new sword, and is trained by Bronn in fencing with his left hand. Jaime is one of the few people in King 's Landing who believe in Tyrion 's innocence in killing Joffrey, and does his best to comfort his younger brother, while outright refusing Cersei 's order to kill Tyrion before his trial. When Tyrion is sentenced to death, Jaime frees Tyrion from captivity and arranges for him to be smuggled to Essos with Varys 's help. Jaime tells Cersei that he will travel to Dorne and bring Myrcella back. Myrcella says that she likes it in Dorne and does n't want to go back to King 's Landing. However, she eventually leaves with her uncle and Trystane, after Doran bargains to have his son take his seat on the Small Council. On the journey home, Jaime reveals his incestuous relationship to Cersei to their daughter, who then reveals she knows and is glad that Jaime is her father and hugs him, but moments later Myrcella collapses from poison and dies. In season 6, Jaime returns to King 's Landing with Myrcella 's body and sends Doran a letter requesting the heads of Ellaria, Obara, Nymeria and Tyene, but later hears that both Doran and Trystane were killed by the Sands. In response to Cersei 's humiliation by the Faith Militant, Jaime ponders murdering the High Sparrow and marching on the Great Sept of Baelor with the army of House Tyrell to forcibly rescue Margaery from custody. He is foiled, however, when Tommen declares an allegiance between the Faith and the Crown, and dismisses Jaime from the Kingsguard, clearly on the High Sparrow 's orders. Jaime is later sent to the Riverlands with Bronn to oversee the surrender of Riverrun. He parleys with Brynden "The Blackfish '' Tully, to no avail, and then falsely threatens Edmure Tully with the murder of his baby son if he does not get his men to surrender the castle. The castle eventually falls to the Lannisters and Freys. Jaime briefly crosses paths with Brienne and Podrick, but allows them to leave peacefully. He returns to King 's Landing shortly after the Great Sept 's destruction, and enters the Red Keep to see Cersei being crowned Queen. In Season 7 he commands the Lannister army, capturing Highgarden but suffering defeat when ambushed by Daenerys ' Dothraki forces and dragons. He clashes with Cersei over the threat from the Army of the Dead, and when she breaks her word over sending military support he leaves her and rides north alone.
Catelyn Stark (season 1 -- 3) portrayed by Michelle Fairley. Catelyn Stark of House Stark and House Tully (née Tully), Lady of Winterfell, is the wife of Lord Eddard Stark. Born to the Lord and Lady of the Riverlands, she is the elder sister of Lysa Arryn, Lady of the Vale and Mistress of the Eyrie, and Lord Edmure Tully, Lord of Riverrun. After deducing that the Lannisters are responsible for the attempt on Bran Stark 's life, she travels to King 's Landing to warn Ned, and on her return trip has a chance encounter with Tyrion Lannister. Since Catelyn does not know about Tyrion 's complete innocence, she decides to take him captive because she believes that he is behind the attempt on her son 's life. She takes him to her sister, Lysa Arryn, so that he can be brought to justice but is not successful, as Tyrion is found innocent after a trial by combat. After her husband is arrested and her eldest son Robb goes to war for his release, she joins her son 's war council. Upon learning that her husband was executed by orders of King Joffrey, she vows to her son Robb that the Lannister family will pay with their lives. Throughout Season 2, she aids her son Robb in the rebellion by advising him and attempting to broker alliances. While trying to form an alliance with Renly Baratheon, another claimant to the Iron Throne, she takes Brienne of Tarth into her service as an armswoman after Renly 's assassination. She frees Jaime Lannister, a valuable hostage to the Starks, in an attempt to exchange him for her captive daughters. Robb, feeling betrayed by what his mother has done, puts her under house arrest. Catelyn travels north with her son to her father 's funeral at her childhood home of Riverrun. She is killed in the Red Wedding Massacre after her desperate (and futile) pleas to the Freys to spare her son, threatening to slit Lady Frey 's throat if Robb dies. She keeps her promise, and is herself killed moments later when "Black '' Walder Frey cuts her throat to the bone. In Season 4, it is stated that her body was stripped naked and thrown into the river after the massacre as a mockery of House Tully 's funeral traditions. Though House Stark is stripped of all lands and titles by House Lannister as a result of Robb 's death and his ultimately failed rebellion against the Iron Throne, Catelyn and her son are later avenged in Season 6 and the first episode of Season 7 when her eldest daughter Sansa Stark and Sansa 's half brother Jon Snow successfully overthrow House Bolton and retake Winterfell and Jon is crowned the King in the North by the remaining Northern lords, wildlings, and Knights of the Vale, restoring Stark rule in the North in the process, while her youngest daughter Arya Stark returns to Westeros, murders Walder Frey, and later uses his face to disguise herself as him to poison all his sons and male descendants at the Twins, ultimately avenging the Red Wedding and exterminating House Frey.
Cersei Lannister (season 1 -- present) portrayed by Lena Headey. Cersei Lannister of House Lannister and House Baratheon, Queen of the Seven Kingdoms of Westeros, is the wife of King Robert Baratheon. Her father arranged the marriage when she was a teenager, initiating himself as a political counselor for King Robert. The Lannisters are the richest family in Westeros, which is why Robert was interested in a marriage between them. Cersei has a twin brother, Jaime, with whom she has been involved in an incestuous affair from early childhood. All three of Cersei 's children are Jaime 's. Cersei 's main character attribute is her desire for power and her deep loyalty to her father, children, and brother Jaime. Cersei learns that her husband Robert is in danger of finding out that the children he sees as his heirs to the throne are not his. Robert meets his end as the result of a boar attack on a hunting trip, before Ned Stark tells him of the truth about his children. Cersei works quickly to instate her oldest son, Joffrey, on the throne, with her as his chief political advisor and Queen Regent. Joffrey quits listening to his mother, and by the beginning of the second season her father decides Cersei does not exercise enough control over her son, and her father sends his youngest son Tyrion as an additional political advisor. Cersei and Tyrion do not get along, and constantly try to undermine each other 's authority over the crown. As of the end of season 2, Tyrion has accumulated more sway over the Iron Throne, and has shipped Cersei 's only daughter off against Cersei 's will to be married to the prince of Dorne. In season 3, she takes pleasure in Tyrion 's diminished position and taunts him for being forced into a marriage pact with Sansa Stark, only to be told by her father that he intends to marry her to Loras Tyrell. At the end of the season, the two siblings ponder at their respective marriages, and Cersei reunites with Jaime in her bedchamber as he unexpectedly returns from captivity. In season 4, she has Tyrion arrested after Joffrey is fatally poisoned. It is implied that she knows Tyrion 's guilt is highly unlikely, but just wants to see him dead, though Jaime refuses to carry out the order. Indeed, at Tyrion 's trial, it is obvious that Cersei has manipulated the entire procedure so that the only witnesses (herself, Lord Varys, Meryn Trant, Grand Maester Pycelle and Shae) give either incomplete or entirely false testimonies to implicate Tyrion and Sansa further in the murder. When Tyrion demands a trial by combat, Cersei quickly chooses Ser Gregor "The Mountain '' Clegane as her champion to diminish Tyrion 's chances of acquittal, and has Bronn betrothed to a noblewoman so that Tyrion can not choose him as his champion. Cersei 's wish comes true when Tyrion 's champion, Oberyn Martell, is killed by Clegane, but she still refuses to marry Loras, even threatening her father with revealing the truth about her relationship with Jaime and the parentage of her children. Tywin rebuffs her threats, though he himself is killed by an escaping Tyrion soon afterwards. Cersei attends Tywin 's funeral and later orders a bounty on Tyrion 's head. Cersei and Jaime receive a message from Dorne: a small viper statue with a necklace in its fangs. Cersei tells Jaime that the necklace belongs to their daughter, Myrcella, who was sent to Dorne by Tyrion. Jaime tells Cersei that he will travel to Dorne and bring Myrcella back. Cersei meets with two hunters who have brought her a severed head, though she is disappointed to find that it is not Tyrion 's head. Qyburn lays claim to the head for his research and the two walk to a small council meeting. With the office of Hand of the King vacant, Cersei tells the council that she will stand in temporarily until Tommen chooses a new Hand. She appoints Mace Tyrell as the new Master of Coin and Qyburn as the new Master of Whisperers. When Cersei tries to appoint her uncle Kevan as the Master of War, he declines, telling her that as the queen mother she holds no power, and has no interest in serving in a council filled with her sycophants. In defiance of Cersei 's "orders '', Kevan states that he will return to Casterly Rock until he hears direct word from Tommen that he is required. Tommen soon weds Margaery Tyrell. Under Margaery 's influence, Tommen drops hints that he would like Cersei to return to Casterly Rock, but she refuses, and confronts Margaery, who insults her. Cersei catches the High Septon being punished for entering a brothel by her cousin Lancel, who has become a member of the Faith Militant, an extremist group that worships the Seven. Cersei talks to their leader, the High Sparrow, and instates him as the new High Septon. The Faith Militant then aggressively puncture all barrels of wine and trash Petyr Baelish 's brothel. They also arrest Margaery 's brother Loras on the grounds of his homosexuality. Tommen, at Margaery 's insistence, tries to get Cersei to release Loras, but Cersei swears she had nothing to do with it. After a trial, Loras is arrested after a prostitute named Olyvar testifies against Loras. Margaery is also arrested for lying about Loras ' sexual orientation, and both are put in dungeons. All of this delights Cersei, who goes to see Margaery in her cell and brings her a bowl of venison stew. Cersei has one final talk with the High Sparrow about the accomplishments of the pair, but he soon reveals that Lancel has confessed everything (in Season 1, Cersei had sex with him in Jaime 's absence). Cersei is subsequently arrested for adultery, incest, and murder (it was her plan to get Robert drunk so that he would injure himself while hunting). She is only visited in her cell by Qyburn, who tells her that Grand Maester Pycelle has seized power of the throne, and that Kevan is serving as hand of the king. Cersei is distraught to learn that Tommen, anguished over his wife 's and mother 's arrests, has not been eating. Cersei is also visited by a septa, who orders her to confess to her sins. Cersei refuses, and she is hit by the septa. Weakened, Cersei is forced to lick the water off the floors of the cell. She eventually agrees to reveal herself to the High Septon, confessing her incestuous relationship to Lancel Lannister but refusing to admit more serious offences, which would be harder for the Faith to prove. The High Sparrow allows her to leave captivity in favor of house arrest in the Red Keep, pending the trial, but only if she agrees to do "atonement '' for her sins by being shaved and walking naked through the streets of King 's Landing. Cersei endures the walk with great resolve, bleeding and covered in filth as she eventually reaches the Keep, where she reunites with her uncle Kevan, now Hand of the King, and Qyburn, who introduces her to the newest member of the Kingsguard, a freakishly large, silent giant implied to be the reanimated corpse of Gregor Clegane. In season 6, Cersei remains under house arrest and is not allowed to attend the funeral of Myrcella, who was ultimately killed by Ellaria Sand. Though her initial plan is to demand a trial by combat and name Gregor as her champion, she is foiled when Tommen falls under the control of the High Sparrow and abolishes the practice, stripping Cersei of her trump card. In desperation, Cersei has Qyburn look into an "old rumour '', which turns out to be the Mad King 's wildfire caches. On the day of her and Loras 's trial, Cersei destroys the Great Sept of Baelor with the wildfire and kills hundreds of people, including Margaery, Loras, Mace Tyrell, Kevan, Lancel, the High Sparrow and the entire Faith Militant, and also has Grand Maester Pycelle killed in his chambers. With her enemies out of the way, Cersei crowns herself Queen and names Qyburn as her Hand. In Season 7 Cersei consolidates her position through alliances with the Tarlys and with Euron Greyjoy, who help her to capture Highgarden, destroy much of Daenerys ' fleet and take revenge on Ellaria Sand and the Sand Snakes. She tells Jamie she is pregnant and it pleases him when she says that she will name him as the father. Cersei agrees to Tyrion 's request for a parley with the Targaryen party, and is visibly shocked by the wight that has been brought south. She agrees to send a military force north to help the fight against the Army of the Dead, but reveals to Jamie that she has no intention of keeping her word. Jamie argues, and although Cersei threatens to have him killed she takes no action against him as he leaves her to go north.
Daenerys Targaryen (season 1 -- present) portrayed by Emilia Clarke. Daenerys Targaryen is the exiled princess of the Targaryen dynasty. Also called "the Stormborn '', she and her brother Viserys were smuggled to Essos during the end of Robert 's Rebellion. For seventeen years, she has been under the care of Viserys, whom she fears, as he is abusive to her whenever she displeases him. In exchange for an army, Viserys marries her to the powerful Dothraki warlord Khal Drogo, making her a Khaleesi, a queen of the Dothraki. Daenerys is at first afraid of her new husband but after learning the Dothraki language, she manages to get past their barriers. She begins to understand him and genuinely falls in love with him after learning Drogo is an intelligent leader and a kind man. After embracing the Dothraki culture, she becomes stronger and rebels against her brother. She later becomes pregnant with Drogo 's son who is prophesied by the Dothraki to be the "Stallion Who Mounts the World ''. After her brother 's death and an assassination attempt by Robert Baratheon, Drogo vows to Daenerys that he will conquer the Seven Kingdoms for her and their unborn son. However, during their journey Drogo suffers from blood poisoning due to an infected wound incurred during a fight with a Dothraki tribesman. Daenerys is forced to seek the help of healer Mirri Maz Duur to save his life using blood magic. Mirri tricks Daenerys by using her unborn son 's life as a sacrifice to heal Drogo, leaving him in a permanent catatonic state, and forcing Daenerys to end her husband 's life. Losing both her husband and son, Daenerys punishes Mirri by having her burnt at the stake. She also lays the three dragon eggs she received as a wedding gift onto Khal Drogo 's body, then steps into the burning funeral pyre. After the fire extinguishes itself, the Khaleesi and three baby dragons, named Drogon, Rhaegal, and Viserion, are found alive and unharmed. Daenerys takes the baby dragons and the remaining tribe to gather new allies and reclaim the Iron Throne. She becomes the first female Dothraki leader. In Season 2, she is lost in the Red Waste, a stretch of barren land. She and her khalasar eventually make it to Qarth, where the nobles are more interested in her dragons than her conquering Westeros. When her dragons are stolen by Pyat Pree, she goes into the House of the Undying and retrieves them, killing Pyat Pree. In the second season 's finale, she imprisons her host Xaro Xoan Daxos for having helped Pyat Pree. Her horde loot Xaro 's mansion to buy a ship. Daenerys travels from Qarth to Astapor, a city in Slaver 's Bay, where she negotiates the purchase of elite eunuch soldiers called the Unsullied. She also meets the famed knight Ser Barristan Selmy, and accepts him into her queensguard. On her departure from the city, she frees the slaves and has Drogon torch its elders. By the end of Season 3, although her power has not yet been tested, she has acquired the loyalty of tens of thousands of freed slaves from Astapor and Yunkai, her remaining Dothraki brethren (and two former Westerosi soldiers whom she encountered through the Dothraki, who advise her) 2,000 ' Second Sons ' cavalrymen, 8,000 ' Unsullied ' elite infantry, and three rapidly growing dragons. The stay in Slaver 's Bay has made her question her motives, however, and she takes up the cause of ending slavery as well, donning the honorific "Breaker of Chains '' as the slaves hold her to the sky, praising her as their Mhysa, or "Mother ''. Daenerys later frees the slaves from Meereen, the last of the slave cities in Slaver 's Bay, but realizes that she is slowly losing control of her dragons, especially when Drogon shows signs of aggression towards her when she tries to break up a fight between them over food. Aware that she does not have enough men to conquer Westeros just yet, Daenerys resolves to remain in Slaver 's Bay and rule as Queen for the time being. She eventually learns of Jorah 's original purpose, which was to spy on her for Robert Baratheon, and orders him to leave Meereen on threat of execution. After she receives too many complaints about her dragons, Daenerys, locks Rhaegal and Viserion of them in the catacombs beneath Meereen before searching for Drogon. Meanwhile, Daenerys faces a new threat to her rule in the form of the Sons of the Harpy, a resistance movement against her and the Unsullied. She considers freeing her dragons, but they attempt to attack her, making her realize that they are no longer loyal to her. After Daario and Grey Worm arrest a member of the Sons of the Harpy, Mossador implores Daenerys to execute their captive, but Barristan tells her of the Mad King 's actions against his enemies, which included burning them with wildfire while laughing. He asks her not to execute the captive without a fair trial, and she agrees with him. Mossador goes against her wishes, and kills the captive Son of the Harpy. Daenerys has him publicly executed, which leads a riot to break out between the old masters and the freed slaves. At night, Daenerys finds that Drogon has returned, but when she tries to touch his face, he flies away. Soon afterward, a group of Unsullied patrolling the streets of Meereen are stopped by a crying woman who points them to an alleyway. The Unsullied head in to investigate, but it is revealed that the entire affair was a set up after they are soon cornered by a group of the Sons of the Harpy. The Unsullied attempt to fight back, but the Sons of the Harpy kill many of them. Barristan Selmy sees the commotion and tries to help, killing many of the Sons of the Harpy, but gets badly wounded, and dies. Grey Worm also sustains serious but nonfatal injuries. Daenerys is furious after learning what has happened to Barristan, and rounds up the leaders of the great Meereenese houses. She takes them into the catacombs where she randomly has one of them shoved forward. The Meereenese lord is promptly killed by dragonfire from Rhaegal, and he and Viserion eat him. Daenerys then has all the lords arrested, including her former adviser Hizdahr zo Loraq, whom she decides to marry to win over the Meereenese nobles. To respect the culture of the region, she agrees to have the fighting pits reinstated (she had previously declined due to her distaste for killing for sport). Hizdahr convinces Daenerys to go to one of the pits to see the contestants battling over who will go to the final competition. Daenerys is sickened by the bloodshed, and gets up to leave, but her attention is turned by one masked competitor who defeats all of the other competitors without killing any of them. This competitor turns out to be Jorah Mormont, who is trying to win over Daenerys ' favor after being banished. Daenerys orders the Unsullied to take him away, but Jorah announces that he has brought her a gift, and Tyrion Lannister reveals himself to Daenerys. After a round of questioning, Daenerys banishes Jorah once again, but takes Tyrion on as her adviser. On the great opening of Daznak 's Pit, Jorah resurfaces as a voluntary contender on the arena, but Daenerys refuses to stop the games to spare his life. Jorah eventually prevails and saves her life by impaling with his spear an attacker from the Sons of the Harpy, who appear in legions and attack Daenerys ' guards. Cornered at the midst of the arena, defeat seems immediate when Drogon returns, killing many Sons of the Harpy despite being wounded by several of their spears. Daenerys manages to rekindle their bond and climbs his back, riding off into the distance to a stunned crowd. She roams the Great Steppe north of the city, where Drogon seems reluctant to obey her commands or even hunt for food. Strolling about on her own, Daenerys is faced with an incoming Dothraki khalasar of great numbers, and after dropping a ring to the ground to leave a trail, she is surrounded. In season 6, the Dothraki take her to Vaes Dothrak, where she identifies herself to Khal Moro as Drogo 's former wife. Out of respect for Dothraki traditions, they take Daenerys to join the Dosh Khaleen, which consisted of the wives of deceased khals. Daenerys refuses and instead burns the temple down with herself and all the khals still inside. She emerges unscathed, and the awed Dothraki accept her as their new leader. She returns to Meereen with her new army and destroys the slaver fleet assaulting the city with her dragons. In the aftermath, Daenerys meets with Theon and Yara Greyjoy, who offer their support for her claim so that they can overthrow their uncle Euron. Daenerys accepts their aid and secures help from the Reach and Dorne, names Tyrion as her hand, but breaks up with Daario, ordering him to stay behind and govern Slaver 's Bay in her absence. With her new army, Daenerys finally sets sail for Westeros. In Season 7 Daenerys finally uses her dragons in battle, annihilating a Lannister force and their baggage train with fire. Daenerys welcomes Jon Snow to Dragonstone, seeing him as a friend and ally, insisting that he bend the knee to her but exhibiting patience with his refusal. She believes his tales of white walkers and agrees to let him mine dragonglass (obsidian) from her land. When Jon 's expedition north of the Wall gets into trouble Daenerys takes her dragons to rescue them, and is devastated when the Night King kills one. On the ship back to Dragonstone she and Jon make love.
Jorah Mormont (season 1 -- present) portrayed by Iain Glen. Ser Jorah Mormont of House Mormont is an exiled knight in the service of Daenerys Targaryen and the son of Jeor Mormont of the Night 's Watch. To fund his wife 's extravagant lifestyle, he sold poachers on his land to slave traders, which is illegal in the Seven Kingdoms. Rather than face punishment by Lord Stark, he fled to Essos and learned the lifestyle of the Dothraki who embrace him as one of their own and know him as "Jorah The Andal ''. Jorah serves as an adviser to the Targaryens on both political and cultural matters of both the Seven Kingdoms and Essos. Jorah is actually spying on the Targaryens for Lord Varys in exchange for a pardon on his crimes. But after learning more about Daenerys, Jorah falls in love with her and decides to protect and help her regain the Iron Throne. After she is widowed, he remains with her and becomes the first knight of her Queensguard. He serves Daenerys as an adviser throughout Season 2 and tries to help her claim her birthright as queen of the Seven Kingdoms. In Season 3, he plays an important part in the capture of Yunkai, together with Unsullied commander Grey Worm and Daario Naharis, Lieutenant and leader of the Second Sons. Led by Daario, the trio infiltrates the city and kills a number of Yunkish guards to open a gate, ensuring the capture of Yunkai. Jorah later assists Daenerys and her army in conquering Meereen, and later informs her of Joffrey 's death, but at the same time dissuades her from invading King 's Landing, since she is not strong enough to take all of Westeros yet. When Daenerys appears to begin a romantic relationship with Daario, Jorah voices his disapproval. Daenerys eventually discovers that Jorah 's original mission was to spy on her for the "usurper '' Robert Baratheon, which led to her and her unborn son almost being killed by the wine merchant in Vaes Dothrak, and exiles him from Meereen on the threat of death. Jorah subsequently departs alone. He runs into Tyrion Lannister in Volantis, kidnapping him to deliver to "the Queen '', meaning Daenerys. Sailing through the ruins of Valyria, the couple are assaulted by stone men long decayed by greyscale, and Jorah is seemingly infected by the disease as one of the stone men touches his hand. He drags Tyrion safely to land, where the couple are captured by pirates. Tyrion convinces them to take them to Meereen to be sold as slaves in the fighting pits, where they are bought by master Yezzan zo Qaggaz, and successfully escape during a tourney. Upon seeing Jorah again, Daenerys orders him taken away. Tyrion manages to convince her of his worth and urges her to take him as her adviser, upon which he advises her, correctly in his opinion, to have Ser Jorah banished for his treason, having concealed the true nature of his service to her although he had several chances of doing so. Jorah is exiled a second time, and returns to Yezzan, wishing to fight in the pits before the Queen to see. He does so, and eventually emerges as the victor; brandishing his spear, he impales an assassin from the Sons of the Harpy about to stab Daenerys, and protects her as she is forced to flee into the pit as more harpies emerge. They are eventually saved by Drogon, who absconds Daenerys on his back, and Jorah resolutely decides to track her into the wild to wherever she has gone, joined by Daario Naharis, while Tyrion stays behind to govern Meereen. They track her to Vaes Dothrak and witness Daenerys kill all the khals and take control of the Dothraki. Daenerys, however, learns of Jorah 's greyscale infection, and orders him to find a cure and then rejoin her cause. At the Citadel in Oldtown, Samwell Tarly defies orders to subject Jorah to a dangerous and painful cure. It is successful and Jorah returns to Daenerys, who revokes his banishment. Jorah goes north of the Wall with Jon Snow to capture a wight. He refuses Jon 's attempt to gift him Longclaw, the Mormonts ' ancestral valerian steel sword, as he had brought dishonour on the Mormont name.
Petyr Baelish (season 1 -- 7) portrayed by Aidan Gillen. Lord Petyr Baelish, nicknamed "Littlefinger, '' is the Master of Coin in King Robert Baratheon 's Small Council. He grew up with Catelyn Tully and fought Ned 's brother Brandon for her hand. Petyr is a master manipulator who knows the ongoing affairs within the Seven Kingdoms thanks to his spies. While Petyr at first is assumed to be an ally of Ned, he secretly resents him for marrying Catelyn and so he betrayed him when he tried to arrest Joffrey and Cersei. Despite that, Petyr aims to take the Iron Throne to punish the powerful nobles who used to look down on him. During season 2, he convinces Catelyn to release Jaime in exchange for her daughters and brokers an alliance between House Lannister and House Tyrell. He then returns to King 's Landing with the Tyrell army in time to rescue the city. For his efforts, he is made Lord of Harrenhal, though the castle is held by Northmen. In Season 3, he discovers Ros is secretly working for Varys and gives her to Joffrey to be killed before departing to the Eyrie, where he is to marry Lysa Arryn to secure her loyalty to the Iron Throne. He will thence be Lord Paramount of both the Vale (as Lysa Arryn 's consort) and the Riverlands (after the downfall of the Tullys at the Red Wedding), though he has yet to see Harrenhal. In Season 4, Littlefinger returns in secret to the area around King 's Landing. He has spent weeks in the Vale, and is confirmed to be getting married to Lysa. Petyr helps Olenna Tyrell orchestrate the assassination of King Joffrey at his wedding to Margaery, something Olenna wanted very badly as it would save her granddaughter from Joffrey 's beastly nature. This serves to strengthen his new alliance with House Tyrell. Petyr also gets Sansa Stark -- Ned and Catelyn 's eldest surviving daughter -- out of King 's Landing by ordering court fool and former knight Dontos Hollard to bring her to him. Under the guise of making payment, Petyr has Dontos killed by his archers to silence him. He also begins acting as a mentor for her, and promises Sansa she is safe with him. When asked what he wants by her, he simply says "everything ''. When they arrive in the Vale, it is revealed that he and Lysa have been having an affair for quite some time, and that it was Lysa who poisoned Jon Arryn on Petyr 's request. Petyr and Lysa marry that same day, and loudly consummate their marriage. However, Petyr later confides to Sansa that the reason he had Joffrey killed was to avenge Catelyn, and goes as far as to kiss her, with Lysa looking on unnoticed. When confronted by Lysa, who in a rage attempted to kill Sansa, Petyr kills Lysa instead, calmly pushing her through the Moon Door -- a hole in the floor looking down hundreds of feet to the rocks below the Eyrie, and the preferred method of execution in the Vale of Arryn, incidentally -- to her death on the rocks below. Sansa stands up for Petyr when he is questioned by other lords and ladies of the Vale on the matter of Lysa 's apparent "suicide, '' and confirms that Lysa did indeed kill herself, however, and he is cleared of all charges. As the new Lord Paramount of the Vale, Petyr then begins talking the lords and ladies into supporting Lysa 's sickly and mentally challenged son, Robin Arryn, though it is implied that his real intention is for Robin to die. In Season 5, Petyr and Sansa depart the Eyrie for a place that Petyr promises Sansa that Cersei will never find her, leaving Robin in the care of Yohn Royce. At an inn Podrick Payne along with Brienne of Tarth sees Petyr and Sansa eating in the back of the inn, guarded by knights. Brienne approaches and pledge her life to Sansa but Petyr accuses her of Renly Baratheon 's murder, Brienne explains that Renly was killed by a shadow with Stannis 's face. Sansa tells Brienne that she does n't want her protection, and asks her to leave. Petyr attempts to have his guards take Brienne into their custody, but she flees with Podrick, stealing a horse and releasing several others. Petyr arranges a marriage between Sansa Stark and Ramsay Bolton so that Sansa can return to Winterfell, though Ramsay brutally rapes Sansa on their wedding night despite Ramsay 's promise to never harm her. After dropping Sansa off at Winterfell, he leaves for King 's Landing, where he provides a prostitute named Olyvar for Cersei to convict Loras Tyrell of his homosexuality. He also promises to march North with the strength of the Vale in his back to depose whatever victor comes out of the struggle between Roose Bolton and Stannis Baratheon, and swears to Cersei to bring her Sansa 's head if he succeeds. In return, Cersei promises to make him Warden of the North in addition to already claimed titles of Lord of Harrenhal and Lord Paramount of the Vale. However, Baelish later betrays Cersei by providing Olenna Tyrell with information about her affair with Lancel Lannister, which Olenna then uses to have Cersei arrested by the High Sparrow. In season 6, after hearing of Sansa 's escape from Winterfell, Baelish rides North to her aid and apologises for having underestimated Ramsay, but Sansa refuses to believe him and sends him away. However, Baelish later receives a call for help from Sansa to aid her and Jon Snow in retaking Winterfell from Ramsay, and he and the Vale Knights arrive in time to smash the Bolton army and secure victory for the Starks. He later approaches Sansa and admits that he desires to sit on the Iron Throne with Sansa as his Queen, but she turns him down. As Jon is declared the new King in the North, Baelish glares sinisterly at Sansa, clearly intending to take action against them. In season 7 he remains at Winterfell, where he continues to mentor Sansa in political intrigue. He sees Arya as a threat and through manipulation and poisoned words he encourages Sansa and Arya to think the worst of each other. He does not see the threat from Bran, who can see all of his past actions. Baelish is startled to be put on trial for treason and murder. Sansa accuses him of murdering Jon and Lysa Arryn and setting family member against family member. Bran tells that the dagger with which he was nearly killed was Baelish 's, and that Baelish put a knife to Ned Stark 's throat. Arya waits for Sansa 's judgement and then slit 's Baelish 's throat.
Viserys Targaryen (season 1) portrayed by Harry Lloyd. Viserys Targaryen is the exiled prince and heir of the Targaryen dynasty. Known as "The Beggar King '' for his search for an army to recapture his throne. A narcissist, he is arrogant and self - centered, caring only about himself and looking down on others especially to his sister Daenerys. In exchange for an army to help regain the Iron Throne, Viserys marries off his sister to the powerful Dothraki warlord Khal Drogo and follows his horde 's journey to the Dothraki capital to ensure Drogo will keep his end of the bargain. But as they journey, it becomes evident that Viserys does not have leadership skills to reclaim the throne as his arrogance and disrespect for the Dothraki does not win him any hearts. Furthermore, Daenerys, who he has always threatened throughout his life, starts to stand up to him. Realizing that Daenerys is loved by the Dothraki and her and Drogo 's unborn son is prophet to unite the world, Viserys realizes that it is not he but Daenerys who will reclaim the Iron Throne. In a fit of drunken rage, he threatens Drogo to give him his army now or he will kill his unborn son. Having enough of his behavior, Drogo kills Viserys by giving him a "Golden Crown ''; molten gold poured over his head. Daenerys listlessly watches her brother 's agonizing death, proclaiming that he was n't a true dragon, as "fire can not kill a dragon ''. Daenerys later names one of her dragons Viserion, as a tribute to Viserys.
Jon Snow (season 1 -- present) portrayed by Kit Harington.
Jon Snow of House Stark and the Night 's Watch is the secret son of Rhaegar Targaryen and Lyanna Stark, though raised as the bastard son of Lyanna 's brother, Ned Stark. In the first season, Jon joins the Night 's Watch. Jon is a talented fighter, but his sense of compassion and justice brings him into conflict with his harsh surroundings. Ned claims that Jon 's mother was a wet nurse named Wylla. His dire wolf is called Ghost due to his albinism and quiet nature. Jon soon learns that the Watch is no longer a glorious order, but is now composed mostly of society 's rejects, including criminals and exiles. Initially, he has only contempt for his low - born brothers of the Watch, but he puts aside his prejudices and befriends his fellow recruits, especially Samwell Tarly, after they unite against the cruel master - at - arms, Ser Alliser Thorne. He chooses to take his vows before the Old Gods of the North, and to his disappointment he is made steward to Lord Commander Jeor Mormont rather than a ranger. He eventually realizes that he is being groomed for command. He saves Mormont 's life by slaying a wight, a corpse resurrected by the White Walkers. In return, he receives Longclaw, the ancestral blade of House Mormont. When Eddard is arrested for treason, Jon is torn between his family and his vows. After Eddard 's execution, he tries to join Robb 's army but is convinced to come back by his friends. Shortly after, he joins the large force Mormont leads beyond the Wall. Jon is part of a small scouting party in Season 2. When the party is overtaken by wildlings, Jon is ordered to appear to defect and join the wildlings so he can discover their plans. On affirming his loyalty to the King - Beyond - the - Wall, Mance Rayder, he travels toward the Wall with the wildlings and is seduced by one, the flame - haired Ygritte. Upon crossing the wall, he refuses to behead a farmer whose escape might alert the Night 's Watch of their coming, and is subsequently branded an enemy of the wildlings. Ygritte shields him from her comrades but ultimately confronts and injures Jon when he stops to drink. He manages to escape back to the wall, injured by three arrows, where he reunites with his comrades and informs the commanders of Mance Rayder 's plans. Jon subsequently resumes his training at the Wall and suggests an expedition to Craster 's Keep in order to kill the Night 's Watch mutineers who may tell Mance of the Wall 's weak defences if caught. Jon 's request is granted and he bands together a group of rangers to aid him, among them the new recruit Locke, who has actually come to kill Jon on Roose Bolton 's orders. Jon successfully attacks Craster 's Keep and kills the mutineers, while Locke is killed by Hodor during an attempt to kill Bran, who was captive at Craster 's Keep. However, Jon 's proposal to barricade the entrance to Castle Black to stop the wildlings from entering is denied. He survives the wildling attack on Castle Black, personally killing Styr and taking Tormund Giantsbane prisoner. In the aftermath, he departs Castle Black to hunt down Mance Rayder, giving his sword to Sam. He quickly locates Mance on the pretence of parleying, but he is found out. Before he is killed, however, Jon is saved by the timely arrival by Stannis Baratheon, who places Mance and his men under arrest, and accompanies Jon back to Castle Black. Jon later burns Ygritte 's body in the woods. In Season 5, Stannis attempts to use Jon as an intermediary between himself and Mance, hoping to rally the wildling army to help him retake the North from Roose Bolton and gain Jon 's support in avenging his family. Jon fails to convince Mance, and when Mance is burned at the stake by Stannis ' red priestess Melisandre, Jon shoots him from afar to give him a quick death. After that Jon is chastised by Stannis for showing mercy to Mance. Stannis shows Jon a letter he received from Bear Island, stating that former Lord Commander Jeor Mormont 's relatives will only recognize a Stark as their King. Ser Davos tells Jon that the Night 's Watch will elect a new Lord Commander that night, and that it is almost assured that Ser Alliser will win. Stannis asks Jon to kneel before him and pledge his life to him, and in exchange he will legitimize Jon, making him Jon Stark, and giving him Winterfell. In the great hall, Jon tells Sam that he will refuse Stannis 's offer, as he swore an oath to the Night 's Watch. After Ser Alliser and Denys Mallister are announced as possible candidates, Sam gives a speech imploring his brothers to vote for Jon, reminding them all how he led the mission to Craster 's Keep to avenge Commander Mormont 's death and how he led the defense of Castle Black. After the voting is complete, the ballots are tallied and show a tie between Jon and Ser Alliser. Maester Aemon casts the deciding vote in favor of Jon, making him the new Lord Commander of the Night 's Watch. To lessen the animosity between the two, Jon makes Ser Alliser First Ranger. Melisandre takes an interest in Jon, visiting him in his quarters and trying to have sex with him. Jon refuses, out of respect for Ygritte and his Night 's Watch vows. Jon makes plans to give the wildlings the lands south of the wall, known as "the gift. '' He wants the Night 's Watch and the wildlings to unite against the threat of the White Walkers. These more liberal views are not taken well by the men of the Night 's Watch, in particular Ser Alliser and a young boy named Olly, whose village was massacred by wildlings. Jon then makes a trip north of the Wall to the wildling village of Hardhome, where he hopes to get the wildlings to join his cause. However, before many of them can get on boats to leave, a massive group of White Walkers arrives on the scene. A massive battle ensues, in which many wildlings are killed. The last remaining Night 's Watchmen and wildlings, including Jon, depart from Hardhome, defeated. As they return to the Wall, they are let in by Ser Alliser Thorne, who disapproves of his drastic action of joining forces with the wildlings. Shortly after, Jon sends Sam and Gilly to safety in Oldtown, approving of their relationship and Sam 's motives of keeping her safe. He is later approached by Davos asking for men, and later Melisandre, whose silence confirms Stannis 's defeat. That evening, Jon is met by Olly who claims that a range has arrived with knowledge of Jon 's uncle Benjen. However, Jon discovers that he has been fooled and a group of mutineers, led by Ser Alliser Thorne, stab Jon repeatedly, with Olly dealing the final blow, leaving him to die in the snow. In season 6, Jon 's body is discovered and protected by Davos and his loyal brothers. After the mutineers are dealt with, Jon is resurrected by Melisandre and has the mutineers executed before resigning from the Night 's Watch. Shortly afterwards, he is reunited with Sansa, who fled for the Wall to escape from Ramsay Bolton. Though initially reluctant, Jon decides to take Winterfell back from Ramsay after Ramsay sends him a threatening letter demanding Sansa 's return on threat of murdering Rickon. Securing help from several Northern houses, Jon attacks Winterfell and manages to overcome the Bolton army thanks to the Knights of the Vale, though Rickon is killed in the process. Jon breaches Winterfell and almost kills Ramsay, but takes him prisoner and leaves Sansa to finish him. In the aftermath, Jon is named the new King in the North by the Northern Lords. In season 7 Jon refuses to be as ruthless as Sansa and other lords expect, letting the children of the treacherous Northern Lords who had fought for the Boltons keep their ancestral homes. Believing that the North is not strong enough to stand alone against the White Walkers and their army, he goes to Dragonstone to persuade Daenerys Targaryen to help. She is hospitable and interested in an alliance but his refusal to bend the knee to her as a condition of the alliance is a sticking point. Jon meets Theon and wants to kill him but restrains himself because Theon had eventually helped Sansa to escape the Boltons. Later Jon appears to forgive Theon, telling the conflicted Theon that he can be both Greyjoy and Stark. Jon decides that the only way to convince Daenerys and the other houses of Westeros of the White Walker threat is to capture a wight and display it in the south. He takes a group of comrades north of the Wall and they capture a wight but are surrounded by an army too large to fight. Jon orders a raven to be sent and they wait on an island while thousands of wights line the shore waiting for the water to freeze. Daenerys arrives and most of the party climb on her dragon and are saved, but they are forced to leave while Jon is still fighting. Expecting to die, he is saved by the arrival of his uncle Benjen who sacrifices himself to send Jon to safety. Jon wakes on Daenerys ' ship, and tells her he will bend the knee. They make love. Meanwhile at Winterfell Sam and Bran share pieces of information until they both realise that Jon is the legitimate son of Rhaegar Targaryen and his willing bride Lyanna Stark, and that this makes him the rightful heir to the Iron Throne.
Sansa Stark (season 1 -- present) portrayed by Sophie Turner. Sansa Stark of House Stark is the first daughter and second child of Eddard and Catelyn Stark. She was also the future bride of Prince Joffrey, and thus the future Queen of the Seven Kingdoms as well. Her direwolf is called Lady, she is the smallest of the pack. Sansa is naive and wants to live the life of a fairy tale princess and is unwilling to see the harsh realities of the kingdom 's politics and rivalries. Her fantasy begins to shatter when Lady is killed, and the situation continues to worsen when her father is arrested for treason. She becomes a hostage to the Lannisters in order for them to have a legitimate claim for the North. Her naïveté is finally shattered when King Joffrey executes her father despite promising her that he would spare him. Sansa is forced to put up an act or endure Joffrey 's cruelty. Throughout Season 2, she suffers under Joffrey 's abuse until Tyrion puts a stop to it. By the Season 2 finale, Joffrey breaks his engagement with Sansa to marry Margaery Tyrell. However, she is still a hostage; but Petyr Baelish promises to help her return to Winterfell. In Season 3, she is married to Tyrion to secure the Lannisters the North should Robb Stark die. The marriage is unhappy and yet to be consummated, and after Robb 's death -- upon which Joffrey insists to be given his head to present to Sansa, a request coldly ignored by his grandfather -- she is unable to speak to him. In Season 4, Sansa has been mourning her family for weeks and is starving herself in depression. She attends Joffrey 's wedding with Tyrion and witnesses Joffrey 's death. Dontos Hollard immediately spirits her away from the wedding, moments ahead of Cersei 's orders to have her and Tyrion arrested. Dontos brings Sansa to a ship concealed in fog, and she is greeted by Petyr Baelish. Under the guise of making payment, Petyr has the fool killed by his archers, with Petyr explaining that killing Dontos was the only way to ensure his silence -- her disappearance when Joffrey died, the execution of her father, deaths of her family and years of torment at the king 's hand, will all be considerable motive for Sansa helping Tyrion murder Joffrey. Currently, a thousand of the City Watch are searching for her, Cersei thirsts for vengeance, and Tyrion himself stands trial. Sansa is assured she has finally escaped King 's Landing and is safe with Lord Baelish, who takes her to her Aunt Lysa for shelter. Lysa takes Sansa in warmly and has her betrothed to her son, Robin. However, Sansa realises the worst is far from over when Lysa, who is smitten with Petyr, accuses Sansa of trying to seduce him, and she discovers that Robin is a spoiled and rude child, slapping him at one point. When Petyr unexpectedly kisses Sansa, Lysa becomes enraged and nearly pushes Sansa through the castle 's Moon Door, but Petyr intervenes by pacifying Lysa and then pushing her through the Moon Door to her death before Sansa 's eyes, making Sansa realise that Petyr may have romantic or lustful feelings for her. Sansa speaks up for Petyr when he is questioned about his involvement in Lysa 's death, but Sansa reaffirms Petyr 's claim that Lysa killed herself due to her own instability and insecurities. Afterward she told Petyr that her reason to protect him in the hearing was because she knew he was the only person she could count on to protect her, demonstrated by his initiative in getting her out of King 's Landing while everyone else in power there only wanted to use her as a pawn. In Season 5, she and Petyr leave the Eyrie for a place Petyr promises where Cersei will never find her. At an In, Brienne of Tarth materializes unexpectedly and declares herself for Sansa. Petyr doubts that Sansa would want a sworn shield who let both of her previous masters die, even when Brienne reveals the true, somewhat unbelievable circumstances of Renly 's death. Sansa seems inclined to agree, pointing out that Brienne was present at Joffrey 's wedding, to which the warrior replies that neither of them wanted to be there. Sansa rejects Brienne 's offer of service and watches as she handily defeats the guards and escapes. Petyr tells her that he has arranged for her to be married to Ramsay Bolton, the son of Lord Roose Bolton. This will put her back in Winterfell, which the Boltons now occupy as a reward for their role in the deaths of Robb and Catelyn. Though Ramsay initially seems interested in Sansa, his psychopathic nature quickly shows through, and Sansa is disgusted. She is also antagonized by Myranda, the kennelmaster 's daughter, who is in a sexual relationship with Ramsay. Myranda frequently makes veiled threats to Sansa, and shows her what has become of Theon Greyjoy, who was Eddard Stark 's ward and whom she grew up with. Sansa is horrified to find that after Ramsay emasculated him, he has taken on a submissive, sullen persona called Reek. After Sansa and Ramsay are wed, he brutally rapes her while forcing Reek to watch. Later, Sansa attempts to talk to Reek, who is unresponsive to her attempts to make him act like his old self by repeatedly calling him Theon instead of Reek. At one point, Reek mistakenly lets slip that her younger brothers, Bran and Rickon, are alive, when she had assumed that they were dead. This realization gives Sansa hope in the midst of her unfortunate situation. As Stannis Baratheon 's army sneaks up on Winterfell and is greeted by the bulk of the Bolton forces, Sansa manages to escape her chamber but is stopped by Myranda, who threatens her with a bow. Reminding Sansa that she has nothing left to live for in Ramsay 's custody, she is unexpectedly saved by Reek, who breaks his spell of subjugation by throwing Myranda over the bannister. The Bolton 's return to Winterfell and, knowing the dire consequences Ramsay would have in place for the both of them when he finds Myranda 's body, the couple flee to the wall in terror, where they make the jump off the ledge. In season 6, Sansa makes it to the Wall with help from Brienne and Podrick and reunites with Jon, while Theon returns home. After Jon receives a threatening letter from Ramsay demanding Sansa back, Sansa and Jon decide to fight back against Ramsay and retake the North. Sansa briefly meets with Petyr Baelish, but turns him down for his role in handing her to the Boltons. Realizing that with their meager forces they are still outnumbered, Sansa writes to Baelish for help and he arrives in time with the Vale Knights to smash the Bolton army and help Jon secure victory. After Ramsay is killed, Baelish admits to Sansa that he wants her to rule alongside him as his Queen, but Sansa turns him down. When Jon is named the new King in the North, Sansa notices Baelish glaring at her. In Season 7 Sansa finds some of Jon 's decisions infuriating but remains loyal to him. She maintains her support of Jon even when he leaves Winterfell against her advice and the Northern Lords ' objections, and even when some of them hint that they 're ready to drop their support of Jon and name her their ruler. Sansa is overjoyed to see Arya and Bran return to Winterfell, though she is unnerved by how much they have changed: Bran 's loss of humanity and Arya 's ruthlessness. Petyr Baelish sees Arya as a threat to his influence with Sansa and attempts to drive a wedge between the sisters. He appears at first to be succeeding but at some point the three Starks realise what Baelish is doing. Sansa pretends to believe Baelish as he insinuates that Arya is plotting her murder. Then to his surprise she accuses him of various crimes in front of the Northern Lords, before finding him guilty and allowing Arya to execute him.
Arya Stark (season 1 -- present) portrayed by Maisie Williams. Arya Stark of House Stark is the younger daughter and third child of Lord Eddard and Catelyn Stark of Winterfell. Ever the tomboy, Arya would rather be training to use weapons than sewing with a needle. Her direwolf is called Nymeria. When Ned is arrested for treason, her "dancing master '' Syrio Forel helps her escape the Lannisters. She is later disguised as an orphan boy by Yoren, a Night 's Watch recruiter, in hopes of getting her back to Winterfell. From then on, she takes the name Arry. During Season 2, Yoren 's convoy is attacked by the Lannisters who are under orders by King Joffrey to find and kill Robert 's bastard children. Before she is captured, she releases the prisoner Jaqen H'ghar and two others, saving their lives. She and the rest of the captured recruits are sent to Harrenhal under Gregor Clegane who cruelly tortures and kills prisoners everyday. At the same time, she follows the advice of the late Yoren and makes a list of those she wants dead like a prayer. When Tywin Lannister arrives at Harrenhal, he orders the killing of prisoners stopped and makes Arya his cup bearer after figuring out she is a girl. Tywin forms an unlikely friendship with Arya due to her intelligence while remaining unaware of her true identity. Arya reunites with Jaqen who offers to kill three lives in exchange for the three lives she saved. The first two she picks, the Tickler, Harrenhal 's torturer and Ser Amory Lorch, after he catches Arya reading one of Tywin 's war plans and tries to inform Tywin. After she fails to find Jaqen to kill Tywin, after he heads out to face Robb 's forces, she forces Jaqen to help her, Gendry and Hot Pie escape Harrenhal after choosing Jaqen as her third name, for which she promises to "unname '' him if he helps them. After successfully escaping, Jaqen gives her an iron coin and tells her to give it to any Braavosi and say "Valar morghulis '' if she ever needs to find him. Arya, Gendry and Hot Pie head north for Riverrun and Arya 's mother Lady Stark, but are captured by the Brotherhood Without Banners and taken to the Inn at the Crossroads. There, Arya is horrified to be reunited with the vile Sandor Clegane, one of the Brotherhood 's prisoners. Arya and Gendry travel with the Brotherhood to meet their leader, now friends with them as they know Arya is Ned Stark 's daughter. She escapes them after the Brotherhood acquits Sandor Clegane of murder after a trial by combat and selling Gendry to Melisandre to be sacrificed. Captured by Sandor, she is taken to the Twins to be ransomed to her brother, only to see his wolf and forces slaughtered and her brother paraded headless on a horse. Sandor knocks her unconscious and saves her from the ensuing slaughter, and she subsequently kills her first man when falling upon a party of Freys, boasting of how they mutilated her brother 's corpse. In season 4, Sandor decides to ransom her to her Aunt Lysa Arryn in the Vale. With Sandor 's help, Arya later retrieves her sword, Needle (a gift from Jon Snow), and kills the sadistic soldier Polliver, who stole it from her. Along the way, Arya slowly begins to bond with Sandor, helping to heal one of his wounds when they are attacked. They eventually arrive at the Vale, but are told that Lysa Arryn killed herself three days prior. Arya laughs with disbelief. Later, Arya and Sandor are found by Brienne of Tarth and Podrick Payne. Arya refuses to leave with Brienne, assuming her to be an agent of the Lannisters. In the ensuing fight between Brienne and Sandor, Sandor is wounded and begs Arya to kill him, but she just steals his silver and leaves him to die. She then manages to catch a boat to Braavos, befriending the Braavosi captain by showing him the coin Jaqen gave her outside Harrenhal. In Season 5 Arya arrives in Braavos, and the ship 's captain, Ternesio takes her to the House of Black and White. She is turned away by the doorman, even after showing the iron coin given to her by Jaqen H'ghar. After spending the night sitting in front of the House, she throws the coin into the water and leaves. Later, after killing a pigeon, Arya is confronted by a group of thieves in the street. Arya prepares to fight them, but the thieves flee when the doorman appears. He walks her back to the House of Black and White, and gives her the iron coin. He then changes his face to Jaqen, and informs Arya that she must become no one before taking her inside the House. Arya 's training progresses, during which she gets better and better at lying about her identity. Jaqen eventually gives her her first new identity, as Lana, a girl who sells oysters on the streets of Braavos. She eventually encounters Meryn Trant, who she tortures and executes in retaliation for Syrio 's death, revealing her identity and motive in the process. When she returns to the House of Black and White she is confronted by Jaqen H'ghar and the Waif, who tell her that Meryn 's life was not hers to take and that a debt must be paid. Arya screams as she begins to lose her eyesight. In season 6, she briefly lives as a beggar in the streets of Braavos, regularly beaten and abused by the Waif, until Jaqen has her trained without her sight and ultimately returns her sight to her. Arya is tasked with assassinating an actress, Lady Crane, but becomes reluctant when she discovers Crane is a decent person and the one who wants her dead is a jealous, less - talented actress. She ultimately botches the assassination and is almost killed by the Waif in retaliation, but seeks shelter with Crane to recover. The Waif tracks her down and a chase ensues throughout Braavos until Arya lures her to her hideout and kills her. She adds the Waif 's face to the Hall of Faces, impressing Jaqen, but Arya ends her training with the Faceless Men and returns to Westeros, where she resumes her vengeance by murdering Walder Frey. At the start of season 7 we see Walder Frey hosting a feast for every male Frey and asking them to drink a toast. As they start to choke, he tells them it was a mistake to leave any Starks alive, and as they die of poison Walder reveals to the servants and wives present that he is really Arya Stark. Arya heads for King 's Landing to kill Cersei, but on learning that Jon Snow has retaken Winterfell she turns around and heads north. She and Sansa have a happy but awkward reunion. Arya is also reacquainted with Brienne, who she insists spar with her. Brienne is surprised by Arya 's skill and needs to raise her effort in order to match Arya, but Arya still scores victories in the brief fight. When Sansa refuses the suggestion of some of the Northern Lords ' that she should be the ruler of the North and not Jon she disagrees with them but does not punish them. Arya is angry, saying to Sansa that she should have executed them for treason. Arya is suspicious of Petyr Baelish and spies on him hiding a message, unaware perhaps that he hid it while he knew she was watching. The message is years old, written to Robb by Sansa when she thought she could save her father by obeying Cersei, but Arya tells Sansa it is a betrayal. Sansa finds Arya 's bag of faces and is shocked. At some point, the girls realise that Baelish is playing them against each other. With Baelish lulled into thinking his plan is working well, Sansa publicly accuses him of murder and treason. Arya waits for the guilty verdict and executes him.
Robb Stark (season 1 -- 3) portrayed by Richard Madden. Robb Stark of House Stark is the eldest son of Eddard and Catelyn Stark and the heir to Winterfell. His dire wolf is called Grey Wind. Robb becomes involved in the war against the Lannisters after his father, Ned Stark, is arrested for treason. Robb summons his bannermen for war against House Lannister and marches to the Riverlands. Eventually, crossing the river at the Twins becomes strategically necessary. To win permission to cross, Robb agrees to marry a daughter of Walder Frey, Lord of the Twins. Robb leads the war effort against the Lannisters and successfully captures Jaime. After Ned is executed, the North and the Riverlands declare their independence from the Seven Kingdoms and proclaim Robb as their new King, "The King in The North ''. He wins a succession of battles in Season 2, earning him the nickname the Young Wolf. However, he feels that he botched the political aspects of war. He sends Theon to the Iron Islands hoping that he can broker an alliance with Balon Greyjoy, Theon 's father. In exchange for Greyjoy support, Robb as King in the North will recognize the Iron Islands ' independence. He also sends his mother Catelyn to deal with Stannis Baratheon and Renly Baratheon, both of whom are fighting to be the rightful king. Theon and Catelyn fail in their missions, and Balon launches an invasion of the North. Robb falls in love with Talisa Maegyr, a healer from Volantis due to her kindness and spirit. Despite his mother 's protest, Robb breaks his engagement with the Freys and marries Talisa in the 2nd - season finale. On news of his grandfather, Lord Hoster Tully 's, death, Robb and his party travel north to Riverrun for the funeral, where the young king is reunited with his great - uncle, Ser Brynden "Blackfish '' Tully, and his uncle, Edmure Tully, the new lord of Riverrun. While at Riverrun, Robb makes the decision to execute Lord Rickard Karstark for the murders of two teenage squires related to the Lannisters, a decision that loses the support of the Karstarks and leads Robb to make the ultimately fatal decision to ask the Freys for their alliance. He is killed in the Red Wedding Massacre, after witnessing the murder of his pregnant wife and their child. Lord Bolton personally executes Robb, stabbing him through the heart while taunting that "the Lannisters send their regards '', in fact a promise made to Jaime (who had no knowledge of Bolton 's impending treason) when leaving for the Twins. His corpse is later decapitated and Grey Wind 's head is sewn on and paraded around as the Stark forces are slaughtered by the Freys and the Boltons.
Theon Greyjoy (season 1 -- present) portrayed by Alfie Allen. Theon Greyjoy of House Greyjoy is the youngest son of Lord Balon Greyjoy of the Iron Islands. He is the hostage and ward of Lord Eddard Stark, stemming from the failed Greyjoy Rebellion. Despite his position, he remains loyal to Eddard and is good friends with his sons Robb and Jon. While he has never questioned his position, he soon begins to have doubts after Tyrion tells him he is nothing more than a servant to the Starks and not everyone respects him. Nevertheless, Theon initially remains loyal to Robb after he goes to war with the Lannisters and supports his decision to have the North secede from the Seven Kingdoms and form their own kingdom. He is sent to the Iron Islands in Season 2 to seek a Stark alliance with the Greyjoys. However, his father criticizes Theon for accepting the northern lifestyle and rejects Robb 's proposal. Wishing to prove to his father that he is a true Ironborn, he joins his family 's invasion of the North. To gain the respect of his men, he ignores his orders to raid the shores and captures Winterfell. The situation worsens for Theon when he is forced to kill his old mentor Ser Rodrik Cassel and fakes the deaths of Bran and Rickon Stark to the people of Winterfell after they escape by killing two orphans. Regretting what he has done and with no help coming from his family, Theon decides to die fighting with his men defending Winterfell from a Stark force led by Roose Bolton 's bastard son. However, he is betrayed by his men due to Robb 's offer of clemency and safe return to the Iron Islands if they give up Theon. Theon is taken captive and kept in an unknown castle, where he is briefly tortured, but later manages to escape with the help of a serving boy who claims to works for his sister Yara. He is brought back to the very castle he escaped from, the serving boy proving to actually be his captor and torturer, Ramsay Snow, Lord Bolton 's sadistic bastard. Theon is subsequently brutally tortured, flayed and eventually emasculated by Ramsay, who forces him to rename himself Reek, and beats him until he submits to his new name (before his emasculation he told Ramsay that he regretted betraying Robb and calls Ned Stark his "real father ''). Theon 's penis is sent in a box to his father, with Ramsay threatening to mutilate Theon further unless the Ironmen retreat from the North, which Balon refuses. He states that as Theon defied him by attacking Winterfell, claiming him a "fool '' and "not a man anymore '', to which Yara responds she intends to save her brother of her own accord. In season 4, Theon has been freed from his restraints by Ramsay, but is forced to work for him as a servant and answer to the name Reek. Roose Bolton later orders Ramsay to launch an attack on Moat Cailin, an Ironborn - occupied fortress that is preventing him from entering the Northern lands, and to take Theon with him. Before they leave, however, the Dreadfort is attacked by Yara and a group of men, but Theon refuses to flee with her, believing it may be another trick on Ramsay 's part, forcing Yara to leave without him. As a reward, Ramsay gives Theon a bath and asks for his help in taking Moat Cailin. Theon masquerades as himself and tricks the Ironborn into opening Moat Cailin, leading to them all being flayed by the Bolton army, and subsequently accompanies the Boltons to Winterfell. In Winterfell, he rekindles his relationship with Sansa, who is to be married to Ramsay. On their wedding night Sansa is raped by Ramsay, who forces Theon to watch. Sansa tries to get Theon to save her from Ramsay, but he refuses and eventually admits that he did not kill her brothers. As the Baratheon army arrives at Winterfell to fight the Boltons, he helps her escape by killing Ramsay 's sadistic lover, Myranda, as she threatens Sansa with a bow. The couple climb the crest of the wall, and jump. In season 6, after they are reunited with Brienne and Podrick, Theon returns to the Iron Islands, where he discovers that his father has been killed. He endorses Yara to succeed their father, but are usurped by their uncle, Euron, the one responsible for murdering Balon. Theon and Yara flee the Iron Islands for Meereen, offering their support to Daenerys Targaryen in return for her aiding them in overthrowing Euron. In season 7 Daenerys sends Yara 's fleet, with Theon and the Sand Snakes, to invade Westeros, but the fleet is set upon with fire by Euron Greyjoy. Euron boards Yara 's ship and captures her as Theon watches. He taunts Theon and challenges him to rescue Yara, but Theon jumps into the sea instead. Theon is found by some Iron Islanders, supporters of Yara who are disgusted with Theon for running away when his sister was taken. He returns to Dragonstone and meets Jon, who is furious at Theon 's many betrayals and only lets him live because of his eventual help for Sansa. Later Theon tells Jon how hard it was to be torn between his Greyjoy and his Stark allegiances. Jon, softening to Theon, tells him he is both Stark and Greyjoy. Theon meets Euron at the parley in the Dragonpit, an Euron taunts him that he still has Yara. When the few remaining Iron Islanders on Dragonstone announce they are planning on sailing off to be independent pirates, Theon urges them to help him to free Yara instead. Their leader is contemptuous and beats Theon, but Theon refuses to stay down, fights, and eventually prevails. The Iron Islanders, a dozen or so men, agree to help Theon rescue Yara.
Bran Stark (season 1 -- 4, 6 -- present) portrayed by Isaac Hempstead Wright. Brandon "Bran '' Stark of House Stark is the second son and fourth child of Eddard and Catelyn Stark. He was named after his deceased uncle, Brandon. His dire wolf is called Summer. During the King 's visit to Winterfell, he accidentally came across Cersei and Jaime Lannister engaging in sex, following which Bran is shoved from the window by Jaime, permanently crippling his legs. An assassin tries to kill Bran, but Summer, the direwolf companion, kills the assassin. Bran, when he awakens, finds that he is crippled from the waist down, forced to be carried everywhere by Hodor, and he can not remember the events immediately before his fall. Slowly, he realizes that he has gained the ability to assume Summer 's consciousness, making him a warg or a skinchanger. After his older brother, Robb, is crowned King in the North, Bran becomes Robb 's heir and the Lord of Winterfell. After Theon Greyjoy captures Winterfell, Bran goes into hiding. To cement his claim on Winterfell, Theon kills two orphan boys and tells the people of Winterfell that Bran, and his younger brother Rickon Stark, are dead. After Theon 's men betray him and Winterfell is sacked, Bran, Rickon, Hodor, Osha and their direwolves head north to find his older brother Jon Snow for safety. They ultimately stumble upon Jojen and Meera Reed, two siblings who aid them in their quest. After coming close to the wall, Osha departs with Rickon for Last Hearth while Bran insists on following his visions beyond the Wall. He also encounters Sam and Gilly, who tries to persuade him not to, but Bran claims it is his destiny and leaves through the gate with Hodor and the Reeds. Along the way, Bran and the others stumble across Craster 's Keep, where they are captured and held hostage by the Night 's Watch mutineers led by Karl. Night 's Watch rangers led by Jon eventually attack Craster 's Keep to kill the mutineers, but Locke, a new recruit but secretly a spy for Roose Bolton, attempts to take Bran away and kill him elsewhere. Bran wargs into Hodor and kills Locke by snapping his neck, but Bran and his group are forced to continue on their journey without alerting Jon, whom Jojen claims would stop them. They eventually reach the three - eyed raven in a cave, who claims he can not restore Bran 's legs, but will make him fly instead. In season 6, Bran experiences several visions, such as the origins of the White Walkers, the origin of Hodor, and the truth behind the parentage of Jon Snow. After an attack by the White Walkers which results in the deaths of the Three - eyed raven and Hodor, Bran and Meera escape and are rescued by Bran 's undead uncle, Benjen, who takes them back to the Wall. He later sees a vision of Jon Snow 's birth, learning that he is actually the child of Lyanna Stark. In season 7 Bran appears to have lost much of his personality. He arrives back at Winterfell. Meera says she must leave and is upset by Bran 's cold reaction. Sansa is glad to see Bran but is unnerved by his assertion that he is now the Three Eyed Raven. He spends most of his time in the Winterfell Godswood by the Heart Tree. He meets Petyr Baelish and looks into Baelish 's past. He testifies when Sansa puts Baelish on trial that Baelish betrayed Ned and sent the assassin to kill Bran. Sam Tarly arrives at Winterfell, and Bran tells Sam that Jon is Jon Sand, having been born to Lyanna Stark in Dorne. Sam replies that the High Septon had secretly married Lyanna to Rhaegar Targaryen, and asks Bran if he can confirm it. Bran directs his visions to Lyanna and Rhaegar 's wedding and confirms that Jon Snow was named Aegon Targaryen and is the rightful heir to the Iron Throne.
Joffrey Baratheon (season 1 -- 4) portrayed by Jack Gleeson. Joffrey Baratheon of House Baratheon is the Crown Prince of the Seven Kingdoms. He is the eldest of Cersei Lannister 's children and heir to the Iron Throne. Vicious and cruel, he has a short temper and believes he can do anything he wants. He is also a coward when confronted by those who are n't afraid of him. Joffrey is also unaware that King Robert is not his real father -- who, in reality, is Jaime Lannister. After Robert 's death, the Lannisters make Joffrey the King against his father 's will, and Joffrey becomes a cruel ruler and a Puppet King used by his mother. Joffrey makes a mistake when, against Cersei 's and Sansa 's wishes, he refuses to honor his promise of sparing Ned; instead, Joffrey has him executed. His act worsens the situation with the Lannisters ' war effort as Jaime is captured by the Starks and his uncles Renly and Stannis have challenged his claim to the Iron Throne. He frequently orders his Kingsguard to beat Sansa. His cruelty and ignorance of the commoners ' suffering makes him unpopular after he orders the City Watch to kill all of his father 's bastard children in King 's Landing which would later lead to a riot where he is almost killed. When Stannis attacks King 's Landing, Joffrey serves only as a figurehead and avoids the heavy fighting. When the battle eventually turns in Stannis ' favor, Cersei calls her son into the safety of the castle, damaging the morale of his army. The battle is only won by his grandfather Tywin and the forces of House Tyrell. To cement the alliance between their families, Joffrey 's engagement to Sansa is annulled so he can marry Margaery Tyrell. Upon the end of Season 3, the marriage is yet to take place, and rifts are growing between Joffrey and his uncle and grandfather, who are (in their respective ways) rebutting his cruelty. He also seems to take little interest in his bride, but is amazed and altered by her ways of winning the people 's favor, in which he takes part. In Season 4, Joffrey finally marries Margaery, but he dies at the wedding after being poisoned, and his uncle Tyrion is accused and arrested. It is confirmed, however, he was poisoned by Olenna Tyrell, with assistance from Petyr Baelish and Dontos Hollard, as she wanted to protect Margaery from the physical and emotional abuse that Joffrey had very clearly inflicted on Sansa. Olenna later confides to Margaery that she would never have let her marry "that beast ''. Following Joffrey 's funeral, his younger brother and heir, Tommen, is crowned King.
Sandor Clegane (season 1 -- 4, 6 -- present) portrayed by Rory McCann. Sandor Clegane, nicknamed "The Hound, '' for his savage nature, is the younger brother of Ser Gregor Clegane and a retainer to House Lannister. He is also Joffrey Baratheon 's personal bodyguard. The right side of his face was grievously burned when he was only a boy after his brother accused him of stealing one of his toys and pushed Sandor 's face into a brazier, leaving the right side of his face hideously scarred, and a lifelong fear of fire. He is taciturn and brutal, but not without compassion. He is protective towards Sansa after she is captured by the Lannisters. After Joffrey becomes King, Sandor is made a member of the Kingsguard. Although he is still faithful to Joffrey, he frequently defends Sansa from Joffrey 's attempts to shame and physically abuse her. During the siege on King 's Landing, when wildfire is used to destroy Stannis ' ships, Sandor succumbs to his fear of fire and abandons the fight, insulting Joffrey as he leaves. Before fleeing the city, he seeks out Sansa and offers to take her along. She refuses but she recognizes that he had been afraid in the battle. Sandor is later captured by the Brotherhood Without Banners, and is reunited with Arya at the Inn of the Kneeling Man. He is acquitted from murdering Mycah in a trial by combat with the leader of the Brotherhood, Beric Dondarrion, and released. Taking Arya Stark prisoner, he travels to the Twins hoping to ransom her, but arrives just as the slaughter of the Starks at The Red Wedding begins and rides off with a shocked Arya in tow. When she attacks a pack of Frey soldiers and stabs one of them to death, he intervenes on her behalf and disposes of the rest. Sandor then decides to take Arya to the Vale instead, to ransom her to her Aunt Lysa Arryn. The two kill several Lannister soldiers as he leaves, causing Tywin Lannister to place a bounty on his head. Sandor and Arya are attacked by Lannister soldiers seeking the bounty and Sandor is bitten on the neck, which Arya heals after the attackers are killed. They eventually arrive at the Vale, but are told that Lysa Arryn is dead. They subsequently stay near the Vale, but are found by Brienne of Tarth and Podrick Payne, who are searching for the Stark girls. Assuming Brienne to be a Lannister agent after the bounty, Sandor refuses to hand Arya over and a fight ensues between him and Brienne. Brienne eventually bites Sandor 's ear off and beats him off a cliff. He survives the fall, but is mortally wounded. He is found by Arya, whom he attempts to provoke into killing him, but she just stares blankly and then steals his silver and leaves him to die, screaming for Arya to kill him. Sandor is presumed dead, yet it is revealed in the sixth season that he was rescued by Ray (Ian McShane) who takes him to live with his colony of pacifists. After the colony is slaughtered by renegades from the Brotherhood without Banners, Sandor is the sole survivor, and he hunts down the men responsible. He tracks the Brotherhood, but finds the perpetrators being executed by Beric Dondarrion for their actions. After reminiscing over past events, Beric and Thoros persuade Sandor to join them, as they are heading North to aid Jon Snow in the coming battle against the White Walkers. They reach Eastwatch By Sea and are imprisoned by a suspicious Tormund Giantsbane. Jon Snow arrives on a mission to capture a wight and Sandor, with Beric, Thoros and Tormund join him. Sandor then travels with Jon and the wight to King 's Landing for the parley in the Dragonpit, and shows the wight to Cersei. There, Sandor has an uneasy but peaceful reacquaintance with Brienne, and a hostile one with his brother Gregor, telling him that one day he (Sandor) will kill Gregor.
Tyrion Lannister (season 1 -- present) portrayed by Peter Dinklage. Nicknamed "The Imp '' or "Halfman '', Tyrion Lannister of House Lannister is the younger brother of Cersei and Jaime Lannister. He is a dwarf; and his mother died during his birth, for which his father, Tywin Lannister, blames him. While not physically powerful, Tyrion has a cunning mind and often uses to his advantage the fact that others constantly underestimate him. In Season Three, Tyrion is given the job of Master of Coin, a role that he is unprepared and inexperienced for. Tyrion is commanded by his father to marry Sansa Stark; however, on the wedding night, Tyrion refuses to consummate his marriage and instead lets Sansa sleep alone, promising not to touch her unless she wanted him to. The death of her brother Robb, in which Tyrion took no part, causes a further rift between the couple and between Tyrion and his father, who he claims ca n't distinguish between his interests and his often - praised ideal of devotion to family. Tywin bitterly claims that he had wanted to drown Tyrion upon birth, but stayed himself for the sake of duty. In season 4, Tyrion welcomes Prince Oberyn Martell of Dorne to King 's Landing for Joffrey 's wedding to Margaery Tyrell, though Oberyn implies to Tyrion that his true purpose is to seek vengeance for his sister, who was murdered by Ser Gregor Clegane on Tywin 's orders. When Joffrey is fatally poisoned, Tyrion is framed and arrested. Tyrion, however, implies that Cersei knows of his innocence and just wants him dead. At Tyrion 's trial, he demands a trial by combat. Tyrion is approached by Oberyn, who volunteers to be his champion in order to fight Cersei 's champion, Ser Gregor Clegane. When Oberyn loses the fight and is killed, Tyrion is sentenced to death. Jaime, however, frees Tyrion and arranges for him to escape King 's Landing. Tyrion goes to confront Tywin in his chambers but finds Shae, who testified against him and is now Tywin 's lover. After a brief struggle, Tyrion strangles Shae to death, and Tyrion shoots Tywin to death with Joffrey 's crossbow. Tyrion is then placed in a crate and smuggled off to Essos with help from Varys. They arrive in Pentos, where Varys manages to convince Tyrion to travel with him to Meereen and aid Daenerys Targaryen in retaking the Iron Throne. Tyrion is bound and gagged by Jorah Mormont, who says that he will take him to Daenerys. Daenerys takes them both to her home in the Great Pyramid of Meereen and asks Tyrion why he is here. Tyrion tells her everything, including Varys ' plan. He initially counsels her to stay in Meereen, but Daenerys makes it plain to him that her eyes are still on Westeros. Tyrion tells Daenerys how hard it will be to win the love of both the common people and the nobles. He later joins her at the opening celebrations of Daznak 's Pit, where Jorah unexpectedly reappears to defeat every other foe on the arena. As the Sons of the Harpy attack, Tyrion manages to survive by fleeing to the midst of the arena, where they are rescued by Drogon, while Daenerys is spirited away on his back. In season 6, Tyrion struggles to maintain peace in Meereen, particularly when the Sons of the Harpy burn the entire Meereenese Navy, stranding them in Slaver 's Bay. Following an alliance with Theon and Yara Greyjoy, Tyrion advises Daenerys to break up with Daario so that she may pursue a marriage alliance in Westeros. In gratitude for Tyrion 's loyalty, Daenerys names him her official Hand, and he accompanies her back to Westeros. In season 7 Tyrion 's advice to Daenerys often conflicts with her views, and he has mixed success in directing her actions. He sneaks into King 's Landing and meets with Jamie to set up a meeting between Cersei and Daenerys, which eventually happens in the Dragonpit outside the city. At the meeting a captured wight is produced to convince Cersei that the worst threat is from beyond the Wall. When Cersei is not convinced, Tyrion risks execution to meet with his sister to try again to persuade her. He is unexpectedly allowed to leave Cersei 's presence alive, and thinks he has secured an agreement from her to help with the fight against the Wight Walkers.
Khal Drogo (season 1 -- 2) portrayed by Jason Momoa. Khal Drogo is a warlord of the Dothraki people. He is to marry Daenerys Targaryen, as arranged by her brother Viserys. He is undefeated in battle. Viserys Targaryen conspired with Magister Illyrio to marry Daenerys to Drogo in order to get his support in an invasion of Westeros. Though Daenerys was initially unhappy with the arrangement, Drogo proves to be a sensitive husband and lover despite his fearsome behavior with his men. After a failed poisoning attempt on Daenerys ' life, he promises to invade Westeros to reclaim the Seven Kingdoms for the Targaryens, but Viserys 's impertinence ultimately causes Drogo to kill him. Drogo maintains his promise for the benefit of his wife, but is wounded by an enemy khal before he could begin the invasion. The wound festers and Drogo becomes so sick that he is unable to ride his horse, a sign of weakness to the Dothraki. Most of his khalasar abandons him, but Daenerys unknowingly sacrifices their unborn child for a spell to revive him. The spell works, but leaves him a brain - dead husk of his former self. Daenerys smothers him out of pity, and the flames of his funeral pyre ultimately hatch her dragon eggs.
Tywin Lannister (season 1 -- 5) portrayed by Charles Dance. Lord of Casterly Rock, Shield of Lannisport and Warden of the West, Tywin of House Lannister is a calculating, ruthless, and controlling man. He is also the former Hand of King Aerys II. He is the father of Cersei, Jaime, and Tyrion. After Eddard Stark 's arrest, Joffrey names him Hand of the King once more, but after Jaime is taken captive by the Starks, Eddard is unexpectedly executed by Joffrey, and Renly and Stannis Baratheon challenge Joffrey 's claim to the throne; Tywin elects to remain in the field commanding his forces until he wins his war, and in the meantime gives the position of Hand of the King to Tyrion. Tywin continues the war through Season 2 at Harrenhal where he criticizes his commanders for losing and underestimating the Stark army led by King Robb Stark. While there, he forms an unlikely friendship with his cup bearer, unaware that she is actually Arya Stark. Originally, he was about to attack Robb 's forces while they are distracted by the Greyjoys seizing Winterfell, but changes his mind and helps the defenders of King 's Landing drive Stannis Baratheon 's forces away. He assumes his position of Hand of the King once again and arranges for Joffrey to marry Margaery Tyrell to secure an alliance between the Lannisters and Tyrells. In the third season, as Hand of the King, he fortifies his position as de facto leader of the Seven Kingdoms, and he successfully defeats Robb Stark, the King in the North, by forging an alliance with the lords Frey and Bolton, who betray and kill Stark and his men. The crown subsequently pardons and rewards them with Riverrun and the North, respectively, though Tywin is criticized by Tyrion for winning the war through such an unscrupulous scheme. He also has to deal with an increasingly belligerent Joffrey, who chides his grandfather as a coward who "hid under Casterly Rock '' while Robert Baratheon led the rebellion against Aerys Targaryen, and complicated relations with his children as he forces them into marriage alliances with Sansa Stark and Loras Tyrell, to secure the support of the Tyrells and Lannister dominion in the North (now Sansa 's heirdom, as all her brothers are presumed dead). In the fourth season, Tywin is present at the royal wedding where Joffrey dies, and has King 's Landing closed off to prevent Sansa from escaping (although she escapes with help from Petyr Baelish and Dontos Hollard). He grooms Joffrey 's younger brother, Tommen, to becoming the new King, and appears determined to make sure Tommen becomes a much better King than Joffrey was. The presence of Prince Oberyn Martell of Dorne poses a new problem, however, as he resurfaces the Martell -- Lannister antagonism over the rape and murder of his sister Elia by Gregor "The Mountain '' Clegane during the Robert 's Rebellion; Oberyn believes the deed was done on Tywin 's order. Tywin denies the allegations and promises Oberyn justice in exchange for Oberyn serving as one of the judges at Tyrion 's trial. At the trial, when several supposed witnesses give false statements regarding Tyrion 's supposed guilt, Tywin promises Jaime in private that if Tyrion is found guilty and pleads for mercy, he will exile him to the Night 's Watch but only if Jaime ceases to be a Kingsguard and takes his place as heir to House Lannister. However, Tyrion loses his composure, lashes out at Tywin and demands a trial by combat, to Tywin 's anger. When Tyrion 's champion, Oberyn, loses the fight and is killed, Tywin sentences his son to death. Later, when Jamie helps Tyrion escape, Tyrion discovers that Tywin was having an affair with Shae, Tyrion 's former lover, who falsely testified against him at his trial. Tywin is ambushed by Tyrion while in a privy, wielding Joffrey 's crossbow. Tywin attempts to reason with Tyrion, swearing that he would never have had him executed, but also -- upon Tyrion showing regret for Shae 's death -- taunts him as "afraid of a dead whore ''. In rage, Tyrion shoots Tywin twice in the chest, killing him. His body is discovered shortly afterwards, and a grand funeral is held in the Sept of Baelor. As revealed by Davos Seaworth, he was 67 years old. Tywin 's death heralds instability in the Seven Kingdoms, with the arrival of the Sparrows in the capital, and rivalry rising between Cersei, who aspires to her father 's position but lacks many of his statesmanlike qualities, and the Tyrells. The Boltons also lose the potential Lannister military support just when they are faced with Stannis Baratheon planning to take Winterfell on his way to the Iron Throne.
Davos Seaworth (season 2 -- present) portrayed by Liam Cunningham. Ser Davos Seaworth, also known as "The Onion Knight '', is a former smuggler and knight in the service of Stannis Baratheon; he serves as one of Stannis 's most trusted advisers. In his smuggling days, he was said to handle a ship at night better than anyone. Before the events of the series, he earned his knighthood by smuggling fish and onions to the besieged Stannis Baratheon and his army during Robert Baratheon 's rebellion. Before knighting him, Stannis removed the last joints from four fingers on his right hand as punishment for his years of smuggling; believing these joints bought his family a better future, Davos keeps them in a pouch around his neck for luck. In Season 2, he loyally supports Stannis ' claim on the throne and his honesty and willingness to voice his unaltered opinion makes him Stannis ' most trusted adviser, though Stannis often dislikes what he hears. An agnostic, he does n't accept the priestess Melisandre and her god R'hllor but does not object to her because Stannis is also a follower of R'hllor. He fights in the Battle of the Blackwater, where his ships are caught in a giant explosion of wild fire. His son Matthos is killed and Davos is thrown out to sea. He is picked up by the pirate Salladhor Saan, who returns him to King Stannis. Upon attacking Melisandre for the loss of his son, he is imprisoned and later condemned to death for releasing Gendry. Stannis had intended to sacrifice the boy to R'hllor and hence regards Davos ' actions as treason, but Davos shows him a letter from Maester Aemon from the Night 's Watch, detailing the death of Lord Commander Jeor Mormont and Samwell Tarly witnessing the growing army of White Walkers. Stannis pardons Davos upon Melisandre 's request, as she claims R'hllor calls them to travel to the Wall to help the Night 's Watch protect the kingdom from the White Walkers. In season 4, Davos is still at odds with Stannis for releasing Gendry (as Stannis claims that Robb Stark and Joffrey Baratheon are dead thanks to Gendry 's blood) and failing to find him a suitable army, but Davos decides to write a letter to the Iron Bank of Braavos so that they may provide them with the currency to purchase an army to aid the Night 's Watch against the 100,000 strong wildling army led by Mance Rayder. Despite the Iron Bank 's reluctance to back Stannis, Davos manages to convince them and they acquire the loan. Davos then tracks Salladhor Saan to aid them in exchange for gold. He and Stannis arrive at the Wall in time to save Jon Snow from Mance Rayder. In season 5, Davos remains at the Wall with Stannis to help him in his campaign to retake the North from Roose Bolton. Davos is aware that the Night 's Watch will choose a new Lord Commander and believes that Ser Alliser Thorne will win. He tries to convince Jon Snow to accept Stannis 's offer of legitimization since Thorne will most likely punish Jon for showing Mance Rayder mercy during the execution. Later, Davos departs from the Wall with Stannis, to help him take Winterfell. As the army becomes snowbound, he is returned to the Wall on Stannis ' command, sharing a heartfelt moment with Shireen, where he thanks her for learning him to read and promises to be back within days. Arriving at the Wall, he unsuccessfully tries to convince Jon of their cause, when the couple is suddenly joined by a lone Melisandre, whose sullen demeanour is enough to tell Jon and Davos that Stannis and Shireen are dead. In season 6, after Jon is killed in a mutiny, Davos leads Jon 's loyal friends against the mutineers led by Alliser Thorne and they achieve victory thanks to the wildlings ' help. Davos later persuades Melisandre to attempt to resurrect Jon, which she succeeds in doing, and becomes one of Jon 's top lieutenants in his campaign to retake Winterfell from the Boltons, successfully persuading Lyanna Mormont to supply them with men. He takes part in the Battle of the Bastards and survives, but in the process learns that Shireen was actually burned at the stake by Melisandre. He confronts her about it in front of Jon and she admits her role in Shireen 's death, and he demands permission from Jon to execute Melisandre, though Jon has her exiled instead. Davos later joins the Northern Lords in proclaiming Jon the new King in the North. In season 7 Davos travels with Jon to Dragonstone. He helps Tyrion Lannister to sneak into King 's Landing for a meeting with Jamie Lannister. While in King 's Landing he seeks out Gendry and finds him in a smithy, and brings him back to Dragonstone.
Samwell Tarly (season 1 -- present) portrayed by John Bradley. Samwell Tarly of House Tarly and the Night 's Watch is the eldest son and former heir of Lord Randyll Tarly, is a new recruit to the Night 's Watch. He was sent to the Wall by his father, who disowned him for his cowardice. He becomes Jon 's best friend after Jon conspires with the others in their trainee class to go easy on him. While not a warrior, he is very smart and insightful. He is inducted into the Stewards and assigned to Maester Aemon. He travels beyond the Wall in place of Aemon and falls in love with Gilly, one of Craster 's daughter - wives. Later in Season 2, he finds obsidian "Dragon glass. '' At the end of the season he becomes a witness to the numerous army of White Walkers and Wights marching to the Fist of the First Men. He manages to escape with a few Night 's Watch Men including Lord Commander Jeor Mormont, and they make it back to Craster 's Keep. Escaping the slaughter of the Nights Watch mutineers -- which ended in Lord Mormont 's death -- Sam is attacked by a White Walker when making a fire but manages to kill it using the Dragonglass. Alongside Gilly, he manages to cross the Wall and return to Castle Black to bring news of Mormont 's death and reunite with Jon. In season 4, fearing for Gilly 's safety, Sam takes her to work in an inn in Mole 's Town, but later regrets his decision, especially after Mole 's Town is attacked by wildlings (though he is unaware that Gilly was spared by Ygritte). He reunites with Gilly, however, when she returns to Castle Black unharmed, and he locks her in the food storage for her safety when the wildlings attack, kissing her for the first time. Sam himself participates in the battle, at one point shooting a huge Thenn through the head with a crossbow and holding the dying Pyp in his arms. In the aftermath, he discovers Janos Slynt to have hidden himself in the food storage with Gilly, and is given Jon 's sword to look after as Jon leaves Castle Black to hunt down Mance Rayder. He is later present at the burning of the bodies of those who were killed in the battle for The Wall. In season 5, he expresses concern that if Ser Alliser Thorne is elected the new Lord Commander of the Night 's Watch, Gilly and the other wildlings will be executed. At Mance Rayder 's execution he comforts Gilly as she could n't bare to watch. Sam is reading a book on previous Lord Commanders while Princess Shireen Baratheon teaches Gilly how to read. He also learns how the young princess survived Greyscale and that Gilly also had sisters who perished from the disease. At the choosing for the 998th Lord Commander of the Night 's Watch, Jon Snow reveals Stannis 's offer of legitimization to Sam. Jon states that it was always his dream to be Lord of Winterfell, but he reveals that he will decline the king 's offer, much to Sam 's surprise. When Maester Aemon asks if there are any more candidates wishing to run against Ser Alliser Thorne and Ser Denys Mallister, Sam puts Jon 's name forward as a candidate. Janos Slynt mocks Sam by calling him "Slayer '' and pointing out his love for Gilly being similar to Jon 's love for Ygritte, and Sam retaliates by publicly mocking Slynt for hiding in the pantry with Gilly and her baby during the wildling attack. Sam reminds all of the black brothers present that Jon was Jeor Mormont 's personal steward, that he led the force to deal with the mutineers at Craster 's Keep, and took command of Castle Black 's garrison during the wildling attack when Thorne was wounded. Sam 's speech ultimately results in Jon being chosen as the new Lord Commander of the Night 's Watch. Events at the wall go on as normal, until the death of Maester Aemon of old age. Sam is present at the maester 's death. Shortly afterward, he catches two Night 's Watchmen attempting to rape Gilly. He attempts to defend her, but the two harshly beat him, and he is only saved by Jon 's direwolf, Ghost. While tending Sam 's wounds, Gilly has sex with Sam. He later leaves with her, convincing Jon that he will aid the Watch much more as a trained maester in Oldtown. His self - confessed motive, however, is to spirit Gilly and her baby -- now named "Sam '' after her lover -- away to safety, of which Jon approves. In season 6, Sam and Gilly briefly stop at Horn Hill, where Sam contemplates leaving Gilly and little Sam with his family, but after an uneasy reunion with his father, Sam decides to take Gilly and the baby with him, and steals the House Tarly Valyrian steel sword, Heartsbane, to learn the secrets behind Valyrian steel. He reaches the citadel in the season finale. In season 7 Sam is a skivvy for the Archmaester, collecting chamber pots and rescribing old scrolls. He meets Jorah Mormont, nearly lost to the disease greyscale, and cures him using a painful and risky treatment in defiance of the Archmaester 's orders. Sam is frustrated that the Archmaester will not take the White Walker threat seriously. Eventually he helps himself to scrolls he thinks may be important from the library and heads back north with Gilly and little Sam. Gilly finds in a High Septon 's diary that Prince Rhaegar annulled his marriage to Ella Martell of Dorne; Sam ignores this at first but by the time he reaches Winterfell and meets Bran he has read for himself that the High Septon went on to marry Rhaegar to Lyanna Stark in secret. Sam and Bran put their information together to conclude that Jon Snow was born legitimate, named Aegon Targaryen, and the rightful heir to the Iron Throne.
Margaery Tyrell (season 2 -- 6) portrayed by Natalie Dormer. Margaery of House Tyrell is the only daughter of Lord Mace Tyrell, and has recently married the late King Robert 's brother, Renly Baratheon, as part of House Tyrell 's support for his bid to seize the Iron Throne from King Joffrey. Somewhere in her mid to late twenties, she is surprisingly canny and cunning. She is aware of her husband 's homosexual orientation and inclinations towards her brother. Despite her knowledge of this, she actively attempts to become pregnant as to secure the alliance between their families. When Renly is killed, the Tyrells ally with House Lannister and she is planned to marry to King Joffrey. In a departure from her characterization in the novels, where her personal motivations are unclear, Margaery 's naked ambition is made obvious. Upon arriving at King 's Landing, she offers Sansa to marry her brother Loras, but the plot is thwarted and Sansa is married to Tyrion Lannister to secure the North should Robb Stark die. At the end of Season 3, her marriage to Joffrey is impending, though her influence over him appears to grow, causing friction between her and Queen Regent Cersei. Cersei coldly implies she could have her killed at any time. In season 4, Margaery and Joffrey are married, but Joffrey dies at the wedding after being poisoned. Since Margaery still can not become queen this way, she is betrothed to Joffrey 's younger brother and heir, Tommen, and visits him one night in his chamber to get to know him better. She is among the many people in King 's Landing who believe Tyrion Lannister is not responsible for Joffrey 's death, and her grandmother, Olenna Tyrell, confirms to her that it was she who orchestrated it, leaving Margaery visibly shocked, until Olenna claims that it was to protect her from Joffrey 's abuse (which he had quite clearly inflicted on Sansa while she was betrothed to him). Margaery is later present at Tyrion 's trial, where she is visibly uncomfortable at the possibility of Tyrion being punished for the crime her grandmother committed. After Tyrion kills Tywin and escapes, Margaery attends Tywin 's funeral. Margaery marries Tommen soon afterward, as Tommen is now the king. The wedding suffers no problems, and Margaery finally becomes a queen. After consummating the marriage with Tommen, Margaery, who has him completely in her thrall, suggests that Tommen send Cersei back to Casterly Rock. Tensions between Cersei and Margaery increase as Cersei confronts her about Tommen. Margaery insults Cersei, angering her. Cersei then has Margaery 's brother, Loras, arrested by the extremist religious movement the Sparrows for homosexual activities. At a trial, Margaery testifies that Loras is not guilty. However, when evidence is procured, Loras gets arrested, along with Margaery, as she lied in her testimony. The High Sparrow reveals that she and Loras will face trial, but that they may receive the "mother 's mercy '' if they were to confess their crimes. Margaery later feigns surrender to protect her family, and joins Tommen in making an alliance with the Faith. On the day of Cersei 's trial, however, Margaery is killed in the explosion which destroys the Great Sept of Baelor.
Stannis Baratheon (season 2 -- 5) portrayed by Stephen Dillane. Stannis Baratheon of House Baratheon, Lord of Dragonstone, is the elder of Robert Baratheon 's younger brothers. A brooding, humorless man known for a hard and unyielding sense of justice, he is obsessed with slights real and imagined. With Robert dying, Ned sends him a letter appointing him as the legitimate heir and becomes another challenger for the Iron Throne after his nephew Joffrey becomes King. By Season 2, he has fallen under the influence of Melisandre, a priestess of R'hllor. After Robert 's death, Stannis claims himself the true heir to the Iron Throne as Cersei 's children are illegitimate and names himself King of the Seven Kingdoms. However, most of the Baratheon bannermen support the claim of the more charismatic Renly. When Renly is mysteriously slain, many of Renly 's bannermen immediately swear allegiance to Stannis. He then attacks King 's Landing by sailing up the Blackwater Bay. However, due to Tyrion 's plan using wild fire and reinforcements by the Lannisters and Tyrell Cavalry, he loses the Battle of Blackwater. Despite this setback, he is convinced to continue fighting by Melisandre, and is further convinced by her magic as she lets him see a vision of a battle in the flames. He acquires one of Robert 's bastards, Gendry, from the Brotherhood Without Banners and plans to sacrifice him to further his quest for the Iron Throne. After Davos questions his course of action, Stannis has three leeches drawn with Gendry 's blood and throws them into a fire, calling for the death of Robb Stark, Balon Greyjoy and Joffrey Baratheon. Upon the news of Robb 's death, Davos releases Gendry to prevent him from being burned. Stannis subsequently sentences his Hand to death but is swayed by Melisandre, who encourages him to travel North to aid the Night 's Watch against the threat emerging from beyond the Wall. In season 4, Stannis hears of Joffrey 's death and chastises Davos again for releasing Gendry and not finding him a suitable army, prompting Davos to write to the Iron Bank of Braavos in Stannis 's name to help pay for an army. The Iron Bank very nearly refuses Stannis ' request, even subtly belittling him in the process, but Davos manages to convince them that Stannis is easily the only one they can turn to since Tywin Lannister is nearing old age. Stannis and his army arrive at the Wall shortly after the Battle for Castle Black, interrupting a supposed parley between Jon Snow and Mance Rayder. Stannis learns that Jon is Ned Stark 's son, and on Jon 's advice, he places Mance and his men under arrest. He is later present at the funeral of the Night 's Watch brothers who died during the Battle for Castle Black. In season 5, Stannis begins plans to retake the North from Roose Bolton, hoping to recruit Mance 's wildling army, if Mance will bend the knee to him. Mance refuses, and Stannis orders him burned at the stake. Although Stannis was not pleased that Jon interfered with Mance 's execution, he presents Jon an enticing offer. If Jon bends the knee and swears his loyalty to Stannis, the king will legitimize him as Jon Stark, making him the Lord of Winterfell. Stannis, after receiving a message from Lyanna Mormont, knows that having a Stark on his side is the best chance of rallying the Northerners to his cause. Stannis departs from the Wall soon afterward, on a mission to take Winterfell from the Boltons. However, his party is delayed by a large snowstorm that ravages the North, and Ramsay Bolton and his men sabotage his supplies by burning them. He eventually agrees, most reluctantly, to sacrifice his daughter to the Lord of Light, sending Davos to the Wall to find supplies as he knows he would never approve of this most drastic action. Conferring with his daughter before her sacrifice, he admits that he will hate himself forever, but goes through with the act, witnessing tearfully as his daughter succumbs. The next day, the blizzard has lifted, though half his army, including all the sellswords have mutinied, taking all the horses to join the Boltons. Selyse is found hanged in a woods, having broken and relented the sacrifice of their child in the last minute and taken her own life. Stannis decides to finish the march on Winterfell by foot, where his greatly diminished army is greeted by a massive cavalry force led by Ramsay which defeats him. Fending off remaining Bolton soldiers in a nearby grove, Stannis succumbs by a tree, where he is greeted by Brienne of Tarth, reminding him of his fratricide. Stannis accepts responsibility and tells Brienne to fulfil her duty, and she lifts her sword and swings.
Melisandre (season 2 -- present) portrayed by Carice van Houten. Also known as "The Red Woman '', a priestess of R'hllor in service to Stannis Baratheon. Melisandre has prophetic powers that give her partial knowledge of future events. Unlike many other people in Westeros with access to prophecy, Melisandre has absolute faith in her own interpretation. Melisandre believes Stannis is the chosen one who will convert the people of Westeros into followers of R'hllor. She convinces Stannis of this by using various methods, including seduction. Many, most notably Stannis ' trusted adviser Davos Seaworth, believe she is leading their king astray. She has magical powers which help her survive Maester Cressen 's attempt to kill her with poison. She also gives birth to a shadow demon which is sent to kill Renly Baratheon and tries to convince Stannis to sacrifice Gendry, the bastard son of Robert Baratheon, because he has king 's blood, claiming R'hllor will reward the gift with an easier path to the Iron Throne. After Gendry 's escape, she intercepts a letter from the Night 's Watch, seeing the prophetic "Other '' as the force behind the White Walkers ' march on the wall, and insists that Stannis takes up the cause of stopping them. She dismisses "this war of five kings '' (now actually three) as unimportant and insists that Stannis take the help of Davos Seaworth, despite his betrayal. In season 4, Melisandre accompanies Stannis, Davos and their army to the Wall, narrowly saving Jon Snow from Mance Rayder. At the funeral of the Night 's Watch brothers who fell during the Battle for Castle Black, Melisandre exchanges a knowing glance with Jon. In season 5, she remains at the Wall with Stannis and shows interest in Jon. She attempts to seduce Jon, but he refuses to have sex with her. Eventually, she departs from the Wall with Stannis and Davos on their mission to take Winterfell. When a large snowstorm delays them, Melisandre suggests that Stannis sacrifice his daughter Shireen, but Stannis refuses. After a Bolton raiding party kills many of the horses and burns their supplies, he eventually gives in and allows the priestess to burn his only child. Melisandre declares soon after that the blizzard has been lifted, but after half of Stannis ' forces desert him, dismayed and disgusted, she rides for the Wall, where she is accosted by Jon and Davos. In season 6, after persuasion by Davos, Melisandre attempts to resurrect Jon, who was killed in a mutiny, and succeeds, restoring her faith in the Lord of Light. She remains at Jon 's side through his campaign to retake the North from the Boltons, and witnesses the Bolton banners being lowered to the ground as in one of her visions. However, she is accused of murdering Shireen by Davos. With obvious regret, she admits what she did, but pleads with Jon not to execute her, claiming that she can help in the coming battle against the Night King. Remembering her role in resurrecting him, Jon does not execute Melisandre, but has her exiled from the North. In season 7 she arrives at Dragonstone and urges Daenerys to make an ally of Jon Snow. She tells Varys she is leaving Westeros but that she will return, as it is her destiny to die there.
Jeor Mormont (season 1 -- 3) portrayed by James Cosmo. Jeor Mormont, the 997th Lord Commander of the Night 's Watch, is the estranged father of Ser Jorah. He gave up his lands to serve the Night 's Watch. His son 's shaming of their house weighs heavily on him. He personally requests that Jon Snow be made his personal steward, and gives him the Hand - and - a-Half sword (also known as a bastard sword) of their house, Longclaw. He has the pommel reshaped into a wolf 's head. To investigate the return of wights, the disappearance of several Rangers, and rumors of a wildling army, Jeor leads an expeditionary force beyond the Wall in Season 2. In Season 3, after returning to Craster 's Keep, he is slain by Rast in the ensuing mutiny, but manages to strangle him before succumbing to his wounds. His death ignites Maester Aemon 's call for the lords of Westeros to aid the Night 's Watch, which convinces Stannis Baratheon the time is ripe to fight the onslaught of the White Walkers. His corpse is apparently desecrated afterwards, as in season 4, Karl Tanner is shown drinking wine from a skull he claims is Jeor 's.
Bronn (season 1 -- present) portrayed by Jerome Flynn. Bronn is a sellsword with a sardonic sense of humor. He initially serves under Catelyn Stark and aids her in arresting Tyrion Lannister and taking him to the Vale to stand trial for the murder of Jon Arryn and attempted murder of Bran Stark. During the trial, Bronn realises that Tyrion will most likely be executed by the insane Lysa Arryn despite the impossibility of his guilt, and volunteers to fight for Tyrion when he demands a trial by combat. Bronn defeats Lysa Arryn 's champion and becomes Tyrion 's companion and protector, accompanying him back to King 's Landing. After they arrive, Bronn 's service to Tyrion earns him a position as Commander of the City Watch after Janos Slynt is revealed to be accepting bribes from the Lannisters. When Stannis Baratheon attacks the city by sailing up the Blackwater Bay, he shoots a flaming arrow to a ship containing wild fire which destroys half of Stannis ' fleet, and kills several of the attackers in defence of the city. However, Bronn is stripped of his position after Tywin Lannister takes his seat as Hand of The King, but is knighted taking the name Ser Bronn of the Blackwater for his service. He subsequently demands more gold for protecting Lord Tyrion and remains his confidante, though discord is increasing between the two. When Tyrion is forced to marry Sansa Stark, Bronn claims he desires her sexually, which Tyrion takes as a grave insult. In Season 4, Tyrion pays him to train Jaime Lannister in fencing with his left hand, as well as get Shae out of King 's Landing, which he assures was completed. Bronn later implores Jaime to visit and help Tyrion after he is accused of murdering Joffrey, telling Jaime that Tyrion originally named him as his defender while on trial in the Vale before Bronn volunteered. Bronn is later betrothed to a rich woman by Cersei in order to stop Tyrion from naming him as his champion. Bronn visits Tyrion in his cell to inform him, and tells him that he most likely would not have been prepared to fight Ser Gregor Clegane, Cersei 's champion, anyway. He bids Tyrion farewell and they part ways as friends. In Season 5, Bronn is taking a stroll with his betrothed, Lollys Stokeworth, just outside Castle Stokeworth. Lollys talks at length about the upcoming wedding, but Bronn seems uninterested about discussing it. He does comfort Lollys when she talks about her sister Felyse, saying that mean people will always get what they deserve. The two are interrupted when they see Jaime near the castle. Jaime intends to bring Myrcella Baratheon back from Dorne to King 's Landing and wants Bronn to help him. He also reveals that Cersei has arranged for Willas Bracken to wed Lollys instead of him, which angers Bronn, as he and Cersei had an agreement. Jaime tells Bronn that he will get a much better girl and a much better castle once they return from Dorne. Bronn and Jaime infiltrate the Water Gardens and find Myrcella with Trystane Martell, but are intercepted by the Sand Snakes, Oberyn Martell 's bastard daughters, who seek to kill Myrcella as revenge against Cersei for Oberyn 's death. Bronn sustains a cut while fighting Tyene Sand before they are all arrested by the Dornish guard. While in custody, Bronn almost dies from poison due to Tyene 's blade being coated in it, though she gives him the antidote. Though he struck Trystane during the struggle, Bronn is ultimately spared and allowed to return to King 's Landing with Jaime, after Areo Hotah strikes him across the face in retribution for harming Trystane. In season six, he accompanies Jaime to the Riverlands to retake Riverrun from Brynden Tully for the Freys, and returns to King 's Landing afterwards. In season seven he accompanies Jamie to capture Highgarden, reminding Jamie that he is still owed a highborn wife and a castle by the Lannisters. When the baggage train and force of soldiers he and Jamie are travelling with is attacked by Daenerys ' Dothraki and dragons he attempts to use a scorpion (giant crossbow) to shoot down Daenerys ' dragon. One of his shots wings the dragon but does not kill it, and the scorpion is destroyed by fire. Bronn sees Jamie about to make a suicidal charge at Daenerys and shoves him into the water just as the dragon is about to incinerate him. In King 's Landing Bronn leads Jamie down into the lower levels of the Red Keep, ostensibly to practice with swords, before revealing he had been asked by Tyrion to bring Jamie to a meeting. Cersei describes this as treason, but Jamie takes no action against Bronn.
Varys (season 1 -- present) portrayed by Conleth Hill. Varys, sometimes called The Spider, is a major character in the second, third, fourth and fifth seasons. He initially appeared as a recurring character in the first season and debuted in "Lord Snow ''. Varys is bald and tends towards fat, due to his castration. Varys is a eunuch and the Master of Whisperers on the king 's small council. He is the Master of Whisperers, the King 's foremost spymaster and intelligence agent. He holds no inherited title, castle or lands in Westeros, but is called "Lord '' as a courtesy due to his position on the council, which traditionally is made up of high lords. He is a skilled manipulator and commands a network of informants across two continents. He often puts on the public persona of being nothing more than a pudgy man well suited to the pleasantries of court life; humble, obsequious, fawning, and a little effeminate. This is simply a facade that Varys has developed, which often leads those who do not know him well to underestimate him as a cheerful and vapid flatterer. In reality he is a cunning and ruthless manipulator of court politics, on - par with Master of Coin Petyr "Littlefinger '' Baelish, with whom he frequently spars. Unlike Baelish, Varys insists that his goals are to achieve what he honestly feels is best for the realm, though of course, what he and the current king feel is best might be two separate things. Varys was born across the Narrow Sea in Lys. He was born a slave, and as a child he traveled with a troupe of actors all around the different Free Cities until a sorcerer in the city of Myr made an offer Varys ' master could n't refuse. Varys was sold to the sorcerer, who gave him a potion that made him unable to move or speak but did n't dull his perceptions or sense of pain, and emasculated him (cutting off his testes and penis both) to use his sexual organs in a magical ritual, burning them in a brazier. Afterward the sorcerer had no use for Varys and threw him in the streets to die. Instead Varys resolved to live no matter what: begging, stealing, and selling the sexual use of what parts remained to him, doing anything to survive. He also became an excellent thief, but soon learned that stolen information was often a far more valuable commodity than any physical goods, and he worked his way up from the slums of Myr. He became a master spy and information trafficker, and his influence and reputation grew so great that he eventually found himself as a member of the small council in the Seven Kingdoms. His experience at the hands of the sorcerer had also left him with a bitter hatred for magic and its practitioners. Varys 's true loyalties remain a mystery, though he claims to serve "the realm '', and abhors the suffering and political instability brought by the war. After Littlefinger 's confidante Ros is severely beaten by Joffrey 's guards and he fails to intervene, Varys takes her into his service as a spy. Littlefinger finds out and has her killed, taunting Varys that he could n't protect her. Varys affirms his course as a means to prevent chaos befalling the realm, claiming that Littlefinger "would see the Seven Kingdoms burn, if he could be king over the ashes. '' Varys later informs Tyrion that Cersei has discovered his relationship with Shae. Though he claims he will not lie for him, he implores Tyrion to send Shae away for her own safety. Varys later testifies against Tyrion at his trial for murdering Joffrey, but when Tyrion is convicted, Jaime enlists Varys 's help in smuggling Tyrion out of King 's Landing to Essos. As Varys prepares to go back, he hears the tolling bells, making him realise that Tyrion 's escape has been discovered (along with his murder of Tywin), so he stays on the boat with Tyrion. In Season 5, he and Tyrion arrive in Pentos, where he convinces Tyrion to travel with him to Meereen and aid Daenerys Targaryen in retaking the Iron Throne. Travelling to Volantis, Varys and Tyrion discuss the former 's brief tenure as Hand of the King. Tyrion laments not leaving King 's Landing with Shae when he had the chance, but tells Varys that he enjoyed serving as Hand. Varys eventually surfaces in Meereen, where he confers with Tyrion about the future of the city and the Seven Kingdoms. In season 6, after helping Tyrion broker an alliance with the slave masters, he departs Meereen to find new friends in Westeros, and secures help from Olenna Tyrell and Ellaria Sand to aid Daenerys. In season 7 he is challenged by Daenerys over having served Robert Baratheon after Robert took her father 's throne, and over his role in the attempt on her life in season 1. She pardons him. Varys is told by Mellisandre that both she and he are destined to die in Westeros.
Shae (season 1 -- 4) portrayed by Sibel Kekilli. Shae is a young camp follower in whom Tyrion Lannister takes particular interest. She is from Lorath, one of the Free Cities across the Narrow Sea. Tyrion falls in love with her and in order to hide her from his father, Tyrion appoints Shae to be Sansa 's handmaiden. As her handmaiden, Shae is the only person Sansa trusts and confides to her about her problems and what she really thinks about the Lannisters. In turn, Shae becomes protective of Sansa and attempts to help her in any way she can. In Season 3, she becomes jealous of Tyrion after his marriage to Sansa and is confronted by Varys, who urges her to leave the Seven Kingdoms, which she refuses to do, thinking that Tyrion has something to do with Varys talking to her. In Season 4, Tyrion is forced to send Shae away from King 's Landing on a ship after her presence is discovered by Cersei and his father is told, insulting her in the process. Shae, however, does not leave King 's Landing, and resurfaces at Tyrion 's trial for murdering Joffrey, where she falsely claims that both Tyrion and Sansa were responsible for Joffrey 's death. It is revealed, however, that Shae was having an affair with Tywin. After Tyrion is freed by Jaime, he finds Shae sleeping in Tywin 's bed, making him realise the horrible truth. Shae attempts to kill Tyrion with a knife, but he strangles her to death.
Ygritte (season 2 -- 4) portrayed by Rose Leslie. A Wildling girl with red hair ("kissed by fire '', a sign of luck among the Wildlings) and a follower of Mance Rayder. In Season 2, she is captured in the Skirling Pass by Jon Snow and Qhorin Halfhand. She manages to escape, but is recaptured by Jon, separating him from his brothers in the process. Later she leads him into Rattleshirt 's ambush. After this they lead Jon to Mance Rayder 's wildling camp, where he pretends to defect to the Wildlings to discover their plans. She then travels with him to the wall, and during this journey she seduces him. However, when confronted with killing an innocent horse farmer for the watch who scaled the wall, Jon escapes the wildling 's clutches on horseback. But while resting, Ygritte manages to catch up with Jon at which point she confesses her love for him and then, blinded by tears, shoots him multiple times while he escapes towards the wall. In Season 4, Ygritte starts raiding villages south of the wall with her group, clearly thirsting for vengeance against Jon, although Tormund suspects she let him go. When the wildlings attack Mole 's Town, Ygritte slaughters all the women present, but notices Gilly hiding with her baby son, and spares her life. When the wildlings finally reach Castle Black and attack, Ygritte kills many Night 's Watch brothers with her archery skills, among them Pyp. When confronted by Jon, however, she can not bring herself to shoot him, and is shot in the back by Olly, a boy whose father Ygritte previously killed. Ygritte subsequently dies in Jon 's arms, and her body is later burned by Jon himself, separately from the other soldiers, in her homeland, north of the Wall.
Talisa Maegyr (season 2 -- 3) portrayed by Oona Chaplin. Talisa Maegyr is a healer working on the battlefields of the War of the Five Kings. She claims to be from the Free City of Volantis. No character named Talisa appears in the books. Oona Chaplin was originally announced to play a character called Jeyne, which many thought to mean she would play Jeyne Westerling, a character from the books. Talisa follows Robb Stark 's army camp as it moves. One day as they talk they are interrupted by news that Catelyn has released Robb 's key prisoner Jaime Lannister. Talisa later goes to comfort Robb. After she reveals more of her past to him, they admit their shared feelings for one another and sleep together. Talisa and Robb marry in secret before a septon. In season 3, Talisa reveals that she is pregnant, although she and her unborn child are stabbed to death by Lothar Frey in the Red Wedding Massacre, the first in the hall to be attacked.
Gendry (season 1 -- 3, 7 - present) portrayed by Joe Dempsie. Gendry is an apprentice blacksmith in King 's Landing and an unacknowledged bastard of King Robert. During Season 1, Eddard tells the smith that if Gendry ever shows interest in wielding a sword to send him to Eddard. Gendry shows promise as a smith and makes a helmet in the shape of a bull 's head; Eddard compliments the helmet, offering to purchase it. Gendry refuses, to the shame of the master smith. After Eddard Stark 's fall and eventual execution, arrangements are made for Yoren of the Night 's Watch to take Gendry to the Wall with him; he travels North with Yoren and other recruits, including Arry, Lommy Greenhands, Hot Pie and Jaqen H'ghar. During their journey, they are stopped by the Goldcloaks, who demand that Yoren give up Gendry as King Joffrey wants all of his father 's bastards killed but are forced to leave by Yoren. Later, Gendry reveals to Arry that he knows she is a girl disguised as a boy all along and is surprised to learn she is Arya, Ned Stark 's daughter. After the Goldcloaks get help from Ser Amory Lorch and his men who kill Yoren, Gendry 's life is saved by Arya when she lies to the Goldcloaks that Lommy, who was killed during the attack, was Gendry. Gendry and the rest of recruits are sent to Harrenhal where Ser Gregor Clegane arbitrarily has many of the prisoners tortured and killed. Gendry was about to suffer this fate but is saved by the arrival of Lord Tywin Lannister, who chides Clegane 's men for their reckless behavior. Thanks to Jaqen, Arya, Gendry and Hot Pie are able to escape Harrenhal. As they head towards the Riverlands, the group encounters the Brotherhood Without Banners, a group of Outlaws that defend the weak. Inspired, he decides to join the Brotherhood but is betrayed by them when they sell him to Lady Melisandre as ordered by the Lord of Light. Melisandre later reveals to Gendry that King Robert was his father and she is bringing him to meet his uncle, King Stannis. But in truth, Melisandre and Stannis planned to use him for her blood magic where Stannis uses his nephew 's blood to make a death curse on the usurpers to his throne, Joffrey, Robb, and Balon Greyjoy. Before they can use him as a sacrifice, Davos Seaworth helps Gendry escape and puts him on a boat to King 's Landing. Unable to swim or row, Gendry is nevertheless convinced that the Red Woman has a surer death in spare for him, and Davos asks him to "have a bowl'o brown for me '' when returning to Flea Bottom. In Season 7 Davos, on a clandestine visit to King 's Landing, seeks out Gendry and finds him working as a smith. Gendry needs no persuading to go with Davos to Dragonstone. There he meets Jon Snow and volunteers to go with Jon on a mission north of the Wall to capture a wight. During the mission he is sent back to the Wall to summon help. He gets word to Daenerys, and later leaves with the others on the Targaryen ship.
Tormund Giantsbane (season 3 -- 7) portrayed by Kristofer Hivju. A wildling raider known for his many titles, "Giantsbane '' being foremost. Loud and gregarious, he is one of Mance 's top generals, fierce and terrible in combat. Tormund takes a liking to Jon after he joins them and even gives him advice over his relationship with Ygritte. Tormund leads a group of wildlings south of the Wall to await the signal of Mance Rayder to attack the Night 's Watch. He later leads the attack on Mole 's Town. When the army reaches Castle Black, he duels and severely wounds Ser Alliser Thorne, but is brought down by several arrows and taken prisoner for questioning. After his wounds are healed by Maester Aemon, Jon briefly approaches him, and he tells Jon that Ygritte loved him, citing Ygritte 's apparent desire to kill him as proof. He is later present at Mance 's execution, and is visibly saddened at his friend 's death. He is eventually freed by Jon, who he accompanies to Hardhome, where he attempts to convince the local wildlings to join the Night 's Watch in the battle against their common enemy. As Hardhome is overrun by wights and white walkers, Tormund ferociously fights them off and escapes to the boats with Jon. He later passes through the Wall and into the Seven Kingdoms along with the rest of the wildlings. In season 6, after hearing of Jon 's murder, he rushes back to Castle Black to bring down the ones responsible, and later witnesses Jon 's resurrection and execution of the mutineers. From there on, Tormund becomes one of Jon 's lieutenants in his campaign to retake the North from Ramsay Bolton. In the ensuing battle, he fights and kills Smalljon Umber, and witnesses Jon defeat Ramsay after Ramsay shoots Wun Wun dead. He is later present when Jon is named the new King in the North. In season 7 Tormund and a group of Free Folk go to Eastwatch at the end of the Wall, expecting the Army of the Dead to approach the Wall at that point. When Jon arrives there on his way north to capture a wight, Tormund volunteers to go along. Tormund is enamoured of Brienne of Tarth and says he hopes to make big monstrous babies with her. Tormund is at Eastwatch - by - the - Sea with Beric Dondarrion when the Night King attacks with Viserion, now resurrected as a wight dragon, or "ice dragon ''. Following the breaching of the Wall, it is uncertain if Tormund and Beric made it out alive as they were last seen running for their lives.
Gilly (season 2 -- present) portrayed by Hannah Murray. A young wildling girl who lives north of the Wall, Gilly is one of many daughters of Craster, a wildling who takes all his daughters as wives once they grow up into women. She has a son with her father Craster. Samwell falls for her and becomes protective of her. After Craster is killed and Commander Mormont 's rangers turn on each other, Samwell runs with Gilly and her son to Castle Black. Along their journey, Gilly becomes fascinated with Samwell over his knowledge and his bravery of defending her son from a White Walker. After the three of them manage to reach Castle Black, Maester Aemon allows Gilly and her son to stay with them. In gratitude for Samwell helping them, Gilly names her son after Sam. In Season 4, Gilly settles in a nearby inn close to Castle Black, with Sam 's assistance. The Inn is later attacked by wildlings, but Gilly hides with her son. They are found by Ygritte, who spares them. They make it back to Castle Black safely, where Sam hides them in the food storage, and kisses Gilly for the first time in case he dies. She is also visibly surprised when Janos Slynt hides in the food storage as well. Gilly remains unharmed throughout the battle, and reunites with Sam in the aftermath. In season 5, she expresses concern of being sent away or executed if Ser Alliser Thorne becomes the new Lord Commander. She is later present at Mance Rayder 's execution. Gilly has begun to learn letters from Princess Shireen Baratheon, with Samwell watching over the two. Gilly also reveals to Shireen that she had sisters that also had Greyscale, but they were quarantined away from the other women at Craster 's Keep and eventually succumbed to the disease. After Maester Aemon 's death, during Jon 's absence in Hardhome, she is almost sexually assaulted by two members of the Watch, but is saved by Sam and Ghost, after which she willingly makes love to him. She and her baby later leave Castle Black for Oldtown with Sam on Jon Snow 's orders. Along the way, they stop at Horn Hill, where Sam initially intends to leave Gilly and the baby with his family, but despite Randyll Tarly allowing them to stay, Sam decides to take them with him to the Citadel in Oldtown. In the sixth - season finale, they arrive. Later in Oldtown Gilly enthusiastically makes use of her newfound literacy, and in the diaries of a former High Septon she learns that a prince named Rhaegar Targaryen had his marriage annulled in Dorne. At the end of season seven she has gone back north with Sam and Little Sam and reached Winterfell.
Brienne of Tarth (season 2 -- present) portrayed by Gwendoline Christie. A former member of Renly Baratheon 's Kingsguard. She is a highly trained and skilled warrior made dangerous by the fact that men underestimate her. She is considered ugly because she is abnormally large in height and build, androgynous, and stronger than most men. She wishes to prove her valor in a worthy cause to win respect and acceptance. She becomes infatuated with Renly after he shows her kindness and courtesy, and she wins a place in his Kingsguard after winning a tournament melee against Ser Loras. Renly trusts Brienne because of her loyalty and her willingness to die for him. She is present at Renly 's death and is falsely accused of his murder. She flees with Catelyn Stark and enters her service. Later Catelyn decides to release Jaime Lannister in exchange for her daughters Sansa and Arya, Brienne is sent to protect Jaime on the journey and to escort the Stark girls back. On the journey back to King 's Landing, both are captured by the violent Roose Bolton, who holds them at Harrenhal. While there, Brienne learns the truth behind Jaime 's murder of the Mad King, but is forced to stay behind while Bolton 's men accompany Jaime back to King 's Landing, although Jaime rescues Brienne from Harrenhal upon learning that Bolton 's unruly henchman, Locke, intends to feed her to his bear. Brienne succeeds in getting Jaime home safely. In Season 4, Brienne remains in King 's Landing sworn to Jaime, and tensions arise between them again when Jaime refuses to uphold his promise to return Arya and Sansa to Catelyn, on the basis that Catelyn is dead, Arya is missing and Sansa is married to Tyrion. Brienne is later present at Joffrey and Margaery 's wedding, where Cersei implies that Brienne has fallen in love with Jaime, an accusation she answers with silence. Brienne is eventually sent on a mission by Jaime to find and protect Sansa. Jaime provides her with Joffrey 's sword, which she names "Oathkeeper '', new armour and Podrick Payne to serve as her new squire. As she leaves, she almost breaks down in tears, and looks back at Jaime while on her horse, which causes Jaime to realise her feelings for him. On the way, Brienne and Podrick stop at an inn and meet Hot Pie, who tells them that Arya Stark may still be alive. They eventually find Arya and Sandor "The Hound '' Clegane near the Vale. Brienne and Arya initially bond over both being women who prefer to fight, but her sword causes Arya and Sandor to believe she may be a Lannister agent after the bounty on Sandor 's head. A fight ensues between Brienne and Sandor, in which Sandor injures Brienne, but Brienne manages to bite Sandor 's ear off and hit him off a cliff to his apparent death. Arya disappears during the fight, and Brienne and Podrick set out to search for her, though she is visibly distraught that Arya refused her help. Brienne and Podrick stop at an inn. While eating, Podrick sees Sansa and Petyr Baelish eating in the back of the inn, guarded by knights. Brienne orders Podrick to secure more horses, and then moves toward Petyr and Sansa. After Petyr allows her to approach, Brienne pledges her life to Sansa. When Petyr accuses her of Renly Baratheon 's murder, Brienne explains that Renly was killed by a shadow with Stannis 's face. Sansa tells Brienne that she does n't want her protection, and asks her to leave. Petyr attempts to have his guards take Brienne into their custody, but she flees with Podrick, stealing a horse and releasing several others. The guards give chase, and Brienne and Podrick are separated. After evading her pursuers, Brienne sees Sansa and Petyr fleeing. She searches for Podrick, and saves him from two of the knights. Podrick suggests that they stop pursuing Sansa as she refused their help, but Brienne is adamant that she will not be safe with Lord Baelish. She follows the couple to Moat Cailin and then to Winterfell, where she watches the high tower from a village outside, with Sansa promised escape if she lights a candle in the highest tower. As Stannis Baratheon 's army approaches, Sansa lights the candle and Brienne prepares to get her, only to find Stannis gravely wounded on the battlefield. She asks him for the truth about Renly 's death, to which he confesses guilt, and executes him with her sword. Shortly afterwards, she and Podrick rescue Sansa and Theon Greyjoy after they flee Winterfell, and Sansa accepts Brienne into her service. She takes her to Jon Snow at Castle Black, but later heads to the Riverlands to recruit Brynden Tully 's help in for Jon and Sansa to retake Winterfell from Ramsay, but is unsuccessful. She also shares an uneasy reunion with Jaime in the process. When Riverrun falls, Brienne escapes with Podrick in a boat. Back at Winterfell in season 7, Brienne meets Arya again. Arya demands that Brienne spar with her, and Brienne soon finds that she can not easily beat Arya, who manages to point a sword at her throat. Brienne is sent by Sansa to the parley at the Dragonpit, where she meets The Hound, who she thought she had killed...
Ramsay Bolton (season 3 -- 6) portrayed by Iwan Rheon. The illegitimate son of Roose Bolton, Ramsay Snow of House Bolton is cruel, sadistic and very cunning. After the Ironborn captures Winterfell, he marches on the castle 's token garrison and offers it safe passage for surrender; after the gates are opened, he captures Theon and flays the other defenders. At the Dreadfort, Theon is put through gruesome physical and psychological torture on Ramsay 's instigation, though he himself watches in guise of a cleaning boy. He helps Theon Greyjoy escape from captivity, claiming to be a servant of Theon 's sister, Yara, and promises to help him reach her, but ends up only leading Theon back to his original place of imprisonment to taunt him further. He tortures Theon by flaying his fingers and forces him to beg to have them cut off. He ultimately emasculates him and has his manhood sent in a box to the Iron Islands to press Balon to evacuate the North, suggesting he could dismember Theon slowly and send him home in boxes if his demands are not met. He forces Theon to become his new servant, who is now called Reek, and beats him until he accepts the name. In Season 4, Ramsay along with his now slave servant, Reek, hunt down a servant girl named Tansy. Ramsay hunts her for sport and in the end feeds her to his dogs (bastards girls). Ramsay has followed his father in pledging loyalty to the Lannisters, and remains Acting Lord of the Dreadfort until Roose and his men arrive (having been smuggled back into the North to avoid the Ironborn). Ramsay warmly greets his father, new stepmother "Fat '' Walda Frey, and friend Locke, but he is chastised by his father for torturing Theon, who would have proved a valuable hostage. Roose enlists his son in his plans to reconquer the North from the invading Ironborn -- his father assigns Ramsay, "Reek '' and what men Ramsay has to capture Moat Cailin from the Ironborn, in exchange for Roose considering legitimizing Ramsay as a full member of his family, a prospect that delights Ramsay. When Yara and some Ironborn killers attack the Dreadfort and attempt to take Theon, Ramsay confronts her in the dungeons and sets the hounds on her, forcing her to flee without Theon, who refused to go with her believing it was another trick of Ramsay 's, and too broken and frightened to take the risk. As a reward for Theon 's loyalty, Ramsay gives him a bath, bathing Theon himself, and asks for his help in taking Moat Cailin. Ramsay sends Reek into Moat Cailin with a peace banner and a letter promising safe passage to the Stoney Shore. Reek pretends to be his former self, Theon Greyjoy, and convinces the ironborn to surrender. Ramsay breaks his promise and flays the Ironborn living and displays their bodies on stakes. As a reward, Ramsay is legitimized by his father and takes the name, Ramsay Bolton, discarding the surname "Snow '' for good, much to Ramsay 's delight. Ramsay and the rest of the Bolton forces then march on towards Winterfell, the Boltons ' new home. To solidify their claim for legitimacy, he is provided Sansa Stark as a suitable bride, who he promises never to harm before Baelish, but nevertheless brutally rapes her on their wedding night. He later skins a woman alive for attempting to light a candle in the high tower of Winterfell, which would signal to Brinne (waiting in the village outside the walls) that Sansa was in need of rescue. At the battle of Winterfell between Baratheon and Bolton forces, he rides out to greet Stannis, destroying his army and killing most of his men but meanwhile, Reek rebels against his master and kills his lover, Myranda, escaping with Sansa in the process. With his position as Roose 's heir in question following Sansa 's disappearance and the birth of Roose 's baby boy, Ramsay kills Roose, Walda and the baby and becomes the new Lord of Winterfell, securing help from House Karstark and House Umber, the latter giving him Rickon Stark as a hostage. He kills Osha and sends a letter to Jon Snow demanding Sansa 's return, but Jon and Sansa decide to challenge Ramsay and retake Winterfell. Ramsay parleys with Jon and refuses his offer to a one - on - one duel. On the day of the battle, Ramsay lures Jon and his men into a trap by murdering Rickon, but his forces are smashed by the Knights of the Vale. Ramsay flees back to Winterfell, where Jon beats him severely and orders him locked up as a prisoner. That night, Ramsay is fed to his own hounds, bringing House Bolton to extinction.
Ellaria Sand (season 4 -- 7) portrayed by Indira Varma. The sexually promiscuous paramour of Oberyn Martell, she is the mother of the four youngest Sand Snakes. She is later present at Tyrion 's trial by combat, where Oberyn fights Gregor Clegane in Tyrion 's name, and is horrified when Oberyn is killed. In Season 5 Ellaria arrives at Dorne at the Water Gardens, Ellaria, still in mourning clothes, observes Trystane Martell and Myrcella Baratheon from a distance. She approaches Prince Doran Martell, but her path is initially blocked by Captain Areo Hotah. Ellaria threatens Areo before the captain is ordered by Doran to stand down. Angrily, Ellaria scolds Doran for his apparent inaction at the news of Oberyn 's death. Doran plans to bury and mourn his beloved brother, but Ellaria and Oberyn 's daughters want the Dornish people to take up arms and avenge their fallen prince. She also voices her contempt for Myrcella and wants to harm her in order to send Cersei Lannister a message. Doran strictly forbids this, stating that under his rule, they will not mutilate little girls for revenge. Ellaria voices doubts that Doran will remain in power if he continues to do nothing and leaves. She meets up with Oberyn 's three bastard daughters, the Sand Snakes (Obara, Nymeria, and Tyene), and tells them that they must capture Myrcella and kill her out of revenge for Oberyn 's death. However, when the Sand Snakes attempt this, both them and Ellaria are captured by Doran 's guard. She pleads for mercy and is forgiven, being explicitly warned by Doran that he "never gives anyone a third chance ''. She says goodbyes to Myrcella Baratheon, who forgives her and shares an unexpected kiss, concealing a sinister induction of poison into the girl 's mouth. Ellaria watches the ship sail and administers the antidote to herself while contemplating what will come when Doran realises what she has done. In Season 6, apparently having made amends with Doran, she strolls with him in the Water Gardens while reminiscing about Oberyn. When the maester brings a letter from Jaime Lannister with the news of Myrcella 's death, Doran realizes it was Ellaria 's work, but she stabs him to death before he can react. Ellaria taunts a dying Doran for his weak rule and inaction at the deaths of Elia and Oberyn. With his dying breath, Doran begs Ellaria to spare Trystane 's life, but she refuses, telling him that both him and his son are weak and weak men will never rule Dorne again before leaving him to die on the floor. Later, Ellaria sends Obara and Nymeria to King 's Landing to kill Trystane, bringing the extinction of House Martell and usurping power over Dorne. After hearing of the destruction of the Great Sept of Baelor, Cersei 's work which claimed the lives of almost all of House Tyrell, Ellaria invites Olenna Tyrell to Dorne to discuss an alliance against Cersei, and reveals that through Varys, she has declared for Daenerys Targaryen. In Season 7, Ellaria and her daughter Tyene are captured by Euron Greyjoy and brought to Cersei. Taking the Sands to the dungeons, Cersei taunts Ellaria, and kisses Tyene with the same poison used to kill Myrcella. She leaves Ellaria to watch Tyene die, telling Ellaria she will be kept alive until her daughter 's body is completely decomposed.
Daario Naharis (season 3 -- 6) portrayed by Ed Skrein in season 3, and by Michiel Huisman from season 4 onwards. Daario is a confident and seductive warrior who is a lieutenant in the Second Sons, a group of 2000 mercenaries. Daario has an unusual code of honor: he wo n't sleep with sex workers or kill innocents as he believes in making love with women who want to make love with him and killing those who want to kill him. Under the leadership of his Captain Mero and second in command Prendhal na Ghezn, the Second Sons were hired by the Slaver city Yunkai to fight against Daenerys ' army. Smitten with Daenerys, Daario refused to obey his superiors when they decided to assassinate her, which forced him to kill Mero and Prendhal in self - defense. With the Second Sons under his command, Daario and his men pledge their allegiance to Daenerys. In season 4, Daario attempts to romance Daenerys by offering her flowers and lecturing her about the special use of these flowers, as he claims it is important to know the land she is going to rule. At the gate of Meereen, Daario volunteers to fight Meereen 's champion in single combat after Daenerys rejects the rest of her inner circle from fighting. Daario declines the use of a horse, noting that they are n't as intelligent as humans. Daario ends the duel with ruthless efficiency, striking down the horse with his stiletto and decapitating the dazed champion with his arakh. Later on after conquering Meereen, Daario sneaks into Daenerys ' private chambers and gives her more flowers. As Daenerys initially refuses him, he tells her he only has two talents in his life: war and women, and that in Meereen he serves no purpose. Daario asks her to let him do what he does best, killing her enemies. Instead, Daenerys focuses on the other thing Daario claims to be good at and orders him to take off his clothes. The morning after, Daenerys informs Jorah that she has sent Daario, Hizdahr zo Loraq and the Second Sons to Yunkai in order to bargain with the masters who retaken control of the city. In season 5, Daario returns with Hizdahr zo Loraq, informing Daenerys that the mission was successful, but the masters want Daenerys to reopen the fighting pits in return. Daenerys refuses, and while in bed, Daario attempts to convince her otherwise, claiming that it was his early life in the fighting pits that led him to join the Second Sons and meet Daenerys in the first place. After Barristan Selmy is killed and Grey Worm left near death, Daenerys heeds Daario 's advice and reopens the pits, but refuses Daario 's advice on publicly executing all the slave masters. Daario is present on the opening day of the fighting games, and banters with Hizdahr and Tyrion Lannister about who will win the competition. He fights to protect Daenerys when the Sons of the Harpy launch another attack and watches her fly away on Drogon. In the aftermath, Daario advises Tyrion, Grey Worm and Missandei to stay in Meereen and hold the city together while he and Jorah depart to search for Daenerys. In season 6, they finally track Daenerys to Vaes Dothrak and witness Daenerys slaughter the khals and become the new ruler of the Dothraki. Daario leads the Dothraki back to Meereen to slaughter the Sons of the Harpy once and for all, but on Tyrion 's advice, Daenerys breaks up with Daario and leaves him to govern Slaver 's Bay so that she may pursue a marriage alliance in Westeros. Daario reluctantly accepts while proclaiming his love for Daenerys.
Missandei (season 3 - present) portrayed by Nathalie Emmanuel Personal servant to Daenerys Targaryen. She was freed from being a slave working as translator for Kraznys mo Nakloz when Daenerys insisted during negotiations with Kraznys mo Nakloz that Missandei was given to her as a gift. She effectively serves as the replacement of Doreah after she betrayed Daenerys in Qarth. She later begins to teach Grey Worm how to speak the common tongue, and they develop romantic feelings for each other, despite Grey Worm being an Unsullied who was castrated at youth. She is visibly saddened when another Unsullied, White Rat, is killed in a brothel by the Sons of the Harpy. After Grey Worm is almost killed in an attack, Missandei kisses him after he reveals that for the first time, he felt fear, since he thought he would never see her again. On the opening day of the fighting games, the Sons of the Harpy launch another attack. Missandei is narrowly saved by Tyrion Lannister, and watches as Daenerys flies away on Drogon. She later remains in Meereen with Tyrion and Grey Worm to help keep the city together. Despite an attack by the slaver masters ' fleet, Meereen is saved when Daenerys returns with the Dothraki and unleashes her dragons on the fleet, which Missandei witnesses. She later accompanies Daenerys on her voyage back to Westeros. She makes love with Grey Worm and worries for him when he is sent to attack Casterly Rock.
"Jaqen H'ghar '' (season 2, 5 -- 6) portrayed by Tom Wlaschiha. Sly, enigmatic, and a dangerous criminal, Jaqen is part of Yoren 's group of recruits taken from King 's Landing to join the Night 's Watch. A foreigner from Braavos, though he originally claims Lorath, he speaks in third person, referring to himself as "A man ''. On the journey, he meets Arya Stark. When the group is attacked by Lannister bannermen, Arya frees him and two other prisoners, saving them from a fire. He finds Arya again at Harrenhal, where he has since disguised himself as a Lannister guard. He asks her to name three people for him to kill to repay the three deaths she stole from the Many - Faced God, but he refuses to help her in any other way. She chooses two of her enemies, the Tickler, the torturer of Harrenhal, and Ser Amory Lorch, the man who killed Yoren and tried to expose her to Tywin Lannister, and chooses Jaqen himself as the third. Arya "unnames '' him after he agrees to help her escape. After the break - out, he gives Arya an iron coin, instructing her to give it to any Braavosi and say "Valar Morghulis '' ("All Men Must Die '' in High Valyrian) should she need more help. He then magically changes his appearance, assumes a new identity, and departs. He and Arya are reunited when she arrives at the House of Black and White in Braavos and he begins training her to become a Faceless Man, though the task proves difficult since Arya is still too attached to her past as a Stark. Jaqen later tasks her with assassinating a fraudulent insurance broker, but she reneges on her mission and instead steals one of the masks to murder Meryn Trant, the Kingsguard who killed Syrio Forel, Arya 's first mentor. In retribution, Jaqen confronts Arya and condemns her to lose her eyesight. In the sixth season, Jaqen brings Arya back to the House of Black and White and eventually returns her sight. He orders her to assassinate Lady Crane, and reluctantly orders her death when Arya botches the assassination, but is impressed upon learning that Arya killed the Waif instead. Though he tells her she is now "No One '', she asserts her identity as Arya Stark and leaves Braavos.
Tommen Baratheon (season 1 -- 2, 4 -- 6) portrayed by Callum Whaary in seasons 1 and 2, and by Dean - Charles Chapman from season 4 onwards. Tommen Baratheon of House Baratheon is the prince presented as the youngest son of King Robert Baratheon and Queen Cersei Lannister. Like his older siblings Joffrey and Myrcella his actual father is his uncle Ser Jaime Lannister. Like his sister he is good - natured and passive in contrast to his brother Joffrey and is fond of his uncle Tyrion. In Season 2, when Myrcella was shipped off to Dorne as part of a marriage alliance between the Lannisters and Dorne, Tommen wept when his sister for which Joffrey chastises him. During the battle of the Black Water, he sits with Cersei as she prepares to give him night shade drops for a quick, painless death rather than a brutal one, until Tywin announces that they won the battle. In Season 4 he is present at Joffrey and Margaery 's wedding, he also attended Joffrey 's funeral for which Tywin proceeds to tell Tommen what makes a good king, ignoring Cersei 's angry glares. Margaery later visits Tommen one night where he reveals his pet cat Ser Pounce, as well as the fact that he and Joffrey did n't get along and he and Margaery bond over their mutual relief that they are free of him. Tommen agrees that he 'd like Margaery to visit him again. Margaery departs, but not before giving him a kiss on the forehead. A ceremony is held in the Red Keep where the High Septon officially crowns Tommen as king. At Tyrion 's trial Tommen excuses himself from the trial, possibly on Tywin 's advice. In Season 5 during the wake of his grandfather, Tommen is approached by Margaery, who shares a few close words with the king and holds his hand briefly. All of this is observed by Cersei from afar. Tommen and Margaery later marry and consummate that same night, whereupon Margaery begins to manipulate Tommen into trying to send Cersei home. When he does, Cersei immediately begins scheming to get rid of the Tyrells. After Loras Tyrell is arrested for his homosexuality, Tommen furiously confronts Cersei and demands Loras 's release, and tries to speak with the High Septon, though he is impeded by the Faith Militant and refuses to allow bloodshed in front of the Great Sept of Baelor. When Margaery is arrested for lying on Loras 's behalf, Tommen considers attacking the Sept to free his wife and brother - in - law, but Cersei persuades him to stand down, and when Cersei herself is arrested, Tommen falls into a depression and goes on a hunger strike, refusing to see anyone. In the sixth season, Tommen attends Myrcella 's funeral and confronts the High Sparrow, demanding him to allow Cersei to see her daughter. Later, he officially announces an alliance between the Crown and the Faith, and abolishes trial by combat, having effectively fallen under the High Sparrow 's influence. When Cersei destroys the Great Sept of Baelor, killing thousands of people, including Margaery, Loras, Mace, Kevan and the High Sparrow, Tommen witnesses it from his quarters, and, unable to do anything as the Mountain blocks the doorway, he commits suicide by jumping through the window, leaving his crown on the table before doing so. His body is later burned and buried beneath the Sept 's ruins, with Tywin, Joffrey and Myrcella.
Roose Bolton (season 2 -- 6) portrayed by Michael McElhatton. A Bannerman of the North and Lord of the Dreadfort. The Bolton family have a nasty history of keeping to very old, and barbaric ways, including flaying their enemies alive, and Roose is no exception, being suspected of not feeling any emotion. His cunning makes him a valuable ally, but his unpredictable nature makes him a dangerous one. In Season 2, Roose has declared for the King in the North and serves as a chief member of Robb Stark 's war council. In secret, Roose feels the Stark cause is lost due to the fact Robb never once listened or heeded his advice, and so acts to secure Bolton predominance in the North -- he sends his bastard son Ramsay to take Winterfell from the Ironborn (for his own amusement, Ramsay burns the castle to the ground and flays the defenders after offering them safe passage), and afterwards claims the Ironborn destroyed the castle and apparently killed Robb 's younger brothers Bran and Rickon. In Season 3, Roose works with Walder Frey at Tywin Lannister 's request to betray the Starks at Edmure Tully 's wedding at the Twins. The ambush results in the destruction of the Stark forces by Bolton and Frey men, and deaths of all three Starks and Northern lords present in Walder Frey 's hall -- Roose personally kills the King in the North with a single stab through the heart, chiding that "the Lannisters send their regards ''. For his loyalty he is named Warden of the North by the crown (although Tywin Lannister intends to reclaim the title by marrying his son Tyrion to Sansa Stark, the presumed heir to Winterfell). In Season 4, Roose and his men return to the North where he chastises Ramsay for having tortured Theon, as he was a valuable hostage. He also plans to reconquer his new lands from the invading Ironborn, since Tywin is refusing to help him, while ordering his man - at - arms, Locke, to hunt down and kill the remaining Stark boys and Jon Snow (although Locke is killed by Bran Stark in the attempt). With help from Ramsay and Theon Greyjoy, Roose manages to drive the remaining Ironborn out of the Northern lands, and Roose legitimizes Ramsay as his true son. The Bolton 's make their way to Winterfell, although they still face opposition from the Northerners -- who are furious with the Boltons for betraying the Starks -- and Stannis Baratheon, who aims to rally the North as a springboard against House Lannister rule and bring the Boltons down in the process. Roose has Ramsay married to Sansa Stark the true heir of Winterfell. As Stannis eventually nears, snowbound trapped by a blizzard, he approves of Ramsay 's raiding of the Baratheon camp, where they successfully destroys most of their supplies and siege engines, diminishing Baratheon chances of taking the North. Stannis ultimately perishes in the ensuing battle, but Sansa escapes from Winterfell with Theon 's help. Roose threatens Ramsay with being disinherited if Sansa is not found. When news reaches him of Sansa 's disappearance and the birth of his son with Walda, Roose is killed by Ramsay.
The High Sparrow (season 5 -- 6) portrayed by Jonathan Pryce. A devout and pious man, the High Sparrow came to King 's Landing after Tywin Lannister 's death to serve the poor, downtrodden and infirm. He quickly amasses a large following, including Cersei 's cousin and former lover Lancel, who swarm over the city, ministering to the needy and denouncing corruption. He is first noticed by Cersei Lannister when his followers assault and humiliate the High Septon at a brothel. Although she considers capturing and executing him, Cersei decides to use him in her schemes against the Tyrell family. She pretends to agree with his religious views and appoints him as the new High Septon. She also reinstates what had been a long - defunct military order called the Faith Militant, giving them the legal authority to pursue, torture and imprison anyone whom they believed was defying religious principles, no matter their rank or wealth. She tells him of Ser Loras Tyrell 's homosexuality, which leads to his arrest by the Faith an inquest presided over by the High Sparrow. Loras 's lover Olyvar gives incriminating testimony, so the High Sparrow has both Ser Loras and his sister, Queen Margaery, incarcerated, the latter for perjuring herself when she lied to protect her brother. Loras and Margaery 's grandmother, Lady Olenna, attempts to bribe the High Sparrow into offering clemency and is surprised to find that he is uninterested. After Lancel confesses of his and Cersei 's affair and of her role in Robert Baratheon 's death, the High Sparrow turns on the Queen mother and has her arrested and imprisoned. When Cersei decides to plead for mercy, the High Sparrow listens to her confession of adultery and, on the condition that she stand for trial for her other sins, permits her to return to the Red Keep but only after she performs a walk of Atonement, in which her hair is cut and she must walk naked through the mob. The High Sparrow soon brings Tommen and Margaery under his influence, effectively becoming the new ruler of King 's Landin, but he is ultimately killed when Cersei rigs the Great Sept of Baelor with wildfire and detonates it with thousands of people inside.
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is sunlight the same thing as visible light | Sunlight - wikipedia
Sunlight is a portion of the electromagnetic radiation given off by the Sun, in particular infrared, visible, and ultraviolet light. On Earth, sunlight is filtered through Earth 's atmosphere, and is obvious as daylight when the Sun is above the horizon. When the direct solar radiation is not blocked by clouds, it is experienced as sunshine, a combination of bright light and radiant heat. When it is blocked by clouds or reflects off other objects, it is experienced as diffused light. The World Meteorological Organization uses the term "sunshine duration '' to mean the cumulative time during which an area receives direct irradiance from the Sun of at least 120 watts per square meter. Other sources indicate an "Average over the entire earth '' of "164 Watts per square meter over a 24 hour day ''.
The ultraviolet radiation in sunlight has both positive and negative health effects, as it is both a principal source of vitamin D and a mutagen.
Sunlight takes about 8.3 minutes to reach Earth from the surface of the Sun. A photon starting at the center of the Sun and changing direction every time it encounters a charged particle would take between 10,000 and 170,000 years to get to the surface.
Sunlight is a key factor in photosynthesis, the process used by plants and other autotrophic organisms to convert light energy, normally from the Sun, into chemical energy that can be used to fuel the organisms ' activities.
Researchers can measure the intensity of sunlight using a sunshine recorder, pyranometer, or pyrheliometer. To calculate the amount of sunlight reaching the ground, both the eccentricity of Earth 's elliptic orbit and the attenuation by Earth 's atmosphere have to be taken into account. The extraterrestrial solar illuminance (E), corrected for the elliptic orbit by using the day number of the year (dn), is given to a good approximation by
where dn = 1 on January 1st; dn = 32 on February 1st; dn = 59 on March 1 (except on leap years, where dn = 60), etc. In this formula dn -- 3 is used, because in modern times Earth 's perihelion, the closest approach to the Sun and, therefore, the maximum E occurs around January 3 each year. The value of 0.033412 is determined knowing that the ratio between the perihelion (0.98328989 AU) squared and the aphelion (1.01671033 AU) squared should be approximately 0.935338.
The solar illuminance constant (E), is equal to 128 × 10 lx. The direct normal illuminance (E), corrected for the attenuating effects of the atmosphere is given by:
where c is the atmospheric extinction and m is the relative optical airmass. The atmospheric extinction brings the number of lux down to around 100 000.
The total amount of energy received at ground level from the Sun at the zenith depends on the distance to the Sun and thus on the time of year. It is about 3.3 % higher than average in January and 3.3 % lower in July (see below). If the extraterrestrial solar radiation is 1367 watts per square meter (the value when the Earth -- Sun distance is 1 astronomical unit), then the direct sunlight at Earth 's surface when the Sun is at the zenith is about 1050 W / m, but the total amount (direct and indirect from the atmosphere) hitting the ground is around 1120 W / m. In terms of energy, sunlight at Earth 's surface is around 52 to 55 percent infrared (above 700 nm), 42 to 43 percent visible (400 to 700 nm), and 3 to 5 percent ultraviolet (below 400 nm). At the top of the atmosphere, sunlight is about 30 % more intense, having about 8 % ultraviolet (UV), with most of the extra UV consisting of biologically damaging short - wave ultraviolet.
Direct sunlight has a luminous efficacy of about 93 lumens per watt of radiant flux. This is higher than the efficacy (of source) of most artificial lighting (including fluorescent), which means using sunlight for illumination heats up a room less than using most forms of artificial lighting.
Multiplying the figure of 1050 watts per square metre by 93 lumens per watt indicates that bright sunlight provides an illuminance of approximately 98 000 lux (lumens per square meter) on a perpendicular surface at sea level. The illumination of a horizontal surface will be considerably less than this if the Sun is not very high in the sky. Averaged over a day, the highest amount of sunlight on a horizontal surface occurs in January at the South Pole (see insolation).
Dividing the irradiance of 1050 W / m by the size of the sun 's disk in steradians gives an average radiance of 15.4 MW per square metre per steradian. (However, the radiance at the centre of the sun 's disk is somewhat higher than the average over the whole disk due to limb darkening.) Multiplying this by π gives an upper limit to the irradiance which can be focused on a surface using mirrors: 48.5 MW / m.
The spectrum of the Sun 's solar radiation is close to that of a black body with a temperature of about 5,800 K. The Sun emits EM radiation across most of the electromagnetic spectrum. Although the Sun produces gamma rays as a result of the nuclear - fusion process, internal absorption and thermalization convert these super-high - energy photons to lower - energy photons before they reach the Sun 's surface and are emitted out into space. As a result, the Sun does not emit gamma rays from this process, but it does emit gamma rays from solar flares. The Sun also emits X-rays, ultraviolet, visible light, infrared, and even radio waves; the only direct signature of the nuclear process is the emission of neutrinos.
Although the solar corona is a source of extreme ultraviolet and X-ray radiation, these rays make up only a very small amount of the power output of the Sun (see spectrum at right). The spectrum of nearly all solar electromagnetic radiation striking the Earth 's atmosphere spans a range of 100 nm to about 1 mm (1,000,000 nm). This band of significant radiation power can be divided into five regions in increasing order of wavelengths:
Tables of direct solar radiation on various slopes from 0 to 60 degrees north latitude, in calories per square centimetre, issued in 1972 and published by Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station, Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Portland, Oregon, USA, appear on the web.
The solar constant, a measure of flux density, is the amount of incoming solar electromagnetic radiation per unit area that would be incident on a plane perpendicular to the rays, at a distance of one astronomical unit (AU) (roughly the mean distance from the Sun to Earth). The "solar constant '' includes all types of solar radiation, not just the visible light. Its average value was thought to be approximately 1366 W / m2, varying slightly with solar activity, but recent recalibrations of the relevant satellite observations indicate a value closer to 1361 W / m2 is more realistic.
Total solar irradiance (TSI) -- the amount of solar radiation received at the top of Earth 's atmosphere -- has been measured since 1978 by a series of overlapping NASA and ESA satellite experiments to be 1.361 kilo watts per square meter (kW / m2). TSI observations are continuing today with the ACRIMSAT / ACRIM3, SOHO / VIRGO and SORCE / TIM satellite experiments. Variation of TSI has been discovered on many timescales including the solar magnetic cycle and many shorter periodic cycles. TSI provides the energy that drives Earth 's climate, so continuation of the TSI time series database is critical to understanding the role of solar variability in climate change.
Spectral solar irradiance (SSI) -- the spectral distribution of the TSI -- has been monitored since 2003 by the SORCE Spectral Irradiance Monitor (SIM). It has been found that SSI at UV (ultraviolet) wavelength corresponds in a less clear, and probably more complicated fashion, with Earth 's climate responses than earlier assumed, fueling broad avenues of new research in "the connection of the Sun and stratosphere, troposphere, biosphere, ocean, and Earth 's climate ''.
Different bodies of the Solar System receive light of an intensity inversely proportional to the square of their distance from Sun. A rough table comparing the amount of solar radiation received by each planet in the Solar System follows (from data in (1)):
The actual brightness of sunlight that would be observed at the surface depends also on the presence and composition of an atmosphere. For example, Venus 's thick atmosphere reflects more than 60 % of the solar light it receives. The actual illumination of the surface is about 14,000 lux, comparable to that on Earth "in the daytime with overcast clouds ''.
Sunlight on Mars would be more or less like daylight on Earth during a slightly overcast day, and, as can be seen in the pictures taken by the rovers, there is enough diffuse sky radiation that shadows would not seem particularly dark. Thus, it would give perceptions and "feel '' very much like Earth daylight. The spectrum on the surface is slightly redder than that on Earth, due to scattering by reddish dust in the Martian atmosphere.
For comparison, sunlight on Saturn is slightly brighter than Earth sunlight at the average sunset or sunrise (see daylight for comparison table). Even on Pluto, the sunlight would still be bright enough to almost match the average living room. To see sunlight as dim as full moonlight on Earth, a distance of about 500 AU (~ 69 light - hours) is needed; there are only a handful of objects in the Solar System known to orbit farther than such a distance, among them 90377 Sedna and (87269) 2000 OO 67.
The spectrum of surface illumination depends upon solar elevation due to atmospheric effects, with the blue spectral component dominating during twilight before and after sunrise and sunset, respectively, and red dominating during sunrise and sunset. These effects are apparent in natural light photography where the principal source of illumination is sunlight as mediated by the atmosphere.
While the color of the sky is usually determined by Rayleigh scattering, an exception occurs at sunset and twilight. "Preferential absorption of sunlight by ozone over long horizon paths gives the zenith sky its blueness when the sun is near the horizon ''.
See diffuse sky radiation for more details.
The Sun 's electromagnetic radiation which is received at the Earth 's surface is predominantly light that falls within the range of wavelengths to which the visual systems of the animals that inhabit Earth 's surface are sensitive. The Sun may therefore be said to illuminate, which is a measure of the light within a specific sensitivity range. Many animals (including humans) have a sensitivity range of approximately 400 -- 700 nm, and given optimal conditions the absorption and scattering by Earth 's atmosphere produces illumination that approximates an equal - energy illuminant for most of this range. The useful range for color vision in humans, for example, is approximately 450 -- 650 nm. Aside from effects that arise at sunset and sunrise, the spectral composition changes primarily in respect to how directly sunlight is able to illuminate. When illumination is indirect, Rayleigh scattering in the upper atmosphere will lead blue wavelengths to dominate. Water vapour in the lower atmosphere produces further scattering and ozone, dust and water particles will also absorb selective wavelengths.
On Earth, the solar radiation varies with the angle of the sun above the horizon, with longer sunlight duration at high latitudes during summer, varying to no sunlight at all in winter near the pertinent pole. When the direct radiation is not blocked by clouds, it is experienced as sunshine. The warming of the ground (and other objects) depends on the absorption of the electromagnetic radiation in the form of heat.
The amount of radiation intercepted by a planetary body varies inversely with the square of the distance between the star and the planet. Earth 's orbit and obliquity change with time (over thousands of years), sometimes forming a nearly perfect circle, and at other times stretching out to an orbital eccentricity of 5 % (currently 1.67 %). As the orbital eccentricity changes, the average distance from the sun (the semimajor axis does not significantly vary, and so the total insolation over a year remains almost constant due to Kepler 's second law,
where A (\ displaystyle A) is the "areal velocity '' invariant. That is, the integration over the orbital period (also invariant) is a constant.
If we assume the solar radiation power P as a constant over time and the solar irradiation given by the inverse - square law, we obtain also the average insolation as a constant.
But the seasonal and latitudinal distribution and intensity of solar radiation received at Earth 's surface does vary. The effect of sun angle on climate results in the change in solar energy in summer and winter. For example, at latitudes of 65 degrees, this can vary by more than 25 % as a result of Earth 's orbital variation. Because changes in winter and summer tend to offset, the change in the annual average insolation at any given location is near zero, but the redistribution of energy between summer and winter does strongly affect the intensity of seasonal cycles. Such changes associated with the redistribution of solar energy are considered a likely cause for the coming and going of recent ice ages (see: Milankovitch cycles).
Space - based observations of solar irradiance started in 1978. These measurements show that the solar constant is not constant. It varies on many time scales, including the 11 - year sunspot solar cycle. When going further back in time, one has to rely on irradiance reconstructions, using sunspots for the past 400 years or cosmogenic radionuclides for going back 10,000 years. Such reconstructions have been done. These studies show that in addition to the solar irradiance variation with the solar cycle (the (Schwabe) cycle), the solar activitiy varies with longer cycles, such as the proposed 88 year (Gleisberg cycle), 208 year (DeVries cycle) and 1,000 year (Eddy cycle).
The existence of nearly all life on Earth is fueled by light from the Sun. Most autotrophs, such as plants, use the energy of sunlight, combined with carbon dioxide and water, to produce simple sugars -- a process known as photosynthesis. These sugars are then used as building - blocks and in other synthetic pathways that allow the organism to grow.
Heterotrophs, such as animals, use light from the Sun indirectly by consuming the products of autotrophs, either by consuming autotrophs, by consuming their products, or by consuming other heterotrophs. The sugars and other molecular components produced by the autotrophs are then broken down, releasing stored solar energy, and giving the heterotroph the energy required for survival. This process is known as cellular respiration.
In prehistory, humans began to further extend this process by putting plant and animal materials to other uses. They used animal skins for warmth, for example, or wooden weapons to hunt. These skills allowed humans to harvest more of the sunlight than was possible through glycolysis alone, and human population began to grow.
During the Neolithic Revolution, the domestication of plants and animals further increased human access to solar energy. Fields devoted to crops were enriched by inedible plant matter, providing sugars and nutrients for future harvests. Animals that had previously provided humans with only meat and tools once they were killed were now used for labour throughout their lives, fueled by grasses inedible to humans.
The more recent discoveries of coal, petroleum and natural gas are modern extensions of this trend. These fossil fuels are the remnants of ancient plant and animal matter, formed using energy from sunlight and then trapped within Earth for millions of years. Because the stored energy in these fossil fuels has accumulated over many millions of years, they have allowed modern humans to massively increase the production and consumption of primary energy. As the amount of fossil fuel is large but finite, this can not continue indefinitely, and various theories exist as to what will follow this stage of human civilization (e.g., alternative fuels, Malthusian catastrophe, new urbanism, peak oil).
The effect of sunlight is relevant to painting, evidenced for instance in works of Eduard Manet and Claude Monet on outdoor scenes and landscapes.
Many people find direct sunlight to be too bright for comfort, especially when reading from white paper upon which the sun is directly shining. Indeed, looking directly at the sun can cause long - term vision damage. To compensate for the brightness of sunlight, many people wear sunglasses. Cars, many helmets and caps are equipped with visors to block the sun from direct vision when the sun is at a low angle. Sunshine is often blocked from entering buildings through the use of walls, window blinds, awnings, shutters, curtains, or nearby shade trees. Sunshine exposure is needed biologically for the creation of Vitamin D in the skin, a vital compound needed to make strong bone and muscle in the body.
In colder countries, many people prefer sunnier days and often avoid the shade. In hotter countries, the converse is true; during the midday hours, many people prefer to stay inside to remain cool. If they do go outside, they seek shade that may be provided by trees, parasols, and so on.
In many world religions, such as Hinduism, the sun is considered to be a god, as it is the source of life and energy on earth. It also formed the basis for religion in Ancient Egypt.
Sunbathing is a popular leisure activity in which a person sits or lies in direct sunshine. People often sunbathe in comfortable places where there is ample sunlight. Some common places for sunbathing include beaches, open air swimming pools, parks, gardens, and sidewalk cafes. Sunbathers typically wear limited amounts of clothing or some simply go nude. For some, an alternative to sunbathing is the use of a sunbed that generates ultraviolet light and can be used indoors regardless of weather conditions. Tanning beds have been banned in a number of states in the world.
For many people with light skin, one purpose for sunbathing is to darken one 's skin color (get a sun tan), as this is considered in some cultures to be attractive, associated with outdoor activity, vacations / holidays, and health. Some people prefer naked sunbathing so that an "all - over '' or "even '' tan can be obtained, sometimes as part of a specific lifestyle.
Controlled heliotherapy, or sunbathing, has been used as a treatment for psoriasis and other maladies.
Skin tanning is achieved by an increase in the dark pigment inside skin cells called melanocytes, and is an automatic response mechanism of the body to sufficient exposure to ultraviolet radiation from the sun or from artificial sunlamps. Thus, the tan gradually disappears with time, when one is no longer exposed to these sources.
The ultraviolet radiation in sunlight has both positive and negative health effects, as it is both a principal source of vitamin D and a mutagen. A dietary supplement can supply vitamin D without this mutagenic effect, but bypasses natural mechanisms that would prevent overdoses of vitamin D generated internally from sunlight. Vitamin D has a wide range of positive health effects, which include strengthening bones and possibly inhibiting the growth of some cancers. Sun exposure has also been associated with the timing of melatonin synthesis, maintenance of normal circadian rhythms, and reduced risk of seasonal affective disorder.
Long - term sunlight exposure is known to be associated with the development of skin cancer, skin aging, immune suppression, and eye diseases such as cataracts and macular degeneration. Short - term overexposure is the cause of sunburn, snow blindness, and solar retinopathy.
UV rays, and therefore sunlight and sunlamps, are the only listed carcinogens that are known to have health benefits, and a number of public health organizations state that there needs to be a balance between the risks of having too much sunlight or too little. There is a general consensus that sunburn should always be avoided.
Epidemiological data shows that people who have more exposure to the sun have less high blood pressure and cardiovascular - related mortality. While sunlight (and its UV rays) are a risk factor for skin cancer, "sun avoidance may carry more of a cost than benefit for over-all good health. '' A study found that there is no evidence that UV reduces lifespan in contrast to other risk factors like smoking, alcohol and high blood pressure.
Elevated solar UV - B doses increase the frequency of DNA recombination in Arabidopsis thaliana and tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) plants. These increases are accompanied by strong induction of an enzyme with a key role in recombinational repair of DNA damage. Thus the level of terrestrial solar UV - B radiation likely affects genome stability in plants.
Media related to Sunlight at Wikimedia Commons
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believed that workers should own and control the means of production | Socialism - wikipedia
Socialism is a range of economic and social systems characterised by social ownership and workers ' self - management of the means of production as well as the political theories and movements associated with them. Social ownership may refer to forms of public, collective or cooperative ownership, or to citizen ownership of equity. There are many varieties of socialism and there is no single definition encapsulating all of them, though social ownership is the common element shared by its various forms.
Socialist economic systems can be divided into non-market and market forms. Non-market socialism involves the substitution of factor markets and money, with engineering and technical criteria, based on calculation performed in - kind, thereby producing an economic mechanism that functions according to different economic laws from those of capitalism. Non-market socialism aims to circumvent the inefficiencies and crises traditionally associated with capital accumulation and the profit system. By contrast, market socialism retains the use of monetary prices, factor markets and in some cases the profit motive, with respect to the operation of socially owned enterprises and the allocation of capital goods between them. Profits generated by these firms would be controlled directly by the workforce of each firm, or accrue to society at large in the form of a social dividend. The socialist calculation debate discusses the feasibility and methods of resource allocation for a socialist system.
The socialist political movement includes a set of political philosophies that originated in the revolutionary movements of the mid-to - late 18th century and of concern for the social problems that were associated with capitalism. In addition to the debate over markets and planning, the varieties of socialism differ in their form of social ownership, how management is to be organised within productive institutions and the role of the state in constructing socialism. Core dichotomies include reformism versus revolutionary socialism and state socialism versus libertarian socialism. Socialist politics has been both centralist and decentralised; internationalist and nationalist in orientation; organised through political parties and opposed to party politics; at times overlapping with trade unions and at other times independent of -- and critical of -- unions; and present in both industrialised and developing countries. While all tendencies of socialism consider themselves democratic, the term "democratic socialism '' is often used to highlight its advocates ' high value for democratic processes in the economy and democratic political systems, usually to draw contrast to tendencies they may be perceived to be undemocratic in their approach. Democratic socialism is frequently used to draw contrast to the political system of the Soviet Union, which critics argue operated in an authoritarian fashion.
By the late 19th century, after the work of Karl Marx and his collaborator Friedrich Engels, socialism had come to signify opposition to capitalism and advocacy for a post-capitalist system based on some form of social ownership of the means of production. By the 1920s, social democracy and communism had become the two dominant political tendencies within the international socialist movement. By this time, socialism emerged as "the most influential secular movement of the twentieth century, worldwide. It is a political ideology (or world view), a wide and divided political movement '' and while the emergence of the Soviet Union as the world 's first nominally socialist state led to socialism 's widespread association with the Soviet economic model, many economists and intellectuals argued that in practice the model functioned as a form of state capitalism or a non-planned administrative or command economy. Socialist parties and ideas remain a political force with varying degrees of power and influence on all continents, heading national governments in many countries around the world. Today, some socialists have also adopted the causes of other social movements, such as environmentalism, feminism and liberalism.
For Andrew Vincent, "(t) he word ' socialism ' finds its root in the Latin sociare, which means to combine or to share. The related, more technical term in Roman and then medieval law was societas. This latter word could mean companionship and fellowship as well as the more legalistic idea of a consensual contract between freemen ''.
The term "socialism '' was created by Henri de Saint - Simon, one of the founders of what would later be labelled "utopian socialism ''. Simon coined "socialism '' as a contrast to the liberal doctrine of "individualism '', which stressed that people act or should act as if they are in isolation from one another. The original "utopian '' socialists condemned liberal individualism for failing to address social concerns during the industrial revolution, including poverty, social oppression and gross inequalities in wealth, thus viewing liberal individualism as degenerating society into supporting selfish egoism that harmed community life through promoting a society based on competition. They presented socialism as an alternative to liberal individualism based on the shared ownership of resources, although their proposals for socialism differed significantly. Saint - Simon proposed economic planning, scientific administration and the application of modern scientific advancements to the organization of society. By contrast, Robert Owen proposed the organization of production and ownership in cooperatives.
The term "socialism '' is also attributed to Pierre Leroux and to Marie Roch Louis Reybaud in France; and in Britain to Robert Owen in 1827, father of the cooperative movement.
The modern definition and usage of "socialism '' settled by the 1860s, becoming the predominant term among the group of words "co-operative '', "mutualist '' and "associationist '', which had previously been used as synonyms. The term "communism '' also fell out of use during this period, despite earlier distinctions between socialism and communism from the 1840s. An early distinction between socialism and communism was that the former aimed to only socialise production while the latter aimed to socialise both production and consumption (in the form of free access to final goods). However, Marxists employed the term "socialism '' in place of "communism '' by 1888, which had come to be considered an old - fashion synonym for socialism. It was not until 1917 after the Bolshevik Revolution that "socialism '' came to refer to a distinct stage between capitalism and communism, introduced by Vladimir Lenin as a means to defend the Bolshevik seizure of power against traditional Marxist criticisms that Russia 's productive forces were not sufficiently developed for socialist revolution.
A distinction between "communist '' and "socialist '' as descriptors of political ideologies arose in 1918 after the Russian Social - Democratic Labour Party renamed itself to the All - Russian Communist Party, where communist came to specifically mean socialists who supported the politics and theories of Leninism, Bolshevism and later Marxism -- Leninism, although communist parties continued to describe themselves as socialists dedicated to socialism.
The words "socialism '' and "communism '' eventually accorded with the adherents ' and opponents ' cultural attitude towards religion. In Christian Europe, communism was believed to be the atheist way of life. In Protestant England, the word "communism '' was too culturally and aurally close to the Roman Catholic communion rite, hence English atheists denoted themselves socialists. Friedrich Engels argued that in 1848, at the time when The Communist Manifesto was published, that "socialism was respectable on the continent, while communism was not ''. The Owenites in England and the Fourierists in France were considered "respectable '' socialists, while working - class movements that "proclaimed the necessity of total social change '' denoted themselves communists. This latter branch of socialism produced the communist work of Étienne Cabet in France and Wilhelm Weitling in Germany. The British moral philosopher John Stuart Mill also came to advocate a form of economic socialism within a liberal context. In later editions of his Principles of Political Economy (1848), Mill would argue that "as far as economic theory was concerned, there is nothing in principle in economic theory that precludes an economic order based on socialist policies ''. While democrats looked to the Revolutions of 1848 as a democratic revolution, which in the long run ensured liberty, equality and fraternity, Marxists denounced 1848 as a betrayal of working - class ideals by a bourgeoisie indifferent to the legitimate demands of the proletariat.
Socialist models and ideas espousing common or public ownership have existed since antiquity. It has been claimed -- though controversially -- that there were elements of socialist thought in the politics of classical Greek philosophers Plato and Aristotle. Mazdak the Younger (died c. 524 or 528 CE), a Persian communal proto - socialist, instituted communal possessions and advocated the public good. Abū Dharr al - Ghifārī, a Companion of Prophet Muhammad, is credited by many as a principal antecedent of Islamic socialism. The teachings of Jesus the messiah of the Christian religion are frequently highlighted as socialist in nature.. Christian socialism was one of the founding threads of the UK Labour Party and is said to be a tradition going back 600 years to the uprising of Wat Tyler and John Ball. In the period right after the French Revolution, activists and theorists like François - Noël Babeuf, Étienne - Gabriel Morelly, Philippe Buonarroti and Auguste Blanqui influenced the early French labour and socialist movements. In Britain, Thomas Paine proposed a detailed plan to tax property owners to pay for the needs of the poor in Agrarian Justice while Charles Hall wrote The Effects of Civilization on the People in European States, denouncing capitalism 's effects on the poor of his time which influenced the utopian schemes of Thomas Spence.
The first "self - conscious socialist movements developed in the 1820s and 1830s. The Owenites, Saint - Simonians and Fourierists provided a series of coherent analyses and interpretations of society. They also, especially in the case of the Owenites, overlapped with a number of other working - class movements like the Chartists in the United Kingdom ''. The Chartists gathered significant numbers around the People 's Charter of 1838, which demanded the extension of suffrage to all male adults. Leaders in the movement also called for a more equitable distribution of income and better living conditions for the working classes. The very first trade unions and consumers ' cooperative societies also emerged in the hinterland of the Chartist movement as a way of bolstering the fight for these demands. A later important socialist thinker in France was Pierre - Joseph Proudhon, who proposed his philosophy of mutualism in which "everyone had an equal claim, either alone or as part of a small cooperative, to possess and use land and other resources as needed to make a living ''. There were also currents inspired by dissident Christianity of Christian socialism "often in Britain and then usually coming out of left liberal politics and a romantic anti-industrialism '' which produced theorists such as Edward Bellamy, Frederick Denison Maurice and Charles Kingsley.
The first advocates of socialism favoured social levelling in order to create a meritocratic or technocratic society based on individual talent. Count Henri de Saint - Simon is regarded as the first individual to coin the term "socialism ''. Saint - Simon was fascinated by the enormous potential of science and technology and advocated a socialist society that would eliminate the disorderly aspects of capitalism and would be based on equal opportunities. He advocated the creation of a society in which each person was ranked according to his or her capacities and rewarded according to his or her work. The key focus of Saint - Simon 's socialism was on administrative efficiency and industrialism and a belief that science was the key to progress. This was accompanied by a desire to implement a rationally organised economy based on planning and geared towards large - scale scientific and material progress, thus embodied a desire for a more directed or planned economy. Other early socialist thinkers, such as Thomas Hodgkin and Charles Hall, based their ideas on David Ricardo 's economic theories. They reasoned that the equilibrium value of commodities approximated prices charged by the producer when those commodities were in elastic supply and that these producer prices corresponded to the embodied labour -- the cost of the labour (essentially the wages paid) that was required to produce the commodities. The Ricardian socialists viewed profit, interest and rent as deductions from this exchange - value.
West European social critics, including Robert Owen, Charles Fourier, Pierre - Joseph Proudhon, Louis Blanc, Charles Hall, and Saint - Simon were the first modern socialists who criticised the excessive poverty and inequality of the Industrial Revolution. They advocated reform, with some such as Robert Owen advocating the transformation of society to small communities without private property. Robert Owen 's contribution to modern socialism was his understanding that actions and characteristics of individuals were largely determined by the social environment they were raised in and exposed to. On the other hand, Charles Fourier advocated phalansteres which were communities that respected individual desires (including sexual preferences), affinities and creativity and saw that work has to be made enjoyable for people. The ideas of Owen and Fourier were tried in practice in numerous intentional communities around Europe and the American continent in the mid-19th century.
The Paris Commune was a government that briefly ruled Paris from 18 March (more formally, from 28 March) to 28 May 1871. The Commune was the result of an uprising in Paris after France was defeated in the Franco - Prussian War. The Commune elections held on 26 March elected a Commune council of 92 members, one member for each 20,000 residents. Despite internal differences, the council began to organise the public services essential for a city of two million residents. It also reached a consensus on certain policies that tended towards a progressive, secular and highly - democratic social democracy.
Because the Commune was only able to meet on fewer than 60 days in all, only a few decrees were actually implemented. These included the separation of church and state; the remission of rents owed for the entire period of the siege (during which payment had been suspended); the abolition of night work in the hundreds of Paris bakeries; the granting of pensions to the unmarried companions and children of National Guards killed on active service; and the free return, by the city pawnshops, of all workmen 's tools and household items valued up to 20 francs, pledged during the siege. The Commune was concerned that skilled workers had been forced to pawn their tools during the war; the postponement of commercial debt obligations and the abolition of interest on the debts; and the right of employees to take over and run an enterprise if it were deserted by its owner. The Commune nonetheless recognised the previous owner 's right to compensation.
The International Workingmen 's Association (IWA), often called the First International, was founded in London in 1864. The International Workingmen 's Association united diverse revolutionary currents including French followers of Proudhon, Blanquists, Philadelphes, English trade unionists, socialists and social democrats. The IWA held a preliminary conference in 1865 and had its first congress at Geneva in 1866. Due to the wide variety of philosophies present in the First International, there was conflict from the start. The first objections to Marx came from the mutualists who opposed communism and statism. However, shortly after Mikhail Bakunin and his followers (called collectivists while in the International) joined in 1868, the First International became polarised into two camps headed by Marx and Bakunin respectively. The clearest differences between the groups emerged over their proposed strategies for achieving their visions of socialism. The First International became the first major international forum for the promulgation of socialist ideas.
The followers of Bakunin were called collectivist anarchists and sought to collectivise ownership of the means of production while retaining payment proportional to the amount and kind of labor of each individual. Like Proudhonists, they asserted the right of each individual to the product of his labor and to be remunerated for their particular contribution to production. By contrast, anarcho - communists sought collective ownership of both the means and the products of labor. Errico Malatesta put it: "(I) nstead of running the risk of making a confusion in trying to distinguish what you and I each do, let us all work and put everything in common. In this way each will give to society all that his strength permits until enough is produced for every one; and each will take all that he needs, limiting his needs only in those things of which there is not yet plenty for every one ''. Anarcho - communism as a coherent, modern economic - political philosophy was first formulated in the Italian section of the First International by Carlo Cafiero, Emilio Covelli, Errico Malatesta, Andrea Costa and other ex Mazzinian republicans. Out of respect for Mikhail Bakunin, they did not make their differences with collectivist anarchism explicit until after Bakunin 's death.
Syndicalism emerged in France inspired in part by the ideas of Pierre - Joseph Proudhon and later by Fernand Pelloutier and Georges Sorel. It developed at the end of the 19th century out of the French trade - union movement (syndicat is the French word for trade union). It was a significant force in Italy and Spain in the early 20th century until it was crushed by the fascist regimes in those countries. In the United States, syndicalism appeared in the guise of the Industrial Workers of the World, or "Wobblies '', founded in 1905. Syndicalism is an economic system where industries are organised into confederations (syndicates) and the economy is managed by negotiation between specialists and worker representatives of each field, comprising multiple non-competitive categorised units. Syndicalism is thus a form of communism and economic corporatism, but also refers to the political movement and tactics used to bring about this type of system. An influential anarchist movement based on syndicalist ideas is anarcho - syndicalism. The International Workers Association is an international anarcho - syndicalist federation of various labor unions from different countries.
The Fabian Society is a British socialist organisation which was established with the purpose of advancing the principles of socialism via gradualist and reformist means. The society laid many of the foundations of the Labour Party and subsequently affected the policies of states emerging from the decolonisation of the British Empire, most notably India and Singapore. Originally, the Fabian Society was committed to the establishment of a socialist economy, alongside a commitment to British imperialism as a progressive and modernising force. Today, the society functions primarily as a think tank and is one of fifteen socialist societies affiliated with the Labour Party. Similar societies exist in Australia (the Australian Fabian Society), in Canada (the Douglas - Coldwell Foundation and the now disbanded League for Social Reconstruction) and in New Zealand.
Guild socialism is a political movement advocating workers ' control of industry through the medium of trade - related guilds "in an implied contractual relationship with the public ''. It originated in the United Kingdom and was at its most influential in the first quarter of the 20th century. Inspired by medieval guilds, theorists such as Samuel G. Hobson and G.D.H. Cole advocated the public ownership of industries and their organisation into guilds, each of which would be under the democratic control of its trade union. Guild socialists were less inclined than Fabians to invest power in a state. At some point, like the American Knights of Labor, guild socialism wanted to abolish the wage system.
As the ideas of Marx and Engels took on flesh, particularly in central Europe, socialists sought to unite in an international organisation. In 1889 (the centennial of the French Revolution of 1789), the Second International was founded, with 384 delegates from twenty countries representing about 300 labour and socialist organisations. It was termed the Socialist International and Engels was elected honorary president at the third congress in 1893. Anarchists were ejected and not allowed in, mainly due to pressure from Marxists. It has been argued that at some point the Second International turned "into a battleground over the issue of libertarian versus authoritarian socialism. Not only did they effectively present themselves as champions of minority rights; they also provoked the German Marxists into demonstrating a dictatorial intolerance which was a factor in preventing the British labor movement from following the Marxist direction indicated by such leaders as H.M. Hyndman ''.
Reformism arose as an alternative to revolution. Eduard Bernstein was a leading social democrat in Germany who proposed the concept of evolutionary socialism. Revolutionary socialists quickly targeted reformism: Rosa Luxemburg condemned Bernstein 's Evolutionary Socialism in her 1900 essay Social Reform or Revolution?. Revolutionary socialism encompasses multiple social and political movements that may define "revolution '' differently from one another. The Social Democratic Party (SPD) in Germany became the largest and most powerful socialist party in Europe, despite working illegally until the anti-socialist laws were dropped in 1890. In the 1893 elections, it gained 1,787,000 votes, a quarter of the total votes cast, according to Engels. In 1895, the year of his death, Engels emphasised the Communist Manifesto 's emphasis on winning, as a first step, the "battle of democracy ''.
In 1904, Australians elected Chris Watson as the first Australian Labor Party Prime Minister, becoming the first democratically elected social democrat. In 1909, the first Kibbutz was established in Palestine by Russian Jewish Immigrants. The Kibbutz Movement would then expand through the 20th century following a doctrine of Zionist socialism. The British Labour Party first won seats in the House of Commons in 1902. The International Socialist Commission (ISC, also known as Berne International) was formed in February 1919 at a meeting in Bern by parties that wanted to resurrect the Second International.
By 1917, the patriotism of World War I changed into political radicalism in most of Europe, the United States and Australia. Other socialist parties from around the world who were beginning to gain importance in their national politics in the early 20th century included the Italian Socialist Party, the French Section of the Workers ' International, the Spanish Socialist Workers ' Party, the Swedish Social Democratic Party, the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party, the Socialist Party of America in the United States, the Argentinian Socialist Party and the Chilean Partido Obrero Socialista.
In February 1917, revolution exploded in Russia. Workers, soldiers and peasants established soviets (councils), the monarchy fell and a provisional government convoked pending the election of a constituent assembly. In April of that year, Vladimir Lenin, leader of the Bolshevik faction of socialists in Russia and known for his profound and controversial expansions of Marxism, was allowed to cross Germany to return to his country from exile in Switzerland.
Lenin had published essays on his analysis of imperialism, the monopoly and globalisation phase of capitalism as predicted by Marx, as well as analyses on the social conditions of his contemporary time. He observed that as capitalism had further developed in Europe and America, the workers remained unable to gain class consciousness so long as they were too busy working and concerning with how to make ends meet. He therefore proposed that the social revolution would require the leadership of a vanguard party of class - conscious revolutionaries from the educated and politically active part of the population.
Upon arriving in Petrograd, Lenin declared that the revolution in Russia was not over, but had only begun and that the next step was for the workers ' soviets to take full state authority. He issued a thesis outlining the Bolshevik 's party programme, including rejection of any legitimacy in the provisional government and advocacy for state power to be given to the peasant and working class through the soviets. The Bolsheviks became the most influential force in the soviets and on 7 November the capitol of the provisional government was stormed by Bolshevik Red Guards in what afterwards known as the "Great October Socialist Revolution ''. The rule of the provisional government was ended and the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic -- the world 's first constitutionally socialist state -- was established. On 25 January 1918 at the Petrograd Soviet, Lenin declared "Long live the world socialist revolution! '' and proposed an immediate armistice on all fronts and transferred the land of the landed proprietors, the crown and the monasteries to the peasant committees without compensation.
The day after assuming executive power on 25 January, Lenin wrote Draft Regulations on Workers ' Control, which granted workers control of businesses with more than five workers and office employees and access to all books, documents and stocks and whose decisions were to be "binding upon the owners of the enterprises ''. Governing through the elected soviets and in alliance with the peasant - based Left Socialist - Revolutionaries, the Bolshevik government began nationalising banks and industry; and disavowed the national debts of the deposed Romanov royal régime. It sued for peace, withdrawing from World War I and convoked a Constituent Assembly in which the peasant Socialist - Revolutionary Party (SR) won a majority.
The Constituent Assembly elected Socialist - Revolutionary leader Victor Chernov President of a Russian republic, but rejected the Bolshevik proposal that it endorse the Soviet decrees on land, peace and workers ' control and acknowledge the power of the Soviets of Workers ', Soldiers ' and Peasants ' Deputies. The next day, the Bolsheviks declared that the assembly was elected on outdated party lists and the All - Russian Central Executive Committee of the Soviets dissolved it. In March 1919, world communist parties formed Comintern (also known as the Third International) at a meeting in Moscow.
Parties which did not want to be a part of the resurrected Second International (ISC) or Comintern formed the International Working Union of Socialist Parties (IWUSP, also known as Vienna International / Vienna Union / Two - and - a-Half International) on 27 February 1921 at a conference in Vienna. The ISC and the IWUSP joined to form the Labour and Socialist International (LSI) in May 1923 at a meeting in Hamburg Left - wing groups which did not agree to the centralisation and abandonment of the soviets by the Bolshevik Party led left - wing uprisings against the Bolsheviks -- such groups included Socialist Revolutionaries, Left Socialist Revolutionaries, Mensheviks and anarchists.
Within this left - wing discontent, the most large - scale events were the worker 's Kronstadt rebellion and the anarchist led Revolutionary Insurrectionary Army of Ukraine uprising which controlled an area known as the Free Territory.
The Bolshevik Russian Revolution of January 1918 engendered communist parties worldwide and their concomitant revolutions of 1917 -- 1923. Few communists doubted that the Russian success of socialism depended on successful, working - class socialist revolutions in developed capitalist countries. In 1919, Lenin and Trotsky organised the world 's communist parties into a new international association of workers -- the Communist International (Comintern), also called the Third International.
The Russian Revolution also influenced uprisings in other countries around this time. The German Revolution of 1918 -- 1919 resulted in the replacing Germany 's imperial government with a republic. The revolutionary period lasted from November 1918 until the formal establishment of the Weimar Republic in August 1919 and included an episode known as the Bavarian Soviet Republic and the Spartacist uprising. In Italy, the events known as the Biennio Rosso were characterised by mass strikes, worker manifestations and self - management experiments through land and factory occupations. In Turin and Milan, workers ' councils were formed and many factory occupations took place led by anarcho - syndicalists organised around the Unione Sindacale Italiana.
By 1920, the Red Army under its commander Trotsky had largely defeated the royalist White Armies. In 1921, War Communism was ended and under the New Economic Policy (NEP) private ownership was allowed for small and medium peasant enterprises. While industry remained largely state - controlled, Lenin acknowledged that the NEP was a necessary capitalist measure for a country unripe for socialism. Profiteering returned in the form of "NEP men '' and rich peasants (kulaks) gained power in the countryside. Nevertheless, the role of Trotsky in this episode has been questioned by other socialists, including ex Trotskyists. In the United States, Dwight Macdonald broke with Trotsky and left the Trotskyist Socialist Workers Party by raising the question of the Kronstadt rebellion, which Trotsky as leader of the Soviet Red Army and the other Bolsheviks had brutally repressed. He then moved towards democratic socialism. and anarchism.
A similar critique of Trotsky 's role on the events around the Kronstadt rebellion was raised by the American anarchist Emma Goldman. In her essay "Trotsky Protests Too Much '', she says: "I admit, the dictatorship under Stalin 's rule has become monstrous. That does not, however, lessen the guilt of Leon Trotsky as one of the actors in the revolutionary drama of which Kronstadt was one of the bloodiest scenes ''.
In 1922, the fourth congress of the Communist International took up the policy of the United Front, urging communists to work with rank and file Social Democrats while remaining critical of their leaders, whom they criticised for betraying the working class by supporting the war efforts of their respective capitalist classes. For their part, the social democrats pointed to the dislocation caused by revolution and later the growing authoritarianism of the communist parties. When the Communist Party of Great Britain applied to affiliate to the Labour Party in 1920, it was turned down.
On seeing the Soviet State 's growing coercive power in 1923, a dying Lenin said Russia had reverted to "a bourgeois tsarist machine... barely varnished with socialism ''. After Lenin 's death in January 1924, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union -- then increasingly under the control of Joseph Stalin -- rejected the theory that socialism could not be built solely in the Soviet Union in favour of the concept of "socialism in one country ''. Despite the marginalised Left Opposition 's demand for the restoration of Soviet democracy, Stalin developed a bureaucratic, authoritarian government that was condemned by democratic socialists, anarchists and Trotskyists for undermining the initial socialist ideals of the Bolshevik Russian Revolution.
In 1924, the Mongolian People 's Republic was established and was ruled by the Mongolian People 's Party. The Russian Revolution and the appearance of the Soviet State motivated a worldwide current of national communist parties which ended having varying levels of political and social influence. Among these there appeared the Communist Party of France, the Communist Party USA, the Italian Communist Party, the Chinese Communist Party, the Mexican Communist Party, the Brazilian Communist Party, the Chilean Communist Party and the Communist Party of Indonesia.
In Spain in 1936, the national anarcho - syndicalist trade union Confederación Nacional del Trabajo (CNT) initially refused to join a popular front electoral alliance and abstention by CNT supporters led to a right - wing election victory. In 1936, the CNT changed its policy and anarchist votes helped bring the popular front back to power. Months later, the former ruling class responded with an attempted coup, sparking the Spanish Civil War (1936 -- 1939).
In response to the army rebellion, an anarchist - inspired movement of peasants and workers, supported by armed militias, took control of Barcelona and of large areas of rural Spain where they collectivised the land. The events known as the Spanish Revolution was a workers ' social revolution that began during the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War in 1936 and resulted in the widespread implementation of anarchist and more broadly libertarian socialist organisational principles throughout various portions of the country for two to three years, primarily Catalonia, Aragon, Andalusia and parts of Levante.
Much of Spain 's economy was put under worker control and in anarchist strongholds like Catalonia the figure was as high as 75 %, but lower in areas with heavy Communist Party of Spain influence, as the Soviet - allied party actively resisted attempts at collectivisation enactment. Factories were run through worker committees, agrarian areas became collectivised and run as libertarian communes. Anarchist historian Sam Dolgoff estimated that about eight million people participated directly or indirectly in the Spanish Revolution.
Leon Trotsky 's Fourth International was established in France in 1938 when Trotskyists argued that the Comintern or Third International had become irretrievably "lost to Stalinism '' and thus incapable of leading the international working class to political power. The rise of Nazism and the start of World War II led to the dissolution of the LSI in 1940. After the War, the Socialist International was formed in Frankfurt in July 1951 as a successor to the LSI.
After World War II, social democratic governments introduced social reform and wealth redistribution via state welfare and taxation. Social democratic parties dominated post-war politics in countries such as France, Italy, Czechoslovakia, Belgium and Norway. At one point, France claimed to be the world 's most state - controlled capitalist country. The nationalised public utilities included Charbonnages de France (CDF), Electricité de France (EDF), Gaz de France (GDF), Air France, Banque de France and Régie Nationale des Usines Renault.
In 1945, the British Labour Party led by Clement Attlee was elected to office based on a radical socialist programme. The Labour government nationalised major public utilities such as mines, gas, coal, electricity, rail, iron, steel and the Bank of England. British Petroleum was officially nationalised in 1951. Anthony Crosland said that in 1956 25 % of British industry was nationalised and that public employees, including those in nationalised industries, constituted a similar proportion of the country 's total employed population. The Labour Governments of 1964 -- 1970 and 1974 -- 1979 intervened further. It re-nationalised steel (1967, British Steel) after the Conservatives had denationalised it and nationalised car production (1976, British Leyland). The National Health Service provided taxpayer - funded health care to everyone, free at the point of service. Working - class housing was provided in council housing estates and university education became available via a school grant system.
The Nordic model is the economic and social models of the Nordic countries (Denmark, Iceland, Norway, Sweden and Finland). During most of the post-war era, Sweden was governed by the Swedish Social Democratic Party largely in cooperation with trade unions and industry. In Sweden, the Social Democratic Party held power from 1936 to 1976, 1982 to 1991, 1994 to 2006 and 2014 to present. Tage Erlander was the leader of the Swedish Social Democratic Party and led the government from 1946 to 1969, an uninterrupted tenure of twenty - three years, one of the longest in any democracy. From 1945 to 1962, the Norwegian Labour Party held an absolute majority in the parliament led by Einar Gerhardsen who was Prime Minister with seventeen years in office. This particular adaptation of the mixed market economy is characterised by more generous welfare states (relative to other developed countries), which are aimed specifically at enhancing individual autonomy, ensuring the universal provision of basic human rights and stabilising the economy. It is distinguished from other welfare states with similar goals by its emphasis on maximising labour force participation, promoting gender equality, egalitarian and extensive benefit levels, large magnitude of redistribution and expansionary fiscal policy.
The Soviet Union played a decisive role in the Allied victory in World War II. After the war, the Soviet Union became a recognised superpower. The Soviet era saw some of the most significant technological achievements of the 20th century, including the world 's first spacecraft and the first astronaut. The Soviet economy was the modern world 's first centrally planned economy. It was based on a system of state ownership of industry managed through Gosplan (the State Planning Commission), Gosbank (the State Bank) and the Gossnab (State Commission for Materials and Equipment Supply).
Economic planning was conducted through a series of Five - Year Plans. The emphasis was on fast development of heavy industry and the nation became one of the world 's top manufacturers of a large number of basic and heavy industrial products, but it lagged in light industrial production and consumer durables.
The Eastern Bloc was the group of former Communist states of Central and Eastern Europe, generally the Soviet Union and the countries of the Warsaw Pact which included the People 's Republic of Poland, the German Democratic Republic, the People 's Republic of Hungary, the People 's Republic of Bulgaria, the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic, the Socialist Republic of Romania, the People 's Socialist Republic of Albania and the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. The Hungarian Revolution of 1956 was a spontaneous nationwide revolt against the government of the People 's Republic of Hungary and its Soviet - imposed policies, lasting from 23 October until 10 November 1956. Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev 's denunciation of the excesses of Stalin 's regime during the Twentieth Party Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union on 1956 as well as the revolt in Hungary, produced ideological fractures and disagreements within the communist and socialist parties of Western Europe.
In the post-war years, socialism became increasingly influential throughout the so - called Third World. Embracing a new Third World socialism, countries in Africa, Asia and Latin America often nationalised industries held by foreign owners. The Chinese Kuomintang Party, the previous ruling party in Taiwan, was referred to as having a socialist ideology since Kuomintang 's revolutionary ideology in the 1920s incorporated unique Chinese socialism as part of its ideology. The Soviet Union trained Kuomintang revolutionaries in the Moscow Sun Yat - sen University. Movie theatres in the Soviet Union showed newsreels and clips of Chiang at Moscow Sun Yat - sen University portraits of Chiang were hung on the walls and in the Soviet May Day parades that year Chiang 's portrait was to be carried along with the portraits of Marx, Lenin, Stalin and other socialist leaders.
The Chinese Revolution was the second stage in the Chinese Civil War which ended in the establishment of the People 's Republic of China led by the Chinese Communist Party. The term "Third World '' was coined by French demographer Alfred Sauvy in 1952 on the model of the Third Estate, which according to the Abbé Sieyès represented everything, but was nothing "because at the end this ignored, exploited, scorned Third World like the Third Estate, wants to become something too ''.
The emergence of this new political entity in the frame of the Cold War was complex and painful. Several tentatives were made to organise newly independent states in order to oppose a common front towards both the United States ' and the Soviet Union 's influence on them, with the consequences of the Sino - Soviet split already at works. The Non-Aligned Movement constituted itself around the main figures of Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru of India, President Sukarno of Indonesia, leader Josip Broz Tito of Yugoslavia and Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt who successfully opposed the French and British imperial powers during the 1956 Suez crisis. After the 1954 Geneva Conference which ended the French war against Ho Chi Minh in Vietnam, the 1955 Bandung Conference gathered Nasser, Nehru, Tito, Sukarno and Zhou Enlai, Premier of the People 's Republic of China.
As many African countries gained independence during the 1960s, some of them rejected capitalism in favour of a more afrocentric economic model. The main architects of African socialism were Julius Nyerere of Tanzania, Léopold Senghor of Senegal, Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana and Sékou Touré of Guinea.
The Cuban Revolution (1953 -- 1959) was an armed revolt conducted by Fidel Castro 's 26th of July Movement and its allies against the government of Cuban President Fulgencio Batista. The revolution began in July 1953 and finally ousted Batista on 1 January 1959, replacing his government with Castro 's revolutionary state. Castro 's government later reformed along communist lines, becoming the Communist Party of Cuba in October 1965.
In Indonesia, a right - wing military regime led by Suharto killed between 500,000 and one million people in 1965 and 1966, mainly to crush the growing influence of the Communist Party of Indonesia and other leftist sectors, with support from the United States government, which provided kill lists containing thousands of names of suspected high - ranking Communists.
The New Left was a term used mainly in the United Kingdom and United States in reference to activists, educators, agitators and others in the 1960s and 1970s who sought to implement a broad range of reforms on issues such as gay rights, abortion, gender roles and drugs in contrast to earlier leftist or Marxist movements that had taken a more vanguardist approach to social justice and focused mostly on labour unionisation and questions of social class. The New Left rejected involvement with the labour movement and Marxism 's historical theory of class struggle.
In the United States, the New Left was associated with the Hippie movement and anti-war college campus protest movements as well as the black liberation movements such as the Black Panther Party. While initially formed in opposition to the "Old Left '' Democratic Party, groups composing the New Left gradually became central players in the Democratic coalition.
The protests of 1968 represented a worldwide escalation of social conflicts, predominantly characterised by popular rebellions against military, capitalist and bureaucratic elites who responded with an escalation of political repression. These protests marked a turning point for the civil rights movement in the United States, which produced revolutionary movements like the Black Panther Party; the prominent civil rights leader Martin Luther King Jr. organised the "Poor People 's Campaign '' to address issues of economic justice, while personally showing sympathy with democratic socialism. In reaction to the Tet Offensive, protests also sparked a broad movement in opposition to the Vietnam War all over the United States and even into London, Paris, Berlin and Rome. In 1968 in Carrara, Italy, the International of Anarchist Federations was founded during an international anarchist conference held there by the three existing European federations of France, the Italian and the Iberian Anarchist Federation as well as the Bulgarian federation in French exile.
Mass socialist or communist movements grew not only in the United States, but also in most European countries. The most spectacular manifestation of this were the May 1968 protests in France in which students linked up with strikes of up to ten million workers and for a few days the movement seemed capable of overthrowing the government.
In many other capitalist countries, struggles against dictatorships, state repression and colonisation were also marked by protests in 1968, such as the beginning of the Troubles in Northern Ireland, the Tlatelolco massacre in Mexico City and the escalation of guerrilla warfare against the military dictatorship in Brazil. Countries governed by communist parties had protests against bureaucratic and military elites. In Eastern Europe there were widespread protests that escalated particularly in the Prague Spring in Czechoslovakia. In response, Soviet Union occupied Czechoslovakia, but the occupation was denounced by the Italian and French communist parties and the Communist Party of Finland. Few western European political leaders defended the occupation, among them the Portuguese communist secretary - general Álvaro Cunhal. along with the Luxembourg party and conservative factions of the Communist Party of Greece.
In the Chinese Cultural Revolution, a social - political youth movement mobilised against "bourgeois '' elements which were seen to be infiltrating the government and society at large, aiming to restore capitalism. This movement motivated Maoism - inspired movements around the world in the context of the Sino - Soviet split.
In Latin America in the 1960s, a socialist tendency within the catholic church appeared which was called liberation theology which motivated even the Colombian priest Camilo Torres to enter the ELN guerrilla. In Chile, Salvador Allende, a physician and candidate for the Socialist Party of Chile, was elected president through democratic elections in 1970. In 1973, his government was ousted by the United States - backed military dictatorship of Augusto Pinochet, which lasted until the late 1980s. In Jamaica, the democratic socialist Michael Manley served as the fourth Prime Minister of Jamaica from 1972 to 1980 and from 1989 to 1992. According to opinion polls, he remains one of Jamaica 's most popular Prime Ministers since independence. The Nicaraguan Revolution encompassed the rising opposition to the Somoza dictatorship in the 1960s and 1970s, the campaign led by the Sandinista National Liberation Front (FSLN) to violently oust the dictatorship in 1978 -- 1979, the subsequent efforts of the FSLN to govern Nicaragua from 1979 until 1990 and the socialist measures which included widescale agrarian reform and educational programs. The People 's Revolutionary Government was proclaimed on 13 March 1979 in Grenada which was overthrown by armed forces of the United States in 1983. The Salvadoran Civil War (1979 -- 1992) was a conflict between the military - led government of El Salvador and the Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front (FMLN), a coalition or umbrella organisation of five socialist guerrilla groups. A coup on 15 October 1979 led to the killings of anti-coup protesters by the government as well as anti-disorder protesters by the guerillas, and is widely seen as the tipping point towards the civil war.
In Italy, Autonomia Operaia was a leftist movement particularly active from 1976 to 1978. It took an important role in the autonomist movement in the 1970s, aside earlier organisations such as Potere Operaio (created after May 1968) and Lotta Continua. This experience prompted the contemporary socialist radical movement autonomism. In 1982, the newly elected French socialist government of François Mitterrand made nationalisations in a few key industries, including banks and insurance companies. Eurocommunism was a trend in the 1970s and 1980s in various Western European communist parties to develop a theory and practice of social transformation that was more relevant for a Western European country and less aligned to the influence or control of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. Outside Western Europe, it is sometimes called neocommunism. Some communist parties with strong popular support, notably the Italian Communist Party (PCI) and the Communist Party of Spain (PCE) adopted Eurocommunism most enthusiastically and the Communist Party of Finland was dominated by Eurocommunists. The French Communist Party (PCF) and many smaller parties strongly opposed Eurocommunism and stayed aligned with the Communist Party of the Soviet Union until the end of the Soviet Union.
In the late 1970s and in the 1980s, the Socialist International (SI) had extensive contacts and discussion with the two powers of the Cold War, the United States and the Soviet Union, about East - West relations and arms control. Since then, the SI has admitted as member parties the Nicaraguan FSLN, the left - wing Puerto Rican Independence Party, as well as former communist parties such as the Democratic Party of the Left of Italy and the Front for the Liberation of Mozambique (FRELIMO). The SI aided social democratic parties in re-establishing themselves when dictatorship gave way to democracy in Portugal (1974) and Spain (1975). Until its 1976 Geneva Congress, the SI had few members outside Europe and no formal involvement with Latin America.
After Mao 's death in 1976 and the arrest of the faction known as the Gang of Four, who were blamed for the excesses of the Cultural Revolution, Deng Xiaoping took power and led the People 's Republic of China to significant economic reforms. The Communist Party of China loosened governmental control over citizens ' personal lives and the communes were disbanded in favour of private land leases, thus China 's transition from a planned economy to a mixed economy named as "socialism with Chinese characteristics '' which maintained state ownership rights over land, state or cooperative ownership of much of the heavy industrial and manufacturing sectors and state influence in the banking and financial sectors. China adopted its current constitution on 4 December 1982. President Jiang Zemin and Premier Zhu Rongji led the nation in the 1990s. Under their administration, China 's economic performance pulled an estimated 150 million peasants out of poverty and sustained an average annual gross domestic product growth rate of 11.2 %. At the Sixth National Congress of the Communist Party of Vietnam in December 1986, reformist politicians replaced the "old guard '' government with new leadership. The reformers were led by 71 - year - old Nguyen Van Linh, who became the party 's new general secretary. Linh and the reformers implemented a series of free market reforms -- known as Đổi Mới ("Renovation '') -- which carefully managed the transition from a planned economy to a "socialist - oriented market economy ''. Mikhail Gorbachev wished to move the Soviet Union towards of Nordic - style social democracy, calling it "a socialist beacon for all mankind ''. Prior to its dissolution in 1991, the Soviet Union had the second largest economy in the world after the United States. With the collapse of the Soviet Union, the economic integration of the Soviet republics was dissolved and overall industrial activity declined substantially. A lasting legacy remains in the physical infrastructure created during decades of combined industrial production practices, and widespread environmental destruction.
Many social democratic parties, particularly after the Cold War, adopted neoliberal market policies including privatisation, deregulation and financialisation. They abandoned their pursuit of moderate socialism in favour of market liberalism. By the 1980s, with the rise of conservative neoliberal politicians such as Ronald Reagan in the United States, Margaret Thatcher in Britain, Brian Mulroney in Canada and Augusto Pinochet in Chile, the Western welfare state was attacked from within, but state support for the corporate sector was maintained. Monetarists and neoliberals attacked social welfare systems as impediments to private entrepreneurship. In the United Kingdom, Labour Party leader Neil Kinnock made a public attack against the entryist group Militant at the 1985 Labour Party conference. The Labour Party ruled that Militant was ineligible for affiliation with the Labour Party, and the party gradually expelled Militant supporters. The Kinnock leadership had refused to support the 1984 -- 1985 miner 's strike over pit closures, a decision that the party 's left wing and the National Union of Mineworkers blamed for the strike 's eventual defeat. In 1989 at Stockholm, the 18th Congress of the Socialist International adopted a new Declaration of Principles, saying:
Democratic socialism is an international movement for freedom, social justice, and solidarity. Its goal is to achieve a peaceful world where these basic values can be enhanced and where each individual can live a meaningful life with the full development of his or her personality and talents, and with the guarantee of human and civil rights in a democratic framework of society.
In the 1990s, the British Labour Party under Tony Blair enacted policies based on the free market economy to deliver public services via the private finance initiative. Influential in these policies was the idea of a "Third Way '' which called for a re-evalutation of welfare state policies. In 1995, the Labour Party re-defined its stance on socialism by re-wording Clause IV of its constitution, effectively rejecting socialism by removing all references to public, direct worker or municipal ownership of the means of production. The Labour Party stated: "The Labour Party is a democratic socialist party. It believes that, by the strength of our common endeavour we achieve more than we achieve alone, so as to create, for each of us, the means to realise our true potential, and, for all of us, a community in which power, wealth, and opportunity are in the hands of the many, not the few ''.
Kristen R. Ghodsee, Professor of Russian and East European Studies at the University of Pennsylvania, posits that the triumphalist attitudes of Western powers at the end of the Cold War, and the fixation with linking all leftist and socialist ideals with the excesses of Stalinism, allowed neoliberalism to fill the void, which undermined democratic institutions and reforms, leaving a trail of economic misery, unemployment, hopelessness and rising economic inequality throughout the former Eastern Bloc and much of the West in the following decades. According to Ghodsee, with democracy weakened and the anti-capitalist Left marginalized, the anger and resentment which followed the period of neoliberalism was channeled into extremist nationalist movements in both the former and the latter.
African socialism has been and continues to be a major ideology around the continent. Julius Nyerere was inspired by Fabian socialist ideals. He was a firm believer in rural Africans and their traditions and ujamaa, a system of collectivisation that according to Nyerere was present before European imperialism. Essentially he believed Africans were already socialists. Other African socialists include Jomo Kenyatta, Kenneth Kaunda, Nelson Mandela and Kwame Nkrumah. Fela Kuti was inspired by socialism and called for a democratic African republic. In South Africa the African National Congress (ANC) abandoned its partial socialist allegiances after taking power and followed a standard neoliberal route. From 2005 through to 2007, the country was wracked by many thousands of protests from poor communities. One of these gave rise to a mass movement of shack dwellers, Abahlali baseMjondolo that despite major police suppression continues to work for popular people 's planning and against the creation of a market economy in land and housing.
In Asia, states with socialist economies -- such as the People 's Republic of China, North Korea, Laos and Vietnam -- have largely moved away from centralised economic planning in the 21st century, placing a greater emphasis on markets. Forms include the Chinese socialist market economy and the Vietnamese socialist - oriented market economy. They utilise state - owned corporate management models as opposed to modelling socialist enterprise on traditional management styles employed by government agencies. In China living standards continued to improve rapidly despite the late - 2000s recession, but centralised political control remained tight. Brian Reynolds Myers in his book The Cleanest Race, later supported by other academics, dismisses the idea that Juche is North Korea 's leading ideology, regarding its public exaltation as designed to deceive foreigners and that it exists to be praised and not actually read, pointing out that North Korea 's constitution of 2009 omits all mention of communism.
Though the authority of the state remained unchallenged under Đổi Mới, the government of Vietnam encourages private ownership of farms and factories, economic deregulation and foreign investment, while maintaining control over strategic industries. The Vietnamese economy subsequently achieved strong growth in agricultural and industrial production, construction, exports and foreign investment. However, these reforms have also caused a rise in income inequality and gender disparities.
Elsewhere in Asia, some elected socialist parties and communist parties remain prominent, particularly in India and Nepal. The Communist Party of Nepal in particular calls for multi-party democracy, social equality and economic prosperity. In Singapore, a majority of the GDP is still generated from the state sector comprising government - linked companies. In Japan, there has been a resurgent interest in the Japanese Communist Party among workers and youth. In Malaysia, the Socialist Party of Malaysia got its first Member of Parliament, Dr. Jeyakumar Devaraj, after the 2008 general election. In 2010, there were 270 kibbutzim in Israel. Their factories and farms account for 9 % of Israel 's industrial output, worth US $8 billion and 40 % of its agricultural output, worth over $1.7 billion. Some Kibbutzim had also developed substantial high - tech and military industries. Also in 2010, Kibbutz Sasa, containing some 200 members, generated $850 million in annual revenue from its military - plastics industry.
The United Nations World Happiness Report 2013 shows that the happiest nations are concentrated in Northern Europe, where the Nordic model of social democracy is employed, with Denmark topping the list. This is at times attributed to the success of the Nordic model in the region. The Nordic countries ranked highest on the metrics of real GDP per capita, healthy life expectancy, having someone to count on, perceived freedom to make life choices, generosity and freedom from corruption. Indeed, the indicators of Freedom in the World have listed Scandinavian countries as ranking high on indicators such as press and economic freedom. The objectives of the Party of European Socialists, the European Parliament 's socialist and social democratic bloc, are now "to pursue international aims in respect of the principles on which the European Union is based, namely principles of freedom, equality, solidarity, democracy, respect of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, and respect for the Rule of Law ''. As a result, today the rallying cry of the French Revolution -- Liberté, égalité, fraternité -- is promoted as essential socialist values. To the left of the PES at the European level is the Party of the European Left (PEL), also commonly abbreviated "European Left ''), which is a political party at the European level and an association of democratic socialist, socialist and communist political parties in the European Union and other European countries. It was formed in January 2004 for the purposes of running in the 2004 European Parliament elections. PEL was founded on 8 -- 9 May 2004 in Rome. Elected MEPs from member parties of the European Left sit in the European United Left -- Nordic Green Left (GUE / NGL) group in the European parliament.
The socialist Left Party in Germany grew in popularity due to dissatisfaction with the increasingly neoliberal policies of the SPD, becoming the fourth biggest party in parliament in the general election on 27 September 2009. Communist candidate Dimitris Christofias won a crucial presidential runoff in Cyprus, defeating his conservative rival with a majority of 53 %. In Ireland, in the 2009 European election Joe Higgins of the Socialist Party took one of three seats in the capital Dublin European constituency.
In Denmark, the Socialist People 's Party (SF) more than doubled its parliamentary representation to 23 seats from 11, making it the fourth largest party. In 2011, the Social Democrats, Socialist People 's Party and the Danish Social Liberal Party formed government, after a slight victory over the main rival political coalition. They were led by Helle Thorning - Schmidt, and had the Red - Green Alliance as a supporting party.
In Norway, the Red - Green Coalition consists of the Labour Party (Ap), the Socialist Left Party (SV) and the Centre Party (Sp) and governed the country as a majority government from the 2005 general election until 2013.
In the Greek legislative election of January 2015, the Coalition of the Radical Left (SYRIZA) led by Alexis Tsipras won a legislative election for the first time while the Communist Party of Greece won 15 seats in parliament. SYRIZA has been characterised as an anti-establishment party, whose success has sent "shock - waves across the EU ''.
In the United Kingdom, the National Union of Rail, Maritime and Transport Workers put forward a slate of candidates in the 2009 European Parliament elections under the banner of No to EU -- Yes to Democracy, a broad left - wing alter - globalisation coalition involving socialist groups such as the Socialist Party, aiming to offer an alternative to the "anti-foreigner '' and pro-business policies of the UK Independence Party. In the following May 2010 United Kingdom general election, the Trade Unionist and Socialist Coalition, launched in January 2010 and backed by Bob Crow, the leader of the National Union of Rail, Maritime and Transport Workers union (RMT), other union leaders and the Socialist Party among other socialist groups, stood against Labour in 40 constituencies. The Trade Unionist and Socialist Coalition contested the 2011 local elections, having gained the endorsement of the RMT June 2010 conference, but gained no seats. Left Unity was also founded in 2013 after the film director Ken Loach appealed for a new party of the left to replace the Labour Party, which he claimed had failed to oppose austerity and had shifted towards neoliberalism. In 2015, following a defeat at the 2015 United Kingdom general election, self - described socialist Jeremy Corbyn took over from Ed Miliband as leader of the Labour Party.
In France, Olivier Besancenot, the Revolutionary Communist League (LCR) candidate in the 2007 presidential election, received 1,498,581 votes, 4.08 %, double that of the communist candidate. The LCR abolished itself in 2009 to initiate a broad anti-capitalist party, the New Anticapitalist Party, whose stated aim is to "build a new socialist, democratic perspective for the twenty - first century ''.
On 25 May 2014, the Spanish left - wing party Podemos entered candidates for the 2014 European parliamentary elections, some of which were unemployed. In a surprise result, it polled 7.98 % of the vote and thus was awarded five seats out of 54 while the older United Left was the third largest overall force obtaining 10.03 % and 5 seats, 4 more than the previous elections.
The current government of Portugal was established on 26 November 2015 as a Socialist Party (PS) minority government led by prime minister António Costa. Costa succeeded in securing support for a Socialist minority government by the Left Bloc (B.E.), the Portuguese Communist Party (PCP) and the Ecologist Party "The Greens '' (PEV).
All around Europe and in some places of Latin America there exists a social center and squatting movement mainly inspired by autonomist and anarchist ideas.
According to a 2013 article in The Guardian, "(c) ontrary to popular belief, Americans do n't have an innate allergy to socialism. Milwaukee has had several socialist mayors (Frank Zeidler, Emil Seidel and Daniel Hoan), and there is currently an independent socialist in the US Senate, Bernie Sanders of Vermont ''. Sanders, once mayor of Vermont 's largest city, Burlington, has described himself as a democratic socialist and has praised Scandinavian - style social democracy. In 2016, Sanders made a bid for the Democratic Party presidential candidate, thereby gaining considerable popular support, particularly among the younger generation, but lost the nomination to Hillary Clinton.
Anti-capitalism, anarchism and the anti-globalisation movement rose to prominence through events such as protests against the World Trade Organization Ministerial Conference of 1999 in Seattle. Socialist - inspired groups played an important role in these movements, which nevertheless embraced much broader layers of the population and were championed by figures such as Noam Chomsky. In Canada, the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (CCF), the precursor to the social democratic New Democratic Party (NDP), had significant success in provincial politics. In 1944, the Saskatchewan CCF formed the first socialist government in North America. At the federal level, the NDP was the Official Opposition, from 2011 through 2015.
For the Encyclopedia Britannica, "the attempt by Salvador Allende to unite Marxists and other reformers in a socialist reconstruction of Chile is most representative of the direction that Latin American socialists have taken since the late 20th century. (...) Several socialist (or socialist - leaning) leaders have followed Allende 's example in winning election to office in Latin American countries ''. Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez, Nicaraguan President Daniel Ortega, Bolivian President Evo Morales and Ecuadorian president Rafael Correa refer to their political programmes as socialist and Chávez adopted the term "socialism of the 21st century ''. After winning re-election in December 2006, Chávez said: "Now more than ever, I am obliged to move Venezuela 's path towards socialism ''. Chávez was also reelected in October 2012 for his third six - year term as President, but he died in March 2013 from cancer. After Chávez 's death on 5 March 2013, Vice President from Chavez 's party Nicolás Maduro assumed the powers and responsibilities of the President. A special election was held on 14 April of the same year to elect a new President, which Maduro won by a tight margin as the candidate of the United Socialist Party of Venezuela and he was formally inaugurated on 19 April. "Pink tide '' is a term being used in contemporary 21st - century political analysis in the media and elsewhere to describe the perception that leftist ideology in general and left - wing politics in particular are increasingly influential in Latin America.
Foro de São Paulo is a conference of leftist political parties and other organisations from Latin America and the Caribbean. It was launched by the Workers ' Party (Portuguese: Partido dos Trabalhadores -- PT) of Brazil in 1990 in the city of São Paulo. The Forum of São Paulo was constituted in 1990 when the Brazilian Workers ' Party approached other parties and social movements of Latin America and the Caribbean with the objective of debating the new international scenario after the fall of the Berlin Wall and the consequences of the implementation of what were taken as neoliberal policies adopted at the time by contemporary right - leaning governments in the region, the stated main objective of the conference being to argue for alternatives to neoliberalism. Among its member include current socialist and social - democratic parties currently in government in the region such as Bolivia 's Movement for Socialism, Brazil 's Workers Party, the Communist Party of Cuba, the Ecuadorian PAIS Alliance, the Venezuelan United Socialist Party of Venezuela, the Socialist Party of Chile, the Uruguayan Broad Front, the Nicaraguan Sandinista National Liberation Front and the salvadorean Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front.
The Progressive Alliance is a political international founded on 22 May 2013 by political parties, the majority of whom are current or former members of the Socialist International. The organisation states the aim of becoming the global network of "the progressive '', democratic, social - democratic, socialist and labour movement ".
Early socialist thought took influences from a diverse range of philosophies such as civic republicanism, Enlightenment rationalism, romanticism, forms of materialism, Christianity (both Catholic and Protestant), natural law and natural rights theory, utilitarianism and liberal political economy. Another philosophical basis for a lot of early socialism was the emergence of positivism during the European Enlightenment. Positivism held that both the natural and social worlds could be understood through scientific knowledge and be analyzed using scientific methods. This core outlook influenced early social scientists and different types of socialists ranging from anarchists like Peter Kropotkin to technocrats like Saint Simon.
The fundamental objective of socialism is to attain an advanced level of material production and therefore greater productivity, efficiency and rationality as compared to capitalism and all previous systems, under the view that an expansion of human productive capability is the basis for the extension of freedom and equality in society. Many forms of socialist theory hold that human behaviour is largely shaped by the social environment. In particular, socialism holds that social mores, values, cultural traits and economic practices are social creations and not the result of an immutable natural law. The object of their critique is thus not human avarice or human consciousness, but the material conditions and man - made social systems (i.e. the economic structure of society) that gives rise to observed social problems and inefficiencies. Bertrand Russell, often considered to be the father of analytic philosophy, identified as a socialist. Russell opposed the class struggle aspects of Marxism, viewing socialism solely as an adjustment of economic relations to accommodate modern machine production to benefit all of humanity through the progressive reduction of necessary work time.
Socialists view creativity as an essential aspect of human nature and define freedom as a state of being where individuals are able to express their creativity unhindered by constraints of both material scarcity and coercive social institutions. The socialist concept of individuality is thus intertwined with the concept of individual creative expression. Karl Marx believed that expansion of the productive forces and technology was the basis for the expansion of human freedom and that socialism, being a system that is consistent with modern developments in technology, would enable the flourishing of "free individualities '' through the progressive reduction of necessary labour time. The reduction of necessary labour time to a minimum would grant individuals the opportunity to pursue the development of their true individuality and creativity.
Socialists argue that the accumulation of capital generates waste through externalities that require costly corrective regulatory measures. They also point out that this process generates wasteful industries and practices that exist only to generate sufficient demand for products to be sold at a profit (such as high - pressure advertisement), thereby creating rather than satisfying economic demand.
Socialists argue that capitalism consists of irrational activity, such as the purchasing of commodities only to sell at a later time when their price appreciates, rather than for consumption, even if the commodity can not be sold at a profit to individuals in need and therefore a crucial criticism often made by socialists is that "making money '', or accumulation of capital, does not correspond to the satisfaction of demand (the production of use - values). The fundamental criterion for economic activity in capitalism is the accumulation of capital for reinvestment in production, but this spurs the development of new, non-productive industries that do not produce use - value and only exist to keep the accumulation process afloat (otherwise the system goes into crisis), such as the spread of the financial industry, contributing to the formation of economic bubbles.
Socialists view private property relations as limiting the potential of productive forces in the economy. According to socialists, private property becomes obsolete when it concentrates into centralised, socialised institutions based on private appropriation of revenue -- but based on cooperative work and internal planning in allocation of inputs -- until the role of the capitalist becomes redundant. With no need for capital accumulation and a class of owners, private property in the means of production is perceived as being an outdated form of economic organization that should be replaced by a free association of individuals based on public or common ownership of these socialised assets. Private ownership imposes constraints on planning, leading to uncoordinated economic decisions that result in business fluctuations, unemployment and a tremendous waste of material resources during crisis of overproduction.
Excessive disparities in income distribution lead to social instability and require costly corrective measures in the form of redistributive taxation, which incurs heavy administrative costs while weakening the incentive to work, inviting dishonesty and increasing the likelihood of tax evasion while (the corrective measures) reduce the overall efficiency of the market economy. These corrective policies limit the incentive system of the market by providing things such as minimum wages, unemployment insurance, taxing profits and reducing the reserve army of labor, resulting in reduced incentives for capitalists to invest in more production. In essence, social welfare policies cripple capitalism and its incentive system and are thus unsustainable in the long - run. Marxists argue that the establishment of a socialist mode of production is the only way to overcome these deficiencies. Socialists and specifically Marxian socialists argue that the inherent conflict of interests between the working class and capital prevent optimal use of available human resources and leads to contradictory interest groups (labor and business) striving to influence the state to intervene in the economy in their favor at the expense of overall economic efficiency.
Early socialists (utopian socialists and Ricardian socialists) criticised capitalism for concentrating power and wealth within a small segment of society. In addition, they complained that capitalism does not utilise available technology and resources to their maximum potential in the interests of the public.
At a certain stage of development, the material productive forces of society come into conflict with the existing relations of production or -- this merely expresses the same thing in legal terms -- with the property relations within the framework of which they have operated hitherto. Then begins an era of social revolution. The changes in the economic foundation lead sooner or later to the transformation of the whole immense superstructure.
Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels argued that socialism would emerge from historical necessity as capitalism rendered itself obsolete and unsustainable from increasing internal contradictions emerging from the development of the productive forces and technology. It was these advances in the productive forces combined with the old social relations of production of capitalism that would generate contradictions, leading to working - class consciousness.
Marx and Engels held the view that the consciousness of those who earn a wage or salary (the working class in the broadest Marxist sense) would be moulded by their conditions of wage slavery, leading to a tendency to seek their freedom or emancipation by overthrowing ownership of the means of production by capitalists and consequently, overthrowing the state that upheld this economic order. For Marx and Engels, conditions determine consciousness and ending the role of the capitalist class leads eventually to a classless society in which the state would wither away. The Marxist conception of socialism is that of a specific historical phase that would displace capitalism and precede communism. The major characteristics of socialism (particularly as conceived by Marx and Engels after the Paris Commune of 1871) are that the proletariat would control the means of production through a workers ' state erected by the workers in their interests. Economic activity would still be organised through the use of incentive systems and social classes would still exist, but to a lesser and diminishing extent than under capitalism.
For orthodox Marxists, socialism is the lower stage of communism based on the principle of "from each according to his ability, to each according to his contribution '' while upper stage communism is based on the principle of "from each according to his ability, to each according to his need '', the upper stage becoming possible only after the socialist stage further develops economic efficiency and the automation of production has led to a superabundance of goods and services. Marx argued that the material productive forces (in industry and commerce) brought into existence by capitalism predicated a cooperative society since production had become a mass social, collective activity of the working class to create commodities but with private ownership (the relations of production or property relations). This conflict between collective effort in large factories and private ownership would bring about a conscious desire in the working class to establish collective ownership commensurate with the collective efforts their daily experience.
Socialists have taken different perspectives on the state and the role it should play in revolutionary struggles, in constructing socialism and within an established socialist economy.
In the 19th century the philosophy of state socialism was first explicitly expounded by the German political philosopher Ferdinand Lassalle. In contrast to Karl Marx 's perspective of the state, Lassalle rejected the concept of the state as a class - based power structure whose main function was to preserve existing class structures. Thus Lassalle also rejected the Marxist view that the state was destined to "wither away ''. Lassalle considered the state to be an entity independent of class allegiances and an instrument of justice that would therefore be essential for achieving socialism.
Preceding the Bolshevik - led revolution in Russia, many socialists including reformists, orthodox Marxist currents such as council communism, anarchists and libertarian socialists criticised the idea of using the state to conduct central planning and own the means of production as a way to establish socialism. Following the victory of Leninism in Russia, the idea of "state socialism '' spread rapidly throughout the socialist movement and eventually state socialism came to be identified with the Soviet economic model.
Joseph Schumpeter rejected the association of socialism (and social ownership) with state ownership over the means of production because the state as it exists in its current form is a product of capitalist society and can not be transplanted to a different institutional framework. Schumpeter argued that there would be different institutions within socialism than those that exist within modern capitalism, just as feudalism had its own distinct and unique institutional forms. The state, along with concepts like property and taxation, were concepts exclusive to commercial society (capitalism) and attempting to place them within the context of a future socialist society would amount to a distortion of these concepts by using them out of context.
Utopian socialism is a term used to define the first currents of modern socialist thought as exemplified by the work of Henri de Saint - Simon, Charles Fourier and Robert Owen, which inspired Karl Marx and other early socialists. However, visions of imaginary ideal societies, which competed with revolutionary social democratic movements, were viewed as not being grounded in the material conditions of society and as reactionary. Although it is technically possible for any set of ideas or any person living at any time in history to be a utopian socialist, the term is most often applied to those socialists who lived in the first quarter of the 19th century who were ascribed the label "utopian '' by later socialists as a negative term in order to imply naivete and dismiss their ideas as fanciful or unrealistic.
Religious sects whose members live communally such as the Hutterites, for example, are not usually called "utopian socialists '', although their way of living is a prime example. They have been categorised as religious socialists by some. Likewise, modern intentional communities based on socialist ideas could also be categorised as "utopian socialist ''.
For Marxists, the development of capitalism in Western Europe provided a material basis for the possibility of bringing about socialism because according to The Communist Manifesto "(w) hat the bourgeoisie produces above all is its own grave diggers '', namely the working class, which must become conscious of the historical objectives set it by society.
Revolutionary socialists believe that a social revolution is necessary to effect structural changes to the socioeconomic structure of society. Among revolutionary socialists there are differences in strategy, theory and the definition of "revolution ''. Orthodox Marxists and left communists take an impossibilist stance, believing that revolution should be spontaneous as a result of contradictions in society due to technological changes in the productive forces. Lenin theorised that under capitalism the workers can not achieve class consciousness beyond organising into unions and making demands of the capitalists. Therefore, Leninists advocate that it is historically necessary for a vanguard of class conscious revolutionaries to take a central role in coordinating the social revolution to overthrow the capitalist state and eventually the institution of the state altogether. "Revolution '' is not necessarily defined by revolutionary socialists as violent insurrection, but as a complete dismantling and rapid transformation of all areas of class society led by the majority of the masses: the working class.
Reformism is generally associated with social democracy and gradualist democratic socialism. Reformism is the belief that socialists should stand in parliamentary elections within capitalist society and if elected utilise the machinery of government to pass political and social reforms for the purposes of ameliorating the instabilities and inequities of capitalism.
Socialist economics starts from the premise that "individuals do not live or work in isolation but live in cooperation with one another. Furthermore, everything that people produce is in some sense a social product, and everyone who contributes to the production of a good is entitled to a share in it. Society as a whole, therefore, should own or at least control property for the benefit of all its members ''.
The original conception of socialism was an economic system whereby production was organised in a way to directly produce goods and services for their utility (or use - value in classical and Marxian economics): the direct allocation of resources in terms of physical units as opposed to financial calculation and the economic laws of capitalism (see law of value), often entailing the end of capitalistic economic categories such as rent, interest, profit and money. In a fully developed socialist economy, production and balancing factor inputs with outputs becomes a technical process to be undertaken by engineers.
Market socialism refers to an array of different economic theories and systems that utilise the market mechanism to organise production and to allocate factor inputs among socially owned enterprises, with the economic surplus (profits) accruing to society in a social dividend as opposed to private capital owners. Variations of market socialism include libertarian proposals such as mutualism, based on classical economics, and neoclassical economic models such as the Lange Model. However, some economists such as Joseph Stiglitz, Mancur Olson and others not specifically advancing anti-socialists positions have shown that prevailing economic models upon which such democratic or market socialism models might be based have logical flaws or unworkable presuppositions.
The ownership of the means of production can be based on direct ownership by the users of the productive property through worker cooperative; or commonly owned by all of society with management and control delegated to those who operate / use the means of production; or public ownership by a state apparatus. Public ownership may refer to the creation of state - owned enterprises, nationalisation, municipalisation or autonomous collective institutions. Some socialists feel that in a socialist economy, at least the "commanding heights '' of the economy must be publicly owned. However, economic liberals and right libertarians view private ownership of the means of production and the market exchange as natural entities or moral rights which are central to their conceptions of freedom and liberty and view the economic dynamics of capitalism as immutable and absolute, therefore they perceive public ownership of the means of production, cooperatives and economic planning as infringements upon liberty.
Management and control over the activities of enterprises are based on self - management and self - governance, with equal power - relations in the workplace to maximise occupational autonomy. A socialist form of organisation would eliminate controlling hierarchies so that only a hierarchy based on technical knowledge in the workplace remains. Every member would have decision - making power in the firm and would be able to participate in establishing its overall policy objectives. The policies / goals would be carried out by the technical specialists that form the coordinating hierarchy of the firm, who would establish plans or directives for the work community to accomplish these goals.
The role and use of money in a hypothetical socialist economy is a contested issue. According to the Austrian school economist Ludwig von Mises, an economic system that does not use money, financial calculation and market pricing would be unable to effectively value capital goods and coordinate production and therefore these types of socialism are impossible because they lack the necessary information to perform economic calculation in the first place. Socialists including Karl Marx, Robert Owen, Pierre - Joseph Proudhon and John Stuart Mill advocated various forms of labour vouchers or labour credits, which like money would be used to acquire articles of consumption, but unlike money they are unable to become capital and would not be used to allocate resources within the production process. Bolshevik revolutionary Leon Trotsky argued that money could not be arbitrarily abolished following a socialist revolution. Money had to exhaust its "historic mission '', meaning it would have to be used until its function became redundant, eventually being transformed into bookkeeping receipts for statisticians and only in the more distant future would money not be required for even that role.
The economic anarchy of capitalist society as it exists today is, in my opinion, the real source of the evil... I am convinced there is only one way to eliminate these grave evils, namely through the establishment of a socialist economy, accompanied by an educational system which would be oriented toward social goals. In such an economy, the means of production are owned by society itself and are utilised in a planned fashion. A planned economy, which adjusts production to the needs of the community, would distribute the work to be done among all those able to work and would guarantee a livelihood to every man, woman, and child. The education of the individual, in addition to promoting his own innate abilities, would attempt to develop in him a sense of responsibility for his fellow men in place of the glorification of power and success in our present society.
A planned economy is a type of economy consisting of a mixture of public ownership of the means of production and the coordination of production and distribution through economic planning. There are two major types of planning: decentralised - planning and centralised - planning. Enrico Barone provided a comprehensive theoretical framework for a planned socialist economy. In his model, assuming perfect computation techniques, simultaneous equations relating inputs and outputs to ratios of equivalence would provide appropriate valuations in order to balance supply and demand.
The most prominent example of a planned economy was the economic system of the Soviet Union and as such the centralised - planned economic model is usually associated with the communist states of the 20th century, where it was combined with a single - party political system. In a centrally planned economy, decisions regarding the quantity of goods and services to be produced are planned in advance by a planning agency (see also the analysis of Soviet - type economic planning). The economic systems of the Soviet Union and the Eastern Bloc are further classified as "command economies '', which are defined as systems where economic coordination is undertaken by commands, directives and production targets. Studies by economists of various political persuasions on the actual functioning of the Soviet economy indicate that it was not actually a planned economy. Instead of conscious planning, the Soviet economy was based on a process whereby the plan was modified by localised agents and the original plans went largely unfulfilled. Planning agencies, ministries and enterprises all adapted and bargained with each other during the formulation of the plan as opposed to following a plan passed down from a higher authority, leading some economists to suggest that planning did not actually take place within the Soviet economy and that a better description would be an "administered '' or "managed '' economy.
Although central planning was largely supported by Marxist -- Leninists, some factions within the Soviet Union before the rise of Stalinism held positions contrary to central planning. Leon Trotsky rejected central planning in favour of decentralised planning. He argued that central planners, regardless of their intellectual capacity, would be unable to coordinate effectively all economic activity within an economy because they operated without the input and tacit knowledge embodied by the participation of the millions of people in the economy. As a result, central planners would be unable to respond to local economic conditions. State socialism is unfeasible in this view because information can not be aggregated by a central body and effectively used to formulate a plan for an entire economy, because doing so would result in distorted or absent price signals.
A self - managed, decentralised economy is based on autonomous self - regulating economic units and a decentralised mechanism of resource allocation and decision - making. This model has found support in notable classical and neoclassical economists including Alfred Marshall, John Stuart Mill and Jaroslav Vanek. There are numerous variations of self - management, including labour - managed firms and worker - managed firms. The goals of self - management are to eliminate exploitation and reduce alienation. Guild socialism is a political movement advocating workers ' control of industry through the medium of trade - related guilds "in an implied contractual relationship with the public ''. It originated in the United Kingdom and was at its most influential in the first quarter of the 20th century. It was strongly associated with G.D.H. Cole and influenced by the ideas of William Morris.
One such system is the cooperative economy, a largely free market economy in which workers manage the firms and democratically determine remuneration levels and labour divisions. Productive resources would be legally owned by the cooperative and rented to the workers, who would enjoy usufruct rights. Another form of decentralised planning is the use of cybernetics, or the use of computers to manage the allocation of economic inputs. The socialist - run government of Salvador Allende in Chile experimented with Project Cybersyn, a real - time information bridge between the government, state enterprises and consumers. Another, more recent variant is participatory economics, wherein the economy is planned by decentralised councils of workers and consumers. Workers would be remunerated solely according to effort and sacrifice, so that those engaged in dangerous, uncomfortable and strenuous work would receive the highest incomes and could thereby work less. A contemporary model for a self - managed, non-market socialism is Pat Devine 's model of negotiated coordination. Negotiated coordination is based upon social ownership by those affected by the use of the assets involved, with decisions made by those at the most localised level of production.
Michel Bauwens identifies the emergence of the open software movement and peer - to - peer production as a new alternative mode of production to the capitalist economy and centrally planned economy that is based on collaborative self - management, common ownership of resources and the production of use - values through the free cooperation of producers who have access to distributed capital.
Anarcho - communism is a theory of anarchism which advocates the abolition of the state, private property and capitalism in favour of common ownership of the means of production. Anarcho - syndicalism was practiced in Catalonia and other places in the Spanish Revolution during the Spanish Civil War. Sam Dolgoff estimated that about eight million people participated directly or at least indirectly in the Spanish Revolution.
The economy of the former Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia established a system based on market - based allocation, social ownership of the means of production and self - management within firms. This system substituted Yugoslavia 's Soviet - type central planning with a decentralised, self - managed system after reforms in 1953.
The Marxian economist Richard D. Wolff argues that "re-organising production so that workers become collectively self - directed at their work - sites '' not only moves society beyond both capitalism and state socialism of the last century, but would also mark another milestone in human history, similar to earlier transitions out of slavery and feudalism. As an example, Wolff claims that Mondragon is "a stunningly successful alternative to the capitalist organisation of production ''.
State socialism can be used to classify any variety of socialist philosophies that advocates the ownership of the means of production by the state apparatus, either as a transitional stage between capitalism and socialism, or as an end - goal in itself. Typically it refers to a form of technocratic management, whereby technical specialists administer or manage economic enterprises on behalf of society (and the public interest) instead of workers ' councils or workplace democracy.
A state - directed economy may refer to a type of mixed economy consisting of public ownership over large industries, as promoted by various Social democratic political parties during the 20th century. This ideology influenced the policies of the British Labour Party during Clement Attlee 's administration. In the biography of the 1945 United Kingdom Labour Party Prime Minister Clement Attlee, Francis Beckett states: "(T) he government... wanted what would become known as a mixed economy ''.
Nationalisation in the United Kingdom was achieved through compulsory purchase of the industry (i.e. with compensation). British Aerospace was a combination of major aircraft companies British Aircraft Corporation, Hawker Siddeley and others. British Shipbuilders was a combination of the major shipbuilding companies including Cammell Laird, Govan Shipbuilders, Swan Hunter and Yarrow Shipbuilders, whereas the nationalisation of the coal mines in 1947 created a coal board charged with running the coal industry commercially so as to be able to meet the interest payable on the bonds which the former mine owners ' shares had been converted into.
Market socialism consists of publicly owned or cooperatively owned enterprises operating in a market economy. It is a system that utilises the market and monetary prices for the allocation and accounting of the means of production, thereby retaining the process of capital accumulation. The profit generated would be used to directly remunerate employees, collectively sustain the enterprise or finance public institutions. In state - oriented forms of market socialism, in which state enterprises attempt to maximise profit, the profits can be used to fund government programs and services through a social dividend, eliminating or greatly diminishing the need for various forms of taxation that exist in capitalist systems. Neoclassical economist Léon Walras believed that a socialist economy based on state ownership of land and natural resources would provide a means of public finance to make income taxes unnecessary. Yugoslavia implemented a market socialist economy based on cooperatives and worker self - management.
Mutualism is an economic theory and anarchist school of thought that advocates a society where each person might possess a means of production, either individually or collectively, with trade representing equivalent amounts of labour in the free market. Integral to the scheme was the establishment of a mutual - credit bank that would lend to producers at a minimal interest rate, just high enough to cover administration. Mutualism is based on a labour theory of value that holds that when labour or its product is sold, in exchange it ought to receive goods or services embodying "the amount of labour necessary to produce an article of exactly similar and equal utility ''.
The current economic system in China is formally referred to as a socialist market economy with Chinese characteristics. It combines a large state sector that comprises the commanding heights of the economy, which are guaranteed their public ownership status by law, with a private sector mainly engaged in commodity production and light industry responsible from anywhere between 33 % to over 70 % of GDP generated in 2005. Although there has been a rapid expansion of private - sector activity since the 1980s, privatisation of state assets was virtually halted and were partially reversed in 2005. The current Chinese economy consists of 150 corporatised state - owned enterprises that report directly to China 's central government. By 2008, these state - owned corporations had become increasingly dynamic and generated large increases in revenue for the state, resulting in a state - sector led recovery during the 2009 financial crises while accounting for most of China 's economic growth. However, the Chinese economic model is widely cited as a contemporary form of state capitalism, the major difference between Western capitalism and the Chinese model being the degree of state - ownership of shares in publicly listed corporations.
The Socialist Republic of Vietnam has adopted a similar model after the Doi Moi economic renovation, but slightly differs from the Chinese model in that the Vietnamese government retains firm control over the state sector and strategic industries, but allows for private - sector activity in commodity production.
The major socialist political movements are described below. Independent socialist theorists, utopian socialist authors and academic supporters of socialism may not be represented in these movements. Some political groups have called themselves socialist while holding views that some consider antithetical to socialism. The term "socialist '' has also been used by some politicians on the political right as an epithet against certain individuals who do not consider themselves to be socialists and against policies that are not considered socialist by their proponents.
There are many variations of socialism and as such there is no single definition encapsulating all of socialism. However, there have been common elements identified by scholars. In his Dictionary of Socialism (1924), Angelo S. Rappoport analysed forty definitions of socialism to conclude that common elements of socialism include: general criticisms of the social effects of private ownership and control of capital -- as being the cause of poverty, low wages, unemployment, economic and social inequality and a lack of economic security; a general view that the solution to these problems is a form of collective control over the means of production, distribution and exchange (the degree and means of control vary amongst socialist movements); an agreement that the outcome of this collective control should be a society based upon social justice, including social equality, economic protection of people and should provide a more satisfying life for most people. In The Concepts of Socialism (1975), Bhikhu Parekh identifies four core principles of socialism and particularly socialist society: sociality, social responsibility, cooperation and planning. In his study Ideologies and Political Theory (1996), Michael Freeden states that all socialists share five themes: the first is that socialism posits that society is more than a mere collection of individuals; second, that it considers human welfare a desirable objective; third, that it considers humans by nature to be active and productive; fourth, it holds the belief of human equality; and fifth, that history is progressive and will create positive change on the condition that humans work to achieve such change.
Anarchism is a political philosophy that advocates stateless societies often defined as self - governed voluntary institutions, but that several authors have defined as more specific institutions based on non-hierarchical free associations. Anarchism holds the state to be undesirable, unnecessary or harmful. While anti-statism is central, some argue that anarchism entails opposing authority or hierarchical organisation in the conduct of human relations including, but not limited to, the state system. Mutualists advocate market socialism, collectivist anarchists workers cooperatives and salaries based on the amount of time contributed to production, anarcho - communists advocate a direct transition from capitalism to libertarian communism and a gift economy and anarcho - syndicalists worker 's direct action and the general strike.
Modern democratic socialism is a broad political movement that seeks to promote the ideals of socialism within the context of a democratic system. Some democratic socialists support social democracy as a temporary measure to reform the current system while others reject reformism in favour of more revolutionary methods. Modern social democracy emphasises a program of gradual legislative modification of capitalism in order to make it more equitable and humane, while the theoretical end goal of building a socialist society is either completely forgotten or redefined in a pro-capitalist way. The two movements are widely similar both in terminology and in ideology, although there are a few key differences.
The major difference between social democracy and democratic socialism is the object of their politics: contemporary social democrats support a welfare state and unemployment insurance as a means to "humanise '' capitalism, whereas democratic socialists seek to replace capitalism with a socialist economic system, arguing that any attempt to "humanise '' capitalism through regulations and welfare policies would distort the market and create economic contradictions.
Democratic socialism generally refers to any political movement that seeks to establish an economy based on economic democracy by and for the working class. Democratic socialism is difficult to define and groups of scholars have radically different definitions for the term. Some definitions simply refer to all forms of socialism that follow an electoral, reformist or evolutionary path to socialism rather than a revolutionary one.
You ca n't talk about ending the slums without first saying profit must be taken out of slums. You 're really tampering and getting on dangerous ground because you are messing with folk then. You are messing with captains of industry. Now this means that we are treading in difficult water, because it really means that we are saying that something is wrong with capitalism. There must be a better distribution of wealth, and maybe America must move toward a democratic socialism.
Blanquism refers to a conception of revolution generally attributed to Louis Auguste Blanqui which holds that socialist revolution should be carried out by a relatively small group of highly organised and secretive conspirators. Having seized power, the revolutionaries would then use the power of the state to introduce socialism. It is considered a particular sort of "putschism '' -- that is, the view that political revolution should take the form of a putsch or coup d'état. Rosa Luxemburg and Eduard Bernstein have criticised Vladimir Lenin that his conception of revolution was elitist and essentially Blanquist. Marxism -- Leninism is a political ideology combining Marxism (the scientific socialist concepts theorised by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels) and Leninism (Lenin 's theoretical expansions of Marxism which include anti-imperialism, democratic centralism and party - building principles). Marxism -- Leninism was the official ideology of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and of the Communist International (1919 -- 1943) and later it became the main guiding ideology for Trotskyists, Maoists and Stalinists.
Libertarian socialism (sometimes called social anarchism, left - libertarianism and socialist libertarianism) is a group of anti-authoritarian political philosophies inside the socialist movement that rejects socialism as centralised state ownership and control of the economy including criticism of wage labour relationships within the workplace, as well as the state itself. It emphasises workers ' self - management of the workplace and decentralised structures of political organization, asserting that a society based on freedom and equality can be achieved through abolishing authoritarian institutions that control certain means of production and subordinate the majority to an owning class or political and economic elite. Libertarian socialists generally place their hopes in decentralised means of direct democracy and federal or confederal associations such as libertarian municipalism, citizens ' assemblies, trade unions, and workers ' councils. Relatedly, anarcho - syndicalist Gaston Leval explained: "We therefore foresee a Society in which all activities will be coordinated, a structure that has, at the same time, sufficient flexibility to permit the greatest possible autonomy for social life, or for the life of each enterprise, and enough cohesiveness to prevent all disorder... In a well - organized society, all of these things must be systematically accomplished by means of parallel federations, vertically united at the highest levels, constituting one vast organism in which all economic functions will be performed in solidarity with all others and that will permanently preserve the necessary cohesion ''. All of this is generally done within a general call for libertarian and voluntary human relationships through the identification, criticism and practical dismantling of illegitimate authority in all aspects of human life. As such, libertarian socialism within the larger socialist movement seeks to distinguish itself both from Leninism / Bolshevism and from social democracy.
Past and present political philosophies and movements commonly described as libertarian socialist include anarchism (especially anarchist communism, anarchist collectivism, anarcho - syndicalism and mutualism) as well as autonomism, Communalism, participism, revolutionary syndicalism and libertarian Marxist philosophies such as council communism and Luxemburgism; as well as some versions of utopian socialism and individualist anarchism.
Christian socialism is a broad concept involving an intertwining of the Christian religion with the politics and economic theories of socialism.
Islamic socialism is a term coined by various Muslim leaders to describe a more spiritual form of socialism. Muslim socialists believe that the teachings of the Qur'an and Muhammad are compatible with principles of equality and public ownership drawing inspiration from the early Medina welfare state established by Muhammad. Muslim socialists are more conservative than their western contemporaries and find their roots in anti-imperialism, anti-colonialism and Arab nationalism. Islamic socialist leaders believe in democracy and deriving legitimacy from public mandate as opposed to religious texts.
Social democracy is a political ideology which "is derived from a socialist tradition of political thought. Many social democrats refer to themselves as socialists or democratic socialists, and some use these terms interchangeably. Others have opined that there are clear differences between the three terms, and preferred to describe their own political beliefs by using the term ' social democracy ' only ''. There are two main directions, either to establish democratic socialism, or to build a welfare state within the framework of the capitalist system. The first variant has officially its goal by establishing democratic socialism through reformist and gradualist methods. In the second variant, social democracy becomes a policy regime involving a welfare state, collective bargaining schemes, support for publicly financed public services and a capitalist - based economy like a mixed economy. It is often used in this manner to refer to the social models and economic policies prominent in Western and Northern Europe during the later half of the 20th century. It has been described by Jerry Mander as "hybrid '' economics, an active collaboration of capitalist and socialist visions and while such systems are not perfect they tend to provide high standards of living. Numerous studies and surveys indicate that people tend to live happier lives in social democratic societies rather than neoliberal ones.
Social democrats supporting the first variant advocate for a peaceful, evolutionary transition of the economy to socialism through progressive social reform of capitalism. It asserts that the only acceptable constitutional form of government is representative democracy under the rule of law. It promotes extending democratic decision - making beyond political democracy to include economic democracy to guarantee employees and other economic stakeholders sufficient rights of co-determination. It supports a mixed economy that opposes the excesses of capitalism such as inequality, poverty and oppression of various groups, while rejecting both a totally free market or a fully planned economy. Common social democratic policies include advocacy of universal social rights to attain universally accessible public services such as education, health care, workers ' compensation and other services, including child care and care for the elderly. Social democracy is connected with the trade union labour movement and supports collective bargaining rights for workers. Most social democratic parties are affiliated with the Socialist International.
Liberal socialism is a socialist political philosophy that includes liberal principles within it. Liberal socialism does not have the goal of abolishing capitalism with a socialist economy, instead it supports a mixed economy that includes both public and private property in capital goods. Although liberal socialism unequivocally favors a mixed market economy, it identifies legalistic and artificial monopolies to be the fault of capitalism and opposes an entirely unregulated economy. It considers both liberty and equality to be compatible and mutually dependent on each other. Principles that can be described as "liberal socialist '' have been based upon or developed by the following philosophers: John Stuart Mill, Eduard Bernstein, John Dewey, Carlo Rosselli, Norberto Bobbio and Chantal Mouffe. Other important liberal socialist figures include Guido Calogero, Piero Gobetti, Leonard Trelawny Hobhouse, John Maynard Keynes and R.H. Tawney. Liberal socialism has been particularly prominent in British and Italian politics.
Socialist feminism is a branch of feminism that focuses upon both the public and private spheres of a woman 's life and argues that liberation can only be achieved by working to end both the economic and cultural sources of women 's oppression. Marxist feminism 's foundation is laid by Friedrich Engels in his analysis of gender oppression in The Origin of the Family, Private Property, and the State (1884). August Bebel 's Woman under Socialism (1879), the "single work dealing with sexuality most widely read by rank - and - file members of the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) ''. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, both Clara Zetkin and Eleanor Marx were against the demonisation of men and supported a proletariat revolution that would overcome as many male - female inequalities as possible. As their movement already had the most radical demands in women 's equality, most Marxist leaders, including Clara Zetkin and Alexandra Kollontai, counterposed Marxism against liberal feminism rather than trying to combine them. Anarcha - feminism began with late 19th and early 20th century authors and theorists such as anarchist feminists Emma Goldman and Voltairine de Cleyre In the Spanish Civil War, an anarcha - feminist group, Mujeres Libres ("Free Women '') linked to the Federación Anarquista Ibérica, organised to defend both anarchist and feminist ideas. In 1972, the Chicago Women 's Liberation Union published "Socialist Feminism: A Strategy for the Women 's Movement '', which is believed to be the first to use the term "socialist feminism '' in publication.
Many socialists were early advocates for LGBT rights. For early socialist Charles Fourier, true freedom could only occur without suppressing passions, as the suppression of passions is not only destructive to the individual, but to society as a whole. Writing before the advent of the term "homosexuality '', Fourier recognised that both men and women have a wide range of sexual needs and preferences which may change throughout their lives, including same - sex sexuality and androgénité. He argued that all sexual expressions should be enjoyed as long as people are not abused and that "affirming one 's difference '' can actually enhance social integration. In Oscar Wilde 's The Soul of Man Under Socialism, he passionately advocates for an egalitarian society where wealth is shared by all, while warning of the dangers of social systems that crush individuality. Wilde 's libertarian socialist politics were shared by other figures who actively campaigned for homosexual emancipation in the late 19th century such as Edward Carpenter. The Intermediate Sex: A Study of Some Transitional Types of Men and Women was a book from 1908 and an early work arguing for gay liberation written by Edward Carpenter who was also an influential personality in the foundation of the Fabian Society and the Labour Party. After the Russian Revolution under the leadership of Vladimir Lenin and Leon Trotsky, the Soviet Union abolished previous laws against homosexuality. Harry Hay was an early leader in the American LGBT rights movement as well as a member of the Communist Party USA. He is known for his roles in helping to found several gay organisations, including the Mattachine Society, the first sustained gay rights group in the United States which in its early days had a strong marxist influence. The Encyclopedia of Homosexuality reports that "(a) s Marxists the founders of the group believed that the injustice and oppression which they suffered stemmed from relationships deeply embedded in the structure of American society ''. Also emerging from a number of events, such as the May 1968 insurrection in France, the anti-Vietnam war movement in the United States and the Stonewall riots of 1969, militant gay liberation organisations began to spring up around the world. Many saw their roots in left radicalism more than in the established homophile groups of the time, though the Gay Liberation Front took an anti-capitalist stance and attacked the nuclear family and traditional gender roles.
Eco-socialism, green socialism or socialist ecology is a political position merging aspects of Marxism, socialism and / or libertarian socialism with that of green politics, ecology and alter - globalisation. Eco-socialists generally believe that the expansion of the capitalist system is the cause of social exclusion, poverty, war and environmental degradation through globalisation and imperialism, under the supervision of repressive states and transnational structures. Contrary to the depiction of Karl Marx by some environmentalists, social ecologists and fellow socialists as a productivist who favoured the domination of nature, eco-socialists have revisited Marx 's writings and believe that he "was a main originator of the ecological world - view ''. Eco-socialist authors, like John Bellamy Foster and Paul Burkett, point to Marx 's discussion of a "metabolic rift '' between man and nature, his statement that "private ownership of the globe by single individuals will appear quite absurd as private ownership of one man by another '' and his observation that a society must "hand it (the planet) down to succeeding generations in an improved condition ''. The English socialist William Morris is largely credited with developing key principles of what was later called eco-socialism. During the 1880s and 1890s, Morris promoted his eco-socialist ideas within the Social Democratic Federation and Socialist League. Green anarchism, or ecoanarchism, is a school of thought within anarchism which puts a particular emphasis on environmental issues. An important early influence was the thought of the American anarchist Henry David Thoreau and his book Walden and Élisée Reclus.
In the late 19th century, there emerged anarcho - naturism as the fusion of anarchism and naturist philosophies within individualist anarchist circles in France, Spain, Cuba and Portugal. Social ecology is closely related to the work and ideas of Murray Bookchin and influenced by anarchist Peter Kropotkin. Bookchin 's first book, Our Synthetic Environment, was published under the pseudonym Lewis Herber in 1962, a few months before Rachel Carson 's Silent Spring. His groundbreaking essay "Ecology and Revolutionary Thought '' introduced ecology as a concept in radical politics. In the 1970s, Barry Commoner, suggesting a left - wing response to the Limits to Growth model that predicted catastrophic resource depletion and spurred environmentalism, postulated that capitalist technologies were chiefly responsible for environmental degradation as opposed to population pressures. The 1990s saw the socialist feminists Mary Mellor and Ariel Salleh address environmental issues within an eco-socialist paradigm. With the rising profile of the anti-globalisation movement in the Global South, an "environmentalism of the poor '' combining ecological awareness and social justice has also become prominent. In 1994, David Pepper also released his important work, Ecosocialism: From Deep Ecology to Social Justice, which critiques the current approach of many within green politics, particularly deep ecologists. Currently, many green parties around the world, such as the Dutch Green Left Party (GroenLinks), contain strong eco-socialist elements. Radical red - green alliances have been formed in many countries by eco-socialists, radical greens and other radical left groups. In Denmark, the Red - Green Alliance was formed as a coalition of numerous radical parties. Within the European Parliament, a number of far - left parties from Northern Europe have organised themselves into the Nordic Green Left Alliance.
Syndicalism is a social movement that operates through industrial trade unions and rejects state socialism and the use of establishment politics to establish or promote socialism. They reject using state power to construct a socialist society, favouring strategies such as the general strike. Syndicalists advocate a socialist economy based on federated unions or syndicates of workers who own and manage the means of production. Some Marxist currents advocate syndicalism, such as DeLeonism. Anarcho - syndicalism is a theory of anarchism which views syndicalism as a method for workers in capitalist society to gain control of an economy and with that control influence broader society. The Spanish Revolution largely orchestrated by the anarcho - syndicalist trade union CNT during the Spanish Civil War offers an historical example. The International Workers ' Association is an international federation of anarcho - syndicalist labor unions and initiatives.
Upon what point are orthodox political economy and socialism in absolute conflict? Political economy has held and holds that the economic laws governing the production and distribution of wealth which it has established are natural laws... not in the sense that they are laws naturally determined by the condition of the social organism (which would be correct), but that they are absolute laws, that is to say that they apply to humanity at all times and in all places, and consequently, that they are immutable in their principal points, though they may be subject to modification in details. Scientific socialism holds, the contrary, that the laws established by classical political economy, since the time of Adam Smith, are laws peculiar to the present period in the history of civilized humanity, and that they are, consequently, laws essentially relative to the period of their analysis and discovery.
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a small hut used by shepherds in the alps during the summer | Shepherd 's hut - wikipedia
The shepherd 's hut (or shepherd 's wagon) was, since the 15th century and into the 20th Century, used by shepherds during sheep raising and lambing, primarily in the United Kingdom and France. Shepherd 's huts often had iron wheels and corrugated iron tops. Sometimes the sides were also made of corrugated iron.
Use of shepherd 's huts by farmers reached a peak in the late 19th Century and dwindled in the 20th century with the advent of mechanised farm machinery and electric power reaching even remote farms. Their use persisted in some northern counties in the United Kingdom, particularly Westmoreland and Northumberland, where the terrain of the uplands supports little else but sheep farming.
There have been numerous different materials used to construct shepherd 's huts and after World War One, when metal was in short supply the chassis were often built with wood and the sides built with interlocking planks of larch or spruce. Sometimes the roof covering would be constructed from felt and tar and insulated with lambswool. Cast iron wheels were frequently recycled from other farm machinery. There are now very few examples of the later 20th century shepherd 's huts in the county of Westmorland which became Cumbria in 1974.
The shepherd 's hut was a kitchen, dining room, bedroom, sitting room and storeroom all rolled into one. The designs vary but all were constructed to provide the shepherd with practical and durable accommodation. The old huts had a stove in one corner for warmth and cooking, and a window on each side so the shepherd could see the flock. A hinged stable door, which was always positioned away from the prevailing wind, enabled him to hear the flock, and strong axles with cast iron wheels were used to withstand the constant movement from field to field.
Shepherds huts are still in use today, but primarily as glamping accommodation, or as an alternative to a summer house, shed or workshop.
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who plays katies dad in alexa & katie | Alexa & Katie - Wikipedia
Alexa & Katie is a Netflix original sitcom created by Heather Wordham. Matthew Carlson serves as showrunner. The first season premiered on Netflix on March 23, 2018, and consists of 13 episodes. In April 2018, Netflix renewed the series for a second season.
Lifelong best friends Alexa and Katie are eagerly anticipating the start of their freshman year of high school. The two friends confront a crisis when Alexa discovers that she is ill and starts undergoing treatment for cancer, which leaves them feeling like outsiders at a time when what seems to matter most is fitting in. The girls try to navigate through high school while dealing with the illness.
Alexa & Katie is the first multi-camera sitcom produced by Netflix. On April 9, 2018, Netflix renewed the series for a second season, with Wordham set to take over as showrunner.
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painting christ in the house of his parents | Christ in the House of his Parents - wikipedia
Christ in the House of His Parents (1849 -- 50) is a painting by John Everett Millais depicting the Holy Family in Saint Joseph 's carpentry workshop. The painting was extremely controversial when first exhibited, prompting many negative reviews, most notably one written by Charles Dickens. It catapulted the previously obscure Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood to notoriety and was a major contributor to the debate about Realism in the arts.
It is currently housed in the Tate Britain in London.
The painting depicts the young Jesus assisting Joseph in his workshop. Joseph is making a door, which is laid upon his carpentry work - table. Jesus has cut his hand on an exposed nail, symbolizing the stigmata and foreshadowing Jesus ' crucifixion. Some of the blood has fallen onto his foot. As Jesus ' grandmother, Anne, removes the nail with a pair of pincers, his concerned mother, Mary, offers her cheek for a kiss. Joseph examines Jesus ' wounded hand. A young boy, who would later be known as John the Baptist, brings in water to wash the wound, prefiguring his later baptism of Christ. An assistant of Joseph 's, who represents Jesus ' future Apostles, observes these events.
In the background of the painting various objects are used to further symbolize the theological significance of the subject. A ladder, referring to Jacob 's Ladder, leans against the back wall, and a dove which represents the Holy Spirit rests on it. Other carpentry implements refer to the Holy Trinity. Millais likely used Albrecht Dürer 's print Melancholia I as a source for this imagery, along with quattrocento works. The sheep in the sheepfold seen through the door represent the future Christian flock.
It has been suggested that Millais was influenced by John Rogers Herbert 's painting Our Saviour Subject to His Parents at Nazareth. He may also have drawn on a painting depicting Jesus helping Joseph in his workshop, which at the time was attributed to Annibale Carracci.
The painting was immensely controversial when first exhibited because of its realistic depiction of a carpentry workshop, especially the dirt and detritus on the floor. This was in dramatic contrast to the familiar portrayal of Jesus, his family, and his apostles in costumes reminiscent of Roman togas. Charles Dickens accused Millais of portraying Mary as an alcoholic who looks
... so hideous in her ugliness that... she would stand out from the rest of the company as a Monster, in the vilest cabaret in France, or the lowest gin - shop in England.
Critics also objected to the portrayal of Jesus, one complaining that it was "painful '' to see "the youthful Saviour '' depicted as "a red - headed Jew boy ''. Dickens described him as a "wry - necked, blubbering red - headed boy in a bed - gown, who appears to have received a poke... playing in an adjacent gutter ''. Other critics suggested that the characters displayed signs of rickets and other disease associated with slum conditions. Because of the controversy, Queen Victoria asked for the painting to be taken to Buckingham Palace so that she could view it in private.
At the Royal Academy the painting was exhibited with a companion piece by Millais 's colleague, William Holman Hunt, that also portrayed a scene from early Christian history in which a family help a wounded individual. This was entitled A Converted British Family Sheltering a Christian Missionary from the Persecution of the Druids.
The effect of the critical comments was to make the Pre-Raphaelite movement famous and to create a debate about the relationship between modernity, realism and medievalism in the arts. The critic John Ruskin supported Millais in letter to the press and in his lecture "Pre-Raphaelitism '' despite personally disliking the painting. The painting 's use of symbolic realism led to a wider movement in which the choice of composition and theme was combined with detailed observation.
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who was the first african american to serve on the supreme court | Thurgood Marshall - wikipedia
Thurgood Marshall (July 2, 1908 -- January 24, 1993) was an American lawyer, serving as Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States from October 1967 until October 1991. Marshall was the Court 's 96th justice and its first African - American justice. Prior to his judicial service, he successfully argued several cases before the Supreme Court.
Born in Baltimore, Maryland, Marshall graduated from the Howard University School of Law in 1933. He established a private legal practice in Baltimore before founding the NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund, where he served as executive director. In that position, he argued several cases before the Supreme Court, including Smith v. Allwright, Shelley v. Kraemer, and Brown v. Board of Education, which held that racial segregation in public education is a violation of the Equal Protection Clause.
In 1961, President John F. Kennedy appointed Marshall to United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit. Four years later, President Lyndon B. Johnson appointed Marshall as the United States Solicitor General. In 1967, Johnson successfully nominated Marshall to succeed retiring Associate Justice Tom C. Clark. Marshall retired during the administration of President George H.W. Bush, and was succeeded by Clarence Thomas.
Marshall was born in Baltimore, Maryland, on July 2, 1908. He was descended from slaves on both sides of his family. His original name was Thoroughgood, but he shortened it to Thurgood. His father, William Marshall, worked as a railroad porter, and his mother Norma, as a teacher; they instilled in him an appreciation for the United States Constitution and the rule of law.
Marshall attended Frederick Douglass High School in Baltimore and was placed in the class with the best students. He graduated a year early in 1925 with a B - grade average, and placed in the top third of the class. He went to Lincoln University. It is commonly reported that he intended to study medicine and become a dentist.
But according to his application to Lincoln University, Marshall said his goal was to become a lawyer. Among his classmates were poet Langston Hughes and musician Cab Calloway. Initially he did not take his studies seriously, and was suspended twice for hazing and pranks against fellow students. He was not politically active at first, becoming a "star '' of the debating team.
In his freshman year he opposed the integration of African - American professors at the university. Hughes later described Marshall as "rough and ready, loud and wrong ''. In his second year Marshall participated in a sit - in protest against segregation at a local movie theater. In that year, he was initiated as a member of Alpha Phi Alpha, the first fraternity founded by and for blacks. His marriage to Vivien Burey in September 1929 encouraged him to take his studies seriously, and he graduated from Lincoln with honors (cum laude) Bachelor of Arts in Humanities, with a major in American literature and philosophy.
Marshall wanted to study in his hometown law school, the University of Maryland School of Law, but did not apply because of the school 's segregation policy. Marshall instead attended Howard University School of Law, where he worked harder than he had at Lincoln and his views on discrimination were heavily influenced by the dean Charles Hamilton Houston. In 1933, he graduated first in his class at Howard.
After graduating from law school, Marshall started a private law practice in Baltimore. He began his 25 - year affiliation with the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in 1934 by representing the organization in the law school discrimination suit Murray v. Pearson. In 1936, Marshall became part of the national staff of the NAACP.
In Murray v. Pearson, Marshall represented Donald Gaines Murray, a black Amherst College graduate with excellent credentials, who was denied admission to the University of Maryland Law School because of its segregation policy. Black students in Maryland wanting to study law had to attend segregated establishments, Morgan College, the Princess Anne Academy, or out - of - state black institutions. Using the strategy developed by Nathan Margold, Marshall argued that Maryland 's segregation policy violated the "separate but equal '' doctrine of Plessy v. Ferguson because the state did not provide a comparable educational opportunity at a state - run black institution. The Maryland Court of Appeals ruled against the state of Maryland and its Attorney General, who represented the University of Maryland, stating, "Compliance with the Constitution can not be deferred at the will of the state. Whatever system is adopted for legal education must furnish equality of treatment now. ''
At the age of 32, Marshall won U.S. Supreme Court case Chambers v. Florida, 309 U.S. 227 (1940). That same year, he founded and became the executive director of the NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund. As the head of the Legal Defense Fund, he argued many other civil rights cases before the Supreme Court, most of them successfully, including Smith v. Allwright, 321 U.S. 649 (1944); Shelley v. Kraemer, 334 U.S. 1 (1948); Sweatt v. Painter, 339 U.S. 629 (1950); and McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents, 339 U.S. 637 (1950). His most famous case as a lawyer was Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, 347 U.S. 483 (1954), the case in which the Supreme Court ruled that "separate but equal '' public education, as established by Plessy v. Ferguson, was not applicable to public education because it could never be truly equal. In total, Marshall won 29 out of the 32 cases he argued before the Supreme Court.
During the 1950s, Thurgood Marshall developed a friendly relationship with J. Edgar Hoover, the director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation. In 1956, for example, he privately praised Hoover 's campaign to discredit T.R.M. Howard, a maverick civil rights leader from Mississippi. During a national speaking tour, Howard criticized the FBI 's failure to seriously investigate cases such as the 1955 killers of George W. Lee and Emmett Till. In a private letter to Hoover, Marshall "attacked Howard as a ' rugged individualist ' who did not speak for the NAACP. '' Two years earlier Howard had arranged for Marshall to deliver a well - received speech at a rally of his Regional Council of Negro Leadership in Mound Bayou, Mississippi only days before the Brown decision. According to historians David T. Beito and Linda Royster Beito, "Marshall 's disdain for Howard was almost visceral. (He) ' disliked Howard 's militant tone and maverick stance ' and ' was well aware that Hoover 's attack served to take the heat off the NAACP and provided opportunities for closer collaboration (between the NAACP and the FBI) in civil rights. ' ''
President John F. Kennedy appointed Marshall to the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit in 1961 to a new seat created on May 19, 1961, by 75 Stat. 80. A group of Senators from the South, led by Mississippi 's James Eastland, held up his confirmation, so he served for the first several months under a recess appointment. Marshall remained on that court until 1965, when President Lyndon B. Johnson appointed him to be the United States Solicitor General, the first African American to hold the office. At the time, this made him the highest - ranking black government official in American history, surpassing Robert C. Weaver, Johnson 's first secretary of housing and urban development. As Solicitor General, he won 14 out of the 19 cases that he argued for the government.
On June 13, 1967, President Johnson nominated Marshall to the Supreme Court following the retirement of Justice Tom C. Clark, saying that this was "the right thing to do, the right time to do it, the right man and the right place. '' Marshall was confirmed as an Associate Justice by a Senate vote of 69 -- 11 on August 30, 1967. He was the 96th person to hold the position, and the first African American.
Marshall once bluntly described his legal philosophy as this: "You do what you think is right and let the law catch up '', a statement which his conservative detractors argued was a sign of his embracement of judicial activism.
Marshall served on the Court for the next 24 years, compiling a liberal record that included strong support for Constitutional protection of individual rights, especially the rights of criminal suspects. His most frequent ally on the Court (the pair rarely voted at odds) was Justice William Brennan, who consistently joined him in supporting abortion rights and opposing the death penalty. Brennan and Marshall concluded in Furman v. Georgia that the death penalty was, in all circumstances, unconstitutional, and never accepted the legitimacy of Gregg v. Georgia, which ruled four years later that the death penalty was constitutional in some circumstances. Thereafter, Brennan or Marshall dissented from every denial of certiorari in a capital case and from every decision upholding a sentence of death.
In 1987, Marshall gave a controversial speech on the occasion of the bicentennial celebrations of the Constitution of the United States. Marshall stated:
The government they devised was defective from the start, requiring several amendments, a civil war, and major social transformations to attain the system of constitutional government and its respect for the freedoms and individual rights, we hold as fundamental today.
In conclusion Marshall stated:
Some may more quietly commemorate the suffering, struggle, and sacrifice that has triumphed over much of what was wrong with the original document, and observe the anniversary with hopes not realized and promises not fulfilled. I plan to celebrate the bicentennial of the Constitution as a living document, including the Bill of Rights and the other amendments protecting individual freedoms and human rights.
Although best remembered for jurisprudence in the fields of civil rights and criminal procedure, Marshall made significant contributions to other areas of the law as well. In Teamsters v. Terry, he held that the Seventh Amendment entitled the plaintiff to a jury trial in a suit against a labor union for breach of duty of fair representation. In TSC Industries, Inc. v. Northway, Inc., he articulated a formulation for the standard of materiality in United States securities law that is still applied and used today. In Cottage Savings Association v. Commissioner of Internal Revenue, he weighed in on the income tax consequences of the savings and loan crisis, permitting a savings and loan association to deduct a loss from an exchange of mortgage participation interests. In Personnel Administrator MA v. Feeney, Marshall wrote a dissent saying that a law that gave hiring preference to veterans over non-veterans was unconstitutional because of its inequitable impact on women.
Among his many law clerks were attorneys who went on to become judges themselves, such as Judge Douglas Ginsburg of the D.C. Circuit Court of Appeals; Judge Ralph Winter of the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit; Supreme Court Justice Elena Kagan; as well as notable law professors Susan Low Bloch, Elizabeth Garrett (President of Cornell University), Paul Gewirtz, Dan Kahan, Randall L. Kennedy, Eben Moglen, Rick Pildes, Louis Michael Seidman, Cass Sunstein, and Mark Tushnet (editor of Thurgood Marshall: His Speeches, Writings, Arguments, Opinions and Reminiscences); and law school deans Paul Mahoney of University of Virginia School of Law, Martha Minow of Harvard Law School, and Richard Revesz of New York University School of Law.
Marshall retired from the Supreme Court in 1991 due to declining health. In his retirement press conference on June 28, 1991, he expressed his view that race should not be a factor in choosing his successor, and he denied circulating claims that he was retiring because of frustration or anger over the conservative direction in which the Court was heading. '' He was reportedly unhappy that it would fall to President George H.W. Bush to name his replacement. Bush nominated Clarence Thomas to replace Marshall.
Marshall died of heart failure at the National Naval Medical Center in Bethesda, Maryland, at 2: 58 pm on January 24, 1993, at the age of 84. He is buried in Arlington National Cemetery. His second wife and their two sons survived him.
Marshall left all his personal papers and notes to the Library of Congress. The Librarian of Congress, James H. Billington, opened Marshall 's papers for immediate use by scholars, journalists and the public, insisting that this was Marshall 's intent. The Marshall family and several of his close associates disputed this claim. The decision to make the documents public was supported by the American Library Association. A list of the archived manuscripts is available.
There are numerous memorials to Marshall. One, an eight - foot statue, stands in Lawyers Mall adjacent to the Maryland State House. The statue, dedicated on October 22, 1996, depicts Marshall as a young lawyer and is placed just a few feet away from where the Old Maryland Supreme Court Building stood; the court where Marshall argued discrimination cases leading up to the Brown decision. The primary office building for the federal court system, located on Capitol Hill in Washington D.C., is named in honor of Justice Marshall and contains a statue of him in the atrium. In 1976, Texas Southern University renamed its law school after the sitting justice. In 1980, the University of Maryland School of Law opened a new library which it named the Thurgood Marshall Law Library. In 2000, the historic Twelfth Street YMCA Building located in the Shaw neighborhood of Washington, D.C. was renamed the Thurgood Marshall Center. The major airport serving Baltimore and the Maryland suburbs of Washington, DC, was renamed the Baltimore - Washington International Thurgood Marshall Airport on October 1, 2005. The 2009 General Convention of the Episcopal Church added Marshall to the church 's liturgical calendar of "Holy Women, Holy Men: Celebrating the Saints, '' designating May 17 as his feast day. His membership of the Lincoln University fraternity Alpha Phi Alpha is to be memorialized by a sculpture by artist Alvin Pettit in 2013.
The University of California, San Diego, renamed its Third College after Thurgood Marshall in 1993. Marshall Middle School in Olympia, Washington, is also named after Thurgood Marshall, as is Thurgood Marshall Academy in Washington, D.C.
In 2006, Thurgood, a one - man play written by George Stevens, Jr., premiered at the Westport Country Playhouse, starring James Earl Jones and directed by Leonard Foglia. Later it opened Broadway at the Booth Theatre on April 30, 2008, starring Laurence Fishburne. On February 24, 2011, HBO screened a filmed version of the play which Fishburne performed at the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts. The production was described by the Baltimore Sun as "one of the most frank, informed and searing discussions of race you will ever see on TV. ''. On February 16, 2011, a screening of the film was hosted by the White House as part of its celebrations of Black History Month A painting of Justice Thurgood by Chaz Guest has hung at the White House. Marshall is portrayed by Chadwick Boseman in a movie, Marshall, which revolves around the 1941 case of the State of Connecticut v. Joseph Spell. The movie was released October 2017.
Marshall was married twice. He married Vivien "Buster '' Burey in 1929. After her death in February 1955, Marshall married Cecilia Suyat in December of that year. They were married until he died in 1993, having two sons together: Thurgood Marshall, Jr., a former top aide to President Bill Clinton; and John W. Marshall, a former United States Marshals Service Director and Virginia Secretary of Public Safety.
In 1993 The Legislative Assembly of Puerto Rico instituted the annual Thurgood Marshall Award, given to the top student in civil rights at each of Puerto Rico 's four law schools. It includes a $500 monetary award. The awardees are selected by the Commonwealth 's Attorney General.
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when did curly die of the three stooges | Curly Howard - wikipedia
Jerome Lester Horwitz (October 22, 1903 -- January 18, 1952), known professionally as Curly Howard, was an American vaudevillian actor and comedian. He was best known as a member of the American farce comedy team the Three Stooges, which also featured his elder brothers Moe and Shemp Howard and actor Larry Fine. Curly Howard was generally considered the most popular and recognizable of the Stooges. He was well known for his high - pitched voice and vocal expressions ("nyuk - nyuk - nyuk! '', "woob - woob - woob! '', "soitenly! '' (certainly), and barking like a dog) as well as his physical comedy (e.g., falling on the ground and pivoting on his shoulder as he "walked '' in circular motion), improvisations, and athleticism. An untrained actor, Curly borrowed (and significantly exaggerated) the "woob woob '' from "nervous '' and soft - spoken comedian Hugh Herbert. Curly 's unique version of "woob - woob - woob '' was firmly established by the time of the Stooges ' second Columbia film, Punch Drunks (1934).
Howard was forced to leave the Three Stooges act in 1946 when a massive stroke ended his show business career. He suffered through serious health problems and several more strokes until his death in 1952 at age 48.
Curly Howard was born Jerome Lester Horwitz in the Bensonhurst section of the Brooklyn borough of New York City, on October 22, 1903. Of Lithuanian Jewish ancestry, he was the youngest of the five sons of Jennie (Gorovitz) and Solomon Horwitz. Because he was the youngest, his brothers called him "Babe '' to tease him. The name "Babe '' stuck with him all his life, although when his elder brother Shemp Howard married Gertrude Frank, who was also nicknamed "Babe '', the brothers called him "Curly '' to avoid confusion. His full formal Hebrew name was "Yehudah Lev ben Shlomo Natan ha Levi. ''
A quiet child, Howard rarely caused problems for his parents (something older brothers Moe and Shemp excelled in). He was a mediocre student but excelled as an athlete on the school basketball team. He did n't graduate from high school, and instead he kept himself busy with odd jobs and constantly following his older brothers, whom he idolized. He was also an accomplished ballroom dancer and singer and regularly turned up at the Triangle Ballroom in Brooklyn, occasionally bumping into George Raft.
When Howard was 12, he accidentally shot himself in the left ankle while cleaning a rifle. Moe rushed him to the hospital and saved his life. The wound resulted in a noticeably thinner left leg and a slight limp. He was so frightened of surgery that he never had the limp corrected. While with the Stooges, he developed his famous exaggerated walk to mask the limp on screen.
Howard was interested in music and comedy and would watch his brothers Shemp and Moe perform as stooges in Ted Healy 's vaudeville act. He also liked to hang around backstage, although he never participated in any of the routines.
From an early age, Howard was always "in demand socially, '' as brother Moe put it. He married his first wife, Julia Rosenthal, on August 5, 1930, but the couple had their marriage annulled shortly afterwards.
Howard 's first on - stage break was as a comedy musical conductor in 1928 for the Orville Knapp Band. Moe later recalled that his performances usually overshadowed those of the band. Though he enjoyed the gig, he watched as older brothers Moe and Shemp (and partner Larry Fine) made it big as some of Ted Healy 's "Stooges. '' Vaudeville star Healy had a very popular stage act, in which he would try to tell jokes or sing, only to have his stooges wander on stage and interrupt or heckle him and cause disturbances from the audience. Meanwhile, Healy and company appeared in their first feature film, Rube Goldberg 's Soup to Nuts (1930).
Shemp Howard, however, disliked Healy 's abrasiveness, bad temper, and heavy drinking. In 1932, he was offered a contract at the Vitaphone Studios in Brooklyn. (Contrary to stories told by Moe, the role of "Knobby Walsh '' in the Joe Palooka series did not come along until late 1935, after Shemp had been at Vitaphone for three years and had already appeared in almost thirty short subjects.) Shemp was thrilled to be away from Healy but, as was his nature, worried incessantly about brother Moe and partner Larry. Moe, however, told Shemp to pursue this opportunity.
With Shemp gone, Moe suggested that Curly fill the role of the third Stooge. But Healy felt that, with his thick, chestnut hair and elegant waxed mustache, he did not "look funny '' and was "too handsome ''. Howard left the room and returned minutes later with his head shaven (the mustache remained very briefly). Healy quipped, "Boy, do n't you look girlie? '' Moe misheard the joke as "curly '', and all who witnessed the exchange realized that the nickname "Curly '' would be a perfect fit. In one of the few interviews Howard gave in his lifetime, he complained about the loss of his hair: "I had to shave it off right down to the skin. '' In 1934, MGM was building Healy up as a solo comedian in feature films and Healy dissolved the act to pursue his own career. Like Shemp, the team of Howard, Fine, and Howard was tired of Healy 's alcoholism and abrasiveness and renamed their act the "Three Stooges. '' That same year, they signed on to appear in two - reel comedy short subjects for Columbia Pictures. The Stooges soon became the most popular short - subject attraction, with Howard playing an integral part in the trio 's work.
Howard 's childlike mannerisms and natural comedic charm made him a hit with audiences, particularly children. He was known in the act for having an "indestructible '' head, which always won out by breaking anything that assaulted it, including saws (resulting in his characteristic quip, "Oh, look! ''). Although having no formal acting training, his comedic skills were exceptional. Many times, directors would simply let the camera roll freely and let Howard improvise. Jules White, in particular, would leave gaps in the Stooge scripts where he could improvise for several minutes. In later years, White commented: "If we wrote a scene and needed a little something extra, I 'd say to Curly, ' Look, we 've got a gap to fill this in with a "woob - woob '' or some other bit of business. ' And he never disappointed us. ''
By the time the Stooges hit their peak in the late 1930s, their films had almost become vehicles for Howard 's unbridled comic performances. Classics like A Plumbing We Will Go (1940), We Want Our Mummy (1938), An Ache in Every Stake (1941), Cactus Makes Perfect (1942), and their most violent short, They Stooge to Conga (1943), display his ability to take inanimate objects (like food, tools, pipes, etc.) and turn them into ingenious comic props. Moe Howard later confirmed that when Curly forgot his lines, that merely allowed him to improvise on the spot so that the "take '' could continue uninterrupted:
Howard also developed a set of reactions and expressions that the other Stooges would imitate long after he 'd left the act: Many of these were spoken in a form of New York accent.
On several occasions, Moe Howard was convinced that rising star Lou Costello (a close friend of Shemp) was stealing material from his brother. Costello was known to acquire prints of the Stooges ' films from Columbia Pictures on occasion, presumably to study him. Inevitably, Curly Howard 's routines would show up in Abbott and Costello feature films, much to Moe 's chagrin. (It did not help that Columbia Pictures president Harry Cohn would not allow the Stooges to make feature - length films like contemporaries Laurel and Hardy, the Marx Brothers, and Abbott and Costello.)
Curly was the only "third Stooge '' who never made a series of his own short films, without Moe or Larry, either before joining the Stooges or after leaving. Shemp and subsequent Stooges Joe Besser and Joe DeRita (referred to during his stint with the Stooges as "Curly Joe DeRita '') each starred in their own solo series of theatrical short subjects.
By 1944, Howard 's energy began to wane. Films like Idle Roomers (1944) and Booby Dupes (1945) present a Curly whose voice was deeper and his actions slower. It is believed that he suffered the first of many strokes between the filming of Idiots Deluxe (October 1944) and If a Body Meets a Body (March 1945). After the filming of the feature length Rockin ' in the Rockies (December 1944), he finally checked himself (at Moe Howard 's insistence) into Cottage Hospital in Santa Barbara, California, on January 23, 1945, and was diagnosed with extreme hypertension, a retinal hemorrhage, and obesity. His ill health forced him to rest, leading to only five shorts being released in 1945 (the normal output was six to eight per year).
The Three Stooges: An Illustrated History, From Amalgamated Morons to American Icons by Michael Fleming, states that Moe Howard pleaded with Harry Cohn to allow his younger brother some time off upon discharge to regain his strength, but Cohn would not halt the production of his profitable Stooge shorts and flatly refused his request. Other sources state the Stooges had five months off between August 1945 and January 1946. They used that time to book themselves a feature film at Monogram, and then leave on a 2 - month live performance commitment in New York City working shows 7 days per week. During that NYC appearance, Howard met and married his 3rd wife Marion Buxbaum, a bad relationship that further deteriorated his health and morale. Returning to L.A. in late November 1945, Howard was a shell of his former self. With two months rest, the team 's 1946 schedule at Columbia commenced in late January, but involved only 24 days work during February - early May. In spite of 8 weeks ' time off in that same period, Howard 's condition continued to deteriorate.
By early 1946, Howard 's voice had become even more coarse than before, and it was increasingly difficult for him to remember even the simplest dialogue. He had lost a considerable amount of weight, and lines had creased his face.
Half - Wits Holiday (released 1947) would be Howard 's final appearance as an official member of the Stooges. During filming on May 6, 1946, he suffered a severe stroke while sitting in director Jules White 's chair, waiting to film the last scene of the day. When called by the assistant director to take the stage, he did not answer. Moe went looking for his brother: he found him with his head dropped to his chest. Moe later recalled that his mouth was distorted and he was unable to speak, only cry. Moe quietly alerted White to all this, leading the latter to rework the scene quickly, dividing the action between Moe and Larry while Curly was rushed to the hospital, where Moe joined him after the filming. Howard spent several weeks at the Motion Picture and Television Country House and Hospital in Woodland Hills, California before returning home for further recuperation.
In January 1945, Shemp had been recruited to substitute for a resting Curly during live performances in New Orleans. After Howard 's stroke, Shemp agreed to replace him in the Columbia shorts, but only until his younger brother was well enough to rejoin the act. An extant copy of the Stooges ' 1947 Columbia Pictures contract was signed by all four Stooges and stipulated that Shemp 's joining "in place and stead of Jerry Howard '' would be only temporary until Curly recovered sufficiently to return to work full - time.
Howard, partially recovered and with his hair regrown, made a brief cameo appearance as a train passenger barking in his sleep in the third film after brother Shemp 's return, Hold That Lion! (1947). It was the only film that featured Larry Fine and all three Howard brothers -- Moe, Shemp and Curly -- simultaneously; director White later said he spontaneously staged the bit during Curly 's impromptu visit to the soundstage:
In June 1948, Howard filmed a second cameo as an irate chef for the short Malice in the Palace (1949), but due to his illness, his performance was not deemed good enough and his scenes were cut. A lobby card for the short shows him with the other Stooges, although he never appeared in the final release.
Still not fully recovered from his stroke, Howard met Valerie Newman and married her on July 31, 1947. A friend, Irma Leveton, later recalled, "Valerie was the only decent thing that happened to Curly and the only one that really cared about him. '' Although his health continued to decline after the marriage, Valerie gave birth to a daughter, Janie, in 1948.
Later that year Howard suffered a second massive stroke, which left him partially paralyzed. He used a wheelchair by 1950 and was fed boiled rice and apples as part of his diet to reduce his weight (and blood pressure). Valerie admitted him into the Motion Picture Country House and Hospital on August 29, 1950. He was released after several months of treatment and medical tests, although he would return periodically until his death.
In February 1951, he was placed in a nursing home, where he suffered another stroke a month later. In April, he went to live at the North Hollywood Hospital and Sanitarium.
In December 1951, the North Hollywood Hospital and Sanitarium supervisor advised the Howard family that he was becoming a problem to the nursing staff at the facility because of his mental deterioration. They admitted they could no longer care for him and suggested he be placed in a mental hospital. Moe refused and relocated him to the Baldy View Sanitarium in San Gabriel, California.
On January 7, 1952, Moe was contacted on the Columbia set while filming He Cooked His Goose to help move Curly for what would be the last time. Eleven days later, on January 18, Curly Howard died. He lived the shortest life of the Stooges, dying at the age of 48. He was given a Jewish funeral and laid to rest at the Western Jewish Institute section of Home of Peace Cemetery in East Los Angeles. His older brothers, Benjamin and Shemp, and parents Jennie and Solomon are all interred there as well.
Howard 's offscreen personality was the antithesis of his onscreen manic persona. An introvert, he generally kept to himself, rarely socializing with people unless he had been drinking (which he would increasingly turn to as the stresses of his career grew). In addition, he came to life when in the presence of brother Shemp. Howard could not be himself around brother Moe, who treated his younger brother with a fatherly wag of the finger. Never an intellectual, Howard simply refrained from engaging in "crazy antics '' unless he was in his element: with family, performing or intoxicated.
On June 7, 1937, Howard married Elaine Ackerman, who gave birth to their only child, Marilyn, the following year. The couple divorced in June 1940, after which he gained a lot of weight and developed hypertension. He was also insecure about his shaved head, believing it made him unappealing to women; he increasingly drank to excess and caroused to cope with his feelings of inferiority. He took to wearing a hat in public to convey an image of masculinity, saying he felt like a little kid with his hair shaved off, even though he was popular with women all his life. In fact, many who knew him said women were his main weakness. Moe 's son - in - law Norman Maurer even went so far as to say he "was a pushover for women. If a pretty girl went up to him and gave him a spiel, Curly would marry them. Then she would take his money and run off. It was the same when a real estate agent would come up and say ' I have a house for you '; Curly would sell his current home and buy another one. ''
During World War II, for seven months of each year, the trio 's filming schedule would go on hiatus, allowing them to make personal appearances. The Stooges entertained servicemen constantly, and the intense work schedule took its toll on Howard. He never drank while performing in film or on stage; Moe would not allow it. But once away from Moe 's watchful eye, he would find the nearest nightclub, down a few drinks, and enjoy himself. His drinking, eating, and carousing increased. He had difficulties managing his finances, often spending his money on wine, food, women, homes, cars, and especially dogs, and was often near bankruptcy. Moe eventually helped him manage his money and even filled out his income tax returns.
Howard found constant companionship in his dogs and often befriended strays whenever the Stooges were traveling. He would pick up homeless dogs and take them with him from town to town until he found them a home somewhere else on the tour. When not performing, he would usually have a few dogs waiting for him at home as well.
Moe urged Curly to find himself a wife, hoping it would persuade his brother to finally settle down and allow his health to improve somewhat. After a two - week courtship, he married Marion Buxbaum on October 17, 1945, a union which lasted approximately three months. The divorce proceeding was a bitter one, exacerbated by exploitation in the local media. After the divorce, his health fell into rapid and devastating decline.
On July 31, 1947, he married Valerie Newman. They had one daughter together, named Janie (born in 1948), and remained married until his death.
Curly Howard is considered by many fans and critics alike to be their favorite member of The Three Stooges. In a 1972 interview Larry Fine recalled, "Personally, I thought Curly was the greatest because he was a natural comedian who had no formal training. Whatever he did, he made up on the spur of the moment. When we lost Curly, we took a hit. '' Curly 's mannerisms, behavior and personality along with his catchphrases of "n'yuk, n'yuk, n'yuk, '' "woob, woob, woob '' and "soitenly! '' have become a part of American popular culture. Steve Allen called him one of the "most original, yet seldom recognized, comic geniuses. ''
The Ted Okuda and Edward Watz book The Columbia Comedy Shorts puts Howard 's appeal and legacy in critical perspective:
From 1980 to 1982, the ABC TV comedic skit series, Fridays, featured an occasional skit of "The Numb Boys '' - essentially a Three Stooges routine related to a recent news topic - with John Roarke playing Curly (and Bruce Mahler as Moe and Larry David as Larry).
In 2000, longtime Stooges fan Mel Gibson produced a television film for ABC about the lives and careers of the Stooges. In an interview promoting the film, he said Curly was his favorite of the Stooges. In the film, Curly was played by Michael Chiklis.
In the 2012 Farrelly brothers ' film The Three Stooges, Will Sasso portrays Curly Howard. Robert Capron portrays Young Curly.
In the children 's novel series Captain Underpants and its film adaptation, the elementary school that the main characters attend is named Jerome Horwitz Elementary School, in reference to Howard 's birth name.
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who invented ethiopian alphabet for the first time | Ge'ez script - wikipedia
9th -- 8th century BC to present (abjad until c. 330 AD)
Egyptian hieroglyphs 32 c. BCE
Hangul 1443 (probably influenced by Tibetan)
Ge'ez (Ge'ez: ግዕዝ, Gəʿəz), also known as Ethiopic, is a script used as an abugida (alphasyllabary) for several languages of Ethiopia and Eritrea. It originated as an abjad (consonant - only alphabet) and was first used to write Ge'ez, now the liturgical language of the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church and the Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church. In Amharic and Tigrinya, the script is often called fidäl (ፊደል), meaning "script '' or "alphabet ''.
The Ge'ez script has been adapted to write other, mostly Semitic, languages, particularly Amharic in Ethiopia, and Tigrinya in both Eritrea and Ethiopia. It is also used for Sebatbeit, Me'en, and most other languages of Ethiopia. In Eritrea it is used for Tigre, and it has traditionally been used for Blin, a Cushitic language. Tigre, spoken in western and northern Eritrea, is considered to resemble Ge'ez more than do the other derivative languages. Some other languages in the Horn of Africa, such as Oromo, used to be written using Ge'ez, but have migrated to Latin - based orthographies.
For the representation of sounds, this article uses a system that is common (though not universal) among linguists who work on Ethiopian Semitic languages. This differs somewhat from the conventions of the International Phonetic Alphabet. See the articles on the individual languages for information on the pronunciation.
The earliest inscriptions of Semitic languages in Eritrea and Ethiopia date to the 9th century BC in Epigraphic South Arabian (ESA), an abjad shared with contemporary kingdoms in South Arabia. After the 7th and 6th centuries BC, however, variants of the script arose, evolving in the direction of the Ge'ez abugida (a writing system that is also called an alphasyllabary). This evolution can be seen most clearly in evidence from inscriptions (mainly graffiti on rocks and caves) in Tigray region in northern Ethiopia and the former province of Akkele Guzay in Eritrea. By the first centuries AD, what is called "Old Ethiopic '' or the "Old Ge'ez alphabet '' arose, an abjad written left - to - right (as opposed to boustrophedon like ESA) with letters basically identical to the first - order forms of the modern vocalized alphabet (e.g. "k '' in the form of "kä ''). There were also minor differences such as the letter "g '' facing to the right, instead of to the left as in vocalized Ge'ez, and a shorter left leg of "l '', as in ESA, instead of equally - long legs in vocalized Ge'ez (somewhat resembling the Greek letter lambda). Vocalization of Ge'ez occurred in the 4th century, and though the first completely vocalized texts known are inscriptions by Ezana, vocalized letters predate him by some years, as an individual vocalized letter exists in a coin of his predecessor Wazeba. Linguist Roger Schneider has also pointed out (in an early 1990s unpublished paper) anomalies in the known inscriptions of Ezana that imply that he was consciously employing an archaic style during his reign, indicating that vocalization could have occurred much earlier. As a result, some believe that the vocalization may have been adopted to preserve the pronunciation of Ge'ez texts due to the already moribund or extinct status of Ge'ez, and that, by that time, the common language of the people were already later Ethio - Semitic languages. At least one of Wazeba 's coins from the late 3rd or early 4th century contains a vocalized letter, some 30 or so years before Ezana. Kobishchanov, Daniels, and others have suggested possible influence from the Brahmic family of alphabets in vocalization, as they are also abugidas, and Aksum was an important part of major trade routes involving India and the Greco - Roman world throughout the common era of antiquity.
According to the beliefs of the Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church and Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church, the original consonantal form of the Ge'ez fidel was divinely revealed to Henos "as an instrument for codifying the laws '', and the present system of vocalisation is attributed to a team of Aksumite scholars led by Frumentius (Abba Selama), the same missionary said to have converted the king Ezana to Christianity in the 4th century AD. It has been argued that the vowel marking pattern of the script reflects a South Asian system, such as would have been known by Frumentius. A separate tradition, recorded by Aleqa Taye, holds that the Ge'ez consonantal alphabet was first adapted by Zegdur, a legendary king of the Ag'azyan Sabaean dynasty held to have ruled in Ethiopia c. 1300 BC.
Ge'ez has 26 consonantal letters. Compared to the inventory of 29 consonants in the South Arabian alphabet, continuants are missing of ġ, ẓ, and South Arabian s (Ge'ez Sawt ሠ being derived from South Arabian s), as well as z and ṯ, these last two absences reflecting the collapse of interdental with alveolar fricatives. On the other hand, emphatic P̣ait ጰ, a Ge'ez innovation, is a modification of Ṣädai ጸ, while Pesa ፐ is based on Tawe ተ.
Thus, there are 24 correspondences of Ge'ez and the South Arabian alphabet:
Many of the letter names are cognate with those of Phoenician, and may thus be assumed for Proto - Sinaitic.
Two alphabets were used to write the Ge'ez language, an abjad and later an abugida.
The abjad, used until c. 330 AD, had 26 consonantal letters:
Vowels were not indicated.
Modern Ge'ez is written from left to right.
The Ge'ez abugida developed under the influence of Christian scripture by adding obligatory vocalic diacritics to the consonantal letters. The diacritics for the vowels, u, i, a, e, ə, o, were fused with the consonants in a recognizable but slightly irregular way, so that the system is laid out as a syllabary. The original form of the consonant was used when the vowel was ä (/ ə /), the so - called inherent vowel. The resulting forms are shown below in their traditional order. For some vowels, there is an eighth form for the diphthong - wa or - oa; and for some of those, a ninth for - yä.
To represent a consonant with no following vowel, for example at the end of a syllable or in a consonant cluster, the ə (/ ɨ /) form is used (the letter in the sixth column).
The letters for the labialized velar consonants are variants of the non-labialized velar consonants:
Unlike the other consonants, these labiovelar ones can only be combined with 5 different vowels:
The Ge'ez abugida has been adapted to several modern languages of Eritrea and Ethiopia, frequently requiring additional letters.
Some letters were modified to create additional consonants for use in languages other than Ge'ez. This is typically done by adding a horizontal line at the top of a similar - sounding consonant. The pattern is most commonly used to mark a palatalized version of the original consonant.
The vocalised forms are shown below. Like the other labiovelars, these labiovelars can only be combined with 5 vowels.
The Amharic alphabet uses all the basic consonants plus the ones indicated below. Some of the Ge'ez labiovelar variants are also used.
Tigrinya has all the basic consonants, the Ge'ez labiovelar letter variants, except for ḫw (ኈ), plus the ones indicated below. A few of the basic consonants are falling into disuse in Eritrea. See Tigrinya language # Writing system for details.
Tigre uses the basic consonants except for ś (ሠ), ḫ (ኀ) and ḍ (ፀ). It also uses the ones indicated below. It does not use the Ge'ez labiovelar letter variants.
Blin uses the basic consonants except for ś (ሠ), ḫ (ኀ) and ḍ (ፀ). It also uses the ones indicated below and the Ge'ez labiovelar letter variants.
Note: "V '' is used for words of foreign origin except for in some Gurage languages, e.g. cravat ' tie ' from French. "X '' is pronounced as "h '' in Amharic.
For Ge'ez, Amharic, Tigrinya and Tigre, the usual sort order is called halehame (h -- l -- ħ -- m). Where the labiovelar variants are used, these come immediately after the basic consonant and are followed by other variants. In Tigrinya, for example, the letters based on ከ come in this order: ከ, ኰ, ኸ, ዀ. In Blin, the sorting order is slightly different.
The alphabetical order is similar to that found in other South Semitic scripts, as well as in the ancient Ugaritic alphabet, which attests both the southern Semitic h-l - ħ - m order and the northern Semitic ' -- b -- g -- d (abugida) order over three thousand years ago.
Ge'ez is a sacred script in the Rastafari movement of thought. Roots reggae musicians have used it in album art.
The films 500 Years Later (፭፻ - ዓመታት በኋላ) and Motherland (እናት ሀገር) are two mainstream Western documentaries to use Ge'ez characters in the titles. The script also appears in the trailer and promotional material of the films.
Ge'ez uses a system of ones and tens comparable to the Hebrew, Arabic abjad and Greek numerals.
Ethiopian numerals were borrowed from the Greek numerals, possibly via Coptic uncial letters.
Punctuation, much of it modern, includes
Ethiopic has been assigned Unicode 3.0 codepoints between U + 1200 and U + 137F (decimal 4608 -- 4991), containing the consonantal letters for Ge'ez, Amharic, and Tigrinya, punctuation and numerals. Additionally, in Unicode 4.1, there is the supplement range from U + 1380 to U + 139F (decimal 4992 -- 5023) containing letters for Sebatbeit and tonal marks, and the extended range between U + 2D80 and U + 2DDF (decimal 11648 -- 11743) containing letters needed for writing Sebatbeit, Meʻen and Blin. Finally in Unicode 6.0, there is the extended - A range from U + AB00 to U + AB2F (decimal 43776 -- 43823) containing letters for Gamo - Gofa - Dawro, Basketo and Gumuz.
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where does the money come from for the nobel peace prize | Nobel Prize - Wikipedia
The Nobel Prize (/ ˈnoʊbɛl /, Swedish pronunciation: (nʊˈbɛl); Swedish definite form, singular: Nobelpriset; Norwegian: Nobelprisen) is a set of annual international awards bestowed in several categories by Swedish and Norwegian institutions in recognition of academic, cultural or scientific advances.
The will of the Swedish inventor Alfred Nobel established the prizes in 1895. The prizes in Chemistry, Literature, Peace, Physics and Physiology or Medicine were first awarded in 1901. Medals made before 1980 were struck in 23 carat gold, and later from 18 carat green gold plated with a 24 carat gold coating. Between 1901 and 2016, the Nobel Prizes and the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences were awarded 579 times to 911 people and organisations. With some receiving the Nobel Prize more than once, this makes a total of 23 organisations, and 881 individuals.
The prize ceremonies take place annually in Stockholm, Sweden (with the exception of the peace prize, which is held in Oslo, Norway). Each recipient, or laureate, receives a gold medal, a diploma, and a sum of money that has been decided by the Nobel Foundation. (As of 2017, each prize is worth SEK 9,000,000 or about US $1,110,000, € 944,000, £ 836,000, INR 72,693,900 Or CNR 376,000.) The Nobel Prize is widely regarded as the most prestigious award available in the fields of literature, medicine, physics, chemistry, peace, and economics.
The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences awards the Nobel Prize in Physics, the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, and the Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel; the Nobel Assembly at Karolinska Institutet awards the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine; the Swedish Academy grants the Nobel Prize in Literature; and the Nobel Peace Prize is awarded not by a Swedish organisation but by the Norwegian Nobel Committee.
The prize is not awarded posthumously; however, if a person is awarded a prize and dies before receiving it, the prize may still be presented. Though the average number of laureates per prize increased substantially during the 20th century, a prize may not be shared among more than three people, although the Nobel Peace Prize can be awarded to organizations of more than three people.
Alfred Nobel (listen (help info)) was born on 21 October 1833 in Stockholm, Sweden, into a family of engineers. He was a chemist, engineer, and inventor. In 1894, Nobel purchased the Bofors iron and steel mill, which he made into a major armaments manufacturer. Nobel also invented ballistite. This invention was a precursor to many smokeless military explosives, especially the British smokeless powder cordite. As a consequence of his patent claims, Nobel was eventually involved in a patent infringement lawsuit over cordite. Nobel amassed a fortune during his lifetime, with most of his wealth from his 355 inventions, of which dynamite is the most famous.
In 1888, Nobel was astonished to read his own obituary, titled The merchant of death is dead, in a French newspaper. As it was Alfred 's brother Ludvig who had died, the obituary was eight years premature. The article disconcerted Nobel and made him apprehensive about how he would be remembered. This inspired him to change his will. On 10 December 1896, Alfred Nobel died in his villa in San Remo, Italy, from a cerebral haemorrhage. He was 63 years old.
Nobel wrote several wills during his lifetime. He composed the last over a year before he died, signing it at the Swedish -- Norwegian Club in Paris on 27 November 1895. To widespread astonishment, Nobel 's last will specified that his fortune be used to create a series of prizes for those who confer the "greatest benefit on mankind '' in physics, chemistry, physiology or medicine, literature, and peace. Nobel bequeathed 94 % of his total assets, 31 million SEK (c. US $186 million, € 150 million in 2008), to establish the five Nobel Prizes. Because of scepticism surrounding the will, it was not until 26 April 1897 that it was approved by the Storting in Norway. The executors of Nobel 's will, Ragnar Sohlman and Rudolf Lilljequist, formed the Nobel Foundation to take care of Nobel 's fortune and organise the award of prizes.
Nobel 's instructions named a Norwegian Nobel Committee to award the Peace Prize, the members of whom were appointed shortly after the will was approved in April 1897. Soon thereafter, the other prize - awarding organisations were designated or established. These were Karolinska Institutet on 7 June, the Swedish Academy on 9 June, and the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences on 11 June. The Nobel Foundation reached an agreement on guidelines for how the prizes should be awarded; and, in 1900, the Nobel Foundation 's newly created statutes were promulgated by King Oscar II. In 1905, the personal union between Sweden and Norway was dissolved.
In the 19th century the Nobel family who were known for their innovations to the oil industry in Azerbaijan was the leading representative of foreign capital in Baku. Robert Nobel was the first foreign investor in oil sector in Baku. In 1875 R. Nobel bought a small refinery to Baku, thus the foundation of "The Nobel Brothers Company '' that was nationalized by the Baku Council of People 's Commissars the Company in 1918 was laid.
In 1920 the Company was nationalized by the government of Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic. Even the Nobel Brothers Petroleum Company ` s symbol was created by taking inspiration from the Fire Temple (Ateshgah) in Surakhani and their oil tankers were given some religious and philosophical names such as Zoroaster, Muhammad, Buddha, Brahma, Socrates, Spinoza and Darwin.
According to the Alfred Nobel 's will and testament read in Stockholm on 30th December 1896, a foundation established by Alfred Nobel would reward those who serve humanity.
The Nobel Prize was funded by Alfred Nobel 's personal fortune. According to the official sources, Alfred Nobel bequeathed from the shares 12 % of his fortune to the Nobel Foundation that now forms the economic base of the Nobel Prize.
The Nobel Foundation was founded as a private organisation on 29 June 1900. Its function is to manage the finances and administration of the Nobel Prizes. In accordance with Nobel 's will, the primary task of the Foundation is to manage the fortune Nobel left. Robert and Ludvig Nobel were involved in the oil business in Azerbaijan, and according to Swedish historian E. Bargengren, who accessed the Nobel family archives, it was this "decision to allow withdrawal of Alfred 's money from Baku that became the decisive factor that enabled the Nobel Prizes to be established ''. Another important task of the Nobel Foundation is to market the prizes internationally and to oversee informal administration related to the prizes. The Foundation is not involved in the process of selecting the Nobel laureates. In many ways, the Nobel Foundation is similar to an investment company, in that it invests Nobel 's money to create a solid funding base for the prizes and the administrative activities. The Nobel Foundation is exempt from all taxes in Sweden (since 1946) and from investment taxes in the United States (since 1953). Since the 1980s, the Foundation 's investments have become more profitable and as of 31 December 2007, the assets controlled by the Nobel Foundation amounted to 3.628 billion Swedish kronor (c. US $560 million).
According to the statutes, the Foundation consists of a board of five Swedish or Norwegian citizens, with its seat in Stockholm. The Chairman of the Board is appointed by the Swedish King in Council, with the other four members appointed by the trustees of the prize - awarding institutions. An Executive Director is chosen from among the board members, a Deputy Director is appointed by the King in Council, and two deputies are appointed by the trustees. However, since 1995, all the members of the board have been chosen by the trustees, and the Executive Director and the Deputy Director appointed by the board itself. As well as the board, the Nobel Foundation is made up of the prize - awarding institutions (the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, the Nobel Assembly at Karolinska Institute, the Swedish Academy, and the Norwegian Nobel Committee), the trustees of these institutions, and auditors.
Once the Nobel Foundation and its guidelines were in place, the Nobel Committees began collecting nominations for the inaugural prizes. Subsequently, they sent a list of preliminary candidates to the prize - awarding institutions.
The Nobel Committee 's Physics Prize shortlist cited Wilhelm Röntgen 's discovery of X-rays and Philipp Lenard 's work on cathode rays. The Academy of Sciences selected Röntgen for the prize. In the last decades of the 19th century, many chemists had made significant contributions. Thus, with the Chemistry Prize, the Academy "was chiefly faced with merely deciding the order in which these scientists should be awarded the prize. '' The Academy received 20 nominations, eleven of them for Jacobus van ' t Hoff. Van ' t Hoff was awarded the prize for his contributions in chemical thermodynamics.
The Swedish Academy chose the poet Sully Prudhomme for the first Nobel Prize in Literature. A group including 42 Swedish writers, artists, and literary critics protested against this decision, having expected Leo Tolstoy to be awarded. Some, including Burton Feldman, have criticised this prize because they consider Prudhomme a mediocre poet. Feldman 's explanation is that most of the Academy members preferred Victorian literature and thus selected a Victorian poet. The first Physiology or Medicine Prize went to the German physiologist and microbiologist Emil von Behring. During the 1890s, von Behring developed an antitoxin to treat diphtheria, which until then was causing thousands of deaths each year.
The first Nobel Peace Prize went to the Swiss Jean Henri Dunant for his role in founding the International Red Cross Movement and initiating the Geneva Convention, and jointly given to French pacifist Frédéric Passy, founder of the Peace League and active with Dunant in the Alliance for Order and Civilization.
In 1938 and 1939, Adolf Hitler 's Third Reich forbade three laureates from Germany (Richard Kuhn, Adolf Friedrich Johann Butenandt, and Gerhard Domagk) from accepting their prizes. Each man was later able to receive the diploma and medal. Even though Sweden was officially neutral during the Second World War, the prizes were awarded irregularly. In 1939, the Peace Prize was not awarded. No prize was awarded in any category from 1940 -- 42, due to the occupation of Norway by Germany. In the subsequent year, all prizes were awarded except those for literature and peace.
During the occupation of Norway, three members of the Norwegian Nobel Committee fled into exile. The remaining members escaped persecution from the Germans when the Nobel Foundation stated that the Committee building in Oslo was Swedish property. Thus it was a safe haven from the German military, which was not at war with Sweden. These members kept the work of the Committee going, but did not award any prizes. In 1944, the Nobel Foundation, together with the three members in exile, made sure that nominations were submitted for the Peace Prize and that the prize could be awarded once again.
In 1968, Sveriges Riksbank (Swedish National Bank) celebrated its 300th anniversary by donating a large sum of money to the Nobel Foundation to be used to set up a prize in honour of Nobel. The following year, the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences was awarded for the first time. The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences became responsible for selecting laureates. The first laureates for the Economics Prize were Jan Tinbergen and Ragnar Frisch "for having developed and applied dynamic models for the analysis of economic processes. '' The Board of the Nobel Foundation decided that after this addition, it would allow no further new prizes.
The award process is similar for all of the Nobel Prizes; the main difference is in who can make nominations for each of them.
Nomination forms are sent by the Nobel Committee to about 3,000 individuals, usually in September the year before the prizes are awarded. These individuals are generally prominent academics working in a relevant area. Regarding the Peace Prize, inquiries are also sent to governments, former Peace Prize laureates, and current or former members of the Norwegian Nobel Committee. The deadline for the return of the nomination forms is 31 January of the year of the award. The Nobel Committee nominates about 300 potential laureates from these forms and additional names. The nominees are not publicly named, nor are they told that they are being considered for the prize. All nomination records for a prize are sealed for 50 years from the awarding of the prize.
The Nobel Committee then prepares a report reflecting the advice of experts in the relevant fields. This, along with the list of preliminary candidates, is submitted to the prize - awarding institutions. The institutions meet to choose the laureate or laureates in each field by a majority vote. Their decision, which can not be appealed, is announced immediately after the vote. A maximum of three laureates and two different works may be selected per award. Except for the Peace Prize, which can be awarded to institutions, the awards can only be given to individuals.
Although posthumous nominations are not presently permitted, individuals who died in the months between their nomination and the decision of the prize committee were originally eligible to receive the prize. This has occurred twice: the 1931 Literature Prize awarded to Erik Axel Karlfeldt, and the 1961 Peace Prize awarded to UN Secretary General Dag Hammarskjöld. Since 1974, laureates must be thought alive at the time of the October announcement. There has been one laureate, William Vickrey, who in 1996 died after the prize (in Economics) was announced but before it could be presented. On 3 October 2011, the laureates for the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine were announced; however, the committee was not aware that one of the laureates, Ralph M. Steinman, had died three days earlier. The committee was debating about Steinman 's prize, since the rule is that the prize is not awarded posthumously. The committee later decided that as the decision to award Steinman the prize "was made in good faith '', it would remain unchanged.
Nobel 's will provided for prizes to be awarded in recognition of discoveries made "during the preceding year ''. Early on, the awards usually recognised recent discoveries. However, some of these early discoveries were later discredited. For example, Johannes Fibiger was awarded the 1926 Prize for Physiology or Medicine for his purported discovery of a parasite that caused cancer. To avoid repeating this embarrassment, the awards increasingly recognised scientific discoveries that had withstood the test of time. According to Ralf Pettersson, former chairman of the Nobel Prize Committee for Physiology or Medicine, "the criterion ' the previous year ' is interpreted by the Nobel Assembly as the year when the full impact of the discovery has become evident. ''
The interval between the award and the accomplishment it recognises varies from discipline to discipline. The Literature Prize is typically awarded to recognise a cumulative lifetime body of work rather than a single achievement. The Peace Prize can also be awarded for a lifetime body of work. For example, 2008 laureate Martti Ahtisaari was awarded for his work to resolve international conflicts. However, they can also be awarded for specific recent events. For instance, Kofi Annan was awarded the 2001 Peace Prize just four years after becoming the Secretary - General of the United Nations. Similarly Yasser Arafat, Yitzhak Rabin, and Shimon Peres received the 1994 award, about a year after they successfully concluded the Oslo Accords.
Awards for physics, chemistry, and medicine are typically awarded once the achievement has been widely accepted. Sometimes, this takes decades -- for example, Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar shared the 1983 Physics Prize for his 1930s work on stellar structure and evolution. Not all scientists live long enough for their work to be recognised. Some discoveries can never be considered for a prize if their impact is realised after the discoverers have died.
Except for the Peace Prize, the Nobel Prizes are presented in Stockholm, Sweden, at the annual Prize Award Ceremony on 10 December, the anniversary of Nobel 's death. The recipients ' lectures are normally held in the days prior to the award ceremony. The Peace Prize and its recipients ' lectures are presented at the annual Prize Award Ceremony in Oslo, Norway, usually on 10 December. The award ceremonies and the associated banquets are typically major international events. The Prizes awarded in Sweden 's ceremonies ' are held at the Stockholm Concert Hall, with the Nobel banquet following immediately at Stockholm City Hall. The Nobel Peace Prize ceremony has been held at the Norwegian Nobel Institute (1905 -- 1946), at the auditorium of the University of Oslo (1947 -- 1989), and at Oslo City Hall (1990 -- present).
The highlight of the Nobel Prize Award Ceremony in Stockholm occurs when each Nobel laureate steps forward to receive the prize from the hands of the King of Sweden. In Oslo, the Chairman of the Norwegian Nobel Committee presents the Nobel Peace Prize in the presence of the King of Norway. At first, King Oscar II did not approve of awarding grand prizes to foreigners. It is said that his mind changed once his attention had been drawn to the publicity value of the prizes for Sweden.
After the award ceremony in Sweden, a banquet is held in the Blue Hall at the Stockholm City Hall, which is attended by the Swedish Royal Family and around 1,300 guests.
The Nobel Peace Prize banquet is held in Norway at the Oslo Grand Hotel after the award ceremony. Apart from the laureate, guests include the President of the Storting, the Prime Minister, and, since 2006, the King and Queen of Norway. In total, about 250 guests attend.
According to the statutes of the Nobel Foundation, each laureate is required to give a public lecture on a subject related to the topic of their prize. The Nobel lecture as a rhetorical genre took decades to reach its current format. These lectures normally occur during Nobel Week (the week leading up to the award ceremony and banquet, which begins with the laureates arriving in Stockholm and normally ends with the Nobel banquet), but this is not mandatory. The laureate is only obliged to give the lecture within six months of receiving the prize. Some have happened even later. For example, US President Theodore Roosevelt received the Peace Prize in 1906 but gave his lecture in 1910, after his term in office. The lectures are organised by the same association which selected the laureates.
It was announced on 30 May 2012 that the Nobel Foundation had awarded the contract for the production of the five (Swedish) Nobel Prize medals to Svenska Medalj AB. Formerly, the Nobel Prize medals were minted by Myntverket (the Swedish Mint) from 1902 to 2010. Myntverket, Sweden 's oldest company, ceased operations in 2011 after 1,017 years. In 2011, the Mint of Norway, located in Kongsberg, made the medals. The Nobel Prize medals are registered trademarks of the Nobel Foundation. Each medal features an image of Alfred Nobel in left profile on the obverse. The medals for physics, chemistry, physiology or medicine, and literature have identical obverses, showing the image of Alfred Nobel and the years of his birth and death. Nobel 's portrait also appears on the obverse of the Peace Prize medal and the medal for the Economics Prize, but with a slightly different design. For instance, the laureate 's name is engraved on the rim of the Economics medal. The image on the reverse of a medal varies according to the institution awarding the prize. The reverse sides of the medals for chemistry and physics share the same design.
All medals made before 1980 were struck in 23 carat gold. Since then, they have been struck in 18 carat green gold plated with 24 carat gold. The weight of each medal varies with the value of gold, but averages about 175 grams (0.386 lb) for each medal. The diameter is 66 millimetres (2.6 in) and the thickness varies between 5.2 millimetres (0.20 in) and 2.4 millimetres (0.094 in). Because of the high value of their gold content and tendency to be on public display, Nobel medals are subject to medal theft. During World War II, the medals of German scientists Max von Laue and James Franck were sent to Copenhagen for safekeeping. When Germany invaded Denmark, Hungarian chemist (and Nobel laureate himself) George de Hevesy dissolved them in aqua regia (nitro - hydrochloric acid), to prevent confiscation by Nazi Germany and to prevent legal problems for the holders. After the war, the gold was recovered from solution, and the medals re-cast.
Nobel laureates receive a diploma directly from the hands of the King of Sweden, or in the case of the peace prize, the Chairman of the Norwegian Nobel Committee. Each diploma is uniquely designed by the prize - awarding institutions for the laureates that receive them. The diploma contains a picture and text in Swedish which states the name of the laureate and normally a citation of why they received the prize. None of the Nobel Peace Prize laureates has ever had a citation on their diplomas.
The laureates are given a sum of money when they receive their prizes, in the form of a document confirming the amount awarded. The amount of prize money depends upon how much money the Nobel Foundation can award each year. The purse has increased since the 1980s, when the prize money was 880 000 SEK (c. 2.6 million SEK, US $350 000 today) per prize. In 2009, the monetary award was 10 million SEK (US $1.4 million). In June 2012, it was lowered to 8 million SEK. If there are two laureates in a particular category, the award grant is divided equally between the recipients. If there are three, the awarding committee has the option of dividing the grant equally, or awarding one - half to one recipient and one - quarter to each of the others. It is common for recipients to donate prize money to benefit scientific, cultural, or humanitarian causes.
Among other criticisms, the Nobel Committees have been accused of having a political agenda, and of omitting more deserving candidates. They have also been accused of Eurocentrism, especially for the Literature Prize.
Among the most criticised Nobel Peace Prizes was the one awarded to Henry Kissinger and Lê Đức Thọ. This led to the resignation of two Norwegian Nobel Committee members. Kissinger and Thọ were awarded the prize for negotiating a ceasefire between North Vietnam and the United States in January 1973. However, when the award was announced, both sides were still engaging in hostilities. Critics sympathetic to the North announced that Kissinger was not a peace - maker but the opposite, responsible for widening the war. Those hostile to the North and what they considered its deceptive practices during negotiations were deprived of a chance to criticise Lê Đức Thọ, as he declined the award.
Yasser Arafat, Shimon Peres, and Yitzhak Rabin received the Peace Prize in 1994 for their efforts in making peace between Israel and Palestine. Immediately after the award was announced, one of the five Norwegian Nobel Committee members denounced Arafat as a terrorist and resigned. Additional misgivings about Arafat were widely expressed in various newspapers.
Another controversial Peace Prize was that awarded to Barack Obama in 2009. Nominations had closed only eleven days after Obama took office as President of the United States, but the actual evaluation occurred over the next eight months. Obama himself stated that he did not feel deserving of the award, or worthy of the company it would place him in. Past Peace Prize laureates were divided, some saying that Obama deserved the award, and others saying he had not secured the achievements to yet merit such an accolade. Obama 's award, along with the previous Peace Prizes for Jimmy Carter and Al Gore, also prompted accusations of a left - wing bias.
The award of the 2004 Literature Prize to Elfriede Jelinek drew a protest from a member of the Swedish Academy, Knut Ahnlund. Ahnlund resigned, alleging that the selection of Jelinek had caused "irreparable damage to all progressive forces, it has also confused the general view of literature as an art. '' He alleged that Jelinek 's works were "a mass of text shovelled together without artistic structure. '' The 2009 Literature Prize to Herta Müller also generated criticism. According to The Washington Post, many US literary critics and professors were ignorant of her work. This made those critics feel the prizes were too Eurocentric.
In 1949, the neurologist António Egas Moniz received the Physiology or Medicine Prize for his development of the prefrontal leucotomy. The previous year, Dr. Walter Freeman had developed a version of the procedure which was faster and easier to carry out. Due in part to the publicity surrounding the original procedure, Freeman 's procedure was prescribed without due consideration or regard for modern medical ethics. Endorsed by such influential publications as The New England Journal of Medicine, leucotomy or "lobotomy '' became so popular that about 5,000 lobotomies were performed in the United States in the three years immediately following Moniz 's receipt of the Prize.
The Norwegian Nobel Committee confirmed that Mahatma Gandhi was nominated for the Peace Prize in 1937 -- 39, 1947, and a few days before he was assassinated in January 1948. Later, members of the Norwegian Nobel Committee expressed regret that he was not given the prize. Geir Lundestad, Secretary of Norwegian Nobel Committee in 2006, said, "The greatest omission in our 106 year history is undoubtedly that Mahatma Gandhi never received the Nobel Peace prize. Gandhi could do without the Nobel Peace prize. Whether Nobel committee can do without Gandhi is the question ''. In 1948, the year of Gandhi 's death, the Nobel Committee declined to award a prize on the grounds that "there was no suitable living candidate '' that year. Later, when the 14th Dalai Lama was awarded the Peace Prize in 1989, the chairman of the committee said that this was "in part a tribute to the memory of Mahatma Gandhi. '' Other high - profile individuals with widely recognised contributions to peace have been missed out. Foreign Policy lists Eleanor Roosevelt, Václav Havel, Ken Saro - Wiwa, Sari Nusseibeh, and Corazon Aquino as people who "never won the prize, but should have. ''
In 1965, UN Secretary General U Thant was informed by the Norwegian Permanent Representative to the UN that he would be awarded that year 's prize and asked whether or not he would accept. He consulted staff and later replied that he would. At the same time, Chairman Gunnar Jahn of the Nobel Peace prize committee, lobbied heavily against giving U Thant the prize and the prize was at the last minute awarded to UNICEF. The rest of the committee all wanted the prize to go to U Thant, for his work in defusing the Cuban Missile Crisis, ending the war in the Congo, and his ongoing work to mediate an end to the Vietnam War. The disagreement lasted three years and in 1966 and 1967 no prize was given, with Gunnar Jahn effectively vetoing an award to U Thant.
The Literature Prize also has controversial omissions. Adam Kirsch has suggested that many notable writers have missed out on the award for political or extra-literary reasons. The heavy focus on European and Swedish authors has been a subject of criticism. The Eurocentric nature of the award was acknowledged by Peter Englund, the 2009 Permanent Secretary of the Swedish Academy, as a problem with the award and was attributed to the tendency for the academy to relate more to European authors. This tendency towards European authors still leaves some European writers on a list of notable writers that have been overlooked for the Literature Prize, including Europe 's Leo Tolstoy, Anton Chekhov, J.R.R. Tolkien, Émile Zola, Marcel Proust, Vladimir Nabokov, James Joyce, August Strindberg, Simon Vestdijk, Karel Čapek, the New World 's Jorge Luis Borges, Ezra Pound, John Updike, Arthur Miller, Mark Twain, and Africa 's Chinua Achebe.
Candidates can receive multiple nominations the same year. Gaston Ramon received a total of 155 nominations in physiology or medicine from 1930 to 1953, the last year with public nomination data for that award as of 2016. He died in 1963 without being awarded. Pierre Paul Émile Roux received 115 nominations in physiology or medicine, and Arnold Sommerfeld received 84 in physics. These are the three most nominated scientists without awards in the data published as of 2016. Otto Stern received 79 nominations in physics 1925 -- 43 before being awarded in 1943.
The strict rule against awarding a prize to more than three people is also controversial. When a prize is awarded to recognise an achievement by a team of more than three collaborators, one or more will miss out. For example, in 2002, the prize was awarded to Koichi Tanaka and John Fenn for the development of mass spectrometry in protein chemistry, an award that did not recognise the achievements of Franz Hillenkamp and Michael Karas of the Institute for Physical and Theoretical Chemistry at the University of Frankfurt. According to one of the nominees for the prize in physics, the three person limit deprived him and two other members of his team of the honour in 2013: the team of Carl Hagen, Gerald Guralnik, and Tom Kibble published a paper in 1964 that gave answers to how the cosmos began, but did not share the 2013 Physics Prize awarded to Peter Higgs and François Englert, who had also published papers in 1964 concerning the subject. All five physicists arrived at the same conclusion, albeit from different angles. Hagen contends that an equitable solution is to either abandon the three limit restriction, or expand the time period of recognition for a given achievement to two years.
Similarly, the prohibition of posthumous awards fails to recognise achievements by an individual or collaborator who dies before the prize is awarded. In 1962, Francis Crick, James D. Watson, and Maurice Wilkins were awarded the Physiology or Medicine Prize for discovering the structure of DNA. Rosalind Franklin, a key contributor in that discovery, died of ovarian cancer four years earlier. The Economics Prize was not awarded to Fischer Black, who died in 1995, when his co-author Myron Scholes received the honour in 1997 for their landmark work on option pricing along with Robert C. Merton, another pioneer in the development of valuation of stock options. In the announcement of the award that year, the Nobel committee prominently mentioned Black 's key role.
Political subterfuge may also deny proper recognition. Lise Meitner and Fritz Strassmann, who co-discovered nuclear fission along with Otto Hahn, may have been denied a share of Hahn 's 1944 Nobel Chemistry Award due to having fled Germany when the Nazis came to power. The Meitner and Strassmann roles in the research was not fully recognised until years later, when they joined Hahn in receiving the 1966 Enrico Fermi Award.
Alfred Nobel left his fortune to finance annual prizes to be awarded "to those who, during the preceding year, shall have conferred the greatest benefit on mankind. '' He stated that the Nobel Prizes in Physics should be given "to the person who shall have made the most important ' discovery ' or ' invention ' within the field of physics. '' Nobel did not emphasise discoveries, but they have historically been held in higher respect by the Nobel Prize Committee than inventions: 77 % of the Physics Prizes have been given to discoveries, compared with only 23 % to inventions. Christoph Bartneck and Matthias Rauterberg, in papers published in Nature and Technoetic Arts, have argued this emphasis on discoveries has moved the Nobel Prize away from its original intention of rewarding the greatest contribution to society.
In terms of the most prestigious awards in STEM fields, only a small proportion have been awarded to women. Looking at the Nobel Prize, out of 199 laureates in Physics, 169 in Chemistry and 207 in Medicine, there were only two female laureates in physics, four in chemistry and 11 in medicine between 1901 and 2014.
Four people have received two Nobel Prizes. Marie Curie received the Physics Prize in 1903 for her work on radioactivity and the Chemistry Prize in 1911 for the isolation of pure radium, making her the only person to be awarded a Nobel Prize in two different sciences. Linus Pauling was awarded the 1954 Chemistry Prize for his research into the chemical bond and its application to the structure of complex substances. Pauling was also awarded the Peace Prize in 1962 for his activism against nuclear weapons, making him the only laureate of two unshared prizes. John Bardeen received the Physics Prize twice: in 1956 for the invention of the transistor and in 1972 for the theory of superconductivity. Frederick Sanger received the prize twice in Chemistry: in 1958 for determining the structure of the insulin molecule and in 1980 for inventing a method of determining base sequences in DNA.
Two organisations have received the Peace Prize multiple times. The International Committee of the Red Cross received it three times: in 1917 and 1944 for its work during the world wars; and in 1963 during the year of its centenary. The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees has been awarded the Peace Prize twice for assisting refugees: in 1954 and 1981.
The Curie family has received the most prizes, with four prizes awarded to five individual laureates. Marie Curie received the prizes in Physics (in 1903) and Chemistry (in 1911). Her husband, Pierre Curie, shared the 1903 Physics prize with her. Their daughter, Irène Joliot - Curie, received the Chemistry Prize in 1935 together with her husband Frédéric Joliot - Curie. In addition, the husband of Marie Curie 's second daughter, Henry Labouisse, was the director of UNICEF when it was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1965.
Although no family matches the Curie family 's record, there have been several with two laureates. The husband - and - wife team of Gerty Cori and Carl Ferdinand Cori shared the 1947 Prize in Physiology or Medicine as did the husband - and - wife team of May - Britt Moser and Edvard Moser in 2014 (along with John O'Keefe). J.J. Thomson was awarded the Physics Prize in 1906 for showing that electrons are particles. His son, George Paget Thomson, received the same prize in 1937 for showing that they also have the properties of waves. William Henry Bragg and his son, William Lawrence Bragg, shared the Physics Prize in 1915 for inventing the X-ray spectrometer. Niels Bohr was awarded the Physics prize in 1922, as did his son, Aage Bohr, in 1975. Manne Siegbahn, who received the Physics Prize in 1924, was the father of Kai Siegbahn, who received the Physics Prize in 1981. Hans von Euler - Chelpin, who received the Chemistry Prize in 1929, was the father of Ulf von Euler, who was awarded the Physiology or Medicine Prize in 1970. C.V. Raman was awarded the Physics Prize in 1930 and was the uncle of Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, who was awarded the same prize in 1983. Arthur Kornberg received the Physiology or Medicine Prize in 1959; Kornberg 's son, Roger later received the Chemistry Prize in 2006. Jan Tinbergen, who was awarded the first Economics Prize in 1969, was the brother of Nikolaas Tinbergen, who received the 1973 Physiology or Medicine Prize. Alva Myrdal, Peace Prize laureate in 1982, was the wife of Gunnar Myrdal who was awarded the Economics Prize in 1974. Economics laureates Paul Samuelson and Kenneth Arrow were brothers - in - law. Frits Zernike, who was awarded the 1953 Physics Prize, is the great - uncle of 1999 Physics laureate Gerard ' t Hooft.
Being a symbol of scientific or literary achievement that 's recognisable worldwide, the Nobel Prize is often depicted in fiction. This includes films like The Prize and Nobel Son about fictional Nobel laureates as well as fictionalised accounts of stories surrounding real prizes such as Nobel Chor, a film based on the unsolved theft of Rabindranath Tagore 's prize.
Two laureates have voluntarily declined the Nobel Prize. In 1964, Jean - Paul Sartre was awarded the Literature Prize but refused, stating, "A writer must refuse to allow himself to be transformed into an institution, even if it takes place in the most honourable form. '' Lê Đức Thọ, chosen for the 1973 Peace Prize for his role in the Paris Peace Accords, declined, stating that there was no actual peace in Vietnam.
During the Third Reich, Adolf Hitler hindered Richard Kuhn, Adolf Butenandt, and Gerhard Domagk from accepting their prizes. All of them were awarded their diplomas and gold medals after World War II. In 1958, Boris Pasternak declined his prize for literature due to fear of what the Soviet Union government might do if he travelled to Stockholm to accept his prize. In return, the Swedish Academy refused his refusal, saying "this refusal, of course, in no way alters the validity of the award. '' The Academy announced with regret that the presentation of the Literature Prize could not take place that year, holding it until 1989 when Pasternak 's son accepted the prize on his behalf. Aung San Suu Kyi was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1991, but her children accepted the prize because she had been placed under house arrest in Burma; Suu Kyi delivered her speech two decades later, in 2012. Liu Xiaobo was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 2010 while he and his wife were under house arrest in China as political prisoners, and he was unable to accept the prize in his lifetime.
The memorial symbol "Planet of Alfred Nobel '' was opened in Dnipropetrovsk University of Economics and Law in 2008. On the globe, there are 802 Nobel laureates ' reliefs made of a composite alloy obtained when disposing of military strategic missiles.
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when did grey's anatomy season 14 start | Grey 's Anatomy (season 14) - wikipedia
The fourteenth season of the American television medical drama Grey 's Anatomy was ordered on February 10, 2017, by American Broadcasting Company (ABC), and premiered on September 28, 2017 with a special two - hour premiere. The season will consist of 24 episodes, with the season 's seventh episode marking the 300th episode for the series overall. The season is produced by ABC Studios, in association with Shondaland Production Company and The Mark Gordon Company; the showrunners being Krista Vernoff and William Harper.
This season is the first not to feature Jerrika Hinton as Dr. Stephanie Edwards since her introduction in the ninth season, following her departure at the conclusion of the previous season. The season also marked the last appearance for Martin Henderson as a series regular.
The season follows the story of surgical residents, fellows, and attendings as they experience the difficulties of the competitive careers they have chosen. It is set in the surgical wing of the fictional Grey Sloan Memorial Hospital, located in Seattle, Washington.
The season picks up right where it left off after the fire in the previous season finale. Grey - Sloan takes on a new, improved appearance after it is repaired of the damages from the fire. Meredith Grey (Ellen Pompeo) finds herself in another love triangle with Nathan Riggs (Martin Henderson) and his long - lost fiancée, Megan Hunt (Abigail Spencer), though she encourages Riggs to resume his relationship with Megan over her. Meredith performs a ground - breaking surgery on Megan, landing her a Harper Avery Award. Jackson Avery (Jesse Williams) and Maggie Pierce (Kelly McCreary) fiddle with the idea of a relationship after Jackson and April Kepner (Sarah Drew) decide to live apart.
Teddy Altman (Kim Raver) returns to Seattle to assist with Megan 's reappearance and notices the tension in Owen and Amelia 's relationship. With the help of DeLuca 's sister, visiting doctor Carina DeLuca (Stefania Spampinato), Amelia Shepherd (Caterina Scorsone) discovers she has a brain tumor that has been impairing her judgment for the last 10 years. After it is removed by her former professor Tom Koracick (Greg Germann), Amelia and Owen Hunt (Kevin McKidd) decide to end their marriage. Meanwhile, after Alex Karev (Justin Chambers) reveals to Jo Wilson (Camilla Luddington) that he tracked down her husband, Alex and Jo reconcile their relationship, with Jo declaring that she will divorce Paul (Matthew Morrison).
A new class of interns is introduced, one of which has a history with Andrew DeLuca (Giacomo Gianniotti). Ben Warren (Jason George) joins the Fire Academy but has trouble telling his wife, Miranda Bailey (Chandra Wilson). Harper Avery (Chelcie Ross) threatens to pull funding from Grey - Sloan and fires Bailey as Chief, but he soon after passes away, reinstating Bailey in the position. After Eliza Minnick (Marika Domińczyk) is fired from Grey - Sloan, she ghosts Arizona Robbins (Jessica Capshaw), who subsequently begins dating Carina. Their relationship is short - lived, however, as Arizona inadvertently ends it while preparing for Sofia to return home from New York. Carina begins a sexual relationship with the newly single Owen.
Series regular Jerrika Hinton does not appear for the first time since her introduction at the start of the 9th season, after it was announced she landed a starring role in Alan Ball 's new HBO drama series Here and Now. Hinton had previously been in talks of leaving the show at the end of the 12th season when she was cast in the Shondaland comedy pilot Toast, but ABC passed on the project. Renewing her contract for another three seasons as Dr. Arizona Robbins after the eleventh season, Jessica Capshaw will return for the 14th season. On June 20, 2017, it was announced that Kim Raver is set to reprise her role as Dr. Teddy Altman for a guest arc. In August 2017, it was announced that Abigail Spencer would replace Bridget Regan as Megan Hunt for a multi-episode arc this season. After recurring in the previous season as the controversial character, Eliza Minnick, it was announced in August 2017 that Marika Dominczyk would not return to the show. On September 13, 2017, another guest star was announced in Greg Germann (Ally McBeal), and later it was revealed that his character would be Tom Koracick, Amelia 's neurosurgery mentor.
On October 9, 2017, the new group of interns to join the cast in the fourth episode "Ai n't That a Kick in the Head '' was announced to include Jeanine Mason (So You Think You Can Dance) as Sam, Alex Blue Davis as Casey, Rushi Kota as Vik, Jaicy Elliot as Taryn, Sophia Ali as Dahlia, and Jake Borelli as Levi. On October 26, 2017, it was announced that Martin Henderson 's appearance in the fifth episode titled "Danger Zone '' would be his last.
On January 31, 2018, it was announced that Candis Cayne would be joining the show as Dr. Michelle Velez for a multi-episode arc revolving around a transgender character receiving a ground breaking surgery. On March 8, 2018, it was announced that both Jessica Capshaw and Sarah Drew would leave the series following the conclusion of the season.
It was released on April 4, 2018 that a familiar character would be returning to the set later on in the season as Sarah Utterback 's Nurse Olivia Harper would be revisiting Grey Sloan, not as a nurse but as mom of a patient. Details of her storyline or duration of arc have yet to be released.
Grey 's Anatomy was renewed for a 14th season on February 10, 2017. It premiered on September 28, 2017, with a two - hour premiere. Ellen Pompeo announced that she would be directing several episodes in the 14th season. On April 28, 2017, veteran writer Krista Vernoff announced that she would return to the show as a writer after leaving the show after the seventh season. On January 11, 2018, ABC released a six - episode web series following the new surgical interns at Grey Sloan Memorial Hospital. The web series was written by Barbara Kaye Friend and directed by series regular Sarah Drew.
The number in the "No. overall '' column refers to the episode 's number within the overall series, whereas the number in the "No. in season '' column refers to the episode 's number within this particular season. "U.S. viewers in millions '' refers to the number of Americans in millions who watched the episodes live.
While the staff of the hospital fawns over Dr. Paul Stadler and his legendary work as a surgeon, Jo tries to steer clear of him. Alex and Meredith team up to do their best to protect Jo during the process of filing for divorce. Drenched in blood, Jackson and Maggie save their patient 's life, and then bond in the locker room after showers; April and Owen use their trauma skills to work on patients in less than ideal and extremely hot conditions, very similar to when they were overseas. Bailey works with an exceptionally computer - savvy intern to take back the power against those who hacked the hospital; this intern later outs himself as "a proud trans man ''. After Paul 's fiancée, Jenny, tells him about her secret exchange with Jo, Meredith has to pretend to call in security to remove Paul from the hospital. However, he soon winds back up in the ER as a victim of a hit - and - run.
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what is the name of pakistan film industry | Cinema of Pakistan - Wikipedia
The Cinema of Pakistan or Pakistani cinema (Urdu: پاکِستانی سینما ) refers to the filmmaking industry in Pakistan. Pakistan is home to several film studios centres, primarily located in its two largest cities - Karachi and Lahore. Pakistani cinema has played an important part in Pakistani culture, and in recent years has begun flourishing again after years of decline, delivering entertainment to audiences in Pakistan and expatriates abroad. Several film industries are based in Pakistan, which tend to be regional and niche in nature. Over 10,000 Urdu feature - films have been produced in Pakistan since 1948, as well as over 8000 Punjabi, 6000 Pashto and 2000 Sindhi feature - length films. The first film ever produced was Husn Ka Daku in 1930, directed by Abdur Rashid Kardar in Lahore. The first Pakistani - film produced was Teri Yaad, directed by Daud Chand in 1948. Between 1947 and 2007, Pakistani cinema was based in Lahore, home to the nation 's largest film industry (nicknamed Lollywood). Pakistani films during this period attracted large audiences and had a strong cult following, was part of the cultural mainstream, widely available and imitated by the masses. During the early 1970s, Pakistan was the world 's fourth largest producer of feature films. However, between 1977 and 2007, the film industry of Pakistan went into decline due to Islamization, strengthening of censorship laws and an overall lack of quality. Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, the film industry went through several periods of ups and downs, a reflection of its dependency on state funding and incentives. By 2000, the film industry in Lahore had collapsed and saw a gradual shift of Pakistani actors, actresses, producers and filmmakers from Lahore to Karachi. By 2007, the wounds of Pakistan 's collapsed film industry began to heal and Karachi had cemented itself as the centre of Pakistani cinema. Quality and new technology led to an explosion of alternative form of Pakistani cinema. The shift has been seen by many as the leading cause for the "resurgence of Pakistani cinema ''. Despite the industry crisis starting in the mid-1980s, Pakistani films have retained much of their distinctive identity. Since the shift to Karachi, Pakistani films have once again began attracting a strong cult following.
The history of cinema in Pakistan began in 1929, when Abdur Rashid Kardar set up a studio and production company under the name of United Players Corporation (later renamed Playart Phototone), which would become the foundation stone for the Lahore film industry. After scouting for locations, he settled for their offices to be established at Ravi Road. The dim - lit area presented with much difficulties and shootings were only possible in the day - light, but nevertheless the area had some very important landmarks like the Ravi Forest and the tombs of Mughal emperor Jahangir and his wife Noor Jahan. It is reported that the team working at the studios would commute on tangas and even lost equipment once while traveling on the bumpy roads on the horse - drawn carriage. However basic and crude their working conditions, Kardar believed in his work and in 1930 he produced the first silent film in Lahore Husn Ka Daku (Mysterious Eagle), under his studio 's banner. The film had mild success at cinemas, but prominently established Lahore as a functioning film industry. Kardar vowed on not acting in any other film and instead focusing on direction. Immediately afterwards, the studio released the film Sarfarosh (Brave Heart) in 1931, with Gul Hamid playing the lead role with more or less the same cast as in the previous film. This production proved equally appealing, but was able to stir noise about the Lahore film industry. Roop Lal Shori, who was a resident of Brandreth Road in Lahore, upon hearing of Lahore 's growing film industry, returned to his hometown and produced Qismat Ke Haer Pher (Life After Death) in 1932, which would firmly ground the film industry in Lahore. In 1946, Sajjad Gul set up Evernew Studios in on Multan Road. The following year, Eveready Pictures was established by J.C. Anand, which would go on to become the largest film production and distribution company in Pakistan.
In 1947, after Pakistan was created out of India; Lahore became the hub of cinema in Pakistan. Upon independence, there was a shortage of funds, filming equipment which initially paralysed the film industry. With hardships faced, the first Pakistani feature film, Teri Yaad released on 7 August 1948, premiering at the Parbhat Theatre in Lahore. Over the next few years, films that were released reached mediocre success until the release of Do Ansoo on 7 April 1950. Do Ansoo became the first film to attain a 25 - week viewing making it the first film to reach silver jubilee status. Recovery was evident with Noor Jehan 's directorial debut Chanwey releasing on 29 April 1951. The film became the first to be directed by a female director. Syed Faqir ahmad Shah produced his first production 1952. Though "Jagga Daku '' Saqlain Rizvi was the director, the film could not get much appreciation due to violence shown in it. As cinema viewership increased, Sassi released on 3 June 1954 by Eveready Pictures reached golden jubilee status staying on screens for 50 - weeks. Legendary playback singer Ahmed Rushdi started his career in April 1955 after singing his first song in Pakistan "Bander Road Se Kemari ''. Umar Marvi released on 12 March 1956 became the first Pakistani film made in the Sindhi language. To celebrate the success of these endeavours, film journalist Ilyas Rashidi launched an annual awarding event on 17 July 1958. Named Nigar Awards, the event is since then considered Pakistan 's premier awarding event celebrating outstanding performance in various categories of filmmaking.
The 1960s is often cited as being the golden age of Pakistani cinema. Many stars were introduced during this period who would go on to become cinema legends on the silver screen. As black - and - white became obsolete, Pakistan saw the introduction of first colour films. Some that share the status of being firsts are Munshi Dil 's Azra in the early 1960s, Zahir Raihan 's Sangam (first full - length coloured film) released on 23 April 1964, and Mala (first coloured cinema scope film). In 1962 Shaheed was released which introduced the Palestine conflict to Pakistanis in cinemas and became an instant hit. In 1962, Pakistan 's most versatile actor Mohammad Ali debuted in Charagh Jalta Raha. It was premiered by Fatima Jinnah on 9 March 1962 at Nishat Cinema in Karachi. In September 1965, following the war between Pakistan and India, all Indian films were completely banned. A light ban had existed since 1952 in West Pakistan and since 1962 in East Pakistan, but was exercised rigorously after the War of 1965. Pakistani cinemas did not suffer much from the decision to remove the films and instead received better attendances. Realising the potential, Waheed Murad stepped into the industry. His persona led people to call him the "chocolate hero '' and in essence, he became the Marlon Brando and Elvis Presley of Pakistan. In 1966, Armaan was released and became one of the most cherished Urdu films to ever release. The film is said to have given birth to Pakistani pop music, by introducing playback singing legends like composer Sohail Rana and singer Ahmed Rushdi. The film became the first to complete a 75 - week screening at cinemas throughout the country attaining a platinum jubilee status. Another rising star during this period was Nadeem Baig, who received instant stardom with his debut film Chakori in 1967. The same year, he would act in another film of a different genre. Horror films were introduced with the release of Zinda Laash, making it the first Pakistani film to display an R rating tag on its posters. Meanwhile, Eastern Films Magazine, a tabloid edited by Said Haroon, became the most popular magazine for film buffs in Pakistan. The magazine had a question and answer section titled "Yours Impishly '' which the sub-editor Asif Noorani took inspiration for from I.S. Johar 's page in India 's Filmfare magazine. Tabloids like these got their first controversial covers with the release of Neela Parbat on 3 January 1969, which became Pakistan 's first feature - film with an adults - only tag. It ran for only three - to - four days at the box office. More controversial yet would be the offering of distribution rights in the Middle East to the Palestinian guerrilla organisation, Al Fatah, by the writer, producer, and director Riaz Shahid for his film Zarqa released on 17 October 1969. It depicted the activities of the organisation. Towards the late 1960s and early 1970s, political turmoil once again returned with the East Pakistan conflict brewing. Amidst concerns, the film Dosti, released on 7 February 1971 and turned out to be the first indigenous Urdu film to complete 101 weeks of success at the box office, dubbing it the first recipient of a Diamond Jubilee. As political uncertainty took charge of the entertainment industry, filmmakers were asked to consider sociopolitical impacts of their films as evident by the fact that the makers of Tehzeeb, released on 20 November 1971, were asked to change the lyrics with a reference to Misr, Urdu for Egypt, that might prove detrimental to diplomatic relations of Egypt and Pakistan. So vulnerable was the film industry to the changing political landscape that in 1976, an angry mob set fire to cinema in Quetta just before the release of the first Balochi film, Hamalo Mah Gunj. Javed Jabbar 's Beyond the Last Mountain, released on 2 December 1976, was Pakistan 's first venture into English film - making. The Urdu version Musafir did not do well at the box office. Signs of trouble slowly began in the cinema industry as VCRs and piracy became an issue.
Pakistani cinema entered into a decline during the regime of Muhammad Zia - ul - Haq, who began to Islamicise the country. One of the first victims of this sociopolitical change was Pakistani cinema. Imposition of new registration laws for film producers requiring filmmakers to be degree holders, where not many were, led to a steep decline in the workings of the industry. The government forcibly closed most of the cinemas in Lahore. New tax rates were introduced, further decreasing cinema attendances. Other factors such as VCRs and film piracy had a negative affect on the growth of the industry.
Aina, released on 18 March 1977, marked a distinct symbolic break between the so - called liberal Zulfikar Ali Bhutto years and the increasingly conservative cum revolutionary Muhammad Zia - ul - Haq regime. The film stayed in cinemas for over 400 weeks, with its last screening at ' Scala ' in Karachi where it ran for more than four years. It is considered the most popular film ever. Films dropped from a total output of 98 in 1979, of which 42 were in Urdu, to only 58 films of which 26 were in Urdu in 1980.. The film industry by now was on the verge of collapse as people began turning away from cinema. The filmmakers that remained in the industry, employed flaccid story lines to produce Punjabi cult classics like Maula Jatt in 1979, telling the story of a gandasa - carrying protagonist waging a blood - feud with a local gangster. Growing censorship policies against displays of affection, rather than violence, came as a blow to the industry. As a result, violence - ridden Punjabi films prevailed and overshadowed Urdu cinema. The middle class neglected the ' increasingly dilapidated and rowdy cinemas '. This film sub-culture came to be known as the gandasa culture. In Punjabi cinema Sultan Rahi and Anjuman became iconic figures of this culture. In Pashto cinema, filmmakers were able to get around the censor policies and filled their films with soft - core pornography to increase viewership. This was done by the backing by powerful politicians.
The once romantic and lovable image of Pakistani cinema in the 1960s and 70s had transformed into a culture of violence and vulgarity by the 1980s. This ironically came while the government under ZIa ul Haq 's regime was attempting to "Islamise '' the country > Being an actress associated with the current crop of productions became an understandable taboo and many middle - class people began shunning these films. Nevertheless, the influx of refugees from Afghanistan, who were denied entertainment in their own country, kept Pashto cinema alive while Punjabi cinema was fueled by young single men from the rural areas of Punjab. In 1983, legendary actor Waheed Murad died and was yet another blow to the cinema industry. Some claim he committed suicide while the media attributed his death to his disheartened view in the wake of Pakistani cinema 's collapse. The director of his unfinished film Hero, employed ' cheat shots ' to complete the film and released to sold out cinemas across the country. This enthusiasm soon disappeared and not even Pakistan 's first science fiction film, Shaani, in 1989, directed by Saeed Rizvi employing elaborate special effects, could save the industry. It received an award at the Moscow Film Festival and even in Egypt and Korea, but sadly was shelved in Pakistan.
At the start of the 1990s, Pakistan 's film industry was gripped with certain doom. Of the several dozen studios across the country, only 11 were operational producing around 100 films annually. By now the annual output dropped to around 40 films, all produced by a single studio. Other productions would be independent of any studio usually financed by the filmmakers themselves. This number would lower further as studios went towards producing short - plays and television commercials. The death of Waheed Murad in 1983 was only the start of the demise of iconic cinema stars of the 60s which further led to decreased interest. Anjuman quit from playback signing, Sultan Rahi was murdered in 1996, director Sangeeta put her career on hold to attended to family life while Nazrul Islam died. Controversy raged over the 1998 film Jinnah, produced by Akbar Salahuddin Ahmed and directed by Jamil Dehlavi. Objections were raised over the choice of actor Christopher Lee as the protagonist depicting Muhammad Ali Jinnah and inclusion of Indian Shashi Kapoor as archangel Gabriel in the cast combined with the experimental nature of the script. Imran Aslam, editor of The News International, said the author wrote the script in a "haze of hashish ''. By 1999, a surge of new films began releasing. Haathi Meray Saathi produced and distributed by Eveready Pictures celebrated its Golden Jubilee bringing audience back to the cinema for 66 weeks. Other hits were Syed Noor 's 1995 film Jeeva, Saeed Rizvi 's Sarkata Insaan and his 1997 film Tilismih Jazira. 1998 saw the release of Noor 's Choorian, a Punjabi film that grossed Rs180 million rupees. In 1999, a Russian - Pakistani joint venture was produced and Samina Peerzada 's Inteha. Other notable productions of the late 90s included Deewane Tere Pyar Ke, Mujhe Chand Chahiye, Sangam, Tere Pyar Mein, and Ghar Kab Aao Gay, which attempted to get away from formulaic and violent story lines. It was predicted that Pakistani cinema would have a revival. However, the public did not respond and low attendance at cinemas were recorded as the lower middle class shunned these films. The industry was pronounced dead by the start of the new millennium. By the early 2000s "an industry that once produced an average of 80 films annually was now struggling to even churn out more than two films a year ''. Partial successes were recorded with Larki Panjaban and Javed Sheikh 's Yeh Dil Aap Ka Huwa grossing over Rs200 million rupees.
By 2003, young filmmakers in Karachi began experimenting with film and released low budget films to demonstrate that high quality content could be produced in Pakistan using limited resources. Cinema houses were declining in all major cities and a revival of cinema was being echoed throughout the media. With privatization of television stations in full swing, a new channel Filmazia began airing old Pakistani films as well as newer low budget productions. During this period Mahesh Bhatt, a celebrated Indian director, visited Pakistan looking for talent - particularly singers who could lend their voices to his upcoming films in India. His visit to Pakistan was to coincide with the third Kara Film Festival where he screened his film Paap in Karachi. Bhatt would later hire Atif Aslam for the soundtrack of his film Zeher and Pakistani actress Meera to play a lead - role in one of his films. By 2005, a gradual shift had begun whereby Karachi was replacing Lahore as the film hub of the country. Many film makers, producers, directors shifted to Karachi to avail new opportunities. In August 2007, Shoaib Mansoor directed and released Khuda Ke Liye - it became a surprise instant success at the box office and brought the middle class back to the cinemas due to its controversial theme of addressing Pakistan 's social problems. The film was also released internationally, including India, where it became the first Pakistani film released there after four decades. The release of Khuda Kay Liye is seen by many as the revival of cinema in Pakistan and the cementing of Karachi as the Pakistani film and showbiz capital. Despite optimism of a solid revival, progress continued to be slow. Alongside Geo Films, the "Pakistan New Cinema Movement '' was launched in 2009 with around 1400 members which facilitated networking to stimulate newer film productions. Several films were released after Khuda Kay Liye which saw limited success including Shaan Shahid 's directorial project Chup, Syed Noor 's Price of Honor, Iqbal Kashmiri 's Devdas, Son of Pakistan, Syed Faisal Bukhari 's Saltanat, Reema Khan 's Love Mein Ghum., Bhai Log ' and Mehreen Jabbar 's Ramchand Pakistani. However it was Shoaib Mansoor to the rescue again with this 2011 film Bol which brook box office records in Pakistan.
Shoaib Mansoor 's Bol seemed to have officially "revived '' the cinema of Pakistan. 2013 brought with it seven Pakistani films that were theatrically released in Pakistan, and led commentators to ponder whether it was time to announce the heralding of a ' new wave ' of Pakistani cinema. Since 2011 from the digital scene two films have stood out with box office success as highest grossing Pakistani films; Waar followed by Main Hoon Shahid Afridi. However, as some commentators cautioned, declaring a film a ' hit ' or a ' flop ' is determined by the relationship of the budget spent and box office returns of a film and therefore several of the top - grossing films of Pakistan were technically not a ' hit '. Nonetheless, the lack of box office returns of a Pakistani film has less to do with the film itself but more to do with the severely limited number of screens in Pakistan. Another film, Zinda Bhaag (Run for your Life, 2013) has been critically acclaimed with reviewers calling it ' the best film to have come out of modern - day Pakistani cinema ' and a "new metaphor for Pakistani cinema '' that "bode (d) well for the possibility of noteworthy Pakistani imports in years to come ''. Zinda Bhaag went on to be Pakistan 's official submission to the Oscars (Foreign Film Category), the first after a gap of fifty years but did not make the final shortlist nominees.
The resurgence of new Pakistani film productions centres around the use of digital equipment and makes use of cheaper distribution with DCP compliant cinemas which started to convert around 2011, increasing rapidly to 2014 with around 30 cinemas nationwide. Shoaib Mansoor 's Khuda Kay Liye (2007) and Bol (2011) seemed to have ushered in the revival of Pakistani cinema. By 2013, several Pakistani films were theatrically released - the first time in over a decade. It led commentators to speculate whether it was time to announce the heralding of a ' new wave ' of Pakistani cinema. 2013 proved to be a great year for Pakistani cinema. In March, Siyaah (meaning Pitch black) was the first horror thriller film to be released in Pakistan in over 20 years. Directed by Azfar Jafri and written by Osman Khalid Butt, the film starred Hareem Farooq, Qazi Jabbar, Mahnoor Usman and Ahmed Ali Akbar. The film was about a dissociative personality disorder patient who uses black magic against unsuspecting relatives. The film collected over Rs 2.65 crore (US $260,000) at the box office. The following month Chambaili, an Urdu - language political thriller film directed by Ismail Jilani, was released starring Salmaan Peerzada, Khalid Ahmed, Mohammed Ehteshamuddin, Maira Khan, Shafqat Cheema and Ghulam Mohiuddin also made a special appearance. The film was a political drama exploring the subject of political corruption in Pakistan. Since the flower ' Chambaili ' (lily flower) is the national flower of Pakistan, the film - makers ' intentions were to encourage patriotism and nationalism in Pakistan. The film made Rs 20 million (US $190,000) at the box office. Waar (Wār; IPA: (ʋɑːr), meaning "The Strike '') was the winner of 2013. The action - thriller film directed by Bilal Lashari and written and produced by Hassan Rana featured Shaan Shahid, Meesha Shafi, Ali Azmat, Shamoon Abbasi, Ayesha Khan and Kamran Lashari. At the time of its release, it became the highest - grossing Pakistani film ever. This was broken by 2015 release of Jawani Phir Nahi Ani. The film depicts events surrounding the war on terror in Pakistan, including the attack on a Police Academy in Lahore in 2009. Several other films were also released between April to October including Ishq Khuda directed by Shahzad Rafique, Josh: Independence Through Unity directed by Iram Parveen Bilal, Main Hoon Shahid Afridi directed by Syed Ali Raza Usama, Zinda Bhaag by Meenu Gaur and Seedlings by Mansoor Mujahid. Main Hoon Shahid Afridi was an action - drama film directed by Syed Ali Raza Usama and produced by Humayun Saeed and Shahzad Nasib. The film starred Humayun Saeed, Javed Shaikh and Noman Habib in the lead roles. Nadeem Baig, Shafqat Cheema, Ismail Tara, Ainy Jaffri, Hamza Ali Abbasi and Shehzad Sheikh also played important roles in the film, whilst Shahid Afridi and Ayesha Omar made special appearances. The film earned Rs 22 million (US $210,000) in its first week of release. However, as some commentators cautioned, declaring a film a ' hit ' or a ' flop ' is determined by the relationship of the budget spent and box office returns of a film and therefore several of the top - grossing films of Pakistan were technically not a ' hit '. Nonetheless, the lack of box office returns of a Pakistani film has less to do with the film itself but more to do with the severely limited number of screens in Pakistan. Zinda Bhaag (Run For Your Life) has been critically acclaimed with reviewers calling it ' the best film to have come out of modern - day Pakistani cinema ' and a "new metaphor for Pakistani cinema '' that "bode (d) well for the possibility of noteworthy Pakistani imports in years to come ''. Zinda Bhaag went on to be Pakistan 's official submission to the Oscars, the first after a gap of fifty years but did not make the final shortlist nominees. The resurgence of new Pakistani film productions centres around the use of digital equipment and makes use of cheaper distribution with DCP compliant cinemas which started to convert around 2011, increasing rapidly to 2014 with around 30 cinemas nationwide.
2014 proved to be an equally great year, with Na Maloom Afraad (Unidentified Persons) taking the 2014 box office. The Pakistani comedy thriller film was co-written and directed by Nabeel Qureshi as his directorial debut. The film starred Javed Sheikh, Fahad Mustafa, Mohsin Abbas Haider with supporting cast of Urwa Hocane, Kubra Khan and Salman Shahid. The story follows Shakeel (Sheikh), Farhaan (Mustafa) and Moon (Haider), three poor struggling individuals who chase every possible means of becoming rich, all getting into trouble as they struggle to fulfill their desires and ambitions through questionably moral ways. Other films released in 2014 included Tamanna directed by Steven Moore, Sultanat directed by Syed Faisal Bukhari, Dukhtar directed by Afia Nathaniel, and O21 directed by Jami.
2015 picked off from the momentum of 2014 and 2013. Jalaibee (meaning twist) was a caper action thriller film directed and written by Yasir Jaswal, produced by Eman Syed. Jalaibee was a joint production of ARY Films and Redrum Films in association with Sermad Films and Jaswal Films. The film starred prominent TV actors Danish Taimoor and Ali Safina in lead roles along with Adnan Jaffar, Sajid Hasan, Uzair Jaswal, Wiqar Ali Khan, Sabeeka Imam and Zhalay Sarhadi. Jalaibee was the first Pakistani film to be shot with the Arri Alexa camera. and was about the intertwined stories of numerous characters who are all struggling with their problems, and who somehow connect on a unifying level. The film collected Rs 5 million (US $47,000) before its release as Malik Riaz had bought 10,000 tickets in advance. The film had a good number of public previews came out well on them collecting Rs 1 million (US $9,500) which is biggest preview collections ever in Pakistan. In total, the film collected Rs 7.50 crore (US $710,000) at domestic box office and around Rs 3 crore (US $280,000) overseas, taking lifetime gross to Rs 10.5 crore (US $1.0 million) at the end of April. In May, Pakistan 's first 3D computer animated adventure film was released. 3 Bahadur (lit. three brave ones) was produced and directed by Sharmeen Obaid Chinoy. It was the first instalment in the franchise 3 Bahadur (film series) and was co-produced by Waadi Animations (a joint - venture of SOC films) and ARY Films. 3 Bahadur became Pakistan 's first computer - animated feature - length film. The film focuses on three eleven - year - old friends, who rise from the unlikeliest of places to save their community from the evils that plague it. The film is set in a fictional town called Roshan Basti (town of light). Equipped with courage and super powers, they battle against the odds and stand up to injustice to restore peace and harmony in their once thriving community and live a very happy life. The film was theatrically released ARY Films. It became the highest - grossing animated film at the local box office breaking the previous record of Rio 2. It grossed Rs 6.63 crore (US $630,000) after 50 days of successful run in cinemas and became 7th highest - grossing film in Pakistani cinema history. Between July -- September, a number of films were released beginning with Bin Roye (Without Crying). The romantic drama film directed by Momina Duraid and Shahzad Kashmiri starred Mahira Khan, Humayun Saeed, Armeena Khan, Zeba Bakhtiar, and Javed Sheikh. One of the movie 's songs is directed by Haissam Hussain. The film was based on the original novel Bin Roye Ansoo by Farhat Ishtiaq and released worldwide on 18 July 18, 2015, the day of Eid - ul - Fitr. Bin Roye was praised by the critics. It became the third highest - grossing Pakistani film of all time behind Waar and Jawani Phir Nahi Ani. The film Bin Roye was later adapted into a television series with the same name, that premiered on Hum TV on October 2, 2016.
2016 continued the momentum of new age Pakistani cinema - Ho Mann Jahaan was released on 1 January starring Adeel Hussain, Mahira Khan, Sheheryar Munawar and Sonya Jehan, along with veterans Bushra Ansari. The film opened to a highly successful box office weekend and went on to run for several weeks, making it the third highest - grossing films of 2016. Janaan and Actor In Law both opened on Eid weekend, becoming the first and second highest - grossing films of 2016.
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who won medals in mens figure skating 2018 olympics | Figure skating at the 2018 Winter Olympics -- Men 's singles - wikipedia
The men 's single figure skating competition of the 2018 Winter Olympics was held on 16 and 17 February 2018 at the Gangneung Ice Arena in Gangneung, South Korea. The short program was held on 16 February and the free skating was held on 17 February.
This medal event was the 1000th medal event in the history of the Winter Olympic Games.
With his victory at the 2018 Winter Olympics, Yuzuru Hanyu became the first male figure skater to win two consecutive gold medals after Dick Button, who did so in 1952. Fellow countryman Shoma Uno won the silver medal, and Spain 's Javier Fernández won the bronze medal. Fernández won Spain 's first figure skating medal and fourth medal at the Winter Olympics.
After the short program, Hanyu, Fernández, Uno, and Jin Boyang were first, second, third, and fourth respectively. Nathan Chen, originally one of the favorites for the podium, skated an uncharacteristically poor short program that placed him at 17th, but fought back to win the free skating with a score of 215.08 -- 8.91 points above the second place free skating by Hanyu. He ended up fifth overall. In the free program, Jin Boyang overtook Chen by less than a point overall, and placed fourth.
In the victory ceremony, the medals were presented by Tsunekazu Takeda, member of the International Olympic Committee, accompanied by Alexander Lakernik, ISU Figure Skating Vice President.
Vincent Zhou landed the first quadruple lutz at the Olympics. Nathan Chen became the first to ever land six quads, five clean. He also landed the first quadruple flip at the Olympics. With these jumps he holds the new record for highest free skating technical score. For complete list of figure skating records, see list of highest scores in figure skating.
A total of 30 skaters qualified to compete for the event, with each country allowed to only enter a maximum of three. 24 quotas were handed out during the 2017 World Figure Skating Championships and the remaining six were given out at the 2017 CS Nebelhorn Trophy. Each country decided the entry of its teams, and athletes winning the quota were not necessarily granted the right to compete. All athletes competing must have met the minimum total elements score, which does not include component scores. For the short program this was 25.00 and the free skating 45.00.
All times are (UTC + 9).
The short program was held on 16 February 2018.
The free skating was held on 17 February 2018.
The skaters were ranked according to their overall score.
TP - Total points; SP - Short program; FS - Free skating
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cims hospital - care institute of medical sciences (cims) ahmedabad | Care Institute of medical sciences (CIMS), Ahmedabad - wikipedia
Dr. Keyur Parikh (Chairman) Dr. Milan Chag (Managing Director) Dr. Anish Chandarana (Executive Director)
CIMS Hospital (Care Institute of Medical Sciences) is a 300 - bed super specialty hospital located on the Science City Road, Sola, Ahmedabad (Gujarat, India).
CIMS Hospital was established in 2010 by a group of leading cardiologists and cardiac surgeons to provide super-speciality healthcare in the region. The hospital scores high on technological excellence. State - of - the - art Cardiac - Cathlab (fastest in the world with automatic "7 second '' angiography) intensive care units, sleep lab, high - frequency ventilator for neonates, 8 OTs with 4 fully modular with LED lights (energy & carbon savings), modular operation theaters with class 100 laminar air flow - only place in Gujarat to offer such combination. The hospital strengthens advanced healthcare services available in the region which was under served by existing hospitals and caters to needs of the rapidly growing city of Ahmedabad and Gujarat region. It is also seen as a booster for quality medical tourism to the region. It is the first hospital in Gujarat to have completed a heart transplant under the leadership of Dr. Dhiren Shah. The hospital ranks as one of the best choice hospitals in Ahmedabad as per The Times Group ratings for the All India critical care hospital ranking survey 2016 in areas such as cardiac, gastroenterology, neuro sciences, renal sciences, oncology, pediatrics amongst many others.
The hospital provides diagnostic medical, surgical, palliative care facilities. and is Ahmedabad 's first Green Hospital. The hospital is accredited to Joint Commission International (JCI), National Accreditation Board for Hospitals & Healthcare Providers and National Accreditation Board for Testing and Calibration Laboratories.
CIMS Foundation provides financial aid and affordable healthcare to needy patients.
On December 19, 2016 CIMS Heart Transplant Team conducted the first heart transplant surgery of Gujarat at CIMS Hospital.
TAVR
On April 10, 2017, CIMS Hospital Created Medical History in Gujarat by using the New Revolutionary Technology TAVR (Transcatheter Aortic Valve Implantation or Replacement) - A Total Non-Surgical Aortic Valve Replacement. (1) (2)
Shah B, Kaushik S. Innovative use of social media platform WhatsApp during influenza outbreak in Gujarat, India. WHO South - East Asia J Public Health 201 5; 4 (2): 213 -- 214.
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who has had a quadruple double in nba history | Double (Basketball) - wikipedia
In basketball, a double is the accumulation of a double - digit number total in one of five statistical categories -- points, rebounds, assists, steals, and blocked shots -- in a game. Multiple players usually score double - digit points in any given basketball game; the double nomenclature is usually reserved for when a player has double - digit totals in more than one category.
A double - double is the accumulation of a double - digit number total in two of the statistical five categories in a game. The most common double - double combination is points - rebounds, followed by points - assists. Since the 1983 -- 84 season, Tim Duncan leads the National Basketball Association (NBA) in the points - rebounds combination with 840, and John Stockton leads the points - assists combination with 714.
A triple - double is the accumulation of a double - digit number total in three of the five categories in a game. The most common way to achieve a triple - double is through points, rebounds, and assists. Oscar Robertson leads the all - time NBA list with 181 career triple - doubles and is, with Russell Westbrook, one of only two players ever to average a triple - double for a season. Westbrook currently holds the record for most triple - doubles in a season with 42.
A quadruple - double is the accumulation of a double - digit number total in four of the five categories in a game. This has occurred four times in the NBA.
A quintuple - double is the accumulation of a double - digit number total in all five categories in a game. Two quintuple - doubles have been recorded at the high school level, by Tamika Catchings and Aimee Oertner, but none have occurred in a college or professional game. A similar accomplishment is the five - by - five, which is the accumulation of at least five points, five rebounds, five assists, five steals, and five blocks in a game. In the NBA, only Hakeem Olajuwon and Andrei Kirilenko have accumulated multiple five - by - fives since the 1984 -- 85 season.
A double - double is defined as a performance in which a player accumulates a double - digit number total in two of five statistical categories -- points, rebounds, assists, steals, and blocked shots -- in a game. The most common double - double combination is points and rebounds, followed by points and assists. Double - doubles are fairly common in the NBA. During the 2008 -- 09 season, 69 players who were eligible for leadership in the main statistical categories recorded at least 10 double - doubles during the season.
Special double - doubles are rare. One such double - double is called double double - double (also referred to as 20 -- 20 or Double - 20). It occurs when a player accumulates 20 or more in two different statistical categories in a game. Another such double - double is called a triple double - double (also referred to as 30 -- 30). The only player in NBA history to record a 40 - 40 is Wilt Chamberlain, who achieved the feat eight times in his career. Of the five instances, four were recorded in his rookie season, and the fifth was achieved the following year where he recorded 78 points and 43 rebounds in a game. Wilt Chamberlain also holds the record for most career double - doubles (regular season and playoffs) with 1111. Tim Duncan is second with 1005, followed by Kareem Abdul - Jabbar with 1004.
The following is a list of regular season double - double leaders since the 1983 -- 84 season:
A triple - double is defined as a performance in which a player accumulates a double digit number total in three of five statistical categories -- points, rebounds, assists, steals, and blocked shots -- in a game. The most common way for a player to achieve a triple - double is with points, rebounds, and assists, though on occasion players may record 10 or more steals or blocked shots in a game. The origin of the term "triple - double '' is unclear. Some sources claim that it was coined by former Los Angeles Lakers public relations director Bruce Jolesch in the 1980s in order to showcase Magic Johnson 's versatility, while others claim that it was coined by then Philadelphia 76ers media relations director Harvey Pollack in 1980. The triple - double became an officially recorded statistic during the 1979 -- 80 season.
There has been occasional controversy surrounding triple - doubles made when a player achieves the feat with a late rebound. Players with nine rebounds in a game have sometimes been accused of deliberately missing a shot late in the game in order to recover the rebound; a few have even gone so far as shooting off their opponent 's basket trying to score a triple - double. To deter this, NBA rules allow rebounds to be nullified if the shot is determined not to be a legitimate scoring attempt.
From the 1990 -- 91 to the 2010 -- 11 season, the NBA averaged 34.5 triple - doubles per season, roughly 1 in every 36 games.
From the 2011 -- 12 to the 2016 -- 17 season, the NBA saw a dramatic increase in the number of triple - doubles, with an average of 57.33 triple - doubles per season, roughly 1 in every 22 games. Russell Westbrook was responsible for 74 of the triple - doubles during that span, or 21.5 % of the 344 total triple - doubles.
The following is a list of regular season triple - double leaders:
A quadruple - double is defined as a performance in which a player accumulates a double digit number total in four of five statistical categories -- points, rebounds, assists, steals and blocked shots -- in a game. This feat is extremely rare: only four players have officially recorded a quadruple - double in National Basketball Association (NBA) history. The first American male player above the high school level to officially record a quadruple - double was Nate Thurmond, who achieved this feat in 1974 while playing for the NBA 's Chicago Bulls. The first American female player above the high school level to officially record a quadruple - double was Ann Meyers, who achieved this feat in 1978 while playing for the UCLA Bruins, when women 's college sports were under the auspices of the AIAW. The first male player in NCAA Division I history to record a quadruple - double was Lester Hudson in 2007. The first Division I women 's player to have officially recorded a quadruple - double since the NCAA began sponsoring women 's sports in 1981 -- 82 was Veronica Pettry of Loyola of Chicago in 1989. Only three other women have done so since, and Shakyla Hill 's quadruple - double for Grambling State in 2018 was the first since 1993. An earlier player, Jackie Spencer of Louisville, accomplished the feat against Cincinnati during the 1984 -- 85 season, but the NCAA did not record assists and steals throughout Division I women 's basketball at that time. The Metro Conference, then home to both schools, did officially record these statistics, but the NCAA did not start doing so until 1985 -- 86 for assists and 1987 -- 88 for steals.
Quadruple - doubles have only been possible since the 1973 -- 74 season, when the NBA started recording both blocked shots and steals. It is often speculated by observers that other all - time greats, namely Oscar Robertson (all time triple - doubles leader with 181), Wilt Chamberlain, Bill Russell and Jerry West could conceivably have had quadruple - doubles. West 's biography at NBA.com claims that he once recorded an unofficial quadruple - double with 44 points, 12 rebounds, 10 assists and 10 blocks. A biography of Wilt Chamberlain claims that he also recorded an unofficial quadruple - double in Game 1 of the 1967 Eastern Division Finals against the Boston Celtics, when he had 24 points, 32 rebounds, 13 assists and 12 blocks.
The reason why (the quadruple - double) is such a hard thing to accomplish is because it requires a player to be completely dominant on both ends of the court without being too selfish -- so he can get the assists -- and without fouling out trying to block every shot or grab every rebound. A lot of guys can get the points, rebounds and assists, but it 's the defensive stuff that messes everybody up. You have to love defense to get a quadruple - double. There 's no way around it.
The four players listed below are the only players who have officially recorded a quadruple - double in an NBA game. Except for Thurmond, who retired before the award was established in 1983, all of them have won NBA Defensive Player of the Year at least once.
Only seven other players (Clyde Drexler did it twice) have managed to finish with triple - doubles and a total of 9 in a fourth statistical category (statistical categories in which they fell short are in bold):
Notes
Notes
A quintuple - double is defined as a performance in which a player accumulates a double - digit number total in all five statistical categories -- points, rebounds, assists, steals, and blocked shots -- - in a single game. There are only two known quintuple - doubles, both done at the high - school level. The first was recorded by Tamika Catchings of Duncanville High School (Duncanville, Texas) with 25 points, 18 rebounds, 11 assists, 10 steals and 10 blocks in 1997. The second was by Aimee Oertner of Northern Lehigh High School (Slatington, Pennsylvania), who had 26 points, 20 rebounds, 10 assists, 10 steals, and 11 blocks on January 7, 2012.
A five - by - five is defined as a performance in which a player accumulates a total of five in five statistical categories -- points, rebounds, assists, steals, and blocks -- in a single game. Statistics for steals and blocks were not kept in the NBA until the 1973 -- 74 season, so NBA five - by - fives were only possible from that season onward. Hakeem Olajuwon (six times) and Andrei Kirilenko (three times) are the only players to have recorded multiple five - by - fives (based on records since the 1984 -- 85 season). Both are also the only players to record five - by - sixes (at least six in all five statistical categories). Only twice has a five - by - five coincided with a triple - double (both by Olajuwon) and only three times has a player recorded a five - by - five without registering at least a double - double (two by Kirilenko and one by Marcus Camby).
The following is a list of known five - by - fives. Note the list contains all five - by - fives since the 1984 -- 85 season, as well as one before. There may be other five - by - fives in the NBA that occurred before the 1984 -- 85 season.
All facts based on data since 1985 -- 86:
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in 1790 the first us census was taken in order to | 1790 United States Census - wikipedia
The United States Census of 1790 was the first census of the whole United States. It recorded the population of the United States as of Census Day, August 2, 1790, as mandated by Article I, Section 2 of the United States Constitution and applicable laws. In the first census, the population of the United States was enumerated to be 3,929,214.
Congress assigned responsibility for the 1790 census to the marshals of United States judicial districts under an act which, with minor modifications and extensions, governed census taking through 1840. "The law required that every household be visited, that completed census schedules be posted in ' two of the most public places within (each jurisdiction), there to remain for the inspection of all concerned... ' and that ' the aggregate amount of each description of persons ' for every district be transmitted to the president. ''
Although the Census was proved statistically factual, based on data collected, the records for several states (including: Delaware, Georgia, New Jersey, and Virginia) were lost sometime between 1790 and 1830. Almost one third of the original census data have been lost or destroyed since their original documentation. These include some 1790 data from: Connecticut, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New York, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, and Vermont; however, the validity and existence of most of these data can be confirmed in many secondary sources pertaining to the first census.
Census data included the name of the head of the family and categorized inhabitants as follows: free white males at least 16 years of age (to assess the country 's industrial and military potential), free white males under 16 years of age, free white females, all other free persons (reported by sex and color), and slaves. Under the direction of the current Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson, marshals collected data from all thirteen states (Connecticut, Delaware, Georgia, Maryland, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, and Virginia), and from the Southwest Territory. The census was not conducted in Vermont until 1791, after that state 's admission to the Union as the 14th state on March 4 of that year. (From 1777 until early 1791, and hence during all of 1790, Vermont was a de facto independent country whose government took the position that Vermont was not then a part of the United States.)
Based upon the population enumeration provided by the 1790 Census, the 2nd Congress passed legislation which increased the size of the United States House of Representatives from 69 seats in the 2nd Congress to 105 in the 3rd and apportioned those seats among the several states accordingly.
Both Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson and President George Washington expressed skepticism over the results, believing that the true population had been undercounted. If there was indeed an undercount, possible explanations for it include dispersed population, poor transportation links, limitations of contemporary technology, and individual refusal to participate.
No microdata from the 1790 population census are available, but aggregate data for small areas, together with compatible cartographic boundary files, can be downloaded from the National Historical Geographic Information System.
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did the milwaukee brewers ever won a world series | Milwaukee Brewers - wikipedia
The Milwaukee Brewers are an American professional baseball team based in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. The Brewers compete in Major League Baseball (MLB) as a member club of the National League (NL) Central division. The team is named for the city 's association with the brewing industry. Since 2001, the Brewers have played their home games at Miller Park, which has a seating capacity of 41,900.
The team was founded in 1969 as the Seattle Pilots, an expansion team of the American League (AL), in Seattle, Washington. The Pilots played their home games at Sick 's Stadium. After only one season, the team relocated to Milwaukee, becoming known as the Brewers and playing their home games at Milwaukee County Stadium. In 1998, the Brewers joined the National League. They are the only franchise to play in four divisions since the advent of divisional play in Major League Baseball in 1969. They are also one of two MLB franchises to switch leagues in their history, along with the Houston Astros.
The team 's only World Series appearance came in 1982. After winning the ALCS against the California Angels, the Brewers faced off against the St. Louis Cardinals in the World Series, losing 4 -- 3. In 2011, the Brewers won the NLDS versus the Arizona Diamondbacks 3 -- 2, but lost in the NLCS to the eventual World Series - champion Cardinals, 4 -- 2.
Originating as an expansion team in 1969, in Seattle, Washington, as the Seattle Pilots, the club played for one season in the American League West Division before being acquired in bankruptcy court by Bud Selig, who then moved the team to Milwaukee. They would continue to play in the West Division for two more years. Before the beginning of the 1972 season the Brewers agreed to switch over to the American League East to make room for the Texas Rangers who had relocated from Washington. Beginning in 1994, due divisional re-allignment, the Brewers moved to the newly created American League Central division. In all, the Brewers were part of the American League from their creation in 1969 through the 1997 season, after which they moved to the National League Central Division. Milwaukee had previously been a National League city when its team was the Milwaukee Braves (1953 -- 1965).
In 1981, Milwaukee won the American League East Division in the second half of the strike - shortened season. In the playoffs, they lost the divisional series to the New York Yankees, three games to two.
In 1982, Milwaukee won the American League East Division and the American League Pennant, earning their only World Series appearance to date as the Brewers. In the Series, they lost to the St. Louis Cardinals four games to three.
In 1998, the Brewers changed leagues, going from the American League to the National League.
In 2008, for the first time in the 26 years since their World Series appearance, the Brewers advanced to postseason play by winning the National League wild card. They were eliminated in the National League Division Series by the eventual World Series champion Philadelphia Phillies.
On September 23, 2011, the Milwaukee Brewers clinched their first division title in 29 years. They won the National League Division Series in five games over the Arizona Diamondbacks, but lost the National League Championship Series to the eventual World Series champion St. Louis Cardinals in six games.
The first Brewers uniforms were "hand - me - downs '' from the Seattle Pilots. Because the move to Milwaukee received final approval less than a week before the start of the season, there was no time to order new uniforms. Selig had originally planned to change the Brewers ' colors to navy blue and red in honor of the minor league American Association 's Milwaukee Brewers, but was forced to simply remove the Seattle markings from the Pilots ' blue - and - gold uniforms and sew "BREWERS '' on the front. However, the outline of the Pilots ' logo remained visible. The uniforms had unique striping on the sleeves left over from the Pilots days. The cap was an updated version of the Milwaukee Braves cap in blue and yellow. Ultimately, it was decided to keep blue and gold as the team colors, and they have remained so ever since.
The Brewers finally got their own flannel design in 1971. This design was essentially the same as the one used in 1970, but with blue and yellow piping on the sleeves and collar. In 1972, the Brewers entered the double - knit era with uniforms based upon their flannels: all white with "BREWERS '' on the front and blue and yellow trim on the sleeves, neck, waistband and down the side of the pants. This is the uniform that Hank Aaron wore with the club in his final seasons and that Robin Yount wore in his first. During this period, the logo of the club was the Beer Barrel Man, which had been used by the previous minor league Brewers since at least the 1940s. The Brewers mascot, Bernie Brewer (a man with a large yellow mustache wearing a Brewers hat) was introduced in 1973.
The Brewers unveiled new uniforms for the 1978 season. The uniforms featured pinstripes with a solid blue collar and waistband. The road uniforms continued to be powder blue, but for the first time the city name, "MILWAUKEE '', graced the chest in an upward slant. In addition, this season saw the introduction of the logo that was to define the club: "M '' and "B '' in the shape of a baseball glove. The logo was designed by Tom Meindel, an art history student at the University of Wisconsin - Eau Claire. The home cap was solid blue, and the road cap was blue with a yellow front panel. Additionally, their batting helmets had a white front panel. The club wore these uniforms in their pennant - winning season of 1982. Only minor changes were made until 1990; the color of the road uniforms changed to gray in 1985, while the blue - yellow - blue road cap and white - paneled batting helmets were abandoned at the same time.
In 1990, the Brewers made significant modifications to their uniforms, switching from pullover to button - down jerseys (the last American League team to do so). Their individual uniforms showed other changes as well; at home, the blue piping was removed and the block lettered "BREWERS '' was changed to a script version similar to the script used on road uniforms, while those outfits had their piping changed from blue - yellow - blue to blue - yellow. The road jerseys were the first uniforms in franchise history to feature player names on the back; names were added to the home jerseys beginning in 1993.
In 1994, in collaboration with the Brewers celebrating their 25th year in Milwaukee, the team did a radical makeover of their uniforms. The ball - in - glove logo was removed and replaced with a stylized interlocking "M '' and "B '' set on a pair of crossed bats and a diamond background. The royal blue changed to navy blue, while the yellow changed to a metallic gold. Forest green was added as a third color. The jerseys swapped pinstripes for retro - themed piping around the collar, buttons, and sleeves, following a trend that was popular in the 1990s. The uniforms ' lettering had the same style of letters as the new cap logo with heavily stylized "BREWERS '' lettering on the home jerseys and "MILWAUKEE '' on the road grays. For the first time, an alternative jersey was introduced. It was navy blue with the home "BREWERS '' lettering on the front and featured the Brewers ' logo on the lower left side. The caps featured the interlocking "MB '' logo (without the bats or diamond) on both the home and away versions. The home cap was completely navy blue, while the away cap featured a navy blue crown and a forest green bill.
In 1997, the uniforms were slightly modified, with the main logo being removed from the caps and replaced with an "M ''. All navy caps were worn with both the home and away uniforms; the home hats featured a white "M '' and the road caps had a gold "M. '' The green socks that had previously been worn on the road were changed to navy blue. The blue alternate jersey placed the player 's number on the lower left side instead of the logo.
Before the 2000 season, to coincide with the anticipated opening of Miller Park, the Brewers changed their uniforms again. The block letters on the front were replaced with "Brewers '' in a flowing script, and green was removed as the third color. The cap logo was a script "M '', similar in style to the Miller logo, with a head of barley underlining it, symbolizing Milwaukee 's beer - making industry. The home uniforms also featured a patch on the left sleeve consisting of the cap logo with a gold outline of the state of Wisconsin behind it, showing the Brewers statewide appeal. The road uniforms were grey and featured the same script "Brewers '' on the front, with a simple patch on the left sleeve bearing a script "Milwaukee ''. There was also an alternate navy blue jersey that had the same features as the home jersey.
Although the uniforms were supposed to debut with the opening of Miller Park, the Big Blue crane collapse in July 1999, which cost the lives of three workers and caused damage to the first base side of the stadium, delayed the opening of Miller Park for one year, so the uniforms actually debuted at Milwaukee County Stadium in the ballpark 's final year.
In 2006, the Brewers introduced Retro Sundays, when the Brewers would wear uniforms featuring the "ball - in - glove '' logo. The uniforms are similar to the uniforms worn from 1978 to 1989, but with some modern modifications, such as the uniforms being button - up instead of pullover, displaying players ' last names on the backs of the jerseys, and a "ball - in - glove '' logo patch on the left sleeve. In 2007, the Retro day was changed from Sunday to Friday, though they may also be worn outside of those days if a starting pitcher chooses the retro uniforms to wear during his start. In 2010, the Brewers debuted a new alternate road jersey which, like the other alternate jersey, is navy blue, but bears a script "Milwaukee '' on the front. In 2013, a gold alternate jersey with "Brewers '' on the front was introduced, as well.
During the off - season before the 2013 season, the Brewers allowed fans to design their own Milwaukee Brewers uniforms. Three finalists were chosen, which fans were given the opportunity to vote for their favorite through the Brewers website. The winning uniform was designed by Ben Peters of Richfield, Minnesota, and was worn by the Brewers for two spring training games.
In 2016, the Brewers replaced their road navy and home gold alternates with a new navy alternate jersey. The uniform is similar to the previous road navy alternate but with yellow replacing gold as the trim color, and will be paired with a navy cap featuring the "ball - and - glove '' logo. The navy road alternate has been worn far more often in 2016 than the official gray road jersey, although it has also been used on home games.
Three Brewers have won MVP awards during their career with the team. While in the American League, Rollie Fingers won the award in 1981, and Robin Yount received the honor in 1982 and 1989. Ryan Braun won the National League MVP award in 2011. Two pitchers have won the Cy Young Award in the American League. Rollie Fingers won in 1981, and Pete Vuckovich won in 1982. Two players have been named Rookie of the Year. Pat Listach won the American League 's award in 1992, and Ryan Braun won the National League award in 2007.
The following inducted members of the Baseball Hall of Fame spent some or all of their careers with the Brewers.
Hank Aaron
Rollie Fingers
Paul Molitor Bud Selig
Don Sutton
Robin Yount
Bob Uecker
In addition to the six numbers retired by the Brewers, the number 50 has been placed in the Brewers ' Ring of Honor for Bob Uecker and his half - century in baseball.
The records of the Brewers ' last seven seasons are listed below.
Note: Pos = Position; GP = Games played; R = Runs; H = Hits; RBI = Runs batted in; HR = Home runs; * = current Brewers player
All records updated on October 25, 2017
Pitchers
Catchers
Infielders
Outfielders
Manager
Coaches
39 active, 0 inactive, 0 non-roster invitees
7 - or 10 - day disabled list * Not on active roster Suspended list Roster, coaches, and NRIs updated December 1, 2017 Transactions Depth Chart → All MLB rosters
Through 46 seasons of play, the Brewers franchise has employed 18 managers. The records and accomplishments of the last five Brewers ' managers are shown below.
The Brewers ' flagship radio station is WTMJ (620 AM). Bob Uecker, a winner of the Ford C. Frick Award from the Baseball Hall of Fame, joined the Brewers in 1970, when the team moved from Seattle, and has been there ever since. Alongside Uecker are Jeff Levering and Lane Grindle. Levering joined the team 's radio broadcast in 2015 as a fill - in for Uecker on select road games and Grindle joined the team in 2016, replacing Joe Block, who had left to join the Pittsburgh Pirates after the 2015 season. Block replaced Cory Provus who had left to become the Minnesota Twins lead broadcaster on radio after the 2011 season. Provus, formerly of WGN radio in Chicago, replaced Jim Powell, who left Milwaukee for the Atlanta Braves radio network. Powell in turn replaced Pat Hughes, who departed to do play - by - play for the Cubs on WGN in 1996. The Brewers radio broadcasts usually feature a 2 - 2 - 2 - 1 - 2 format where Uecker does solo play - by - play for the first, middle and last 2 innings, while Levering does innings 3 - 4 and 7, and both doing analysis throughout and varied presentation for extra innings games. Starting with the 2014 season Uecker cut back on the amount of road games he works due to health concerns, mainly involving West Coast trips and distant road games in Colorado and Atlanta; Block handled the play - by - play, with former Brewer and Met Darryl Hamilton on color for the first series at Atlanta.
Select daytime home games were formerly broadcast in Spanish over Waukesha - licensed ESPN Deportes Radio affiliate WRRD (1510), with Jaime Cano serving as play - by - play announcer. In 2017 the station was purchased by another party which instituted an English - language talk format, effectively ending that arrangement.
Most of the team 's television broadcasts are aired on Fox Sports Wisconsin. Brian Anderson, who has worked on The Golf Channel, took over as the Brewers ' play - by - play announcer for the 2007 season. He replaced Daron Sutton, who joined the Arizona Diamondbacks. The color commentator is Bill Schroeder, a former major league catcher who played six of his eight seasons for the Brewers. As of 2014 Schroeder is in his 20th season as the Brewers ' color commentator. The 2010 season was the first year where all of Fox Sports Wisconsin 's games were broadcast in high definition. Anderson (who also is a part of TBS 's playoff coverage) also provided play - by - play for the 2011 NLCS due to Ernie Johnson stepping aside for the year due to a medical situation with his son. In 2014, as Anderson 's Turner Sports duties have increased along with the addition of NCAA college basketball and NBA on TNT play - by - play duties, Wisconsin Badgers football and men 's college basketball radio announcer Matt Lepay served as play - by - play man on days when Anderson was working for Turner.
From 2007 -- 2011, the Brewers and FSN Wisconsin subcontracted to Weigel Broadcasting a package of 15 games and one spring training game over-the - air on WMLW - CA (then - Channel 41 / 58.2) in Milwaukee each season with FSN Wisconsin producing the telecasts and Weigel selling air time for each of those games and additional games added depending on weather postponements and pennant race standings (WMLW - CA games would air on the outstate FSN Wisconsin network for the remainder of the state). The deal was ended before the 2012 season in order to facilitate full - season HD coverage on FSN Wisconsin and distribution complications, along with the addition of a "Plus '' channel for Milwaukee Bucks play - by - play conflict situations. Weigel continues to air a few Sunday home broadcasts per year with Spanish language play - by - play on Telemundo affiliate WYTU - LD (Channels 63 / 49.4), which produces their own broadcasts using FSN 's camera positions with Hector Molina on play - by - play and bilingual WDJT sports anchor Kevin Holden on color.
Five of the six major network television stations in Milwaukee, along with WMLW - CA, have carried game broadcasts over the years, with WTMJ - TV being the original broadcaster in the 1970s. WVTV carried the team for the bulk of the 1980s and early 1990s, with WCGV - TV following from 1994 until 2004, and WISN - TV carrying select Sunday games at the beginning of the 2000s. WITI is the only station not to have carried local coverage of the team through its history (though former WITI sports anchor and current Bucks play - by - play man Jim Paschke was the team 's TV announcer during its time with WVTV and portions of WCGV 's coverage contract), although it has aired national games from CBS and Fox involving the Brewers through the years.
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what is the theory behind the working of a ship | Propeller - wikipedia
A propeller is a type of fan that transmits power by converting rotational motion into thrust. A pressure difference is produced between the forward and rear surfaces of the airfoil - shaped blade, and a fluid (such as air or water) is accelerated behind the blade. Propeller dynamics, like those of aircraft wings, can be modelled by either or both Bernoulli 's principle and Newton 's third law. A marine propeller of this type is sometimes colloquially known as a screw propeller or screw, however there is a different class of propellers known as cycloidal propellers -- they are characterized by the higher propulsive efficiency averaging 0.72 compared to the screw propeller 's average of 0.6 and the ability to throw thrust in any direction at any time. Their disadvantages are higher mechanical complexity and higher cost.
The principle employed in using a screw propeller is used in sculling. It is part of the skill of propelling a Venetian gondola but was used in a less refined way in other parts of Europe and probably elsewhere. For example, propelling a canoe with a single paddle using a "pitch stroke '' or side slipping a canoe with a "scull '' involves a similar technique. In China, sculling, called "lu '', was also used by the 3rd century AD.
In sculling, a single blade is moved through an arc, from side to side taking care to keep presenting the blade to the water at the effective angle. The innovation introduced with the screw propeller was the extension of that arc through more than 360 ° by attaching the blade to a rotating shaft. Propellers can have a single blade, but in practice there are nearly always more than one so as to balance the forces involved.
The origin of the screw propeller starts with Archimedes, who used a screw to lift water for irrigation and bailing boats, so famously that it became known as Archimedes ' screw. It was probably an application of spiral movement in space (spirals were a special study of Archimedes) to a hollow segmented water - wheel used for irrigation by Egyptians for centuries. Leonardo da Vinci adopted the principle to drive his theoretical helicopter, sketches of which involved a large canvas screw overhead.
In 1661, Toogood and Hays proposed using screws for waterjet propulsion, though not as a propeller. Robert Hook in 1681 designed a horizontal watermill which was remarkably similar to the Kirsten - Boeing vertical axis propeller designed almost two and a half centuries later in 1928; two years later Hook modified the design to provide motive power for ships through water. In 1752, the Academie des Sciences in Paris granted Burnelli a prize for a design of a propeller - wheel. At about the same time, the French mathematician Alexis - Jean - Pierre Paucton, suggested a water propulsion system based on the Archimedean screw. In 1771, steam - engine inventor James Watt in a private letter suggested using "spiral oars '' to propel boats, although he did not use them with his steam engines, or ever implement the idea.
However, these were all theoretical ideas. The first use of a propeller on a watercraft was on the Turtle designed in New Haven, Connecticut, in 1775 by Yale student and inventor David Bushnell, with the help of the clock maker, engraver, and brass foundryman Isaac Doolittle, and with Bushnell 's brother Ezra Bushnell and ship 's carpenter and clock maker Phineas Pratt constructing the hull in Saybrook, Connecticut. On the night of September 6, 1776, Sergeant Ezra Lee piloted the Turtle in an attack on the HMS Eagle in New York Harbor. The Turtle also has the distinction of being the first submarine used in battle. Bushnell later described the propeller in an October 1787 letter to Thomas Jefferson: "An oar formed upon the principle of the screw was fixed in the forepart of the vessel its axis entered the vessel and being turned one way rowed the vessel forward but being turned the other way rowed it backward. It was made to be turned by the hand or foot. '' The brass propeller, like all the brass and moving parts on the Turtle, was crafted by the "ingenious mechanic '' Issac Doolittle of New Haven.
In 1785, Joseph Bramah in England proposed a propeller solution of a rod going through the underwater aft of a boat attached to a bladed propeller, though he never built it. In 1802, Edward Shorter proposed using a similar propeller attached to a rod angled down temporarily deployed from the deck above the waterline and thus requiring no water seal, and intended only to assist becalmed sailing vessels. He tested it on the transport ship Doncaster in Gibraltar and at Malta, achieving a speed of 1.5 mph.
The lawyer and inventor John Stevens in the USA, built a 25 foot boat with a rotary stem engine coupled to a four - bladed propeller, achieving a speed of 4 mph, but he abandoned propellers due to the inherent danger in using the high - pressure steam engines, and instead built paddle - wheeled boats.
By 1827, Czech - Austrian inventor Josef Ressel had invented a screw propeller which had multiple blades fastened around a conical base. He had tested his propeller in February 1826 on a small ship that was manually driven. He was successful in using his bronze screw propeller on an adapted steamboat (1829). His ship "Civetta '' with 48 gross register tons, reached a speed of about six knots (11 km / h). This was the first ship successfully driven by an Archimedes screw - type propeller. After a new steam engine had an accident (cracked pipe weld) his experiments were banned by the Austro - Hungarian police as dangerous. Josef Ressel was at the time a forestry inspector for the Austrian Empire. But before this he received an Austro - Hungarian patent (license) for his propeller (1827). He died in 1857. This new method of propulsion was an improvement over the paddlewheel as it was not so affected by either ship motions or changes in draft as the vessel burned coal.
John Patch, a mariner in Yarmouth, Nova Scotia developed a two - bladed, fan - shaped propeller in 1832 and publicly demonstrated it in 1833, propelling a row boat across Yarmouth Harbour and a small coastal schooner at Saint John, New Brunswick, but his patent application in the United States was rejected until 1849 because he was not an American citizen. His efficient design drew praise in American scientific circles but by this time there were multiple competing versions of the marine propeller.
Although there was much experimentation with screw propulsion until the 1830s, few of these inventions were pursued to the testing stage, and those that were proved unsatisfactory for one reason or another.
In 1835, two inventors in Britain, John Ericsson and Francis Pettit Smith, began working separately on the problem. Smith was first to take out a screw propeller patent on 31 May, while Ericsson, a gifted Swedish engineer then working in Britain, filed his patent six weeks later. Smith quickly built a small model boat to test his invention, which was demonstrated first on a pond at his Hendon farm, and later at the Royal Adelaide Gallery of Practical Science in London, where it was seen by the Secretary of the Navy, Sir William Barrow. Having secured the patronage of a London banker named Wright, Smith then built a 30 - foot, 6 - horsepower canal boat of six tons burthen called the Francis Smith, which was fitted with a wooden propeller of his own design and demonstrated on the Paddington Canal from November 1836 to September 1837. By a fortuitous accident, the wooden propeller of two turns was damaged during a voyage in February 1837, and to Smith 's surprise the broken propeller, which now consisted of only a single turn, doubled the boat 's previous speed, from about four miles an hour to eight. Smith would subsequently file a revised patent in keeping with this accidental discovery.
In the meantime, Ericsson built a 45 - foot screw propelled steamboat, Francis B. Ogden in 1837, and demonstrated his boat on the River Thames to senior members of the British Admiralty, including Surveyor of the Navy Sir William Symonds. In spite of the boat achieving a speed of 10 miles an hour, comparable with that of existing paddle steamers, Symonds and his entourage were unimpressed. The Admiralty maintained the view that screw propulsion would be ineffective in ocean - going service, while Symonds himself believed that screw propelled ships could not be steered efficiently. Following this rejection, Ericsson built a second, larger screw - propelled boat, the Robert F. Stockton, and had her sailed in 1839 to the United States, where he was soon to gain fame as the designer of the U.S. Navy 's first screw - propelled warship, USS Princeton.
Apparently aware of the Navy 's view that screw propellers would prove unsuitable for seagoing service, Smith determined to prove this assumption wrong. In September 1837, he took his small vessel (now fitted with an iron propeller of a single turn) to sea, steaming from Blackwall, London to Hythe, Kent, with stops at Ramsgate, Dover and Folkestone. On the way back to London on the 25th, Smith 's craft was observed making headway in stormy seas by officers of the Royal Navy. The Admiralty 's interest in the technology was revived, and Smith was encouraged to build a full size ship to more conclusively demonstrate the technology 's effectiveness.
SS Archimedes was built in 1838 by Henry Wimshurst of London, as the world 's first steamship to be driven by a screw propeller
Archimedes had considerable influence on ship development, encouraging the adoption of screw propulsion by the Royal Navy, in addition to her influence on commercial vessels. Trials with Smith 's SS Archimedes led to the famous tug - of - war competition in 1845 between the screw - driven HMS Rattler and the paddle steamer HMS Alecto; the former pulling the latter backward at 2.5 knots (4.6 km / h).
She also had a direct influence on the design of another innovative vessel, Isambard Kingdom Brunel 's SS Great Britain, then the world 's largest ship and the first screw - propelled steamship to cross the Atlantic Ocean in 1845. Propeller design stabilized in the 1880s.
The twisted aerofoil shape of modern aircraft propellers was pioneered by the Wright brothers. While some earlier engineers had attempted to model air propellers on marine propellers, the Wrights realized that a propeller is essentially the same as a wing, and were able to use data from their earlier wind tunnel experiments on wings. They also introduced a twist along the length of the blades. This was necessary to ensure the angle of attack of the blades was kept relatively constant along their length. Their original propeller blades were only about 5 % less efficient than the modern equivalent, some 100 years later. The understanding of low speed propeller aerodynamics was fairly complete by the 1920s, but later requirements to handle more power in smaller diameter have made the problem more complex.
Alberto Santos Dumont, another early pioneer, applied the knowledge he gained from experiences with airships to make a propeller with a steel shaft and aluminium blades for his 14 bis biplane. Some of his designs used a bent aluminium sheet for blades, thus creating an airfoil shape. They were heavily undercambered, and this plus the absence of lengthwise twist made them less efficient than the Wright propellers. Even so, this was perhaps the first use of aluminium in the construction of an airscrew.
In the second half of the nineteenth century, several theories were developed. The momentum theory or disk actuator theory -- a theory describing a mathematical model of an ideal propeller -- was developed by W.J.M. Rankine (1865), Alfred George Greenhill (1888) and R.E. Froude (1889). The propeller is modelled as an infinitely thin disc, inducing a constant velocity along the axis of rotation. This disc creates a flow around the propeller. Under certain mathematical premises of the fluid, there can be extracted a mathematical connection between power, radius of the propeller, torque and induced velocity. Friction is not included.
The blade element theory (BET) is a mathematical process originally designed by William Froude (1878), David W. Taylor (1893) and Stefan Drzewiecki to determine the behaviour of propellers. It involves breaking an airfoil down into several small parts then determining the forces on them. These forces are then converted into accelerations, which can be integrated into velocities and positions.
1) Trailing edge 2) Face 3) Fillet area 4) Hub or Boss 5) Hub or Boss Cap
6) Leading edge 7) Back 8) Propeller shaft 9) Stern tube bearing 10) Stern tube
A propeller is the most common propulsor on ships, imparting momentum to a fluid which causes a force to act on the ship.
The ideal efficiency of any size propeller (free - tip) is that of an actuator disc in an ideal fluid. An actual marine propeller is made up of sections of helicoidal surfaces which act together ' screwing ' through the water (hence the common reference to marine propellers as "screws ''). Three, four, or five blades are most common in marine propellers, although designs which are intended to operate at reduced noise will have more blades. The blades are attached to a boss (hub), which should be as small as the needs of strength allow -- with fixed - pitch propellers the blades and boss are usually a single casting.
An alternative design is the controllable - pitch propeller (CPP, or CRP for controllable - reversible pitch), where the blades are rotated normally to the drive shaft by additional machinery -- usually hydraulics -- at the hub and control linkages running down the shaft. This allows the drive machinery to operate at a constant speed while the propeller loading is changed to match operating conditions. It also eliminates the need for a reversing gear and allows for more rapid change to thrust, as the revolutions are constant. This type of propeller is most common on ships such as tugs where there can be enormous differences in propeller loading when towing compared to running free, a change which could cause conventional propellers to lock up as insufficient torque is generated. The downsides of a CPP / CRP include: the large hub which decreases the torque required to cause cavitation, the mechanical complexity which limits transmission power and the extra blade shaping requirements forced upon the propeller designer.
For smaller motors there are self - pitching propellers. The blades freely move through an entire circle on an axis at right angles to the shaft. This allows hydrodynamic and centrifugal forces to ' set ' the angle the blades reach and so the pitch of the propeller.
A propeller that turns clockwise to produce forward thrust, when viewed from aft, is called right - handed. One that turns anticlockwise is said to be left - handed. Larger vessels often have twin screws to reduce heeling torque, counter-rotating propellers, the starboard screw is usually right - handed and the port left - handed, this is called outward turning. The opposite case is called inward turning. Another possibility is contra - rotating propellers, where two propellers rotate in opposing directions on a single shaft, or on separate shafts on nearly the same axis. Contra - rotating propellers offer increased efficiency by capturing the energy lost in the tangential velocities imparted to the fluid by the forward propeller (known as "propeller swirl ''). The flow field behind the aft propeller of a contra - rotating set has very little "swirl '', and this reduction in energy loss is seen as an increased efficiency of the aft propeller.
An azimuthing propeller is a propeller that turns around the vertical axis. The individual airfoil - shaped blades turn as the propeller moves so that they are always generating lift in the vessel 's direction of movement. This type of propeller can reverse or change its direction of thrust very quickly.
Fixed - wing aircraft are also subject to the P - factor effect, in which a rotating propeller will yaw an aircraft slightly to one side because the relative wind it produces is asymmetrical. It is particularly noticeable when climbing, but is usually simple to compensate for with the aircraft 's rudder. A more serious situation can exist if a multi-engine aircraft loses power to one of its engines, in particular the one which is positioned on the side that enhances the P - factor. This power plant is called the critical engine and its loss will require more control compensation by the pilot.
Cavitation is the formation of vapor bubbles in water near a moving propeller blade in regions of low pressure due to Bernoulli 's principle. It can occur if an attempt is made to transmit too much power through the screw, or if the propeller is operating at a very high speed. Cavitation can waste power, create vibration and wear, and cause damage to the propeller. It can occur in many ways on a propeller. The two most common types of propeller cavitation are suction side surface cavitation and tip vortex cavitation.
Suction side surface cavitation forms when the propeller is operating at high rotational speeds or under heavy load (high blade lift coefficient). The pressure on the upstream surface of the blade (the "suction side '') can drop below the vapor pressure of the water, resulting in the formation of a vapor pocket. Under such conditions, the change in pressure between the downstream surface of the blade (the "pressure side '') and the suction side is limited, and eventually reduced as the extent of cavitation is increased. When most of the blade surface is covered by cavitation, the pressure difference between the pressure side and suction side of the blade drops considerably, as does the thrust produced by the propeller. This condition is called "thrust breakdown ''. Operating the propeller under these conditions wastes energy, generates considerable noise, and as the vapor bubbles collapse it rapidly erodes the screw 's surface due to localized shock waves against the blade surface.
Tip vortex cavitation is caused by the extremely low pressures formed at the core of the tip vortex. The tip vortex is caused by fluid wrapping around the tip of the propeller; from the pressure side to the suction side. This video demonstrates tip vortex cavitation. Tip vortex cavitation typically occurs before suction side surface cavitation and is less damaging to the blade, since this type of cavitation does n't collapse on the blade, but some distance downstream.
Cavitation can be used as an advantage in design of very high performance propellers, in form of the supercavitating propeller. In this case, the blade section is designed such that the pressure side stays wetted while the suction side is completely covered by cavitation vapor. Because the suction side is covered with vapor instead of water it encounters very low viscous friction, making the supercavitating (SC) propeller comparably efficient at high speed. The shaping of SC blade sections however, make it inefficient at low speeds, when the suction side of the blade is wetted. (See also fluid dynamics).
A similar, but quite separate issue, is ventilation, which occurs when a propeller operating near the surface draws air into the blades, causing a similar loss of power and shaft vibration, but without the related potential blade surface damage caused by cavitation. Both effects can be mitigated by increasing the submerged depth of the propeller: cavitation is reduced because the hydrostatic pressure increases the margin to the vapor pressure, and ventilation because it is further from surface waves and other air pockets that might be drawn into the slipstream.
The blade profile of propellers designed to operate in a ventilated condition is often not of an aerofoil section and is a blunt ended taper instead. These are often known as "chopper '' type propellers.
The force (F) experienced by a foil is determined by its area (A), fluid density (ρ), velocity (V) and the angle of the foil to the fluid flow, called angle of attack (α (\ displaystyle \ alpha)), where:
The force has two parts -- that normal to the direction of flow is lift (L) and that in the direction of flow is drag (D). Both can be expressed mathematically:
where C and C are lift coefficient and drag coefficient respectively.
Each coefficient is a function of the angle of attack and Reynolds number. As the angle of attack increases lift rises rapidly from the no lift angle before slowing its increase and then decreasing, with a sharp drop as the stall angle is reached and flow is disrupted. Drag rises slowly at first and as the rate of increase in lift falls and the angle of attack increases drag increases more sharply.
For a given strength of circulation (τ (\ displaystyle \ tau)), Lift = L = ρ V τ (\ displaystyle (\ mbox (Lift)) = L = \ rho V \ tau). The effect of the flow over and the circulation around the foil is to reduce the velocity over the face and increase it over the back of the blade. If the reduction in pressure is too much in relation to the ambient pressure of the fluid, cavitation occurs, bubbles form in the low pressure area and are moved towards the blade 's trailing edge where they collapse as the pressure increases, this reduces propeller efficiency and increases noise. The forces generated by the bubble collapse can cause permanent damage to the surfaces of the blade.
Taking an arbitrary radial section of a blade at r, if revolutions are N then the rotational velocity is 2 π N r (\ displaystyle \ scriptstyle 2 \ pi Nr). If the blade was a complete screw it would advance through a solid at the rate of NP, where P is the pitch of the blade. In water the advance speed is rather lower, V a (\ displaystyle \ scriptstyle V_ (a)), the difference, or slip ratio, is:
where J = V a N D (\ displaystyle \ scriptstyle J = (\ frac (V_ (a)) (ND))) is the advance coefficient, and p = P D (\ displaystyle \ scriptstyle p = (\ frac (P) (D))) is the pitch ratio.
The forces of lift and drag on the blade, dA, where force normal to the surface is dL:
where:
These forces contribute to thrust, T, on the blade:
where:
t a n β = d D d L = C D C L = 1 2 ρ V 1 2 C L cos (φ + β) cos β b d r (\ displaystyle (\ begin (aligned) tan \ beta & = (\ frac ((\ mbox (d)) D) ((\ mbox (d)) L)) = (\ frac (C_ (D)) (C_ (L))) \ \ & = (\ frac (1) (2)) \ rho V_ (1) ^ (2) C_ (L) (\ frac (\ cos (\ varphi + \ beta)) (\ cos \ beta)) b (\ mbox (d)) r \ end (aligned)))
As V 1 = V a (1 + a) sin φ (\ displaystyle \ scriptstyle V_ (1) = (\ frac (V_ (a) (1 + a)) (\ sin \ varphi))),
From this total thrust can be obtained by integrating this expression along the blade. The transverse force is found in a similar manner:
Substituting for V 1 (\ displaystyle \ scriptstyle V_ (1)) and multiplying by r, gives torque as:
which can be integrated as before.
The total thrust power of the propeller is proportional to T V a (\ displaystyle \ scriptstyle TV_ (a)) and the shaft power to 2 π N Q (\ displaystyle \ scriptstyle 2 \ pi NQ). So efficiency is T V a 2 π N Q (\ displaystyle \ scriptstyle (\ frac (TV_ (a)) (2 \ pi NQ))). The blade efficiency is in the ratio between thrust and torque:
showing that the blade efficiency is determined by its momentum and its qualities in the form of angles φ (\ displaystyle \ scriptstyle \ varphi) and β (\ displaystyle \ scriptstyle \ beta), where β (\ displaystyle \ scriptstyle \ beta) is the ratio of the drag and lift coefficients.
This analysis is simplified and ignores a number of significant factors including interference between the blades and the influence of tip vortices.
The thrust, T, and torque, Q, depend on the propeller 's diameter, D, revolutions, N, and rate of advance, V a (\ displaystyle V_ (a)), together with the character of the fluid in which the propeller is operating and gravity. These factors create the following non-dimensional relationship:
where f 1 (\ displaystyle f_ (1)) is a function of the advance coefficient, f 2 (\ displaystyle f_ (2)) is a function of the Reynolds ' number, and f 3 (\ displaystyle f_ (3)) is a function of the Froude number. Both f 2 (\ displaystyle f_ (2)) and f 3 (\ displaystyle f_ (3)) are likely to be small in comparison to f 1 (\ displaystyle f_ (1)) under normal operating conditions, so the expression can be reduced to:
For two identical propellers the expression for both will be the same. So with the propellers T 1, T 2 (\ displaystyle T_ (1), T_ (2)), and using the same subscripts to indicate each propeller:
For both Froude number and advance coefficient:
where λ (\ displaystyle \ lambda) is the ratio of the linear dimensions.
Thrust and velocity, at the same Froude number, give thrust power:
For torque:
When a propeller is added to a ship its performance is altered; there is the mechanical losses in the transmission of power; a general increase in total resistance; and the hull also impedes and renders non-uniform the flow through the propeller. The ratio between a propeller 's efficiency attached to a ship (P D (\ displaystyle \ scriptstyle P_ (D))) and in open water (P D ′ (\ displaystyle \ scriptstyle P'_ (D))) is termed relative rotative efficiency.
The overall propulsive efficiency (an extension of effective power (P E (\ displaystyle \ scriptstyle P_ (E)))) is developed from the propulsive coefficient (P C (\ displaystyle \ scriptstyle PC)), which is derived from the installed shaft power (P S (\ displaystyle \ scriptstyle P_ (S))) modified by the effective power for the hull with appendages (P E ′ (\ displaystyle \ scriptstyle P'_ (E))), the propeller 's thrust power (P T (\ displaystyle \ scriptstyle P_ (T))), and the relative rotative efficiency.
Producing the following:
The terms contained within the brackets are commonly grouped as the quasi-propulsive coefficient (Q P C (\ displaystyle \ scriptstyle QPC), η D (\ displaystyle \ scriptstyle \ eta _ (D))). The Q P C (\ displaystyle \ scriptstyle QPC) is produced from small - scale experiments and is modified with a load factor for full size ships.
Wake is the interaction between the ship and the water with its own velocity relative to the ship. The wake has three parts: the velocity of the water around the hull; the boundary layer between the water dragged by the hull and the surrounding flow; and the waves created by the movement of the ship. The first two parts will reduce the velocity of water into the propeller, the third will either increase or decrease the velocity depending on whether the waves create a crest or trough at the propeller.
One type of marine propeller is the controllable - pitch propeller. This propeller has several advantages with ships. These advantages include: the least drag depending on the speed used, the ability to move the sea vessel backwards, and the ability to use the "vane '' - stance, which gives the least water resistance when not using the propeller (e.g. when the sails are used instead).
An advanced type of propeller used on German Type 212 submarines is called a skewback propeller. As in the scimitar blades used on some aircraft, the blade tips of a skewback propeller are swept back against the direction of rotation. In addition, the blades are tilted rearward along the longitudinal axis, giving the propeller an overall cup - shaped appearance. This design preserves thrust efficiency while reducing cavitation, and thus makes for a quiet, stealthy design.
A small number of ships use propellers with winglets similar to those on some airplanes, reducing tip vortices and improving efficiency.
A modular propeller provides more control over the boat 's performance. There is no need to change an entire prop, when there is an opportunity to only change the pitch or the damaged blades. Being able to adjust pitch will allow for boaters to have better performance while in different altitudes, water sports, and / or cruising.
For smaller engines, such as outboards, where the propeller is exposed to the risk of collision with heavy objects, the propeller often includes a device that is designed to fail when overloaded; the device or the whole propeller is sacrificed so that the more expensive transmission and engine are not damaged.
Typically in smaller (less than 10 hp or 7.5 kW) and older engines, a narrow shear pin through the drive shaft and propeller hub transmits the power of the engine at normal loads. The pin is designed to shear when the propeller is put under a load that could damage the engine. After the pin is sheared the engine is unable to provide propulsive power to the boat until a new shear pin is fitted.
In larger and more modern engines, a rubber bushing transmits the torque of the drive shaft to the propeller 's hub. Under a damaging load the friction of the bushing in the hub is overcome and the rotating propeller slips on the shaft, preventing overloading of the engine 's components. After such an event the rubber bushing may be damaged. If so, it may continue to transmit reduced power at low revolutions, but may provide no power, due to reduced friction, at high revolutions. Also, the rubber bushing may perish over time leading to its failure under loads below its designed failure load.
Whether a rubber bushing can be replaced or repaired depends upon the propeller; some can not. Some can, but need special equipment to insert the oversized bushing for an interference fit. Others can be replaced easily. The "special equipment '' usually consists of a funnel, a press and rubber lubricant (soap). If one does not have access to a lathe, an improvised funnel can be made from steel tube and car body filler; as the filler is only subject to compressive forces it is able to do a good job. Often, the bushing can be drawn into place with nothing more complex than a couple of nuts, washers and a threaded rod. A more serious problem with this type of propeller is a "frozen - on '' spline bushing, which makes propeller removal impossible. In such cases the propeller must be heated in order to deliberately destroy the rubber insert. Once the propeller is removed, the splined tube can be cut away with a grinder and a new spline bushing is then required. To prevent a recurrence of the problem, the splines can be coated with anti-seize anti-corrosion compound.
In some modern propellers, a hard polymer insert called a drive sleeve replaces the rubber bushing. The splined or other non-circular cross section of the sleeve inserted between the shaft and propeller hub transmits the engine torque to the propeller, rather than friction. The polymer is weaker than the components of the propeller and engine so it fails before they do when the propeller is overloaded. This fails completely under excessive load, but can easily be replaced.
A cleaver is a type of propeller design especially used for boat racing. Its leading edge is formed round, while the trailing edge is cut straight. It provides little bow lift, so that it can be used on boats that do not need much bow lift, for instance hydroplanes, that naturally have enough hydrodynamic bow lift. To compensate for the lack of bow lift, a hydrofoil may be installed on the lower unit. Hydrofoils reduce bow lift and help to get a boat out of the hole and onto plane.
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who is the first lady judge of high court of india | Anna Chandy - Wikipedia
Justice Anna Chandy (1905 - 1996), also known as Anna Chandi, was the first female judge in India and also the first woman in India to become a high court judge. In fact, she was the first woman judge in the entire Anglo - Saxon world, decades before Elizabeth Lane.
Anna Chandy was born in 1905 and raised in Trivandrum. She was a Syrian Christian. After obtaining a post-graduate degree in 1926, she then became the first woman in her state to get a law degree. She practised as a barrister from 1929 while simultaneously promoting the cause of women 's rights, most notably in Shrimati, a magazine that she both founded and edited.
Often described as a "first generation feminist '', Chandy campaigned for election to the Shree Mulam Popular Assembly in 1931. She met with hostility from both her competition and newspapers but was elected for the period 1932 - 34.
Chandy was appointed as a munsif in Travancore by Sir C.P. Ramaswami Iyer, the Dewan of Travancore, in 1937. This made her the first female judge in India and, in 1948, she was raised to the position of District Judge. She became the first female judge in an Indian high court when she was appointed to the Kerala High Court on 9 February 1959. She remained in that office until 5 April 1967.
In her retirement, Chandy served on the Law Commission of India and also wrote an autobiography titled Atmakatha (1973). She died in 1996.
((1. http://keralawomen.gov.in/view_page.php?type=11&id=262))
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where did the name twelfth night come from | Twelfth Night - wikipedia
Twelfth Night, or What You Will is a comedy by William Shakespeare, believed to have been written around 1601 -- 02 as a Twelfth Night 's entertainment for the close of the Christmas season. The play centres on the twins Viola and Sebastian, who are separated in a shipwreck. Viola (who is disguised as Cesario) falls in love with Duke Orsino, who in turn is in love with the Countess Olivia. Upon meeting Viola, Countess Olivia falls in love with her thinking she is a man. The play expanded on the musical interludes and riotous disorder expected of the occasion, with plot elements drawn from the short story "Of Apollonius and Silla '' by Barnabe Rich, based on a story by Matteo Bandello. The first recorded performance was on 2 February 1602, at Candlemas, the formal end of Christmastide in the year 's calendar. The play was not published until its inclusion in the 1623 First Folio.
Illyria, the setting of Twelfth Night, is important to the play 's romantic atmosphere. Illyria was an ancient region of the Western Balkans whose coast (the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea which is the only part of ancient Illyria which is relevant to the play) covered (from north to south) the coasts of modern - day Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro and Albania. It included the city - state of the Republic of Ragusa which has been proposed as the setting. Illyria may have been suggested by the Roman comedy Menaechmi, the plot of which also involves twins who are mistaken for each other. Illyria is also referred to as a site of pirates in Shakespeare 's earlier play, Henry VI, Part 2. The names of most of the characters are Italian but some of the comic characters have English names. Oddly, the "Illyrian '' lady Olivia has an English uncle, Sir Toby Belch. It has been noted that the play 's setting also has other English allusions such as Viola 's use of "Westward ho! '', a typical cry of 16th - century London boatmen, and also Antonio 's recommendation to Sebastian of "The Elephant '' as where it is best to lodge in Illyria; The Elephant was a pub not far from the Globe Theatre.
Viola is shipwrecked on the coast of Illyria and she comes ashore with the help of a Captain. She has lost contact with her twin brother, Sebastian, who she believes to be drowned. With the aid of the Captain, she disguises herself as a young man under the name Cesario, and enters the service of Duke Orsino. Duke Orsino has convinced himself that he is in love with Olivia, who is mourning the recent deaths of her father and brother. She refuses to see entertainments, be in the company of men, or accept love or marriage proposals from anyone, the Duke included, until seven years have passed. Duke Orsino then uses ' Cesario ' as an intermediary to profess his passionate love before Olivia. Olivia, however, falls in love with ' Cesario ', setting her at odds with her professed duty. In the meantime, Viola has fallen in love with the Duke Orsino, creating a love triangle among Duke Orsino, Olivia and Viola: Viola loves Duke Orsino, Duke Orsino loves Olivia, and Olivia loves Viola disguised as Cesario.
In the comic subplot, several characters conspire to make Olivia 's pompous steward, Malvolio, believe that Olivia has fallen for him. This involves Olivia 's riotous uncle, Sir Toby Belch; another would - be suitor, a silly squire named Sir Andrew Aguecheek; her servants Maria and Fabian; and her melancholy fool, Feste. Sir Toby and Sir Andrew engage themselves in drinking and revelry, thus disturbing the peace of Olivia 's household until late into the night, prompting Malvolio to chastise them. Sir Toby famously retorts, "Dost thou think, because thou art virtuous, there shall be no more cakes and ale? '' (Act II, Scene III). Sir Toby, Sir Andrew, and Maria plan revenge on Malvolio. They convince Malvolio that Olivia is secretly in love with him by planting a love letter, written by Maria in Olivia 's handwriting. It asks Malvolio to wear yellow stockings cross-gartered, to be rude to the rest of the servants, and to smile constantly in the presence of Olivia. Malvolio finds the letter and reacts in surprised delight. He starts acting out the contents of the letter to show Olivia his positive response. Olivia is shocked by the changes in Malvolio and leaves him to the contrivances of his tormentors. Pretending that Malvolio is insane, they lock him up in a dark chamber. Feste visits him to mock his insanity, both disguised as a priest and as himself.
Meanwhile, Viola 's twin, Sebastian, has been rescued by Antonio, a sea captain who previously fought against Orsino yet who accompanies Sebastian to Illyria, despite the danger, because of their friendship. Sebastian 's appearance adds the confusion of mistaken identities to the comedy. Taking Sebastian for ' Cesario ', Olivia asks him to marry her, and they are secretly married in a church. Finally, when ' Cesario ' and Sebastian appear in the presence of both Olivia and Orsino, there is more wonder and confusion at their physical similarity. At this point, Viola reveals her identity and is reunited with her twin brother. The play ends in a declaration of marriage between Duke Orsino and Viola, and it is learned that Sir Toby has married Maria. Malvolio swears revenge on his tormentors and stalks off, but Orsino sends Fabian to placate him.
The play is believed to have drawn extensively on the Italian production Gl'ingannati (or The Deceived Ones), collectively written by the Accademia degli Intronati in 1531. It is conjectured that the name of its male lead, Orsino, was suggested by Virginio Orsini, Duke of Bracciano, an Italian nobleman who visited London in the winter of 1600 to 1601.
Another source story, "Of Apollonius and Silla '', appeared in Barnabe Riche 's collection, Riche his Farewell to Militarie Profession conteining verie pleasaunt discourses fit for a peaceable tyme (1581), which in turn is derived from a story by Matteo Bandello.
"Twelfth Night '' is a reference to the twelfth night after Christmas Day, called the Eve of the Feast of Epiphany. It was originally a Catholic holiday and therefore, like other Christian feast days, an occasion for revelry. Servants often dressed up as their masters, men as women and so forth. This history of festive ritual and Carnivalesque reversal, based on the ancient Roman festival of Saturnalia at the same time of year (characterized by drunken revelry and inversion of the social order; masters became slaves for a day, and vice versa), is the cultural origin of the play 's gender confusion - driven plot. The actual Elizabethan festival of Twelfth Night would involve the antics of a Lord of Misrule, who before leaving his temporary position of authority, would call for entertainment, songs and mummery; the play has been regarded as preserving this festive and traditional atmosphere of licensed disorder. This leads to the general inversion of the order of things, most notably gender roles. The embittered and isolated Malvolio can be regarded as an adversary of festive enjoyment and community, led by Sir Toby Belch, "the vice-regent spokesman for cakes and ale '' and his partner in a comic stock duo, the simple and constantly exploited Sir Andrew Aguecheek.
The full title of the play is Twelfth Night, or What You Will. Subtitles for plays were fashionable in the Elizabethan era, and though some editors place The Merchant of Venice 's alternative title, The Jew of Venice, as a subtitle, this is the only Shakespearean play to bear one when first published.
The play was probably finished between 1600 and 1601, a period suggested by the play 's referencing of events which happened during that time. A law student, John Manningham, who was studying in the Middle Temple in London, described the performance on 2 February 1602 (Candlemas) which took place in the hall of the Middle Temple at the formal end of Christmastide in the year 's calendar, and to which students were invited. This was the first recorded performance of the play. The play was not published until its inclusion in the First Folio in 1623.
Viola is not alone among Shakespeare 's cross-dressing heroines; in Shakespeare 's theatre, convention dictated that adolescent boys play the roles of female characters, creating humour in the multiplicity of disguise found in a female character who for a while pretended at masculinity. Her cross dressing enables Viola to fulfill usually male roles, such as acting as a messenger between Orsino and Olivia, as well as being Orsino 's confidant. She does not, however, use her disguise to enable her to intervene directly in the plot (unlike other Shakespearean heroines such as Rosalind in As You Like It and Portia in The Merchant of Venice), remaining someone who allows "Time '' to untangle the plot. Viola 's persistence in transvestism through her betrothal in the final scene of the play often engenders a discussion of the possibly homoerotic relationship between Viola and Orsino.
As the very nature of Twelfth Night explores gender identity and sexual attraction, having a male actor play Viola enhanced the impression of androgyny and sexual ambiguity. Some modern scholars believe that Twelfth Night, with the added confusion of male actors and Viola 's deception, addresses gender issues "with particular immediacy. '' They also accept that the depiction of gender in Twelfth Night stems from the era 's prevalent scientific theory that females are simply imperfect males. This belief explains the almost indistinguishable differences between the sexes reflected in the casting and characters of Twelfth Night.
At Olivia 's first meeting with "Cesario '' (Viola) in I.V she asks her "Are you a comedian? '' (an Elizabethan term for "actor ''). Viola 's reply, "I am not that I play '', epitomising her adoption of the role of Cesario, is regarded as one of several references to theatricality and "playing '' within the play. The plot against Malvolio revolves around these ideas, and Fabian remarks in Act III, Scene iv: "If this were play 'd upon a stage now, I could condemn it as an improbable fiction ''. In Act IV, Scene ii, Feste (The Fool) plays both parts in the "play '' for Malvolio 's benefit, alternating between adopting the voice of the local curate, Sir Topas, and his own voice. He finishes by likening himself to "the old Vice '' of English Morality plays. Other influences of the English folk tradition can be seen in Feste 's songs and dialogue, such as his final song in Act V. The last line of this song, "And we 'll strive to please you every day '', is a direct echo of similar lines from several English folk plays.
The earliest known performance took place at Middle Temple Hall, one of the Inns of Court, on Candlemas night, 2 February 1602. The only record of the performance is an entry in the diary of the lawyer John Manningham, who wrote:
At our feast we had a play called "Twelve Night, or What You Will '', much like "The Comedy of Errors '' or "Menaechmi '' in Plautus, but most like and near to that in Italian called "Inganni ''. A good practice in it to make the steward believe his lady - widow was in love with him, by counterfeiting a letter as from his lady, in general terms telling him what she liked best in him and prescribing his gesture in smiling, his apparel, etc. and then, when he came to practice, making him believe they took him for mad.
Clearly, Manningham enjoyed the Malvolio story most of all, and noted the play 's similarity with Shakespeare 's earlier play, as well as its relationship with one of its sources, the Inganni plays.
It may have been performed earlier as well, before the Court at Whitehall Palace on Twelfth Night (6 January) of 1601. Twelfth Night was also performed at Court on Easter Monday, 6 April 1618, and again at Candlemas in 1623.
The play was also one of the earliest Shakespearean works acted at the start of the Restoration; Sir William Davenant 's adaptation was staged in 1661, with Thomas Betterton in the role of Sir Toby Belch. Samuel Pepys thought it "a silly play '', but saw it three times anyway during the period of his diary on 11 September 1661, 6 January 1663, and 20 January 1669. Another adaptation, Love Betray 'd, or, The Agreeable Disappointment, was acted at Lincoln 's Inn Fields in 1703.
After holding the stage only in the adaptations in the late 17th century and early 18th century, the original Shakespearean text of Twelfth Night was revived in 1741, in a production at Drury Lane. In 1820 an operatic version by Frederic Reynolds was staged, with music composed by Henry Bishop.
Influential productions were staged in 1912, by Harley Granville - Barker, and in 1916, at the Old Vic.
Lilian Baylis reopened the long - dormant Sadler 's Wells Theatre in 1931 with a notable production of the play starring Ralph Richardson as Sir Toby and John Gielgud as Malvolio. The Old Vic Theatre was reopened in 1950 (after suffering severe damage in the London Blitz in 1941) with a memorable production starring Peggy Ashcroft as Viola. Gielgud directed a production at the Shakespeare Memorial Theatre with Laurence Olivier as Malvolio and Vivien Leigh playing both Viola and Sebastian in 1955. The longest running Broadway production by far was Margaret Webster 's 1940 staging starring Maurice Evans as Malvolio and Helen Hayes as Viola. It ran for 129 performances, more than twice as long as any other Broadway production.
A memorable production directed by Liviu Ciulei at the Guthrie Theater in Minneapolis, October -- November 1984, was set in the context of an archetypal circus world, emphasising its convivial, carnival tone.
When the play was first performed, all female parts were played by men or boys, but it has been the practice for some centuries now to cast women or girls in the female parts in all plays. The company of Shakespeare 's Globe, London, has produced many notable, highly popular all - male performances, and a highlight of their 2002 season was Twelfth Night, with the Globe 's artistic director Mark Rylance playing the part of Olivia. This season was preceded, in February, by a performance of the play by the same company at Middle Temple Hall, to celebrate the 400th anniversary of the play 's première, at the same venue. The same production was revived in 2012 - 13 and transferred to sell - out runs in the West End and Broadway. Stephen Fry played Malvolio. It ran in repertory with Richard III.
Interpretations of the role of Viola have been given by many well - renowned actresses in the latter half of the 20th century, and have been interpreted in the light of how far they allow the audience to experience the transgressions of stereotypical gender roles. This has sometimes correlated with how far productions of the play go towards reaffirming a sense of unification, for example a 1947 production concentrated on showing a post-World War II community reuniting at the end of the play, led by a robust hero / heroine in Viola, played by Beatrix Lehmann, then 44 years old. The 1966 Royal Shakespeare Company production played on gender transgressions more obviously, with Diana Rigg as Viola showing much more physical attraction towards the duke than previously seen, and the court in general being a more physically demonstrative place, particularly between males. John Barton 's 1969 production starred Donald Sinden as Malvolio and Judi Dench as Viola; their performances were highly acclaimed and the production as a whole was commented on as showing a dying society crumbling into decay.
Malvolio is a popular character choice among stage actors; others who have taken the part include Ian Holm many times, Simon Russell Beale (Donmar Warehouse, 2002), Richard Cordery in 2005, Patrick Stewart, in Chichester, in 2007, Derek Jacobi (Donmar Warehouse) in 2009, Richard Wilson in 2009 and Stephen Fry at the Globe in 2012.
In March 2017, the Royal National Theatre 's production of Twelfth Night changed some of the roles from male to female, including Feste, Fabian (which became Fabia), and most notably, Malvolio - which became Malvolia - played by Tamsin Greig to largely positive reviews. As a result, the production played with sexuality as well as gender.
In 2017 / 18, the Royal Shakespeare Company staged Twelfth Night, which was directed by Christopher Luscombe. Adrian Edmondson played Malvolio and Kara Tointon played Olivia.
Due to its themes such as young women seeking independence in a "man 's world '', "gender - bending '' and "same - sex attraction '' (albeit in a roundabout way), there have been a number of re-workings for the stage, particularly in musical theatre, among them Your Own Thing (1968), Music Is (1977), All Shook Up (2005), and Play On! (1997), the last two jukebox musicals featuring the music of Elvis Presley and Duke Ellington, respectively. Another adaptation is Illyria, by composer Pete Mills. Theatre Grottesco created a modern version of the play from the point of view of the servants working for Duke Orsino and Lady Olivia. The adaptation takes a much deeper look at the issues of classism, and society without leadership. In 1999, the play was adapted as Epiphany by the Takarazuka Revue, adding more overt commentary on the role of theatre and actors, as well as gender as applied to the stage (made more layered by the fact that all roles in this production were played by women).
In 1910, Vitagraph Studios released the silent, short adaptation Twelfth Night starring actors Florence Turner, Julia Swayne Gordon and Marin Sais.
There was a 1986 Australian film.
The 1996 film adapted and directed by Trevor Nunn and set in the 19th century, stars Imogen Stubbs as Viola, Helena Bonham Carter as Olivia and Toby Stephens as Duke Orsino. The film also features Mel Smith as Sir Toby, Richard E. Grant as Sir Andrew, Ben Kingsley as Feste, Imelda Staunton as Maria and Nigel Hawthorne as Malvolio. Much of the comic material was downplayed into straightforward drama, and the film received some criticism for this.
The 2001 "Disney Channel Original Movie '' "Motocrossed '' sets the story in the world of motocross racing.
In the 2004 movie Wicker Park, Rose Byrne 's character Alex plays Viola in an amateur production of Twelfth Night.
The 2006 film She 's the Man modernises the story as a contemporary teenage comedy (as 10 Things I Hate About You did with The Taming of the Shrew). It is set in a prep school named Illyria and incorporates the names of the play 's major characters. For example, Orsino, Duke of Illyria becomes simply Duke Orsino ("Duke '' being his forename). The story was changed to revolve around the idea of soccer rivalry but the twisted character romance remained the same as the original. Viola, the main character, pretends to be her brother Sebastian, and a girl named Olivia falls in love with Viola as Sebastian. She also goes to a restaurant named "Cesario 's ''. Two of Duke 's Illyria soccer teammates are named Andrew and Toby. A nod is given to the omitted subplot by naming a briefly - onscreen tarantula Malvolio. Sebastian 's ex-girlfriend Monique was given the surname Valentine, and the meddling Malcolm was given the surname Festes.
Shakespeare in Love contains several references to Twelfth Night. Near the end of the movie, Elizabeth I (Judi Dench) asks Shakespeare (Joseph Fiennes) to write a comedy for the Twelfth Night holiday. Shakespeare 's love interest in the film, "Viola '' (Gwyneth Paltrow), is the daughter of a wealthy merchant who disguises herself as a boy to become an actor; while Shakespeare, a financially struggling playwright suffering from writer 's block is trying to write Romeo and Juliet. She is presented in the final scene of the film as William Shakespeare 's "true '' inspiration for the heroine of Twelfth Night. In a nod to the shipwrecked opening of Shakespeare 's Twelfth Night, the movie includes a scene where the character Viola, separated from her love by an arranged marriage and bound for the American colonies, survives a shipwreck and comes ashore to Virginia.
On 14 May 1937, the BBC Television Service in London broadcast a thirty - minute excerpt of the play, the first known instance of a work of Shakespeare being performed on television. Produced for the new medium by George More O'Ferrall, the production is also notable for having featured a young actress who would later go on to win an Academy Award -- Greer Garson. As the performance was transmitted live from the BBC 's studios at Alexandra Palace and the technology to record television programmes did not at the time exist, no visual record survives other than still photographs.
The entire play was produced for television in 1939, directed by Michel Saint - Denis and starring another future Oscar - winner, Peggy Ashcroft. The part of Sir Toby Belch was taken by a young George Devine.
In 1957, another adaptation of the play was presented by NBC on U.S. television 's Hallmark Hall of Fame, with Maurice Evans recreating his performance as Malvolio. This was the first color version ever produced on TV. Dennis King, Rosemary Harris, and Frances Hyland co-starred.
In 1966 there was an Australian TV version.
Another version for UK television was produced in 1969, directed by John Sichel and John Dexter. The production featured Joan Plowright as Viola and Sebastian, Alec Guinness as Malvolio, Ralph Richardson as Sir Toby Belch and Tommy Steele as an unusually prominent Feste.
Yet another TV adaptation followed in 1980. This version was part of the BBC Television Shakespeare series and featured Felicity Kendal in the role of Viola, Sinéad Cusack as Olivia, Alec McCowen as Malvolio and Robert Hardy as Sir Toby Belch.
In 1988, Kenneth Branagh 's stage production of the play, starring Frances Barber as Viola and Richard Briers as Malvolio, was adapted for Thames Television.
In 1998 the Lincoln Center Theater production directed by Nicholas Hytner was broadcast on PBS Live From Lincoln Center. It starred Helen Hunt as Viola, Paul Rudd as Orsino, Kyra Sedgwick as Olivia, Philip Bosco as Malvolio, Brian Murray as Sir Toby, Max Wright as Sir Andrew, and David Patrick Kelly as Feste.
A 2003 telemovie adapted and directed by Tim Supple is set in the present day. It features David Troughton as Sir Toby, and is notable for its multi-ethnic cast including Parminder Nagra as Viola and Chiwetel Ejiofor as Orsino. Its portrayal of Viola and Sebastian 's arrival in Illyria is reminiscent of news footage of asylum seekers.
An episode of the British series Skins, entitled Grace, featured the main characters playing Twelfth Night, with a love triangle between Franky, Liv and Matty, who respectively played Viola, Olivia and Orsino.
An adaptation of Twelfth Night by Cathleen Nesbitt for the BBC was the first complete Shakespeare play ever broadcast on British radio. This occurred on 28 May 1923, with Nesbitt as both Viola and Sebastian, and Gerald Lawrence as Orsino.
In 1937 an adaptation was performed on the CBS Radio Playhouse starring Orson Welles as Orsino and Tallulah Bankhead as Viola. A year later, Welles played Malvolio in a production with his Mercury Theater Company.
There have been several full adaptations on BBC Radio. A 1982 BBC Radio 4 broadcast featured Alec McCowen as Orsino, Wendy Murray as Viola, Norman Rodway as Sir Toby Belch, Andrew Sachs as Sir Andrew Aguecheek, and Bernard Hepton as Malvolio; in 1993, BBC Radio 3 broadcast a version of the play (set on a Caribbean Island), with Michael Maloney as Orsino, Eve Matheson as Viola, Iain Cuthbertson as Malvolio, and Joss Ackland as Sir Toby Belch; this adaptation was broadcast again on 6 January 2011 by BBC Radio 7 (now Radio 4 Extra). 1998 saw another Radio 3 adaptation, with Michael Maloney, again as Orsino, Josette Simon as Olivia and Nicky Henson as Feste. In April 2012, BBC Radio 3 broadcast a version directed by Sally Avens, with Paul Ready as Orsino, Naomi Frederick as Viola, David Tennant as Malvolvio and Ron Cook as Sir Toby Belch.
In 1888, Alexander Campbell Mackenzie composed an overture based on Twelfth Night.
In 1942, Gerald Finzi set the songs "O Mistress Mine '' (Act II, Scene 3) and "Come Away, Come Away, Death '' (Act II, Scene 4) to music as part of his song cycle on Shakespearean texts Let Us Garlands Bring.
Roger Quilter set "O Mistress Mine '' and "Come Away, Come Away, Death '' in his Three Shakespeare Songs, Op. 6.
Swedish composer Sven - Eric Johanson 's song cycle for mixed chorus and piano "Fancies I '' includes a setting in waltz time of "O Mistress Mine '' (1974).
The Danish philosopher Søren Kierkegaard opens his book Philosophical Fragments with the quote "Better well hanged than ill wed '' which is a paraphrase of Feste 's comment to Maria in Act 1, Scene 5: "Many a good hanging prevents a bad marriage ''. Nietzsche also refers passingly to Twelfth Night (specifically, to Sir Andrew Aguecheek 's suspicion, expressed in Act 1, Scene 3, that his excessive intake of beef is having an inverse effect on his wit) in the third essay of his Genealogy of Morality.
The Kiddy Grade characters Viola and Cesario are named for Viola and her alter ego Cesario, respectively.
Elizabeth Hand 's novella Illyria features a high school production of Twelfth Night, containing many references to the play, especially Feste 's song.
One of Club Penguin 's plays, Twelfth Fish, is a spoof of Shakespeare 's works. It is a story about a countess, a jester, and a bard who catch a fish that talks. As the play ends, they begin eating the fish. Many of the lines are parodies of Shakespeare.
Agatha Christie 's 1940 mystery novel Sad Cypress draws its title from a song in Act II, Scene IV of Twelfth Night.
American playwright Ken Ludwig wrote a play inspired by the details of Twelfth Night, called Leading Ladies.
Cassandra Clare 's 2009 novel City of Glass contains chapter names inspired by quotations of Antonio and Sebastian.
Two of the dogs in the film Hotel for Dogs are twins called Sebastian and Viola.
Clive Barker 's short story "Sex, Death and Starshine '' revolves around a doomed production of Twelfth Night.
The Baker Street Irregulars believe Sherlock Holmes 's birthday to be January 6 due to the fact that Holmes quotes twice from Twelfth Night whereas he quotes only once from other Shakespeare plays.
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who plays beauty in beauty and the beast | Beauty and the Beast (2017 film) - wikipedia
Beauty and the Beast is a 2017 American musical romantic fantasy film directed by Bill Condon from a screenplay written by Stephen Chbosky and Evan Spiliotopoulos, and co-produced by Walt Disney Pictures and Mandeville Films. The film is a remake of Disney 's 1991 animated film of the same name, itself an adaptation of Jeanne - Marie Leprince de Beaumont 's eighteenth - century fairy tale. The film features an ensemble cast that includes Emma Watson and Dan Stevens as the eponymous characters with Luke Evans, Kevin Kline, Josh Gad, Ewan McGregor, Stanley Tucci, Audra McDonald, Gugu Mbatha - Raw, Ian McKellen, and Emma Thompson in supporting roles.
Principal photography began at Shepperton Studios in Surrey, United Kingdom on May 18, 2015, and ended on August 21. Beauty and the Beast premiered at Spencer House in London on February 23, 2017, and was released in the United States in standard, Disney Digital 3 - D, RealD 3D, IMAX and IMAX 3D formats, along with Dolby Cinema on March 17, 2017. The film received generally favorable reviews from critics, with many praising Watson and Stevens 's acting performances as well as the ensemble cast, faithfulness to the original animated film alongside elements from the Broadway musical, visual style, production values, and musical score, though it received criticism for some of the character designs, inconsistent vocal performances, and its excessive similarity to the original. The film grossed over $1.2 billion worldwide, becoming the highest - grossing live - action musical film, and making it the second highest - grossing film of 2017, the 10th - highest - ever grossing film in North America and the 12th - highest - grossing film of all time. The film received four nominations at the 23rd Critics ' Choice Awards and two nominations at the 71st British Academy Film Awards. It also received Academy Award nominations for Best Production Design and Best Costume Design at the 90th Academy Awards.
In Rococo - era France, a beautiful enchantress disguised as an old beggar woman arrives at a castle during a ball and offers the host, a cruel and selfish prince, a rose in return for shelter from a storm. When he refuses, she reveals her identity. To punish the prince for his selfishness, the enchantress transforms him into a beast and his servants into household objects, then erases the castle, the prince and his servants from the memories of their loved ones. She casts a spell on the rose and warns the prince that the curse will only be broken if he learns to love another, and earn their love in return, before the last petal falls.
Some years later, in the small town of Villeneuve, Belle, the book - loving daughter of a music box maker and artist Maurice, dreams of adventure and brushes off advances from Gaston, an arrogant former soldier. On his way to a convention and lost in the forest, Maurice seeks refuge in the Beast 's castle, but the Beast imprisons him for stealing a rose from his garden as a gift to Belle. When Maurice 's horse returns without him, Belle ventures out in search for him, and finds him locked in the castle dungeon. The Beast agrees to let her take Maurice 's place.
Belle befriends the castle 's servants, who invite her to a spectacular dinner. When she wanders into the forbidden west wing and finds the rose, the Beast scares her into the woods. She is ambushed by a pack of wolves, but the Beast rescues her, and is injured in the process. As Belle nurses his wounds, a friendship develops between them. The Beast shows Belle a gift from the enchantress, a book that transports readers wherever they want. Belle uses the book to visit her childhood home in Paris, where she discovers a plague doctor mask and realizes that she and her father were forced to leave when her mother succumbed to the plague.
In Villeneuve, Gaston sees rescuing Belle as an opportunity to win her hand in marriage, and agrees to help Maurice. When Maurice learns of his ulterior motive and rejects him, Gaston abandons him to be eaten by the wolves. Maurice is rescued by the hermit Agathe, but when he tells the townsfolk of Gaston 's crime but is unable to provide solid evidence, Gaston convinces them to send Maurice to an insane asylum.
After sharing a romantic dance with the Beast, Belle discovers her father 's predicament using a magic mirror. The Beast releases her to save Maurice, giving her the mirror to remember him with. At Villeneuve, Belle reveals the Beast in the mirror to the townsfolk, proving her father 's sanity. Realizing that Belle loves the Beast, a jealous Gaston claims she has been charmed by dark magic, and has her thrown into the asylum carriage with her father. He rallies the villagers to follow him to the castle to slay the Beast before he curses the whole village. Maurice and Belle escape, and Belle rushes back to the castle.
During the battle, Gaston abandons his companion LeFou, who then sides with the servants to fend off the villagers. Gaston attacks the Beast in his tower, who is too depressed to fight back, but regains his spirit upon seeing Belle return. He overpowers Gaston, but spares his life before reuniting with Belle. However, Gaston fatally shoots the Beast from a bridge, but it collapses when the castle crumbles, and he falls to his death. The Beast dies as the last petal falls, and the servants become inanimate. As Belle tearfully professes her love to the Beast, Agathe reveals herself as the enchantress and undoes the curse, repairing the crumbling castle, and restoring the Beast 's and servants ' human forms and the villagers ' memories. The Prince and Belle host a ball for the kingdom, where they dance happily.
^ In the initial theatrical release, Mitchell was miscredited as Rudi Gooman in the cast, but listed under his real name in the soundtrack credits.
^ In the initial theatrical release, Turner is miscredited as Henry Garrett in the cast.
Stephen Merchant also appeared in the film as Monsieur Toilette, a servant who was turned into a toilet. This character was cut from the film, but is featured in the deleted scenes.
Previously, Disney had begun work on a film adaptation of the 1994 Broadway musical. However, in a 2011 interview, composer Alan Menken stated the planned film version of the Beauty and the Beast stage musical "was canned ''.
By April 2014, Walt Disney Pictures had already begun developing a new live - action version and remake of Beauty and the Beast after making other live - action fantasy films such as Alice in Wonderland, Maleficent, Cinderella and The Jungle Book. In June 2014, Bill Condon was signed to direct the film from a script by Evan Spiliotopoulos. Later in September of that same year, Stephen Chbosky (who had previously directed Watson in The Perks of Being a Wallflower) was hired to re-write the script.
Before Condon was hired to direct the film, Disney approached him with a proposal to remake the film in a more radical way as Universal Studios had remade Snow White and the Huntsman (2012). Condon later explained that "after Frozen opened, the studio saw that there was this big international audience for an old - school - musical approach. But initially, they said, ' We 're interested in a musical to a degree, but only half full of songs. ' My interest was taking that film and doing it in this new medium -- live - action -- as a full - on musical movie. So I backed out for a minute, and they came back and said, ' No, no, no, we get it, let 's pursue it that way. ' '' Walt Disney Pictures president of production Sean Bailey credited Walt Disney Studios chairman Alan F. Horn with the decision to make the film as a musical: "We worked on this for five or six years, and for 18 months to two years, Beauty was a serious dramatic project, and the scripts were written to reflect that. It was n't a musical at that time. But we just could n't get it to click and it was Alan Horn who championed the idea of owning the Disney of it all. We realized there was a competitive advantage in the songs. What is wrong with making adults feel like kids again? ''
In January 2015, Emma Watson announced that she would be starring as Belle, the female lead. She was the first choice of Walt Disney Studios chairman Alan F. Horn, as he had previously overseen Warner Bros. which released the eight Harry Potter films that co-starred Watson as Hermione Granger. Two months later, Luke Evans and Dan Stevens were revealed to be in talks to play Gaston and the Beast respectively, and Watson confirmed their casting the following day through tweets. The rest of the principal cast, including Josh Gad, Emma Thompson, Kevin Kline, Audra McDonald, Ian McKellen, Gugu Mbatha - Raw, Ewan McGregor and Stanley Tucci were announced between March and April to play LeFou, Mrs. Potts, Maurice, Madame de Garderobe, Cogsworth, Plumette, Lumière and Cadenza, respectively.
Susan Egan, who originated the role of Belle on Broadway, commented on the casting of Watson as "perfect ''. Paige O'Hara, who voiced Belle in the original animated film and its sequels, offered to help Watson with her singing lessons.
According to The Hollywood Reporter, Emma Watson was reportedly paid $3 million upfront, together with an agreement that her final take - home pay could rise as high as $15 million if the film generated gross box office income similar to Maleficent 's $759 million worldwide gross.
Principal photography on the film began at Shepperton Studios in Surrey, United Kingdom, on May 18, 2015. Filming with the principal actors concluded on August 21. Six days later, co-producer Jack Morrissey confirmed that the film had officially wrapped production.
The Beast was portrayed with a "more traditional motion capture puppeteering for the body and the physical orientation '', where actor Dan Stevens was "in a forty - pound gray suit on stilts for much of the film ''. The facial capture for the Beast was done separately in order to "communicate the subtleties of the human face '' and "(capture the) thought that occurs to him '' which gets "through (to) the eyes, which are the last human element in the Beast. '' The castle servants who are transformed into household objects were created with CGI animation.
Before the release of the film, Bill Condon refilmed one certain sequence in the "Days of the Sun '' number, due to confusion among test audiences caused by actress Harriet Jones, who looked similar to Hattie Morahan, who portrayed Agathe. In the original version of the scene, it was Jones 's character, the Prince 's mother, who sings the first verse of the song, with Rudi Goodman playing the young Prince and Henry Garrett playing his father; but in the reshot version of the scene, the singing part is given to the Prince (now played by Adam Mitchell). The King was also recast to Tom Turner, although Harriet Jones was still the Queen, albeit with dark hair. Both Goodman and Garrett 's names were mistakenly featured in the original theatrical release 's credits, but was later corrected in home releases.
When released in 1991, Beauty and the Beast, marked a turning point for Walt Disney Pictures by appealing to millions of fans with its Oscar - winning musical score by lyricist Howard Ashman and composer Alan Menken. In Bill Condon 's opinion, that original score was the key reason he agreed to direct a live - action version of the movie. "That score had more to reveal '', he says, "You look at the songs and there 's not a clunker in the group. In fact, Frank Rich described it as the best Broadway musical of 1991. The animated version was already darker and more modern than the previous Disney fairytales. Take that vision, put it into a new medium, make it a radical reinvention, something not just for the stage because it 's not just being literal, now other elements come into play. It 's not just having real actors do it ''.
Condon initially prepared on only drawing inspiration from the original film, but he also planned to include most of the songs composed by Alan Menken, Howard Ashman and Tim Rice from the Broadway musical, with the intention of making the film as a "straight - forward, live - action, large - budget movie musical ''. Menken returned to score the film 's music, which features songs from the original film by him and Howard Ashman, plus new material written by Menken and Tim Rice. Menken said the film will not include songs that were written for the Broadway musical and instead, created four new songs. However, an instrumental version of the song "Home '', which was written for the musical, is used during the scene where Belle first enters her room in the castle.
On January 19, 2017, it was confirmed by both Disney and Céline Dion -- singer of the original 1991 "Beauty and the Beast '' duet song, with singer Peabo Bryson -- that Dion would be performing one of the new original songs "How Does a Moment Last Forever '' to play over the end titles. She originally had doubts about whether or not to record the song due to the recent death of her husband and manager René Angélil, who had previously helped her secure the 1991 pop duet. While ultimately accepting the opportunity, she said: "(The) first Beauty and the Beast decision was made with my husband. Now I 'm making decisions on my own. It 's a little bit harder. I could n't say yes right away, because I felt like I was kind of cheating in a way ''. She eventually felt compelled to record the song because of the impact Beauty and the Beast has had on her career. According to Dion, "I was at the beginning of my career, it put me on the map, it put me where I am today ''. Also, Josh Groban was announced to be performing the new original song "Evermore '' on January 26, 2017.
The 2017 film features a remake of the 1991 original song recorded as a duet by Ariana Grande and John Legend. Grande and Legend 's updated version of the title song is faithful to the original, Grammy - winning duet, performed by Céline Dion and Peabo Bryson for the 1991 Disney film. Disney debuted the music video for Ariana Grande and John Legend 's interpretation of the title song on Freeform television network on March 5, 2017, and it has since been viewed over 100 million views on the Vevo video - hosting service.
Emma Thompson also performed a rendition of the title song, which was performed by Angela Lansbury in the original 1991 animated film.
On March 16, 2015, Disney announced the film would be released in 3D on March 17, 2017. The first official presentation of the film took place at Disney 's three - day D23 Expo in August 2015.
The world premiere of Beauty and the Beast took place at Spencer House in London, United Kingdom on February 23, 2017; and the film later premiered at the El Capitan Theatre in Hollywood, California, on March 2, 2017. The stream was broadcast onto YouTube.
A sing along version of the film released in over 1,200 US theaters nationwide on April 7, 2017. The United Kingdom received the same version on April 21, 2017.
The film was re-released in New York and Los Angeles for a one - week engagement starting December 1, 2017. The move is an awards push as awards season heats up.
Disney spent around $140 million to market the film worldwide. Following an announcement on May 22, 2016, Disney premiered the first official teaser trailer on Good Morning America the next day. In its first 24 hours, the teaser trailer reached 91.8 million views, which was the largest number ever seen for a trailer in that amount of time. This record has since been broken by Thor: Ragnarok, It and Avengers: Infinity War. The first official teaser poster was released on July 7, 2016. On November 2, 2016, Entertainment Weekly debuted the first official image on the cover of their magazine, along with nine new photos. One week later, Emma Watson and Disney debuted a new poster. On November 14, 2016, the first theatrical trailer was released, again on Good Morning America. This reached 127.6 million views in its first 24 hours, setting a new record for the most views in one day, beating Fifty Shades Darker; this record has since been broken by The Fate of the Furious. A TV spot with Watson singing was shown during the 74th Golden Globe Awards. Disney released the final trailer on January 30, 2017.
Beauty and the Beast was released on Blu - ray, DVD and Digital HD on June 6, 2017. The film debuted at No. 1 on the NPD VideoScan overall disc sales chart, with all other titles in the top 20, collectively, selling only 40 % as many units as Beauty and the Beast. The movie regained the top spot on the national home video sales charts during its third week of release. The movie became available on Netflix on September 19, 2017.
Beauty and the Beast grossed $504 million in the United States and Canada and $759.5 million in other countries for a worldwide gross of $1.263 billion. With a production budget of $160 million, it is the most expensive musical ever made, or the second-most expensive musical ever made if accounting for inflation; only Hello, Dolly! (1969) with a budget of $25 million ($165 million in 2016 dollars) cost more. In just ten days, it became the highest - grossing live - action musical of all time, beating the nine - year - old record held by Mamma Mia!. It is currently the second - biggest musical ever overall, behind Disney 's Frozen (2013). Worldwide, the film proved to be a global phenomenon, earning a total of $357 million over its four - day opening weekend from 56 markets. Critics said the film was playing like superhero movies amongst women. It was the second biggest March global opening, behind only Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice, the thirteenth - biggest worldwide opening ever and the seventh - biggest for Disney. This includes $21 million from IMAX plays on 1,026 screens, a new record for an IMAX PG title. It surpassed the entire lifetime total of the original film in just six days.
Beauty and the Beast was the 300th digitally remastered release in IMAX company 's history, which began with the re-release of Apollo 13 in 2002. Its robust global debut helped push the company past $6 billion for the first time, and led to analysts believing that the film had a shot of passing $1 billion worldwide from theatrical earnings. On April 12, it passed the $1 billion threshold, becoming the first film of 2017, the fourteenth Disney film, and the twenty - ninth film overall to pass the mark. It became the first film since Rogue One (also a Disney property) in December 2016 to make over a billion dollars, and did so on its twenty - ninth day of release. It is currently the 2nd highest - grossing film of 2017 (behind Star Wars: The Last Jedi), the highest - grossing March release, the highest - grossing remake of all - time, and the sixth - biggest Disney film. Even after inflation adjusted, it is still ahead of the $425 million gross ($760 million in 2017 dollars) of the original film. Deadline Hollywood calculated the net profit of the film to be $414.7 million, when factoring together all expenses and revenues, making it the second most profitable release of 2017.
In the United States and Canada, Beauty and the Beast topped Fandango 's pre-sales and became the fastest - selling family film in the company 's history, topping the studio 's own animated film Finding Dory released the previous year. Early tracking had the film grossing around $100 million in its opening weekend, with some publications predicting it could reach $130 million. By the time the film 's release was 10 days away, analysts raised projections to as high as $150 million. It earned $16.3 million from Thursday previews night, marking the biggest of 2017 (breaking Logan 's record), the biggest ever for a Disney live - action film (breaking Maleficent 's record), the second biggest ever for both a G or PG - rated film (behind the sixth Harry Potter film Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince which also starred Watson), and the third biggest ever in the month of March (behind Batman v Superman: Dawn of Justice and The Hunger Games). An estimated 41 % of the gross came from IMAX, 3D and premium large format screenings which began at 6 pm, while the rest -- 59 % -- came from regular 2D shows which began at 7 pm. The numbers were considered more impressive given that the film played during a school week.
On its opening day, the film made $63.8 million from 4,210 theaters across 9,200 screens, marking the third biggest in the month of March, trailing behind Batman v Superman ($81.5 million) and The Hunger Games ($67 million). It was also the biggest opening day ever for a film that was n't PG - 13, displacing the $58 million opening Wednesday of Harry Potter and the Half - Blood Prince. Its opening day alone (which includes Thursday 's previews) almost matched the entire opening weekend of previous Disney live - action films, Maleficent ($69.4 million) and Cinderella ($67.9 million). Unlike all previous four Disney live - action films witnessing a hike on their second day, Saturday, Beauty and the Beast actually fell 2 %, but nevertheless, the dip was paltry, and the grosses are so much bigger compared to the other titles. Earning a total of $174.8 million on its opening weekend, it defied all expectations and went on to set numerous notable records. This includes the biggest opening of the year as well as the biggest for the month of March and pre-summer / spring opening, beating Batman v Superman, the biggest start ever for a PG title (also for a family film), surpassing Finding Dory, the biggest debut of all time for a female - fueled film, ahead of The Hunger Games: Catching Fire, the biggest for a Disney live - action adaptation, ahead of Alice in Wonderland and the biggest musical debut ever, supplanting Pitch Perfect 2. Furthermore, it is also Watson 's highest - opening, beating Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows -- Part 2 same with Emma Thompson, director Bill Condon 's biggest debut ever ahead of The Twilight Saga: Breaking Dawn -- Part 2 and the biggest outside of summer, save for Star Wars: The Force Awakens, not accounting for inflation.
It became the forty - third film to debut with over $100 million and the fifteenth film to open above $150 million. Its three - day opening alone surpassed the entire original North American run of the first film ($146 million; before the 3D re-release), instantly becoming the second - biggest film of the year, behind Logan ($184 million), and also the second - highest - grossing musical, behind Grease 's $188 million cumulative gross in 1978. Seventy percent of the total ticket sales came from 2D showings signifying that people who do n't go to theaters frequently came out in bulk to watch the film. About 26 % of the remaining tickets were for 3D. IMAX accounted for 7 % ($12.5 million) of the total weekend 's gross, setting a new record for a PG title, ahead of Alice in Wonderland ($12.1 million) while PLF repped 11 % of the box office. Seventy percent of the film 's opening day demographic was female, dropping to 60 % through the weekend. According polling service PostTrak, about 84 percent of American parents who saw the film on its opening day said they would "definitely '' recommend it for families. The film 's opening was credited to positive word of mouth from audiences, good reviews from critics, effective marketing which sold the title not just as a family film but also as a romantic drama, the cast 's star power (especially Emma Watson), lack of competition, being the first family film since The Lego Batman Movie a month earlier, nostalgia, and the success and ubiquity of the first film and Disney 's brand.
On Monday, its fourth day of release, the film fell precipitously by 72 % earning $13.5 million. The steep fall was due to a limited marketplace where only 11 % K - 12 and 15 % colleges were off per ComScore. Nevertheless, it is the second - biggest March Monday, behind Batman v Superman ($15 million). This was followed by the biggest March and pre-summer Tuesday with $17.8 million, a 32 % increase from its previous day. The same day, the film passed $200 million in ticket sales. It earned $228.6 million in the first week of release, the sixth - biggest seven - day gross of all time. In its second weekend, the film continued to maintain the top positioning and fell gradually by 48 % earning another $90.4 million to register the fourth - biggest second weekend of all time, and the third - biggest for Disney. In terms of percentage drop, its 48 % decline is the third - smallest drop for any film opening above $125 million (behind Finding Dory and The Force Awakens). The hold was notable considering how the film was able to fend off three new wide releases: Power Rangers, Life, and CHiPs. As a result, it passed the $300 million threshold becoming the first film of 2017 the pass said mark. The film grossed $45.4 million in its third weekend, finally being overtaken for the top spot by newcomer The Boss Baby ($50.2 million). On April 4, 2017, its nineteenth day of release, it passed the $400 million threshold becoming the first film of 2017 to do so. By its fourth weekend, the film began was playing in 3,969 cinemas, a fall of 241 theaters from its previous weekend. Of those, approximately 1,200 cinemas were sing - along versions. It earned $26.3 million (− 48 %) and retained second place. By comparison, previous Disney films Moana (− 8 %) and Frozen (− 2 %) both witnessed mild percentage declines the weekend their sing - alone versions were released. Its seventh weekend of release was in contemporaneous with another Emma Watson - starring new film The Circle. That weekend, The Circle was number four, while Beauty and the Beast was at number six. By May 28, the film had earned over $500 million in ticket sales becoming the first film of 2017 (until it was later surpassed by The Last Jedi), the third female - fueled film (after The Force Awakens and Rogue One: A Star Wars Story followed by Wonder Woman and The Last Jedi) and the eighth overall film in cinematic history to pass the mark.
It has already become the biggest March release, dethroning The Hunger Games (2012), the biggest musical film (both animated and live - action), as well as the biggest film of 2017 (alongside The Last Jedi).
Outside the US and Canada, the film began playing on Thursday, March 16, 2017. Through Sunday, March 19, it had a total international opening of $182.3 million from 55 markets, 44 of which were major territories, far exceeding initial estimations of $100 million and opened at No. 1 in virtually all markets except Vietnam, Turkey, and India. Its launch is the second - biggest for the month of March, behind Batman v Superman ($256.5 million). In IMAX, it recorded the biggest debut for a PG title (although it carried varying certificate amongst different markets) with $8.5 million from 649 screens, the second - biggest for a PG title behind The Jungle Book. In its second weekend, it fell just by 35 % earning another $120.6 million and maintaining its first position hold. It added major markets like France and Australia. It topped the international box office for three consecutive weekends before finally being dethroned by Ghost in the Shell and The Boss Baby in its fourth weekend. Despite the fall, the film helped Disney push past the $1 billion thresold internationally for the first time in 2017.
It scored the biggest opening day of the year in Hong Kong and the Philippines, the biggest March Thursday in Italy ($1 million, also the biggest Disney Thursday debut), the biggest March opening day in Austria, and the second - biggest in Germany ($1.1 million), Disney 's biggest March in Denmark, the biggest Disney live - action debut in China ($12.6 million), the UK ($6.2 million), Mexico ($2.4 million) and Brazil ($1.8 million) and the third - biggest in South Korea with $1.2 million, behind only Pirates of the Caribbean: At World 's End and Pirates of the Caribbean: On Stranger Tides. In terms of opening weekend, the largest debut came from China ($44.8 million), followed by the UK ($24.3 million), Korea ($11.8 million), Mexico ($11.8 million), Australia ($11.1 million), Brazil ($11 million), Germany ($10.7 million), France ($8.4 million), Italy ($7.6 million), Philippines ($6.3 million), Russia ($6 million) and Spain ($5.8 million).
In the United Kingdom and Ireland, the film recorded the biggest opening ever for a PG - rated film, the biggest Disney live - action opening of all time, the biggest March opening weekend, the biggest opening for a musical (ahead of 2012 's Les Misérables), the number one opening of 2017 to date and the fifth - biggest - ever overall with £ 19.7 million ($24.5 million) from 639 theatres and almost twice that of The Jungle Book (£ 9.9 million). This included the second - biggest Saturday ever (£ 7.9 million), only behind Star Wars: The Force Awakens. It witnessed a decline in its second weekend, earning £ 12.33 million ($15.4 million). Though the film was falling at a faster rate than The Jungle Book, it had already surpassed the said film and its second weekend is the third - biggest ever (behind the two James Bond films Skyfall (2012) and Spectre). In India, despite facing heavy competitions from four new Hindi releases, two Tamils films and a Malayalam and a Punjabi release, the film managed to take an occupancy of 15 % on its opening day, an impressive feat despite tremendous competitions. It earned around ₹ 15 million (US $230,000) nett on its opening day from an estimated 600 screens which is more than the three Hindi releases -- Machine, Trapped, and Aa Gaya Hero -- combined. Disney reported a total of ₹ 92.6 million (US $1.4 million) gross for its opening weekend there. It was ahead of all new releases and second overall behind Bollywood film Badrinath Ki Dulhania. In Russia, despite receiving a restrictive 16 rating, the film managed to deliver a very successful opening with $6 million.
In China, expectations were high for the film. The release date was announced on January 24, giving Disney and local distributor China Film Group Corporation ample time -- around two months -- to market the film nationwide. The release date was strategically chosen to coincide with White Day. Preliminary reports suggested that it could open to $40 -- 60 million in its opening weekend. Largely driven by young women, its opening day pre-sales outpaced that of The Jungle Book. The original film was, however, never widely popular in the country. Although China has occasionally blocked gay - themed content from streaming video services, in this case, Chinese censors decided to leave the gay scene intact. According to local box office tracker Ent Group, the film grossed an estimated $12.1 million on its opening day (Friday), representing 70 % of the total receipts. Including previews, it made a total of $14.5 million from 100,000 screenings, which is 43 % of all screenings in the country. It climbed to $18.5 million on Saturday (102,700 showings) for a three - day total of $42.6 million, securing 60 % of the total marketplace. Disney on the other hand reported a different figure of $44.8 million. Either ways, it recorded the second - biggest opening for a Disney live - action film, with $3.4 million coming from 386 IMAX screens. Japan -- a huge Disney market -- served as the film 's final market and opened there on April 21. It debuted with a better - than - expected $12.5 million on its opening weekend helping the film push past the $1.1 billion threshold. An estimated $1.1 million came from IMAX screenings, the fourth - biggest ever in the country. The two - day gross was $9.7 million, outstripping Frozen 's previous record of $9.5 million. Due to positive reviews, good word - of - mouth and benefitting from the Golden Week, the film saw a 9 % increase on its second weekend. The hold was strong enough to fend off newcomer The Fate of the Furious from securing the top spot. The total there is now over $98 million after seven weekends and is the biggest film release of the year and, overall, the eleventh - biggest of all time. It topped the box office there for eight consecutive weekends.
The only markets where the film did not top the weekend charts were Vietnam (behind Kong: Skull Island), Turkey (with two local movies and Logan ahead) and India (where Badrinath Ki Dulhania retained No. 1). It topped the box office for four straight weekends in Germany, Korea, Austria, Finland, Poland, Portugal, Brazil, Venezuela, Bolivia, Switzerland and the UK (exclusive of previews). In the Philippines, it emerged as the most successful commercial film of all time -- both local and foreign -- with over $13.5 million. In just five weeks, the film became one of the top 10 highest - grossing film of all time in the United Kingdom and Ireland, ahead of all but one Harry Potter film (Deathly Hallows -- Part 2) and all three The Lord of the Rings movies (which also starred Ian McKellen). It is currently the eighth - biggest grosser with £ 70.1 million ($90 million), overtaking Mamma Mia! to become the biggest musical production ever there. The biggest international earning markets following the UK are Japan ($108 million), China ($85.8 million), Brazil ($41.5 million), Korea ($37.5 million), and Australia ($35 million). In Europe alone, the cumulative total is $267 million to become the second - highest - grossing film in the past year (behind Rogue One: A Star Wars Story).
Beauty and the Beast received generally positive reviews, with praise for its ensemble cast, visuals, production values, musical score, songs, and faithfulness to the original film with a few elements of the Broadway musical version, while the designs of the Beast and the servants ' household object forms received mixed reviews. On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 71 % based on 318 reviews, with an average rating of 6.7 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "With an enchanting cast, beautifully crafted songs, and a painterly eye for detail, Beauty and the Beast offers a faithful yet fresh retelling that honors its beloved source material. '' On Metacritic, the film has a score of 65 out of 100, based on 47 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. In CinemaScore polls, audiences gave the film an average grade of "A '' on an A+ to F scale.
Leslie Felperin of The Hollywood Reporter wrote: "It 's a Michelin - triple - starred master class in patisserie skills that transforms the cinematic equivalent of a sugar rush into a kind of crystal - meth - like narcotic high that lasts about two hours. '' Felperin also praised the performances of Watson and Kline as well the special effects, costume designs and the sets while commended the inclusion of Gad 's character of LeFou as the first LGBT character in Disney. Owen Gleiberman of Variety, in his positive review of the film, wrote: "It 's a lovingly crafted movie, and in many ways a good one, but before that it 's an enraptured piece of old - is - new nostalgia. '' Gleiberman compared Steven 's character of the Beast to a royal version of the titular character in The Elephant Man and the 1946 version of the Beast in Jean Cocteau 's original adaptation. A.O. Scott of The New York Times praised the performances of both Watson and Stevens, and wrote: "It looks good, moves gracefully and leaves a clean and invigorating aftertaste. I almost did n't recognize the flavor: I think the name for it is joy. ''
Likewise, The Washington Post 's Ann Hornaday complimented Watson 's performance, describing it as "alert and solemn '' while noting her singing ability as "serviceable enough to get the job done ''. Richard Roeper of Chicago Sun - Times awarded the film three and a half stars, lauded the performances of Watson and Thompson which he drew a comparison to Paige O'Hara 's and Angela Lansbury 's performances in the 1991 animated version while appreciating the performances of the other cast and also pointing out on its usage of the combination of motion capture and CGI technology as a big advantage which he stated: "Almost overwhelmingly lavish, beautifully staged and performed with exquisite timing and grace by the outstanding cast ''. Mike Ryan of Uproxx praised the cast, production design and the new songs while noting the film does n't try anything different, saying: "There 's certainly nothing that new about this version of Beauty and the Beast (well, except it is n't a cartoon anymore), but it 's a good recreation of a classic animated film that should leave most die - hards satisfied. '' In her A - review, Nancy Churnin of The Dallas Morning News praised the film 's emotional and thematic depth, remarking: "There 's an emotional authenticity in director Bill Condon 's live - action Beauty and the Beast film that helps you rediscover Disney 's beloved 1991 animated film and 1994 stage show in fresh, stirring ways. '' James Berardinelli of ReelViews described the 2017 version as "enthralling ''.
Brian Truitt of USA Today commended the performances of Evans, Gad, McGregor and Thompson alongside Condon 's affinity with musicals, the production design, visual effects featured in some of the song numbers including new songs made by the composers Alan Menken and Tim Rice, particularly Evermore which he described the new song with a potential for an Academy Award for Best Original Song. Peter Travers of Rolling Stone rated the film three out of four stars which he deemed it as an "exhilarating gift '' while he remarked that "Beauty and the Beast does justice to Disney 's animated classic, even if some of the magic is M.I.A (Missing in Action) ''. Stephanie Zacharek of Time magazine gave a positive review with a description as "Wild, Vivid and Crazy - Beautiful '' as she wrote "Nearly everything about Beauty and the Beast is larger than life, to the point that watching it can be a little overwhelming. '' and added that "it 's loaded with feeling, almost like a brash interpretive dance expressing the passion and elation little girls (and some boys, too) must have felt upon seeing the earlier version. '' The San Francisco Chronicle 's Mick LaSalle struck an affirmative tone, calling it one of the joys of 2017, stating that "Beauty and the Beast creates an air of enchantment from its first moments, one that lingers and builds and takes on qualities of warmth and generosity as it goes along '' while referring the film as "beautiful '' and also praised the film for its emotional and psychological tone as well Steven 's motion capture performance.
Tim Robey of The Daily Telegraph gave the film four stars out of five and wrote that "It dazzles on this chocolate box of a picture that feels almost greedy yet to make this film work, down to a sugar - rush finale to grasp the nettle and make an out - an - out, bells - and - whistles musical '' while he praised the performances of Watson, McKellen, Thompson, McGregor, Evans and Gad. Mark Hughes of Forbes also similarly praised the film which he wrote that "it could revive the story in a faithful but entirely new and unique way elevating the material beyond expectations, establishing itself as a cinematic equal to the original '' and also complimented the importance of undertaking a renowned yet problematic masterpiece as well addressing changes in the elements of the story while acknowledging the film 's effectiveness in resonating to the audiences. Stephen Whitty of the New York Daily News called it "this year 's best new old musical '' and "the most magical thing of all '' while describing Watson 's performance of Belle as "breakthrough ''.
Several critics regarded the film as inferior to its 1991 animated predecessor. David Sims of The Atlantic wrote that the 2017 film "feels particularly egregious, in part, because it 's so slavishly devoted to the original; every time it falls short of its predecessor (which is quite often), it 's hard not to notice ''. Michael Phillips of the Chicago Tribune said that the 2017 film "takes our knowledge and our interest in the material for granted. It zips from one number to another, throwing a ton of frenetically edited eye candy at the screen, charmlessly. '' Phillips wrote that the film featured some "less conspicuously talented '' performers who are "stuck doing karaoke, or motion - capture work of middling quality '', though he praised Kline 's performance as the "best, sweetest thing in the movie; he brings a sense of calm, droll authority ''. Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian praised Watson 's performance and wrote that the film was "lit in that fascinatingly artificial honey - glow light, and it runs smoothly on rails -- the kind of rails that bring in and out the stage sets for the lucrative Broadway touring version. '' In the same newspaper, Wendy Ide criticized the film as "ornate to the point of desperation '' in its attempt to emulate the animated film.
Chris Nashawaty of Entertainment Weekly gave the film a B -, writing that while the film looks "exceptionally great '', he said the new songs were "not transporting ''. He felt the film needed more life and depth, but praised Watson 's and Steven 's performances as the "film 's stronger elements ''. Dana Schwartz of The New York Observer felt that some of the characters, such as Gaston and the Beast, had been watered down from the 1991 film, and that the additional backstory elements failed to "advance the plot or theme in any meaningful way '' while adding considerable bloat. Schwartz considered the singing of the cast to be adequate but felt that their voices should have been dubbed over, especially for the complex songs.
Controversy erupted after director Bill Condon said there was a "gay moment '' in the film, when LeFou briefly waltzes with Stanley, one of Gaston 's friends. Afterwards in an interview with Vulture.com, Condon stated, "Can I just say, I 'm sort of sick of this. Because you 've seen the movie -- it 's such a tiny thing, and it 's been overblown. '' Condon also added that Beauty and the Beast features much more diversity than just the highly talked - about LeFou: "That was so important. We have interracial couples -- this is a celebration of everybody 's individuality, and that 's what 's exciting about it. '' GLAAD president and CEO Sarah Kate Ellis praised the move stating, "It is a small moment in the film, but it is a huge leap forward for the film industry. ''
In Russia, Vitaly Milonov agitated the culture minister for banning the film, but instead it was given a 16 + rating (children under the age of 16 can only be admitted to see it in theaters with accompanying adults). Additionally, a theater in Henagar, Alabama did not screen the film because of the subplot. In Malaysia, the Film Censorship Board insisted the "gay moment '' scene be cut, prompting an indefinite postponement of its release by Disney, followed by their decision to withdraw it completely if it could not be released uncensored. The studio moved the release date to March 30, to allow more time for Malaysia 's censor board to make a decision on whether or not to release the film without changes. The distributors and producers then submitted an appeal to the Film Appeal Committee of Malaysia, which allowed the film to be released without any cuts and a P13 rating on the grounds that the "gay element '' was minor and did not affect the positive elements featured in the film. In Kuwait, the movie was withdrawn from cinemas by National Cinema Company which owns most of the cinemas in the country. A board member of the company stated that the Ministry of Information 's censorship department had requested it to stop its screening and edit it for things deemed offensive by it.
The film also received criticism over its portrayal of LeFou, as many felt that it relied on stereotypes and was used as a way of teasing LGBT+ viewers without providing adequate representation. LeFou 's status as a sidekick to the main villain brought about criticism over Disney 's queercoding of villains in the past, and his infatuation with Gaston was seen as relying on a stereotype of gay men being predatory towards straight men. Furthermore, the only gay interaction LeFou has is a three - second clip of him dancing with another man at the end of the film. Many saw this as Disney cheating its LGBT+ audiences.
Disney has sought to portray Belle as an empowered young woman, but a debate questioning whether it is possible for a captor to fall in love with their prisoner, and whether this is a problematic theme, has resulted. As was the case with the original animated film, one argument is that Belle suffers from Stockholm syndrome (a condition that causes hostages to develop a psychological alliance with their captors as a survival strategy during captivity). Emma Watson studied whether Belle is trapped in an abusive relationship with the Beast before signing on and concluded that she does not think the criticism fits this version of the folk tale. Watson described Stockholm Syndrome as "where a prisoner will take on the characteristics of and fall in love with the captor. Belle actively argues and disagrees with (Beast) constantly. She has none of the characteristics of someone with Stockholm Syndrome because she keeps her independence, she keeps that freedom of thought '', also adding that Belle defiantly "gives as good as she gets '' before forming a friendship and romance with the Beast.
Psychiatrist Frank Ochberg, who coined the term "Stockholm syndrome '', said he does not think Belle exhibits the trauma symptoms of prisoners suffering from the syndrome because she does not go through a period of feeling that she is going to die. Some therapists, while acknowledging that the pairing 's relationship does not meet the clinical definition of Stockholm syndrome, argue that the relationship depicted is dysfunctional and abusive and does not model healthy romantic relationships for young viewers. Constance Grady of Vox writes that Jeanne - Marie Leprince de Beaumont 's Beauty and the Beast was a fairy tale originally written to prepare young girls in 18th - century France for arranged marriages, and that the power disparity is amplified in the Disney version. Anna Menta of Elite Daily argued that the Beast does not apologize to Belle for imprisoning, hurting, or manipulating her, and his treatment of Belle is not painted as wrong.
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did the catholic church particularly the mass have an impact on music | Mass (music) - wikipedia
The Mass (Latin: Missa), a form of sacred musical composition, is a choral composition that sets the invariable portions of the Eucharistic liturgy (principally that of the Catholic Church, the Anglican Communion, and Lutheranism) to music. Most Masses are settings of the liturgy in Latin, the liturgical sacred language of the Catholic Church 's Roman liturgy, but there are a significant number written in the languages of non-Catholic countries where vernacular worship has long been the norm. For example, there are many Masses (often called "Communion Services '') written in English for the Church of England. Musical Masses take their name from the Catholic liturgy called "the Mass '' as well.
Masses can be a cappella, that is, without an independent accompaniment, or they can be accompanied by instrumental obbligatos up to and including a full orchestra. Many Masses, especially later ones, were never intended to be performed during the celebration of an actual mass.
A distinction is made between texts that recur for every mass celebration (ordinarium, ordinary), and texts that are sung depending on the occasion (proprium, proper). For example, for the Tridentine Mass:
A Missa tota ("full Mass '') consists of a musical setting of the five sections of the ordinarium as listed below.
In the Tridentine Mass, the Kyrie is the first sung prayer of the Mass ordinary. It is usually (but not always) part of any musical setting of the Mass. Kyrie movements often have an ternary (ABA) musical structure that reflects the symmetrical structure of the text. Musical settings exist in styles ranging from Gregorian chant to Folk.
Of 226 catalogued Gregorian chant melodies, 30 appear in the Liber Usualis. In what are presumed to be the oldest versions, the same melody is repeated for the first eight iterations, and a variation used on the final line (that is, formally, aaa aaa aaa '). These repeats are notated by the Roman numerals "iij '' (for three times) or "ij '' (for twice). The Kyrie for the Requiem Mass in the Liber Usualis has this form. Later Kyries have more elaborate patterns, such as aaa bbb aaa ', aaa bbb ccc ', or aba cdc efe '. Note that the final line is nearly always modified somewhat; in some cases this may be because it leads into the Gloria better. In forms both with and without literal repeats, most Kyries in the Liber Usualis have a closing phrase used in nearly all of the lines of the text. This in fact parallels the text, as each line ends with the same word "eleison ''.
Because of the brevity of the text, Kyries were often very melismatic. This encouraged later composers to make tropes out of them, either by adding words to the melisma (as how a sequence is often considered), or extending the melisma. In fact, because of the late date of most Kyries, it is not always clear whether a particular Kyrie melody or the apparently troped text came first; it could just as easily be the case that a syllabic song was converted into a melisma for a Kyrie verse. In some cases, verses interpolate Latin text between each "Kyrie '' (or "Christe '') and "eleison ''.
As the Kyrie is the first item in settings of the mass ordinary and the second in the requiem mass (the only mass proper set regularly over the centuries), nearly all of the thousands of composers over the centuries who have set the ordinaries of the mass to music have included a Kyrie movement.
Kyrie movements often have a structure that reflects the concision and symmetry of the text. Many have a ternary (ABA) form known as a three-fold kyrie, where the two appearances of the phrase "Kyrie eleison '' consist of identical or closely related material and frame a contrasting "Christe eleison '' section. Or AAABBBCCC ' form is also commonly used which is known as a nine-fold kyrie. Famously, Mozart sets the "Kyrie '' and "Christe '' texts in his Requiem Mass as the two subjects of a double fugue.
The Gloria is a celebratory passage praising God the Father and Christ.
In Mass settings (normally in English) composed for the Church of England 's Book of Common Prayer liturgy, the Gloria is commonly the last movement, because it occurs in this position in the text of the service. In Order One of the newer Common Worship liturgy, however, it is restored to its earlier season.
The Credo, a setting of the Nicene Creed, is the longest text of a sung Mass.
Organizers of international celebrations, such as World Youth Day, have been encouraged by Rome to familiarize congregants in the Latin chants for the Our Father and the Credo, specifically Credo III (17th century, Fifth Mode) from the Missa de Angelis. The purpose of singing these two texts in Latin is to engender a sense of unity in the faithful, all of whom thus sing the prayer of Jesus and the shared belief of the universal Church in the same language.
The Sanctus is a doxology praising the Trinity. A variant exists in Lutheran settings of the Sanctus. While most hymnal settings keep the second person pronoun, other settings change the second person pronoun to the third person. This is most notable in J.S. Bach 's Mass in B minor, where the text reads gloria ejus ("His glory ''). Martin Luther 's chorale Isaiah, Mighty in Days of Old, and Felix Mendelssohn 's setting of the Heilig! (German Sanctus) from his Deutsche Liturgie also use the third person.
The Benedictus is a continuation of the Sanctus. Hosanna in excelsis is repeated after the Benedictus section, often with musical material identical to that used after the Sanctus, or very closely related.
In Gregorian chant the Sanctus (with Benedictus) was sung whole at its place in the mass. However, as composers produced more embellished settings of the Sanctus text, the music often would go on so long that it would run into the consecration of the bread and wine. This was considered the most important part of the Mass, so composers began to stop the Sanctus halfway through to allow this to happen, and then continue it after the consecration is finished. This practice was forbidden for a period in the 20th century.
The Agnus Dei is a setting of the "Lamb of God '' litany, containing the responses miserere nobis (have mercy upon us), repeated twice, and dona nobis pacem (grant us peace) once at the end.
In a Requiem Mass, the words "miserere nobis '' are replaced by "dona eis requiem '' (grant them rest), while "dona nobis pacem '' is replaced by "dona eis requiem sempiternam '' (grant them eternal rest).
There is some additional terminology regarding Mass settings indicating whether or not they include all five usual sections of the ordinarium, and whether or not the mass is intended for exceptionally festive occasions.
Missa brevis (literally: short mass) may, depending on time and conventions, indicate the setting of a subset of the five ordinary mass parts (e.g. Masses containing only a setting of the Kyrie and the Gloria), or a mass containing all these parts, but relatively short in duration, or a mass in a setting that is less extended in vocal and orchestral forces than that of a Neapolitan mass.
Missa longa ("long Mass '') can indicate the counterpart of Missa brevis when the aspect of duration is considered.
Missa solemnis indicates a solemn mass, usually for special festive occasions and with an extended vocal and orchestral setting. In that sense Missa brevis is sometimes used to indicate the counterpart of a Missa solemnis.
The Missa brevis et solemnis (short and solemn) is an exceptional format, for its best known instances tied to the Salzburg of archbishop Hieronymus Colloredo, although earlier examples are extant. Mozart described it thus in a letter he wrote in 1776 ("the Archbishop '' in this quotation refers to Colloredo):
Our church music is very different from that of Italy, since a Mass with the whole Kyrie, the Gloria, the Credo, the Epistle sonata, the Offertory or motet, the Sanctus and the Agnus Dei must not last longer than three quarters of an hour. This applies even to the most Solemn Mass spoken by the Archbishop himself. Special study is required for this kind of composition, particularly as the Mass must have a full contingent of instruments -- trumpets, drums and so forth.
The "brevis et solemnis '' description applies to several of the Masses Mozart composed in Salzburg between 1775 and 1780, the Sparrow Mass being considered as its first instance for this composer.
Tongue - in - cheek, and not indebted to Viennese traditions, Gioachino Rossini qualified one of his last compositions, a mass, as both "petite '' ("small '') and "solennelle '' ("solemn ''). In this case "small '' rather refers to the modest forces needed for its performance, and "solemn '' to its duration, although later commentators would describe the composition as "neither small nor solemn ''.
During Lent (in Latin: Quadragesima) and Advent (in Latin: Adventus) the Gloria is not sung. Thus Missa (in) tempore (Adventus et) Quadragesimae, "Mass for the period of (Advent and) Lent '' indicates a Mass composition without music for the Gloria. Michael Haydn composed a mass suitable for Lent and Advent, the Missa tempore Quadragesimae, in D minor for the modest forces of choir and organ.
Missa senza credo ("Mass without a Credo '') indicates a musical setting of the usual parts of the Mass ordinary with exception of the Credo.
A Missa ferialis (weekday Mass) leaves out both the Gloria and the Credo.
The sixth and last part of the Ordinarium (either Ite, missa est, or, in masses without Gloria, Benedicamus Domino) is usually not set as part of a Mass composition. In a Tridentine Mass that part of the Ordinarium is usually spoken, or sung to the Gregorian melody provided in the Roman Missal, although early polyphonic settings for the "Deo gratias '' response (e.g. in Guillaume de Machaut 's Messe de Nostre Dame) and for the Benedicamus Domino (e.g. in Magnus Liber Organi) are extant.
The Proper of the Mass is usually not set to music in a Mass itself, except in the case of a Requiem Mass, but may be the subject of motets or other musical compositions. Some Mass compositions, like for instance Rossini 's Petite messe solennelle, do however contain parts outside the Ordinarium. Some Mass compositions even consist entirely of such additions: Schubert 's Deutsche Messe, a set of eight hymns with epilogue, is an example of such a mass.
Also purely instrumental compositions can be part of a mass celebration, e.g. a Sonata da chiesa, sometimes with a liturgical function, like Mozart 's Epistle Sonatas.
In a liturgical Mass, there are other sections that may be sung, often in Gregorian chant. These sections, the "Proper '' of the Mass, change with the day and season according to the Church calendar, or according to the special circumstances of the Mass. The sections of the Proper of the Mass include the Introit, Gradual, Alleluia or Tract (depending on the time of year), Offertory and Communion.
Ordinarium and proprium sections of a specific liturgical mass are not typically set to music together in the same composition. The one major exception to this rule is the mass for the dead, or requiem.
Following the distribution of the Sacrament, it is customary in most Lutheran churches to sing the Nunc Dimittis.
The earliest musical settings of the Mass are Gregorian chant. The different portions of the Ordinary came into the liturgy at different times, with the Kyrie probably being first (perhaps as early as the 7th century) and the Credo being last (it did not become part of the Roman mass until 1014).
In the early 14th century, composers began writing polyphonic versions of the sections of the Ordinary. The reason for this surge in interest is not known, but it has been suggested that there was a shortage of new music since composers were increasingly attracted to secular music, and overall interest in writing sacred music had entered a period of decline. The non-changing part of the mass, the Ordinary, then would have music which was available for performance all the time.
Two manuscripts from the 14th century, the Ivrea Codex and the Apt Codex, are the primary sources for polyphonic settings of the Ordinary. Stylistically these settings are similar to both motets and secular music of the time, with a three - voice texture dominated by the highest part. Most of this music was written or assembled at the papal court at Avignon.
Several anonymous complete masses from the 14th century survive, including the Tournai Mass; however, discrepancies in style indicate that the movements of these masses were written by several composers and later compiled by scribes into a single set. The first complete Mass we know of whose composer can be identified was the Messe de Nostre Dame (Mass of Our Lady) by Guillaume de Machaut in the 14th century.
The musical setting of the Ordinary of the Mass was the principal large - scale form of the Renaissance. The earliest complete settings date from the 14th century, with the most famous example being the Messe de Nostre Dame of Guillaume de Machaut. Individual movements of the Mass, and especially pairs of movements (such as Gloria - Credo pairs, or Sanctus - Agnus pairs), were commonly composed during the 14th and early 15th centuries. Complete Masses by a single composer were the norm by the middle of the 15th century, and the form of the Mass, with the possibilities for large - scale structure inherent in its multiple movement format, was the main focus of composers within the area of sacred music; it was not to be eclipsed until the motet and related forms became more popular in the first decades of the 16th century.
Most 15th - century Masses were based on a cantus firmus, usually from a Gregorian chant, and most commonly put in the tenor voice. The cantus firmus sometimes appeared simultaneously in other voices, using a variety of contrapuntal techniques. Later in the century, composers such as Guillaume Dufay, Johannes Ockeghem, and Jacob Obrecht, used secular tunes for cantus firmi. This practice was accepted with little controversy until prohibited by the Council of Trent in 1562. In particular, the song L'homme armé has a long history with composers; more than 40 separate Mass settings exist.
Other techniques for organizing the cyclic Mass evolved by the beginning of the 16th century, including the paraphrase technique, in which the cantus firmus was elaborated and ornamented, and the parody technique, in which several voices of a polyphonic source, not just one, were incorporated into the texture of the Mass. Paraphrase and parody supplanted cantus - firmus as the techniques of choice in the 16th century: Palestrina alone wrote 51 parody masses.
Yet another technique used to organize the multiple movements of a Mass was canon. The earliest Masses based entirely on canon are Johannes Ockeghem 's Missa prolationum, in which each movement is a prolation canon on a freely - composed tune, and the Missa L'homme armé of Guillaume Faugues, which is also entirely canonic but also uses the famous tune L'homme armé throughout. Pierre de La Rue wrote four separate canonic masses based on plainchant, and one of Josquin des Prez 's mature Masses, the Missa Ad fugam, is entirely canonic and free of borrowed material.
The Missa Sine nomine, literally "Mass without a name '', refers to a Mass written on freely composed material. Sometimes these Masses were named for other things, such as Palestrina 's famous Missa Papae Marcelli, the Mass of Pope Marcellus, and many times they were canonic Masses, as in Josquin 's Missa Sine nomine.
Many famous and influential masses were composed by Josquin des Prez, the single most influential composer of the middle Renaissance. At the end of the 16th century, prominent representatives of a cappella choral counterpoint included the Englishman William Byrd, the Castilian Tomás Luis de Victoria and the Roman Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina, whose Mass for Pope Marcellus is sometimes credited with saving polyphony from the censure of the Council of Trent. By the time of Palestrina, however, most composers outside of Rome were using other forms for their primary creative outlet for expression in the realm of sacred music, principally the motet and the madrigale spirituale; composers such as the members of the Venetian School preferred the possibilities inherent in the new forms. Other composers, such as Orlande de Lassus, working in Munich and comfortably distant from the conservative influence of the Council of Trent, continued to write Parody Masses on secular songs. Monteverdi composed Masses in stile antico, the Missa in illo tempore was published in 1610, one Messa a 4 da cappella in 1641 as part of Selva morale e spirituale along with single movements of the Mass in stile concertato, another Messa a 4 da cappella was published after his death, in 1650.
The early Baroque era initiated stylistic changes which led to increasing disparity between masses written entirely in the traditional polyphonic manner (stile antico), whose principal advancements were the use of the basso continuo and the gradual adoption of a wider harmonic vocabulary, and the mass in modern style with solo voices and instrumental obbligatos. The Lutheran Michael Praetorius composed a mass for double choir in the old style, which he published in 1611 in the collection of church music for the mass in Latin, Missodia Sionia. Composers such as Henri Dumont (1610 -- 1684) continued to compose plainsong settings, distinct from and more elaborate than the earlier Gregorian chants.
A further disparity arose between the festive missa solemnis and the missa brevis, a more compact setting. Composers like Fux in the 18th century continued to cultivate the stile antico mass, which was suitable for use on weekdays and at times when orchestral masses were not practical or appropriate, and in 19th - century Germany the Cecilian movement kept the tradition alive. František Brixi, wo worked at the Prague Cathedral, wrote his Missa aulica, a Missa brevis in C, for four voices, trumpets, violin and continuo, "cantabile '' but solo voices just singing short passages within chorale movements. The Italian style cultivated orchestral masses including soloists, chorus and obbligato instruments. It spread to the German - speaking Catholic countries north of the Alps, using instruments for color and creating dialogues between solo voices and chorus that was to become characteristic of the 18th - century Viennese style. The so - called "Neapolitan '' or "cantata '' mass style also had much influence on 18th - century mass composition with its short sections set as self - contained solo arias and choruses in a variety of styles.
The 18th - century Viennese mass combines operatic elements from the cantata mass with a trend in the symphony and concerto to organize choral movements. The large scale masses of the first half of the century still have Glorias and Credos divided into many movements, unlike smaller masses for ordinary churches. Many of Mozart 's masses are in missa brevis form, as are some of Haydn 's early ones. Later masses, especially of Haydn, are of symphonic structure, with long sections divided into fewer movements, organized like a symphony, with soloists used as an ensemble rather than as individuals. The distinction between concert masses and those intended for liturgical use also came into play as the 19th century progressed.
After the Renaissance, the mass tended not to be the central genre for any one composer, yet some of the most famous of all musical works of the Baroque, Classical, and Romantic periods are masses. Many of the most famous of the great masses of the Romantic era were Requiem masses.
Among the masses written for the Ordinary of the Mass are:
By the end of the 19th century, composers were combining modern elements with the characteristics of Renaissance polyphony and plainchant, which continued to influence 20th - century composers, possibly fueled by the Motu proprio Tra le sollecitudini (1903) of Pope Pius X. The revival of choral celebration of Holy Communion in the Anglican Church in the late 19th century marked the beginning several liturgical settings of Mass texts in English, particularly for choir and organ. The movement for liturgical reform has resulted in revised forms of the Mass, making it more functional by using a variety of accessible styles, popular or ethnic, and using new methods such as refrain and response to encourage congregational involvement. Nevertheless, the mass in its musical incarnation continues to thrive beyond the walls of the church, as is evident in many of the 21st - century masses listed here which were composed for concert performance rather than in service of the Roman Rite.
Pope St. Pius X initiated many regulations reforming the liturgical music of the Mass in the early 20th century. He felt that some of the Masses composed by the famous post-Renaissance composers were too long and often more appropriate for a theatrical rather than a church setting. He advocated primarily Gregorian plainchant and polyphony. He was primarily influenced by the work of the Abbey of Solesmes. Some of the rules he put forth include the following:
These regulations carry little if any weight today, especially after the changes of the Second Vatican Council. Quite recently, Pope Benedict XVI has encouraged a return to chant as the primary music of the liturgy, as this is explicitly mentioned in the documents of the Second Vatican Council, specifically Sacrosanctum Concilium 116.
In the 20th century, composers continued to write masses, in an even wider diversity of style, form and function than before.
These are more often known as ' Communion Services ', and differ not only in that they are settings of English words, but also, as mentioned above, in that the Gloria usually forms the last movement. Sometimes the Kyrie movement takes the form of sung responses to the Ten Commandments, 1 to 9 being followed by the words ' Lord have mercy upon us and incline our hearts to keep this law ', and the tenth by ' Lord have mercy upon us and write all these thy laws in our hearts, we beseech thee '. Since the texts of the ' Benedictus qui venit ' and the ' Agnus Dei ' do not actually feature in the liturgy of the 1662 Book of Common Prayer, these movements are often missing from some of the earlier Anglican settings. Charles Villiers Stanford composed a Benedictus and Agnus in the key of F major which was published separately to complete his service in C.
With reforms in the Anglican liturgy, the movements are now usually sung in the same order that they are in the Roman Catholic rite, leading, according to some, to the musical integrity of the settings being somewhat compromised. Choral settings of the Creed, the most substantial movement, are rarely performed in Anglican cathedrals now.
Well known Anglican settings of the Mass, which may be found in the repertoire of many English cathedrals are:
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how does the government of new zealand work | Government of New Zealand - Wikipedia
The Government of New Zealand (Māori: Te Kāwanatanga o Aotearoa) or New Zealand Government (ceremonially referred to as Her Majesty 's Government in New Zealand on the Seal of New Zealand) is the administrative complex through which authority is exercised in New Zealand. As in most parliamentary democracies, the term "Government '' refers chiefly to the executive branch, and more specifically to the collective ministry directing the executive (as in British usage, but where Americans would use "administration ''). Based on the principle of responsible government, it operates within the framework that "the Queen reigns, but the government rules, so long as it has the support of the House of Representatives ''.
Executive power is exercised by the Prime Minister and Cabinet ministers, all of whom are sworn into the Executive Council to become ministers of the Crown and responsible to the elected legislature, the House of Representatives. The position of Prime Minister, New Zealand 's head of government, belongs to the person who commands the support of a majority of members in the House of Representatives. In practice, the Prime Minister is determined by size of each political party, support agreements between parties and leadership votes in the party that leads the Government.
The Prime Minister and the Cabinet are formally appointed by the Governor - General (who is the Queen 's viceregal representative in New Zealand). In practice, the Governor - General acts on the advice of the Prime Minister in appointing ministers. Cabinet ministers are drawn from elected members of the Prime Minister 's party in the House of Representatives. A few more ministers (usually junior or supporting) are part of the Executive Council but outside Cabinet. Most ministers have a portfolio of specific responsibilities such as departments or policy areas, although ministers without portfolio are sometimes appointed.
The term Government of New Zealand can have a number of different meanings. At its widest, it can refer collectively to the three traditional branches of government -- the executive branch, legislative branch (the Queen - in - Parliament and House of Representatives) and judicial branch (the Supreme Court and subordinate courts). Each branch operates independently of the others in an arrangement described as "separation of powers ''.
More commonly, the term is used to refer to the Members of Parliament (MPs) belonging to a particular political party (or coalition of parties) with a large number of seats sufficient to win important votes (e.g. the vote to accept the budget each year). The largest party or coalition will form a Cabinet -- this is the sense intended when it is said that a political party "forms the government ''. The Constitution Act 1986, the principle part of New Zealand 's constitution, locates the executive government in the Executive Council, which may include ministers outside Cabinet.
The executive wing of the New Zealand Parliament Buildings, commonly called the "Beehive '' because of the building 's shape, houses many government offices and is also where the Cabinet meets. Thus the name Beehive is sometimes used metonymically to refer to the New Zealand Government.
New Zealand was granted colonial self - government in 1853 following the New Zealand Constitution Act 1852, which was an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Governments were set up at both central and provincial level, with initially six provinces. The provinces were abolished by the Abolition of Provinces Act 1876, during the premiership of Harry Atkinson. For the purposes of the Act, the provinces formally ceased to exist on 1 January 1877.
The Sewell Ministry constituted the first responsible government, with control over all domestic matters other than native policy. Formed in 1856, it lasted from 18 April to 20 May. From 7 May onwards, Henry Sewell was titled "Colonial Secretary '', and is generally regarded as having been the country 's first Prime Minister. The first Ministry that formed along party lines did not appear until 1891, when John Ballance formed the Liberal Party and the Liberal Government. The status of the monarch 's representative was upgraded from governor to "Governor - General '' in 1917 letters patent.
The monarch, currently Queen Elizabeth II, is the head of state of New Zealand. The monarch is considered to be the personification of "the Crown '' -- a legal term that refers to the state as a whole. The Crown is therefore regarded as a corporation sole, with the monarch, vested as she is with all powers of state, at the centre of a construct in which the power of the whole is shared by multiple institutions of government acting under the monarch 's authority. Sovereignty in New Zealand has never rested solely with the monarch due to the English Bill of Rights 1689, later inherited by New Zealand, which establishes the principle of parliamentary sovereignty. Nonetheless, the Constitution Act 1986 describes the monarch as the "Sovereign '' of New Zealand.
Royal Assent is required to enact laws and, as part of the royal prerogative, the royal sign - manual gives authority to letters patent and orders in council, though the authority for these acts stems from the New Zealand populace and, within the conventional stipulations of constitutional monarchy, the Sovereign 's direct participation in any of these areas of governance is limited. The royal prerogative also includes summoning, proroguing, and dissolving parliament in order to call an election, and extends to foreign affairs: the negotiation and ratification of treaties, alliances, international agreements, and declarations of war.
The Sovereign rarely personally exercises her executive powers; since the monarch does not normally reside in New Zealand, she appoints a governor - general to represent her and exercise most of her powers. The person who fills this role is selected on the advice of the Prime Minister. "Advice '' in this sense is a choice generally without options since it would be highly unconventional for the Prime Minister 's advice to be overlooked; a convention that protects the monarchy. As long as the monarch is following the advice of her ministers, she is not held personally responsible for the decisions of the Government. The Governor - General has no official term limit, and is said to serve "at Her Majesty 's pleasure ''.
The Sovereign or Governor - General rarely intervene directly in political affairs. Just as the Sovereign 's choice of governor - general is on the Prime Ministers advice, the viceregal figure exercises the executive powers of state on the advice of ministers. For example, the Governor - General 's power to withhold the Royal Assent to Bills has been rendered ineffective by convention.
Also known as "ministers of the Crown '', these are Members of Parliament who hold ministerial warrants from the Crown to perform certain functions of government. This includes formulating and implementing policies and advising the Governor - General. Before 1996 nearly all ministers were members of the Cabinet, but since the introduction of proportional representation which has led to complex governing arrangements, there are currently three categories of minister: ministers in the Cabinet, ministers outside Cabinet, and ministers from supporting parties.
The Executive Council is a formal body which exists and meets to give legal effect to decisions made by the Cabinet, and to carry out various other functions. All ministers are members of the Executive Council and are entitled to be styled "The Honourable '' for life, except for the Prime Minister and former prime ministers, who are styled "The Right Honourable ''. Although they are not a member of the Executive Council, the Governor - General usually presides at Council meetings.
Cabinet is the senior collective decision - making body of the New Zealand Government. Constitutional law, such as the Constitution Act 1986, does not recognise the Cabinet as a legal entity; it exists solely by convention. Its decisions do not in and of themselves have legal force. However, it serves as the practical expression of the Executive Council, which is New Zealand 's highest formal governmental body.
The Prime Minister is appointed by the Governor - General, but to ensure the continuity of a stable government, this person must have the confidence of the House of Representatives to lead the Government. In practice, the position usually goes to the leader of the largest political party in Parliament. Major responsibilities of the Prime Minister include appointing ministers and chairing weekly meetings of Cabinet.
Each minister is responsible for the general administration of at least one government portfolio and heads a corresponding department or ministry. The most important minister, following the Prime Minister, is the Minister of Finance, while other high - profile ministries include foreign affairs, justice, health and education. Ministers outside the Cabinet have the same overall duties and responsibilities as their senior colleagues inside Cabinet. Departments and ministries are staffed by around 45,000 civil servants.
As New Zealand follows the Westminster system of government, the legislative agenda of Parliament is determined by the Cabinet. At the start of each new parliamentary term, the Governor - General gives an address prepared by the Cabinet that outlines the Government 's policy and legislative proposals.
There have been three distinctly different periods of New Zealand government -- firstly, the period before responsible government; second, from 1856 to 1890, the period of responsible government; and the third period started with the formation of political parties in 1891.
By convention, a distinct government is named for the largest party that leads it. The current government, since October 2017, is the Sixth Labour Government. It is a coalition between Labour and New Zealand First, led by Prime Minister Jacinda Ardern. The minority government is reliant on the support of the Green Party in order to command a majority in the House of Representatives through a confidence and supply agreement.
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where is the biggest waterfall in the united states | Waterfall - wikipedia
A waterfall is a place where water flows over a vertical drop or a series of steep drops in the course of a stream or river. Waterfalls also occur where meltwater drops over the edge of a tabular iceberg or ice shelf.
Waterfalls are commonly formed in the upper course of a river in steep mountains. Because of their landscape position, many waterfalls occur over bedrock fed by little contributing area, so they are ephemeral and only occur during rainstorms. The further downstream, the more perennial a waterfall can be. It is even possible for waterfalls to occur far downstream due to transient discontinuities in a river 's longitudinal profile caused by climatic changes and anthropogenic activities. Waterfalls can have a wide range of widths and depths, and this diversity is part of what makes them such a charismatic and interesting natural phenomenon. Research into the diversity of natural waterfalls systematics has been carried out in recent years.
When the river courses over resistant bedrock, erosion happens slowly and is dominated by impacts of water - borne sediment on the rock, while downstream the erosion occurs more rapidly. As the watercourse increases its velocity at the edge of the waterfall, it may pluck material from the riverbed, if the bed is fractured or otherwise more erodable. Hydraulic jets and hydraulic jumps at the toe of a falls can generate large forces to erode the bed, especially when forces are amplified by water - borne sediment. Horseshoe - shaped falls focus the erosion to a central point, also enhancing riverbed change below a waterfalls. A process known as "potholing '' involves local erosion of a potentially deep hole in bedrock due to turbulent whirlpools spinning stones around on the bed, drilling it out. Sand and stones carried by the watercourse therefore increase erosion capacity. This causes the waterfall to carve deeper into the bed and to recede upstream. Often over time, the waterfall will recede back to form a canyon or gorge downstream as it recedes upstream, and it will carve deeper into the ridge above it. The rate of retreat for a waterfall can be as high as one and half meters per year.
Often, the rock stratum just below the more resistant shelf will be of a softer type, meaning that undercutting due to splashback will occur here to form a shallow cave - like formation known as a rock shelter under and behind the waterfall. Eventually, the outcropping, more resistant cap rock will collapse under pressure to add blocks of rock to the base of the waterfall. These blocks of rock are then broken down into smaller boulders by attrition as they collide with each other, and they also erode the base of the waterfall by abrasion, creating a deep plunge pool in the gorge downstream.
Streams can become wider and shallower just above waterfalls due to flowing over the rock shelf, and there is usually a deep area just below the waterfall because of the kinetic energy of the water hitting the bottom. However, a study of waterfalls systematics reported that waterfalls can be wider or narrower above or below a falls, so almost anything is possible given the right geological and hydrological setting. Waterfalls normally form in a rocky area due to erosion. After a long period of being fully formed, the water falling off the ledge will retreat, causing a horizontal pit parallel to the waterfall wall. Eventually, as the pit grows deeper, the waterfall collapses to be replaced by a steeply sloping stretch of river bed. In addition to gradual processes such as erosion, earth movement caused by earthquakes or landslides or volcanoes can cause a differential in land heights which interfere with the natural course of a water flow, and result in waterfalls.
A river sometimes flows over a large step in the rocks that may have been formed by a fault line. Waterfalls can occur along the edge of a glacial trough, where a stream or river flowing into a glacier continues to flow into a valley after the glacier has receded or melted. The large waterfalls in Yosemite Valley are examples of this phenomenon, which is referred to as a hanging valley. Another reason hanging valleys may form is where two rivers join and one is flowing faster than the other. Waterfalls can be grouped into ten broad classes based on the average volume of water present on the fall (which depends on both the waterfall 's average flow and its height) using a logarithmic scale. Class 10 waterfalls include Niagara Falls, Paulo Afonso Falls and Khone Falls.
Classes of other well - known waterfalls include Victoria Falls and Kaieteur Falls (Class 9); Rhine Falls and Gullfoss (Class 8); Angel Falls and Dettifoss (Class 7); Yosemite Falls, Lower Yellowstone Falls and Umphang Thee Lor Sue Waterfall (Class 6); Sutherland Falls (Class 5).
Alexander von Humboldt (1820 's) "Father of Modern Geography '' Humboldt was mostly marking waterfalls on maps for river navigation purposes.
Oscar von Engeln (1930 's) Published "Geomorphology: systematic and regional '', this book had a whole chapter devoted to waterfalls, and is one of the earliest examples of published works on waterfalls.
R.W. Young (1980 's) Wrote "Waterfalls: form and process '' this work made waterfalls a much more serious topic for research for modern Geoscientists.
Significant waterfalls, listed alphabetically:
Huangguoshu Waterfall in Guizhou province, China, is a block - type waterfall and a cataract.
Song Khon Waterfall in Loei Province, Thailand is an example of a cascade waterfall.
Gullfoss, an iconic waterfall of Iceland.
In Pamukkale, Turkey is an example of travertine terraces built by flowing water.
Powerscourt Waterfall, near Enniskerry, Wicklow County, Ireland, is an example of a horsetail waterfall.
First fall of Elephant Falls in Shillong, India, is an example of a horsetail - punchbowl waterfall.
Wallaman Falls in Queensland, Australia, is an example of a plunge waterfall.
Sempervirens Falls in California, USA, is an example of a plunge - punchbowl waterfall.
Several of the scores of waterfalls of various types at Plitvice Lakes, Croatia
Saint Anthony Falls in Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA, is a natural waterfall modified with spillway, dams, and locks to allow commercial navigation on the river.
Waterfall Cairns, Australia
Ruby Falls is an underground waterfall within a cave in Tennessee, USA.
Alamere Falls is a tidefall -- a waterfall flowing directly into the ocean -- in California, USA.
Waterfall in Australia
Seljalandsfoss, Suðurland, Iceland
Cheeyappara Waterfall, Kerala, India
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if the price of crackers goes up when the price of cheese goes down crackers and cheese are | Complementary good - wikipedia
In economics, a complementary goods or complement is a goods with a negative cross elasticity of demand, in contrast to a substitute goods. This means a good 's demand is increased when the price of another goods is decreased. Conversely, the demand for a goods is decreased when the price of another goods is increased. If goods A and B are complements, an increase in the price of A will result in a leftward movement along the demand curve of A and cause the demand curve for B to shift in; less of each goods will be demanded. A decrease in price of A will result in a rightward movement along the demand curve of A and cause the demand curve B to shift outward; more of each goods will be demanded. Basically this means that since the demand of one goods is linked to the demand of another goods, if a higher quantity is demanded of one goods, a higher quantity will also be demanded of the other, and if a lower quantity is demanded of one goods, a lower quantity will be demanded of the other. The prices of complementary goods are related in the same way: if the price of one goods rises, so will the price of the other, and vice versa. With substitute goods, however, the price and quantity demanded of one goods is related inversely to the price and quantity demanded of a substitute goods, meaning that if the price or quantity demanded of one goods rises, the price or quantity demanded of its substitute will fall.
When two goods are complements, they experience joint demand. For example, the demand for razor blades may depend upon the number of razors in use; this is why razors have sometimes been sold as loss leaders, to increase demand for the associated blades.
Recent work in food consumption has elucidated the psychological processes by which the consumption of one goods (e.g., cola) stimulates demand for its complements (e.g., a cheeseburger, pizza, etc.). Consumption of a food or beverage activates a goal to consume its complements: foods that consumers believe would produce super-additive utility (i.e., would taste better together). Eating peanut - butter covered crackers, for instance, increases the consumption of grape - jelly covered crackers more than eating plain crackers. Drinking cola increases consumers ' willingness to pay for a voucher for a cheeseburger. This effect appears to be contingent on consumers ' perceptions of what foods are complements rather than their sensory properties.
An example of this would be the demand for cars and petrol. The supply and demand of cars is represented by the figure at the right with the initial demand D1. Suppose that the initial price of cars is represented by P1 with a quantity demanded of Q1. If the price of petrol were to decrease by some amount, this would result in a higher quantity of cars demanded. This higher quantity demanded would cause the demand curve to shift rightward to a new position D2. Assuming a constant supply curve S of cars, the new increased quantity demanded will be at D2 with a new increased price P2. Other examples include: Automobile and fuel, mobile phone and cellular service provider, Printer and Cartridge among others.
A perfect complement is a good that has to be consumed with another good. The indifference curve of a perfect complement will exhibit a right angle, as illustrated by the figure at the right. Such preferences are often represented by a Leontief utility function.
Few goods in the real world will behave as perfect complements. One example is a left shoe and a right; shoes are naturally sold in pairs, and the ratio between sales of left and right shoes will never shift noticeably from 1: 1, even if, for example, someone is missing a leg and buys just one shoe.
The degree of complementarity, however, does not have to be mutual; it can be measured by cross price elasticity of demand. In the case of video games, a specific video game (the complement good) has to be consumed with a video game console (the base good). It does not work the other way: a video game console does not have to be consumed with that game.
A classic example of mutually perfect complements is the case of pencils and erasers. Imagine an accountant who will need to prepare financial statements, but in doing so must use pencils to make all calculations and erasers to correct errors. The accountant knows that for every three pencils, one eraser will be needed. Any more pencils will serve no purpose, because they will not be able to erase the calculations. Any more erasers will not be useful either, because there will not be enough pencils for them to make a large enough mess with in order to require more erasers.
In this case the utility would be given by an increasing function of:
In marketing, complementary goods give additional market power to the company. It allows vendor lock - in as it increases the switching cost. A few types of pricing strategy exist for complementary good and its base good:
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will there be season 7 of project mc2 | Project Mc2 - Wikipedia
Project Mc (pronounced Project MC - squared) is an American web television series produced by DreamWorks Animation 's AwesomenessTV and MGA Entertainment for Netflix. The series was first released on August 7, 2015.
The series is set in a fictional city called Maywood Glen, California, it revolves around the fields of STEAM, and the adventures of McKeyla McAlister and her best friends, who work for a government organization called NOV8 (pronounced "innovate ''), a highly secretive group of teenage female government operatives who are trying to protect the world.
The first season of the series, consisting of three episodes, was released on August 7, 2015. On April 6, 2016, Netflix announced that the series has been renewed for its second and third seasons. The second season was released on August 12, 2016, and the third season was released on October 14, 2016. Both consisted of six episodes. An extended 34 - minute Valentine 's Day special was released as the first and only episode of the fourth season on February 14, 2017. A fifth season consisting of five episodes was released on September 15, 2017. A sixth season, also consisting of five episodes, was released on November 7, 2017.
The series is filmed primarily in and around the San Fernando Valley area of Los Angeles, including Chatsworth, Woodland Hills, Van Nuys, and Northridge, as well as in Alhambra.
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what is it like to be a prisoner in north korea | Prisons in North Korea - wikipedia
Conditions inside North Korean prison camps are unsanitary and life - threatening. Prisoners are subject to torture and inhumane treatment. Public and secret executions of prisoners, even children, especially in cases of attempted escape are commonplace. Infanticides (and infant killings upon birth) also often occur. The mortality rate is very high, because many prisoners die of starvation, illnesses, work accidents, or torture.
The DPRK government denies all allegations of human rights violations in prison camps, claiming that this is prohibited by criminal procedure law, but former prisoners testify that there are completely different rules in the prison camps. The DPRK government failed to provide any information on prisoners or prison camps or to allow access to any human rights organization. But according to a North Korean defector, North Korea considered inviting a delegation of the UN Commission on Human Rights to visit the Yodok prison camp in 1996.
Lee Soon - ok gave detailed testimony on her treatment in the North Korean prison system to the United States House of Representatives in 2002. In her statement she said, "I testify that most of the 6,000 prisoners who were there when I arrived in 1987 had quietly perished under the harsh prison conditions by the time I was released in 1992. '' Many other former prisoners, including Kang Chol - hwan and Shin Dong - hyuk, gave detailed and consistent testimonies on the human rights crimes in North Korean prison camps.
According to the testimony of former camp guard Ahn Myong Chol of Camp 22, the guards are trained to treat the detainees as sub-human, and he gave an account of children in one of the camps who were fighting over who got to eat a kernel of corn retrieved from cow dung.
The North Korean prison camp facilities can be distinguished into large internment camps for political prisoners (Kwan - li - so in Korean) and reeducation prison camps (Kyo - hwa - so in Korean).
The internment camps for people accused of political offences or denounced as politically unreliable are run by the State Security Department. Political prisoners were historically subject to the family responsibility principle, where immediate family members of a convicted political criminal were also regarded as political criminals and interned. However, since 1994 there has been a near - abandonment of this family responsibility principle.
The internment camps are located in central and northeastern North Korea. They comprise many prison labour colonies in secluded mountain valleys, completely isolated from the outside world. The total number of prisoners is estimated to be 150,000 to 200,000. Yodok camp and Bukchang camp are separated into two sections: One section for political prisoners in lifelong detention, another part similar to re-education camps with prisoners sentenced to long - term imprisonment with the vague hope of eventual release.
The prisoners are forced to perform hard and dangerous slave work with primitive means in mining and agriculture. The food rations are very small, so that the prisoners are constantly on the brink of starvation. In combination with the hard work this leads to huge numbers of prisoners dying. An estimated 40 % of prisoners die from malnutrition.
Moreover, many prisoners are crippled from work accidents, frostbite or torture. There is a rigid punishment regime in the camps. Prisoners who work too slowly or do not obey an order are beaten or tortured. In cases of stealing food or attempting to escape, the prisoners are publicly executed.
Initially there were around twelve political prison camps, but some were merged or closed (e.g. Onsong prison camp, Kwan - li - so No. 12, following a suppressed riot with around 5000 dead people in 1987). Today there are six political prison camps in North Korea, with the size determined from satellite images and the number of prisoners estimated by former prisoners. Most of the camps are documented in testimonies of former prisoners and, for all of them, coordinates and satellite images are available.
The South Korean journalist Kang Chol - hwan is a former prisoner of Yodok Political Prison Camp and has written a book, The Aquariums of Pyongyang, about his time in the camp. The South Korean human rights activist Shin Dong - hyuk is the only person known to have escaped from Kaechon Political Prison Camp. He gave an account of his time in the camp.
The reeducation camps for criminals are run by the Ministry of People 's Security. There is a fluent passage between common crimes and political crimes, as people who get on the bad side of influential partisans are often denounced on false accusations. They are then forced into false confessions with brutal torture in detention centers (Lee Soon - ok for example had to kneel down whilst being showered with water at icy temperatures with other prisoners, of whom six did not survive) and are then condemned in a brief show trial to a long - term prison sentence.
In North Korea, political crimes are greatly varied, from border crossing to any disturbance of the political order, and they are rigorously punished. Due to the dire prison conditions with hunger and torture, a large percentage of prisoners do not survive their sentence terms.
The reeducation camps are large prison building complexes surrounded by high walls. The situation of prisoners is quite similar to that in the political prison camps. They have to perform slave labour in prison factories and in case they do not meet the work quotas, they are tortured and (at least in Kaechon camp) confined for many days in special prison cells, which are too small for them to stand up or lie full - length in.
To be distinguished from the internment camps for political prisoners, the reeducation camp prisoners are forced to undergo ideological instruction after work and they are also forced to memorize the speeches of Kim Il - sung and Kim Jong - il and they even have to undergo self - criticism rites. Many prisoners are guilty of common crimes which are also penalized in other countries e.g. illegal border crossing, stealing food or illegal trading.
There are around 15 to 20 reeducation camps in North Korea.
Kwan - li - so # 12 Onsong was closed in 1987, following a defeated riot with around 5,000 dead prisoners. Kyo - hwa - so Sunghori was closed in 1991.
The South Korean human rights activist Lee Soon - ok has written a book (Eyes of the Tailless Animals: Prison Memoirs of a North Korean Woman) about her time in the camp and testified before the US Senate.
In December 2016, the South China Morning Post reported on the existence of a secret prison in Hyanghari, known euphemistically as ' resorts ', where members of the country 's political elite are imprisoned.
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who does benedict cumberbatch play in the penguins of madagascar | Penguins of Madagascar - wikipedia
Penguins of Madagascar is a 2014 American 3D computer - animated comedy film, produced by DreamWorks Animation and distributed by 20th Century Fox. It is a spin - off of the Madagascar film series, and takes place right after the events of Madagascar 3: Europe 's Most Wanted, following the penguins Skipper, Kowalski, Rico and Private in their own adventure. Apart from the main characters, it is unrelated to the TV series The Penguins of Madagascar.
The film was directed by Simon J. Smith and Eric Darnell, and written by Michael Colton, John Aboud, and Brandon Sawyer. It stars the voices of Tom McGrath, Chris Miller, Conrad Vernon, Christopher Knights, Benedict Cumberbatch, John Malkovich, and Ken Jeong. The film was released on November 26, 2014. It is the only film in the Madagascar franchise that was distributed by 20th Century Fox and was the final film produced by Pacific Data Images before its closure on January 22, 2015. Despite earning $373 million on a $132 million budget, the film forced a write - down for the studio.
In Antarctica, three young penguin brothers -- Skipper, Kowalski, and Rico -- defy the laws of nature to save an egg the other penguins believe to be doomed. After saving it from a pack of leopard seals and accidentally setting themselves adrift on an iceberg, the egg hatches into their new member, Private.
Ten years later (after the events of the previous film), the penguins decide to leave the circus to celebrate Private 's birthday by breaking into the United States Gold Depository at Fort Knox in order to treat him to a discontinued snack called "Cheezy Dibbles '' in the vending machine of their break room. Despite this, Private begins to feel out of place with the team, as he is constantly described as being the "secretary / mascot ''. Suddenly, they are abducted by the machine and sent to Venice, Italy by Dr. Octavius Brine, a renowned geneticist who removes his human disguise and reveals he is actually an octopus named Dave, who has grown resentful of penguins after their cuteness had him shunned from every zoo and aquarium across the globe.
Rico swallows Dave 's collection of snowglobes along with a canister of a green substance called the Medusa Serum before the four escape and are chased through the canals and streets of Venice by Dave 's henchmen. When cornered, they are rescued by a group of animals from an Arctic elite undercover interspecies task force agency called "The North Wind '' consisting of their leader, a gray wolf whose name is classified (in which Skipper mistakenly calls him "Classified '' throughout the film), a harp seal demolitionist named Short Fuse, a polar bear named Corporal, and an intelligent snowy owl named Eva, who Kowalski instantly falls in love with. Their mission is to help animals who ca n't help themselves and have been fighting Dave to protect the penguin population.
At their hideout, their communication systems are hacked by Dave, who reveals that he has an enormous supply of the Medusa Serum and that he intends to capture the penguins out of every zoo he was kicked out of. Viewing the penguins as a hindrance to their mission, Classified tranquilizes the group and sends the group to their most remote base (which happens to be on Madagascar) but the penguins awaken mid-flight and crash land in the Sahara Desert before making their way to Shanghai, China, which they mistake for Dublin, Ireland. Discovering Dave 's next target in Shanghai using Dave 's snowglobe collection, the penguins ship themselves to their current location and make their way to the zoo. Disguising himself as a mermaid - tailed penguin (a tourist attraction) to distract Dave from his real target, Private himself is captured along with the Shanghai penguins after the North Wind arrives to put a stop to Dave 's plan. The penguins take the North Wind 's high - tech plane to give chase, but inadvertently self - destruct the machine. They manage to track Private to an island though, using a tracking device planted on him when Classified darted them before planting them in a flight to Madagascar. Meanwhile, on the island, Dave demonstrates his way to genetically mutate the penguins into hideous monsters as an effort to make humans disgusted by them as revenge.
Skipper and Classified argue on the best means to rescue the captives and stop Dave, finally settling on Classified 's plan of a frontal assault and Skipper agrees to act as a diversion. The North Wind manages to corner Dave in his lair only to be captured by Dave 's henchmen as well as the other penguins. Dave demonstrates his mutation ray at full power on Private, apparently disintegrating him with the beam, but unbeknownst to them he escapes at the last minute by using a paper clip he swallowed earlier. Private rescues the North Wind members, who want to regroup due to lack of equipment, but Private, not wanting to leave anyone behind goes to stop Dave. As Dave 's submarine docks at New York with the promise of returning the penguins he found to the zoo, he turns the ray on the rest of the penguins, mutating them all into hideous monsters. The city erupts into chaos as the brainwashed, mutated penguins run amok on the terrified human crowd. Getting Skipper, Kowalski and Rico back to their senses, Private decides to connect himself into the ray to return them to normal. After fending off more of Dave 's henchmen, they manage to turn all the penguins back to normal in one huge blast.
Private is left partially mutated from the machine while the rest of the penguins are restored to normal. Despite his strange new look, the Penguins show their gratitude and new - found respect for Private. Dave (who was caught in the blast) has been turned into a pipsqueak version of himself and is trapped in a snow globe where he is admired by a little girl. Finally seeing one another as equals, Classified promises to grant the Penguins anything they want. In addition to Kowalski getting a kiss from Eva, the Penguins are given their own jet packs and they then fly off above the clouds looking for their next adventure.
In a mid-credits scene, the Penguins return to the circus and plug Mort into the ray and use him to revert Private back to normal. Mort does not appear to show any side effects from the ray until he manages to swallow King Julien whole, much to King Julien 's delight.
A direct - to - video film featuring the penguins had been in the works since 2005 when the first Madagascar film was released, with a release date initially planned for 2009. The studio announced in March 2011 that the penguin characters would be given their own feature film to be directed by Simon J. Smith, the co-director of Bee Movie, produced by Lara Breay, and written by Alan J. Schoolcraft and Brent Simons, the writers of DreamWorks ' Megamind.
At the July 2012 Comic - Con, DreamWorks Animation announced that the film, titled The Penguins of Madagascar, would be released in 2015. Robert Schooley, one of the producers of The Penguins series, said that the film would be unrelated to the TV series of the same name, but added that that could always change. In early September 2012, 20th Century Fox, the studio 's new distributor, and DreamWorks Animation announced a release date of March 27, 2015, and a new pair of writers, Michael Colton and John Aboud. Benedict Cumberbatch and John Malkovich joined the cast in August 2013. Malkovich, who had been offered the role of Dr. Octavius Brine three and a half years before the film 's release, told an audience at the July 2014 Comic - Con that he thought that it "was a funny idea '' to use his voice for an octopus.
On May 20, 2014, the film 's release date was moved up to November 26, 2014, from its initial March 27, 2015, date, switching places with DreamWorks Animation 's other film Home. Jeffrey Katzenberg, DreamWorks Animation 's CEO, reasoned that the film, coming from one of DWA 's most successful franchises, would have an easier task to stand out around the Thanksgiving holiday season, while Home was to try to take advantage of a less competitive spring release window and repeat successful spring launches of some of DWA 's original films including The Croods and How to Train Your Dragon. The film was released two weeks earlier in China, on November 14, 2014.
The film was released in RealD 3D and Digital 3D formats. It was digitally remastered into the IMAX format, and released in select theaters across Europe, Asia, the Middle East and Latin America. A four - issue comic book series based on the film was published by Titan Comics. Written by Alex Matthews and drawn by Lucas Fereyra.
Penguins of Madagascar was released on DVD, Blu - ray and Blu - ray 3D on March 17, 2015. It topped the home video sales chart in its first week.
Penguins of Madagascar grossed $83.4 million in North America and $290.2 million in foreign countries for a worldwide total of $373.6 million. The film 's production budget was $132 million, which, according to the DreamWorks Animation 's president Ann Dally, excluded "incentive - based compensation. '' By the end of 2014, the studio had to take a $57.1 million write - down, primarily related to the performance of Penguins of Madagascar and another DreamWorks Animation 's film Mr. Peabody & Sherman.
Penguins of Madagascar was released on November 26, 2014 in North America and Canada across 3,764 theatres. It earned $6.25 million on its opening day and $3.95 million the next day on Thanksgiving Day. It earned $10.5 million on Black Friday. The film underperformed during its opening weekend earning $25.4 million and debuting at # 2 at the box office behind The Hunger Games: Mockingjay -- Part 1, for which 3D accounted for 24 % of its opening - weekend gross. The opening - weekend audience was evenly split among those under and over the age of 25, with 58 % and female accounted 51 %. In CinemaScore polls conducted during the opening weekend, cinema audiences gave Penguins of Madagascar an average grade of A - on an A+ to F scale.
The film was released in China on November 14, two weeks ahead of its North American debut, and earned $11.3 million from 3,500 screens, debuting at number two at the Chinese box office behind Interstellar ($42 million). In its opening weekend, the film earned $36.5 million from 47 markets. Overall, the top openings were in Russia ($8.2 million), Korea ($6 million), Italy ($4.63 million), Germany ($4.2 million), and Australia ($3.68 million). The film 's opening in Germany was the second - highest for an animated film in 2014, behind How to Train Your Dragon 2.
The film has a 73 % rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 107 reviews, with an average rating of 6.2 / 10. The site 's consensus was "Penguins of Madagascar is fast and brightly colored enough to entertain small children, but too frantically silly to offer real filmgoing fun for the whole family. '' On Metacritic, the film achieved a score of 53 out of 100 based on 31 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''.
Michael Rechtshaffen of The Hollywood Reporter gave the film a negative review, saying "While there are plenty of madcap antics to fill a feature, all that manic energy ultimately proves to be more exhausting than exhilarating. '' Elizabeth Weitzman of the New York Daily News gave the film three out of five stars, saying "Granted, it 's no classic, but a sassy script and good - natured voice work from Benedict Cumberbatch and John Malkovich should keep kids and grownups entertained over the holidays. '' Ignatiy Vishnevetsky of The A.V. Club gave the film a B, saying "Frenetic and frequently funny, Penguins Of Madagascar represents the DreamWorks Animation franchise style -- which boils down to self - aware, but naïve, talking animals who learn kid - friendly life lessons -- at its most palatable. '' Ben Kenigsberg of The New York Times gave the film a positive review, saying "The lack of originality is offset by sheer silliness, including Classified and Skipper 's Abbott and Costello - style argument over whether there 's a long I in ' diversion. ' The word fits the movie. ''
Bill Zwecker of the Chicago Sun - Times gave the film three out of four stars, saying "Once again the Madagascar team have come up with a winner -- a nice way to kick off the Thanksgiving and holiday filmgoing experience for the whole family. '' Lou Lumenick of the New York Post gave the film one out of four stars, saying "Penguins of Madagascar is a lazy, noisy ADHD - addled collection of animated clichés guaranteed to give anyone older than 5 a headache, even if you do n't see it in optional 3 - D. '' Jeff Labrecque of Entertainment Weekly gave the film a C -, saying "Penguins of Madagascar aims primarily for the kiddies, racing from one frenetic action sequence to another like some haywire Walter Lantz cartoon. ''
Lorne Balfe composed the original score for the film, making it his first solo debut in a DreamWorks Animation film. Balfe wrote the additional music for the previous two Madagascar films and helped Madagascar composer Hans Zimmer with the score for Megamind. The soundtrack was released on November 25, 2014, by Relativity Music Group. Relativity also released an EP, Penguins of Madagascar: Black & White Christmas Album, which featured five holiday songs.
A video game based on the film, titled Penguins of Madagascar, and published by Little Orbit, was released on November 25, 2014 for Nintendo 3DS, Wii, and Wii U.
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who sang the national anthem for the super bowl this year | List of national anthem performers at the Super Bowl - wikipedia
This article is a list of national anthem performers at the Super Bowl. The U.S. national anthem ("The Star - Spangled Banner '') has been performed at all but one Super Bowl since its first year in 1967; Vikki Carr sang "America the Beautiful '' in place of the anthem at Super Bowl XI in 1977. Since Super Bowl XVI in 1982, famous singers or music groups have performed the anthem at the vast majority of Super Bowl games.
Beginning with Super Bowl XLIII in 2009, "America the Beautiful '' is sung before the national anthem every year. Some early Super Bowls featured marching bands performing the anthem, and the recitation of the Pledge of Allegiance.
Acts that have performed three times:
Acts that have performed two times:
Singers that performed in or near their hometown metropolitan area:
The performance by Whitney Houston at Super Bowl XXV in 1991, during the Gulf War, had been for many years regarded as one of the best renditions ever. It was released as a single a few weeks later, appeared on the album Whitney: The Greatest Hits, and was re-released as a single in 2001 shortly after the September 11 attacks.
The 1992 performance marked the first time American Sign Language was used alongside the lead singer.
Faith Hill performed the anthem at Super Bowl XXXIV in 2000. It became popular in country radio. Following the September 11 attacks, her version entered the country singles chart at number 35, despite not being released as an official single, and reentered the same chart at number 49 in July 2002.
At Super Bowl XLVIII in 2014, in an emotional and groundbreaking performance, soprano Renée Fleming became the first opera singer to perform the national anthem, scoring the highest ratings for a Fox Network program in its history, and the second - highest ratings for any television program in history.
Just days after Super Bowl XXV, a report surfaced that Whitney Houston lip synced her performance. It was confirmed that she was actually singing into a dead microphone, but the performance heard in the stadium and on television was prerecorded.
Since 1993, the NFL has required performers to supply a backup track. This came after Garth Brooks walked out of the stadium prior to his XXVII performance. Only 45 minutes before kickoff, he refused to take the stage, due to a dispute with NBC. Brooks requested that the network premiere his new music video "We Shall Be Free '' during the pregame. The network chose not to air the video, due to content some felt was disturbing imagery. Brooks had also refused to pre-record the anthem, which meant the league had nothing to play if he left. Television producers spotted Jon Bon Jovi in the grandstands, and were prepared to use him as a replacement. After last - minute negotiations, NBC agreed to air a clip of the video during the broadcast of the game, and Brooks was coaxed back into the stadium and sang.
Following the "wardrobe malfunction '' controversy during Super Bowl XXXVIII in 2004, all scheduled performers for Super Bowl XXXIX were chosen under heavy scrutiny. Game organizers decided not to use a popular music vocalist. The combined choirs of the U.S. Military Academy, the Naval Academy, Air Force Academy, Coast Guard Academy, and the U.S. Army Herald Trumpets were invited to perform. This was the first time since the second inauguration of President Richard Nixon in 1973 that all four service academies sang together.
Two days after Super Bowl XLIII, it was revealed that Jennifer Hudson also had lip synced.
At the beginning of Super Bowl XLV, Christina Aguilera sang the lyrics incorrectly. Instead of singing "O'er the ramparts we watched, were so gallantly streaming '', the pop star sang "What so proudly we watched at the twilight 's last gleaming ''. According to the New York Times, she also changed "gleaming '' to "reaming ''.
The following Super Bowls featured other patriotic performances besides the national anthem. Since 2009, "America the Beautiful '' is sung before the national anthem.
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where do most deep focus earthquakes occur near | Deep - focus earthquake - wikipedia
A deep - focus earthquake in seismology (also called a plutonic earthquake) is an earthquake with a hypocenter depth exceeding 300 km. They occur almost exclusively at oceanic - continental convergent boundaries in association with subducted oceanic lithosphere. They occur along a dipping tabular zone beneath the subduction zone known as the Wadati -- Benioff zone.
Preliminary evidence for the existence of deep - focus earthquakes was first brought to the attention of the scientific community in 1922 by Herbert Hall Turner. In 1928, Kiyoo Wadati proved the existence of earthquakes occurring well beneath the lithosphere, dispelling the notion that earthquakes occur only with shallow focal depths.
Deep - focus earthquakes give rise to minimal surface waves. Their focal depth causes the earthquakes to be less likely to produce seismic wave motion with energy concentrated at the surface. The path of deep - focus earthquake seismic waves from focus to recording station goes through the heterogeneous upper mantle and highly variable crust only once. Therefore, the body waves undergo less attenuation and reverberation than seismic waves from shallow earthquakes, resulting in sharp body wave peaks.
The pattern of energy radiation of an earthquake is represented by the moment tensor solution, which is graphically represented by beachball diagrams. An explosive or implosive mechanism produces an isotropic seismic source. Slip on a planar fault surface results in what is known as a double - couple source. Uniform outward motion in a single plane due to normal shortening gives rise is known as a compensated linear vector dipole source. Deep - focus earthquakes have been shown to contain a combination of these sources.
Shallow - focus earthquakes are the result of the sudden release of strain energy built up over time in rock by brittle fracture and frictional slip over planar surfaces. However, the physical mechanism of deep focus earthquakes is poorly understood. Subducted lithosphere subject to the pressure and temperature regime at depths greater than 300 km should not exhibit brittle behavior, but should rather respond to stress by plastic deformation. Several physical mechanisms have been proposed for the nucleation and propagation of deep - focus earthquakes; however, the exact process remains an outstanding problem in the field of deep earth seismology.
The following four subsections outline proposals which could explain the physical mechanism allowing deep focus earthquakes to occur. With the exception of solid - solid phase transitions, the proposed theories for the focal mechanism of deep earthquakes hold equal footing in current scientific literature.
The earliest proposed mechanism for the generation of deep - focus earthquakes is an implosion due to a phase transition of material to a higher density, lower volume phase. The olivine - spinel phase transition is thought to occur at a depth of 410 km in the interior of the earth. This hypothesis proposes that metastable olivine in oceanic lithosphere subducted to depths greater than 410 km undergoes a sudden phase transition to spinel structure. The increase in density due to the reaction would cause an implosion giving rise to the earthquake. This mechanism has been largely discredited due to the lack of a significant isotropic signature in the moment tensor solution of deep - focus earthquakes.
Dehydration reactions of mineral phases with high weight percent water would increase the pore pressure in a subducted oceanic lithosphere slab. This effect reduces the effective normal stress in the slab and allow slip to occur on pre-existing fault planes at significantly greater depths that would normally be possible. Several workers suggest that this mechanism does not play a significant role in seismic activity beyond 350 km depth due to the fact that most dehydration reactions will have reached completion by a pressure corresponding to 150 to 300 km depth (5 - 10 GPa).
Transformational faulting, also known as anticrack faulting, is the result of the phase transition of a mineral to a higher density phase occurring in response to shear stress in a fine - grained shear zone. The transformation occurs along the plane of maximal shear stress. Rapid shearing can then occur along these planes of weakness, giving rise to an earthquake in a mechanism similar to a shallow - focus earthquake. Metastable olivine subducted past the olivine - wadsleyite transition at 320 -- 410 km depth (depending on temperature) is a potential candidate for such instabilities. Arguments against this hypothesis include the requirements that the faulting region should be very cold, and contain very little mineral - bound hydroxyl. Higher temperatures or higher hydroxyl contents preclude the metastable preservation of olivine to the depths of the deepest earthquakes.
A shear instability arises when heat is produced by plastic deformation faster than it can be conducted away. The result is thermal runaway, a positive feedback loop of heating, material weakening and strain - localisation within the shear zone. Continued weakening may result in partial melting along zones of maximal shear stress. Plastic shear instabilities leading to earthquakes have not been documented in nature, nor have they been observed in natural materials in the laboratory. Their relevance to deep earthquakes therefore lies in mathematical models which use simplified material properties and rheologies to simulate natural conditions.
The strongest deep - focus earthquake in seismic record was the magnitude 8.3 Okhotsk Sea earthquake that occurred at a depth of 609 km in 2013. The deepest earthquake ever recorded was a small 4.2 earthquake in Vanuatu at a depth of 735.8 km in 2004.
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t sean ft t boy call my name | Bow Wow (rapper) - Wikipedia
Shad Gregory Moss (born March 9, 1987), better known by his stage name Bow Wow (formerly Lil ' Bow Wow), is an American rapper, actor and television host. As Lil ' Bow Wow, he released his first album, Beware of Dog, in 2000 at age 13, which was followed by Doggy Bag in 2001. In 2003, Bow Wow released his third album Unleashed, which was the first album released after dropping the "Lil ' '' from his stage name. As of September 27, 2015, Bow Wow has signed a management deal to Bad Boy Records.
Bow Wow made his first movie appearance in All About the Benjamins, in 2002 as a cameo. In the same year, Bow Wow made his debut as the lead role in Like Mike. He later began to undertake lead roles in movies, such as Johnson Family Vacation in 2004 and Roll Bounce in 2005. He also played a supporting role in the film The Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Drift in 2006. Bow Wow also appeared in five episodes of the television series Entourage, and starred as Brody Nelson in CSI: Cyber until the show 's cancelation in 2016.
Bow Wow was born Shad Gregory Moss in Columbus, Ohio, the son of Teresa Rena Caldwell (née Jones) and Alfonso Preston Moss. At age three, he became interested in rap. Under the moniker "Kid Gangsta '', he began rapping recreationally at age six; he was also a fan of N.W.A at that age. In 1993, he performed at a concert in Los Angeles, and was noticed by rapper Snoop Dogg, who subsequently gave him a stage name, "Lil ' Bow Wow ''.
In 1998, at the age of eleven, Bow Wow met record producer Jermaine Dupri, who helped shape his career. In 1999, the soundtrack to the movie Wild Wild West featured his song "The Stick Up '' with his mentor Jermaine Dupri. At the age of 13, in 2000, he debuted with Beware of Dog under the stage name Lil ' Bow Wow. Its debut single was "Bounce with Me '', which featured R&B girl group Xscape. The album also included "Bow Wow (That 's My Name) '' featuring Snoop Dogg, which topped the rap chart, "Puppy Love '', and "Ghetto Girls ''. The Recording Industry Association of America certified Beware of Dog double platinum on March 5, 2001, signifying sales of two million copies. In a 2009 interview, the rapper claimed that the album had sold over 3 million copies since its release.
In 2002, his second album Doggy Bag was released with singles "Take Ya Home '' which peaked at # 72 on the Hot 100 and # 21 on the Hot R&B / Hip - Hop Songs chart, and "Thank You '' with Jagged Edge, # 1 on the R&B chart. Doggy Bag peaked at # 11 on the Billboard 200 and # 2 on the Top R&B / Hip Hop Albums chart and was certified platinum. Lil ' Bow Wow performed the track "Basketball '' for the soundtrack of his film Like Mike; that song peaked at # 1 on the R&B and # 25 on the rap chart.
Bow Wow dropped the "Lil ' '' from his stage name in April 2002; he told MTV News: "I changed my name because I 'm getting older now and it 's too many Lil 's. All these Lil ' rappers, I 'm just kind of getting real irritated by it. I said, ' You know what? Drop the Lil '. Forget it. I 'm Bow Wow. Besides, I 'm growing up, I 'm not little anymore. (I just decided that) two weeks ago. I really got irritable. It 's all these Lil ' cats, forget it. I 'm Bow Wow now. Everything is just ' Bow Wow, ' no ' Lil ' Bow Wow. ' ''
The first album released under his new name was Unleashed in 2003. Its first single was "Let 's Get Down '' featuring Birdman, the founder of Cash Money Records, which reached # 14 on the Hot 100 and # 6 on the Hot Rap Tracks charts. The second single was then released, "My Baby '', featuring Jagged Edge. Unlike his previous albums, this one was not produced under the mentorship of Jermaine Dupri. Guest appearances include Jagged Edge, Birdman, Mario, and Amerie. Unleashed was certified gold on September 25, 2003. Bow Wow appeared on the remix of JoJo 's single "Baby It 's You '' in 2004.
Wanted was released in 2005. Its first single was "Let Me Hold You '', featuring Omarion, and peaked at # 1 on the rap chart and # 4 on the Hot 100. The next single, "Like You '', featuring Ciara, coincided with the beginning of Bow Wow 's relationship with the singer. "Fresh Azimiz '', featured J - Kwon and Jermaine Dupri, followed and peaked at # 23 on the Hot 100 and # 6 on the Hot Rap Tracks chart. The album was certified platinum. He also appeared on the remix of Dem Franchize Boyz ' "I Think They Like Me '', which peaked at # 15 on the Hot 100 and # 1 on the Hot Rap Tracks. Bow Wow ended his relationship with Ciara in 2006. In 2006, The Price of Fame was released with the lead single "Shortie Like Mine '', featuring Chris Brown, peaking at # 9 on the Hot 100 and # 1 on the Hot Rap Tracks. "Outta My System '', which featured T - Pain, reflected on Bow Wow 's break - up with Ciara. It peaked at # 22 on the Hot 100 and # 2 on the Rap chart. The Price of Fame was certified gold.
Bow Wow and Omarion released a collaborative album on December 11, 2007, Face Off. The first single was "Girlfriend '', which peaked at # 33 on the Hot 100. The second single was "Hey Baby (Jump Off) ''. He released a mixtape title Half Man, Half Dog Vol. 1 that year. Half Man, Half Dog Vol. 2 was released as a sequel to the mixtape in February 2009. New Jack City II, his sixth album, was released in March 2009 was his first album to include a Parental Advisory: Steven Roberts of MTV News observed that this album explored "the influence of crack cocaine in inner - city communities '', and featured such guests as T.I. Three promo singles were released in late 2008: "Marco Polo '' featuring Soulja Boy, "Big Girls '', and "Roc The Mic ''. The first official single, "You Can Get It All '' featuring Johnta Austin, samples TLC 's "Baby - Baby - Baby '' and peaked at # 55 on the Hot 100 and # 9 on the Hot Rap Tracks. On July 4, 2009, his new song "I Know I 'm The Shit '' off his DJ Drama - hosted mixtape, makes a references working on his new album Underrated and that it is already in production. On August 16, Bow Wow announced his signing to Cash Money Records, joining an all - star roster that already includes Nicki Minaj, Drake, Lil Wayne and Birdman, among others.
Bow Wow planned to release his new then - titled album Underrated on Cash Money Records, but the record underwent a number of delays and, in mid-November 2011, Bow Wow announced on his blog that the record would n't be out before 2012. The album was intended to feature Birdman, Boyz II Men, Chris Brown, DJ Khaled, Fabolous, Game, Lil Wayne, Lloyd Banks, Meek Mill, Nas, Nelly, Sean Kingston, Snoop Dogg, DMX, Styles P and Talib Kweli. The first promo single being "For My Hood '', featuring DJ Khaled & Sean Kingston. On November 1, 2010, Bow Wow released his first promotional single from the album entitled "Ai n't Thinkin ' ' Bout You '' featuring Chris Brown. The music video was a success on 106 & Park and made the countdown in just one day. Two weeks later, it peaked at # 1 on the show 's charts and remained # 1 for three days. On June 2, 2011, a song from his album called "I 'm Da Man '', which features Chris Brown, was leaked and was n't the first official single from the album. On October 24, 2011, Bow Wow released the single entitled "Sweat '' featuring Lil Wayne, and though it was thought to be the first official single from the album, it was also dubbed by Bow Wow as a promotional single.
On May 18, 2012, after several delays, Bow Wow released the first single from the album titled "Better '' featuring T - Pain. The music video for the song was directed by Bow Wow 's personal cameraman Rico Da Crook and was a success on 106 & Park and made it to the top of the countdown. On June 26, 2012, Bow Wow released the second single from the album titled "We In Da Club '' and was produced by DJ Mustard. The song went nowhere on any billboard charts, but the video was also another success on 106 & Park making it to the top of the countdown. The third single scheduled from the album was intended to feature Miguel that was titled "Right Now ''. Later, there was an announcement that Universal Republic Records was going defunct; all of the artists on the roster that were moved from the label, including Bow Wow, were moved to Republic Records, making the label itself revived.
On August 10, 2013, via his official YouTube page, Bow Wow stated the reason that Underrated had been delayed was the result of raising his daughter and waiting until he was more mature; he also stated he planned on working on and releasing the album after he turned 28. On June 24, 2014, Bow Wow announced via Instagram that after the 2014 BET Awards, he was going by his real name Shad Moss, claiming that he made a lot of history as Bow Wow and that it was now time for "the next chapter and challenge ''. He stated that "Bow Wow '' no longer fit with his new personality as he was now a father, host, and actor, and he had matured from what he had been early on in his life.
In May 2015, with his long - delayed album with Cash Money still without a release date, Bow Wow announced that he had amicably parted ways with Cash Money Records so he could move on with his music career. He said, "I wan na dictate when my music come out. I 'm tired of going to the studio to make records and then I listen to them. ' Cuz then they get old. Then when y'all ask for new music I do n't wan na hear it ' cuz I 've been listening to it for two or three months. I just ca n't be held up up by nobody. It 's as simple as that. I got a daughter. I got a family I got ta provide for. '' On September 27, 2015, Bow Wow signed to Puff Daddy 's record label Bad Boy Records. He then named the members of his new management team and finished the post by writing, "Making money wo n't be the issue. Figuring out where to keep it all is another story! ''
On August 7, 2016, Bow Wow officially announced that he is retiring from rapping and will release one more album, titled NYLTH, which is tentatively scheduled for release in 2017.
Prior to his final album release, Bow Wow and Soulja Boy released a joint retail mixtape titled Ignorant Shit on October 25, 2016.
Bow Wow has made guest appearances on Brandy 's TV sitcom, Moesha, as well as The Steve Harvey Show and Brothers Garcia. He made his acting debut in the film Like Mike which was released on July 3, 2002, in which he starred as a young orphan who gets a shot at playing in the NBA. Before Like Mike he made cameos in All About The Benjamins and "Carmen: A Hip Hopera ''. Bow Wow also co-starred with Cedric the Entertainer, Vanessa L. Williams, and Solange Knowles in Johnson Family Vacation. Since the success of Like Mike, Bow Wow has starred in several Hollywood films, including Roll Bounce, The Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Drift and Hurricane Season. He has also made guest appearances on Smallville and Ugly Betty. He was part of the cast of the fifth season of HBO 's Entourage, playing Charlie an up - and - coming comedian, and Eric Murphy 's newest client. He starred in a 2010 comedy film, Lottery Ticket, with Ice Cube. He is working on a documentary on his life titled Who Is Shad Moss?; Bow Wow stated that the documentary goes all the way back to when he was on Death Row Records, and it was released in 2011.
Bow Wow starred in the film version of Madea 's Big Happy Family, released in April 2011. In August 2014, Bow Wow announced that he would star in an upcoming CSI spinoff titled CSI: Cyber.
On October 1, 2013, it was confirmed that Bow Wow was chosen as the current host for BET 's 106 & Park after former hosts Terrence J and Rocsi retired from the show, it can be seen in over 85 million homes in the U.S., Canada, Japan, United Kingdom, Africa, the Caribbean, Germany and South Africa.
In 2016, Bow Wow began hosting a nighttime edition of the Australian Hit Network 's radio show RnB Fridays, titled RnB Friday Nights.
On March 28, 2012, it was announced that Bow Wow was ordered by a court to pay $3,000 a month in child support.
On October 2, 2012, Bow Wow claimed he was broke and only making $4,000 dollars a month and only had $1,500 in his checking account. However, the next day he signed on to be one of the four new co-hosts of BET 's 106 & Park. Later on he would address this by saying;
One thing about me, I 'm a smart guy. Very smart. Things that I do, are for reasons. Things that I do n't do are for reasons. So for myself, I 'm comfortable, very comfortable. For me, it 's all about the work. But as far as rumors, those are people 's opinions -- until you see me on a corner with a cardboard box saying I 'll tap dance for food or canned goods, then you can say that (I 'm broke).
His family supported him through his choice of music as a career. Bow Wow lives in Atlanta, Georgia, along with his mother. Bow Wow has a daughter Shai Moss (born April 27, 2011) with Joie Chavis. Bow Wow was formerly engaged to Erica Mena.
In October 2008, for the U.S. presidential election, Bow Wow led a 15 - city "Walk Across America '' event to register new voters. In 2014, during a charity flag - football game organized by Chris Brown, Bow Wow participated in a celebrity tribute to Ferguson, Missouri police - shooting victim Michael Brown. In 2016, Bow Wow was involved in a controversy on Twitter when he told his followers that he had decided not to vote in the presidential election that year. In response to a suggestion that refusing to vote dishonors the struggle for civil rights in the United States, Moss said that he did not identify with the fight for civil rights because his heritage was "mixed '' and not exclusively black.
On March 15, 2017, Bow Wow, responding to President Donald Trump 's criticism of Snoop Dogg 's music video for "Lavender (Nightfall Remix) '', sent a tweet to Trump in which he threatened to "pimp your wife and make her work for us ''. In less than 24 hours, Bow Wow deleted the offending tweet.
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who planted and harvested crops at mount vernon | Mount Vernon - Wikipedia
Mount Vernon was the plantation house of George Washington, the first President of the United States, and his wife, Martha Dandridge Custis Washington. The estate is situated on the banks of the Potomac River in Fairfax County, Virginia, near Alexandria, across from Prince George 's County, Maryland. The Washington family had owned land in the area since the time of Washington 's great - grandfather in 1674. In 1739 they embarked on an expansion of the estate that continued under George Washington, who came into possession of the estate in 1754, but did not become its sole owner until 1761.
The mansion is built of wood in a loose Palladian style, and was constructed by George Washington in stages between 1758 and 1778. It occupies the site of an earlier, smaller house built by George Washington 's father Augustine, some time between 1726 and 1735. It remained Washington 's country home for the rest of his life. Following his death in 1799, under the ownership of several successive generations of the family, the estate progressively declined as revenues were insufficient to maintain it adequately. In 1858, the house 's historical importance was recognized and it was saved from ruin by The Mount Vernon Ladies ' Association; this philanthropic organization acquired it together with part of the Washington property estate. Escaping the damage suffered by many plantation houses during the American Civil War, Mount Vernon was restored.
Mount Vernon was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1960 and is today listed on the National Register of Historic Places. It is still owned and maintained in trust by The Mount Vernon Ladies ' Association, and is open every day of the year, including Thanksgiving Day, Christmas Day and New Year 's Day. Allowing the public to see the estate is not an innovation, but part of a 200 - year - old tradition started by George Washington himself. In 1794 he wrote: "I have no objection to any sober or orderly person 's gratifying their curiosity in viewing the buildings, Gardens, &ca. about Mount Vernon. ''
When George Washington 's ancestors acquired the estate, it was known as Little Hunting Creek Plantation, after the nearby Little Hunting Creek. However, when Washington 's older half - brother, Lawrence Washington, inherited it, he changed its name to Mount Vernon in honor of Vice Admiral Edward Vernon, famed for the War of Jenkins ' Ear and capture of the Portobelo, Colón. Vernon had been Lawrence 's commanding officer in the British Royal Navy. When George Washington inherited the property, he retained the name.
The current property consists of 500 acres (200 ha); the main buildings, including the house, are near the riverfront.
The present house was built in phases from 1758, by an unknown architect, on the site of the Washingtons ' former farmhouse. This staggered and unplanned evolution is indicated by the off - center main door, which would once have been central to an earlier façade. As completed and seen today, the house is in a loose Palladian style. The principal block, dating from 1758, is a two - storied corps de logis flanked by two single - story secondary wings, built in 1775. These secondary wings, which house the servants hall on the northern side and the kitchen on the southern side, are connected to the corps de logis by symmetrical, quadrant colonnades, built in 1778. The completion of the colonnades cemented the classical Palladian arrangement of the complex and formed a distinct cour d'honneur, known at Mount Vernon as Mansion Circle, giving the house its imposing perspective.
The corps de logis and secondary wings have hipped roofs with dormers. In addition to its second story, the importance of the corps de logis is further emphasized by two large chimneys piercing the roof, and by a cupola surmounting the center of the house; this octagonal focal point has a short spire topped by a gilded dove of peace. This placement of the cupola is more in the earlier Carolean style than Palladian, and was probably incorporated to improve ventilation of the enlarged attic and enhance the overall symmetry of the structure and the two wings; a similar cupola crowns the Governor 's House at Williamsburg, of which Washington would have been aware.
The rooms at Mount Vernon have mostly been restored to their appearance at the time of George and Martha Washington 's occupancy. These rooms include Washington 's study, two dining rooms (the larger known as the New Room), the West Parlour, the Front Parlour, the kitchen and some bedrooms.
The interior design follows the classical concept of the exterior, but owing to the mansion 's piecemeal evolution, the internal architectural features -- the doorcases, mouldings and plasterwork -- are not consistently faithful to one specific period of the 18th - century revival of classical architecture. Instead they range from severe Palladianism to a finer and later neoclassicism in the style of Robert Adam. This varying of the classical style is best exemplified in the doorcases and surrounds of the principal rooms. In the West Parlour and Small Dining rooms there are doorcases complete with ionic columns and full pediments, whereas in the hall and passageways the doors are given broken pediments supported only by an architrave. Many of the rooms are lined with painted panelling and have ceilings ornamented by plasterwork in a Neoclassical style; much of this plasterwork can be attributed to an English craftsman and emigree, John Rawlins, who arrived from London in 1771 bringing with him the interior design motifs then fashionable in the British capital.
Today, visitors to Mount Vernon are shown Washington 's study, a room to which in the eighteenth century only a privileged few were granted entrée. It is a simply furnished room Washington used as a combined bathroom, dressing room and office; the room was so private that few contemporary descriptions exist. Its walls are lined with naturally grained panelling and matching bookcases.
In contrast to the privacy of the study, since Washington 's time, the grandest, most public and principal reception room has been the so - called New Room or Large Dining Room -- a two - storied salon notable for its large Palladian window, occupying the whole of the mansion 's northern elevation, and its fine Neoclassical marble chimneypiece. The history of this chimneypiece to some degree explains the overall restrained style of the house. When it was donated to Washington by the English merchant Samuel Vaughan, Washington was initially reluctant to accept the gift, stating that it was: "too elegant & costly I fear for my own room, & republican stile of living. ''
A determined effort has to be made to restore the rooms and maintain the atmosphere of the eighteenth century; this has been achieved by using original color schemes, and by displaying furniture, carpets and decorative objects which are contemporary to the house. Throughout, George Washington and his family are evident through portraits and former possessions, expressing the preservation of the mansion as a personal memorial to the Washingtons as well as a nationally important museum.
The gardens and grounds contain English boxwoods, taken from cuttings sent by Major General Henry Lee III ("Light Horse Harry '' Lee, a Governor of Virginia and the father of Robert E. Lee), which were planted in 1786 by George Washington and now crowd the entry path. A carriage road skirts a grassy bowling green to approach the mansion entrance. To each side of the green is a garden, contained by a red brick wall. These Colonial Revival gardens grew the household 's vegetables, fruit and other perishable items for consumption. The upper garden, located to the north, is bordered by the greenhouse. Ha - ha walls are used to separate the working farm from the pleasure grounds that Washington created for his family and guests. The overseer 's quarter, spinning room, salt house, and gardener 's house are between the upper garden and the mansion.
The lower garden, or southern garden, is bordered on the east by the storehouse and clerk 's quarters, smokehouse, wash house, laundry yard, and coach house. A paddock and stable are on the southern border of the garden; east of them, a little down the hillside, is the icehouse. The original tomb is located along the river. The newer tomb in which the bodies of George and Martha Washington have rested since 1831 is south of the fruit garden; the slave burial ground is nearby, a little farther down the hillside. A "Forest Trail '' runs through woods down to a recreated pioneer farm site on low ground near the river; the 4 - acre (16,000 m) working farm includes a re-creation of Washington 's 16 - sided treading barn.
A Museum and Education Center are on the grounds and exhibit examples of Washington 's survey equipment, weapons, and clothing, as well as dentures worn by the first President.
The Fred W. Smith National Library for the Study of George Washington opened in September 2013. The Library fosters new scholarship about George Washington and safeguards original Washington books and manuscripts. The site is open for scholarship by appointment only.
In 1674, John Washington (the great - grandfather of President Washington) and his friend Nicholas Spencer came into possession of the land from which Mount Vernon plantation would be carved, originally known by its Indian name of Epsewasson. The successful patent on the acreage was due largely to Spencer, who acted as agent for his cousin Thomas Colepeper, 2nd Baron Colepeper, the English landowner who controlled the Northern Neck of Virginia, in which the tract lay.
When John Washington died in 1677, his son Lawrence, George Washington 's grandfather, inherited his father 's stake in the property. In 1690, he agreed to formally divide the estimated 5,000 acre (20 km) estate with the heirs of Nicholas Spencer, who had died the previous year. The Spencers took the larger southern half bordering Dogue Creek in the September 1674 land grant from Lord Culpeper, leaving the Washingtons the portion along Little Hunting Creek. (The Spencer heirs paid Lawrence Washington 2,500 lb (1,100 kg) of tobacco as compensation for their choice.)
Lawrence Washington died in 1698, bequeathing the property to his daughter Mildred. On 16 April 1726, she agreed to a one - year lease on the estate to her brother Augustine Washington, George Washington 's father, for a peppercorn rent; a month later the lease was superseded by Augustine 's purchase of the property for £ 180. He almost certainly built the original house on the site some time between then and 1735, when he and his family moved from Pope 's Creek to Eppsewasson, which he renamed Little Hunting Creek. The original stone foundations of what appears to have been a two - roomed house with a further two rooms in a half - story above are still partially visible in the present house 's cellar.
Augustine Washington recalled his eldest son Lawrence (George 's half - brother) home from The Appleby School, England, in 1738 and set him up on the family 's Little Hunting Creek tobacco plantation, thereby allowing Augustine to move his family back to Fredericksburg at the end of 1739.
In 1739, Lawrence, having reached his majority (age 21), began buying up parcels of land from the adjoining Spencer tract, starting with a plot around the Grist Mill on Dogue Creek. In mid-1740 Lawrence received a coveted officer 's commission in the Regular British Army, and made preparations to go off to war in the Caribbean with the newly formed American Regiment to fight in the War of Jenkins ' Ear. He served under Admiral Edward Vernon; returning home, he named his estate after his commander.
Lawrence died in July 1752, and his will stipulated that his widow should own a life estate in Mount Vernon, the remainder interest falling to his half - brother George; George Washington was already living at Mount Vernon and probably managing the plantation. Lawrence 's widow, Anne Fairfax, remarried into the Lee family and moved out. Following the death of Anne and Lawrence 's only surviving child in 1754, George, as executor of his brother 's estate, arranged to lease "Mount Vernon '' (or, more properly, his sister - in - law 's life estate) that December. Upon the death of Anne Fairfax in 1761, he succeeded to the remainder interest and became sole owner of the property.
In 1758, Washington began the first of two major additions and improvements by raising the house to two - and - a half stories. The second expansion was begun during the 1770s, shortly before the outbreak of the Revolutionary War. Washington had rooms added to the north and south ends, unifying the whole with the addition of the cupola and two - story piazza overlooking the Potomac River. The final expansion increased the mansion to 21 rooms and an area of 11,028 square feet. The great majority of the work was performed by African American slaves and artisans.
Though no architect is known to have designed Mount Vernon, some attribute the design to John Ariss (1725 -- 1799), a prominent Virginia architect who designed Paynes Church in Fairfax County (now destroyed) and likely Mount Airy in Richmond County. A friend of George Washington, to whom he leased his home, Ariss was the great - grandson of Col. Nicholas Spencer, the original patentee of Mount Vernon with the Washingtons. Other sources credit Col. Richard Blackburn, who also designed Rippon Lodge in Prince William County and the first Falls Church. Blackburn 's granddaughter Anne married Bushrod Washington, George 's nephew, and is interred at the Washingtons ' tomb on the grounds. Most architectural historians believe that the design of Mount Vernon is solely attributable to Washington alone and that the involvement of any other architects is based on conjecture.
Washington had been expanding the estate by the purchase of surrounding parcels of land since the late 1750s, and was still adding to the estate well into the 1780s. From 1759 until the Revolutionary War, Washington, who at the time aspired to become a prominent agriculturist, had five separate farms as part of his estate. He took a scientific approach to farming and kept extensive and meticulous records of both labor and results.
In a letter dated 20 September 1765, Washington writes about receiving poor returns for his tobacco production:
Can it be otherwise than a little mortifying then to find, that we, who raise none but Sweetscented Tobacco, and endeavour I may venture to add, to be careful in the management of it, however we fail in the execution, and who by a close and fixed corrispondance with you, contribute so largely to the dispatch of your Ships in this Country shoud (sic) meet with such unprofitable returns?
In the same letter he asks about the prices of flax and hemp, with a view to their production:
In order thereto you woud do me a singular favour in advising of the general price one might expect for good Hemp in your Port watered and prepared according to Act of Parliament, with an estimate of the freight, and all other Incident charges pr. Tonn that I may form some Idea of the profits resulting from the growth. I should be very glad to know at the sametime how rough and undressd Flax has generally, and may probably sell; for this year I have made an Essay in both, and altho I suffer pretty considerably by the attempt, owing principally to the severity of the Drougth (sic), and my inexperience in the management I am not altogether discouraged from a further prosecution of the Scheme provided I find the Sales with you are not clogd with too much difficulty and expence.
The tobacco market had declined and many planters in northern Virginia converted to mixed crops. Like them, by 1766 Washington had ceased growing tobacco at Mount Vernon and replaced the crop with wheat, corn, and other grains. Besides hemp and flax, he experimented with 60 other crops including cotton and silk. He also derived income from a new gristmill which produced cornmeal and flour for export and also ground neighbors ' grain for fees. Washington similarly sold the services of the estate 's looms and blacksmith. He built and operated a small fishing fleet, permitting Mount Vernon to export fish. Washington also practiced the selective breeding of sheep in an effort to produce better quality wool.
The new crops were less labor - intensive than tobacco; hence, the estate had a surplus of slaves. But Washington refused to break up families for sale. Washington began to hire skilled indentured servants from Europe to train the redundant slaves for service on and off the estate. Following his service in the war, Washington returned to Mount Vernon and in 1785 -- 1786 spent a great deal of effort improving the landscaping of the estate. It is estimated that during his two terms as President of the United States (1789 -- 1797), Washington spent a total of 434 days in residence at Mount Vernon. After his presidency, Washington tended to repairs to the buildings, socializing, and further gardening.
In his will, written several months before his death in December 1799, Washington left directions for the emancipation after Martha Washington 's death, of all the slaves who belonged to him. Of the 318 slaves at Mount Vernon in 1799, a little less than half, 123 individuals, belonged to George Washington and were set free under the terms of his will.
When Martha Washington 's first husband, Daniel Parke Custis, died without a will, she received a life interest in one - third of his estate, including the slaves. Neither George nor Martha Washington could free these slaves by law. Upon her death, they reverted to the Custis estate and were divided among her grandchildren. By 1799, 153 slaves at Mount Vernon were part of this dower property.
In accordance with state law, George Washington stipulated in his will that elderly slaves or those who were too sick to work were to be supported throughout their lives by his estate. Children without parents, or those whose families were too poor or indifferent to see to their education, were to be bound out (or apprenticed) to masters and mistresses who would teach them reading, writing, and a useful trade, until they were ultimately freed at the age of twenty - five.
In December 1800, Martha Washington signed a deed of manumission for her deceased husband 's slaves, a transaction which is recorded in the abstracts of the Fairfax County, Virginia, Court Records. The slaves finally received their freedom on 1 January 1801.
On 12 December 1799, Washington spent several hours riding over the plantation, in snow, hail and freezing rain. He ate his supper later that evening without changing from his wet clothes. The following day, he awoke with a severe sore throat (either quinsy or acute epiglottitis) and became increasingly hoarse as the day progressed. All the available medical treatments failed to improve his condition, and he died at Mount Vernon at around 10pm on Saturday, 14 December 1799, aged 67.
On 18 December 1799, a funeral was held at Mount Vernon, where his body was interred. Congress passed a joint resolution to construct a marble monument in the United States Capitol for his body, an initiative supported by Martha. In December 1800, the United States House passed an appropriations bill for $200,000 to build the mausoleum, which was to be a pyramid with a base 100 feet (30 m) square. Southerners who wanted his body to remain at Mount Vernon defeated the measure.
In accordance with his will, Washington was entombed in a family crypt he had built upon first inheriting the estate. It was in disrepair by 1799, so Washington 's will also requested that a new, larger tomb be built. This was not executed until 1831, the centennial of his birth. The need for a new tomb was confirmed when an unsuccessful attempt was made to steal his skull (See: Attempted theft of George Washington 's head). A joint Congressional committee in early 1832 debated the removal of Washington 's body from Mount Vernon to a crypt in the Capitol, built by Charles Bulfinch in the 1820s. Southern opposition was intense, exacerbated by an ever - growing rift between North and South. Congressman Wiley Thompson of Georgia expressed the Southerners ' fears when he said:
Remove the remains of our venerated Washington from their association with the remains of his consort and his ancestors from Mount Vernon and from his native State, deposit them in this capitol, and then let a severance of the Union occur and behold the remains of Washington on a shore foreign to his native soil.
Washington 's remains were finally moved on 7 October 1837, along with those of his wife, Martha, to the new tomb presented by John Struthers of Philadelphia. Other members of the Washington family are interred in an inner vault, behind the vestibule containing the sarcophagi of George and Martha Washington.
Following Martha Washington 's death in 1802, George Washington 's will was carried out in accordance with the terms of his bequests. The largest part of his estate, which included both his papers and Mount Vernon, passed to his nephew, Bushrod Washington (an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States). The younger Washington and his wife then moved to Mount Vernon.
Bushrod Washington did not inherit much cash and was unable to support the upkeep of the estate 's mansion on the proceeds from the property and his Supreme Court salary. He sold some of his own slaves to gain working capital. However, the farms ' low revenues left him short, and he was unable to adequately maintain the mansion.
Following Bushrod Washington 's death in 1829, ownership of the plantation passed to George Washington 's great - grandnephew, John Augustine Washington III. As his funds dwindled and the wear and tear of hundreds of visitors began to take its toll, Washington could do little to maintain the mansion and its surroundings. Washington suggested to the United States Congress that the federal government purchase the mansion. Little interest was paid to Washington 's offer. Washington traveled to Richmond where he was equally unsuccessful in appealing to the Virginia General Assembly for the state to purchase the mansion. The mansion 's decline continued.
In 1858, Washington sold the mansion and a portion of the estate 's land to the Mount Vernon Ladies ' Association, which was under the leadership of Ann Pamela Cunningham. The Association paid the final installment of the purchase price of $200,000 ($5,714,285.71 in 2014 dollars) on 9 December 1859, taking possession on 22 February 1860. The estate served as a neutral ground for both sides during the American Civil War, although fighting raged across the nearby countryside. Troops from both the Union and the Confederacy toured the building. The two women caretakers asked that the soldiers leave their arms behind and either change to civilian clothes or at least cover their uniforms. They usually did as asked.
The mansion has been fully restored by the Association, independent of the US government, with no tax dollars expended to support the 500 - acre (2.0 km) estate, its educational programs or activities.
Harrison Howell Dodge became resident superintendent in 1885. During his 52 years ' overseeing the estate, he doubled the facility 's acreage, improved the grounds, and added many historic artifacts to the collections. Dodge reviewed George Washington 's writings about the estate, visited other Colonial - era gardens, and traveled to England to see gardens dating from the Georgian period. Using that knowledge, Dodge oversaw the restoration of the site and put in place a number of improvements Washington had planned but never implemented.
Charles Wall was assistant superintendent from 1929 to 1937, then resident superintendent for 39 years. He oversaw restoration of the house and planted greenery consistent with what was used in the 18th century. In 1974, a campaign he organized was successful in preserving as parkland areas in Maryland across the Potomac River from Mount Vernon, as part of an effort to retain the bucolic vista from the house. His office was the same one used in the 18th century by Washington himself.
On 7 November 2007, President George W. Bush hosted French President Nicolas Sarkozy for a general press conference on the front lawn of Mount Vernon following Sarkozy 's address to a joint session of Congress earlier that day.
On 30 March 2007, the estate officially opened a reconstruction of George Washington 's distillery. This fully functional replica received special legislation from the Virginia General Assembly to produce up to 5,000 US gal (19,000 l) of whiskey annually, for sale only at the Mount Vernon gift shop. The construction of this operational distillery cost $2.1 million, and is located on the site of Washington 's original distillery, a short distance from his mansion on the Potomac River. Frank Coleman, spokesman for the Distilled Spirits Council that funded the reconstruction, said the distillery "will become the equivalent of a national distillery museum '' and serve as a gateway to the American Whiskey Trail.
As of 2012, since first opening to the paying public in 1860, the estate had received more than 80 million visitors. In addition to the mansion, visitors can see original and reconstructed outbuildings and barns (including slaves ' quarters), an operational blacksmith shop, and the Pioneer Farm. Each year on Christmas Day, Aladdin the Christmas Camel recreates Washington 's 1787 hiring of a camel for 18 shillings to entertain his guests with an example of the animal that brought the Three Wise Men to Bethlehem to visit the newborn Jesus.
Mount Vernon remains a privately owned property. Its income is derived from charitable donations and the sales of tickets, produce and goods to visitors. Its non-profit owners, the Mount Vernon Ladies ' Association, continue their mission "to preserve, restore, and manage the estate of George Washington to the highest standards and to educate visitors and people throughout the world about the life and legacies of George Washington, so that his example of character and leadership will continue to inform and inspire future generations. ''
Mount Vernon was featured on U.S. postage stamps in 1937 and again in 1956; it was memorialized in the latter Liberty Issue of stamps as a national shrine with a 1.5 - cent stamp on 22 February 1956. The Liberty Issue was originally planned to honor six presidents, six famous Americans, and six historic national shrines. The first of the shrines is the Mount Vernon issue, a view of Washington 's home facing the Potomac River.
On 19 December 1960, Mount Vernon was designated a National Historic Landmark and later listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Development and improvement of the estate is an ongoing concern. Following a $110 million fundraising campaign, two new buildings designed by GWWO, Inc. / Architects were opened in 2006 as venues for additional background on George Washington and the American Revolution.
In March 2014, Mount Vernon awarded its first Cyrus A. Ansary Prize for Courage and Character to former president George H.W. Bush. Ansary is a member of the Life Guard Society.
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which of the following is highest level of cognitive ability | Bloom 's taxonomy - wikipedia
Bloom 's taxonomy is a set of three hierarchical models used to classify educational learning objectives into levels of complexity and specificity. The three lists cover the learning objectives in cognitive, affective and sensory domains. The cognitive domain list has been the primary focus of most traditional education and is frequently used to structure curriculum learning objectives, assessments and activities.
The models were named after Benjamin Bloom, who chaired the committee of educators that devised the taxonomy. He also edited the first volume of the standard text, Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: The Classification of Educational Goals.
Although named after Bloom, the publication of Taxonomy of Educational Objectives followed a series of conferences from 1949 to 1953, which were designed to improve communication between educators on the design of curricula and examinations.
The first volume of the taxonomy, Handbook I: Cognitive was published in 1956, and in 1964 Handbook II: Affective. A revised version of the taxonomy for the cognitive domain was created in 2001.
In the original version of the taxonomy, the cognitive domain is broken into the following six levels of objectives. In the 2001 revised edition of Bloom 's taxonomy, the levels are slightly different: Remember, Understand, Apply, Analyze, Evaluate, Create (rather than Synthesize).
Remembering involves recognizing or remembering facts, terms, basic concepts, or answers without necessarily understanding what they mean. Its characteristics may include:
Example: Name three common varieties of apple.
Comprehension involves demonstrating understanding of facts and ideas by organizing, comparing, translating, interpreting, giving descriptions, and stating the main ideas.
Example: Compare the identifying characteristics of a Golden Delicious apple with a Granny Smith apple.
Applying involves using acquired knowledge -- solving problems in new situations by applying acquired knowledge, facts, techniques and rules. Learners should be able to use prior knowledge to solve problems, identify connections and relationships and how they apply in new situations.
Example: Would apples prevent scurvy, a disease caused by a deficiency in vitamin C?
Analyzing involves examining and breaking information into component parts, determining how the parts relate to one another, identifying motives or causes, making inferences, and finding evidence to support generalizations. Its characteristics include:
Example: List four ways of serving foods made with apples and explain which ones have the highest health benefits. Provide references to support your statements.
Synthesizing involves building a structure or pattern from diverse elements; it also refers to the act of putting parts together to form a whole. Its characteristics include:
Example: Convert an "unhealthy '' recipe for apple pie to a "healthy '' recipe by replacing your choice of ingredients. Explain the health benefits of using the ingredients you chose vs. the original ones.
Evaluating involves presenting and defending opinions by making judgments about information, the validity of ideas, or quality of work based on a set of criteria. Its characteristics include:
Example: Which kinds of apples are best for baking a pie, and why?
Skills in the affective domain describe the way people react emotionally and their ability to feel other living things ' pain or joy. Affective objectives typically target the awareness and growth in attitudes, emotion, and feelings.
There are five levels in the affective domain moving through the lowest - order processes to the highest:
Skills in the psychomotor domain describe the ability to physically manipulate a tool or instrument like a hand or a hammer. Psychomotor objectives usually focus on change and / or development in behavior and / or skills.
Bloom and his colleagues never created subcategories for skills in the psychomotor domain, but since then other educators have created their own psychomotor taxonomies. Simpson (1972) proposed the following levels:
The ability to use sensory cues to guide motor activity: This ranges from sensory stimulation, through cue selection, to translation.
Examples: Detects non-verbal communication cues. Estimate where a ball will land after it is thrown and then moving to the correct location to catch the ball. Adjusts heat of the stove to correct temperature by smell and taste of food. Adjusts the height of the forks on a forklift by comparing where the forks are in relation to the pallet.
Key words: chooses, describes, detects, differentiates, distinguishes, identifies, isolates, relates, selects.
Readiness to act: It includes mental, physical, and emotional sets. These three sets are dispositions that predetermine a person 's response to different situations (sometimes called mindsets). This subdivision of psychomotor is closely related with the "responding to phenomena '' subdivision of the affective domain.
Examples: Knows and acts upon a sequence of steps in a manufacturing process. Recognizes his or her abilities and limitations. Shows desire to learn a new process (motivation).
Key words: begins, displays, explains, moves, proceeds, reacts, shows, states, volunteers.
The early stages of learning a complex skill that includes imitation and trial and error: Adequacy of performance is achieved by practicing.
Examples: Performs a mathematical equation as demonstrated. Follows instructions to build a model. Responds to hand - signals of the instructor while learning to operate a forklift.
Key words: copies, traces, follows, react, reproduce, responds.
The intermediate stage in learning a complex skill: Learned responses have become habitual and the movements can be performed with some confidence and proficiency.
Examples: Use a personal computer. Repair a leaking tap. Drive a car.
Key words: assembles, calibrates, constructs, dismantles, displays, fastens, fixes, grinds, heats, manipulates, measures, mends, mixes, organizes, sketches.
The skillful performance of motor acts that involve complex movement patterns: Proficiency is indicated by a quick, accurate, and highly coordinated performance, requiring a minimum of energy. This category includes performing without hesitation and automatic performance. For example, players will often utter sounds of satisfaction or expletives as soon as they hit a tennis ball or throw a football because they can tell by the feel of the act what the result will produce.
Examples: Maneuvers a car into a tight parallel parking spot. Operates a computer quickly and accurately. Displays competence while playing the piano.
Key words: assembles, builds, calibrates, constructs, dismantles, displays, fastens, fixes, grinds, heats, manipulates, measures, mends, mixes, organizes, sketches. (Note: The key words are the same as in mechanism, but will have adverbs or adjectives that indicate that the performance is quicker, better, more accurate, etc.)
Skills are well developed and the individual can modify movement patterns to fit special requirements.
Examples: Responds effectively to unexpected experiences. Modifies instruction to meet the needs of the learners. Performs a task with a machine that was not originally intended for that purpose (the machine is not damaged and there is no danger in performing the new task).
Key words: adapts, alters, changes, rearranges, reorganizes, revises, varies.
Creating new movement patterns to fit a particular situation or specific problem: Learning outcomes emphasize creativity based upon highly developed skills.
Examples: Constructs a new set or pattern of movements organized around a novel concept or theory. Develops a new and comprehensive training program. Creates a new gymnastic routine.
Key words: arranges, builds, combines, composes, constructs, creates, designs, initiate, makes, originates.
In the appendix to Handbook I, there is a definition of knowledge which serves as the apex for an alternative, summary classification of the educational goals. This is significant as the taxonomy has been called upon significantly in other fields such as knowledge management, potentially out of context. "Knowledge, as defined here, involves the recall of specifics and universals, the recall of methods and processes, or the recall of a pattern, structure, or setting. ''
The taxonomy is set out as follows:
As Morshead (1965) pointed out on the publication of the second volume, the classification was not a properly constructed taxonomy, as it lacked a systemic rationale of construction.
This was subsequently acknowledged in the discussion of the original taxonomy in its 2000 revision, and the taxonomy was reestablished on more systematic lines. It is generally considered that the role the taxonomy played in systematising a field was more important than any perceived lack of rigour in its construction.
Some critiques of the taxonomy 's cognitive domain admit the existence of these six categories but question the existence of a sequential, hierarchical link. Often, educators view the taxonomy as a hierarchy and may mistakenly dismiss the lowest levels as unworthy of teaching. The learning of the lower levels enables the building of skills in the higher levels of the taxonomy, and in some fields, the most important skills are in the lower levels (such as identification of species of plants and animals in the field of natural history). Instructional scaffolding of higher - level skills from lower - level skills is an application of Vygotskian constructivism.
Some consider the three lowest levels as hierarchically ordered, but the three higher levels as parallel. Others say that it is sometimes better to move to Application before introducing concepts, the idea is to create a learning environment where the real world context comes first and the theory second to promote the student 's grasp of the phenomenon, concept or event. This thinking would seem to relate to the method of problem - based learning.
Furthermore, the distinction between the categories can be seen as artificial since any given cognitive task may entail a number of processes. It could even be argued that any attempt to nicely categorize cognitive processes into clean, cut - and - dried classifications undermines the holistic, highly connective and interrelated nature of cognition. This is a criticism that can be directed at taxonomies of mental processes in general.
Bloom 's taxonomy serves as the backbone of many teaching philosophies, in particular, those that lean more towards skills rather than content. These educators view content as a vessel for teaching skills. The emphasis on higher - order thinking inherent in such philosophies is based on the top levels of the taxonomy including analysis, evaluation, synthesis and creation. Bloom 's taxonomy can be used as a teaching tool to help balance assessment and evaluative questions in class, assignments and texts to ensure all orders of thinking are exercised in students ' learning, including aspects of information searching.
The skill development that takes place at these higher orders of thinking interacts well with a developing global focus on multiple literacies and modalities in learning and the emerging field of integrated disciplines. The ability to interface with and create media would draw upon skills from multiple levels of the taxonomy including analysis, application and creation. Bloom 's taxonomy (and the revised taxonomy) continues to be a source of inspiration for educational philosophy and for developing new teaching strategies.
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which dynasty was in power during islams golden age | Islamic golden age - wikipedia
The Islamic Golden Age is the era in the history of Islam, traditionally dated from the 8th century to the 14th century, during which much of the historically Islamic world was ruled by various caliphates, and science, economic development and cultural works flourished. This period is traditionally understood to have begun during the reign of the Abbasid caliph Harun al - Rashid (786 to 809) with the inauguration of the House of Wisdom in Baghdad, where scholars from various parts of the world with different cultural backgrounds were mandated to gather and translate all of the world 's classical knowledge into the Arabic language. This period is traditionally said to have ended with the collapse of the Abbasid caliphate due to Mongol invasions and the Siege of Baghdad in 1258 AD. A few contemporary scholars place the end of the Islamic Golden Age as late as the end of 15th to 16th centuries.
The metaphor of a golden age began to be applied in 19th - century literature about Islamic history, in the context of the western aesthetic fashion known as Orientalism. The author of a Handbook for Travelers in Syria and Palestine in 1868 observed that the most beautiful mosques of Damascus were "like Mohammedanism itself, now rapidly decaying '' and relics of "the golden age of Islam ''.
There is no unambiguous definition of the term, and depending on whether it is used with a focus on cultural or on military achievement, it may be taken to refer to rather disparate time spans. Thus, one author would have it extend to the duration of the caliphate, or to "six and a half centuries '', while another would have it end after only a few decades of Rashidun conquests, with the death of Umar and the First Fitna.
During the early 20th century, the term was used only occasionally, and often referred to the early military successes of the Rashidun caliphs. It was only in the second half of the 20th century that the term came to be used with any frequency, now mostly referring to the cultural flourishing of science and mathematics under the caliphates during the 9th to 11th centuries (between the establishment of organised scholarship in the House of Wisdom and the beginning of the crusades), but often extended to include part of the late 8th or the 12th to early 13th centuries. Definitions may still vary considerably. Equating the end of the golden age with the end of the caliphates is a convenient cut - off point based on a historical landmark, but it can be argued that Islamic culture had entered a gradual decline much earlier; thus, Khan (2003) identifies the proper golden age as being the two centuries between 750 -- 950, arguing that the beginning loss of territories under Harun al - Rashid worsened after the death of al - Ma'mun in 833, and that the crusades in the 12th century resulted in a weakening of the Islamic empire from which it never recovered.
The various Quranic injunctions and Hadith, which place values on education and emphasize the importance of acquiring knowledge, played a vital role in influencing the Muslims of this age in their search for knowledge and the development of the body of science.
The Islamic Empire heavily patronized scholars. The money spent on the Translation Movement for some translations is estimated to be equivalent to about twice the annual research budget of the United Kingdom 's Medical Research Council. The best scholars and notable translators, such as Hunayn ibn Ishaq, had salaries that are estimated to be the equivalent of professional athletes today. The House of Wisdom was a library established in Abbasid - era Baghdad, Iraq by Caliph al - Mansur.
During this period, the Muslims showed a strong interest in assimilating the scientific knowledge of the civilizations that had been conquered. Many classic works of antiquity that might otherwise have been lost were translated from Greek, Persian, Indian, Chinese, Egyptian, and Phoenician civilizations into Arabic and Persian, and later in turn translated into Turkish, Hebrew, and Latin.
Christians, especially the adherents of the Church of the East (Nestorians), contributed to Islamic civilization during the reign of the Ummayads and the Abbasids by translating works of Greek philosophers and ancient science to Syriac and afterwards to Arabic. They also excelled in many fields, in particular philosophy, science (such as Hunayn ibn Ishaq, Thabit Ibn Qurra, Yusuf Al - Khuri, Al Himsi, Qusta ibn Luqa, Masawaiyh, Patriarch Eutychius, and Jabril ibn Bukhtishu) and theology. For a long period of time the personal physicians of the Abbasid Caliphs were often Assyrian Christians. Among the most prominent Christian families to serve as physicians to the caliphs were the Bukhtishu dynasty.
Throughout the 4th to 7th centuries, Christian scholarly work in the Greek and Syriac languages was either newly translated or had been preserved since the Hellenistic period. Among the prominent centers of learning and transmission of classical wisdom were Christian colleges such as the School of Nisibis and the School of Edessa, the pagan University of Harran and the renowned hospital and medical academy of Jundishapur, which was the intellectual, theological and scientific center of the Church of the East. The House of Wisdom was founded in Baghdad in 825, modelled after the Academy of Gondishapur. It was led by Christian physician Hunayn ibn Ishaq, with the support of Byzantine medicine. Many of the most important philosophical and scientific works of the ancient world were translated, including the work of Galen, Hippocrates, Plato, Aristotle, Ptolemy and Archimedes. Many scholars of the House of Wisdom were of Christian background.
With a new and easier writing system, and the introduction of paper, information was democratized to the extent that, for probably the first time in history, it became possible to make a living from simply writing and selling books. The use of paper spread from China into Muslim regions in the eighth century, arriving in Al - Andalus on the Iberian peninsula (modern Spain and Portugal) in the 10th century. It was easier to manufacture than parchment, less likely to crack than papyrus, and could absorb ink, making it difficult to erase and ideal for keeping records. Islamic paper makers devised assembly - line methods of hand - copying manuscripts to turn out editions far larger than any available in Europe for centuries. It was from these countries that the rest of the world learned to make paper from linen.
Among the various countries and cultures conquered through successive Islamic conquests, a remarkable number of scientists originated from Persia, who contributed immensely to the scientific flourishing of the Islamic Golden Age. According to Bernard Lewis: "Culturally, politically, and most remarkable of all even religiously, the Persian contribution to this new Islamic civilization is of immense importance. The work of Iranians can be seen in every field of cultural endeavor, including Arabic poetry, to which poets of Iranian origin composing their poems in Arabic made a very significant contribution. ''
Science, medicine, philosophy and technology in the newly Islamized Iranian society was influenced by and based on the scientific model of the major pre-Islamic Iranian universities in the Sassanian Empire. During this period hundreds of scholars and scientists vastly contributed to technology, science and medicine, later influencing the rise of European science during the Renaissance.
The centrality of scripture and its study in the Islamic tradition helped to make education a central pillar of the religion in virtually all times and places in the history of Islam. The importance of learning in the Islamic tradition is reflected in a number of hadiths attributed to Muhammad, including one that instructs the faithful to "seek knowledge, even in China ''. This injunction was seen apply particularly to scholars, but also to some extent to the wider Muslim public, as exemplified by the dictum of Al - Zarnuji, "learning is prescribed for us all ''. While it is impossible to calculate literacy rates in pre-modern Islamic societies, it is almost certain that they were relatively high, at least in comparison to their European counterparts.
Education would begin at a young age with study of Arabic and the Quran, either at home or in a primary school, which was often attached to a mosque. Some students would then proceed to training in tafsir (Quranic exegesis) and fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence), which was seen as particularly important. Education focused on memorization, but also trained the more advanced students to participate as readers and writers in the tradition of commentary on the studied texts. It also involved a process of socialization of aspiring scholars, who came from virtually all social backgrounds, into the ranks of the ulema.
For the first few centuries of Islam, educational settings were entirely informal, but beginning in the 11th and 12th centuries, the ruling elites began to establish institutions of higher religious learning known as madrasas in an effort to secure support and cooperation of the ulema. Madrasas soon multiplied throughout the Islamic world, which helped to spread Islamic learning beyond urban centers and to unite diverse Islamic communities in a shared cultural project. Nonetheless, instruction remained focused on individual relationships between students and their teacher. The formal attestation of educational attainment, ijaza, was granted by a particular scholar rather than the institution, and it placed its holder within a genealogy of scholars, which was the only recognized hierarchy in the educational system. While formal studies in madrasas were open only to men, women of prominent urban families were commonly educated in private settings and many of them received and later issued ijazas in hadith studies, calligraphy and poetry recitation. Working women learned religious texts and practical skills primarily from each other, though they also received some instruction together with men in mosques and private homes.
Muslims distinguished disciplines inherited from pre-Islamic civilizations, such as philosophy and medicine, which they called "sciences of the ancients '' or "rational sciences '', from Islamic religious sciences. Sciences of the former type flourished for several centuries, and their transmission formed part of the educational framework in classical and medieval Islam. In some cases, they were supported by institutions such as the House of Wisdom in Baghdad, but more often they were transmitted informally from teacher to student.
The University of Al Karaouine, founded in 859 AD, is arguably the world 's oldest degree - granting university. The Al - Azhar University was another early university. Islamic "universities '' of the Middle Ages were in fact madrasas, centers for the study of religious texts and law. Only after the Arabs came in contact with the institutions of higher learning of the Christian Greek Roman Empire during their conquests did the madrasas begin to teach other subjects as well - but the only degree granted remained that of expert in religious law: "There was no other ' doctorate ' in any other field, no license to teach a field except that of the religious law ''. The madrasa is one of the relics of the Fatimid caliphate. The Fatimids traced their descent to Muhammad 's daughter Fatimah and named the institution using a variant of her honorific title Al - Zahra (the brilliant). Organized instruction in the Al - Azhar Mosque began in 978.
Juristic thought gradually developed in study circles, where independent scholars met to learn from a local master and discuss religious topics. At first, these circles were fluid in their membership, but with time distinct regional legal schools crystallized around shared sets of methodological principles. As the boundaries of the schools became clearly delineated, the authority of their doctrinal tenets came to be vested in a master jurist from earlier times, who was henceforth identified as the school 's founder. In the course of the first three centuries of Islam, all legal schools came to accept the broad outlines of classical legal theory, according to which Islamic law had to be firmly rooted in the Quran and hadith.
The classical theory of Islamic jurisprudence elaborates how scriptures should be interpreted from the standpoint of linguistics and rhetoric. It also comprises methods for establishing authenticity of hadith and for determining when the legal force of a scriptural passage is abrogated by a passage revealed at a later date. In addition to the Quran and sunnah, the classical theory of Sunni fiqh recognizes two other sources of law: juristic consensus (ijmaʿ) and analogical reasoning (qiyas). It therefore studies the application and limits of analogy, as well as the value and limits of consensus, along with other methodological principles, some of which are accepted by only certain legal schools. This interpretive apparatus is brought together under the rubric of ijtihad, which refers to a jurist 's exertion in an attempt to arrive at a ruling on a particular question. The theory of Twelver Shia jurisprudence parallels that of Sunni schools with some differences, such as recognition of reason (ʿaql) as a source of law in place of qiyas and extension of the notion of sunnah to include traditions of the imams.
The body of substantive Islamic law was created by independent jurists (muftis). Their legal opinions (fatwas) were taken into account by ruler - appointed judges who presided over qāḍī 's courts, and by maẓālim courts, which were controlled by the ruler 's council and administered criminal law.
Classical Islamic theology emerged from an early doctrinal controversy which pitted the ahl al - hadith movement, led by Ahmad ibn Hanbal, who considered the Quran and authentic hadith to be the only acceptable authority in matters of faith, against Mu'tazilites and other theological currents, who developed theological doctrines using rationalistic methods. In 833 the caliph al - Ma'mun tried to impose Mu'tazilite theology on all religious scholars and instituted an inquisition (mihna), but the attempts to impose a caliphal writ in matters of religious orthodoxy ultimately failed. This controversy persisted until al - Ash'ari (874 - 936) found a middle ground between Mu'tazilite rationalism and Hanbalite literalism, using the rationalistic methods championed by Mu'tazilites to defend most substantive tenets maintained by ahl al - hadith. A rival compromise between rationalism and literalism emerged from the work of al - Maturidi (d.c. 944), and, although a minority of scholars remained faithful to the early ahl al - hadith creed, Ash'ari and Maturidi theology came to dominate Sunni Islam from the 10th century on.
Ibn Sina (Avicenna) and Ibn Rushd (Averroes) played a major role in saving the works of Aristotle, whose ideas came to dominate the non-religious thought of the Christian and Muslim worlds. According to the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, translation of philosophical texts from Arabic to Latin in Western Europe "led to the transformation of almost all philosophical disciplines in the medieval Latin world ''. The influence of Islamic philosophers in Europe was particularly strong in natural philosophy, psychology and metaphysics, though it also influenced the study of logic and ethics.
Avicenna argued his "Floating man '' thought experiment concerning self - awareness, in which a man prevented of sense experience by being blindfolded and free falling would still be aware of his existence.
In epistemology, Ibn Tufail wrote the novel Hayy ibn Yaqdhan and in response Ibn al - Nafis wrote the novel Theologus Autodidactus. Both were concerning autodidacticism as illuminated through the life of a feral child spontaneously generated in a cave on a desert island.
Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al - Khwārizmī played a significant role in the development of algebra, arithmetic and Hindu - Arabic numerals.
Islamic art makes use of geometric patterns and symmetries in many of its art forms, notably in girih tilings. These are formed using a set of five tile shapes, namely a regular decagon, an elongated hexagon, a bow tie, a rhombus, and a regular pentagon. All the sides of these tiles have the same length; and all their angles are multiples of 36 ° (π / 5 radians), offering fivefold and tenfold symmetries. The tiles are decorated with strapwork lines (girih), generally more visible than the tile boundaries. In 2007, the physicists Peter Lu and Paul Steinhardt argued that girih from the 15th century resembled quasicrystalline Penrose tilings. Elaborate geometric zellige tilework is a distinctive element in Moroccan architecture. Muqarnas vaults are three - dimensional but were designed in two dimensions with drawings of geometrical cells.
Ibn Muʿādh al - Jayyānī is one of several Islamic mathematicians to whom the law of sines is attributed; he wrote his The Book of Unknown Arcs of a Sphere in the 11th century. This formula relates the lengths of the sides of any triangle, rather than only right triangles, to the sines of its angles. According to the law,
where a, b, and c are the lengths of the sides of a triangle, and A, B, and C are the opposite angles (see figure).
Alhazen discovered the sum formula for the fourth power, using a method that could be generally used to determine the sum for any integral power. He used this to find the volume of a paraboloid. He could find the integral formula for any polynomial without having developed a general formula.
Ibn al - Haytham (Alhazen) was a significant figure in the history of scientific method, particularly in his approach to experimentation, and has been described as the "world 's first true scientist ''.
Avicenna made rules for testing the effectiveness of drugs, including that the effect produced by the experimental drug should be seen constantly or after many repetitions, to be counted. The physician Rhazes was an early proponent of experimental medicine and recommended using control for clinical research. He said: "If you want to study the effect of bloodletting on a condition, divide the patients into two groups, perform bloodletting only on one group, watch both, and compare the results. ''
In about 964 AD, the Persian astronomer Abd al - Rahman al - Sufi, writing in his Book of Fixed Stars, described a "nebulous spot '' in the Andromeda constellation, the first definitive reference to what we now know is the Andromeda Galaxy, the nearest spiral galaxy to our galaxy. Nasir al - Din al - Tusi invented a geometrical technique called a Tusi - couple, which generates linear motion from the sum of two circular motions to replace Ptolemy 's problematic equant. The Tusi couple was later employed in Ibn al - Shatir 's geocentric model and Nicolaus Copernicus ' heliocentric Copernican model although it is not known who the intermediary is or if Copernicus rediscovered the technique independently.
Alhazen played a role in the development of optics. One of the prevailing theories of vision in his time and place was the emission theory supported by Euclid and Ptolemy, where sight worked by the eye emitting rays of light, and the other was the Aristotelean theory that sight worked when the essence of objects flows into the eyes. Alhazen correctly argued that vision occurred when light, traveling in straight lines, reflects off an object into the eyes. Al - Biruni wrote of his insights into light, stating that its velocity must be immense when compared to the speed of sound.
Al - Kindi warned against alchemists attempting the transmutation of simple, base metals into precious ones like gold in the ninth century.
Al - Biruni (973 - 1048) estimated the radius of the earth as 6339.6 km (modern value is c. 6,371 km), the best estimate at that time.
In the cardiovascular system, Ibn al - Nafis in his Commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna 's Canon was the first known scholar to contradict the contention of the Galen School that blood could pass between the ventricles in the heart through the cardiac inter-ventricular septum that separates them, saying that there is no passage between the ventricles at this point. Instead, he correctly argued that all the blood that reached the left ventricle did so after passing through the lung. He also stated that there must be small communications, or pores, between the pulmonary artery and pulmonary vein, a prediction that preceded the discovery of the pulmonary capillaries of Marcello Malpighi by 400 years. The Commentary was rediscovered in the twentieth century in the Prussian State Library in Berlin; whether its view of the pulmonary circulation influenced scientists such as Michael Servetus is unclear.
In the nervous system, Rhazes stated that nerves had motor or sensory functions, describing 7 cranial and 31 spinal cord nerves. He assigned a numerical order to the cranial nerves from the optic to the hypoglossal nerves. He classified the spinal nerves into 8 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 3 sacral, and 3 coccygeal nerves. He used this to link clinical signs of injury to the corresponding location of lesions in the nervous system.
Modern commentators have likened medieval accounts of the "struggle for existence '' in the animal kingdom to the framework of the theory of evolution. Thus, in his survey of the history of the ideas which led to the theory of natural selection, Conway Zirkle noted that al - Jahiz was one of those who discussed a "struggle for existence '', in his Kitāb al - Hayawān (Book of Animals), written in the 9th century. In the 13th century, Nasir al - Din al - Tusi believed that humans were derived from advanced animals, saying, "Such humans (probably anthropoid apes) live in the Western Sudan and other distant corners of the world. They are close to animals by their habits, deeds and behavior. '' In 1377, Ibn Khaldun in his Muqaddimah stated, "The animal kingdom was developed, its species multiplied, and in the gradual process of Creation, it ended in man and arising from the world of the monkeys. ''
The Banū Mūsā brothers, in their Book of Ingenious Devices, describe an automatic flute player which may have been the first programmable machine. The flute sounds were produced through hot steam and the user could adjust the device to various patterns so that they could get various sounds from it.
Ibn Khaldun is regarded to be among the founding fathers of modern sociology, historiography, demography, and economics.
The earliest known Islamic hospital was built in 805 in Baghdad by order of Harun Al - Rashid, and the most important of Baghdad 's hospitals was established in 982 by the Buyid ruler ' Adud al - Dawla. The best documented early Islamic hospitals are the great Syro - Egyptian establishments of the 12th and 13th centuries. By the tenth century, Baghdad had five more hospitals, while Damascus had six hospitals by the 15th century and Córdoba alone had 50 major hospitals, many exclusively for the military.
The typical hospital was divided into departments such as systemic diseases, surgery, and orthopedics, with larger hospitals having more diverse specialties. "Systemic diseases '' was the rough equivalent of today 's internal medicine and was further divided into sections such as fever, infections and digestive issues. Every department had an officer - in - charge, a presiding officer and a supervising specialist. The hospitals also had lecture theaters and libraries. Hospitals staff included sanitary inspectors, who regulated cleanliness, and accountants and other administrative staff. The hospitals were typically run by a three - man board comprising a non-medical administrator, the chief pharmacist, called the shaykh saydalani, who was equal in rank to the chief physician, who served as mutwalli (dean). Medical facilities traditionally closed each night, but by the 10th century laws were passed to keep hospitals open 24 hours a day.
For less serious cases, physicians staffed outpatient clinics. Cities also had first aid centers staffed by physicians for emergencies that were often located in busy public places, such as big gatherings for Friday prayers. The region also had mobile units staffed by doctors and pharmacists who were supposed to meet the need of remote communities. Baghdad was also known to have a separate hospital for convicts since the early 10th century after the vizier ' Ali ibn Isa ibn Jarah ibn Thabit wrote to Baghdad 's chief medical officer that "prisons must have their own doctors who should examine them every day ''. The first hospital built in Egypt, in Cairo 's Southwestern quarter, was the first documented facility to care for mental illnesses. In Aleppo 's Arghun Hospital, care for mental illness included abundant light, fresh air, running water and music.
Medical students would accompany physicians and participate in patient care. Hospitals in this era were the first to require medical diplomas to license doctors. The licensing test was administered by the region 's government appointed chief medical officer. The test had two steps; the first was to write a treatise, on the subject the candidate wished to obtain a certificate, of original research or commentary of existing texts, which they were encouraged to scrutinize for errors. The second step was to answer questions in an interview with the chief medical officer. Physicians worked fixed hours and medical staff salaries were fixed by law. For regulating the quality of care and arbitrating cases, it is related that if a patient dies, their family presents the doctor 's prescriptions to the chief physician who would judge if the death was natural or if it was by negligence, in which case the family would be entitled to compensation from the doctor. The hospitals had male and female quarters while some hospitals only saw men and other hospitals, staffed by women physicians, only saw women. While women physicians practiced medicine, many largely focused on obstetrics.
Hospitals were forbidden by law to turn away patients who were unable to pay. Eventually, charitable foundations called waqfs were formed to support hospitals, as well as schools. Part of the state budget also went towards maintaining hospitals. While the services of the hospital were free for all citizens and patients were sometimes given a small stipend to support recovery upon discharge, individual physicians occasionally charged fees. In a notable endowment, a 13th - century governor of Egypt Al - Mansur Qalawun ordained a foundation for the Qalawun hospital that would contain a mosque and a chapel, separate wards for different diseases, a library for doctors and a pharmacy and the hospital is used today for ophthalmology. The Qalawun hospital was based in a former Fatimid palace which had accommodation for 8,000 people - "it served 4,000 patients daily. '' The waqf stated,
"... The hospital shall keep all patients, men and women, until they are completely recovered. All costs are to be borne by the hospital whether the people come from afar or near, whether they are residents or foreigners, strong or weak, low or high, rich or poor, employed or unemployed, blind or sighted, physically or mentally ill, learned or illiterate. There are no conditions of consideration and payment, none is objected to or even indirectly hinted at for non-payment. ''
By the ninth century, there was a rapid expansion of private pharmacies in many Muslim cities. Initially, these were unregulated and managed by personnel of inconsistent quality. Decrees by Caliphs Al - Ma'mun and Al - Mu'tasim required examinations to license pharmacists and pharmacy students were trained in a combination of classroom exercises coupled with day - to - day practical experiences with drugs. To avoid conflicts of interest, doctors were banned from owning or sharing ownership in a pharmacy. Pharmacies were periodically inspected by government inspectors called muhtasib, who checked to see that the medicines were mixed properly, not diluted and kept in clean jars. Violators were fined or beaten.
The theory of Humorism was largely dominant during this time. Arab physician Ibn Zuhr provided proof that scabies is caused by the itch mite and that it can be cured by removing the parasite without the need for purging, bleeding or other treatments called for by humorism, making a break with the humorism of Galen and Ibn Sina. Rhazes differentiated through careful observation the two diseases smallpox and measles, which were previously lumped together as a single disease that caused rashes. This was based on location and the time of the appearance of the symptoms and he also scaled the degree of severity and prognosis of infections according to the color and location of rashes. Al - Zahrawi was the first physician to describe an ectopic pregnancy, and the first physician to identify the hereditary nature of haemophilia.
On hygienic practices, Rhazes, who was once asked to choose the site for a new hospital in Baghdad, suspended pieces of meat at various points around the city, and recommended building the hospital at the location where the meat putrefied most slowly.
For Islamic scholars, Indian and Greek physicians and medical researchers Sushruta, Galen, Mankah, Atreya, Hippocrates, Charaka, and Agnivesa were pre-eminent authorities. In order to make the Indian and Greek tradition more accessible, understandable, and teachable, Islamic scholars ordered and made more systematic the vast Indian and Greco - Roman medical knowledge by writing encyclopedias and summaries. Sometimes, past scholars were criticized, like Rhazes who criticized and refuted Galen 's revered theories, most notably, the Theory of Humors and was thus accused of ignorance. It was through 12th - century Arabic translations that medieval Europe rediscovered Hellenic medicine, including the works of Galen and Hippocrates, and discovered ancient Indian medicine, including the works of Sushruta and Charaka. Works such as Avicenna 's The Canon of Medicine were translated into Latin and disseminated throughout Europe. During the 15th and 16th centuries alone, The Canon of Medicine was published more than thirty - five times. It was used as a standard medical textbook through the 18th century in Europe.
Al - Zahrawi was a tenth century Arab physician. He is sometimes referred to as the "Father of surgery ''. He describes what is thought to be the first attempt at reduction mammaplasty for the management of gynaecomastia and the first mastectomy to treat breast cancer. He is credited with the performance of the first thyroidectomy.
Apart from the Nile, Tigris, and Euphrates, navigable rivers were uncommon in the Middle East, so transport by sea was very important. Navigational sciences were highly developed, making use of a rudimentary sextant (known as a kamal). When combined with detailed maps of the period, sailors were able to sail across oceans rather than skirt along the coast. Muslim sailors were also responsible for reintroducing large, three - masted merchant vessels to the Mediterranean. The name caravel may derive from an earlier Arab boat known as the qārib.
Many Muslims went to China to trade, and these Muslims began to have a great economic influence on the country. Muslims virtually dominated the import / export industry by the time of the Sung dynasty (960 - 1279).
The 13th century Persian poet Rumi wrote some of the finest Persian poetry and is still one of the best selling poets in America.
Manuscript illumination was an important art, and Persian miniature painting flourished in the Persianate world. Calligraphy, an essential aspect of written Arabic, developed in manuscripts and architectural decoration.
The Great Mosque of Kairouan (in Tunisia), the ancestor of all the mosques in the western Islamic world, is one of the best preserved and most significant examples of early great mosques. Founded in 670, it dates in its present form largely from the 9th century. The Great Mosque of Kairouan is constituted of a three - tiered square minaret, a large courtyard surrounded by colonnaded porticos, and a huge hypostyle prayer hall covered on its axis by two cupolas.
The Great Mosque of Samarra in Iraq was completed in 847. It combined the hypostyle architecture of rows of columns supporting a flat base, above which a huge spiralling minaret was constructed.
The beginning of construction of the Great Mosque at Cordoba in 785 marked the beginning of Islamic architecture in Spain and Northern Africa. The mosque is noted for its striking interior arches. Moorish architecture reached its peak with the construction of the Alhambra, the magnificent palace / fortress of Granada, with its open and breezy interior spaces adorned in red, blue, and gold. The walls are decorated with stylized foliage motifs, Arabic inscriptions, and arabesque design work, with walls covered in geometrically patterned glazed tiles.
Many traces of Fatimid architecture exist in Cairo today, the most defining examples include the Al Azhar University and the Al Hakim mosque.
In 1206, Genghis Khan established a powerful dynasty among the Mongols of central Asia. During the 13th century, this Mongol Empire conquered most of the Eurasian land mass, including China in the east and much of the old Islamic caliphate (as well as Kievan Rus ') in the west. The destruction of Baghdad and the House of Wisdom by Hulagu Khan in 1258 has been seen by some as the end of the Islamic Golden Age.
The Ottoman conquest of the Arabic - speaking Middle East in 1516 - 17 placed the traditional heart of the Islamic world under Ottoman Turkish control. The rational sciences continued to flourish in the Middle East during the Ottoman period.
To account for the decline of Islamic science, it has been argued that the Sunni Revival in the 11th and 12th centuries produced a series of institutional changes that decreased the relative payoff to producing scientific works. With the spread of madrasas and the greater influence of religious leaders, it became more lucrative to produce religious knowledge. This is easily refutable, as the scholars of the golden age were experts in both religious and secular fields, with many of the Islamic schools of thoughts having been established during the golden age itself.
Ahmad Y. al - Hassan has rejected the thesis that lack of creative thinking was a cause, arguing that science was always kept separate from religious argument; he instead analyzes the decline in terms of economic and political factors, drawing on the work of the 14th - century writer Ibn Khaldun. Al - Hassan extended the golden age up to the 16th century, noting that scientific activity continued to flourish up until then. Several other contemporary scholars have also extended it to around the 16th to 17th centuries, and analysed the decline in terms of political and economic factors. More recent research has challenged the notion that it underwent decline even at that time, citing a revival of works produced on rational scientific topics during the seventeenth century.
Economic historian Joel Mokyr has argued that Islamic philosopher al - Ghazali (1058 -- 1111) "was a key figure in the decline in Islamic science '', as his works contributed to rising mysticism and occasionalism in the Islamic world. Against this view, Saliba (2007) has given a number of examples especially of astronomical research flourishing after the time of al - Ghazali.
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who has the most number of cars in the world | List of countries by vehicles per capita - wikipedia
This article is a list of countries by the number of road motor vehicles per 1,000 inhabitants. Note that car is different from road motor vehicle as the latter includes automobiles but also vans, buses, freight and other trucks.
The list however excludes motorcycles and other two - wheelers.
ref > "Solomon Islands General Data ''. Populstat.info. Retrieved 2012 - 06 - 02.
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where is the show pardon the interruption filmed | Pardon the Interruption - wikipedia
Pardon the Interruption (abbreviated PTI) is a sports television show that airs weekdays on various ESPN TV channels. It is hosted by Tony Kornheiser and Michael Wilbon, who discuss, and frequently argue over, the top stories of the day in "sports... and other stuff '' (as Kornheiser put it in the show 's original promo).
Similar in format to Gene Siskel and Roger Ebert 's At the Movies, PTI is known for its humorous and often loud tone, as well as the "rundown '' graphic which lists the topics yet to be discussed on the right - hand side of the screen. The show 's popularity has led to the creation of similar shows on ESPN and similar segments on other series, and the rundown graphic has since been implemented on the morning editions of SportsCenter, among many imitators.
The show has emanated from Washington, D.C. since its debut, as both Kornheiser and Wilbon were writing for The Washington Post at the time. The pair 's frequent arguments during their time at the Post are often cited (including by Wilbon himself) as both the antecedent and inspiration for PTI.
PTI debuted on October 22, 2001. The founding production team behind PTI includes Mark Shapiro, Erik Rydholm, Todd Mason, James Cohen, and Joseph Maar. The original deal was for two years with an option for a third. Originally, the show also aired Sunday evening, but this stint was short - lived.
Originally recorded at Atlantic Video 's facilities in Washington, the show now occupies space at ABC News ' Washington bureau. Voice actress Kat Cressida lends her voice to commercial bumpers for the series and has since its premiere. From the premiere of PTI until September 8, 2014, Tony Reali served as the show 's statistician (earning him the nickname "Stat Boy '') and eventually became a de facto co-host. Reali became the host of Around the Horn in 2004 while continuing his job on PTI, eventually leaving in 2014 to move to New York City and work on Good Morning America.
The show won a Sports Emmy Award for Outstanding Studio Show in 2009 and 2016.
Pardon the Interruption airs at 5: 30 p.m. Eastern Time on ESPN. The following outlets carry the show at other times:
On January 8, 2018 -- the day of the 2018 College Football Playoff National Championship -- PTI aired an hourlong episode beginning at 5: 00 p.m.
Pardon the Interruption averages a little more than one million viewers daily.
Famous fans include Barack Obama, George W. Bush, Tom Hanks, Bill Murray, David Letterman, Tom Cotton, Hank Azaria, Chris Christie, Eric Stonestreet, Matthew Morrison, John Heilemann, Penny Marshall, Michael Kelly, Eva Longoria, John McCain, Tim Russert, and Maury Povich.
The October 24, 2011 episode featured a message from then - President Obama commemorating the tenth anniversary of the show. On July 12, 2013, Kornheiser, Wilbon and Reali were guests at the White House. After lunch, the trio met in the Oval Office with Obama.
Pardon the Interruption is unique in its studio layout, featuring a "wall '' full of cut - out cardboard heads of athletes and celebrities that have previously been used in the "Role Play '' segment, bobblehead dolls of the show 's hosts and Reali, Etch - A-Sketch art of Kornheiser and Wilbon, multiple penguins and several other toys and trinkets they have received, such as Kornheiser 's beloved "Leg Lamp '' from A Christmas Story, Stewie Griffin and Elmo.
For different American holidays, the set will also be decorated with other props to match the theme of the day. For example, on Halloween, carved jack - o ' - lanterns of the host 's heads are also present. The color of the rundown graphic is also changed to mesh with the holiday theme (e.g. red, white, and blue to represent Independence Day, green for St. Patricks Day, red and green for Christmas).
On September 27, 2010, Pardon the Interruption and Around The Horn began broadcasting in high definition and moved from the Atlantic Video Washington complex to facilities in the ABC News Washington bureau, where high definition sets were built for both shows.
PTI is divided into several segments. It is not unusual for the last point or topic in each section to be about a non-sports - related pop - culture event. On rare occasions, the show will stray from its basic format, such as on August 9, 2005, when baseball commissioner Bud Selig was the guest at the very top of the show for an extended interview.
Other than the pop - culture topics, most topics discussed involve the Big Four of North American team sports: baseball, basketball, football and hockey. Both hosts are avid fans of tennis, golf, and boxing and discuss events in those sports frequently. However, other sports such as soccer, mixed martial arts, auto racing, and figure skating receive much less coverage, and the hosts do little to hide their lack of interest or knowledge on those topics.
Segments included in the vast majority of shows are:
Kornheiser and Wilbon welcome viewers to the show with opening banter. Wilbon usually opens the show with the line, "Pardon the Interruption... but I 'm Mike Wilbon. '' Wilbon will then put a question to Kornheiser concerning one of the day 's sports or pop culture issues (which he answers sarcastically). The two will then continue a conversation while the opening title card is shown. The theme song (as well as the commercial outro music) thematically references the song "Cut Your Hair '' by Pavement. On rare occasion, Wilbon and Kornheiser will not open with a typical joke, as in the case of starting the show talking about the death of Junior Seau.
Kornheiser then says "Welcome to ' PTI ', boys and girls. '' Kornheiser then gives a brief introduction before moving on to the first topic. In this Segment, the hosts usually debate five or six topics which include the day 's top sports stories. During the course of this segment, Wilbon and Kornheiser will alternate topic introductions up for debate. Each topic is listed in chronological order on the right side of the screen, and a countdown timer is shown indicating how much time is allotted to discuss a particular topic. Most topics are less than 1: 30, but major news stories can run two or three minutes. Also, the hosts can briefly go over the time limit in order to make a final point about any particular topic. If there is no guest for "Five Good Minutes, '' three or four additional headlines will run during the second segment.
Kornheiser and Wilbon interview a sports figure, writer, or analyst typically for a period of time from three to five and a half minutes. The interview itself is actually recorded prior to the rest of the show and then trimmed down for broadcast. According to PTI 's remote producer, with some exceptions, guests are booked the day of the show as they try to obtain the most relevant news of the day. Other times, there are two "Five Good Minutes '' segments with two different guests; there are also shows where two related guests appear during one segment, such as Joe Buck and Tim McCarver of Major League Baseball on Fox broadcasts (Another example of this was Al Michaels and Doc Rivers, when they appeared together while covering the 2004 NBA Finals for ABC Sports). There have also been occasions where Kornheiser or Wilbon, while on vacation or in another city to cover an event and not hosting the show, have been the subject of "Five Good Minutes '' themselves.
Guests almost always appear from a separate location, usually the site of an upcoming game or their home city, appearing with the hosts via split screen. On a few occasions, the guest has appeared in studio with Kornheiser and Wilbon. This may be the case if the guest is an athlete or coach in Washington to play a game that night, such as when Detroit Pistons guard Chauncey Billups appeared on February 6, 2009, prior to the Denver Nuggets ' (with whom Billups was playing with at the time) game with the Washington Wizards. When this happens, the guest will sit on Wilbon 's side of the table, sitting diagonally from Kornheiser.
On Thursdays during the football season, ESPN analyst Ron Jaworski, a former Philadelphia Eagles quarterback (a.k.a. "Jaws '' and "the Polish Rifle '' - the latter usually rendered in a Howard Cosell - like voice), is usually the guest. In the past, Jaworski would come on the show on Mondays to offer analysis of the previous day 's games and a prediction for the Monday Night Football game that night.
On rare occasions, "Five Good Minutes '' runs long, such as on June 8, 2005 when NFL agent Drew Rosenhaus 's interview ran 11 minutes, forcing the cancellation of the following segment (Role Play), on March 23, 2007 when USC basketball coach Tim Floyd 's interview ran 9 minutes as he talked about O.J. Mayo, and on October 22, 2009, as reporter Jackie MacMullan discussed the Magic Johnson / Isiah Thomas controversy, forcing the cancellation of the segment Report Card.
On very rare occasions, the second segment will be a bonus "game segment '' (i.e. Oddsmakers, Toss Up, etc.), and the third segment will be a game segment as usual.
After "Five Good Minutes, '' or after extended "Headlines '' if there is no guest, PTI uses a variety of different segments to talk about other sports news and make predictions. These featured segments often end with a pop culture topic.
"Mail Time '' and "Toss Up '' are featured at least once for every full week of episodes. During Mail Time (in which Wilbon provides the voice of the mailbox) the hosts read and respond to viewer e-mail that they take out of a talking mailbox. Early in PTI 's run, an intern named Josh read the mail to the hosts. When the show changed over to the talking mailbox, Wilbon would express disgust at the mail voice, demanding it be omitted. The mail read on air is no longer written by viewers, but rather staff of the show itself. For Toss Up, the two hosts choose between two sides of a topic announced by the producer, Erik Rydholm, over the loudspeaker, and Kornheiser always claims to be the winner.
Another common segment is Odds Makers, which is featured weekly and involves the hosts giving their prediction in the form of a percentage about the likeliness of a future event occurring. Reali gives the topics and keeps track of responses on a chalkboard, to which he refers at the end of the segment in order to declare a winner. A selection at either extreme of 100 % or 0 % is well - respected, with the latter being coined by Reali as "squadoosh ''. Kornheiser often gets his odds to add up to a certain number or form a pattern. "Odds Makers '' is also noted for its feud between Reali and guest host Dan LeBatard, who is often accused of ruining the game.
Role Play, featured fairly often but less so than earlier in PTI 's run, is referred to as "Heads on Sticks '' because the hosts alternate speaking as a sports figure with the person 's picture on a stick in front of their faces. After a picture is used, it is usually stuck somewhere in the background of the set until it is replaced. Recently, the sexual nature of the title of this segment has been noticed, as a suggestive musical cue leads the segment as well as Kornheiser telling Wilbon on the first Role Play "Wilbon will give, I will receive ''.
"Over / Under '' is a segment that alternated weeks with Odds Makers when they were first introduced, but is now featured only occasionally. The hosts argue over whether a certain sports figure or team will go over or under a certain number (e.g. 40 home runs, 60 wins). Reali also announces the topics for this segment, holding cards up with the statistic, as well. In order to help prevent a "push '' (a Wilbon trademark), a decimal figure is sometimes used (e.g. 2.5 touchdowns).
On July 28, 2009, a segment called "What 's the Word '' was introduced. It consists of Reali reading a partial sentence and the hosts using an adjective to fill the blank (s) in the sentence. The game often involves made up or hyphenated words, and usually ends with Kornheiser using an adjective to aggrandize himself or berate Wilbon, such as saying he won with a "Korn - ucopia '' of words, or that Wilbon "got Wil - bombed. '' On July 30, 2009, another new segment debuted called "Report Card '', in which the hosts assign letter grades to various events suggested by "Professor '' Reali. Usually, Kornheiser 's name is spelled "Tiny '' instead of "Tony '' on the Report Card board. Both "Word '' and "Report Card '' are now played on a fairly regular basis, with at least one of them appearing most weeks.
"Psychic Hotline '' and "Good Cop, Bad Cop '' are segments where the hosts take on different roles to discuss the given topics. The set is decorated with candles and a plasma lamp for Psychic Hotline, the latter of which a host will touch to hear the question in the form of a pre-recorded phone call. The question asks the hosts to predict what will happen in regards to an upcoming sporting event. Kornheiser wears a turban, in the style of Carnac the Magnificent, while Wilbon does not dress up at all. In Good Cop, Bad Cop, however, both hosts dress in police hats and sometimes sunglasses. This segment is featured rarely, and unlike Toss Up, the hosts must take an opposite stand on each topic, saying it is either good or bad. This segment is occasionally renamed "Good Elf, Bad Elf '' for the holiday.
"Food Chain '', where the hosts rank a top five list of teams, returned in December 2008 after a long absence. Kornheiser and Wilbon usually have variations in their lists, with Wilbon posting his as each team is introduced. Wilbon refers to his as "A real man 's board! '', but when Kornheiser switches to his, he claims, "That 's it! That 's the list! '' Another early segment was called "Love Em or Leave Em '' where a female voice cooing "Ooo La - La! '' was played before the hosts discussed an individual (whose head was on a stick) they were either "leaving '' or "loving '' and keeping on their side. A third rare segment is "Fair or Foul ''. It was introduced on February 28, 2007 after the hosts began repeating the words "fair or foul '' for a few episodes because of a viewer email including them earlier in the week. The hosts discuss a variety of topics and decide if each is fair or foul (acceptable or not). If a host believes a topic is "foul '', he could threw a yellow football penalty flag and / or blow a whistle.
Additionally, during the early run of PTI, a "Doctors '' segment was featured occasionally, in which the hosts had to choose which head to cut off and throw in the trash out of two that were stuck together. The hosts dressed up as doctors for this segment, using coats and assorted accessories. Finally, a "time - machine '' game was played once in 2005 and never returned.
Another recent game was debuted called "Too Soon? '' where Reali asks the hosts if it 's too soon for a certain sports situation to possibly occur. In November 2010, a new game entitled "Something or Nothing? '' was created. In this game, Reali asked Tony and Mike if a recent sports event was significant (Something) or insignificant (Nothing). After both hosts gave their answers, Reali, through uncertain logic, determined who was correct. "Too Soon '' and "Something or Nothing '' are only played rarely.
On the last show before Thanksgiving, the third segment is usually reserved for the hosts to reveal their choices for Turkeys of the Year, usually people during the last year that have usually done notably stupid acts un-befitting of sport (funny or unfunny). As noted by Wilbon at the beginning of the segment, there is no criteria for the selection process, meaning anyone they see fit is eligible. Over the years, the list has vastly expanded from five to numerous candidates being named during the segment.
The hosts send out a "Happy Birthday '', a "Happy (or in some cases, Not - So - Happy) Anniversary '' (generally something that happened on the same date in the past rather than an anniversary), and a "Happy Trails '' (a departure of some sort, such as a firing, injury, retirement, or death. In the case of a death, the hosts referred to this as a "melancholy Happy Trails '' and the background music was silenced in respect of the deceased).
If time allows, Reali (nicknamed "Stat Boy '') corrects any factual errors that Kornheiser and Wilbon may have made. From the time of the show 's expansion in July 2005 until August 2009, Kornheiser and Wilbon would then give their recommendations for television viewing for the night as the last discussion segment of the show before SportsCenter. Wilbon usually chooses a sporting event, while Kornheiser will often opt for pop - culture based programming. Since September 2009, they use the ending of the half - hour broadcast to give shoutouts to whoever they deem worthy of one.
The half - hour broadcast concludes with Kornheiser waving a small Canadian flag while Wilbon mentions their podcast and pitches the show to the SportsCenter studio. According to Kornheiser, he first waved the flag and said "Goodnight, Canada '' after an associate director told him that the additional PTI segment on Sportscenter did not air in Canada. Kornheiser made the routine into a trademark sign - off and continued even after TSN added the extra segment to its early - evening edition of SportsCenter.
From July 25, 2005 through sometime in 2011, the format of the show was altered to merge the final part of the show with the beginning of the 6: 00 p.m. ET SportsCenter. After the opening segment of SportsCenter (normally 10 -- 14 minutes), PTI returns to debate an additional sports - related topic, then end with The Big Finish where, for the final 60 seconds of the show, the hosts alternate making comments on several other stories, usually ending with Wilbon picking a winner in a sporting event later that night ("Who Ya Got? ''). The segment (and show) ends with Kornheiser saying, "We 're out of time, we 'll try to do better the next time, '' and Wilbon saying "Same time tomorrow, knuckleheads. '' Kornheiser will wave the show logo (on a stick) in front of his face and tell someone (usually a famous person or someone he knows) to go to his / her room, inspired by Betty Draper 's parenting on Mad Men.
For the re-air on ESPN2, the show moves straight to the post-SportsCenter topic after the third commercial break, skipping segment 4. According to Nielsen ratings, PTI paired with Around the Horn combined to average more viewers than SportsCenter.
During football season, Monday editions of PTI used to air in the former (30 - minute) format, with no shoutouts or SportsCenter segment. Until midway through the 2008 season the show also took place at the Monday Night Football host stadium as Kornheiser was a part of the Monday broadcast team; after that Kornheiser hosted from an undisclosed location in the host city while Wilbon hosted from the PTI studios in Washington. After Kornheiser 's departure from Monday Night Football after the 2008 season, PTI reverted to its normal format for the 2009 football season after the first week of Monday Night Football.
Since 2011, the show has reverted to its original format where The Big Finish closes the show, though Kornheiser usually still offers shoutouts at the very end of the show. Wilbon and Kornheiser still have their additional debate as a part of SC, but it is no longer treated as a formal part of PTI.
Beginning September 2, 2008 and for all shows except for those taped at the site of a Monday Night Football game, inserts of Kornheiser and Wilbon 's discussion air for 15 -- 20 seconds as bumpers between the commercial breaks of the show. One can see the two hosts having their makeup fixed and discussing everything from whom one has recently met to inside jokes between the hosts.
The longevity and popularity of the show has led to numerous running jokes between Wilbon and Kornheiser that longtime viewers will recognize. Some of these include such gags as The Bald Brotherhood, Blowed Out, (He 's) Ya Boy, Beatdown!, Strugg - a-ling, The Yanks and the Sawks!, Choking Dawgs!, The Penguin Dance, Kornheiser 's I - 95 Bias, The Wilbon Power Rankings, Let Me Axe You Something, Uranus, Playoffs? Playoffs?, Ya Gotta Get Low, Bulls Corner, Drew Breeees, Washington "Natinals '' (purposely mispronounced as such), Good Night Canada, Ball / Puck Night!, The Lig, Tony 's "Population Theory '', and The Trampoline Bear.
In addition, for the first 31⁄2 years of the show, Kornheiser only hosted a few shows away from the studio, with Wilbon during the week of Super Bowl XXXVI. Meanwhile, Wilbon has hosted many shows at the location of a sporting event he was attending. This has resulted in much teasing of Kornheiser by Wilbon, including Kornheiser 's fear of flying. Finally, on March 27, 2006, Kornheiser for the first time hosted the show away from the studio while Wilbon remained back at the set, as Kornheiser was in Orlando, Florida, covering the NFL owners meetings. For the first time in November 2006, Kornheiser and Wilbon "chatted split - screen '' from two different locations away from Washington, D.C.
Usually during Report Card, Tony Kornheiser 's name is spelled as "Tiny '' instead of "Tony ''. Another common gag is during games such as Report Card and Odds Makers, Dan Le Batard 's name will often be Don, rather than Dan.
The short - lived CBS show Listen Up! was based on the life of Tony Kornheiser. In it, the main characters Tony Kleinman (Jason Alexander) and Bernie Widmer (Malcolm - Jamal Warner) co-hosted an off - beat sports show titled "Listen Up! '' On the day Listen Up! debuted, Warner and Alexander appeared in character on PTI 's intro.
Kornheiser and Wilbon appeared as themselves on PTI in the 2004 film Mr. 3000, including doing a Role Play segment with Kornheiser posing as Stan Ross (Bernie Mac) at one point.
On February 8, 2006, it was announced that Tony Kornheiser would join Mike Tirico and Joe Theismann in the broadcast booth during Monday Night Football beginning in the 2006 NFL season. Kornheiser continued to host PTI, and Wilbon joined him on the road as they broadcast PTI each Monday from the site of the MNF game, and there has also been an extra PTI segment inserted during halftime of ESPN 's Monday Night games (although in 2008, Wilbon stayed in the DC studios, on many Mondays). In the months leading up to the 2006 NFL season, Kornheiser would often offer self - deprecating comments on the PTI show, saying that he 'd be horrible for the MNF job or that he wished that certain people that are topics on the show would ride the bus with him to the game, as he has an admitted fear of flying. On the April 6, 2006, edition of PTI, the same day that the upcoming NFL season 's schedule was released, Kornheiser gave a humorous insight into how he felt about his upcoming travel schedule, sarcastically commenting about how there were n't any East Coast games on the schedule. He also took the time to apologize to fans in Jacksonville, Florida, whose city Kornheiser described in his Washington Post column as having only Waffle Houses, since there was a Monday Night game in Jacksonville on September 18, the second week of the NFL season. Kornheiser said on the show that if at all possible, he would like to avoid traveling to the city of Seattle again since each time he went there, the weather was atrocious (such as the downpour and wind that was constant in week 9 against Oakland and the snowstorm in week 12 against Green Bay).
PTI will be featured on future EA Sports video games due to the contract between ESPN and EA. The first game to have the feature is NBA Live 07 for the Xbox 360 and the PlayStation 3.
Beginning in 2007, Wilbon appears weekly as an analyst for GMC NBA Countdown show Sundays on ABC.
Wilbon is a frequent guest on Kornheiser 's eponymous podcast.
Tony Kornheiser appeared briefly in Episode 2, ' Baggage ', of the hit Reagan - era spy drama series ' The Americans ' season 3 in 2015. Although visually it was a non-speaking role, soon after his part on screen, where he can be seen watching a game while sitting in a sports bar, he can be heard off - camera moments later, shouting, ' What a shot...! '
On October 8, 2010 South Park spoofed PTI in the Season 14 episode "Poor and Stupid ''. When Wilbon is on camera you can see the cut outs of their likeness in the background.
On October 30, 2010 SportsNation did their entire 1 hour show in the style of PTI. At the end of the show Tony Reali ripped the show in a 1 - minute rant.
On February 18, 2012 Kick Buttowski: Suburban Daredevil featured Wilbon and Kornheiser as the local policemen with a nod to their good cop / bad cop PTI segment.
From 2011 to 2012, The Onion had a parody of PTI, "Get Out Of My Face '' (aka "GOOMF '').
PTI was featured in the 2015 movie Creed.
When one of the normal hosts is sick or on vacation, they have a guest host, usually another prominent sportswriter. Overall, there have been more than 20 guest hosts. Typically, Kornheiser and Wilbon almost never appear together during the summer months of July and August. The most frequently seen guest hosts are sportswriters Frank Isola, Dan Le Batard of The Miami Herald (who is always introduced by his co-host of the day, and marks his first appearance on camera with a by now familiar "BAM!! ''), Bill Simmons formerly of ESPN.com (now with HBO), and Bob Ryan of The Boston Globe and ESPN 's similarly - styled Around The Horn. ATH panelists J.A. Adande, Kevin Blackistone, Tim Cowlishaw, Jay Mariotti and Jackie MacMullan have all had stints as guest hosts. Rachel Nichols began hosting after returning to ESPN from her former career at Turner Sports.
Many other guest hosts were used in the past, including David Aldridge, Skip Bayless, Jay Bilas, Norman Chad, Mike Golic, Sally Jenkins, Max Kellerman, Tim Kurkjian, Patrick McEnroe, Bill Plaschke, Rick Reilly, T.J. Simers, Dan Shaughnessy, Michael Smith, Stephen A. Smith, Michele Tafoya, Mike Tirico, Bob Valvano, and Ralph Wiley of ESPN and sportswriters Jason Whitlock of The Kansas City Star and David Dupree and Jon Saraceno of USA Today.
Kornheiser was absent more than usual during Summer 2006 for medical reasons. During a phone interview on the August 15, 2006 edition of The Dan Patrick Show, Kornheiser explained this absence in most of July by revealing that he was recovering from skin cancer surgery.
Multiple commentators have credited PTI with inspiring and laying the groundwork for a number of successful TV sports debate shows, including Around the Horn and First Take.
Starting in the 2006 NFL season, Kornheiser and Wilbon began hosting PTI from the stadium that was hosting the Monday Night Football game. The following season, they began staging a live 3 - topic, 3 - minute version of the show during halftime of the game.
In 2004, Crackerjack Television started producing an Australian version of the show, which airs weekly on the Australian ESPN channel and features former Australian Rules footballer Sam Kekovich and radio and television broadcaster Russell Barwick. ESPN Australia also broadcasts the American version of PTI editions before SportsCenter.
In August 2010, ESPN 's British channel (now BT Sport ESPN) debuted a British version of PTI. The show was hosted by Mark Chapman and Steve Bunce.
The ESPN Deportes show Cronómetro (Spanish for "stopwatch '') is modeled after PTI and Sports Reporters, in that it features personalities talking about sports subjects for a set amount of time. Unlike PTI, there are four panelists instead of two, and segments such as Role Play are not used. Five Good Minutes is used as a discussion of one subject between the four analysts. ESPN Brasil also has a version of Cronómetro called É Rapidinho (rough translation from Portuguese: "It 's Fast '').
NESN, in partnership with The Boston Globe, premiered Globe 10.0 in 2007, which airs at 5: 30 p.m. every Tuesday. Hosted by Globe columnist Bob Ryan and a rotating cast of other sports writers, the show has ten topics that the two writers debate for one and a half minutes, in the same format as PTI (Ryan himself frequently fills - in on PTI on nights when Globe 10.0 does n't air).
On March 25, 2008, SportsNet New York premiered two new half - hour shows, The Wheelhouse and Loud Mouths, which are similar to PTI and to each other, having two panelists debate sports topics. The Wheelhouse has a moderator and sports personalities as guests while Loud Mouths incorporates viewer calls and e-mails. These shows air every weekday at 5: 30 and 6: 00 p.m., respectively.
Prior to PTI, the Empire Sports Network had a similar show entitled Pros and Cons. Ed Kilgore (WGRZ - TV sports director, generally portraying an optimist) and Art Wander (then a sports talk host for WGR, portraying the antagonist or pessimist view) were the primary combatants, with former The Buffalo News columnist Larry Felser also on the panel. The program lasted from 1992 to 1996.
Rodesiler, Luke (2015). "A PTI - Inspired Pedagogy: Appropriating Sports - Talk Discussion Protocols to Facilitate Literature Study ''. In Eckard, Sandra. Yin and Yang in the English Classroom: Teaching with Popular Culture Texts. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield. pp. 31 -- 48. ISBN 978 - 1475806885.
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who got both bharat ratna and nobel prize | Bharat Ratna - wikipedia
The Bharat Ratna (Hindi pronunciation: (bhaːrt̪ rt̪ n); Jewel of India) is the highest civilian award of the Republic of India. Instituted in 1954, the award is conferred "in recognition of exceptional service / performance of the highest order '', without distinction of race, occupation, position, or sex. The award was originally limited to achievements in the arts, literature, science, and public services, but the government expanded the criteria to include "any field of human endeavour '' in December 2011. The recommendations for the Bharat Ratna are made by the Prime Minister to the President, with a maximum of three nominees being awarded per year. Recipients receive a Sanad (certificate) signed by the President and a peepal - leaf -- shaped medallion; there is no monetary grant associated with the award. Bharat Ratna recipients rank seventh in the Indian order of precedence.
The first recipients of the Bharat Ratna were politician C. Rajagopalachari, philosopher Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, and scientist C.V. Raman, who were honoured in 1954. Since then, the award has been bestowed upon 45 individuals, including 12 who were awarded posthumously. The original statutes did not provide for posthumous awards but were amended in January 1955 to permit them. The former Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri became the first individual to be honoured posthumously. In 2014, cricketer Sachin Tendulkar, then aged 40, became the youngest recipient; while social reformer Dhondo Keshav Karve was awarded on his 100th birthday. Though usually conferred on India - born citizens, the Bharat Ratna has been awarded to one naturalised citizen, Mother Teresa, and to two non-Indians, Pakistan national Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan and former South African President Nelson Mandela. On 24 December 2014, the Indian government announced the award to independence activist Madan Mohan Malaviya (posthumously) and former Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee.
The Bharat Ratna, along with other personal civil honours, was briefly suspended from July 1977 to January 1980, during the change in the national government; and for a second time from August 1992 to December 1995, when several public - interest litigations challenged the constitutional validity of the awards. In 1992, the government 's decision to confer the award posthumously on Subhash Chandra Bose was opposed by those who had refused to accept the fact of his death, including some members of his extended family. Following a 1997 Supreme Court decision, the press communiqué announcing Bose 's award was cancelled; it is the only time when the award was announced but not conferred.
Several bestowals of the award have met with criticism. The posthumous award for M.G. Ramachandran (1988) was considered to have been aimed at placating the voters for the upcoming assembly election and posthumous awards of Madan Mohan Malaviya (2015) and Vallabhbhai Patel (1991) drew criticism for they died before the award was instituted.
On 2 January 1954, a press communiqué was released from the office of the secretary to the President announcing the creation of two civilian awards -- Bharat Ratna, the highest civilian award, and the three - tier Padma Vibhushan, classified into "Pahela Warg '' (Class I), "Dusra Warg '' (Class II), and "Tisra Warg '' (Class III), which rank below the Bharat Ratna. On 15 January 1955, the Padma Vibhushan was reclassified into three different awards; the Padma Vibhushan, the highest of the three, followed by the Padma Bhushan and the Padma Shri.
There is no formal provision that recipients of the Bharat Ratna should be Indian citizens. It has been awarded to a naturalised Indian citizen, Mother Teresa in 1980, and to two non-Indians, Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan of Pakistan in 1987 and the former South African president Nelson Mandela in 1990. Sachin Tendulkar, at the age of 40, became the youngest person and first athlete to receive the honour. In a special ceremony on 18 April 1958, Dhondo Keshav Karve was awarded on his 100th birthday. As of 2015, the award has been conferred upon 45 people with 12 posthumous declarations.
The award was briefly suspended twice in its history. The first suspension occurred after Morarji Desai was sworn in as the fourth Prime Minister in 1977. His government withdrew all personal civil honours on 13 July 1977. The suspension was rescinded on 25 January 1980, after Indira Gandhi became the Prime Minister. The civilian awards were suspended again in mid-1992, when two Public - Interest Litigations were filed, one in the Kerala High Court and another in the Madhya Pradesh High Court, challenging the "constitutional validity '' of the awards. The awards were reintroduced by the Supreme Court in December 1995, following the conclusion of the litigation.
The Bharat Ratna is conferred "in recognition of exceptional service / performance of the highest order '', without distinction of race, occupation, position, or sex. The award was originally confined to the arts, literature, science, and public services, as per the 1954 regulations. In December 2011, the rules were changed to include "any field of human endeavour ''. The 1954 statutes did not allow posthumous awards, but this was subsequently modified in the January 1955 statute, and Lal Bahadur Shastri became the first recipient to be honoured posthumously in 1966.
Although there is no formal nomination process, recommendations for the award can only be made by the Prime Minister to the President with a maximum number of three nominees being awarded per year. However, in 1999, four individuals were awarded the honour. The recipient receives a Sanad (certificate) signed by the President and a medallion without any monetary grant. Under the terms of Article 18 (1) of the Constitution, the recipients can not use the award as a prefix or suffix to their name, although recipients may use either the expressions "Awarded Bharat Ratna by the President '' or "Recipient of Bharat Ratna Award '' to indicate that they have been honoured with the award. The holders of the Bharat Ratna rank seventh in the Indian order of precedence.
As with many official announcements, recipients are announced and registered in The Gazette of India, a publication released by the Department of Publication, Ministry of Urban Development used for official government notices; without publication in the Gazette, conferral of the award is not considered official. Recipients whose awards have been revoked or restored, both of which require the authority of the President, are registered in the Gazette. Recipients whose awards have been revoked are required to surrender their medals, and their names are struck from the register.
The original 1954 specifications of the award was a circle made of gold 1 ⁄ inches (35 mm) in diameter with a centred sun burst design on the obverse side. The text "Bharat Ratna '', in Devanagari Script, is inscribed on the upper edge in silver gilt with a wreath set along on the lower edge. A platinum State Emblem of India was placed in the centre of the reverse side with the national motto, "Satyameva Jayate '' (Truth alone triumphs) in Devanagari Script, inscribed in silver - gilt on the lower edge.
A year later, the design was modified. The current medal is in the shape of a peepal leaf, approximately 2 ⁄ inches (59 mm) long, 1 ⁄ inches (48 mm) wide and ⁄ inch (3.2 mm) thick and rimmed in platinum. The embossed sun burst design, made of platinum, on the obverse side of the medal has a diameter of ⁄ inch (16 mm) with rays spreading out from ⁄ inch (21 mm) to ⁄ inch (13 mm) from the center of the Sun. The words "Bharat Ratna '' on the obverse side remained the same as the 1954 design as did the emblem of India and "Satyameva Jayate '' on the reverse side. A 2 - inch - wide (51 mm) white ribbon is attached to the medal so it can be worn around the neck. In 1957, the silver - gilt decoration was changed to burnished bronze. The Bharat Ratna medals are produced at Alipore Mint, Kolkata along with the other civilian and military awards like Padma Vibushan, Padma Bhushan, Padma Shri, and Param Veer Chakra.
The Bharat Ratna has been surrounded by several controversies and multiple Public - Interest Litigations (PIL) had been filed against the conferral of the award.
On 23 January 1992, a press release was published by the President 's Secretariat to confer the award posthumously on Subhash Chandra Bose. The decision triggered much criticism and a PIL was filed in the Calcutta High Court to revoke the award. The petitioner took objection to the conferral of the award and its posthumous mention of Bose, saying that honouring a personality higher than the award is "ridiculous '', and it was an act of "carelessness '' to classify such a person with past and future recipients. It said that the award can not be conferred to Bose posthumously as the Government had not officially accepted his death on 18 August 1945. The petitioner requested the whereabouts of Bose from 18 August 1945 till date, based on the information collected by the 1956 Shah Nawaz Committee and the 1970 Khosla Commission. Bose 's family members expressed their unwillingness to accept the award.
To deliver the judgement, the Supreme Court formed a Special Division Bench with Judge Sujata V. Manohar and G.B. Pattanaik. The Solicitor General noted that to confer the award per the appropriate regulations pertaining to the Bharat Ratna, Padma Vibhushan, Padma Bhushan, and Padma Shri, the name of the recipient must be published in The Gazette of India and entered in the recipients register maintained under the direction of the President. It was noted that only an announcement had been made by press communiqué, but the government had not proceeded to confer the award by publishing the name in the Gazette and entering the name in the register. Furthermore, the then presidents, R. Venkataraman (1987 -- 92) and Shankar Dayal Sharma (1992 -- 97), had not conferred a Sanad (certificate) with their signature and seal.
On 4 August 1997, the Supreme Court delivered an order that since the award had not been officially conferred, it can not be revoked and declared that the press communiqué be treated as cancelled. The court declined to pass any judgement on the posthumous mention of Bose and his death.
In 1992, two PILs were filed in the High Courts; one in the Kerala High Court on 13 February 1992 by Balaji Raghavan and another in the Madhya Pradesh High Court (Indore Bench) on 24 August 1992 by Satya Pal Anand. Both petitioners questioned the civilian awards being "Titles '' per an interpretation of Article 18 (1) of the Constitution. On 25 August 1992, the Madhya Pradesh High Court issued a notice temporarily suspending all civilian awards. A Special Division Bench of the Supreme Court was formed comprising five judges; A.M. Ahmadi C.J., Kuldip Singh, B.P. Jeevan Reddy, N.P. Singh, and S. Saghir Ahmad. On 15 December 1995, the Special Division Bench restored the awards and delivered a judgement that the "Bharat Ratna and Padma awards are not titles under Article 18 of the Constitution ''.
Following the announcement, in November 2013, that C.N.R. Rao and Sachin Tendulkar were to be awarded the Bharat Ratna, multiple PILs were filed challenging the conferring of the award. The PIL filed against Rao declared that other Indian scientists, such as Homi Bhabha and Vikram Sarabhai, had contributed more than Rao and his claim of publishing 1400 research papers was "physically impossible ''. The suit stated that as Rao had proven cases of plagiarism, he should not be presented with the award but rather should be annulled. The PIL filed against Tendulkar to the Election Commission under the Right to Information Act indicated that the awarding him the Bharat Ratna was a violation of the model code of conduct. The petitioner noted that as Tendulkar was an Indian National Congress nominated Member of Rajya Sabha, the decision to award him the Bharat Ratna would influence the voters of Delhi, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, and Mizoram where the election process was underway at the time. Another PIL was filed against Tendulkar and a few ministers, "alleging a conspiracy to ignore '' an Indian field hockey player Dhyan Chand. ''
On 4 December 2013, the Election Commission rejected the petition stating that conferring the award on people from non-polling states did not amount to a violation of the code. Other High Courts as well rejected the petitions raised against Rao and Tendulkar.
In 1988, then Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi (1984 -- 89) conferred the Bharat Ratna posthumously on film actor and former Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu, M.G. Ramachandran, in a bid to influence voters prior to the Tamil Nadu assembly elections in 1989. The decision was criticised for awarding Ramachandran before independence activist B.R. Ambedkar and Vallabhbhai Patel, who were bestowed the honour in 1990 and 1991 respectively. While Ravi Shankar was accused of lobbying for the award, the decision by Indira Gandhi to posthumously honour K. Kamaraj was considered to have been aimed at placating Tamil voters for the Tamil Nadu assembly elections in 1977. The seventh Prime Minister V.P. Singh was criticised for posthumously honouring B.R. Ambedkar to please Dalits.
The posthumous conferments of the award on the recipients who died before the Indian independence in 1947 or the award was instituted in 1954 have been criticised by historians. It was noted that such conferments could lead to more demands to honour people like Maurya Emperor Ashoka, Mughal Emperor Akbar, Maratha Emperor Shivaji, Nobel Laureate Rabindranath Tagore, Hindu monk Swami Vivekananda, and independence activist Bal Gangadhar Tilak. The then Prime Minister P.V. Narasimha Rao (1991 -- 96) was criticised for bestowing the award upon Vallabhbhai Patel in 1991, 41 years after his death in 1950; and upon Subhas Chandra Bose in 1992, who went missing since 18 August 1945. Similarly in 2015, the incumbent Prime Minister Narendra Modi 's decision to award Madan Mohan Malaviya, who died in 1946, met with criticism. Janardan Dwivedi, politician of the Indian National Congress, said that Malaviya, who worked predominantly in Varanasi, was "deliberately chosen '' by the Prime Minister Modi, who is the incumbent Member of Parliament from Varanasi.
A few of the conferments have been criticised for honouring personalities only after they received global recognition. The award for Mother Teresa was announced in 1980, a year after she was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. Satyajit Ray received an Academy Honorary Award in 1992 followed by the Bharat Ratna the same year. In 1999, Amartya Sen was awarded the Bharat Ratna, a year after his 1998 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences. The award was proposed by President K.R. Narayanan to Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee who agreed to the proposal.
Though, as per the statutes for the Bharat Ratna, the recommendations for the award can only be made by the Prime Minister to the President, there have been several demands from various political parties to honour their leaders. In January 2008, Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) leader L.K. Advani wrote to the then Prime Minister Manmohan Singh recommending Singh 's predecessor Atal Bihari Vajpayee for the award. This was immediately followed by the Communist Party of India (Marxist) lobbying for their leader, Jyoti Basu, former Chief Minister of West Bengal. Basu, India 's longest - serving chief minister, said that he would decline the honour, even if awarded. Similar demands were made by Telugu Desam Party, Bahujan Samaj Party, and Shiromani Akali Dal for their respective leaders N.T. Rama Rao, Kanshi Ram, and Parkash Singh Badal. In September 2015, regional political party Shiv Sena demanded the award for the independence activist Vinayak Damodar Savarkar stating that he had been "deliberately neglected by previous governments '' but his family clarified that they are not making such demand and that the freedom fighter is known for his contribution towards independence movement and did not need an award for recognition.
Per the original statutes, sportspersons were not eligible for the Bharat Ratna; however, a revision of the rules in December 2011 made eligible "any field of human endeavour ''. Subsequently, several sportspersons ' names were discussed; among the most talked - about of these was field - hockey player Dhyan Chand, who was recommended multiple times for the posthumous honour. In 2011, 82 members of parliament recommended Chand 's name for the award to the Prime Minister 's Office. In January 2012, the Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports forwarded his name again, this time along with 2008 Summer Olympics gold medallist shooter Abhinav Bindra and mountaineer Tenzing Norgay. Bindra had earlier been recommended for the award in May 2013 by the National Rifle Association of India. In July 2013, the ministry again recommended Dhyan Chand. However, in November 2013, cricketer Sachin Tendulkar became the first sports - person to receive the honour and this garnered much criticism for the government.
A PIL was filed in the Karnataka High Court where in the petitioner requested the court to issue a direction to the Ministry of Home Affairs to consider their representation dated 26 October 2012 and confer the Bharat Ratna upon Mahatma Gandhi. On 27 January 2014, a counsel appearing for the petitioner noted that after multiple representations from the petitioner, they were provided with the information under RTI that the recommendations to confer the award on Gandhi have been received multiple times in the past and were forwarded to the Prime Minister 's Office. A Division bench comprising Chief Justice D.H. Waghela and Justice B.V. Nagarathna dismissed the petition stating that the subject is not amenable to any adjudication process and the nominations and conferment process is stated to be informal and in the discretion of the highest authority in the Government.
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which of the following terms means excision of part of a muscle | List of surgical procedures - wikipedia
The names of many surgical procedure names can be broken into parts to indicate the meaning. For example, in gastrectomy, "ectomy '' is a suffix meaning the removal of a part of the body. "Gastro - '' means stomach. Thus, gastrectomy refers to the surgical removal of the stomach (or sections thereof). "Otomy '' means cutting into a part of the body; a gastrotomy would be cutting into, but not necessarily removing, the stomach. And also "pharyngo '' means pharynx, "laryngo '' means larynx, "esophag '' means esophagus. Thus, "pharyngolaryngoesophagectomy '' refers to the surgical removal of the three.
The field of minimally invasive surgery has spawned another set of words, such as arthroscopic or laparoscopic surgery. These take the same form as above; an arthroscope is a device which allows the inside of the joint to be seen.
See also: Category: Surgical procedures and techniques
bone: Acromioplasty Khyphoplasty Mentoplasty Acromioplasty
joint: Arthroplasty Rotationplasty
bone: Ostectomy (Femoral head ostectomy Vertebrectomy Coccygectomy Astragalectomy) Corpectomy Facetectomy Laminectomy (Hemilaminectomy)
joint: Synovectomy Discectomy
joint: Arthrotomy Laminotomy Foraminotomy
bone: Epiphysiodesis
joint: Arthrodesis Arthroscopy Ulnar collateral ligament reconstruction
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when is the next season of defenders coming out | List of Marvel Cinematic Universe television series - wikipedia
The Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) television series are American superhero television shows based on characters that appear in publications by Marvel Comics. The shows have been in production since 2013, and in that time Marvel Television and ABC Studios, along with its production division ABC Signature Studios, have premiered 11 series across broadcast, streaming, and cable television on ABC, Netflix and Hulu, and Freeform, respectively. They have at least three more series in various stages of development, with Marvel Studios -- the production studio behind the MCU films -- having at least two series in development for the Disney streaming service.
The first series in the universe, Marvel 's Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D., began airing on ABC during the 2013 -- 14 television season, and was joined by Marvel 's Agent Carter in the 2014 -- 15 television season. Marvel formed a unique partnership with IMAX Corporation to premiere Marvel 's Inhumans in IMAX theaters in September 2017 before airing on ABC during the 2017 -- 18 television season; a put pilot for another ABC series, Marvel 's Damage Control, has also been ordered, while an additional series focused on lesser - known female heroes is also in development. Netflix 's Marvel series began in 2015 with Marvel 's Daredevil and Marvel 's Jessica Jones, followed by Marvel 's Luke Cage in 2016. Marvel 's Iron Fist, the crossover miniseries Marvel 's The Defenders, and Marvel 's The Punisher released in 2017. Additionally, the MCU expanded to Hulu with Marvel 's Runaways in 2017, and to Freeform with Marvel 's Cloak & Dagger in 2018. Marvel 's New Warriors is also scheduled to air in 2018 but does not have a broadcaster.
Starring in the series are Clark Gregg as Phil Coulson in Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. and Hayley Atwell as Peggy Carter in Agent Carter, both reprising their roles from MCU films, while Anson Mount headlines Inhumans as Black Bolt. Daredevil introduces Charlie Cox in the title role of Matt Murdock / Daredevil as well as Jon Bernthal as the Punisher in its second season, who reprises his role as the star of The Punisher. Jessica Jones introduces Krysten Ritter as Jessica Jones and Mike Colter as Luke Cage, with the latter also headlining Luke Cage. Finn Jones stars as Danny Rand / Iron Fist in Iron Fist, and joins Cox, Ritter, and Colter for The Defenders. The Runaways cast consists of the titular group, including Rhenzy Feliz as Alex Wilder, and their parents, including Ryan Sands as Geoffrey Wilder. Olivia Holt and Aubrey Joseph star in Cloak & Dagger as Tandy Bowen / Dagger and Tyrone Johnson / Cloak, respectively, while Milana Vayntrub and Derek Theler lead New Warriors as Doreen Green / Squirrel Girl and Craig Hollis / Mister Immortal, respectively.
Agent Phil Coulson assembles a small team of S.H.I.E.L.D. (Strategic Homeland Intervention, Enforcement and Logistics Division) agents to handle strange new cases. After discovering that Project Centipede and their leader, "The Clairvoyant '', were affiliated with Hydra, a terrorist organization, Coulson and his team must deal with Hydra members still at large following Hydra 's infiltration of, and the destruction of, S.H.I.E.L.D., while also looking to restore trust from the government and public. In the wake of S.H.I.E.L.D. 's wars with Hydra and the Inhumans, a race of superhumans, Coulson begins a secret mission to protect the world from new threats. After the defeat of the Inhuman Hive and with Hydra destroyed, S.H.I.E.L.D. is made a legitimate organization once again, with Coulson returning to being a field agent, and is tasked with tracking down more enhanced people -- including Robbie Reyes / Ghost Rider -- while Agent Leo Fitz and Dr. Holden Radcliffe complete their work on Life Model Decoys. Coulson and members of his team are eventually abducted to the future in deep space, where they must try and save humanity while figuring out how to get home.
In August 2012, ABC ordered a pilot for a show called S.H.I.E.L.D., to be written by Joss Whedon, Jed Whedon, and Maurissa Tancharoen, and directed by Joss Whedon. On April 6, 2013, ABC announced that the show would be titled Marvel 's Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D., and it was officially ordered to series on May 10, 2013. Jed Whedon, Tancharoen and Jeffrey Bell act as the series ' showrunners, while Clark Gregg reprises his role from the films as Phil Coulson. The series was renewed for a second season on May 8, 2014, a third on May 7, 2015, a fourth on March 3, 2016, a fifth on May 11, 2017, and a sixth season on May 14, 2018, consisting of 13 episodes.
The first season, which premiered on September 24, 2013, aired episodes that directly relate to events in the films Thor: The Dark World and Captain America: The Winter Soldier. The revelation in Captain America: The Winter Soldier that S.H.I.E.L.D. had been infiltrated by Hydra had a huge impact on the series. Regarding the synergy the show had with addressing events from the film, Loeb said, "It 's an extremely unique experience that does n't exist anywhere else out there in the entertainment business. '' The second season, which premiered on September 23, 2014, introduces Inhumans to the MCU, ahead of their own television series. Additionally, a recurring plot point in the first two seasons involved the body of a member of the Kree race, who play a significant role in Guardians of the Galaxy. The third season, which premiered on September 29, 2015, introduces the concept of the Secret Warriors, with new Inhuman characters inspired by the comic of the same name, as well as Life Model Decoys. The fourth season, which premiered on September 20, 2016, sees Robbie Reyes / Ghost Rider introduced to the MCU, and ties to the second season of Agent Carter and Doctor Strange. The last four episodes of the fifth season, which premiered on December 1, 2017, coincides with the events of Avengers: Infinity War.
In the first season, Samuel L. Jackson, Cobie Smulders, Maximiliano Hernández, Titus Welliver and Jaimie Alexander all reprise their roles as Nick Fury, Maria Hill, Jasper Sitwell, Felix Blake, and Sif, respectively, from previous MCU films and One - Shots. In the second season, Alexander and Smulders return, while Hayley Atwell, Neal McDonough, Kenneth Choi, and Henry Goodman also reprise their roles as Peggy Carter, Timothy "Dum Dum '' Dugan, Jim Morita, and List, respectively, from previous MCU films. In the third season, William Sadler reprises his role as Matthew Ellis from the MCU films, and Powers Boothe recurs as his previously unnamed The Avengers character, Gideon Malick.
In 1946, Peggy Carter must balance the routine office work she does for the Strategic Scientific Reserve while secretly assisting Howard Stark, who finds himself framed for supplying deadly weapons to enemies of the United States. Carter is assisted by Stark 's butler, Edwin Jarvis, to find those responsible and dispose of the weapons. Carter eventually moves from New York City to Los Angeles to deal with the threats of the new atomic age in the wake of World War II, gaining new friends, a new home and potential new love.
By September 2013, Marvel was developing a series inspired by the Agent Carter One - Shot, featuring Peggy Carter, and in January 2014, the series was confirmed to be in development, with the script for a potential pilot to be written by Captain America: The First Avenger and Captain America: The Winter Soldier writers Christopher Markus & Stephen McFeely. On May 8, 2014, ABC officially ordered Marvel 's Agent Carter to series. Tara Butters, Michele Fazekas and Chris Dingess act as showrunners on the series, while Hayley Atwell reprises her role from the films as Peggy Carter. The series was renewed for a second season on May 7, 2015, and was officially canceled by ABC on May 12, 2016.
The first season, which premiered on January 6, 2015, introduces the origins of the Black Widow and Winter Soldier programs, which both appear in several MCU films. The second season, which premiered on January 19, 2016, features the Darkforce, which ties to the character Marcus Daniels in Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. and Doctor Strange.
In the first season, Dominic Cooper reprise his role of Howard Stark from Captain America: The First Avenger. James D'Arcy portrays Edwin Jarvis, Stark 's butler in the series who eventually serves as inspiration for Tony Stark 's artificial intelligence J.A.R.V.I.S. Costa Ronin portrays a young Anton Vanko, the co-creator of the arc reactor with Stark. Chris Evans appears as Steve Rogers / Captain America via archive footage from The First Avenger. McDonough and Toby Jones reprise their roles as Dugan and Arnim Zola, respectively. In the second season, Cooper returns to reprise his role.
After a military coup, the Inhuman Royal Family, led by Black Bolt, escape to Hawaii where they must save themselves and the world.
In November 2016, Marvel Television and IMAX Corporation announced Marvel 's Inhumans, to be produced in conjunction with ABC Studios. The series ' first two episodes were filmed entirely on IMAX digital cameras, and premiered on IMAX screens on September 1, 2017, for two weeks. ABC then broadcast the series weekly starting with the first two episodes on September 29, 2017, with the network airing of the first two episodes featuring exclusive content, outside of the versions screened on IMAX. Select action sequences in the rest of the series were also shot on IMAX. The series was neither intended to be a reworking of the planned film from Marvel Studios, nor a spin - off from Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. Ben Sherwood, president of Disney -- ABC Television Group, added that "We 've worked very carefully with our friends at Marvel Studios -- and this is a critical point -- to make sure that calendar-wise and content-wise we are only enhancing '' the MCU; the theatrical debut of the series was timed to not interfere with the release of any Marvel Studios films. In December 2016, Scott Buck was announced as showrunner and executive producer for the series. In February 2017, Anson Mount was cast as Black Bolt. Filming began in March 2017 in Hawaii, and concluded in June. ABC officially canceled the series on May 11, 2018.
By October 2013, Marvel was preparing four drama series and a miniseries to present to video on demand services and cable providers, with Netflix, Amazon, and WGN America expressing interest. That November, it was announced that Disney would provide Netflix with live - action series based on Daredevil, Jessica Jones, Iron Fist, and Luke Cage, leading up to a miniseries based on the Defenders.
Lawyer - by - day Matt Murdock uses his heightened senses from being blinded as a young boy to fight crime at night on the streets of Hell 's Kitchen as Daredevil, juxtaposed with the rise of crime lord Wilson Fisk. Murdock eventually crosses paths with Frank Castle / Punisher, a vigilante with far deadlier methods, and sees the return of his old girlfriend, Elektra Natchios. When Wilson Fisk is released from prison, Murdock must decide between hiding from the world or embracing his life as a hero vigilante.
In December 2013, Marvel confirmed that Drew Goddard would be the executive producer and showrunner for Daredevil, and would write and direct the first episode, though at the end of May 2014, it was announced that Goddard would no longer be the showrunner for the series, being replaced by Steven S. DeKnight. Goddard, who wrote the first two episodes, remained with the show as an executive producer. It was also revealed that the series would be titled Marvel 's Daredevil. A few days later, Charlie Cox was cast as Daredevil. A second season was ordered on April 21, 2015, with Doug Petrie and Marco Ramirez taking over as showrunners from DeKnight, who could not return to the series due to a prior commitment. A third season was ordered in July 2016, with Erik Oleson announced as the new showrunner of the series in October 2017.
The first season, which debuted in its entirety on April 10, 2015, features references to The Avengers and the Battle of New York, as well as mentioning Carl "Crusher '' Creel, who appears on Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. The insignia for the Iron Fist antagonist Steel Serpent is also seen in the season. The second season, which premiered on March 18, 2016, features the motorcycle gang Dogs of Hell, who appeared on Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D., along with numerous references to the events of the first season of Jessica Jones. The third season was released on October 19, 2018.
In the second season, Jon Bernthal was cast in a leading role as Frank Castle / Punisher, before headlining his own series, while Michelle Hurd and Carrie - Anne Moss reprise their roles of Samantha Reyes and Jeri Hogarth from Jessica Jones.
Former superhero Jessica Jones suffers from post-traumatic stress disorder, so she opens her own detective agency to help people. She begins to put her life back together after her encounter with Kilgrave, taking on a new case that makes her reluctantly confront her past.
In November 2013, Melissa Rosenberg was announced as the writer and executive producer of the series, and the following March, Loeb stated that filming would begin after Daredevil. In December 2014, Krysten Ritter was cast as Jessica Jones in the series, officially titled Marvel 's Jessica Jones. A second season was ordered on January 17, 2016, and a third on April 12, 2018.
The first season, which debuted in its entirety on November 20, 2015, features references to the events and characters of The Avengers. In the first season, Mike Colter was cast as Luke Cage, a recurring role in the series before headlining his own series. Rosario Dawson reprises her Daredevil role of Claire Temple, as does Royce Johnson in his role of Brett Mahoney. The second season, which was released on March 8, 2018, sees Elden Henson reprise his role of Franklin "Foggy '' Nelson, as well as Rob Morgan as Turk Barrett and Tijuana Ricks as Thembi Wallace.
When a sabotaged experiment gives him super strength and unbreakable skin, Luke Cage becomes a fugitive attempting to rebuild his life in Harlem, and must soon confront his past and fight a battle for the heart of his city. After clearing his name, Cage becomes a hero and celebrity in Harlem, only to encounter a new threat that makes him confront the line between hero and villain.
Colter reprises his role as Carl Lucas / Luke Cage in his own series, titled Marvel 's Luke Cage. In March 2014, Loeb stated that the series would begin filming after Iron Fist, being the fourth of the individual series. By March 2015, it was instead slated to be the third of the individual series, beginning production after Jessica Jones. The series was switched with Iron Fist after the positive reception Luke Cage received on Jessica Jones, becoming that series ' breakout star and Marvel wanting to "follow the momentum ''. Also in March, Cheo Hodari Coker was announced as showrunner and executive producer of the series. A second season was ordered on December 3, 2016. Netflix canceled the series on October 19, 2018.
The first season, which premiered on September 30, 2016, features references to The Avengers, the second season of Daredevil, the first season of Jessica Jones, and a flier for Colleen Wing 's martial arts class, and mentions Justin Hammer, Wilson Fisk and Frank Castle. Dawson, Morgan, Rachel Taylor, Stephen Rider, Parisa Fitz - Henley, and Danny Johnson reprise their roles as Claire Temple, Turk Barrett, Trish Walker, Blake Tower, Reva Connors and Ben Donovan in the series, respectively.
The second season, which premiered on June 22, 2018, features a reference to Detective Brigid O'Reilly recently moving from Harlem to New Orleans, in reference to that character 's role in the series Cloak & Dagger. Finn Jones, Jessica Henwick, and Henson reprise their roles as Danny Rand, Colleen Wing, and Foggy Nelson in the season.
Danny Rand returns to New York City, after being missing for fifteen years, to reclaim his family company. However, when a threat emerges, Rand must choose between his family 's legacy and his duties as the Iron Fist.
In March 2014, Loeb initially stated that the series would begin filming after Jessica Jones as the third of the individual series. By March 2015, it was expected to be the fourth of the individual series, entering production following Luke Cage. The series was switched with Luke Cage after the positive reception Luke Cage received on Jessica Jones, becoming that series ' breakout star and Marvel wanting to "follow the momentum ''. In April 2015, the title of the series was revealed to be Marvel 's Iron Fist. In December 2015, Marvel announced that Scott Buck would serve as showrunner and executive producer of the series. In February 2016, Finn Jones was cast as Rand. A second season was revealed to be in development in July 2017, with Raven Metzner announced as the new showrunner for the season, replacing Buck. Netflix canceled the series on October 12, 2018.
The first season, which premiered on March 17, 2017, makes references to the events of The Avengers, the Hulk, Stark Industries, Jessica Jones, Daredevil, Luke Cage, and Seagate Prison, and mentions the Dogs of Hell biker gang, New York Bulletin editor - in - chief Mitchell Ellison and reporter Karen Page, Roxxon Oil and Midland Circle. Events from the second season of Daredevil are also noted throughout. Moss, Dawson, Wai Ching Ho, Marquis Rodriguez, Tijuana Ricks, and Suzanne H. Smart reprise their roles as Jeri Hogarth, Claire Temple, Gao, Darryl, Thembi Wallace, and Shirley Benson, respectively, in the series.
The second season, which was released on September 7, 2018, sees Simone Missick reprise her role as Misty Knight.
The superheroes Daredevil, Jessica Jones, Luke Cage, and Iron Fist team - up in New York City.
The Defenders sees Cox, Ritter, Colter, and Jones reprise their roles as Matt Murdock / Daredevil, Jessica Jones, Luke Cage, and Danny Rand / Iron Fist, respectively, from the previous television series. In March 2014, Loeb stated that the miniseries, officially titled Marvel 's The Defenders, would begin filming after Iron Fist. In April 2016, Marvel announced that Douglas Petrie and Marco Ramirez would act as showrunners for The Defenders. However, by the start of filming in New York City in October 2016, Petrie had left the series as co-showrunner. Filming concluded in March 2017. The eight - episode event premiered on August 18, 2017.
The miniseries also sees many supporting characters from the individual series reprise their roles, including, Deborah Ann Woll, Henson, Scott Glenn, Élodie Yung, Eka Darville, Moss, Taylor, Simone Missick, Jessica Henwick, Dawson, Ho, Ramón Rodríguez, Peter McRobbie, Morgan, Amy Rutberg, Susan Varon, and Nichole Yannetty as Karen Page, Foggy Nelson, Stick, Elektra Natchios, Malcolm Ducasse, Jeri Hogarth, Trish Walker, Misty Knight, Colleen Wing, Claire Temple, Gao, Bakuto, Lantom, Turk Barrett, Marci Stahl, Josie and Nicole, respectively. Midland Circle, which was referenced in previous Netflix series, is revealed to be an operation of the Hand, who bought the building to search for the life substance hidden beneath the property. The miniseries also references the events of The Avengers.
Frank Castle is haunted and hunted after the murder of his family and becomes a vigilante known in the criminal underworld as "the Punisher '', who aims to fight crime by any means necessary.
By January 2016, ahead of the debut of Bernthal as armed vigilante Frank Castle / Punisher in the second season of Daredevil, Netflix was in "very early development '' on a spin - off series titled The Punisher, and was looking for a showrunner. The series would be centered on Bernthal as Castle, and was described as a stand - alone series, outside of the series leading up to The Defenders. Loeb implied that Marvel Television had not instigated the development of the spin - off and were focusing on making "the best 13 episodes of Daredevil season two '' at the time, but did say, "I 'm never going to discourage a network from looking at one of our characters and encouraging us to do more... If we are lucky enough that through the writing, through the direction, through the actor that people want to see more of that person, terrific. '' In April 2016, Marvel and Netflix ordered The Punisher, along with confirming Bernthal 's involvement and naming Steve Lightfoot as showrunner. Filming began in Brooklyn, New York in October 2016, and concluded in April 2017. A second season was ordered on December 12, 2017.
In the first season, which was released on November 17, 2017, Woll and Morgan reprise their roles as Karen Page and Turk Barrett, respectively. The second season is scheduled to be released in 2019.
When six teenagers discover their parents are villains, they reluctantly unite to go against them. In the second season, the teenagers are now on the run from their parents, living on their own and figuring out how to stop Pride, before learning there may be a mole among them.
In August 2016, Marvel announced Marvel 's Runaways had received a pilot order, along with additional scripts, from the streaming service Hulu, based on the team of the same name. The pilot is written by Josh Schwartz and Stephanie Savage, who also serve as executive producers and showrunners of the series. In February 2017, Marvel announced the cast of the Runaways, with Rhenzy Feliz as Alex Wilder, Lyrica Okano as Nico Minoru, Virginia Gardner as Karolina Dean, Ariela Barer as Gert Yorkes, Gregg Sulkin as Chase Stein, and Allegra Acosta as Molly Hernandez. Shortly after, they announced the cast of the Pride, the parents of the Runaways, with Ryan Sands as Geoffrey Wilder, Angel Parker as Catherine Wilder, Brittany Ishibashi as Tina Minoru, James Yaegashi as Robert Minoru, Kevin Weisman as Dale Yorkes, Brigid Brannagh as Stacey Yorkes, Annie Wersching as Leslie Dean, Kip Pardue as Frank Dean, James Marsters as Victor Stein, and Ever Carradine as Janet Stein. Hulu ordered the series in May 2017. Filming began in Los Angeles in February 2017, and concluded in October 2017. The first season, consisting of 10 episodes, premiered on November 21, 2017. Hulu renewed the series for a second season on January 8, 2018, which is scheduled to release all episodes on December 21, 2018.
Tina Minoru previously appeared in Doctor Strange, in a minor role as a Master of the Mystic Arts portrayed by Linda Louise Duan.
Tandy Bowen and Tyrone Johnson, two teenagers from different backgrounds, acquire superpowers while forming a romantic relationship. They soon realize that their powers work better when they are together, "but their feelings for each other make their already complicated world even more challenging. ''
In April 2016, the ABC - owned network Freeform announced a straight - to - series order for Marvel 's Cloak & Dagger, based on the characters of the same name, calling it their "first venture into the Marvel Cinematic Universe '', and describing the show as a "superhero love story ''. In January 2017, Olivia Holt and Aubrey Joseph were cast as Tandy Bowen / Dagger and Tyrone Johnson / Cloak, respectively. Joe Pokaski serves as showrunner for the series. Filming for the series occurs in New Orleans. A second season was ordered on July 20, 2018.
The first season, which premiered on June 7, 2018, sees Roxxon Oil featured, along with the Darkforce, which fuels Cloak 's powers and was previously established in Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. and Agent Carter. The season also makes direct references to the setting and characters of Luke Cage. The second season is scheduled to premiere in 2019.
By November 2017, Disney was developing a Marvel series specifically for release on its new streaming service, which it planned to launch before the end of 2019. In September 2018, it was reported that Marvel Studios was developing several limited series for the service, to be centered on "second tier '' characters from the MCU films who had not and were unlikely to star in their own films. Characters being considered for series included Loki and Scarlet Witch, with the actors who portrayed the characters in the films expected to reprise their roles for the limited series. Each series was expected to be six to eight episodes, with a "hefty (budget) rivaling those of a major studio productions ''. The series would be produced by Marvel Studios rather than Marvel Television, with Marvel Studios President Kevin Feige taking a "hands - on role '' in each series ' development.
Doreen Green / Squirrel Girl, Craig Hollis / Mister Immortal, Dwayne Taylor / Night Thrasher, Robbie Baldwin / Speedball, Zach Smith / Microbe, and Deborah Fields / Debrii, are superpowered young people with abilities very different from the Avengers, who want to make a positive impact in the world even if they are not quite ready to be heroes.
By the end of August 2016, Marvel Television and ABC Studios were developing a half - hour comedy series based on the New Warriors featuring Squirrel Girl, with the series being offered to cable networks and streaming outlets. In April 2017, Freeform announced a straight - to - series order for Marvel 's New Warriors, with Kevin Biegel serving as the series ' showrunner and writing the first script. In July 2017, the cast was revealed with Milana Vayntrub starring as Doreen Green / Squirrel Girl and Derek Theler as Craig Hollis / Mister Immortal. In November 2017, it was announced that the series would no longer air on Freeform and was being shopped to other networks, with Marvel intent on airing the series in 2018. The first season, consisting of 10 episodes, is set to air in 2018, with Biegel serving as showrunner for the series.
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With the release of the second season of Daredevil, Brian Lowery of Variety felt the Netflix series "have already leapfrogged ABC 's forays into the Marvel universe in terms of their appeal, in part by tapping into the avid fan base that supports pay models and does n't need to be spoon - fed plot points. In the process, they have demonstrated that it 's possible to deliver a credible superhero show without a lot of pyrotechnics ''.
After the release of the first season of Luke Cage, The Atlantic 's David Sims wrote on the pacing issue of Marvel 's Netflix series, a common complaint to that point, stating, "After two seasons of Daredevil, one of Jessica Jones, and now one of Luke Cage, the Netflix model feels fundamentally flawed, encouraging the kind of molasses - slow plotting comic books are designed to eschew. The problem is n't that these shows are bad, necessarily... But they all take far too long to get going, by which point many viewers will have already tuned out. '' He felt one of the problems was the fact that Netflix does not rely on viewers tuning into a particular series as broadcast series do each week, but rather subscribers who, if they lose interest, "can take as long as they want to catch up... as long as they keep paying their subscription fee every month. '' The Netflix series are also afforded the opportunity to explore elements in more detail, with Sims noting "A lot of this detail (is) good, but it could have been considerably compressed -- none of the Marvel Netflix series, so far, would have lost much by being squeezed into 10 episodes, or even 8. If Netflix shaved the 60 - minute running time down quite a bit, it would likely inspire more economical -- and better -- storytelling from its shows. '' Sims concluded by saying, "What 's most frustrating of all is that Netflix is n't getting rid of this approach anytime soon. Daredevil season three, Jessica Jones season two, Iron Fist, and The Punisher are all on their way, and each will follow the same 13 - episode structure... The only respite may come in the form of The Defenders, a planned crossover series... over the course of just eight episodes. Who knows? The show might even surprise viewers and explain its villain 's motivations within the first hour. Until then, fans will be stuck needlessly giving over entire days to these series, while others are deterred from watching at all. '' In her review for the first season of Iron Fist, Allison Keene of Collider spoke more on the pacing of Marvel 's Netflix series, stating, "By focusing so intently on making these series... much more grounded in a gritty real world than what we typically expect from a superhero show (like DC 's candy - colored (Arrowverse) on The CW), the problem is that they miss out on the key element: this should be fantastical entertainment. '' With The Defenders, Jeff Jansen of Entertainment Weekly felt many improvements were made to the general complaints the previous seasons received. He said, "The Defenders is far from perfect. But it 's an enjoyable superhero adventure distinguished by improvements and innovations that I hope Marvel will carry forward. Shorter seasons. More team - ups. Fewer shows. Start the consolidation by letting go of Iron Fist. If Danny Rand must persist, add him to the other shows and let the stronger players carry him. ''
The show follows the overworked, underpaid, clean up crew of the Marvel Cinematic Universe, who specialize in dealing with the aftermath of superhero conflicts, rescheduling events because of the conflicts, and retrieving lost items.
In October 2015, ABC ordered a put pilot for a half - hour live - action comedy series Marvel 's Damage Control, based on the comics construction company of the same name. The series is being developed by Ben Karlin for ABC Studios and Marvel Television, with Karlin also writing the script for the project and serving as executive producer. The series had previously been implied by then ABC Entertainment president Paul Lee to have begun airing as early as the 2016 -- 17 television season.
Marvel has been working with screenwriter John Ridley since mid-April 2015 to craft a new television series, "reinventing '' an existing Marvel character or property. In January 2016, Ridley confirmed that the project was "still in development ''. He stated that he was looking to "bring some of the socially conscious nature '' of Jessica Jones and his series American Crime to the show, while also creating something that is "straight entertainment ''. A year later, Channing Dungey revealed that Ridley 's project was still progressing, with Ridley working on a rewrite of his script. Ridley added that the rewrite was not because "anything did n't work the first time around '', but rather trying to make sure the series does something viewers have not necessarily seen before in a superhero television series, hoping it would occupy "a space that is not currently being filled '' by Marvel. He also stated that he hoped to create the series "in the near term. '' By August 2017, Dungey was "not sure '' if Ridley was still working on the project.
Dungey said in May 2016 that there were "a handful of projects in development '', after passing on Most Wanted and canceling Agent Carter, and that Marvel and ABC were looking "at series that would be beneficial to both brands. '' In January 2018, she noted that Marvel and ABC "tried a few things that have n't worked out as well as we would 've liked. We developed a couple things this season that we do n't think are going to end up going forward, so we 're going to look really carefully about what we do next, because the idea for us is to come up with something that works very well for both Marvel and ABC, so we 're going to continue to try there. '' In August, Dungey said "we 're cooking up a couple things for broadcast '' in terms of potential new Marvel series on ABC, and that there was one idea in particular that she was excited to talk about. In September 2018, ABC gave a production commitment to a series featuring lesser - known female superheroes, written and executive produced by Allan Heinberg. Jeph Loeb was also set to executive produce the potential series. The idea had been a "strong contender from the get - go '' in terms of the new series that Marvel and ABC had been developing.
In January 2016, Lee announced that ABC Studios was developing a second comedy series with Marvel after Damage Control in hope it would air on ABC, while Netflix CCO Ted Sarandos stated that "all the characters in the universe could also spin out '' into their own series at some point. Netflix vice president of original content Cindy Holland reiterated in July 2018 that there were always ongoing discussions regarding creating more spin - offs for characters in their Marvel series. That September, Loeb said that if he was able to, he would create a Daughters of the Dragon series for Netflix featuring Jessica Henwick 's Colleen Wing and Simone Missick 's Misty Knight.
By April 2015, Marvel was developing a spinoff series of Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. The series, which was being developed by Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. executive producer Jeffrey Bell and writer Paul Zbyszewski, would be based on storylines occurring at the end of the second season of Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D., and would receive its own pilot rather than a backdoor pilot. Adrianne Palicki and Nick Blood entered into discussions to headline the potential new series as their characters Bobbi Morse and Lance Hunter, respectively. By May 7, 2015, when ABC announced their series renewals and cancellations, and new series pickups, the Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. spinoff was passed on.
In August 2015, the Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. spinoff series received new life as a reworked series, titled Marvel 's Most Wanted, with a pilot order. Bell and Zbyszewski once again developed the series, while also serving as co-writers of the pilot, executive producers, and showrunners, with Jeph Loeb also attached as executive producer. The series would still focus on Morse and Hunter, with Palicki and Blood both attached, and was described as "a new take focusing on the same duo and their continuing adventures. '' In May 2016, the series was passed on by ABC once again.
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how big is washington state in square miles | Washington (state) - Wikipedia
Washington (/ ˈwɒʃɪŋtən / (listen)), officially the State of Washington, is a state in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States. Named after George Washington, the first president of the United States, the state was made out of the western part of the Washington Territory, which was ceded by Britain in 1846 in accordance with the Oregon Treaty in the settlement of the Oregon boundary dispute. It was admitted to the Union as the 42nd state in 1889. Olympia is the state capital. Washington is sometimes referred to as Washington State, to distinguish it from Washington, D.C., the capital of the United States, which is often shortened to Washington.
Washington is the 18th largest state, with an area of 71,362 square miles (184,827 km), and the 13th most populous state, with more than 7.4 million people. Approximately 60 percent of Washington 's residents live in the Seattle metropolitan area, the center of transportation, business, and industry along Puget Sound, an inlet of the Pacific Ocean consisting of numerous islands, deep fjords, and bays carved out by glaciers. The remainder of the state consists of: deep temperate rainforests in the west; mountain ranges in the west, central, northeast, and far southeast; and a semi-arid basin region in the east, central, and south, given over to intensive agriculture. Washington is the second most populous state on the West Coast and in the Western United States, after California. Mount Rainier, an active stratovolcano, is the state 's highest elevation, at almost 14,411 feet (4,392 m), and is the most topographically prominent mountain in the contiguous United States.
Washington is a leading lumber producer. Its rugged surface is rich in stands of Douglas fir, hemlock, ponderosa pine, white pine, spruce, larch, and cedar. The state is the biggest producer of apples, hops, pears, red raspberries, spearmint oil, and sweet cherries, and ranks high in the production of apricots, asparagus, dry edible peas, grapes, lentils, peppermint oil, and potatoes. Livestock and livestock products make important contributions to total farm revenue, and the commercial fishing of salmon, halibut, and bottomfish makes a significant contribution to the state 's economy. Washington ranks second only to California in the production of wine.
Manufacturing industries in Washington include aircraft and missiles, ship - building, and other transportation equipment, lumber, food processing, metals and metal products, chemicals, and machinery. Washington has over 1,000 dams, including the Grand Coulee Dam, built for a variety of purposes, including irrigation, power, flood control, and water storage.
Washington is one of the wealthiest and most liberally progressive states in the country. Along with Colorado, Washington was one of the first to legalize medicinal and recreational cannabis, was among the first thirty - six states to legalize same - sex marriage, doing so in 2012, and was one of only four U.S. states to have been providing legal abortions on request before the 1973 Supreme Court decision in Roe v. Wade loosened federal abortion laws. Similarly, Washington voters approved a 2008 referendum on legalization of physician - assisted suicide, and is currently only one of five states, along with Oregon, California, Colorado and Vermont, as well as the District of Columbia to have legalized the practice. The state is also one of eight in the country to have criminalized the sale, possession and transfer of bump stocks, with California, Florida, New Jersey, New York, Vermont, Maryland, and Massachusetts also having banned these devices.
Washington was named after President George Washington by an act of the United States Congress during the creation of Washington Territory in 1853. The territory was to be named "Columbia '', for the Columbia River and the Columbia District, but Kentucky representative Richard H. Stanton found the name too similar to the District of Columbia (the national capital, itself containing the city of Washington), and proposed naming the new territory after President Washington. Washington is the only U.S. state named after a president.
Confusion over the state of Washington and the city of Washington, D.C., led to renaming proposals during the statehood process for Washington in 1889, including David Dudley Field II 's suggestion to name the new state "Tacoma ''. These proposals failed to garner support. Washington, D.C. 's, own statehood movement in the 21st century includes a proposal to use the name "State of Washington, Douglass Commonwealth '', which would conflict with the current state of Washington. To distinguish it from the national capital, Washington may be referred to as "Washington state '', or, in more formal contexts, as "the State of Washington ''. Residents of Washington (known as "Washingtonians '') and the Pacific Northwest simply refer to the state as "Washington '', and the nation 's capital "Washington, D.C. '', "the other Washington '', or simply "D.C. ''.
Washington is the northwestern-most state of the contiguous United States. It borders Idaho to the east, bounded mostly by the meridian running north from the confluence of the Snake River and Clearwater River (about 116 ° 57 ' west), except for the southernmost section where the border follows the Snake River. Oregon is to the south, with the Columbia River forming the western part and the 46th parallel forming the eastern part of the Oregon - Washington border. To the west of Washington lies the Pacific Ocean. Its northern border lies mostly along the 49th parallel, and then via marine boundaries through the Strait of Georgia, Haro Strait, and Strait of Juan de Fuca, with the Canadian province of British Columbia to the north.
Washington is part of a region known as the Pacific Northwest, a term which always includes Washington and Oregon, and may or may not include some or all of the following, depending on the user 's intent: Idaho, western Montana, northern California, British Columbia, and Alaska.
The high mountains of the Cascade Range run north - south, bisecting the state. In addition to Western Washington and Eastern Washington, residents call the two parts of the state the "West side '' and "East side '', "Wet side '' and "Dry side '', or "Timberland '' and "Wheatland '', the latter pair more commonly in the names of region - specific businesses and institutions.
From the Cascade Mountains westward, Western Washington has a mostly Mediterranean Climate, with mild temperatures and wet winters, autumns and springs, and relatively dry summers. The Cascade Range has several volcanoes, which reach altitudes significantly higher than the rest of the mountains. From north to south, these major volcanoes are Mount Baker, Glacier Peak, Mount Rainier, Mount St. Helens, and Mount Adams. All are active volcanoes. Mount Rainier, the tallest mountain in the state, is 50 miles (80 km) south of the city of Seattle, from which it is prominently visible. The USGS considers 14,411 - foot - tall (4,392 m) Mt. Rainier the most dangerous volcano in the Cascade Range, due to its proximity to the Seattle metropolitan area, and most dangerous in the continental U.S. according to the Decade Volcanoes list. It is also covered with more glacial ice than any other peak in the contiguous 48 states.
Western Washington also is home of the Olympic Mountains, far west on the Olympic Peninsula, which support dense forests of conifers and areas of temperate rainforest. These deep forests, such as the Hoh Rainforest, are among the only temperate rainforests in the continental United States.
Eastern Washington -- the part of the state east of the Cascades -- has a relatively dry climate, in distinct contrast to the west side. It includes large areas of semiarid steppe and a few truly arid deserts in the rain shadow of the Cascades; the Hanford reservation receives an average annual precipitation of 6 to 7 inches (150 to 180 mm). Farther east, the climate becomes less arid, with annual rainfall increasing as one goes east to 21.2 inches (540 mm) in Pullman, near the Washington - Idaho border. The Okanogan Highlands and the rugged Kettle River Range and Selkirk Mountains cover much of the state 's northeastern quadrant. The Palouse southeast region of Washington was grassland that has been mostly converted into farmland, and extends to the Blue Mountains.
As described above, Washington 's climate varies greatly from west to east. A Mediterranean Climate predominates in western Washington, and a much drier semi-arid climate prevails east of the Cascade Range. Major factors determining Washington 's climate include the large semi-permanent high pressure and low pressure systems of the north Pacific Ocean, the continental air masses of North America, and the Olympic and Cascade mountains. In the spring and summer, a high pressure anticyclone system dominates the north Pacific Ocean, causing air to spiral out in a clockwise fashion. For Washington, this means prevailing winds from the northwest bring relatively cool air and a predictably dry season.
In the autumn and winter, a low - pressure cyclone system takes over in the north Pacific Ocean. The air spiraling inward in a counter-clockwise fashion causes Washington 's prevailing winds, the Chinooks, to come from the southwest, and bring relatively warm and moist air masses and a predictably wet season. The term "Pineapple Express '' is used colloquially to describe the extreme form of the wet - season Chinook winds.
Despite western Washington 's having a marine climate similar to many coastal cities of Europe, there are exceptions such as the "Big Snow '' events of 1880, 1881, 1893, and 1916, and the "deep freeze '' winters of 1883 -- 1884, 1915 -- 1916, 1949 -- 1950, and 1955 -- 1956, among others. During these events, western Washington experienced up to 6 feet (1.8 m) of snow, sub-zero (− 18 ° C) temperatures, three months with snow on the ground, and lakes and rivers frozen over for weeks. Seattle 's lowest officially recorded temperature is 0 ° F (− 18 ° C) set on January 31, 1950, but low - altitude areas approximately three hours away from Seattle have recorded lows as cold as − 48 ° F (− 44 ° C).
The Southern Oscillation greatly influences weather during the cold season. During the El Niño phase, the jet stream enters the U.S. farther south through California, therefore late fall and winter are drier than normal with less snowpack. The La Niña phase reinforces the jet stream through the Pacific Northwest, causing Washington to have more rain and snow than average.
In 2006, the Climate Impacts Group at the University of Washington published The Impacts of Climate change in Washington 's Economy, a preliminary assessment on the risks and opportunities presented given the possibility of a rise in global temperatures and their effects on Washington state.
Rainfall in Washington varies dramatically going from east to west. The Olympic Peninsula 's western side receives as much as 160 inches (4,100 mm) of precipitation annually, making it the wettest area of the 48 conterminous states and a temperate rainforest. Weeks may pass without a clear day. The western slopes of the Cascade Range receive some of the heaviest annual snowfall (in some places more than 200 inches or 5,100 millimeters water equivalent) in the country. In the rain shadow area east of the Cascades, the annual precipitation is only 6 inches (150 mm). Precipitation then increases again eastward toward the Rocky Mountains.
The Olympic mountains and Cascades compound this climatic pattern by causing orographic lift of the air masses blown inland from the Pacific Ocean, resulting in the windward side of the mountains receiving high levels of precipitation and the leeward side receiving low levels. This occurs most dramatically around the Olympic Mountains and the Cascade Range. In both cases, the windward slopes facing southwest receive high precipitation and mild, cool temperatures. While the Puget Sound lowlands are known for clouds and rain in the winter, the western slopes of the Cascades receive larger amounts of precipitation, often falling as snow at higher elevations. (Mount Baker, near the state 's northern border, is one of the snowiest places in the world: In 1999, it set the world record for snowfall in a single season - 1,140 inches (95 ft; 29 m).)
East of the Cascades, a large region experiences strong rain shadow effects. Semi-arid conditions occur in much of eastern Washington with the strongest rain shadow effects at the relatively low elevations of the central Columbia Plateau -- especially the region just east of the Columbia River from about the Snake River to the Okanagan Highland. Thus, instead of rain forests, much of eastern Washington is covered with grassland and shrub - steppe.
The average annual temperature ranges from 51 ° F (11 ° C) on the Pacific coast to 40 ° F (4 ° C) in the northeast. The lowest temperature recorded in the state was − 48 ° F (− 44 ° C) in Winthrop and Mazama. The highest recorded temperature in the state was 118 ° F (48 ° C) at Ice Harbor Dam. Both records were set east of the Cascades. Western Washington is known for its mild climate, considerable fog, frequent cloud cover, and long - lasting drizzles in the winter, and warm, temperate summers. The Eastern region occasionally experiences extreme climate. Arctic cold fronts in the winter and heat waves in the summer are not uncommon. In the Western region, temperatures have reached as high as 105 ° F (41 ° C) in Aberdeen, and as low as − 6 ° F (− 21 ° C) in Longview.
Forests cover 52 % of the state 's land area, mostly west of the North Cascades. Approximately two - thirds of Washington 's forested area is publicly owned, including 64 % of federal land. Other common trees and plants in the region are camassia, Douglas fir, hemlock, penstemon, ponderosa pine, western red cedar, and many species of ferns. The state 's various areas of wilderness offer sanctuary, with substantially large populations of shorebirds and marine mammals. The Pacific shore surrounding the San Juan Islands are heavily inhabited with killer, gray, and humpback whales.
Mammals native to the state include the bat, black bear, bobcat, cougar, coyote, deer, elk, gray wolf, moose, mountain beaver, muskrat, opossum, pocket gopher, raccoon, river otter, skunk, and tree squirrel. Because of the wide range of geography, the State of Washington is home to several different ecoregions which allow for a varied range of bird species. This range includes raptors, shorebirds, woodland birds, grassland birds, ducks, and others. There have also been a large number of species introduced to Washington, dating back to the early 18th century, including horses and burros. The channel catfish, lamprey, and sturgeon are among the 400 known freshwater fishes. Along with the Cascades frog, there are several forms of snakes that define the most prominent reptiles and amphibians. Coastal bays and islands are often inhabited by plentiful amounts of shellfish and whales. There are five species of salmon that ascend the Western Washington area, from streams to spawn.
Washington has a variety of National Park Service units. Among these are the Alta Lake State Park, Lake Roosevelt National Recreation Area, San Juan Islands National Wildlife Refuge, as well as three national parks - the Olympic National Park, North Cascades National Park, and Mount Rainier National Park. The three national parks were established between 1899 and 1968. Almost 95 % (876,517 acres, 354,714 hectares, 3,547.14 square kilometers) of Olympic National Park 's area has been designated as wilderness under the National Wilderness Preservation System. Additionally, there are 143 state parks and 9 national forests, run by the Washington State Park System and the United States Forest Service. The Okanogan National Forest is the largest national forest on the West Coast, encompassing 1,499,023 acres (606,633 ha). It is managed together as the Okanogan -- Wenatchee National Forest, encompassing a considerablely larger area of around 3,239,404 acres (1,310,940 ha).
The skeletal remains of Kennewick Man, one of the oldest and most complete human remains found in North America, were discovered in Washington. Before the Europeans arrived, the region had many established tribes of aboriginal Americans, notable for their totem poles and their ornately carved canoes and masks. Prominent among their industries were salmon fishing and, notably among the Makah, whale hunting. The peoples of the Interior had a very different subsistence - based culture based on hunting, food - gathering and some forms of agriculture, as well as a dependency on salmon from the Columbia and its tributaries. The smallpox epidemic of the 1770s devastated the Native American population.
The first recorded European landing on the Washington coast was by Spanish Captain Don Bruno de Heceta in 1775, on board the Santiago, part of a two - ship flotilla with the Sonora. He claimed the coastal lands up to Prince William Sound for Spain as part of their claimed rights under the Treaty of Tordesillas, which they maintained made the Pacific a "Spanish lake '' and all its shores part of the Spanish Empire.
In 1778, British explorer Captain James Cook sighted Cape Flattery, at the entrance to the Strait of Juan de Fuca, but Cook did not realize the strait existed. It was not discovered until Charles William Barkley, captain of the Imperial Eagle, sighted it in 1787. The straits were further explored by Spanish explorers Manuel Quimper in 1790 and Francisco de Eliza in 1791, and British explorer George Vancouver in 1792.
The British - Spanish Nootka Convention of 1790 ended Spanish claims of exclusivity and opened the Northwest Coast to explorers and traders from other nations, most notably Britain and Russia as well as the fledgling United States. American captain Robert Gray (for whom Grays Harbor County is named) then discovered the mouth of the Columbia River. He named the river after his ship, the Columbia. Beginning in 1792, Gray established trade in sea otter pelts. The Lewis and Clark Expedition entered the state on October 10, 1805.
Explorer David Thompson, on his voyage down the Columbia River camped at the confluence with the Snake River on July 9, 1811, and erected a pole and a notice claiming the country for Great Britain and stating the intention of the North West Company to build a trading post at the site.
Britain and the United States agreed to what has since been described as "joint occupancy '' of lands west of the Continental Divide to the Pacific Ocean as part of the Anglo - American Convention of 1818, which established the 49th Parallel as the international boundary west from Lake of the Woods to the Rocky Mountains. Resolution of the territorial and treaty issues, west to the Pacific, were deferred until a later time. Spain, in 1819, ceded their rights north of the 42nd Parallel to the United States, although these rights did not include possession.
Negotiations with Great Britain over the next few decades failed to settle upon a compromise boundary and the Oregon boundary dispute was highly contested between Britain and the United States. Disputed joint - occupancy by Britain and the U.S. lasted for several decades. With American settlers pouring into Oregon Country, Hudson 's Bay Company, which had previously discouraged settlement because it conflicted with the fur trade, reversed its position in an attempt to maintain British control of the Columbia District.
Fur trapper James Sinclair, on orders from Sir George Simpson, Governor of the Hudson 's Bay Company, led some 200 settlers from the Red River Colony west in 1841 to settle on Hudson Bay Company farms near Fort Vancouver. The party crossed the Rockies into the Columbia Valley, near present - day Radium Hot Springs, British Columbia, then traveled south - west down the Kootenai River and Columbia River. Despite such efforts, Britain eventually ceded all claims to land south of the 49th parallel to the United States in the Oregon Treaty on June 15, 1846.
In 1836, a group of missionaries, including Marcus Whitman, established several missions and Whitman 's own settlement Waiilatpu, in what is now southeastern Washington state, near present day Walla Walla County, in territory of both the Cayuse and the Nez Perce Indian tribes. Whitman 's settlement would in 1843 help the Oregon Trail, the overland emigration route to the west, get established for thousands of emigrants in following decades. Marcus provided medical care for the Native Americans, but when Indian patients -- lacking immunity to new, "European '' diseases -- died in striking numbers, while at the same time many white patients recovered, they held "medicine man '' Marcus Whitman personally responsible, and murdered Whitman and twelve other white settlers in the Whitman massacre in 1847. This event triggered the Cayuse War between settlers and Indians.
Fort Nisqually, a farm and trading post of the Hudson 's Bay Company and the first European settlement in the Puget Sound area, was founded in 1833. Black pioneer George Washington Bush and his Caucasian wife, Isabella James Bush, from Missouri and Tennessee, respectively, led four white families into the territory and founded New Market, now Tumwater, in 1846. They settled in Washington to avoid Oregon 's discriminatory settlement laws. After them, many more settlers, migrating overland along the Oregon trail, wandered north to settle in the Puget Sound area.
The growing populace of Oregon Territory north of the Columbia River formally requested a new territory, which was granted by the U.S. government in 1853. The boundary of Washington Territory initially extended farther east than the present state 's, including what is now the Idaho Panhandle and parts of western Montana, and picked up more land to the southeast that was left behind when Oregon was admitted as a state. The creation of Idaho Territory in 1863 established the final eastern border. A Washington State constitution was drafted and ratified in 1878, but it was never officially adopted. Although never approved by Congress, the 1878 constitution is an important historical document which shows the political thinking of the time. It was used extensively during the drafting of Washington State 's 1889 constitution, the one and only official Constitution of the State of Washington. Washington became the 42nd state in the United States on November 11, 1889.
Early prominent industries in the state included agriculture and lumber. In eastern Washington, the Yakima River Valley became known for its apple orchards, while the growth of wheat using dry farming techniques became particularly productive. Heavy rainfall to the west of the Cascade Range produced dense forests, and the ports along Puget Sound prospered from the manufacturing and shipping of lumber products, particularly the Douglas fir. Other industries that developed in the state included fishing, salmon canning and mining.
For a long period, Tacoma had large smelters where gold, silver, copper, and lead ores were treated. Seattle was the primary port for trade with Alaska and the rest of the country, and for a time, it possessed a large ship - building industry. The region around eastern Puget Sound developed heavy industry during the period including World War I and World War II, and the Boeing company became an established icon in the area.
During the Great Depression, a series of hydroelectric dams were constructed along the Columbia river as part of a project to increase the production of electricity. This culminated in 1941 with the completion of the Grand Coulee Dam, the largest concrete structure in the United States.
During World War II, the state became a focus for war industries. While the Boeing Company produced many of the nation 's heavy bombers, ports in Seattle, Bremerton, Vancouver, and Tacoma were available for the manufacture of warships. Seattle was the point of departure for many soldiers in the Pacific, a number of whom were quartered at Golden Gardens Park. In eastern Washington, the Hanford Works atomic energy plant was opened in 1943, and played a major role in the construction of the nation 's atomic bombs.
On May 18, 1980, following a period of heavy tremors and eruptions, the northeast face of Mount St. Helens erupted violently, destroying a large part of the top of the volcano. The eruption flattened the forests, killed 57 people, flooded the Columbia River and its tributaries with ash and mud, and blanketed large parts of Washington eastward and other surrounding states in ash, making day look like night.
The United States Census Bureau estimates Washington 's population was 7,288,000 on July 1, 2016, an 8.4 % increase since the 2010 Census. In 2015, the state ranked 13th overall in population, and was the third most populous, after California and Texas, west of the Mississippi River. Washington has the largest Pacific Northwest population, followed by Oregon, then Idaho. The Washington state Office of Financial Management pegged the state population at 7,310,300 as of April 1, 2017.
As of the 2010 Census, the population of Washington was 6,724,540. The Seattle - Tacoma - Bellevue Metropolitan Area population was 3,439,809 in the 2010 Census, half the state total.
The center of population of Washington in 2000 was in an unpopulated part of the Cascade Mountains in rural eastern King County, southeast of North Bend, northeast of Enumclaw, and west of Snoqualmie Pass.
Washington 's proportion of residents under age five was 6.7 %, and 25.7 % under 18, and 11.2 % 65 or older. Female residents were 50.2 % of the population.
The racial makeup of the population as of the 2010 Census was:
Hispanic or Latino of any race were 11.2 % of the population in 2010: 8.9 % were of Mexican, 0.4 % Puerto Rican, 0.1 % Cuban, and 1.8 % other Hispanic or Latino origin. According to the 2010 -- 2015 American Community Survey, the largest ancestry groups were German (18.1 %), Irish (11.0 %), English (10.5 %), Norwegian (5.4 %), and American (4.9 %).
In 2011, 44.3 % of Washington 's population younger than age 1 were minorities.
Note: Births in table do n't add up, because Hispanics are counted both by their ethnicity and by their race, giving a higher overall number.
While the population of African Americans in the Pacific Northwest is scarce overall, they are mostly concentrated in the South End and Central District areas of Seattle, and in inner Tacoma. The black community of Seattle consisted of one individual in 1858, Manuel Lopes, and grew to a population of 406 by 1900. It developed substantially during and after World War II when wartime industries and the U.S. Armed Forces employed and recruited tens of thousands of African Americans from the Southeastern United States. They moved west in the second wave of the Great Migration left a high influence in West Coast rock music and R&B and soul in the 1960s, including Seattle native Jimi Hendrix, a pioneer in hard rock, who was of African American and Cherokee Indian descent.
American Indians lived on Indian reservations or jurisdictory lands such as the Colville Indian Reservation, Makah, Muckleshoot Indian Reservation, Quinault (tribe), Salish people, Spokane Indian Reservation, and Yakama Indian Reservation. The westernmost and Pacific coasts have primarily American Indian communities, such as the Chinook, Lummi, and Salish. But Urban Indian communities formed by the U.S. Bureau of Indian Affairs relocation programs in Seattle since the end of World War II brought a variety of Native American peoples to this diverse metropolis. The city was named for Chief Seattle in the very early 1850s when European Americans settled the sound.
Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders are mostly concentrated in the Seattle − Tacoma metropolitan area of the state. Seattle, Bellevue, and Redmond, which are all within King County, have sizable Chinese communities (including Taiwanese), as well as significant Indian and Japanese communities. The Chinatown - International District in Seattle has a historical Chinese population dating back to the 1860s, who mainly emigrated from Guangdong Province in southern China, and is home to a diverse East and Southeast Asian community. Koreans are heavily concentrated in the suburban cities of Federal Way and Auburn to the south, and in Lynnwood to the north. Tacoma is home to thousands of Cambodians, and has one of the largest Cambodian - American communities in the United States, along with Long Beach, California, and Lowell, Massachusetts. The Vietnamese and Filipino populations of Washington are mostly concentrated within the Seattle metropolitan area. Washington state has the second highest percentage of Pacific Islander people in the mainland U.S. (behind Utah); the Seattle - Tacoma area is home to over 15,000 people of Samoan ancestry, who mainly reside in southeast Seattle, Tacoma, Federal Way, and in SeaTac.
The most numerous (ethnic, not racial, group) are Latinos at 11 %, as Mexican Americans formed a large ethnic group in the Chehalis Valley, farming areas of Yakima Valley, and Eastern Washington. They were reported to at least date as far back as the 1800s. But it was in the late 20th century, that large - scale Mexican immigration and other Latinos settled in the southern suburbs of Seattle, with limited concentrations in King, Pierce, and Snohomish Counties during the region 's real estate construction booms in the 1980s and 1990s.
Additionally, Washington has a large Ethiopian community, with many Eritrean residents as well. Both emerged in the late 1960s, and developed since 1980. The number of Somali immigrants residing in the Seattle area are estimated to being in the several thousands to over 30,000.
In 2010, 82.51 % (5,060,313) of Washington residents age 5 and older spoke English at home as a primary language, while 7.79 % (477,566) spoke Spanish, 1.19 % (72,552) Chinese (which includes Cantonese and Mandarin), 0.94 % (57,895) Vietnamese, 0.84 % (51,301) Tagalog, 0.83 % (50,757) Korean, 0.80 % (49,282) Russian, and German was spoken as a main language by 0.55 % (33,744) of the population over the age of five. In total, 17.49 % (1,073,002) of Washington 's population age 5 and older spoke a mother language other than English.
Major religious affiliations of the people of Washington are:
The largest denominations by number of adherents in 2010 were the Roman Catholic Church, with 784,332; The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter - day Saints (Mormon), with 282,356; and the Assemblies of God, with 125,005.
Aquarian Tabernacle Church is the largest Wiccan church in the country.
Like many other Western states, the percentage of Washington 's population identifying themselves as "non-religious '' is higher than the national average. The percentage of non-religious people in Washington is one of the highest in the United States.
Washington has a strong economy in general, with a total gross state product of $476.770 billion, placing it 14th in the nation. The minimum wage in 2018 was $11.50 an hour, the highest in the country. Significant business within the state include the design and manufacture of aircraft (Boeing), automotive (Paccar), computer software development (Microsoft, Bungie, Amazon, Nintendo of America, Valve Corporation, ArenaNet), telecom (T - Mobile US), electronics, biotechnology, aluminum production, lumber and wood products (Weyerhaeuser), mining, beverages (Starbucks, Jones Soda), real estate (John L. Scott, Colliers International, Windermere Real Estate, Kidder Mathews), retail (Nordstrom, Eddie Bauer, Car Toys, Costco, R.E.I.), and tourism (Alaska Airlines, Expedia, Inc.). A Fortune magazine survey of the top 20 Most Admired Companies in the US has four Washington - based companies: Amazon, Starbucks, Microsoft, and Costco. The state has significant amounts of hydroelectric power generation at over 80 %. Also, significant amounts of trade with Asia pass through the ports of the Puget Sound leading to a number 6 ranking of US ports (ranking combines Twenty - foot Equivalent Units moved and Infrastructure index).
With the passage of Initiative 1183, the Washington State Liquor Control Board (WSLCB) ended its monopoly of all - state liquor store and liquor distribution operations on June 1, 2012.
Among Washington 's resident billionaires are, as of December 2017, both the first and the second wealthiest people in the world: Jeff Bezos of Amazon, with a net worth of US $99.6 billion, and Bill Gates of Microsoft, at of $91.3 billion. As of April 2014, other Washington state billionaires included Microsoft 's Paul Allen, Steve Ballmer, and Charles Simonyi, and Craig McCaw of McCaw Cellular Communications, James Jannard of Oakley, and Howard Schultz of Starbucks.
As of January 2015, the state 's unemployment rate is 6.3 percent.
The state of Washington is one of seven states that does not levy a personal income tax. The state does not collect a corporate income tax or franchise tax either. Washington businesses are responsible for various other state levies, including the business and occupation tax (B & O), a gross receipts tax which charges varying rates for different types of businesses.
Washington 's state base sales tax is 6.5 percent, which is combined with a local sales tax that varies by locality. The combined state and local retail sales tax rates increase the taxes paid by consumers, depending on the variable local sales tax rates, generally between 7.5 and 10 percent. As of March 2017, the combined sales tax rate in Seattle and Tacoma was 10.1 percent. The cities of Lynwood and Mill Creek have the highest sale tax rate in the state at 10.4 percent. These taxes apply to services as well as products. Most foods are exempt from sales tax; however, prepared foods, dietary supplements, and soft drinks remain taxable.
An excise tax applies to certain select products such as gasoline, cigarettes, and alcoholic beverages. Property tax was the first tax levied in the state of Washington, and its collection accounts for about 30 percent of Washington 's total state and local revenue. It continues to be the most important revenue source for public schools, fire protection, libraries, parks and recreation, and other special purpose districts.
All real property and personal property is subject to tax, unless specifically exempted by law. Personal property also is taxed, although most personal property owned by individuals is exempt. Personal property tax applies to personal property used when conducting business, or to other personal property not exempt by law. All property taxes are paid to the county treasurer 's office where the property is located. Washington does not impose a tax on intangible assets such as bank accounts, stocks, or bonds. Neither does the state assess any tax on retirement income earned and received from another state. Washington does not collect inheritance taxes; however, the estate tax is de-coupled from the federal estate tax laws, and therefore, the state imposes its own estate tax.
Washington 's tax policy differs from neighboring Oregon 's, which levies no sales tax, but does levy a personal income tax. This leads to border economic anomalies in the Portland - Vancouver metropolitan area. Additional border economies exist with neighboring Canada and Idaho.
Washington is a leading agricultural state. (The following figures are from the Washington State Department of Agriculture and the USDA, National Agricultural Statistics Service, Washington Field Office.) For 2013, the total value of Washington 's agricultural products was $10.2 billion. In 2013, Washington ranked first in the nation in production of red raspberries (92.7 percent of total U.S. production), hops (79.2 percent), spearmint oil (72.9 percent), wrinkled seed peas (60 percent), apples (57 percent), sweet cherries (50.9 percent), pears (49.5 percent), Concord grapes (36.5 percent), carrots for processing (36.5 percent), green peas for processing (34.4 percent), and peppermint oil (31.4 percent).
Washington also ranked second in the nation in production of fall potatoes (a quarter of the nation 's production), nectarines, apricots, grapes (all varieties taken together), sweet corn for processing (a quarter of the nation 's production), and summer onions (a fifth of the nation 's production).
The apple industry is of particular importance to Washington. Because of the favorable climate of dry, warm summers and cold winters of central Washington, the state has led the U.S. in apple production since the 1920s. Two areas account for the vast majority of the state 's apple crop: the Wenatchee -- Okanogan region (comprising Chelan, Okanogan, Douglas, and Grant counties), and the Yakima region (comprising Yakima, Benton, and Kittitas counties).
Washington ranks second in the United States in the production of wine, behind only California. By 2006, the state had over 31,000 acres (130 km) of vineyards, a harvest of 120,000 short tons (109,000 t) of grapes, and exports going to over 40 countries around the world from the state 's 600 wineries. While there are some viticultural activities in the cooler, wetter western half of the state, the majority (99 %) of wine grape production takes place in the desert - like eastern half. The rain shadow of the Cascade Range leaves the Columbia River Basin with around 8 inches (200 mm) of annual rain fall, making irrigation and water rights of paramount interest to the Washington wine industry. Viticulture in the state is also influenced by long sunlight hours (on average, two more hours a day than in California during the growing season) and consistent temperatures.
As of December 2014, there are 124 broadband providers that offer service to Washington state, with 93 % of consumers having access to broadband speeds of 25 / 3mbps or more.
From 2009 -- 2014, the Washington State Broadband Project was awarded $7.3 M in federal grants, but the program was discontinued in 2014. For infrastructure, another $166 M has been awarded since 2011 for broadband infrastructure projects in Washington state.
U.S. News & World Report ranked Washington 2nd nationally for household internet access, and 6th for online download speed, based on data from 2014 and 2015.
Washington has a system of state highways, called State Routes, as well as an extensive ferry system which is the largest in the nation and the third largest in the world. There are 140 public airfields in Washington, including 16 state airports owned by the Washington State Department of Transportation. Seattle - Tacoma International Airport (Sea - Tac) is the major commercial airport of greater Seattle. Boeing Field in Seattle is one of the busiest primary non-hub airports in the US.
There are extensive waterways in the midst of Washington 's largest cities, including Seattle, Bellevue, Tacoma and Olympia. The state highways incorporate an extensive network of bridges and the largest ferry system in the United States to serve transportation needs in the Puget Sound area. Washington 's marine highway constitutes a fleet of twenty - eight ferries that navigate Puget Sound and its inland waterways to 20 different ports of call, completing close to 147,000 sailings each year. Washington is home to four of the five longest floating bridges in the world: the Evergreen Point Floating Bridge, Lacey V. Murrow Memorial Bridge and Homer M. Hadley Memorial Bridge over Lake Washington, and the Hood Canal Bridge which connects the Olympic Peninsula and Kitsap Peninsula. Washington has a number of seaports on the Pacific Ocean, including Seattle, Tacoma, Kalama, Anacortes, Vancouver, Longview, Greys County, Olympia, and Port Angeles.
The Cascade Mountain Range also impedes transportation. Washington operates and maintains roads over seven major mountain passes and eight minor passes. During winter months some of these passes are plowed, sanded, and kept safe with avalanche control. Not all stay open through the winter. The North Cascades Highway, State Route 20, closes every year due to snowfall and avalanches in the area of Washington Pass. The Cayuse and Chinook Passes east of Mount Rainier also close in winter.
Washington is crossed by a number of freight railroads, and Amtrak 's passenger Cascade route between Eugene, Oregon and Vancouver, BC is the eighth busiest Amtrak service in the US, and one of the few profitable routes in the system.
Public transportation has generally lagged, although the much - delayed link light rail system in the greater Seattle region opened its first line in 2009. Residents of Vancouver have resisted proposals to extend Portland 's mass transit system into Washington.
In 2007, Washington became the first state in the nation to target all forms of highly toxic brominated flame retardants known as PBDEs for elimination from the many common household products in which they are used. A 2004 study of 40 mothers from Oregon, Washington, British Columbia, and Montana found PBDEs in the breast milk of every woman tested.
Three recent studies by the Washington Department of Ecology showed toxic chemicals banned decades ago linger in the environment and concentrate in the food chain. In one of the studies, state government scientists found unacceptable levels of toxic substances in 93 samples of freshwater fish from 45 sites. The toxic substances included PCBs; dioxins, two chlorinated pesticides, DDE and dieldrin, and PBDEs. As a result of the study, the department will investigate the sources of PCBs in the Wenatchee River, where unhealthy levels of PCBs were found in mountain whitefish. Based on the 2007 information and a previous 2004 Ecology study, the Washington State Department of Health advises the public not to eat mountain whitefish from the Wenatchee River from Leavenworth downstream to where the river joins the Columbia, due to unhealthy levels of PCBs. Study results also showed high levels of contaminants in fish tissue that scientists collected from Lake Washington and the Spokane River, where fish consumption advisories are already in effect.
On March 27, 2006, Governor Christine Gregoire signed into law the recently approved House Bill 2322. This bill would limit phosphorus content in dishwashing detergents statewide to 0.5 percent over the next six years. Though the ban would be effective statewide in 2010, it would take place in Whatcom County, Spokane County, and Clark County in 2008. A recent discovery had linked high contents of phosphorus in water to a boom in algae population. An invasive amount of algae in bodies of water would lead to a variety of excess ecological and technological issues.
Washington 's executive branch is headed by a governor elected for a four - year term. The current statewide elected officers are:
The bicameral Washington State Legislature is the state 's legislative branch. The state legislature is composed of a lower House of Representatives and an upper State Senate. The state is divided into 49 legislative districts of equal population, each of which elects two representatives and one senator. Representatives serve two - year terms, whilst senators serve for four years. There are no term limits. As of the 2013 and 2014 session, the Democratic Party held the majority in the House, while the Republicans had control of the state Senate with a coalition of some Democrats. In the 2014 midterm elections, the Republican Party took full control of the Senate. The Republican Party maintained control of the state Senate until the Democratic Party won a majority in a 2017 special election.
The Washington Supreme Court is the highest court in the state. Nine justices serve on the bench and are elected statewide.
The two United States Senators from Washington are Patty Murray (D) and Maria Cantwell (D).
Washington 's ten representatives in the United States House of Representatives (see map of districts) are Suzan DelBene (D - 1), Richard Ray (Rick) Larsen (D - 2), Jaime Herrera (R - 3), Dan Newhouse (R - 4), Cathy McMorris Rodgers (R - 5), Derek Kilmer (D - 6), Pramila Jayapal (D - 7), Dave Reichert (R - 8), Adam Smith (D - 9), and Dennis Heck (D - 10).
Due to Congressional redistricting as a result of the 2010 Census, Washington gained one seat in the United States House of Representatives. With the extra seat, Washington also gained one electoral vote.
The state is typically thought of as politically divided by the Cascade Mountains, with Western Washington being liberal (particularly the I - 5 Corridor) and Eastern Washington being conservative. Washington has voted for the Democratic presidential nominee in every election since 1988.
Due to Western Washington 's large population, Democrats usually fare better statewide. The Seattle metropolitan combined statistical area, home to almost two - thirds of Washington 's population, generally delivers stronger Democratic margins than most other parts of Western Washington. This is especially true of King County, home to Seattle and almost a third of the state 's population.
Washington was considered a key swing state in 1968, and it was the only western state to give its electoral votes to Democratic nominee Hubert Humphrey over his Republican opponent Richard Nixon. Washington was considered a part of the 1994 Republican Revolution, and had the biggest pick - up in the house for Republicans, who picked up seven of Washington 's nine House seats. However, this dominance did not last for long, as Democrats picked up one seat in the 1996 election, and two more in 1998, giving the Democrats a 5 -- 4 majority.
The two current United States Senators from Washington are Patty Murray and Maria Cantwell, both Democrats. The governorship is held by Democrat Jay Inslee, who was elected to his first term in the 2012 gubernatorial election. In 2013 and 2014, both houses of the Washington State Legislature (the Washington Senate and the Washington House of Representatives) were controlled by a Democratic majority. The state senate was under Republican control, due to two Democrats joining Republicans to form a Majority Coalition Caucus. After the 2014 elections, the Democrats retained control of the House, while Republicans took a majority in the Senate without the need for a coalition. In November 2017, a special election gave Democrats a one seat majority in the Senate and complete control over state government.
No state has gone longer without a Republican governor than Washington state. Democrats have controlled the Washington Governor 's Mansion for more than 32 years. The last Republican Governor was John Spellman. Washington has not voted for a Republican senator, governor, or presidential candidate since 1994 - tying Delaware for the longest streak in the country.
Washington is one of three states to have legalized assisted suicide. In 2008, voted on by initiative, the Washington Death with Dignity Act passed and became law.
In November 2009, Washington state voters approved full domestic partnerships via Referendum 71, marking the first time voters in any state expanded recognition of same - sex relationships at the ballot box.
Three years later, in November 2012, same - sex marriage was affirmed via Referendum 74, making Washington one of only three states to have approved same - sex marriage by popular vote.
Also in November 2012, Washington state became one of just two states to pass by initiative the legal sale and possession of cannabis for both medical and non-medical use with Initiative 502. The law took effect in December 2012. Although marijuana is still illegal under U.S. Federal law, persons 21 and older in Washington state can possess up to one ounce of marijuana, 16 ounces of marijuana - infused product in solid form, 72 ounces of marijuana - infused product in liquid form, or any combination of all three, and to legally consume marijuana and marijuana - infused products. Some 334 legal recreational marijuana retail outlets are projected to open by June 2014.
Washington state was the first state in the United States where assisted suicide, same - sex marriage, and recreational cannabis use were all legal at the same time. After the 2014 elections, it was joined by Oregon.
As of the 2008 -- 2009 school year, 1,040,750 students were enrolled in elementary and secondary schools in Washington, with 59,562 teachers employed to educate them. As of August 2009, there were 295 school districts in the state, serviced by nine Educational Service Districts. Washington School Information Processing Cooperative (a non-profit, opt - in, State agency) provides information management systems for fiscal & human resources and student data. Elementary and secondary schools are under the jurisdiction of the Washington State Office of Superintendent of Public Instruction (OSPI), led by State School Superintendent Randy Dorn.
High school juniors and seniors in Washington have the option of using the state 's Running Start program. Begun by the state legislature in 1990, it allows students to attend institutions of higher education at public expense, simultaneously earning high school and college credit.
The state also has several public arts focused high schools including Tacoma School of the Arts, Vancouver school of Arts and Academics, and The Center School. There are also four Science and Math based high schools: one in the Tri-Cities, Washington, known as Delta, one in Tacoma, Washington, known as SAMI, another in Seattle known as Raisbeck Aviation High School, and one in Redmond, Washington known as Tesla STEM High School.
There are more than 40 institutions of higher education in Washington. The state has major research universities, technical schools, religious schools, and private career colleges. Colleges and Universities include the University of Washington, Seattle University, Washington State University, Western Washington University, Eastern Washington University, Central Washington University, Pacific Lutheran University, Gonzaga University, and The Evergreen State College.
The state of Washington reformed its health care system in 1993 through the Washington Health Services Act. The legislation required individuals to obtain health insurance or face penalties, and required employers to provide insurance to employees. In addition, health insurance companies were required to sell policies to all individuals, regardless of pre-existing conditions, and cover basic benefits.
The act was mostly repealed in 1995 before it could go into full effect. The state adopted the Washington Healthplanfinder system in 2014 after the passage of the federal Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (also known as "ObamaCare '').
The Seattle Open Invitational golf tournament was part of the PGA Tour from the 1930s to the 1960s. The GTE Northwest Classic was part of the Senior PGA Tour from 1986 to 1995, and the Boeing Classic since 2005. In addition, the 2015 U.S. Open was held at Chambers Bay, and several major tournaments were held at Sahalee Country Club.
Pacific Raceways is a motorsports venue that has hosted the Northwest Nationals of the NHRA Mello Yello Drag Racing Series and a round of the Trans - Am Series.
The WTA Seattle tennis tournament was part of the WTA Tour from 1977 to 1982.
The KeyArena has hosted several mixed martial arts events, such as UFC Fight Night: Nogueira vs. Davis, UFC on Fox: Henderson vs. Diaz, and UFC on Fox: Johnson vs. Moraga.
Four ships of the United States Navy, including two battleships, have been named USS Washington in honor of the state. Previous ships had held that name in honor of George Washington.
The state 's nickname, "The Evergreen State '', was proposed in 1890 by Charles T. Conover of Seattle, Washington. The name proved popular as the forests were full of evergreen trees and the abundance of rain keeps the shrubbery and grasses green throughout the year. Although that nickname is widely used by the state, appearing on vehicle license plates for instance, it has not been officially adopted. The publicly funded Evergreen State College in Olympia also takes its name from this nickname.
The state song is "Washington, My Home '', the state bird is the American goldfinch, the state fruit is the apple, and the state vegetable is the Walla Walla sweet onion. The state dance, adopted in 1979, is the square dance. The state tree is the western hemlock. The state flower is the coast rhododendron. The state fish is the steelhead. The state folk song is "Roll On, Columbia, Roll On '' by Woody Guthrie. The unofficial, but popularly accepted, state rock song is Louie Louie. The state grass is bluebunch wheatgrass. The state insect is the green darner dragonfly. The state gem is petrified wood. The state fossil is the Columbian mammoth. The state marine mammal is the orca. The state land mammal is the Olympic marmot. The state seal (featured in the state flag as well) was inspired by the unfinished portrait by Gilbert Stuart.
Coordinates: 47 ° 30 ′ N 120 ° 30 ′ W / 47.5 ° N 120.5 ° W / 47.5; - 120.5
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who has the power to amend the constitution of india | Amendment of the Constitution of India - wikipedia
Amending the Constitution of India is the process of making changes to the nation 's fundamental law or supreme law. The procedure of amendment in the constitution is laid down in Part XX (Article 368) of the Constitution of India. This procedure ensures the sanctity of the Constitution of India and keeps a check on arbitrary power of the Parliament of India.
However, there is another limitation imposed on the amending power of the constitution of India, which developed during conflicts between the Supreme Court and Parliament, where Parliament wants to exercise discretionary use of power to amend the constitution while the Supreme Court wants to restrict that power. This has led to the laying down of various doctrines or rules in regard to checking the validity / legality of an amendment, the most famous among them is the Basic structure doctrine as laid down by the Supreme Court in the case of Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala.
The framers of the Constitution were neither in favour of the traditional theory of federalism, which entrusts the task of constitutional amendment to a body other than the Legislature, nor did they favour a rigid special procedure for such amendments. They also never wanted to have a British - style system where Parliament is supreme. The framers, instead, adopted a combination of the "theory of fundamental law '', which underlies the written Constitution of the United States with the "theory of parliamentary sovereignty '' as existing in the United Kingdom. The Constitution of India vests constituent power upon the Parliament subject to the special procedure laid down therein.
During the discussion in the Constituent Assembly on this aspect, some members were in favour of adopting an easier mode of amending procedure for the initial five to ten years. Explaining why it was necessary to introduce an element of flexibility in the Constitution, Jawaharlal Nehru observed in the Constituent Assembly on 8 November 1948, "While we want this Constitution to be as solid and as permanent a structure as we can make it, nevertheless there is no permanence in Constitutions. There should be a certain flexibility. If you make anything rigid and permanent, you stop a nation 's growth, the growth of a living, vital, organic people. Therefore, it has to be flexible... while we, who are assembled in this House, undoubtedly represent the people of India, nevertheless I think it can be said, and truthfully, that when a new House, by whatever name it goes, is elected in terms of this Constitution, and every adult in India has the right to vote - man and woman - the House that emerges then will certainly be fully representative of every section of the Indian people. It is right that House elected so - under this Constitution of course it will have the right to do anything - should have an easy opportunity to make such changes as it wants to. But in any event, we should not make a Constitution, such as some other great countries have, which are so rigid that they do not and can not be adapted easily to changing conditions. Today especially, when the world is in turmoil and we are passing through a very swift period of transition, what we may do today may not be wholly applicable tomorrow. Therefore, while we make a Constitution which is sound and as basic as we can, it should also be flexible... ''
Dr. P.S. Deshmukh believed that the amendment of the Constitution should be made easier as he felt there were contradictory provisions in some places which would be more and more apparent when the provisions were interpreted, and that the whole administration would suffer, if the amendment to the Constitution was not made easy. Brajeshwar Prasad also favoured a flexible Constitution so as to make it survive the test of time. He was of the opinion that rigidity tends to check progressive legislation or gradual innovation. On the other hand, H.V. Kamath favoured ensuring procedural safeguards to avoid the possibility of hasty amendment to the Constitution.
"It is said that the provisions contained in the Draft make amendment difficult. It is proposed that the Constitution should be amendable by a simple majority at least for some years. The argument is subtle and ingenious. It is said that this Constituent Assembly is not elected on adult suffrage while the future Parliament will be elected on adult suffrage and yet the former has been given the right to pass the Constitution by a simple majority while the latter has been denied the same right. It is paraded as one of the absurdities of the Draft Constitution. I must repudiate the charge because it is without foundation. To know how simple are the provisions of the Draft Constitution in respect of amending the Constitution one has only to study the provisions for amendment contained in the American and Australian Constitutions. Compared to them those contained in the Draft Constitution will be found to be the simplest. The Draft Constitution has eliminated the elaborate and difficult procedures such as a decision by a convention or a referendum... It is only for amendments of specific matters -- and they are only few -- that the ratification of the State Legislatures is required. All other Articles of the Constitution are left to be amended by Parliament. The only limitation is that it shall be done by a majority of not less than two - thirds of the members of each House present and voting and a majority of the total membership of each House. It is difficult to conceive a simpler method of amending the Constitution.
What is said to be the absurdity of the amending provisions is founded upon a misconception of the position of the Constituent Assembly and of the future Parliament elected under the Constitution. The Constituent Assembly in making a Constitution has no partisan motive. Beyond securing a good and workable Constitution it has no axe to grind. In considering the Articles of the Constitution it has no eye on getting through a particular measure. The future Parliament if it met as Constituent Assembly, its members will be acting as partisans seeking to carry amendments to the Constitution to facilitate the passing of party measures which they have failed to get through Parliament by reason of some Article of the Constitution which has acted as an obstacle in their way. Parliament will have an axe to grind while the Constituent Assembly has none. That is the difference between the Constituent Assembly and the future Parliament. That explains why the Constituent Assembly though elected on limited franchise can be trusted to pass the Constitution by simple majority and why the Parliament though elected on adult suffrage can not be trusted with the same power to amend it. ''
The Constitution of India provides for a distinctive amending process when compared to the Constitutions of other nations. It can be described as partly flexible and partly rigid. The Constitution provides for a variety in the amending process. This feature has been commended by Australian academic Sir Kenneth Wheare who felt that uniformity in the amending process imposed "quite unnecessary restrictions '' upon the amendment of parts of a Constitution. An amendment of the Constitution can be initiated only by the introduction of a Bill in either House of Parliament. The Bill must then be passed in each House by a majority of the total membership of that House and by a majority of not less than two - thirds of the members of that House present and voting. There is no provision for a joint sitting in case of disagreement between the two Houses. The Bill, passed by the required majority, is then presented to the President who shall give his assent to the Bill. If the amendment seeks to make any change in any of the provisions mentioned in the proviso to article 368, it must be ratified by the Legislatures of not less than one - half of the States. Although, there is no prescribed time limit for ratification, it must be completed before the amending Bill is presented to the President for his assent.
Every constitutional amendment is formulated as a statute. The first amendment is called the "Constitution (First Amendment) Act '', the second, the "Constitution (Second Amendment) Act '', and so forth. Each usually has the long title "An Act further to amend the Constitution of India ''.
The original constitution provided for three categories of amendments. The first category of amendments are those contemplated in articles 4 (2), 169 (3) - 1962, 239A (2) - 1962, 239AA (7b) - 1991, 243M (4b) - 1992, 243ZC (3) - 1992, 244A (4) - 1969, 356 (1) c, para 7 (2) of Schedule V and para 21 (2) of Schedule VI. These amendments can be effected by Parliament by a simple majority such as that required for the passing of any ordinary law. The amendments under this category are specifically excluded from the purview of article 368 which is the specific provision in the Constitution dealing with the power and the procedure for the amendment of the Constitution. Article 4 provides that laws made by Parliament under article 2 (relating to admission or establishment of new States) and article 3 (relating to formation of new States and alteration of areas, boundaries or names of existing States) effecting amendments in the First Schedule or the Fourth Schedule and supplemental, incidental and consequential matters, shall not be deemed to be amendments of the Constitution for the purposes of article 368. For example, the States Reorganisation Act, 1956, which brought about reorganisation of the States in India, was passed by Parliament as an ordinary piece of legislation. In Mangal Singh v. Union of India (A.I.R. 1967 S.C. 944), the Supreme Court held that power to reduce the total number of members of Legislative Assembly below the minimum prescribed under article 170 (1) is implicit in the authority to make laws under article 4. Article 169 empowers Parliament to provide by law for the abolition or creation of the Legislative Councils in States and specifies that though such law shall contain such provisions for the amendment of the Constitution as may be necessary, it shall not be deemed to be an amendment of the Constitution for the purposes of article 368. The Legislative Councils Act, 1957, which provided for the creation of a Legislative Council in Andhra Pradesh and for increasing the strength of the Legislative Councils in certain other States, is an example of a law passed by Parliament in exercise of its powers under article 169. The Fifth Schedule contains provisions as to the administration and control of the Schedule Areas and Scheduled Tribes. Para 7 of the Schedule vests Parliament with plenary powers to enact laws amending the Schedule and lays down that no such law shall be deemed to be an amendment of the Constitution for the purposes of article 368. Under Para 21 of the Sixth Schedule, Parliament has full power to enact laws amending the Sixth Schedule which contains provisions for the administration of Tribal Areas in the States of Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram. No such law, will be deemed to be an amendment of the Constitution for the purposes of article 368.
The second category includes amendments that can be effected by Parliament by a prescribed ' special majority '; and the third category of amendments includes those that require, in addition to such "special majority '', ratification by at least one half of the State Legislatures. The last two categories are governed by article 368.
Ambedkar speaking in the Constituent Assembly on 17 September 1949, pointed out that there were "innumerable articles in the Constitution '' which left matters subject to laws made by Parliament. Under article 11, Parliament may make any provision relating to citizenship notwithstanding anything in article 5 to 10. Thus, by passing ordinary laws, Parliament may, in effect, provide, modify or annul the operation of certain provisions of the Constitution without actually amending them within the meaning of article 368. Since such laws do not in fact make any change whatsoever in the letter of the Constitution, they can not be regarded as amendments of the Constitution nor categorised as such. Other examples include Part XXI of the Constitution -- "Temporary, Transitional and Special Provisions '' whereby "Notwithstanding anything in this Constitution '' power is given to Parliament to make laws with respect to certain matters included in the State List (article 369); article 370 (1) (d) which empowers the President to modify, by order, provisions of the Constitution in their application to the State of Jammu and Kashmir; provisos to articles 83 (2) and 172 (1) empower Parliament to extend the lives of the House of the People and the Legislative Assembly of every State beyond a period of five years during the operation of a Proclamation of Emergency; and articles 83 (1) and 172 (2) provide that the Council of States / Legislative Council of a State shall not be subject to dissolution but as nearly as possible one - third of the members thereof shall retire as soon as may be on the expiration of every second year in accordance with the provisions made in that behalf by Parliament by law.
part - xx Article 368 (1) of the Constitution of India grants constituent power to make formal amendments and empowers Parliament to amend the Constitution by way of addition, variation or repeal of any provision according to the procedure laid down therein, which is different from the procedure for ordinary legislation. Article 368 has been amended by the 24th and 42nd Amendments in 1971 and 1976 respectively. The following is the full text of Article 368 of the Constitution, which governs constitutional amendments. New clauses 368 (1) and 368 (3) were added by the 24th Amendment in 1971, which also added a new clause (4) in article 13 which reads, "Nothing in this article shall apply to any amendment of this Constitution made under article 368. '' The provisions in italics were inserted by the 42nd Amendment, but were later declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court in Minerva Mills v. Union of India in 1980. After the 24th amendment, Article 4 (2), etc. of the constitution are superseded / made void by article 368 (1) which is the only procedure for amending the constitution however marginal may be the nature of the amendment. Supreme court ruled that the constituent power under article 368 must be exercised by the Parliament in the prescribed manner and can not be exercised under the legislative powers of the Parliament.
368. Power of Parliament to amend the Constitution and Procedure therefor:
As per the procedure laid out by article 368 for amendment of the Constitution, an amendment can be initiated only by the introduction of a Bill in either House of Parliament. The Bill must then be passed in each House by a majority of the total membership of that House and by a majority of not less than two - thirds of the members of that House present and voting. There is no provision for a joint sitting in case of disagreement between the two Houses. Total membership in this context has been defined to mean the total number of members comprising the House irrespective of any vacancies or absentees on any account vide Explanation to Rule 159 of the Rules of Procedure and Conduct of Business in Lok Sabha.
The Bill, passed by the required majority, is then presented to the President who shall give his assent to the Bill. If the amendment seeks to make any change in any of the provisions mentioned in the proviso to article 368, it must be ratified by the Legislatures of not less than one - half of the States. These provisions relate to certain matters concerning the federal structure or of common interest to both the Union and the States viz., the election of the President (articles 54 and 55); the extent of the executive power of the Union and the States (articles 73 and 162); the High Courts for Union territories (article 241); The Union Judiciary and the High Courts in the States (Chapter IV of Part V and Chapter V of Part VI); the distribution of legislative powers between the Union and the States (Chapter I of Part XI and Seventh Schedule); the representation of States in Parliament; and the provision for amendment of the Constitution laid down in article 368. Ratification is done by a resolution passed by the State Legislatures. There is no specific time limit for the ratification of an amending Bill by the State Legislatures. However, the resolutions ratifying the proposed amendment must be passed before the amending Bill is presented to the President for his assent.
Article 368 does not specify the legislative procedure to be followed at various stages of enacting an amendment. There are gaps in the procedure as to how and after what notice a Bill is to be introduced, how it is to be passed by each House and how the President 's assent is to be obtained. This point was decided by the Supreme Court in Shankari Prasad Singh Deo v. Union of India (AIR 1951 SC 458). Delivering the judgment, Patanjali Sastri J. observed, "Having provided for the constitution of a Parliament and prescribed a certain procedure for the conduct of its ordinary legislative business to be supplemented by rules made by each House (article 118), the makers of the Constitution must be taken to have intended Parliament to follow that procedure, so far as it may be applicable consistently with the express provisions of article 368, when they entrusted to it power of amending the Constitution. '' Hence, barring the requirements of special majority, ratification by the State Legislatures in certain cases, and the mandatory assent by the President, a Bill for amending the Constitution is dealt with the Parliament following the same legislative process as applicable to an ordinary piece of legislation. The Rules of the House in the Rajya Sabha do not contain special provisions with regard to Bills for the amendment of the Constitution and the Rules relating to ordinary Bills apply, subject to the requirements of article 368.
The Rules of Procedure and Conduct of Business make certain specific provisions regarding amendment bills in the Lok Sabha. They relate to the voting procedure in the House at various stages of such Bills, in the light of the requirements of article 368; and the procedure before introduction in the case of such Bills, if sponsored by Private Members. Although the "special majority '', required by article 368 is prima facie applicable only to the voting at the final stage, the Lok Sabha Rules prescribe adherence to this constitutional requirement at all the effective stages of the Bill, i.e., for adoption of the motion that the Bill be taken into consideration; that the Bill as reported by the Select / Joint Committee be taken into consideration, in case a Bill has been referred to a Committee; for adoption of each clause or schedule or clause or schedule as amended, of a Bill; or that the Bill or the Bill as amended, as the case may be, be passed.
This provision was arrived at after consultation with the Attorney - General and detailed discussions in the Rules Committee. It has been described as "evidently ex abundanti cautela '', a Latin phrase, which in law, describes someone taking precautions against a very remote contingency. By strictly adhering to article 368, the provision is intended to ensure the validity of the procedure adopted, but also guard against the possibility of violation of the spirit and scheme of that article 29 by the consideration of a Bill seeking to amend the Constitution including its consideration clause by clause being concluded in the House with only the bare quorum present. Voting at all the above stages is by division. However, the Speaker may, with the concurrence of the House, put any group of clauses or schedules together to the vote of the House, provided that the Speaker will permit any of the clauses or schedules be put separately, if any member requests that. The Short Title, Enacting Formula and the Long Title are adopted by a simple majority. The adoption of amendments to clauses or schedules of the Bill, requires a majority of members present and voting in the same manner as in the case of any other Bill.
A Bill for amendment of the Constitution by a Private Member is governed by the rules applicable to Private Members ' Bills in general. The period of one month 's notice applies to such a Bill also. In addition, in Lok Sabha, such a Bill has to be examined and recommended by the Committee on Private Members ' Bills before it is included in the List of Business. The Committee has laid down the following principles as guiding criteria in making their recommendations in regard to these Bills:
"(i) The Constitution should be considered as a sacred document -- a document which should not be lightly interfered with and it should be amended only when it is found absolutely necessary to do so. Such amendments may generally be brought forward when it is found that the interpretation of the various articles and provisions of the Constitution has not been in accordance with the intention behind such provisions and cases of lacunae or glaring inconsistencies have come to light. Such amendments should, however, normally be brought by the Government after considering the matter in all its aspects and consulting experts, and taking such other advice as they may deem fit. (ii) Some time should elapse before a proper assessment of the working of the Constitution and its general effect is made so that any amendments that may be necessary are suggested as a result of sufficient experience. (iii) Generally speaking, notice of Bills from Private Members should be examined in the background of the proposal or measures which the Government may be considering at the time so that consolidated proposals are brought forward before the House by the Government after collecting sufficient material and taking expert advice. (iv) Whenever a Private Member 's Bill raises issues of far - reaching importance and public interest, the Bill might be allowed to be introduced so that public opinion is ascertained and gauged to enable the House to consider the matter further. In determining whether a matter is of sufficient public importance, it should be examined whether the particular provisions in the Constitution are adequate to satisfy the current ideas and public demand at the time. In other words, the Constitution should be adapted to the current needs and demands of the progressive society and any rigidity which may impede progress should be avoided. ''
The role of the states in constitutional amendment is limited. State legislatures can not initiate any Bill or proposal for amendment of the Constitution. They are associated in the process of the amendment only through the ratification procedure laid down in article 368, in case the amendment seeks to make any change in any of the provisions mentioned in the proviso to article 368. The only other provision for constitutional changes by state legislatures is to initiate the process for creating or abolishing Legislative Councils in their respective legislatures, and to give their views on a proposed Parliamentary bill seeking to affect the area, boundaries or name of any State or States which has been referred to them under the proviso to Article 3. However, this referral does not restrict Parliament 's power to make any further amendments of the Bill.
Article 169 (1) reads, "Notwithstanding anything in article 168, Parliament may by law provide for the abolition of the Legislative Council of a State having such a Council or for the creation of such a Council in a State having no such Council, if the Legislative Assembly of the State passes a resolution to that effect by a majority of the total membership of the Assembly and by a majority of not less than two - thirds of the members of the Assembly present and voting. '' The proviso of article 3 provides that no bill for the purpose shall be introduced in either House of Parliament except on the recommendation of the President and unless, where the proposal contained in the Bill affects the area, boundaries or name of any of the States, the bill has been referred by the President to the Legislature of the State for expressing its views thereon within such period as may be specified in the reference or within such further period as the President may allow and the period so specified or allowed has expired.
Union territories have no say in constitutional amendments, including the ratification process which is only open to States. Delhi and Puducherry are two union territories that are entitled, by special constitutional amendments, to have an elected Legislative Assembly and a Cabinet of ministers, thereby enjoying partial statehood powers. Both of these territories can participate in the ratification process.
The Constitution can be amended five to seven times by the Parliament; and only in the manner provided. Although Parliament must preserve the basic framework of the Constitution, there is no other limitation placed upon the amending power, meaning that there is no provision of the Constitution that can not be amended. In Abdul Rahiman Jamaluddin v. Vithal Arjun (AIR 1958 Bombay, 94, (1957)), the Bombay High Court held that any attempt to amend the Constitution by a Legislature other than Parliament, and in a manner different from that provided for, will be void and inoperative.
The Supreme Court first struck down a constitutional amendment in 1967, ruling in the case of I.C. Golak Nath and Ors. vs. State of Punjab and Anr. An amendment was struck down on the basis that it violated Article 13: "The State shall not make any law which takes away or abridges the rights conferred by (the charter of Fundamental Rights) ''. The term "law '' in this article was interpreted as including a constitutional amendment. Parliament responded by enacting the twenty - fourth Amendment of the Constitution of India which declared that "nothing in Article 13 shall apply to any amendment of this Constitution ''.
The current limitation on amendments comes from Kesavananda Bharati v. The State of Kerala, where the Supreme Court ruled that amendments of the constitution must respect the "basic structure '' of the constitution, and certain fundamental features of the constitution can not be altered by amendment. Parliament attempted to remove this limitation by enacting the Forty - second Amendment, which declared, among other provisions, that "there shall be no limitation whatever on the constituent power of Parliament to amend... this Constitution ''. However, this change was itself later declared invalid by the Supreme Court in Minerva Mills v. Union of India.
The issue of whether an entire constitutional amendment is void for want of ratification or only an amended provision required to be ratified under proviso to clause (2) of article 368 was debated before the Supreme Court in Kihota Hollohon v. Zachilhu (AIR 1993 SC 412), in which the constitutional validity of the Tenth Schedule of the Constitution inserted by the 52nd Amendment in 1985 was challenged. The decisions of the Speakers / Chairmen on disqualification, which had been challenged in different High Courts through different petitions, were heard by a five - member Constitution Bench of the Supreme Court. The case, now popularly known as Anti-Defection case, was decided in 1992. The Constitution Bench in its majority judgement upheld the validity of the Tenth Schedule, but declared Paragraph 7 of the Schedule invalid because it was not ratified by the required number of the Legislatures of the States as it brought about in terms and effect, a change in articles 136, 226 and 227 of the Constitution. While doing so, the majority treated Paragraph 7 as a severable part from the rest of the Schedule. However, in the dissenting opinion, the minority of the Judges held that the entire Amendment is invalid for want of ratification.
Despite the super majority requirement in the Constitution, it is one of the most frequently amended governing documents in the world, and the most amended national constitution in the world; amendments have averaged about two a year. This is partly because the Constitution is so specific in spelling out government powers that amendments are often required to deal with matters that could be addressed by ordinary statutes in other democracies. As a result, it is the longest constitution of any sovereign nation in the world. It currently consists of over 117,000 words (450 articles plus 115 amendments). Another reason is that the Parliament of India is elected by means of single seat districts, under the plurality voting system, used in the United Kingdom and the United States. This means that, it is possible for a party to win two thirds of the seats in Parliament without securing two thirds of the vote. For example, in the first two Lok Sabha elections held under the Constitution, the Indian National Congress party won less than one half of the national vote but roughly two thirds of seats in the chamber.
The most important and frequent reason for amendments to the Constitution is the curtailment of the Fundamental Rights charter. This is achieved by inserting laws contrary to the fundamental rights provisions into Schedule 9 of the Constitution. Schedule 9 protects such laws from judicial review. The typical areas of restriction include laws relating to property rights, and affirmative action in favour of minority groups such as the "scheduled castes '', "scheduled tribes '', and other "backward classes '' and also lower classes people.
In a landmark ruling in January 2007, a nine judge constitutional bench of the Supreme Court of India confirmed that all laws (including those in Schedule 9) would be open to judicial review if they violate the "basic structure of the constitution ''. Chief Justice Yogesh Kumar Sabharwal noted, "If laws put in the Ninth Schedule abridge or abrogate fundamental rights resulting in violation of the basic structure of the constitution, such laws need to be invalidated ''.
Constitutional amendments have been made to facilitate changes in the territorial extent of the Republic of India due to the incorporation of the former French colony of Pondicherry, the former Portuguese colony of Goa, and a minor exchange of territory with Pakistan. Amendments are also necessary with regard to littoral rights over the exclusive economic zone of 200 mi and the formation of new states and union territories by the reorganization of existing states. Constitutional amendment under article 368 allows peaceful division of the country provided fundamental rights (Article 13) are ensured in all the resultant countries. The constitution (ninth amendment) act, 1960 is an example which has ceded territory to old Pakistan.
The constitution includes transitional provisions intended to remain in force only for a limited period. These need to be renewed periodically. For example, for continuing reservation in parliamentary seats for scheduled castes and scheduled tribes an constitutional amendment is enacted once in every ten years.
Amendments have been made with the intent of reform the system of government and incorporating new "checks and balances '' in the Constitution. These have included the following:
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who is the creator of howl moving castle | Howl 's Moving Castle (film) - wikipedia
Howl 's Moving Castle (Japanese: ハウル の 動く 城, Hepburn: Hauru no Ugoku Shiro) is a 2004 Japanese animated fantasy film written and directed by Hayao Miyazaki. The film is loosely based on the novel of the same name by British author Diana Wynne Jones. The film was produced by Toshio Suzuki, animated by Studio Ghibli and distributed by Toho. The Japanese voice cast featured Chieko Baisho and Takuya Kimura, while the version dubbed in English starred Emily Mortimer, Jean Simmons, Lauren Bacall and Christian Bale.
The story is set in a fictional kingdom where both magic and early 20th century technology are prevalent, against the backdrop of a war with another kingdom. The film tells the story of a young hatter named Sophie after she is turned into an old woman by a witch 's curse. She encounters a wizard named Howl, and gets caught up in his resistance to fighting for the king.
Influenced by Miyazaki 's opposition to the United States ' invasion of Iraq in 2003, the film contains strongly anti-war themes. Miyazaki stated that he "had a great deal of rage about (the Iraq war), '' which led him to make a film which he felt would be poorly received in the US. It also explores the theme of old age, depicting age positively as something which grants the protagonist freedom. The film contains feminist elements as well, and carries messages about the value of compassion.
In 2013 Miyazaki said the film was his favorite creation, explaining "I wanted to convey the message that life is worth living, and I do n't think that 's changed. '' The movie is thematically significantly different from the book; while the book focuses on challenging class and gender norms, the film focuses on love, and personal loyalty and the destructive effects of war. ''
Howl 's Moving Castle had its world premiere at the Venice Film Festival on 5 September 2004, and was released in Japanese theaters on 20 November 2004. The film went on to gross $190 million in Japan and $235 million worldwide, making it one of the most financially successful Japanese films in history. The film received praise for its visuals and Miyazaki 's treatment of its themes. It was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Animated Feature at the 78th Academy Awards, but lost to Wallace & Gromit: The Curse of the Were - Rabbit, in 2006, and won several other awards, including four Tokyo Anime Awards and a Nebula Award for Best Script.
Sophie, a young milliner, encounters a wizard named Howl on her way to visit her sister Lettie. Upon returning home, she meets the Witch of the Waste, who transforms her into a ninety - year - old woman. Seeking to break the curse, Sophie leaves home and sets off through the countryside. She meets a living scarecrow, whom she decides to call ' Turnip Head '. He leads her to Howl 's moving castle, where she meets Howl 's young apprentice Markl, and the fire - demon Calcifer, who is the source of the castle 's magic. When Howl appears, Sophie announces that she has hired herself as a cleaning lady.
Meanwhile, Sophie 's nation is caught up in a war with a neighboring kingdom, who is searching for their missing prince. The King summons Howl to fight in the war; however, Howl decides to send Sophie to the King (under the pretense of being his mother) to tell him that Howl is too much of a coward to fight. Before leaving, he gives Sophie a charmed ring that connects her to Calcifer. Sophie meets Suliman, the king 's advisor, and also the Witch of the Waste, whom Suliman punishes by draining all of her power, causing her to regress into a harmless old woman. Suliman warns that Howl will meet the same fate if he does not fight. Howl arrives to rescue Sophie; Suliman tries to trap him, but with Sophie 's help, they escape along with the former witch.
Sophie learns that Howl 's life is somehow bound to Calcifer 's, and that Howl has been transforming into a bird - like creature in order to interfere with both sides in the war, but each transformation makes it more difficult for him to return to human form. Howl has the castle magically - linked to Sophie 's home, parking the castle itself on the town 's outskirts. A few days later, the town is bombed by enemy aircraft and Suliman 's henchmen attack the abode. Howl heads out to protect the group; Sophie then moves everyone out of the abode and removes Calcifer from the fireplace, which collapses the castle. The witch realizes that Calcifer has Howl 's heart, and grabs the fire demon; Sophie panics and pours water onto the witch, which douses Calcifer. The castle then splits in two; Sophie falls down a chasm and is separated from the group.
Following the charmed ring, Sophie wanders into a scene from the past: she sees a young Howl catch a falling star -- Calcifer -- and give him his heart. Sophie calls for them to find her in the future as she is teleported away. She returns to the present and finds Howl, and they reunite with the others. The witch returns Howl 's heart, and Sophie places it back inside Howl, reviving him and freeing Calcifer, though he decides to stay. Sophie 's curse is broken, and after she kisses Turnip Head on the cheek he reverts back to human form -- revealed to be the missing prince from the enemy kingdom, who promptly heads for home. Suliman, watching through a crystal globe, decides to end the war. As the bombers are seen flying away, Howl and the others are seen high in the air in a new flying castle.
Howl 's Moving Castle contains strong anti-war themes, influenced by Miyazaki 's distaste for the 2003 Iraq War. When he received an Oscar for Spirited Away, he said that he "had a great deal of rage about (the war). So (he) felt some hesitation about the award. '' Miyazaki identifies as a pacifist. On the eve of the Iraq War, Miyazaki decided to make a film that he felt would be poorly received in the United States. Despite the film 's success in that country, literary scholar Dani Cavallaro stated that Miyazaki was able to "create a film which ought, in principle, to have caused a certain unease among American audiences. '' In the movie, Madame Suliman appears to have only sadistic motivations for creating conflict, and despite being omniscient, is unable to recognize the idiocy of the war until the very end of the story. This reflects Miyazaki 's desire to show real - world conflicts as also being somewhat arbitrary and fueled by the desires of capricious people. Cavallaro stated that the depiction of the war carried "an unmistakable bitter taste. ''
The universe of Howl 's Moving Castle is depicted as not having clear - cut villains and heroes; instead, the characters are complex, and even those that are initially portrayed in a negative light, such as Howl, are shown as capable of change. Matt Kimmich has stated, however, that the simplistic message of the film is that "war is bad. '' A scene where Sophie is standing in a beautiful field of flowers is interrupted by a war machine, "a finger accusing empire as the destroyer of peace. '' This portrayal is in strong contrast to other Miyazaki films like Princess Mononoke, which criticizes military conflict in a more nuanced manner. Andrew Osmond stated that "Howl 's pure - hearted anti-war stance is presented as nihilism with no alternative as he fights forces from each side and becomes the worst terror of all, '' in the form of the monstrous bird. By transforming into the bird, Howl risks losing his own humanity; Calcifer comments at one point that he will soon not be able to return to human form. In contrast, Ashitaka in Princess Mononoke fights the demonic sickness with which he is afflicted, and tries to negotiate a peace between the two sides. Osmond states that both films also point out the limits of masculinity, as exemplified by Howl and Ashitaka.
Like several other Miyazaki films, Howl 's Moving Castle reflects the director 's love of flying. Sequences in the film include both several aircraft of inventive design, as well as Howl transforming into a bird. Miyazaki examines flight as a theme most directly in the later film The Wind Rises. Miyazaki stated that he was attracted to military aircraft as a child, but that he grew to detest them because of the destructive purpose for which they are created. Thus Howl 's Moving Castle contains images both of aircraft shown as harmless, and large military craft depicted as ugly and destructive. Cavallaro writes that Miyazaki wants to "portray flight as an object of admiration and awe, '' but that he is not "(blind) to its abuse by unscrupulous strategists and rulers. ''
The nuanced view of flight is part of Miyazaki 's broader critique of modern society and technology. Margaret Talbot writes that in person, Miyazaki exhibits "a profound dissatisfaction with modern life, '' particularly with the effects of technology and a disconnection from nature. Many of his films depict technological hubris as among the roots of evil. The battleships which are seen moving over the landscape are depicted as "gleaming with modernity and parading righteousness, '' but are then shown to be highly destructive. In contrast, the semi-organic castle demonstrates "Miyazaki 's Taoist presentation of industrialism needing to be aligned with nature '' according to Carl and Garrath Wilson. Antonio Lioi writes that Miyazaki often depicts beautiful scenes in contrast to those containing symbols of modernity, such as the scene where Sophie 's reverie is interrupted by a war machine. This contrast is part of an ecological criticism of modernity, but Miyazaki also offers an alternative, in the form of beautiful natural scenery.
Miyazaki stated that an attractive aspect of the story of Howl 's Moving Castle was the relatively positive light it shed on growing old. When Sophie becomes old as a result of the witch 's spell, she also feels more able to speak her mind. According to Miyazaki, old women are only infrequently allowed to dominate the screen as in Howl 's Moving Castle, which made it a risky concept. Elizabeth Parsons stated that the film disrupts the stereotype of "aged unattractiveness, '' when the artificially aged Sophie manages to rescue two attractive men (who come to love her) and to unintentionally end the war in her country. Sophie 's actions are those usually associated with grandmothers, such as being kind and nurturing to those around her, and engaging in housework; however, these actions are depicted as being powerful and heroic. Sophie is one of several strong female protagonists in Miyazaki 's films. According to Parsons, this gives the film a feminist aspect as well. Additionally, even though Sophie manages to make her presence in the castle legitimate by claiming to be a cleaning lady, the film goes on to show that the housework is equitably distributed, strengthening its feminist aspect.
In 2013, Miyazaki stated that Howl 's Moving Castle was his favorite creation, and explained his choice by saying "I wanted to convey the message that life is worth living, and I do n't think that 's changed. '' In the film, Sophie is shown to overcome extreme challenges by learning to put the well - being of those she cares about above her own self - interest, a quality which Miyazaki refers to as devotion. Several of the protagonists in Miyazaki 's films, such as Ashitaka and San in Princess Mononoke and Sheeta and Pazu in Castle in the Sky learn to survive by learning the same lesson. Cavallaro states that Miyazaki spreads this moral through the entire film, to convey human beings ' ability to be compassionate, such as when the scarecrow holds an umbrella over Sophie 's head when it rains. Over the course of the film, Howl, its most vain and selfish character, also learns to put others before himself. When Madame Suliman returns the Witch of the Waste to her true form as a decrepit old woman, Sophie takes her in and cares for her, despite the witch being responsible for Sophie 's curse, thus strongly demonstrating the idea of compassion. The witch then nearly destroys Howl through her selfish behavior, but also helps save the castle at the end. Parsons writes that "In Miyazaki 's balancing act, old women can be powerful and weak, positive and negative, nurturing and selfish, maligned and loved; in short, they can not be simply categorized or stereotyped, and they can not be dismissed as fantasy malefactors embodied by evil witches. '' They are also given a lot of space in the film as active characters, something not commonly found in western movies.
In September 2001, Studio Ghibli announced the production of two films. The first would become The Cat Returns and the second was an adaptation of Diana Wynne Jones ' novel, Howl 's Moving Castle. A rumor persists that Miyazaki had an idea to do Howl 's Moving Castle during a visit to Strasbourg Christmas market. Toshio Suzuki, who produced Howl 's Moving Castle, stated that Miyazaki was inspired to make the film when he read Jones ' novel, and was struck by the image of a castle moving around the countryside. The novel does not explain how the castle moved, and Miyazaki was interested in figuring out how the castle might move, which led to the image of a castle on chicken legs. The complex moving castle changes and rearranges itself several times throughout the movie in response to Howl 's eccentricity and the various situations. The basic structure of the castle consists of more than 80 elements including turrets, a wagging tongue, cogwheels and chicken legs, that were rendered as digital objects.
Mamoru Hosoda of Toei Animation was originally selected to direct the film, but quit the project after Studio Ghibli 's executives rejected many of his concept ideas. The film was shelved until Miyazaki took over. The project resumed with production in February 2003. It was scheduled to be completed in the spring of 2004, and released in the summer of that year.
Miyazaki went to Colmar and Riquewihr in Alsace, France, to study the architecture and the surroundings for the setting of the film. Additional inspiration came from the concepts of future technology in Albert Robida 's work. Commentators have stated that Miyazaki 's imagery was influenced by his fondness for the "illusion art '' of 19th century Europe. Suzuki stated that unlike many Western films, in which the imagery went "from the general (to) the specific, '' Miyazaki employed a uniquely Japanese approach, frequently beginning with a very specific image and moving from there. However, Howl 's Moving Castle, and Miyazaki films in general, have a focus on realistic imagery in a way that other anime films do not.
The film was produced digitally, but the original backgrounds were drawn by hand and painted prior to being digitized, and the characters were also drawn by hand prior to scanning them into the computer. The 1400 storyboard cuts for the film were completed on 16 January 2004. On 25 June the in - between animation was completed and checking was completed on 26 June. Studio Ghibli used digital technology to run many copies of the still portions of a scene, a process which avoids inconsistencies between various still frames, but can create an impression of artificiality. Therefore, the studio chose to manually retouch the digitally altered images, recreating the "feel '' of a hand - drawn image.
The film has several differences from the novel, partly due to the different requirements of the two media. Diana Wynne Jones ' novel has a very large cast of characters, and several plot threads that were too complex to be transferred into the film. As a result, characters such as Sophie 's second sister Martha are left out, as is the plot thread involving Markl (who is called Michael in the novel, and depicted as an adolescent, rather than as a young boy) courting her. Jones discussed the film with Studio Ghibli representatives, but did not have any input or involvement in the production of the film. Miyazaki traveled to England in the summer of 2004 to give Jones a private viewing of the finished film. She has been quoted as saying "It 's fantastic. No, I have no input -- I write books, not films. Yes, it will be different from the book -- in fact it 's likely to be very different, but that 's as it should be. It will still be a fantastic film. ''
The novel depicts Howl 's castle as a tall, dark and sinister wizard 's tower, very different from the complex image in the film. The film 's castle may be seen as a parody of the machines seen in the movie, driven both by steam - engines and by magic. In the film, it is a "rotund collage of chimneys, roofs, steam pipes, and other odd appendages, borne along on mechanized bird legs '' that is similar to Baba Yaga 's hut in the popular fairy tale. It is vaguely organic, and almost depicted as a life - form. Similarly, Calcifer is a demonic figure in the book, as compared to the "endearing '' persona and image that he has in the film. Both film and novel try to render fantastic elements as mundane and ordinary things. Although they are set in a fantasy universe, the characters are often shown performing routine tasks, like cooking breakfast or washing up, in contrast to the heroic actions typical of a fantasy universe. In the novel, Jones disrupts the fantasy - world setting by including scenes in which the characters travel to the real - world Wales. The movie, however, avoids this digression, and maintains a constant setting.
Miyazaki 's biggest addition to the plot of the book was the use of the war as a large part of the plot. In the book, the war is only tangentially referred to; the king orders Howl to find the king 's missing brother Justin, because Justin 's military skills are needed for a forthcoming war. Howl 's frequent disappearances are because of his womanizing habits, which makes Sophie see him as a superficial and cowardly person. In the film, however, Howl disappears from the scene in order to transform into a giant bird and disrupt the battle plans of both armies.
The roles of several characters also differ between novel and film due to this plot change. The Witch of the Waste is the chief antagonist of the book, whereas in the film she is reduced by Madame Suliman 's magic to an ultimately harmless old woman who evokes sympathy in the audience and in Sophie. In contrast, the film conflates the novel 's two characters of Mrs. Penstemmon and the wizard Suliman into Madame Suliman. Although Suliman comes closest to being a traditional villain in the film, she is shown as having ambiguous motivations, and reviewers have stated that the real villain is war itself. Howl loses the "rakish '' womanizing aspect that was a significant part of his character in the novel. In contrast, Sophie becomes a more conventional figure in the film; she is less grumpy and outspoken, and demonstrates her love for Howl earlier and more explicitly. The storyline in the novel of Sophie being a powerful sorceress in her own right is muted in the film, although she is still shown to have control over her curse.
The thematic focus of the story also differs between the novel and the film. Reviewer Antonia Levi wrote that the experience of watching the film was similar to reading high quality fan fiction; although the characters and the setting were the same, the story was different. Although in both cases the story begins with Sophie being a prisoner of her circumstances and of social norms, the challenges she faces are slightly different. Levi said that "Jones uses Sophie, Howl, and Calcifer in a fairytale format to tell a story about challenging class and gender expectations, Miyazaki uses the same characters to tell a story about personal loyalty, love, and war. ''
The score was composed and conducted by Joe Hisaishi, and performed by the New Japan Philharmonic. The soundtrack CD was first released on 19 November 2004 by Tokuma Japan Communications. Hisaishi also composed and conducted a Howl 's Moving Castle: Symphony Suite, an album published on 21 January 2004 which includes ten re-arranged pieces from the original soundtrack. He and Youmi Kimura also composed Howl 's Moving Castle CD Maxi - Single, a CD single published on 27 October 2004 which includes the film 's theme song, sung by Chieko Baisho (the Japanese voice actor for Sophie), its karaoke version, and a piano version of the film 's main theme, "The Merry - Go - Round of Life ''.
The film premiered at the 61st Venice Film Festival in 2004, and was released in Japan on 20 November 2004. The film grossed $14.5 million in its first week of release in Japan alone. The film was distributed in Japan by Toho, and made $190,000,000 in that country. It was distributed internationally by various companies, and made approximately an additional $45,000,000 outside Japan, for a worldwide total of $235,184,110. The film was later dubbed into English by Pixar 's Pete Docter. It was distributed in the United States by Buena Vista, a subsidiary of Disney. It was released on DVD on 10 March 2006. It was one of the most commercially successful Japanese films ever made. Soon after its release, it became the third most financially successful film in Japan, behind Titanic and Spirited Away. GKIDS re-released the film on Blu - ray and DVD on 17 October 2017.
Howl 's Moving Castle was praised by critics. The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reports an 87 % approval rating based on 172 reviews, with an average rating of 7.5 / 10. The website 's critical consensus reads, "Exquisitely illustrated by master animator Miyazaki, Howl 's Moving Castle will delight children with its fantastical story and touch the hearts and minds of older viewers as well. '' The film also holds an 80 / 100 average on Metacritic, indicating "generally favorable reviews. ''
USA Today critic Claudia Puig gave the film a positive review, praising it for its ability to blend "a childlike sense of wonder with sophisticated emotions and motives ''. Helen McCarthy in 500 Essential Anime Movies said that the natural world was "beautifully represented '', with "some absolutely breathtaking mountains and lakeside landscapes ''. She also praised the design of the Castle and added that Miyazaki added his own themes to the film: "man 's relationship to nature, the futility of war, and the joy of flight ''. Joel Morgenstern of The Wall Street Journal called the film "a moveable feast of delights ''. Richard Corliss of TIME magazine wrote, "Palaces and shimmering lakes, warplanes and fire sprites all come to life at the breath of Miyazaki 's graphic genius. '' Writing for The Boston Globe, Ty Burr said, "At its best, ' Howl 's Moving Castle ' offers a rich fantasy of adolescent escape, of romance in the old and epic sense. At its worst, it 's the most amazing 12 - course meal you ca n't bring yourself to finish. '' A.O. Scott of The New York Times wrote, "Admirers of (Hayao Miyazaki 's) work, which is wildly imaginative, emotionally intense and surpassingly gentle, will find much to appreciate in this film because it demonstrates, once again, his visual ingenuity and his sensitivity as a storyteller. For newcomers to his world, "Howl 's Moving Castle '' is a fitting introduction to one of modern cinema 's great enchanters. ''
Conversely, Roger Ebert, also of the Chicago Sun - Times, gave it two and a half out of four stars, and called the film a "disappointment '' compared to his recent movies. Jonathan Trout of the BBC said, "Youngsters and Miyazaki fans will coo at the world 's depth and rich surreality, but opaque plotting, and a tendency to mope with Sophie whilst Howl is off affecting events let the momentum of the first act vanish into thin air. '' Writing for Salon, Stephanie Zacharek said, "the plot of "Howl 's Moving Castle '' meanders so listlessly that its details become less and less charming. Miyazaki 's storytelling style resembles that of a breathless young tot who 's fearlessly exercising his newfound powers of expression. '' Stephen Hunter from The Washington Post criticized the plot of the film, saying "There is no story, or rather, there 's no force to the story, which meanders almost casually this way and that for no apparent reason. '' However, he said that the movie also empowered young women, and was "beautiful beyond telling. '' David Rooney, writing in Variety, stated that "the narrative motor roars ahead in the opening hour and is more erratic thereafter, '' and suggested that better translation would help. Literary scholar Matt Kimmich stated that the film came across as "uneasy compromise between two plots and two imaginations, '' referring to Jones ' original story and Miyazaki 's style of animation and storytelling. However, he stated that those scenes which were not dependent either on Jones ' original plot or Miyazaki 's added plot threads found "a visual humor that recalls the verbal wit and lightness of Jones 's novel, '' and that the "animation manages to free itself from the demands of the two plots -- and flies. ''
The film appeared on many critics ' top ten lists of the best films of 2005.
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who plays the mom in zack and cody | Kim Rhodes - wikipedia
Kimberly Rhodes (born June 7, 1969) is an American actress, who portrayed the role of "Cindy Harrison '' on two different soap operas, Another World (1992 -- 96) and As the World Turns (2000 -- 01), as well as Carey Martin in the Disney Channel sitcom The Suite Life of Zack & Cody (2005 -- 08) and The Suite Life on Deck (2008 -- 11), where she played the mother of twins Zack and Cody (Dylan and Cole Sprouse). She is also known for playing Sheriff Jody Mills on Supernatural (2010 --).
Rhodes was born and raised in Portland, Oregon. She graduated from Benson Polytechnic High School, and then attended Southern Oregon University, graduating in 1991, and earned a Master of Fine Arts from Temple University. Rhodes resides in Los Angeles, California with her husband, actor Travis Hodges, and their daughter Tabitha, with whom Rhodes was pregnant at the end of Suite Life 's run. On June 8, 2012, Rhodes wrote an entry on her blog explaining her recent absence from Twitter and other networks. This was due to the death of her father.
In 1997, while performing in Another World, Rhodes was nominated, along with Mark Pinter, for a Soap Opera Digest award as "Favorite New Couple ''. For Rhodes 's first Another World fan club luncheon, she rewrote the lyrics for "All For the Best '' from Godspell. Prior to her Disney Channel début, she had previously acted with the Oregon Shakespeare Festival for one season, portraying the roles of "Daphne Stillington '' in Noël Coward 's Present Laughter and "Helena '' in Shakespeare 's A Midsummer Night 's Dream. In 2010, she was cast as Sheriff Jody Mills on the CW 's show Supernatural. She first appeared in episode 15 of season 5 and her character has returned in every season since her introduction. Episode 10 of season 13, called Wayward Sisters, is a pilot for a spin - off, that would see Rhodes and fellow actresses Briana Buckmaster and Kathryn Newton as the main characters. The series ultimately never got off the ground. Rhodes performs, alongside other Supernatural 's cast members, in Jason Manns ' album Recovering with friends.
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how many times has jack black hosted snl | Saturday Night Live (season 31) - Wikipedia
The thirty - first season of Saturday Night Live, an American sketch comedy series, originally aired in the United States on NBC between October 1, 2005, and May 20, 2006. 19 episodes were produced (rather than the usual 20) due to the 2006 Winter Olympic Games.
This season is notable for the people who hosted the show. Julia Louis - Dreyfus, an SNL cast member from 1982 to 1985 under Dick Ebersol, became the first former female cast member to come back and host the show (and also the third cast member from Seinfeld to host). It is worth noting that Gilda Radner was originally supposed to host in 1988, but could not due to the Writer 's Guild of America Strike and then Radner 's death the following year. This season is also known for the return of such frequent hosts as Alec Baldwin (who last hosted in season 29 with musical guest Missy Elliott in 2003), Tom Hanks (who last hosted the first episode of season 22 with musical guest Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers in 1996), and Steve Martin (who last hosted the first episode of season 20 with musical guest, Eric Clapton in 1994).
This season saw the seventh death of a former cast member when Charles Rocket committed suicide.
This season was the first to broadcast in high - definition (HD), after 30 years of broadcasting in analog.
A 30th anniversary special for the show was planned, but scrapped due to budget cuts.
Before the start of the season, featured player Rob Riggle was let go from the show. Finesse Mitchell and Kenan Thompson were both promoted to repertory status.
The show added three new cast members: Los Angeles - based sketch comedian Bill Hader, Andy Samberg (the show also hired his two friends Akiva Schaffer and Jorma Taccone as writers, all members of The Lonely Island sketch group) and Kristen Wiig of The Groundlings. Wiig debuted on the show in November, in the episode hosted by Jason Lee. Samberg, Schaffer and Taccone would be a notable force for creating SNL Digital Shorts. One such short was "Lazy Sunday ''.
Tina Fey and Maya Rudolph missed episodes due to maternity leave. Fey 's place on Weekend Update was briefly taken over by Horatio Sanz until her return in the episode hosted by Catherine Zeta - Jones. Fey returned to the show before her maternity leave time was up. Maya Rudolph, however, appeared on the first episode of the new season, and then went on maternity leave and returned in February, in the episode hosted by Steve Martin.
This would also be the final season for cast members Rachel Dratch, Tina Fey, Finesse Mitchell, Chris Parnell and Horatio Sanz, as well as the last season for longtime director Beth McCarthy - Miller. Dratch and Fey both left the show to focus on 30 Rock and McCarthy - Miller left the show on her own terms. Parnell, Mitchell, and Sanz were let go due to NBC budget cuts.
bold denotes Weekend Update anchor
There were three head writers for the 31st season: Andrew Steel, Tina Fey, and Seth Meyers.
Future cast member Colin Jost joined the writing staff this season.
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who petitioned the king of england to recognize the rights of colonists | Petition to the King - wikipedia
The Petition to the King was a petition sent to King George III by the First Continental Congress in 1774, calling for repeal of the Intolerable Acts.
Following the end of the French and Indian War (the North American theater of the Seven Years ' War) in 1763, relations between the colonies and Britain had been deteriorating. Because the war had plunged the British government deep into debt, Parliament enacted a series of measures to increase tax revenue from the colonies. These acts, such as the Stamp Act of 1765 and the Townshend Acts of 1767, were seen as legitimate means of collecting revenues to pay off the nearly two-fold increase in British debt stemming from the war.
Many colonists in the Americas, however, developed a different conception of their role within the British Empire. In particular, because the colonies were not directly represented in Parliament, colonists argued that Parliament had no right to levy taxes upon them. After colonists destroyed thousands of pounds of British - taxed tea during the Boston Tea Party, Parliament passed the Coercive Acts in 1774, punishing the colonies for their actions. These punitive Acts were vehemently opposed by the colonists, leading the newly formed Continental Congress to seek redress with King George III, in an attempt to reach a common understanding.
Resolved unanimously, That a loyal address to his Majesty be prepared, dutifully requesting the royal attention to the grievances that alarm and distress his Majesty 's faithful subjects in North - America, and entreating his Majesty 's gracious interposition for the removal of such grievances, thereby to restore between Great - Britain and the colonies that harmony so necessary to the happiness of the British empire, and so ardently desired by all America.
On October 1, 1774, in response to the deteriorating relationship between the American Colonies and Britain, the First Continental Congress decided to prepare a statement to King George III of Great Britain. The goal of the address was to persuade the King to revoke unpopular policies such as the Coercive Acts, which were imposed on the Colonies by the British Parliament. The committee appointed to prepare the Address consisted of Richard Henry Lee, John Adams, Thomas Johnson, Patrick Henry, and John Rutledge, with Lee designated as the committee chairman.
Resolved, That the Committiee appointed to prepare an Address to his Majesty, be instructed to assure his Majesty, that in case the colonies shall be restored to the state they were in, at the close of the late war, by abolishing the system of laws and regulations - for raising a revenue in America - for extending the powers of Courts of Admiralty - for the trial of persons beyond sea for crimes committed in America - for affecting the colony of the Massachusetts - Bay and for altering the government and extending the limits of Canada, the jealousies which have been occasioned by such acts and regulations of Parliament, will be removed and commerce again restored.
On October 5, 1774, Congress once more returned to the subject of the Address, stressing to the committee that the document should assure the King that following the successful repeal of the Coercive Acts, the Colonies would restore favorable relations with Britain.
The Congress resumed the consideration of the address to his Majesty, and the same being debated by paragraphs, was, after some amendments, approved and order to be engrossed.
On October 25, 1774, the petition came before Congress in its draft form. After the document was debated over and formally amended, it was then approved to be engrossed and sent to England to be presented to the King.
The petition, when written, was not divided into formal parts. However, the structure of the document allows it to be classified into sections, including an introduction, the list of grievances, reasons for attention, and a conclusion.
States the represented Colonies, as well as the nature of the document.
To the King 's Most Excellent Majesty:
Most Gracious Sovereign: We, your Majesty 's faithful subjects of the Colonies of New - Hampshire, Massachusetts Bay, Rhode - Island and Providence Plantations, Connecticut, New - York, New - Jersey, Pennsylvania, the Counties of New - Castle, Kent, and Sussex, on Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, and South Carolina, in behalf of ourselves and the inhabitants of those Colonies who have deputed us to represent them in General Congress, by this our humble Petition, beg leave to lay our Grievances before the Throne.
Lists the grievances that the Colonies wish for King George III to redress.
A Standing Army has been kept in these Colonies ever since the conclusion of the late war, without the consent of our Assemblies; and this Army, with a considerable Naval armament, has been employed to enforce the collection of Taxes.
The authority of the Commander - in - Chief, and under him of the Brigadiers General has, in time of peace, been rendered supreme in all the Civil Governments in America.
The Commander - in - chief of all your Majesty 's Forces in North America, has, in time of peace, been appointed Governour of a Colony.
The charges of usual offices have been greatly increased; and new, expensive, and oppressive offices have been multiplied.
The Judges of Admiralty and Vice Admiralty Courts are empowered to receive their salaries and fees from the effects condemned by themselves.
The Officers of the Customs are empowered to break open and enter houses, without the authority of any Civil Magistrate, founded on legal information.
The Judges of Courts of Common Law have been made entirely dependent on one part of the Legislature for their salaries, as well as for the duration of their commissions.
Counsellors, holding their commissions during pleasure, exercise Legislative authority.
Humble and reasonable Petitions from the Representatives of the People, have been fruitless.
The Agents of the People have been discountenanced, and Governours have been instructed to prevent the payment of their salaries.
Assemblies have been repeatedly and injuriously dissolved.
Commerce has been burthened with many useless and oppressive restrictions.
By several Acts of Parliament made in the fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth years of your Majesty 's Reign, Duties are imposed on us for the purpose of raising a Revenue; and the powers of Admiralty and Vice Admiralty Courts are extended beyond their ancient limits, whereby our property is taken from us without our consent; the trial by jury, in many civil cases, is abolished; enormous forfeitures are incurred for slight offences; vexatious informers are exempted from paying damages, to which they are justly liable, and oppressive security is required from owners before they are allowed to defend their right.
Both Houses of Parliament have resolved, that Colonists may be tried in England for offences alleged to have been committed in America, by virtue of a Statute passed in the thirty - fifth year of Henry the Eighth, and, in consequence thereof, attempts have been made to enforce that Statute.
A Statute was passed in the twelfth year of your Majesty 's Reign, directing that persons charged with committing any offence therein described, in any place out of the Realm, may be indicted and tried for the same in any Shire or County within the Realm, whereby the inhabitants of these Colonies may, in sundry cases, by that Statute made capital, be deprived of a trial by their peers of the vicinage.
In the last sessions of Parliament an Act was passed for blocking up the Harbour of Boston; another empowering the Governour of the Massachusetts Bay to send persons indicted for murder in that Province, to another Colony, or even to Great Britain, for trial, whereby such offenders may escape legal punishment; a third for altering the chartered Constitution of Government in that Province; and a fourth for extending the limits of Quebec, abolishing the English and restoring the French laws, whereby great numbers of British Freemen are subjected to the latter, and establishing an absolute Government and the Roman Catholick Religion throughout those vast regions that border on the Westerly and Northerly boundaries of the free Protestant English settlements; and a fifth, for the better providing suitable Quarters for Officers and Soldiers in his Majesty 's service in North America.
State why the aforementioned grievances are important enough to warrant an address to the monarchy.
To a Sovereign, who glories in the name of Briton, the bare recital of these Acts must, we presume, justify the loyal subjects, who fly to the foot of his Throne, and implore his clemency for protection against them.
From this destructive system of Colony Administration, adopted since the conclusion of the last war, have flowed those distresses, dangers, fears, and jealousies, that overwhelm your Majesty 's dutiful Colonists with affliction; and we defy our most subtle and inveterate enemies to trace the unhappy differences between Great Britain and these Colonies, from an earlier period, or from other causes than we have assigned. Had they proceeded on our part from a restless levity of temper, unjust impulses of ambition, or artful suggestions of seditious persons, we should merit the opprobrious terms frequently bestowed upon us by those we revere. But so far from promoting innovations, we have only opposed them; and can be charged with no offence, unless it be one to receive injuries and be sensible of them.
Had our Creator been pleased to give us existence in a land of slavery, the sense of our condition might have been mitigated by ignorance and habit. But, thanks be to his adorable goodness, we were born the heirs of freedom, and ever enjoyed our right under the auspices of your Royal ancestors, whose family was seated on the British Throne to rescue and secure a pious and gallant Nation from the Popery and despotism of a superstitious and inexorable tyrant. Your Majesty, we are confident, justly rejoices that your title to the Crown is thus founded on the title of your people to liberty; and, therefore, we doubt not but your royal wisdom must approve the sensibility that teaches your subjects anxiously to guard the blessing they received from Divine Providence, and thereby to prove the performance of that compact which elevated the illustrious House of Brunswick to the imperial dignity it now possesses.
The apprehension of being degraded into a state of servitude, from the pre-eminent rank of English freemen, while our minds retain the strongest love of liberty, and clearly foresee the miseries preparing for us and our posterity, excites emotions in our breasts which, though we can not describe, we should not wish to conceal. Feeling as men, and thinking as subjects, in the manner we do, silence would be disloyalty. By giving this faithful information, we do all in our power to promote the great objects of your Royal cares, the tranquillity of your Government, and the welfare of your people.
Duty to your Majesty, and regard for the preservation of ourselves and our posterity, the primary obligations of nature and of society, command us to entreat your Royal attention; and, as your Majesty enjoys the signal distinction of reigning over freemen, we apprehend the language of freemen can not be displeasing. Your Royal indignation, we hope, will rather fall on those designing and dangerous men, who, daringly interposing themselves between your Royal person and your faithful subjects, and for several years past incessantly employed to dissolve the bonds of society, by abusing your Majesty 's authority, misrepresenting your American subjects, and prosecuting the most desperate and irritating projects of oppression, have at length compelled us, by the force of accumulated injuries, too severe to be any longer tolerable, to disturb your Majesty 's repose by our complaints.
These sentiments are extorted from hearts that much more willingly would bleed in your Majesty 's service. Yet, so greatly have we been misrepresented, that a necessity has been alleged of taking our property from us without our consent, "to defray the charge of the administration of justice, the support of Civil Government, and the defence, protection, and security of the Colonies. '' But we beg leave to assure your Majesty that such provision has been and will be made for defraying the two first artiticles (sic), as has been and shall be judged by the Legislatures of the several Colonies just and suitable to their respective circumstances; and, for the defence, protection, and security of the Colonies, their Militias, if properly regulated, as they earnestly desire may immediately be done, would be fully sufficient, at least in times of peace; and, in case of war, your faithful Colonists will be ready and willing, as they ever have been, when constitutionally required, to demonstrate their loyalty to your Majesty, by exerting their most strenuous efforts in granting supplies and raising forces.
Yielding to no British subjects in affectionate attachment to your Majesty 's person, family, and Government, we too dearly prize the privilege of expressing that attachment by those proofs that are honourable to the Prince who receives them, and to the People who give them, ever to resign it to any body of men upon earth.
Had we been permitted to enjoy, in quiet, the inheritance left us by our forefathers, we should, at this time, have been peaceably, cheerfully, and usefully employed in recommending ourselves, by every testimony of devotion, to your Majesty, and of veneration to the state, from which we derive our origin. But though now exposed to unexpected and unnatural scenes of distress by a contention with that Nation in whose parental guidance on all important affairs, we have hitherto, with filial reverence, constantly trusted, and therefore can derive no instruction in our present unhappy and perplexing circumstances from any former experience; yet, we doubt not, the purity of our intention, and the integrity of our conduct, will justify us at that grand tribunal before which all mankind must submit to judgment.
We ask but for Peace, Liberty, and Safety. We wish not a diminution of the prerogative, nor do we solicit the grant of any new right in our favour. Your Royal authority over us, and our connection with Great Britain, we shall always carefully and zealously endeavour to support and maintain.
Restates the ultimate goal of the petition, while reaffirming the Colonies ' loyalty to the British monarchy.
Filled with sentiments of duty to your Majesty, and of affection to our parent state, deeply impressed by our education, and strongly confirmed by our reason, and anxious to evince the sincerity of these dispositions, we present this Petition only to obtain redress of Grievances, and relief from fears and jealousies, occasioned by the system of Statutes and Regulations adopted since the close of the late war, for raising a Revenue in America -- extending the powers of Courts of Admiralty and Vice Admiralty -- trying persons in Great Britain for offences alleged to be committed in America -- affecting the Province of Massachusetts Bay -- and altering the Government and extending the limits of Quebec; by the abolition of which system the harmony between Great Britain and these Colonies, so necessary to the happiness of both, and so ardently desired by the latter, and the usual intercourses will be immediately restored. In the magnanimity and justice of your Majesty and Parliament we confide for a redress of our other grievances, trusting, that, when the causes of our apprehensions are removed, our future conduct will prove us not unworthy of the regard we have been accustomed in our happier days to enjoy. For, appealing to that Being, who searches thoroughly the hearts of his creatures, we solemnly profess, that our Councils have been influenced by no other motive than a dread of impending destruction.
Permit us then, most gracious Sovereign, in the name of all your faithful People in America, with the utmost humility, to implore you, for the honour of Almighty God, whose pure Religion our enemies are undermining; for your glory, which can be advanced only by rendering your subjects happy, and keeping them united; for the interests of your family depending on an adherence to the principles that enthroned it; for the safety and welfare of your Kingdoms and Dominions, threatened with almost unavoidable dangers and distresses, that your Majesty, as the loving Father of your whole People, connected by the same bands of Law, Loyalty, Faith, and Blood, though dwelling in various countries, will not suffer the transcendent relation formed by these ties to be farther violated, in uncertain expectation of effects, that, if attained, never can compensate for the calamities through which they must be gained.
We therefore most earnestly beseech your Majesty, that your Royal authority and interposition may be used for our relief, and that a gracious Answer may be given to this Petition.
That your Majesty may enjoy every felicity through a long and glorious Reign, over loyal and happy subjects, and that your descendants may inherit your prosperity and Dominions till time shall be no more, is, and always will be, our sincere and fervent prayer.
The first signature on the engrossed copy is that of Henry Middleton, the then appointed President of the Continental Congress. The fifty - one signatories who represented the Colonies (Georgia did not participate) are given, in order.
On November 2, the petition departed Philadelphia on board the ship Britannia, captained by W. Morwick. However, a storm forced the ship to return to port, delaying the delivery of the petition. It was later discovered that the paper was unfit to be presented. The second copy left port on November 6 on board the ship Mary and Elizabeth, captained by N. Falconer. It was confirmed on November 14 that the document successfully arrived in London.
In Britain, a number of London merchants expressed interest in joining the Americans when the petition was presented, although Benjamin Franklin advised against the proposition. On December 21, Benjamin Franklin, Lee, and Bollan were notified by Lord Dartmouth that the petition was "decent and respectful '' and that it would be presented as soon as possible to the Houses of Parliament. However, Franklin wrote two days later that the petition could not be presented to Parliament until after the Christmas recess.
On January 19, 1775, the petition was presented to the House of Commons by Lord North, and was also presented to the House of Lords the following day.
It came down among a great did not Heap of letters of Intelligence from Governors and officers in America, Newspapers, Pamphlets, Handbills, etc., from that Country, the last in the List, and was laid upon the Table with them, undistinguished by any particular Recommendation of it to the Notice of either House; and I do not find, that it has had any further notice taken of it as yet, than that it has been read as well as the other Papers.
Because the petition was intermingled with many other documents, and given the increasing turmoil of the times, little attention was given to the petition by Parliament. Likewise, the King never gave the Colonies a formal reply to their petition.
When the official papers of Congress were published in October and November 1774, the Petition to the King was omitted, because it was preferred that the address be read by the King before being made public. It was not until January 17 or 18, 1775 that the papers were officially released by Charles Thomson, for publication.
Three drafts of the Petition to the King survive to this day: one written by Patrick Henry, one written by Henry Lee, and one by John Dickinson.
The Henry draft is written with very few corrections on its four portfolio pages. Compared to the final version of the Address, the draft contains more rhetorical descriptions of the contested Acts, and focuses less on the Colonies ' past loyalty to Britain.
The Lee draft is neatly written, with minor changes, on three portfolio pages. Compared to the Henry draft, the descriptions of the grievances were brief. It does contain, however, a harsh attack on the King 's ministers, most notably Bute, Mansfield, and North. Because of the inflammatory language in this draft, it is argued that this is the version that was rejected by Congress on October 21, 1774.
The Dickinson draft is a rough composition, rite with many changes, including entire paragraphs designated to be transposed. The document is nine and a half portfolio pages, numbered 1 - 9 and 12, with pages 10 and 11 left blank. The text found in this draft is virtually identical to the document adopted by Congress, with the main difference lying in the list of grievances in the adopted version, which resembled those found the other two drafts.
The Petition to the King reflected the Colonies ' desire to maintain relations with Britain, given that certain demands were met. In particular, it showed that the Colonies viewed themselves as loyal to the British monarchy rather than to Parliament.
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which is the first most spoken language in the world | List of languages by number of native speakers - wikipedia
This article ranks human languages by their number of native speakers.
However, all such rankings should be used with caution. It is difficult to define the difference between a language and a dialect, or between a language and a macrolanguage; for example, Chinese is sometimes considered a single language and sometimes a macrolanguage whose many varieties are all independent languages. Any division of speakers among languages is the result of the classification of these speakers. Often such classifications are based on political or cultural factors. Although such classifications are not entirely arbitrary, it is not possible to devise a coherent linguistic set of criteria for the boundaries between languages.
For a list of languages with the smallest numbers of native speakers, see lists of endangered languages.
The following table contains the top 100 languages by estimated number of native speakers in the 2007 edition of Nationalencyklopedin. As census methods in different countries vary to a considerable extent, and given that some countries do not record language in their censuses, any list of languages by native speakers, or total speakers, is effectively based on estimates. Updated estimates from 2010 are also provided.
The top eleven languages have additional figures from the 2010 edition of the Nationalencyklopedin. Numbers above 95 million are rounded off to the nearest 5 million.
Bubble chart of languages by proportion of native speakers worldwide
Languages with at least 50 million first - language speakers, millions (according to: Ethnologue)
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what happened to the parents on good times | Good Times - wikipedia
Good Times is an American sitcom that aired on CBS from February 8, 1974, to August 1, 1979. Created by Eric Monte and Mike Evans, and developed by Norman Lear, the series ' primary executive producer, it was television 's first African American two - parent family sitcom. Good Times was billed as a spin - off of Maude, which was itself a spin - off of All in the Family.
Florida and James Evans and their three children live at 921 North Gilbert Avenue, apartment 17C, in a housing project in a poor, black neighborhood in inner - city Chicago. The project is unnamed on the show, but is implicitly the infamous Cabrini -- Green projects, shown in the opening and closing credits. Florida and James have three children: James Jr., also known as "J.J. ''; Thelma; and Michael, called "the militant midget '' by his father due to his passionate activism. When the series begins, J.J. is seventeen years old, Thelma is sixteen, and Michael is eleven. Their exuberant neighbor, and Florida 's best friend, is Willona Woods, a recent divorcée who works at a boutique. Their building superintendent is Nathan Bookman (seasons 2 -- 6), who James, Willona and later J.J. refer to as "Buffalo Butt '', or, even more derisively, "Booger ''.
The characters originated on the sitcom Maude as Florida and Henry Evans, with Florida employed as Maude Findlay 's housekeeper in Tuckahoe, New York, and Henry employed as a New York City firefighter. When producers decided to feature the Florida character in her own show, they changed the characters ' history to fit a new series that was well into development rather than start from scratch to create a consistent starring vehicle. Henry 's name became James, he worked various odd jobs, there was no mention of Maude, and the couple lived in Chicago.
Episodes of Good Times deal with the characters ' attempts to overcome poverty living in a high rise project building in Chicago. James Evans often works at least two jobs, mostly manual labor such as dishwasher, construction laborer, etc. Often he is unemployed, but he is a proud man who will not accept charity. When he has to, he hustles money playing pool, although Florida disapproves of this.
Good Times was intended to be a good show for Esther Rolle and John Amos. Both expected the show to deal with serious topics in a comedic way while providing positive characters for viewers to identify with.
However, Jimmie Walker 's character of J.J. was an immediate hit with audiences and became the breakout character of the series. J.J. 's frequent use of the expression "Dy - no - mite! '' (often in the phrase "Kid Dy - no - mite! ''), credited to director John Rich, became a popular catchphrase (later included in TV Land 's The 100 Greatest TV Quotes and Catch Phrases special). Rich insisted Walker say it in every episode. Walker and executive producer Norman Lear were skeptical of the idea, but the phrase and the J.J. Evans character caught on with the audience. As a result of the character 's popularity, the writers focused more on J.J. 's comedic antics instead of serious issues.
Through seasons two and three, Rolle and Amos grew increasingly disillusioned with the direction of the show and especially with J.J. 's antics and stereotypically buffoonish behavior. Rolle was vocal about her hate of his character. In a 1975 interview with Ebony magazine she stated:
He 's 18 and he does n't work. He ca n't read or write. He does n't think. The show did n't start out to be that... Little by little -- with the help of the artist, I suppose, because they could n't do that to me -- they have made J.J. more stupid and enlarged the role. Negative images have been slipped in on us through the character of the oldest child.
Although doing so less publicly, Amos also was outspoken about his dissatisfaction with the J.J. character. Amos stated:
The writers would prefer to put a chicken hat on J.J. and have him prance around saying "DY - NO - MITE '', and that way they could waste a few minutes and not have to write meaningful dialogue.
While Amos was less public with his dissatisfaction, he was ultimately fired after season three due to disagreements with Norman Lear. Amos ' departure was initially attributed to his desire to focus on a film career, but he admitted in a 1976 interview that Lear called him and told him that his contract option with the show was not being renewed. Amos stated, "That 's the same thing as being fired. '' The producers decided not to recast the character of James Evans, instead opting to kill off the character in the two - part season four episode, "The Big Move ''.
By the end of season four, Esther Rolle had also become dissatisfied with the show 's direction and decided to leave the series. In the final two episodes of the season, "Love Has a Spot On His Lung '', Rolle 's character gets engaged to Carl Dixon (Moses Gunn), a man she began dating toward the end of season four. In the season five premiere episode, it is revealed that Florida and Carl married off screen and moved to Arizona for the sake of Carl 's health.
With Amos and Rolle gone, Ja'net Dubois took over as the lead character, as Willona checked in on the Evans children since they were now living alone. In season five Janet Jackson joined the cast, playing Penny Gordon Woods, an abused girl who is abandoned by her mother and eventually adopted by Willona.
Before taping of season six began, CBS and the show 's producers decided that they had to do "something drastic '' to increase viewership. According to then - vice president of CBS programming Steve Mills, "We had lost the essence of the show. Without parental guidance the show slipped. Everything told us that: our mail, our phone calls, our research. We felt we had to go back to basics. ''
Producers approached Esther Rolle with an offer to appear in a guest role on the series. Rolle was initially hesitant but when producers agreed to a number of her demands (including an increased salary and higher quality scripts), she agreed to return to the series on a full - time basis. Rolle also wanted producers to make the character of J.J. more responsible, as she felt the character was a poor role model for black American youths. She also requested that producers write out the character of Carl Dixon; Rolle reportedly disliked the storyline surrounding the Carl Dixon character, as she believed Florida would not have moved on so quickly after James ' death or leave her children. Rolle also thought the writers had disregarded Florida 's devout Christian beliefs by having her fall for and marry Carl, who was an atheist.
In the season six premiere episode "Florida 's Homecoming: Part 1 '', Florida returns from Arizona without Carl to attend Thelma 's upcoming wedding to professional football player Keith Anderson (Ben Powers, who joined the cast for the final season). In a rare uncut version of "Florida 's Homecoming: Part 2 '', after Florida arrives home from Arizona, Willona briefly pulls her aside and mentions Carl, to which Florida sadly smiles and shakes her head implying that Carl had died from cancer. Florida later mentions Carl one last time when she tells Michael about a book they 'd both bought him. Despite changes in the series at Esther Rolle 's request and her return, ratings did not improve and CBS canceled the series during the 1978 -- 79 season.
In the series finale, "The End of the Rainbow '', each character finally gets a "happy ending. '' J.J. gets his big break as an artist for a comic book company with his newly created character, DynoWoman, which is based on Thelma (much to her surprise and delight), and is moving into an apartment with some lady friends. Michael attends college and moves into an on - campus dorm. Keith 's bad knee heals due to his exercise and own physical therapy, leading to the Chicago Bears offering him a contract to play football. Keith announces that he and Thelma are moving into a luxury apartment in the city 's upscale Gold Coast district. Thelma also announces that she is pregnant with the couple 's first child. Keith offers Florida the chance to move in with them so she can help Thelma with the new baby. Willona becomes the head buyer of the boutique she works in and announces that she and Penny are also moving out of the projects. Willona then reveals that her new apartment is in the same apartment building that Keith, Thelma and Florida are moving to; once again, she and Penny become the Evans ' downstairs neighbors.
Good Times was created by Eric Monte and actor Mike Evans. The series also features a character named "Michael Evans '', after co-creator Mike Evans who portrayed Lionel Jefferson on the Norman Lear - produced series All in the Family and The Jeffersons.
The gospel - styled theme song was composed by Dave Grusin with lyrics written by Alan and Marilyn Bergman. It was sung by Jim Gilstrap and Motown singer Blinky Williams with a gospel choir providing background vocals.
The lyrics to the theme song are notorious for being hard to discern, notably the line "Hangin ' in a chow line '' / "Hangin ' in and jivin ' '' (depending on the source used). Dave Chappelle used this part of the lyrics as a quiz in his "I Know Black People '' skit on Chappelle 's Show in which the former was claimed as the answer. The insert for the Season One DVD box set has the lyric as "Hangin ' in a chow line ''. However, the Bergmans confirmed that the lyric is actually "Hangin ' in and jivin '. '' Slightly different lyrics were used for the closing credits, with the song beginning on a verse instead of the chorus.
The program premiered in February 1974; high ratings led CBS to renew the program for the 1974 -- 75 season, as it was the seventeenth - highest - rated program that year. During its first full season on the air, 1974 -- 75, the show was the seventh - highest - rated program in the Nielsen ratings, with more than 25 % of all American households tuning into an episode each week. Three of the top ten highest - rated programs on American TV that season centered on the lives of African - Americans: Sanford and Son, The Jeffersons, and Good Times.
The Nielsen ratings for the series declined over time, partly because of its many time slot changes and the departure of John Amos. The ratings went down considerably when the show entered its final two seasons:
Cable network TV One aired reruns of the show since its launch on January 19, 2004, with the exception of a period from 2002 until June 2013. Good Times had also aired at various times on TV Land and on the Canadian specialty cable channel DejaView. Minisodes of the show are available for free on Crackle.
Additionally, digital multicast network Antenna TV also aired episodes of the show until January 1, 2018, when GetTV, operated by Sony (which distributes the show) began airing the program.
Good Times airs on GetTV with a TV - PG rating. Also, most episodes run on TV One with a TV - G rating, with the exception being the Season 3 episode "J.J. in Trouble '', in which J.J. fears he may have contracted an STD; this episode airs on TV One with a TV - 14 rating, as well as the "parental guidance is suggested '' slide that preceded the episode when it was originally broadcast on CBS.
Sony Pictures Home Entertainment released the entire series on DVD in Region 1 between February 2003 and August 2006, with a complete box set following the separate seasons on October 28, 2008. Season 1 was released on DVD in Region 4 on December 27, 2006.
On August 27, 2013, it was announced that Mill Creek Entertainment had acquired the rights to various television series from the Sony Pictures library including Good Times. They have subsequently re-released the first four seasons on DVD.
On September 1, 2015, Mill Creek Entertainment re-released Good Times - The Complete Series on DVD in Region 1.
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when do new stranger things episodes come out | Stranger Things - wikipedia
Stranger Things is an American science fiction - horror web television series created, written, directed and co-executive produced by The Duffer Brothers, as well as co-executive produced by Shawn Levy and Dan Cohen. The first season, released in July 2016, stars Winona Ryder, David Harbour, Finn Wolfhard, Millie Bobby Brown, Gaten Matarazzo, Caleb McLaughlin, Natalia Dyer, Charlie Heaton, Cara Buono and Matthew Modine, with Noah Schnapp and Joe Keery in recurring roles. For the second season, Schnapp and Keery were promoted to series regulars, along with the additions of Sadie Sink, Dacre Montgomery, Sean Astin and Paul Reiser.
Set in the fictional town of Hawkins, Indiana, in the 1980s, the first season focuses on the investigation into the disappearance of a young boy amid supernatural events occurring around the town, including the appearance of a girl with psychokinetic abilities who helps the missing boy 's friends in their own search. The second season, titled Stranger Things 2, is set a year after the first, and deals with attempts of the characters to return to normal and consequences that linger from the first season.
The Duffer Brothers developed the series as a mix of investigative drama alongside supernatural elements with childlike sensibilities, establishing its time frame in the 1980s and creating a homage to pop culture of that decade. Several themes and directorial aspects were inspired and aesthetically informed by the works of Steven Spielberg, John Carpenter, and Stephen King, among others, including several films, anime and video games.
The first season was released on Netflix on July 15, 2016. It received critical acclaim for its characterization, pacing, atmosphere, acting, soundtrack, directing, writing, and homages to 1980s genre films. The series has received several industry nominations and awards, including winning the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series in 2016, and receiving eighteen nominations for the 69th Primetime Emmy Awards, including Outstanding Drama Series. On August 31, 2016, Netflix renewed the series for a second season of nine episodes, which was released on October 27, 2017. In December 2017, Netflix ordered a third season, which will consist of eight episodes. The Duffer Brothers have said that Stranger Things is likely to end after its fourth or fifth season.
Stranger Things is set in the fictional rural town of Hawkins, Indiana, during the early 1980s. The nearby Hawkins National Laboratory ostensibly performs scientific research for the United States Department of Energy, but secretly does experiments into the paranormal and supernatural, including those that involve human test subjects. Inadvertently, they have created a portal to an alternate dimension called "the Upside Down ''. The influence of the Upside Down starts to affect the unknowing residents of Hawkins in calamitous ways.
The first season begins in November 1983, when Will Byers is abducted by a creature from the Upside Down. His mother, Joyce, and the town 's police chief, Jim Hopper, search for Will. At the same time, a young psychokinetic girl called Eleven escapes from the laboratory and assists Will 's friends, Mike, Dustin, and Lucas, in their own efforts to find Will.
The second season is set a year later, starting in October 1984. Will has been rescued, but few know of the details of the events. When it is discovered that Will is still being influenced by entities from the Upside Down, his friends and family learn there is a larger threat to their universe from the Upside Down.
Executive producer Shawn Levy cameos as a morgue worker.
Stranger Things was created by Matt and Ross Duffer, known professionally as The Duffer Brothers. The two had completed writing and producing their 2015 film Hidden, which they had tried to emulate the style of M. Night Shyamalan, however, due to changes at Warner Bros., its distributor, the film did not see a wide release and the Duffers were unsure of their future. To their surprise, television producer Donald De Line approached them, impressed with Hidden 's script, and offered them the opportunity to work on episodes of Wayward Pines alongside Shyamalan. The brothers were mentored by Shyamalan during the episode 's production, so that when they finished, they felt they were ready to produce their own television series.
The Duffer Brothers prepared a script that would essentially be similar to the series ' actual pilot episode, along with a 20 - page pitch book to help shop the series around for a network. They pitched the story to a number of cable networks, all of which rejected the script on the basis that they felt a plot centered around children as leading characters would not work, asking them to make it a children 's show or to drop the children and focus on Hopper 's investigation in the paranormal. In early 2015, Dan Cohen, the VP of 21 Laps Entertainment, brought the script to his colleague Shawn Levy. They subsequently invited The Duffer Brothers to their office and purchased the rights for the series, giving full authorship of it to the brothers. After reading the pilot, the streaming service Netflix purchased the whole season for an undisclosed amount; the show was subsequently announced for a planned 2016 release by Netflix in early April 2015. The Duffer Brothers stated that at the time they had pitched to Netflix, the service had already gotten recognized for its original programming, such as House of Cards and Orange Is the New Black, with well - recognized producers behind them, and were ready to start giving upcoming producers like them a chance. The brothers started to write out the series and brought Levy and Cohen in as executive producers to start casting and filming.
The series was originally known as Montauk, as the setting of the script was in Montauk, New York and nearby Long Island locations. The brothers had chosen Montauk as it had further Spielberg ties with the film Jaws, where Montauk was used for the fictional setting of Amity Island. After deciding to change the narrative of the series to take place in the fictional town of Hawkins instead, the brothers felt they could now do things to the town, such as placing it under quarantine, that they really could not envision with a real location. With the change in location, they had to come up with a new title for the series under direction from Netflix 's Ted Sarandos so that they could start marketing it to the public. The brothers started by using a copy of Stephen King 's Firestarter novel to consider the title 's font and appearance, and came up with a long list of potential alternatives. Stranger Things came about as it sounded similar to another King novel, Needful Things, though Matt noted they still had a "lot of heated arguments '' over this final title.
To pitch the series, The Duffers showcased images, footage and music from 1980s films such as E.T. the Extra Terrestrial, Close Encounters of the Third Kind, Poltergeist, Hellraiser, Stand by Me, Firestarter, A Nightmare on Elm Street and Jaws, in order to establish the tone of the series.
With the critical success of the first season after its release in July 2016, speculation on a possible second season was raised. The Duffer Brothers initially intended for Stranger Things to either be a standalone miniseries or an anthology series. They also considered the possibility of setting a potential second season (which they refereed to as a ' sequel ') in the early 1990s and featuring an older version of the characters, along with all new characters, who are drawn back to Hawkins after supernatural events begin occurring again.. However, following the release of the first season, they realized that the likability of the characters - especially the children - was key to the series ' success, and they decided to set the second season in 1984 and focus on the same characters. By the end of July, The Duffer Brothers had outlined a plan for such a season if it was green - lit, and Netflix 's CEO Reed Hastings said in early August that the company "would be dumb not to '' renew Stranger Things for a second season. On August 31, 2016, Netflix announced it had renewed Stranger Things for a second season of nine episodes, to be released in 2017. The Duffer Brothers revealed that the series had been renewed for a second season before the first premiered. Regarding the decision to wait more than a month after the first season premiered to announce the renewal, Matt Duffer said, "it actually ended up working because it had built up to this fever pitch. I guess that 's what (Netflix) were intending to do all the time. ''
The Duffers wrote the second season to make the combined first and second season feel like a complete work, but setting elements in place to go forward with additional seasons if they are green - lit. While most of the story for the second season had been decided before the first season aired, the Duffers took in the audience reactions from the first season to adjust some of the details within the second season. They knew they would not have the same element of audience surprise as when the show aired anew, and were aware fans wanted to see certain elements, but Ross said "... the point is not to give everyone what they think they want. Because I do n't think they really know what they want. '' The Duffers felt that the second season should be treated more as a sequel rather than a continuation, and thus have opted to call the second Stranger Things 2. This approach had some trepidation from Netflix, since the company felt movie sequels typically have a bad reputation, but the Duffers pointed out that there had been many successful sequels that surpassed the original film, and felt confident with this name. Despite revealing episode titles for the season in the announcement teaser in order "to provide some hint of where we were going in season two without giving anything away, '' Matt Duffer stated that some of the titles would change, since there were some things "we did n't want to put on there because we felt like it would give too much away, '' and because "people are smart on the fucking internet '' with fan - created "videos analyzing the chapter titles... right on a lot '' of how the titles related to the plot of the season. In early October 2017, the Duffers revealed the final titles for the first six episodes of the season.
Levy noted in November 2016 that he and The Duffer Brothers had already begun planning a potential third season, saying, "We are not gon na be caught off guard and we do n't wan na be making stuff up like the day before we have to write it and make it, so we are definitely optimistic and we have started thinking ahead. '' The Duffers anticipate having about four to five seasons to work with, but do want to "have a really finite ending '' while the show is still at a height of success, according to Matt, rather than letting it draw out indefinitely. In August 2017, the Duffers confirmed there would be a third season, with the likelihood of one more season following that, with Ross saying, "We 're thinking it will be a four - season thing and then out ''. However, executive producer Shawn Levy later suggested that either four or five total seasons were possibilities, claiming that "the truth is we 're definitely going four seasons and there 's very much the possibility of a fifth. Beyond that, it becomes I think very unlikely. '' Matt Duffer later commented that no official decision has been made, claiming that "It 's hard, like four seems short, five seems long. So I do n't know what to do. '' In December 2017, Netflix officially confirmed that they have greenlit the third season.
The idea of Stranger Things started with how the brothers felt they could take the concept of the 2013 film Prisoners, detailing the moral struggles a father goes through when his daughter is kidnapped, and expand it out over eight or so hours in a serialized television approach. As they focused on the missing child aspect of the story, they wanted to introduce the idea of "childlike sensibilities '' they could offer, and toyed around with the idea of a monster that could consume humans. The brothers thought the combination of these things "was the best thing ever ''. To introduce this monster into the narrative, they considered "bizarre experiments we had read about taking place in the Cold War '' such as Project MKUltra, which gave a way to ground the monster 's existence in science rather than something spiritual. This also helped them to decide on using 1983 as the time period, as it was a year before the film Red Dawn came out, which focused on Cold War paranoia. Subsequently, they were able to use all their own personal inspirations from the 1980s, the decade they were born, as elements of the series, crafting it in the realm of science fiction and horror. The Duffer Brothers have cited as influence for the show (among others): Stephen King novels; films produced by Steven Spielberg, John Carpenter, Wes Craven, Robert Zemeckis, George Lucas and Guillermo del Toro; films such as Alien and Stand by Me; Japanese anime such as Akira and Elfen Lied; and video games such as Silent Hill, The Last of Us, and Dark Souls. The Duffers also believe that they may have brought influences from other works unintentionally, including Beyond the Black Rainbow and D.A.R.Y.L., discovered by reviewing fan feedback on the show.
With Netflix as the platform, The Duffer Brothers were not limited to a typical 22 - episode format, opting for the eight - episode approach. They had been concerned that a 22 - episode season on broadcast television would be difficult to "tell a cinematic story '' with that many episodes. Eight episodes allowed them to give time to characterization in addition to narrative development; if they had less time available, they would have had to remain committed to telling a horror film as soon as the monster was introduced and abandon the characterization. Within the eight episodes, the brothers aimed to make the first season "feel like a big movie '' with all the major plot lines completed so that "the audience feels satisfied '', but left enough unresolved to indicate "there 's a bigger mythology, and there 's a lot of dangling threads at the end '', something that could be explored in further seasons if Netflix opted to create more.
Regarding writing for the children characters of the series, The Duffer Brothers considered themselves as outcasts from other students while in high school and thus found it easy to write for Mike and his friends, and particularly for Barb. Joyce was fashioned after Richard Dreyfuss ' character Roy Neary in Close Encounters of the Third Kind, as she appears "absolutely bonkers '' to everyone else as she tries to find Will. Other characters, such as Billy in the second season, have more villainous attributes that are not necessarily obvious from the onset; Matt explained that they took further inspiration from Stephen King for these characters, as King "always has really great human villains '' that may be more malicious than the supernatural evil.
According to David Harbour, writing for the third season was still occurring in December 2017. Levy said the season would be less about Will, saying, "We 're not going to put Will through hell for a third season in a row. He 'll be dealing with stuff, but he wo n't be at rock bottom... We 're (going to be) dealing with forces of evil that are new. ''
In June 2015, it was announced that Winona Ryder and David Harbour had joined the series as Joyce and as the unnamed chief of police, respectively. The brothers ' casting director Carmen Cuba had suggested Ryder for the role of Joyce, which the two were immediately drawn to because of her predominance in the films of the 1980s. Levy believed Ryder could "wretch up the emotional urgency and yet find layers and nuance and different sides of (Joyce) ''. Ryder praised that the show 's multiple storylines required her to act for Joyce as "she 's out of her mind, but she 's actually kind of onto something '', and that the producers had faith she could pull off the difficult role. The Duffer Brothers had been interested in Harbour before, who until Stranger Things primarily had smaller roles as villainous characters, and they felt that he had been "waiting too long for this opportunity '' to play a lead, while Harbour himself was thrilled by the script and the chance to play "a broken, flawed, anti-hero character ''.
Additional casting followed two months later with Finn Wolfhard as Mike, Millie Bobby Brown in an undisclosed role, Gaten Matarazzo as Dustin, Caleb McLaughlin as Lucas, Natalia Dyer as Nancy, and Charlie Heaton as Jonathan. In September 2015, Cara Buono joined the cast as Karen, followed by Matthew Modine as Martin Brenner a month later. Additional cast who recur for the first season include Noah Schnapp as Will, Shannon Purser as Barbara "Barb '' Holland, Joe Keery as Steve Harrington, and Ross Partridge as Lonnie, among others.
Actors auditioning for the children roles read lines from Stand By Me. The Duffer Brothers estimated they went through about a thousand different child actors for the roles. They noted that Wolfhard was already "a movie buff '' of the films from the 1980s period and easily filled the role, while they found Matarazzo 's audition to be much more authentic than most of the other audition tapes, and selected him after a single viewing of his audition tape. As casting was started immediately after Netflix greenlit the show, and prior to the scripts being fully completed, this allowed some of the actor 's takes on the roles to reflect into the script. The casting of the young actors for Will and his friends had been done just after the first script was completed, and subsequent scripts incorporated aspects from these actors. The brothers said Modine provided significant input on the character of Dr. Brenner, whom they had not really fleshed out before as they considered him the hardest character to write for given his limited appearances within the narrative.
In October 2016, it was announced that Schnapp and Keery had been promoted to the main cast for the second season, after each recurring in the first season, and that Sadie Sink and Dacre Montgomery would join the main cast as Max and Billy, respectively. Ryder, Harbour, Wolfhard, Brown, Matarazzo, McLaughlin, Dyer and Heaton also return for the season. Sean Astin as Bob Newby and Paul Reiser as Sam Owens are also part of the main cast in the season. For Owens, The Duffer Brothers had referred to the character in their pitch to Netflix for the season as "Paul Reiser '', and specifically alluded to Reiser 's character Burke in Aliens, with Ross referencing James Cameron 's casting choice for that film, saying, "(Cameron) thought people would inherently trust (Reiser) and it would be a twist ''. Reiser 's son was a fan of Stranger Things, and gave his father an early appreciation of the series, so that by when the production called his agent about the role, Reiser was excited for the part. Joining them in recurring roles are Linnea Berthelsen as Kali / Eight and Brett Gelman as Murray Bauman.
The third season sees Ryder, Harbour, Wolfhard, Brown, Matarazzo, McLaughlin, Dyer, Heaton, Buono, Schnapp, Sink, Kerry and Montgomery return.
The brothers had desired to film the series around the Long Island area to match the initial Montauk concept. However, with filming scheduled to take place in November 2015, it was difficult to shoot in Long Island in the cold weather, and the production started scouting locations in and around the Atlanta, Georgia area. The brothers, who grew up in North Carolina, found many places that reminded them of their own childhoods in that area, and felt the area would work well with the narrative shift to the fictional town of Hawkins, Indiana.
The filming of the first season began in November 2015 and was extensively done in Atlanta, Georgia, with The Duffer Brothers and Levy handling the direction of individual episodes. Jackson served as the basis of the fictional town of Hawkins, Indiana. Other shooting locations included the Georgia Mental Health Institute as the Hawkins National Laboratory site, Bellwood Quarry, Patrick Henry High School in Stockbridge, Georgia, for the middle and high school scenes, Emory University 's Continuing Education Department, the former city hall in Douglasville, Georgia, Georgia International Horse Park, the probate court in Butts County, Georgia, Old East Point Library and East Point First Baptist Church in East Point, Georgia, Fayetteville, Georgia, Stone Mountain Park, Palmetto, Georgia, and Winston, Georgia. Set work was done at Screen Gem Studios in Atlanta. The series was filmed with a Red Dragon digital camera. Filming for the first season concluded in early 2016.
While filming, the brothers tried to capture shots that could be seen as homages to many of the 1980s references they recalled. Their goal was not necessarily to fill the work with these references, but instead make the series seem to the viewer as a 1980s film. They spent little time reviewing those works and instead went by memory. Matt further recognized that some of their filming homages were not purposely done but were found to be very comparable, as highlighted by a fan - made video comparing the show to several 1980s works side - by - side. Matt commented on the video that "Some were deliberate and some were subconscious. '' The brothers recognized that many of the iconic scenes from these 1980s films, such as with Poltergeist, was about "taking a very ordinary object that people deal with every day, their television set, and imbuing it with something otherworldly '', leading to the idea of using the Christmas light strings for Will to communicate with Joyce.
The brothers attributed much of the 1980s feel to set and costume designers and the soundtrack composers that helped to recreate the era for them. Lynda Reiss, the head of props, had about a $220,000 budget, similar to most films, to acquire artifacts of the 1980s, using eBay and searching through flea markets and estate sales around the Atlanta area. The bulk of the props were original items from the 1980s with only a few pieces, such as the Dungeons & Dragons books made as replicas. Costume designer Kimberly Adams - Galligan for the first season aimed for capturing authenticity of the clothes choices by the characters, such as reflecting that the Byers would likely use hand - me - down clothes compared to the other families; in this case, while the costume department did distress the outfits for all the characters, they spent more time for Will 's clothes compared to Mike 's. Frequently, they needed to create outfits for the kids themselves since many were still growing during the time of filming, and could not readily acquire period fashion across a range of sizes. Director of photography Tim Ives shot the first season with Leica lens and the 6K Red Scarlet Dragon to "make sure that our images had the soft and round tones that are in ' 80s films ''; this is achieved through digital image processing. Ives said that these cameras allow them to create an adaptable quality to the recorded film that is adaptable to a wide range of viewing experiences, including support for newer and future television technologies such as high dynamic range video that was just becoming adopted at the time of filming.
Filming for the second season began on November 7, 2016, once again in and around the Atlanta Metro area. While parts of Season 2 were set in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, these were actually filmed in downtown Atlanta, with skylines of Pittsburgh added in post-production. Andrew Stanton, director of Pixar 's Finding Nemo and WALL - E, directed the fifth and sixth episodes of the second season. Levy stated that Stanton was a big fan of the show and called up Levy, offering his directorial abilities for the show. Rebecca Thomas directed the seventh episode of the season. Unlike the first season, which they were able to film without any real security issues, the heightened awareness of the show required the producers to take significant steps to keep the show 's production in secret while filming the second season. They spoke to the production team of HBO 's Game of Thrones for tips and advice for securing filming sites, and have adopted code names for the series and various parts to allow the actors to speak to others without revealing details of the show 's plot. Kim Wilcox took over for costumes in the second season, finding many of the same problems with designing for the child actors that were aging. Furthermore, she wanted to create the 80 's aestetic but as reflected in a small rural town, with the trends of period slowly filtering into it rather that immediately jump on elements like neon colors. The second season concluded filming on June 2, 2017. Ives once again used Leica lens to film the season, while upgrading to the Red Weapon 8K S35 camera.
Filming for the third season is expected to begin in mid-April 2018.
To create the aged effect for the series, a film grain was added over the footage, which was captured by scanning in film stock from the 1980s. The Duffers wanted to scare the audience, but not to necessarily make the show violent or gory, following in line with how the 1980s Amblin Entertainment films drove the creation of the PG - 13 movie rating. It was "much more about mood and atmosphere and suspense and dread than they are about gore '', though they were not afraid to push into more scary elements, particularly towards the end of the first season. The brothers had wanted to avoid any computer - generated effects for the monster and other parts of the series and stay with practical effects. However, the six - month filming time left them little time to plan out and test practical effects rigs for some of the shots. They went with a middle ground of using constructed props including one for the monster whenever they could, but for other shots, such as when the monster bursts through a wall, they opted to use digital effects. Post-production on the first season was completed the week before it was released to Netflix.
The title sequence uses closeups of the letters in the Stranger Things title with a red tint against a black background as they slide into place within the title. The sequence was created by the studio Imaginary Forces, formerly part of R / GA, led by creative director Michelle Doughtey. Levy introduced the studio to The Duffer Brothers, who explained their vision of the 1980s - inspired show, which helped the studio to fix the concept the producers wanted. Later, but prior to filming, the producers sent Imaginary Forces the pilot script, the synth - heavy background music for the titles, as well as the various book covers from King and other authors that they had used to establish the title and imagery, and were looking for a similar approach for the show 's titles, primarily using a typographical sequence. They took inspiration from several title sequences of works from the 1980s that were previously designed by Richard Greenberg under R / GA, such as Altered States and The Dead Zone. They also got input from Dan Perri, who worked on the title credits of several 1980s films. Various iterations included having letters vanish, to reflect the "missing '' theme of the show, and having letters cast shadows on others, alluding to the mysteries, before settling into the sliding letters. The studio began working on the title sequence before filming, and took about a month off during the filming process to let the producers get immersed in the show and come back with more input. Initially they had been working with various fonts for the title and used close - ups of the best features of these fonts, but near the end the producers wanted to work with ITC Benguiat, requiring them to rework those shots. The final sequence is fully computer generated, but they took inspiration from testing some practical effects, such as using Kodalith masks as would have been done in the 1980s, to develop the appropriate filters for the rendering software. The individual episode title cards used a "fly through '' approach, similar to the film Bullitt, which the producers had suggested to the studio.
The Stranger Things original soundtrack was composed by Michael Stein and Kyle Dixon of the electronic band Survive. It makes extensive use of synthesizers in homage to 1980s artists and film composers including Jean - Michel Jarre, Tangerine Dream, Vangelis, Goblin, John Carpenter, Giorgio Moroder, and Fabio Frizzi.
According to Stein and Dixon, The Duffer Brothers had been fans of Survive 's music, and used their song "Dirge '' for the mock trailer that was used to sell the show to Netflix. Once the show was green - lit, the Duffers contacted Survive around July 2015 to ask if they were still doing music; the two provided the production team with dozens of songs from their band 's past to gain their interest, helping to land them the role. Once aboard, the two worked with producers to select some of their older music to rework for the show, while developing new music, principally with character motifs. The two had been hired before the casting process, so their motif demos were used and played over the actors ' audition tapes, aiding in the casting selection. The show 's theme is based on an unused work Stein composed much earlier that ended up in the library of work they shared with the production staff, who thought that with some reworking would be good for the opening credits.
In addition to original music, Stranger Things features period music from artists including The Clash, Joy Division, Toto, New Order, The Bangles, Foreigner, Echo and the Bunnymen, Peter Gabriel, and Corey Hart, as well as excerpts from Tangerine Dream, John Carpenter, and Vangelis. In particular, The Clash 's "Should I Stay or Should I Go '' was specifically picked to play at pivotal moments of the story, such as when Will is trying to communicate with Joyce from the Upside Down.
Stranger Things ' original soundtrack, consisting of 75 songs from Stein and Dixon split across two volumes, was released by Lakeshore Records. Digital release and streaming options were released on August 10 and 19, 2016 for the two volumes, respectively, while retail versions were available on September 16 and 23, 2016. Limited editions of the soundtrack on vinyl, in both individual and a boxed set, are set for release in July 2017. A cassette version of the soundtrack, sold exclusively by Urban Outfitters, was released on July 14, 2017. The cassette packaging features a cardboard cover that emulates an old VHS sleeves, while the cassette case is made to look like a VHS tape.
Both volumes were nominated individually for the Best Score Soundtrack Category for the 2017 Grammy Awards, though neither won.
The soundtrack for the second season of Stranger Things was released digitally on October 20, 2017. The soundtrack, once again composed by Stein and Dixon, consists of 34 songs and was released by Lakeshore Records in the United States and Invada Records internationally. The soundtrack is intended to be released on physical formats, such as compact disc, vinyl, and cassette as well. On the soundtrack 's composition, Stein and Dixon together said that the score for the season introduces "new styles of composition, while still revisiting old themes when appropriate... We 've created new elements that are necessary to support the story, but still want to remain true to the sound of Season 1. '' The first track from the soundtrack, "Walkin ' in Hawkins '', was released on October 12.
The first season consisted of eight one - hour - long episodes which were released worldwide on Netflix on July 15, 2016, in Ultra HD 4K. The second season, consisting of nine episodes, was released on October 27, 2017 in HDR. A teaser for the second season, which also announced the release date, aired during Super Bowl LI. The third season is expected to consist of eight episodes. It is not expected to be released until late 2018 or early 2019.
The first season of Stranger Things was released on a Blu - ray / DVD combo pack exclusively to Target retailers on October 17, 2017, which includes a vintage VHS - inspired packaging.
As Netflix does not reveal subscriber viewership numbers for any of their original series, Symphony Technology Group compiled data for the season based on people using software on their phones that measures television viewing by detecting a program 's sound. According to Symphony, within the first 35 days of release, Stranger Things averaged ratings around 14.07 million adults between the ages 18 -- 49 in the United States. This made it the third most - watched season of Netflix original content in the U.S. at the time behind the first season of Fuller House and fourth season of Orange Is the New Black. In a September 2016 analysis, Netflix found that Stranger Things "hooked '' viewers by the second episode of the first season, indicating that the second episode was "the first installment that led at least 70 percent of viewers who watched that episode to complete the entire first season of a show. ''
In August 2017, the marketing analytics firm Jumpshot determined the season was the seventh-most viewed Netflix season in the first 30 days after it premiered, garnering slightly more than 20 % of the viewers that the second season of Daredevil received, which was the most viewed season according to Jumpshot. Jumpshot, which "analyzes click - stream data from an online panel of more than 100 million consumers '', looked at the viewing behavior and activity of the company 's U.S. members, factoring in the relative number of U.S. Netflix viewers who watched at least one episode of the season.
Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gave the first season an approval rating of 94 % based on 70 reviews, and a weighted average rating of 7.96 / 10. The site 's critical consensus states, "Exciting, heartbreaking, and sometimes scary, Stranger Things acts as an addictive homage to Spielberg films and vintage 1980s television. '' Review aggregator Metacritic gave the first season a normalized score of 76 out of 100 based on 34 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''.
IGN gave the score of 8 out of 10 and called the series "Great '', saying "Stranger Things is an easy recommendation, offering viewers an atmospheric and endearing series that is a nostalgic throwback without feeling like a simple copy. '' In a review in the San Francisco Chronicle Dave Wiegand wrote: "Stranger Things reminds us of a time marked by a kind of no - strings escapism. And as it does so, we find ourselves yearning for it because the Duffers have made it so irresistibly appealing. There may be other equally great shows to watch this summer, but I guarantee you wo n't have more fun watching any of them than you will watching Stranger Things. '' Joshua Alston of The A.V. Club also reviewed it positively saying, "Balancing style and substance is always challenging for a series like Stranger Things, but the show is perfectly calibrated. It feels like watching a show produced during the era in which it 's set, but with the craft of today 's prestige television. '' Reviewing for HitFix, Alan Sepinwall said, "Over the course of the eight hours, the story and characters take on enough life of their own so that the references do n't feel self - indulgent, and so that the series can be appreciated even if you do n't know the plot of E.T. or the title font of Stephen King 's early novels (a huge influence on the show 's own opening credits) by heart. ''
Emily Nussbaum of The New Yorker also applauded the series and wrote, "This is astoundingly efficient storytelling, eight hours that pass in a blink, with even minor characters getting sharp dialogue, dark humor, or moments of pathos. '' Television critic Mary McNamara of Los Angeles Times said, "For the most part, and in absolute defiance of the odds, Stranger Things honors its source material in the best way possible: By telling a sweet ' n ' scary story in which monsters are real but so are the transformative powers of love and fealty. '' The Wall Street Journal 's Brian Kelly said, "Matt Duffer and Ross Duffer, brothers and the show 's creators, have done their homework when it comes to ' 80s cinema. Whether you 're a fan of John Carpenter 's The Thing or The Goonies is more your speed, there 's plenty to like in Stranger Things. ''
In a negative review, cultural critic Grafton Tanner called the series "wish fulfillment '' and "a window through which the present - shocked can gaze at a clichéd past. '' Similarly, Marinna Guzy of The Establishment wrote: "When confronted with a story like Stranger Things, a recycled retelling of an old story being marketed as homage and good, clean nostalgia, one has to wonder whether or not studios and content creators like The Duffer Brothers ever ask themselves whether or not the story they are telling is the one that should be told. What purpose does Stranger Things serve beyond reinforcing the status quo in the media landscape and perpetuating the dangerous delusion that things were better way back when? ''
On Rotten Tomatoes, the second season has an approval rating of 94 % based on 120 reviews, and an average rating of 7.79 / 10. The site 's critical consensus states, "Stranger Things ' slow - building sophomore season balances moments of humor and a nostalgic sweetness against a growing horror that 's all the more effective thanks to the show 's full - bodied characters and evocative tone. '' On Metacritic, the second season has a normalized score of 78 out of 100, based on 33 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''.
Shortly after its release, Stranger Things gained a dedicated fanbase. One area of focus from these fans was the character of Barb, the nerdy friend and classmate of Nancy who is taken and killed by the monster early in the season. According to actress Shannon Purser, Barb "was n't supposed to be a big deal '', and The Duffer Brothers had not gone into great detail about the character since the focus was on finding Will. However, many fans sympathized with the character, with Laura Bradley of Vanity Fair suggesting that these people found that Barb would be a similar misfit in society, and "looks more like someone you might actually meet in real life '' compared to the other characters, particularly Nancy, in the series. Hashtags such as "# ImWithBarb '' and "# JusticeforBarb '' grew in popularity after the series ' release, and several fan sites and forums were created to support her. While Purser did not return for the second season, The Duffer Brothers used the real - life "Justice for Barb '' movement as inspiration for narrative at the start of the second season, with Nancy addressing the fact "that no one ever cares about '' Barb. Purser and several media outlets took her nomination as Barb for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series in the 69th Primetime Emmy Awards as achieving "Justice for Barb '', highlighting how well her character was received.
Another impact of the series has been an increase demand for Eggo waffles, as they are shown to be Eleven 's favorite food in several episodes and are seen as a representation of the show. The Kellogg Company, which manufactures Eggo, had not been part of the production prior to the first season 's release, but recognized the market impact of the series. It provided a vintage 1980s Eggo television advertisement for Netflix to use in its Super Bowl LI commercial, and is looking to become more involved with cross-promotion.
With the release of the second season of the series, Netflix also released Beyond Stranger Things, an aftershow hosted by Jim Rash. The guests of the aftershow are composed of cast and crew from the series, including The Duffer Brothers and the series ' stars, to discuss the development and behind - the - scenes production of the series and its larger mythology. Unlike previous aftershows created by Embassy Row, such as Talking Dead and Talking Bad, Beyond Stranger Things is intended to be watched after a screening of the entire current season.
Netflix and BonusXP developed a free mobile game tie - in for Stranger Things, released to iOS and Android devices on October 4, 2017. The game uses a retro - pixel style of art, similar to games for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System. The game is loosely based on the Stranger Things story after season one, with the player starting as Chief of Police Jim Hopper looking for the missing boys. Once these characters are found, they become playable and have special abilities that allow the player to access more areas in the game. BonusXP had less than a year to complete the game. The team decided to make the game in a similar style to The Legend of Zelda because it "was a perfect match because both (Stranger Things and Zelda) are about exploration, and it 's kind of a mysterious fit that fit the mood of the show, '' according to BonusXP president Dave Pottinger. The map of Hawkins in the game was based on a Google street view map of Jackson, Georgia where the series is filmed. In order to help keep the game a secret, BonusXP did not hire game testers for their quality assurance, instead having family members from the design team provide feedback; this process helped create the two difficulty levels in the game. Completing the game gives players a clip from the Season 2 premiere episode of the show. The game was downloaded 3 million times in the first week, becoming a top download and receiving critical praise. With the release of season two, an update to the game added Max as a playable character, and a release for the Amazon Fire TV, which included controller support.
Sony Interactive Entertainment has announced that it is working on a PlayStation 4 - exclusive game, based on Stranger Things, for their PlayStation VR peripheral. The company has since released a teaser showing the Christmas - lights - on - a-wall scenes.
United States Representative David Cicilline compared the state of the nation during the presidency of Donald Trump to that of Stranger Things during a speech given in Congress on February 16, 2017, using a sign "Trump Things '' in the same format as the title card of the show and saying "Like the main characters in Stranger Things, we are now stuck in the Upside Down ''.
As part of its release on Netflix on April 14, 2017, the cast of the rebooted version of Mystery Science Theater 3000 riffed on the first part of "Chapter 1 '' of Stranger Things. Google used augmented reality (AR) "stickers '' of Stranger Things characters to introduce its ARCore technology announced alongside its Pixel 2 phone in October 2017. Sesame Street created a young audience - appropriate spoof of Stranger Things, called Sharing Things, released in November 2017; it featured Cookie Monster as the "Cookiegorgon '', Grover as Lucas, Ernie as Dustin, and included several nods to the narrative of the second season.
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explain how ph is a measurement of acidity and alkalinity | PH - wikipedia
In chemistry, pH (/ piːˈ (h) eɪ tʃ /) (potential of hydrogen) is a numeric scale used to specify the acidity or basicity of an aqueous solution. It is approximately the negative of the base 10 logarithm of the molar concentration, measured in units of moles per liter, of hydrogen ions. More precisely it is the negative of the base 10 logarithm of the activity of the hydrogen ion. Solutions with a pH less than 7 are acidic and solutions with a pH greater than 7 are basic. Pure water is neutral, at pH 7 (25 ° C), being neither an acid nor a base. Contrary to popular belief, the pH value can be less than 0 or greater than 14 for very strong acids and bases respectively.
Measurements of pH are important in agronomy, medicine, biology, chemistry, agriculture, forestry, food science, environmental science, oceanography, civil engineering, chemical engineering, nutrition, water treatment and water purification, and many other applications.
The pH scale is traceable to a set of standard solutions whose pH is established by international agreement. Primary pH standard values are determined using a concentration cell with transference, by measuring the potential difference between a hydrogen electrode and a standard electrode such as the silver chloride electrode. The pH of aqueous solutions can be measured with a glass electrode and a pH meter, or an indicator.
The concept of pH was first introduced by the Danish chemist Søren Peder Lauritz Sørensen at the Carlsberg Laboratory in 1909 and revised to the modern pH in 1924 to accommodate definitions and measurements in terms of electrochemical cells. In the first papers, the notation had the "H '' as a subscript to the lowercase "p '', as so: p.
The exact meaning of the "p '' in "pH '' is disputed, but according to the Carlsberg Foundation, pH stands for "power of hydrogen ''. It has also been suggested that the "p '' stands for the German Potenz (meaning "power ''), others refer to French puissance (also meaning "power '', based on the fact that the Carlsberg Laboratory was French - speaking). Another suggestion is that the "p '' stands for the Latin terms pondus hydrogenii (quantity of hydrogen), potentia hydrogenii (capacity of hydrogen), or potential hydrogen. It is also suggested that Sørensen used the letters "p '' and "q '' (commonly paired letters in mathematics) simply to label the test solution (p) and the reference solution (q). Currently in chemistry, the p stands for "decimal cologarithm of '', and is also used in the term pK, used for acid dissociation constants.
pH is defined as the decimal logarithm of the reciprocal of the hydrogen ion activity, a +, in a solution.
For example, a solution with a hydrogen ion activity of 5 × 10 = 1 / (2 × 10) (at that level essentially the number of moles of hydrogen ions per liter of solution) has a pH of log (2 × 10) = 5.3. For a commonplace example based on the facts that the masses of a mole of water, a mole of hydrogen ions, and a mole of hydroxide ions are respectively 18 g, 1 g, and 17 g, a quantity of 10 moles of pure (pH 7) water, or 180 tonnes (18 × 10 g), contains close to 1 g of dissociated hydrogen ions (or rather 19 g of H O hydronium ions) and 17 g of hydroxide ions.
Note that pH depends on temperature. For instance at 0 ° C the pH of pure water is 7.47. At 25 ° C it 's 7.00, and at 100 ° C it 's 6.14.
This definition was adopted because ion - selective electrodes, which are used to measure pH, respond to activity. Ideally, electrode potential, E, follows the Nernst equation, which, for the hydrogen ion can be written as
where E is a measured potential, E is the standard electrode potential, R is the gas constant, T is the temperature in kelvins, F is the Faraday constant. For H number of electrons transferred is one. It follows that electrode potential is proportional to pH when pH is defined in terms of activity. Precise measurement of pH is presented in International Standard ISO 31 - 8 as follows: A galvanic cell is set up to measure the electromotive force (e.m.f.) between a reference electrode and an electrode sensitive to the hydrogen ion activity when they are both immersed in the same aqueous solution. The reference electrode may be a silver chloride electrode or a calomel electrode. The hydrogen - ion selective electrode is a standard hydrogen electrode.
Firstly, the cell is filled with a solution of known hydrogen ion activity and the emf, E, is measured. Then the emf, E, of the same cell containing the solution of unknown pH is measured.
The difference between the two measured emf values is proportional to pH. This method of calibration avoids the need to know the standard electrode potential. The proportionality constant, 1 / z is ideally equal to 1 2.303 R T / F (\ displaystyle (\ frac (1) (2.303 RT / F)) \) the "Nernstian slope ''.
To apply this process in practice, a glass electrode is used rather than the cumbersome hydrogen electrode. A combined glass electrode has an in - built reference electrode. It is calibrated against buffer solutions of known hydrogen ion activity. IUPAC has proposed the use of a set of buffer solutions of known H activity. Two or more buffer solutions are used in order to accommodate the fact that the "slope '' may differ slightly from ideal. To implement this approach to calibration, the electrode is first immersed in a standard solution and the reading on a pH meter is adjusted to be equal to the standard buffer 's value. The reading from a second standard buffer solution is then adjusted, using the "slope '' control, to be equal to the pH for that solution. Further details, are given in the IUPAC recommendations. When more than two buffer solutions are used the electrode is calibrated by fitting observed pH values to a straight line with respect to standard buffer values. Commercial standard buffer solutions usually come with information on the value at 25 ° C and a correction factor to be applied for other temperatures.
The pH scale is logarithmic and therefore pH is a dimensionless quantity.
This was the original definition of Sørensen, which was superseded in favor of pH in 1909. However, it is possible to measure the concentration of hydrogen ions directly, if the electrode is calibrated in terms of hydrogen ion concentrations. One way to do this, which has been used extensively, is to titrate a solution of known concentration of a strong acid with a solution of known concentration of strong alkaline in the presence of a relatively high concentration of background electrolyte. Since the concentrations of acid and alkaline are known, it is easy to calculate the concentration of hydrogen ions so that the measured potential can be correlated with concentrations. The calibration is usually carried out using a Gran plot. The calibration yields a value for the standard electrode potential, E, and a slope factor, f, so that the Nernst equation in the form
can be used to derive hydrogen ion concentrations from experimental measurements of E. The slope factor, f, is usually slightly less than one. A slope factor of less than 0.95 indicates that the electrode is not functioning correctly. The presence of background electrolyte ensures that the hydrogen ion activity coefficient is effectively constant during the titration. As it is constant, its value can be set to one by defining the standard state as being the solution containing the background electrolyte. Thus, the effect of using this procedure is to make activity equal to the numerical value of concentration.
The glass electrode (and other ion selective electrodes) should be calibrated in a medium similar to the one being investigated. For instance, if one wishes to measure the pH of a seawater sample, the electrode should be calibrated in a solution resembling seawater in its chemical composition, as detailed below.
The difference between p (H) and pH is quite small. It has been stated that pH = p (H) + 0.04. It is common practice to use the term "pH '' for both types of measurement.
Indicators may be used to measure pH, by making use of the fact that their color changes with pH. Visual comparison of the color of a test solution with a standard color chart provides a means to measure pH accurate to the nearest whole number. More precise measurements are possible if the color is measured spectrophotometrically, using a colorimeter or spectrophotometer. Universal indicator consists of a mixture of indicators such that there is a continuous color change from about pH 2 to pH 10. Universal indicator paper is made from absorbent paper that has been impregnated with universal indicator. Another method of measuring pH is using an electronic pH meter.
pOH is sometimes used as a measure of the concentration of hydroxide ions. OH. pOH values are derived from pH measurements. The concentration of hydroxide ions in water is related to the concentration of hydrogen ions by
where K is the self - ionisation constant of water. Taking logarithms
So, at room temperature, pOH ≈ 14 − pH. However this relationship is not strictly valid in other circumstances, such as in measurements of soil alkalinity.
Measurement of pH below about 2.5 (ca. 0.003 mol dm acid) and above about 10.5 (ca. 0.0003 mol dm alkaline) requires special procedures because, when using the glass electrode, the Nernst law breaks down under those conditions. Various factors contribute to this. It can not be assumed that liquid junction potentials are independent of pH. Also, extreme pH implies that the solution is concentrated, so electrode potentials are affected by ionic strength variation. At high pH the glass electrode may be affected by "alkaline error '', because the electrode becomes sensitive to the concentration of cations such as Na and K in the solution. Specially constructed electrodes are available which partly overcome these problems.
Runoff from mines or mine tailings can produce some very low pH values.
Hydrogen ion concentrations (activities) can be measured in non-aqueous solvents. pH values based on these measurements belong to a different scale from aqueous pH values, because activities relate to different standard states. Hydrogen ion activity, a, can be defined as:
where μ is the chemical potential of the hydrogen ion, μ is its chemical potential in the chosen standard state, R is the gas constant and T is the thermodynamic temperature. Therefore, pH values on the different scales can not be compared directly due to different solvated proton ions such as lyonium ions, requiring an intersolvent scale which involves the transfer activity coefficient of hydronium / lyonium ion.
pH is an example of an acidity function. Other acidity functions can be defined. For example, the Hammett acidity function, H, has been developed in connection with superacids.
The concept of "Unified pH scale '' has been developed on the basis of the absolute chemical potential of the proton. This scale applies to liquids, gases and even solids.
Pure water is neutral. When an acid is dissolved in water, the pH will be less than 7 (25 ° C). When a base, or alkali, is dissolved in water, the pH will be greater than 7. A solution of a strong acid, such as hydrochloric acid, at concentration 1 mol dm has a pH of 0. A solution of a strong alkali, such as sodium hydroxide, at concentration 1 mol dm, has a pH of 14. Thus, measured pH values will lie mostly in the range 0 to 14, though negative pH values and values above 14 are entirely possible. Since pH is a logarithmic scale, a difference of one pH unit is equivalent to a tenfold difference in hydrogen ion concentration. The pH of neutrality is not exactly 7 (25 ° C), although this is a good approximation in most cases. Neutrality is defined as the condition where (H) = (OH) (or the activities are equal). Since self - ionization of water holds the product of these concentration (H) × (OH) = K, it can be seen that at neutrality (H) = (OH) = √ (K), or pH = pK / 2. pK is approximately 14 but depends on ionic strength and temperature, and so the pH of neutrality does also. Pure water and a solution of NaCl in pure water are both neutral, since dissociation of water produces equal numbers of both ions. However the pH of the neutral NaCl solution will be slightly different from that of neutral pure water because the hydrogen and hydroxide ions ' activity is dependent on ionic strength, so K varies with ionic strength.
If pure water is exposed to air it becomes mildly acidic. This is because water absorbs carbon dioxide from the air, which is then slowly converted into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions (essentially creating carbonic acid).
The United States Department of Agriculture Natural Resources Conservation Service, formerly Soil Conservation Service classifies soil pH ranges as follows:
pH - dependent plant pigments that can be used as pH indicators occur in many plants, including hibiscus, red cabbage (anthocyanin) and red wine. The juice of citrus fruits is acidic mainly because it contains citric acid. Other carboxylic acids occur in many living systems. For example, lactic acid is produced by muscle activity. The state of protonation of phosphate derivatives, such as ATP, is pH - dependent. The functioning of the oxygen - transport enzyme hemoglobin is affected by pH in a process known as the Root effect.
The pH of seawater is typically limited to a range between 7.5 and 8.4. It plays an important role in the ocean 's carbon cycle, and there is evidence of ongoing ocean acidification caused by carbon dioxide emissions. However, pH measurement is complicated by the chemical properties of seawater, and several distinct pH scales exist in chemical oceanography.
As part of its operational definition of the pH scale, the IUPAC defines a series of buffer solutions across a range of pH values (often denoted with NBS or NIST designation). These solutions have a relatively low ionic strength (≈ 0.1) compared to that of seawater (≈ 0.7), and, as a consequence, are not recommended for use in characterizing the pH of seawater, since the ionic strength differences cause changes in electrode potential. To resolve this problem, an alternative series of buffers based on artificial seawater was developed. This new series resolves the problem of ionic strength differences between samples and the buffers, and the new pH scale is referred to as the ' total scale ', often denoted as pH. The total scale was defined using a medium containing sulfate ions. These ions experience protonation, H + SO 2 − 4 ⇌ HSO − 4, such that the total scale includes the effect of both protons (free hydrogen ions) and hydrogen sulfate ions:
An alternative scale, the ' free scale ', often denoted ' pH ', omits this consideration and focuses solely on (H), in principle making it a simpler representation of hydrogen ion concentration. Only (H) can be determined, therefore (H) must be estimated using the (SO 2 − 4) and the stability constant of HSO − 4, K * S:
However, it is difficult to estimate K * S in seawater, limiting the utility of the otherwise more straightforward free scale.
Another scale, known as the ' seawater scale ', often denoted ' pH ', takes account of a further protonation relationship between hydrogen ions and fluoride ions, H + F ⇌ HF. Resulting in the following expression for (H):
However, the advantage of considering this additional complexity is dependent upon the abundance of fluoride in the medium. In seawater, for instance, sulfate ions occur at much greater concentrations (> 400 times) than those of fluoride. As a consequence, for most practical purposes, the difference between the total and seawater scales is very small.
The following three equations summarise the three scales of pH:
In practical terms, the three seawater pH scales differ in their values by up to 0.12 pH units, differences that are much larger than the accuracy of pH measurements typically required, in particular, in relation to the ocean 's carbonate system. Since it omits consideration of sulfate and fluoride ions, the free scale is significantly different from both the total and seawater scales. Because of the relative unimportance of the fluoride ion, the total and seawater scales differ only very slightly.
The pH of different cellular compartments, body fluids, and organs is usually tightly regulated in a process called acid - base homeostasis. The most common disorder in acid - base homeostasis is acidosis, which means an acid overload in the body, generally defined by pH falling below 7.35. Alkalosis is the opposite condition, with blood pH being excessively high.
The pH of blood is usually slightly basic with a value of pH 7.365. This value is often referred to as physiological pH in biology and medicine. Plaque can create a local acidic environment that can result in tooth decay by demineralization. Enzymes and other proteins have an optimum pH range and can become inactivated or denatured outside this range.
The calculation of the pH of a solution containing acids and / or bases is an example of a chemical speciation calculation, that is, a mathematical procedure for calculating the concentrations of all chemical species that are present in the solution. The complexity of the procedure depends on the nature of the solution. For strong acids and bases no calculations are necessary except in extreme situations. The pH of a solution containing a weak acid requires the solution of a quadratic equation. The pH of a solution containing a weak base may require the solution of a cubic equation. The general case requires the solution of a set of non-linear simultaneous equations.
A complicating factor is that water itself is a weak acid and a weak base (see amphoterism). It dissociates according to the equilibrium
with a dissociation constant, K defined as
where (H) stands for the concentration of the aqueous hydronium ion and (OH) represents the concentration of the hydroxide ion. This equilibrium needs to be taken into account at high pH and when the solute concentration is extremely low.
Strong acids and bases are compounds that, for practical purposes, are completely dissociated in water. Under normal circumstances this means that the concentration of hydrogen ions in acidic solution can be taken to be equal to the concentration of the acid. The pH is then equal to minus the logarithm of the concentration value. Hydrochloric acid (HCl) is an example of a strong acid. The pH of a 0.01 M solution of HCl is equal to − log (0.01), that is, pH = 2. Sodium hydroxide, NaOH, is an example of a strong base. The p (OH) value of a 0.01 M solution of NaOH is equal to − log (0.01), that is, p (OH) = 2. From the definition of p (OH) above, this means that the pH is equal to about 12. For solutions of sodium hydroxide at higher concentrations the self - ionization equilibrium must be taken into account.
Self - ionization must also be considered when concentrations are extremely low. Consider, for example, a solution of hydrochloric acid at a concentration of 5 × 10 M. The simple procedure given above would suggest that it has a pH of 7.3. This is clearly wrong as an acid solution should have a pH of less than 7. Treating the system as a mixture of hydrochloric acid and the amphoteric substance water, a pH of 6.89 results.
A weak acid or the conjugate acid of a weak base can be treated using the same formalism.
First, an acid dissociation constant is defined as follows. Electrical charges are omitted from subsequent equations for the sake of generality
and its value is assumed to have been determined by experiment. This being so, there are three unknown concentrations, (HA), (H) and (A) to determine by calculation. Two additional equations are needed. One way to provide them is to apply the law of mass conservation in terms of the two "reagents '' H and A.
C stands for analytical concentration. In some texts one mass balance equation is replaced by an equation of charge balance. This is satisfactory for simple cases like this one, but is more difficult to apply to more complicated cases as those below. Together with the equation defining K, there are now three equations in three unknowns. When an acid is dissolved in water C = C = C, the concentration of the acid, so (A) = (H). After some further algebraic manipulation an equation in the hydrogen ion concentration may be obtained.
Solution of this quadratic equation gives the hydrogen ion concentration and hence p (H) or, more loosely, pH. This procedure is illustrated in an ICE table which can also be used to calculate the pH when some additional (strong) acid or alkaline has been added to the system, that is, when C ≠ C.
For example, what is the pH of a 0.01 M solution of benzoic acid, pK = 4.19?
For alkaline solutions an additional term is added to the mass - balance equation for hydrogen. Since addition of hydroxide reduces the hydrogen ion concentration, and the hydroxide ion concentration is constrained by the self - ionization equilibrium to be equal to K w (H +) (\ displaystyle (\ frac (K_ (w)) (\ ce ((H+)))))
In this case the resulting equation in (H) is a cubic equation.
Some systems, such as with polyprotic acids, are amenable to spreadsheet calculations. With three or more reagents or when many complexes are formed with general formulae such as A B H the following general method can be used to calculate the pH of a solution. For example, with three reagents, each equilibrium is characterized by an equilibrium constant, β.
Next, write down the mass - balance equations for each reagent:
Note that there are no approximations involved in these equations, except that each stability constant is defined as a quotient of concentrations, not activities. Much more complicated expressions are required if activities are to be used.
There are 3 non-linear simultaneous equations in the three unknowns, (A), (B) and (H). Because the equations are non-linear, and because concentrations may range over many powers of 10, the solution of these equations is not straightforward. However, many computer programs are available which can be used to perform these calculations. There may be more than three reagents. The calculation of hydrogen ion concentrations, using this formalism, is a key element in the determination of equilibrium constants by potentiometric titration.
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when did the tax law go into effect | Tax cuts and Jobs Act of 2017 - Wikipedia
Pub. L. 115 -- 97, an Act to provide for reconciliation pursuant to titles II and V of the concurrent resolution on the budget for fiscal year 2018, is a congressional revenue act originally introduced in the United States Congress as the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act (TCJA).
Public law no. 115 - 97 ("the Act '') amended the Internal Revenue Code of 1986 based on tax reform advocated by congressional Republicans and the Trump administration. Major elements include reducing tax rates for businesses and individuals; a personal tax simplification by increasing the standard deduction and family tax credits, but eliminating personal exemptions and making it less beneficial to itemize deductions; limiting deductions for state and local income taxes (SALT) and property taxes; further limiting the mortgage interest deduction; reducing the alternative minimum tax for individuals and eliminating it for corporations; reducing the number of estates impacted by the estate tax; and repealing the individual mandate of the Affordable Care Act (ACA).
The nonpartisan Congressional Budget Office (CBO) reported that under the Act individuals and pass - through entities like partnerships and S corporations would receive about $1,125 billion in net benefits (i.e. net tax cuts offset by reduced healthcare subsidies) over 10 years, while corporations would receive around $320 billion in benefits. The individual and pass - through tax cuts fade over time and become net tax increases starting in 2027 while the corporate tax cuts are permanent. This enabled the Senate to pass the bill with only 51 votes, without the need to defeat a filibuster, under the budget reconciliation process.
The CBO estimated that implementing the Act would add an estimated $1.455 trillion to the national debt over ten years, or about $1.0 trillion after macroeconomic feedback effects, in addition to the $10 trillion increase forecast under the current policy baseline and existing $20 trillion national debt. CBO reported on December 21, 2017: "Overall, the combined effect of the change in net federal revenue and spending is to decrease deficits (primarily stemming from reductions in spending) allocated to lower - income tax filing units and to increase deficits (primarily stemming from reductions in taxes) allocated to higher - income tax filing units ''. The nonpartisan Joint Committee on Taxation also estimated that the GDP level would be 0.7 % percent higher, employment level would be 0.6 % higher and personal consumption level would be 0.6 % higher during the 2018 -- 2027 period on average due to the Act. These are higher levels, not higher annual growth rates, so these are relatively minor economic impacts over 10 years.
The distribution of impact by individual income group varies significantly based on the assumptions involved and point in time measured. In general, businesses and upper income groups will mostly benefit regardless, while lower income groups will see the initial benefits fade over time or be adversely impacted. For example, the CBO and JCT estimated that:
The Tax Policy Center (TPC) estimated that the bottom 80 % of taxpayers (income under $149,400) would receive 35 % of the benefit in 2018, 34 % in 2025 and none of the benefit in 2027, with some groups incurring costs. TPC also estimated 72 % of taxpayers would be adversely impacted in 2019 and beyond, if the tax cuts are paid for by spending cuts separate from the legislation, as most spending cuts would impact lower - to middle - income taxpayers and outweigh the benefits from the tax cuts. Bloomberg reported in March 2018 that an estimated 60 % of corporate tax savings were going to shareholders, while 15 % was going to employees, based on analysis of 51 S&P 500 companies.
The law also impacts healthcare by repealing the ACA individual mandate, resulting in projections of up to 13 million fewer persons covered by health insurance as some younger, healthier persons will likely choose not to participate. Those in the remaining less healthy pool will pay higher insurance costs on the ACA exchanges, which will result in additional persons dropping coverage.
Critics in the media, think tanks and academia assailed the law, mainly based on forecasts of its adverse impact (e.g., higher budget deficit, higher trade deficit, greater income inequality, lower healthcare coverage and higher healthcare costs), disproportionate impact on certain states and professions and the misrepresentations made by its advocates. Some of the reforms passed by the Republicans have become controversial within key states, particularly the $10,000 cap on state and local tax deductibility, and are being challenged in federal court.
The House passed the penultimate version of the bill on December 19, 2017, though for Senate procedural reasons small changes were needed and a revote was held in the House. The Senate passed the final version on December 20 in a 51 -- 48 vote and that final version was passed by the House of Representatives on that same day. The bill was signed into law by President Donald Trump on December 22, 2017. Most of the changes introduced by the bill went into effect on January 1, 2018 and will not affect 2017 taxes.
Under the law, there are numerous changes to the individual income tax, including changing the income level of individual tax brackets, lowering tax rates, and increasing the standard deductions and family tax credits while the personal exemption and itemized deductions are reduced or eliminated.
Most individual income taxes are reduced, until 2025. The number of income tax brackets remain at seven, but the income ranges in several brackets have been changed and each new bracket has lower rates. These are marginal rates that apply to income in the indicated range as under current law (i.e., prior Public Law 115 - 97 or the Act), so a higher income taxpayer will have income taxed at several different rates. A different inflation measure (Chained CPI or C - CPI) will be applied to the brackets instead of the Consumer Price Index (CPI), so the brackets increase more slowly. This is effectively a tax increase over time, as people move more quickly into higher brackets as their income rises; this element is permanent.
The standard deduction nearly doubles, from $12,700 to $24,000 for married couples. For single filers, the standard deduction will increase from $6,350 to $12,000. About 70 % of families choose the standard deduction rather than itemized deductions; this could rise to over 84 % if doubled. The personal exemption is eliminated -- this was a deduction of $4,150 per taxpayer and dependent, unless it is in an estate or trust.
The child tax credit is doubled from $1,000 to $2,000, $1,400 of which will be refundable. There is also a $500 credit for other dependents, versus zero under current law. The lower threshold for the high - income phaseout for the Child Tax Credit changes from $110,000 AGI to $400,000 for married filers.
Mortgage interest deduction for newly purchased homes (and second homes) would be lowered from total loan balances of $1 million under current law to $750,000. Interest from home equity loans (aka second mortgages) will no longer be deductible, unless the money is used for home improvements.
The deduction for state and local income tax, sales tax, and property taxes ("SALT deduction '') will be capped at $10,000. This would have more impact on taxpayers with more expensive property, generally those who live in higher - income areas, or people in states with higher state tax rates.
The act repeals the individual mandate of the Affordable Care Act starting in 2019. This is estimated to save the government over $300 billion, by reducing the number of people with coverage by up to 13 million over time along with related health insurance premium tax subsidies. It is estimated to increase premiums on the health insurance exchanges by up to 10 %. It also expands the amount of out - of - pocket medical expenses that may be deducted by lowering threshold from 10 % of adjusted gross income to 7.5 %, but only for 2017 (retroactively) and 2018. For 2019 and later years, the threshold will increase to 10 %.
No changes are made to major education deductions and credits, or to the teacher deduction for unreimbursed classroom expenses, which remains at $250. The bill initially expanded usage of 529 college savings accounts for both K - 12 private school tuition and homeschools, but the provision regarding homeschools was overruled by the Senate parliamentarian and removed. The 529 savings accounts for K - 12 private school tuition provision was left intact.
Taxpayers will only be able to deduct a casualty loss if it occurs in a disaster that is declared by the president.
Alimony paid to an ex-spouse will no longer be deductible by the payer, and alimony payments will no longer be included in the recipient 's gross income. This effectively shifts the tax burden of alimony from the recipient to the payer. This provision is effective for divorce and separation agreements signed after December 31, 2018.
Employment - related moving expenses will no longer be deductible, except for moves related to active - duty military service.
The miscellaneous itemized deductions (which included deductions for tax preparation fees, investment expenses, union dues, and unreimbursed employee expenses) are eliminated.
Fewer people will pay the Alternative minimum tax (AMT) because the act increases the exemption level (from $84,500 to $109,400 for couples; from $54,300 to $70,300 for singles).
The act repeals the ability to recharacterize Roth conversions.
The act also exempts the discharge of certain student loans due to the death or total permanent disability of the borrower from taxable income. This provision applies only to debt discharged during tax years 2018 through 2025.
Under current law, estates that exceed $5.6 million are subject to a 40 % tax at time of death. The TCJA doubles the taxable threshold to $11.2 million.
The final bill reduces pass - through taxes via a 20 % deduction, after which a lower rate of 29.6 % will be applied. This benefit phases out starting at $315,000. Many businesses are incorporated as pass - through entities (e.g., partnerships, and S - corporations) meaning the owners pay taxes at individual rates. These represent 95 % of businesses and most of corporate tax revenues. Approximately the largest 2 % of pass - through businesses represent 40 % of pass - through income and under current law are taxed at 39.6 %, the top individual rate.
The corporate tax rate would fall from 35 % to 21 %, while some related business deductions and credits would either be reduced or eliminated. The Act would also change the U.S. from a global to a territorial tax system with respect to corporate income tax. Instead of a corporation paying the U.S. tax rate (35 %) for income earned in any country (less a credit for taxes paid to that country), each subsidiary would pay the tax rate of the country in which it is legally established. In other words, under a territorial tax system, the corporation saves the difference between the generally higher U.S. tax rate and the lower rate of the country in which the subsidiary is legally established. Bloomberg Journalist Matt Levine explained the concept: "If we 're incorporated in the U.S. (under today 's global tax regime), we 'll pay 35 percent taxes on our income in the U.S. and Canada and Mexico and Ireland and Bermuda and the Cayman Islands, but if we 're incorporated in Canada (under a territorial tax regime, proposed by the Act), we 'll pay 35 percent on our income in the U.S. but 15 percent in Canada and 30 percent in Mexico and 12.5 percent in Ireland and zero percent in Bermuda and zero percent in the Cayman Islands. '' In theory, the law would reduce the incentive for tax inversion, which is used today to obtain the benefits of a territorial tax system by moving U.S. corporate headquarters to other countries.
One time repatriation tax of profits in overseas subsidiaries of 8 %, 15.5 % for cash. U.S. multinationals have accumulated nearly $3 trillion offshore, much of it subsidiaries in tax haven countries. The Act may encourage companies to bring the money home over time, but at these much lower rates.
The corporate Alternative Minimum Tax would be eliminated.
The final bill includes a 1.4 % excise tax on investment income of private colleges with assets valued at $500,000 per full - time student, and with at least 500 students. This provision has been referred to as an endowment tax, and it has been estimated that it would apply to around 32 universities. Some provisions from the earlier House bill were dropped that would have taxed graduate student tuition waivers, tuition benefits for children and spouses of employees, and student loan interest. A Senate Parliamentarian ruling on December 19 changed the exemption threshold from 500 tuition - paying students to 500 total students. Endowment funds used to carry out a college 's tax - exempt purpose are excluded from the asset threshold, but IRS regulations specifically defining this have not yet been made.
The Act contains a variety of miscellaneous tax provisions, many advantaging particular special interests. Miscellaneous provisions include:
The Act contains provisions that would open 1.5 million acres in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge to oil and gas drilling. This major push to include this provision in the tax bill came from Republican Senator Lisa Murkowski. The move is part of the long - running Arctic Refuge drilling controversy; Republicans had attempted to allow drilling in ANWR almost 50 times. Opening the Arctic Refuge to drilling "unleashed a torrent of opposition from conservationists and scientists. '' Democrats and environmentalist groups such as the Wilderness Society criticized the Republican effort.
Under the Statutory Pay - as - You - Go Act of 2010 (PAYGO), laws that increase the federal deficit will trigger automatic spending cuts unless Congress votes to waive them. Because the Act adds $1.5 trillion to the deficit, automatic cuts of $150 billion per year over ten years would have applied, including a $25 billion annual cut to Medicare. Because the PAYGO waiver is not allowed in a reconciliation bill, it requires separate legislation which requires 60 votes in the Senate to end a filibuster. If Congress had not passed the waiver, it would have been the first time that statutory PAYGO sequestration would have occurred. However, the PAYGO waiver was included in the continuing resolution passed by Congress on December 22 and signed by President Trump.
The non-partisan Joint Committee on Taxation of the U.S. Congress published its macroeconomic analysis of the final version of the Act, on December 22, 2017:
The Tax Policy Center (TPC) reported its macroeconomic analysis of the November 16 Senate version of the Act on December 1, 2017:
The Penn Wharton Budget Model (PWBM) estimated relative to a prior law baseline that by 2027:
The non-partisan Congressional Budget Office (CBO) estimated on December 15, 2017, that implementing the Act would add an estimated $1,455 billion to the national debt over ten years, in addition to the $10 trillion increase forecast under the current policy baseline and existing $20 trillion national debt. Analysis of the similar Senate version indicated the deficit increase from the Act would be $1.0 trillion after macroeconomic feedback effects. CBO reported on December 21, 2017, that: "Overall, the combined effect of the change in net federal revenue and spending is to decrease deficits (primarily stemming from reductions in spending) allocated to lower - income tax filing units and to increase deficits (primarily stemming from reductions in taxes) allocated to higher - income tax filing units. ''
The Joint Committee on Taxation estimated the Act would add $1,456 billion total to the annual deficits (debt) over ten years and described the deficit effects of particular elements of the Act on December 18, 2017:
Individual and Pass - Through (total: $1,127 billion deficit increase)
Business / Corporate and International (total: $330 billion deficit increase)
In a November 2017 survey of leading economists, only 2 % agreed with the notion that a tax bill similar to those currently moving through the House and Senate would substantially increase U.S. GDP. The economists unanimously agreed that the bill would increase the U.S. debt.
On December 21, 2017, the Congressional Budget Office (CBO) released its distribution estimate of the Act:
CBO stated that lower income groups will incur costs, while higher income groups will receive benefits: "Overall, the combined effect of the change in net federal revenue and spending is to decrease deficits (primarily stemming from reductions in spending) allocated to lower - income tax filing units and to increase deficits (primarily stemming from reductions in taxes) allocated to higher - income tax filing units. ''
The Tax Policy Center (TPC) reported its distributional estimates for the Act. This analysis excludes the impact from repealing the ACA individual mandate, which would apply significant costs primarily to income groups below $40,000. It also assumes the Act is deficit financed and thus excludes the impact of any spending cuts used to finance the Act, which also would fall disproportionally on lower income families as a percentage of their income.
The TPC also estimated the amount of the tax cut each group would receive, measured in 2017 dollars:
According to the CBO, under the Senate version of the bill, businesses receive a $890 billion benefit or 63 %, individuals $441 billion or 31 %, and estates $83 billion or 6 %. U.S. corporations would likely use the extra after - tax income to repurchase shares or pay more dividends, which mainly flow to wealthy investors. According to the Center on Budget and Policy Priorities (CBPP), "Mainstream estimates conclude that more than one - third of the benefit of corporate rate cuts flows to the top 1 % of Americans, and 70 % flows to the top fifth. Corporate rate cuts could even hurt most Americans since they must eventually be paid for with other tax increases or spending cuts. '' Corporations have significant cash holdings ($1.9 trillion in 2016) and can borrow to invest at near - record low interest rates, so a tax cut is not a prerequisite for investment or giving workers a raise. As of Q2 2017, corporate profits after taxes were near record levels in dollar terms at $1.77 trillion annualized, and very high measured historically as a percentage of GDP, at 9.2 %.
In 2017, the Congressional Budget Office (CBO) compared the U.S. corporate tax rates (statutory and effective rates) as of 2012 across the G20 countries:
An Institute on Taxation and Economic Policy analysis indicated the Act has more of a tax increase impact on "upper - middle - class families in major metropolitan areas, particularly in Democratic - leaning states where taxes, and usually property values, are higher. While only about one - in - five families between the 80th and 95th income percentiles in most red states would face higher taxes by 2027 under the House GOP bill, that number rises to about one - third in Colorado and Illinois, around two - fifths or more in Oregon, Virginia, Massachusetts, New York and Connecticut, and half or more in New Jersey, California and Maryland... ''
The scoring by the organizations above assumes the tax cuts are deficit - financed, meaning that over ten years the deficit rises by $1.4 trillion relative to the current law baseline; or $1.0 trillion after economic feedback effects. However, if one assumes the tax cuts are paid for by spending cuts, the distribution is much more unfavorable to lower - and middle - income persons, as most government spending is directed to them; the higher income taxpayers tend to get tax breaks, not direct payments. According to the Tax Policy Center, if the Senate bill were financed by a $1,210 per household cut in government spending per year (a more likely scenario than focusing cuts proportionally by income or income taxes paid), then during 2019:
Republican politicians such as Paul Ryan have advocated for spending cuts to help finance the tax cuts, while the President Trump 's 2018 budget includes $2.1 trillion in spending cuts over ten years to Medicaid, Affordable Care Act subsidies, food stamps, Social Security disability insurance, Supplemental security income, and cash welfare (TANF).
The Senate bill repeals the individual mandate that requires all Americans under 65 to have health insurance or pay a penalty, effective starting in 2019. The CBO estimated that 13 million fewer persons would have health insurance by 2025, including 8 million fewer on the Affordable Care Act exchanges and 5 million fewer on Medicaid. Fewer persons with healthcare means lower costs for the government, so CBO estimated over $300 billion in savings. This allowed Republicans to increase the size of the tax cuts in the bill. Health insurance premiums on the exchanges could rise as much as 10 percentage points more than they would otherwise.
The Administration and its Council of Economic Advisors have made several claims in advocating the Act during 2017, including:
Maya MacGuineas of the Committee for a Responsible Federal Budget wrote that the tax cuts would add $1.5 trillion more to the debt over a decade, on top of $10 trillion already forecast. She explained that when the 2001 Bush tax cuts were passed, debt was 31 % GDP, while today it is 77 % GDP, "higher than any time in history other than just after World War II. '' She concluded that: "Instead of trickling down economic growth, the House plan will unleash a tidal wave of debt that will ultimately slow wage growth and hurt the economy. ''
Both the House and Senate versions of the bill will raise taxes for middle - and lower - income persons, after initial cuts. For example, the Senate version of the bill will result in tax increases for those earning less than $75,000 by 2027. David Leonhardt wrote: "An assortment of middle - class tax increases -- again, to help cover the cost of the tax cuts for the wealthy -- last for the full life of the Senate bill. As a result, it ends up being a tax increase on households making less than $75,000. '' Leonhardt explained that in 2027, after - tax income falls between 0.1 -- 1.5 % for incomes below $75 k, while incomes above $500 k see benefits of 0.4 -- 0.6 %.
Leonhardt referred to the JCT study of the Senate version of the bill, which indicated that: a) Starting in 2021 those earning $10,000 -- 30,000 (24 % of taxpayers) pay more in taxes; b) In 2023 and 2025, those earning $0 -- $30,000 (34 % of taxpayers) pay more in taxes; and c) In 2027, income groups below $75,000 (65 % of taxpayers) pay more in taxes, while tax cuts remain for those earning over $75,000 (35 % of taxpayers).
Paul Krugman disputed the Administration 's primary argument that tax cuts for businesses will stimulate investment and higher wages:
In November 2017, the University of Chicago asked over 40 economists if U.S. GDP would be substantially higher a decade from now, if either the House or Senate bills were enacted, with the following results: 52 % either disagreed or strongly disagreed, while 36 % were uncertain and only 2 % agreed.
The Tax Policy Center estimated that GDP would be 0.3 % higher in 2027 under the House bill versus current law, while the University of Pennsylvania Penn Wharton budget model estimates approximately 0.3 -- 0.9 % for both the House and Senate bills. The very limited effect estimated is due to the expectation of higher interest rates and trade deficits. These estimates are both contrary to the Administration 's claims of 10 % increase by 2027 (about 1 % per year) and Senator Mitch McConnell 's estimate of a 4.1 % increase.
Federal Reserve Bank of NY President and CEO William C. Dudley stated in January 2018: "While this legislation will reduce federal revenues by about 1 percent of GDP in both 2018 and 2019, I anticipate the boost to economic growth will be less than that. Most importantly, most of the tax cuts accrue to the corporate sector and to higher - income households that have a relatively low marginal propensity to consume. This suggests that a significant portion of the tax cuts will be saved, not spent. ''
Corporate executives indicated that raising wages and investment were not priorities should they have additional funds due to a tax cut. A survey conducted by Bank of America - Merrill Lynch of 300 executives of major U.S. corporations asked what they would do with a corporate tax cut. The top three responses were: 1) Pay down debt; 2) Stock buybacks, which are a form of payment to shareholders; and 3) Mergers. An informal survey of CEO 's conducted by Trump economic advisor Gary Cohn resulted in a similar response, with few hands raised in response to his request for them to do so if their company would invest more.
Economist and former Treasury Secretary Larry Summers referred to the analysis provided by the Trump administration of its tax proposal as "... some combination of dishonest, incompetent, and absurd. '' Summers wrote that the Trump administration 's "central claim that cutting the corporate tax rate from 35 percent to 20 percent would raise wages by $4,000 per worker '' lacked peer - reviewed support and was "absurd on its face. ''
On December 20, 2017, the day the final bill was passed by the House, Wells Fargo, Fifth Third Bancorp and Western Alliance Bancorp announced they would raise the minimum wage of its workers to $15 an hour upon signing of the bill. A number of companies announced bonuses for workers, including AT&T which said it will give a $1,000 bonus to every single one of its 200,000 employees as a result of the Tax Cut bill. Democratic Senator Chuck Schumer stated that these were the exception to the rule and that AT&T was in litigation with the government over a pending merger. He stated: "There is a reason so few executives have said the tax bill will lead to more jobs, investments, and higher wages -- because it will actually lead to share buybacks, corporate bonuses, and dividends. ''
In the immediate aftermath of the passage of the Act, a relatively small number of corporations -- many of them involved in mergers disputed by the government or regulatory difficulties -- raised wages or paid bonuses to employees. About 18 companies in the S&P did so; when companies paid awards to employees, these were usually a small percentage of corporate savings from the Act. A January 2018 study from the firm Willis Towers Watson found that 80 % of companies were not "considering giving raises at all. '' Bloomberg reported in March 2018 that an estimated 60 % of corporate tax savings were going to shareholders, while 15 % was going to employees, based on analysis of 51 S&P 500 companies.
Treasury Secretary Steven Mnuchin argued that the corporate income tax cut will benefit workers the most; however, the nonpartisan Joint Committee on Taxation and Congressional Budget Office estimate that owners of capital benefit vastly more than workers.
The New York Times compared average tax rates under the TCJA vs. current law for each income group over time using a series of charts. They show that the Senate version of the bill cuts taxes for lower income persons initially relative to a current law baseline, but by 2027, those earning $50,000 or less would face a tax increase. In contrast, those earning $500,000 or more would have lower taxes initially as well as in 2027. The effect on the lower income persons is more significant if the ACA individual mandate is repealed, as more persons would choose not to sign up for healthcare coverage and thus lose subsidies.
The Act also lowers the taxes paid by pass through entities such as S - corporations, partnerships, and limited liability companies, even though pass - through income mainly flows to higher income owners:
The New York Times editorial board explained the tax bill as both consequence and cause of income and wealth inequality: "Most Americans know that the Republican tax bill will widen economic inequality by lavishing breaks on corporations and the wealthy while taking benefits away from the poor and the middle class. What many may not realize is that growing inequality helped create the bill in the first place. As a smaller and smaller group of people cornered an ever - larger share of the nation 's wealth, so too did they gain an ever - larger share of political power. They became, in effect, kingmakers; the tax bill is a natural consequence of their long effort to bend American politics to serve their interests. '' The corporate tax rate was 48 % in the 1970s and is 21 % under the Act. The top individual rate was 70 % in the 1970s and is 37 % under the Act. Despite these large cuts, incomes for the working class have stagnated and workers now pay a larger share of the pre-tax income in payroll taxes.
The share of income going to the top 1 % has doubled, from 10 % to 20 %, since the pre-1980 period, while the share of wealth owned by the top 1 % has risen from around 25 % to 42 %. Despite President Trump promising to address those left behind, the House and Senate bills would increase economic inequality:
In 2027, if the tax cuts are paid for by spending cuts borne evenly by all families, after - tax income would be 3.0 % higher for the top 0.1 %, 1.5 % higher for the top 10 %, - 0.6 % for the middle 40 % (30th to 70th percentile) and - 2.0 % for the bottom 50 %.
A potential consequence of the proposed tax reform, specifically lowering business taxes, is that (in theory) the U.S. would be a more attractive place for foreign capital (investment money). This inflow of foreign capital would help fund the surge in investment by corporations, one of the stated goals of the legislation. However, a large inflow of foreign capital would drive up the price of the dollar, making U.S. exports more expensive, thus increasing the trade deficit. Paul Krugman estimated this could adversely impact up to 2.5 million U.S. jobs.
According to The New York Times, "wide range of experts agree that cutting taxes is likely to increase the trade deficit '' with other countries, which conflicts with the stated priority of the White House to reduce the trade deficit. However, Economists widely reject however that reducing the trade deficit necessarily has to be good for the economy. So the fact that this bill may increase the trade deficit will not necessarily decrease American welfare.
Paul Krugman wrote that deficits driven by tax cuts could trigger cuts in Medicare by law, opening the door to other safety net cuts to programs such as disability insurance. An estimated 13 million Americans could no longer have health insurance under the Senate version of the Act, which would repeal the ACA 's individual health insurance mandate, a provision in the ACA which imposes a tax penalty on those who choose not to buy health insurance.
Neither the House nor the Senate versions of the Act specify how the approximately $1.7 trillion debt increase will be paid for. Therefore, the estimates of its impact on the lower - to middle - classes do not include future reductions in spending that Republicans may attempt to pass to offset the Act 's deficit impact. For example, David Leonhardt explained in The New York Times that: "(A) ll of these estimates understate the long - term damage to the middle class, because they ignore the cuts to education, transportation, Medicare, Medicaid and Social Security that will eventually be necessary to reduce the deficit. ''
Three former Secretaries of Defense (Leon Panetta, Ash Carter, and Chuck Hagel) wrote a letter to congressional leaders on November 15, 2017, arguing the additional deficits driven by the tax cuts would ultimately result in reduced military spending and endanger national security by forcing the reduction in funding "for training, maintenance, force structure, flight missions, procurement and other key programs. '' Panetta, Carter, and Hagel wrote that the Act would increase the danger of a "' hollowed out ' military force that lacks the ability to sustain the intensive deployment requirements of our global defense mission. ''
Federal Reserve officials had indicated earlier in 2017 that aggressive tax cuts could increase the pace of interest rate increases already planned. Higher interest rates make borrowing more expensive, slowing economic growth (GDP), other things equal. The Fed also raises interest rates to help offset the risk of inflation in a growing economy near full employment. However, as the tax plan became clearer and its impact on the economy was judged to be relatively minor, the Fed indicated that a plan to raise interest rates incrementally as many as three times in 2018 would not be changed.
In November 2017, the OECD reported that the U.S. tax burden was lower in 2016 than the OECD country average, measured as a percentage of GDP:
Journalist Justin Fox wrote in Bloomberg that Americans may feel financial pressure due to healthcare and college tuition costs, which are much higher than other OECD countries measured as a share of GDP, offsetting the benefit of the already lower tax structure.
Fact - checkers such as FactCheck.Org, PolitiFact and The Washington Post 's fact - checker have found that Trump 's claims that his economic proposal and tax plan would not benefit wealthy persons like himself are likely false. The elimination of the estate tax (which only applies to inherited wealth greater than $11 million for a married couple) benefits only the heirs of the very rich (such as Trump 's children), and there is a reduced tax rate for people who report business income on their individual returns (as Trump does). An analysis by The New York Times found that if Trump 's tax plan had been in place in 2005 (the one recent year in which his tax returns were leaked), he would have saved $11 million in taxes. The analysis also found that Trump would save $4.4 million on his eventual estate tax bill. Experts say that the financial windfall for the President and his family from this bill is "virtually unprecedented in American political history ''.
A number of Republican congressmen also stand to benefit personally from the tax plan. Most notably, Tennessee Senator Bob Corker was for some time the sole Republican Senator to oppose the tax plan, having stated that he would not support a tax plan that would increase the deficit; but Corker changed his vote to yes on the final version of the bill after a specific carved - out provision was added to the bill that Corker stood to benefit from. Corker rejected that he traded his vote for provisions that benefited him and said that he had no idea that there were provisions in the bill that he personally stood to benefit from.
The bill that passed the House had been criticized for its significant negative impact on graduate students. Graduate students in private universities could have seen their effective tax rate go above 41.9 %, a rate higher than what even the richest of Americans typically pay. The change was due to a provision in the bill that would have repealed the deduction for qualified tuition and related expenses, meaning that graduate students ' waived tuition would be viewed as taxable income. Given that their stipends are significantly less than the waived tuition, this would typically increase their taxes by 30 -- 60 % for public universities and hundreds of percent for private ones. The Senate version of the bill did not contain these provisions.
The House bill 's disadvantageous treatment of graduate students was criticized because of its projected negative effect on the training of U.S. scientists. The bill 's impact on U.S. science and innovation had been criticized by Stanford professor emeritus Burton Richter, a winner of the Nobel Prize in Physics and the National Medal of Science, who critiqued the bill 's negative impact on Americans seeking advanced degrees and wrote that the budget impact of the tax cuts would force a dramatic reduction in federal funding for scientific research.
The final version of the Act reflected the Senate 's language in this area, maintaining the tax exemption for tuition waivers.
According to The New York Times, "economists and tax experts across the political spectrum warn that the proposed system would invite tax avoidance. The more the tax code distinguishes among types of earnings, personal characteristics or economic activities, the greater the incentive to label income artificially, restructure or switch categories in a hunt for lower rates. '' According to The Wall Street Journal, the bill 's changes to "business and individual taxation could lead to a new era of business reorganization and tax - code gamesmanship with unknown consequences for the economy and federal revenue collection. ''
Republicans justified the tax reform initially as an effort to simplify the tax code. Kevin Brady, the chairman of the House Ways and Means Committee, and Speaker Paul Ryan said in November 2017 that they would simplify the tax code so much that 9 in 10 Americans would be able to file their taxes on a postcard. President Donald Trump said on December 13, 2017, that people would be able to file their taxes "on a single, little, beautiful sheet of paper ''. However, when the final version of the tax legislation passed through houses of Congress, the legislation kept most loopholes intact and did not simplify the tax code. The announcements by the House leaders hurt the stock prices of tax preparers, but upon the release of the actual bill, the stock prices of tax preparers sharply increased.
The legislation was passed by Congress with little debate regarding the comprehensive reforming nature of the Act. The 400 - page House bill was passed two weeks after the legislation was first released, "without a single hearing '' held. In the Senate, the final version of the bill did not receive a public hearing, "was largely crafted behind closed doors, and was released just ahead of the final vote. '' Republicans rewrote major portions of tax bill just hours before the floor vote, making major changes in order to win the votes of several Republican holdouts. Many last - minute changes were handwritten on earlier drafts of the bill. The revisions appeared "first in the lobbying shops of K Street, which sent back copies to some Democrats in the Senate, who took to social media to protest being asked to vote in a matter of hours on a bill that had yet to be shared with them directly. ''
The rushed approval of the legislation prompted an outcry from Democrats. Senate Minority Leader Charles Schumer (D -- NY) proposed giving senators more time to read the legislation, but this motion failed after every Republican voted no. Requests to wait until incoming Democratic senator Doug Jones of Alabama could vote on the bill were also denied. Some commentators also criticized the process. The New York Times editorial board wrote that the Senate 's move to rapidly approve the bill "is not how lawmakers are supposed to pass enormous pieces of legislation '' and contrasted the bill to the 1986 tax bill, in which "Congress and the Reagan administration worked across party lines, produced numerous drafts, held many hearings and struck countless compromises. '' Bloomberg columnist Al Hunt classified the legislation as a "slipshod product, legislated with minimal transparency '' that was "rushed so fast through a short - circuited lawmaking process '' in which many members of Congress who voted in favor of the bill did not fully understand what they had done.
The finance ministers of the five largest European economies (Britain, Germany, France, Italy and Spain) wrote a letter to U.S. Treasury Secretary Steve Mnuchin, expressing concern that the tax reforms could trigger a trade war, as they would violate World Trade Organization rules and distort international trade. Similar concerns were voiced by China. In response to the Act, German economists called for the German government to enact tax reform and additional subsidies to prevent a loss of jobs and investments to the US.
The Short Title reference of "Tax Cuts and Jobs Act '' was not approved by Senate in the final enactment of the reconciliation law due to a dispute that was settled by the Senate Parliamentarian. The tax act is, officially, a set of tax law changes to the Internal Revenue Code that were appended to a budget reconciliation law without Short Title, and its proper reconciliation name (either, the Long Title, or Public Law 115 - 97, or some generic abbreviation) is currently used in referring to the actual law. Nevertheless, as of early 2018, the proposed rejected Short Title name had gained currency within some political and professional circles who continue to use "Tax Cuts and Jobs Act '' to refer to Public Law 115 - 97, and so the Act may be inaccurately referred to by its rejected Short Title in some instances.
The bill was introduced in the United States House of Representatives on November 2, 2017, by Congressman Kevin Brady, Republican representative from Texas. On November 9, 2017, the House Ways and Means Committee passed the bill on a party - line vote, advancing the bill to the House floor. The House passed the bill on November 16, 2017, on a mostly - party line vote of 227 -- 205. No Democrat voted for the bill, while 13 Republicans voted against it. Companion legislation was passed by the Senate Finance Committee and Senate Budget Committee, both times on a straight party - line vote. In the early morning hours of December 2, 2017, the Senate passed their version of the bill by a 51 -- 49 vote. Bob Corker (R -- TN) was the only Republican senator to vote against the measure and it received no Democratic Party support. Differences between the House and Senate bills were reconciled in a conference committee that signed the final version on December 15, 2017. The final version contained relatively minor changes from the Senate version. The President then signed the bill into law on December 22, 2017.
There were important differences between the House and Senate versions of the bills, due in part to the Senate reconciliation rules, which required that the bill impact the deficit by less than $1.5 trillion over ten years and have minimal deficit impact thereafter. For example:
In final changes prior to approval of the Senate bill on December 2, additional changes were made (among others) that were reconciled with the House bill in a conference committee, prior to providing a final bill to the President for signature. The Conference Committee version was published on December 15, 2017. It had relatively minor differences compared to the Senate bill. Individual and pass - through tax cuts "sunset '' (expire) after ten years, while the corporate tax changes are permanent.
Leading Republicans support the bill, including President Donald Trump and Vice President Mike Pence, and Republicans in Congress, such as:
The House passed the bill on a mostly - party line vote of 227 -- 205. No Democrat voted for the bill, while 13 Republicans voted against it.
In the Senate, Republicans "eager for a major legislative achievement after the Affordable Care Act debacle... have generally been enthusiastic about the tax overhaul. ''
A number of Republican senators who initially expressed trepidation over the bill, including Ron Johnson of Wisconsin, Susan Collins of Maine, and Steve Daines of Montana, ultimately voted for the Senate bill.
The Senate passed the bill, with amendments, on a mostly - party line vote of 51 -- 49. Every Democrat voted against the bill, while every Republican voted for it, except Senator Bob Corker of Tennessee.
Republican supporters of the tax bill have characterized it as a simplification of the tax code. While some elements of the legislation would simplify the tax code, other provisions would add additional complexity. For most Americans, the process for filing taxes under the Republican legislation would be similar to what it is today.
Democrats oppose the legislation, viewing it as a giveaway to corporations and high earners at the expense of the middle class. Every House Democrat voted against the bill when it came to the House floor; they were joined by 13 Republicans who voted against it.
The top congressional Democrats -- Senate Minority Leader Chuck Schumer of New York and House Minority Leader Nancy Pelosi -- strongly oppose the bill. Schumer said of the bill that "The more it 's in sunlight, the more it stinks. '' Pelosi said the legislation was "designed to plunder the middle class to put into the pockets of the wealthiest 1 percent more money... It raises taxes on the middle class, millions of middle - class families across the country, borrows trillions from the future, from our children and grandchildren 's futures to give tax cuts to the wealthiest and encourages corporations to ship jobs overseas. ''
The 13 House Republicans who voted against the bill were mostly from New York, New Jersey, and California, and were opposed to the bill 's elimination of the state and local income tax deduction in the bill, which benefits those states.
Billionaire and former Mayor of New York Michael Bloomberg called this tax bill an "economically indefensible blunder '' arguing that companies would not invest more because of the tax cuts: "Corporations are sitting on a record amount of cash reserves: nearly $2.3 trillion. That figure has been climbing steadily since the recession ended in 2009, and it 's now double what it was in 2001. The reason CEOs are n't investing more of their liquid assets has little to do with the tax rate. ''
Bill Gates and Warren Buffett also thought that Trump 's tax cut would not help businesses. In a CNBC interview, Buffett even said: "I do n't need a tax cut in a society with so much inequality ''.
In a letter made public on the November 12th, 2017, more than 400 millionaires and billionaires (which include George Soros and Steven Rockefeller) asked Congress to reject the Republican tax plan. They note that it would disproportionately benefit the wealthy, while adding at least $1.5 trillion in tax cuts to the current national debt. This deficit "would leave us unable to meet our country 's current needs and restrict us in advancing any future investments, '' the letter continues.
Most academic economists stated that there is no empirical evidence that the tax plan would benefit the economy as much as the Trump administration claimed it will. There is, however, a consensus that it will widen public deficits and economic inequalities.
In a survey conducted by the University of Chicago 's Initiative on Global Markets, 37 out of 38 economists interviewed stated that they thought the Act would cause a rapid increase in the national debt. The one dissenting economist later changed his mind. Conversely, only one economist (Stanford 's Darrell Duffie) out of the 38 agreed with the statement: "If the US enacts a tax bill similar to those currently moving through the House and Senate -- and assuming no other changes in tax or spending policy -- US GDP will be substantially higher a decade from now than under the status quo ''.
Four winners of the Nobel Prize in Economics have spoken out against the legislation: Joseph Stiglitz, Paul Krugman, Richard Thaler, and Angus Deaton.
A group of 137 economists signed an open letter expressing support for the bill; the letter was touted by President Trump, House Speaker Paul Ryan and the Senate Finance Committee as support for the legislation among economists; the letter was criticized by left - liberal publications that cited independent research which contradicted some of its claims and alleged that it contained signatories who did not exist. A group of nine economists (largely from the Reagan and Bush administrations) wrote a letter which estimated 3 percent growth from the reduction in the corporate tax rate within a decade; the letter was challenged by Harvard economists Larry Summers and Jason Furman (both of whom served in the Obama administration), and the nine economists appeared to back off from their original claims.
In November 2017, Senator Lindsey Graham (R -- SC) said that "financial contributions will stop '' flowing to the Republican Party if tax reform is unable to be passed. This echoed comments by Representative Chris Collins (R -- NY), who said, "My donors are basically saying ' get it done or do n't ever call me again. ' ''
It was introduced in the United States House of Representatives on November 2, 2017, by Congressman Kevin Brady, Republican of Texas. On November 9, 2017, the House Ways and Means Committee passed the bill on a party - line vote, advancing the bill to the House floor. The House passed the bill on November 16, 2017, on a mostly - party line vote of 227 -- 205. No Democrat voted for the bill, while 13 Republicans voted against it. On the same day, companion legislation passed the Senate Finance Committee, again on a party - line vote, 14 -- 12. On November 28, the legislation passed the Senate Budget Committee, again on a party - line vote. On December 2, the Senate passed its version by 51 -- 49, with Bob Corker being the only Republican not to vote in support of the bill.
The benefits of the individual tax cuts fade over time, so the Senate can attempt to pass the bill with only 51 votes under the budget reconciliation process. This is specifically to comply with the Byrd Rule, which allows Senators to block legislation if it would increase the deficit significantly beyond a ten - year term.
The final version of the bill initially passed in the House of Representatives by a vote of 227 -- 203 on December 19, 2017. In the December 19 vote, the same Republicans who voted against the original House bill still voted against it, with the exception of Tom McClintock. However, several provisions of the bill violated the Senate 's procedural rules, causing the need for the House of Representatives to re-vote with the provisions removed. On December 20, the Senate passed the bill by a party - line vote of 51 -- 48. On the same day, the House of Representatives re-voted on the bill and passed it by a vote of 224 -- 201.
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what is the english name of sapota fruit | Sapote - wikipedia
Sapote (from Nahuatl tzapotl) is a term for a soft, edible fruit. The word is incorporated into the common names of several unrelated fruit - bearing plants native to Mexico, Central America and northern parts of South America. It is also known in Caribbean English as soapapple.
Some but not all sapotes come from the family Sapotaceae:
Black sapote
White sapote
South American sapote
Lòng mứt, a kind of Vietnamese sapote
Mamey sapote
Sapodilla
Yellow sapote
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list of starting quarterbacks for the new england patriots | List of New England Patriots starting quarterbacks - wikipedia
The New England Patriots are a professional American football team based in Foxborough, Massachusetts. They are a member of the East Division of the American Football Conference (AFC). The team began as the Boston Patriots in the American Football League, a league that merged with the National Football League before the start of the 1970 season. In 1971, the team relocated to Foxborough, where they then became the New England Patriots. Between 1971 and 2001, the Patriots played their home games at Foxboro Stadium. Since 2002, the Patriots have played their home games at Gillette Stadium (formerly CMGI Field), which was built adjacent to Foxboro Stadium (which was then demolished, and the site was turned into a parking lot for Gillette Stadium).
There have been 28 starting quarterbacks in the history of the franchise. The most starting quarterbacks the Patriots have had in one season is five quarterbacks, in 1987. Past quarterbacks for the Patriots include Patriots Hall of Fame inductees Babe Parilli, Steve Grogan, and Drew Bledsoe. Butch Songin became the first starting quarterback for the Patriots in 1960, when the franchise was first established. He was replaced by Tom Greene for the final two games of the season. Hall of Famer Parilli was the next starting quarterback for the Patriots, from 1961 to 1967. As of the 2017 season, New England 's starting quarterback is Tom Brady, whom the Patriots selected in the 6th round (199th pick overall) of the 2000 NFL Draft. He is the only quarterback to have led the Patriots to a Super Bowl victory.
Butch Songin became the first starting quarterback for the Patriots in 1960, when the franchise was first established. He started the first 12 games of the season, and Tom Greene replaced him as starting quarterback for the final two games. Babe Parilli was the next starting quarterback for the Patriots, from 1961 to 1967.
In 1971, when the team moved to Foxborough and renamed from the "Boston Patriots '' to the "New England Patriots '', Jim Plunkett took over as quarterback. Plunkett started every regular season game for four straight seasons, until he was replaced by Steve Grogan as the starting quarterback in the 1975 season. Grogan was the only starting quarterback for six straight seasons, until Matt Cavanaugh started for four of the sixteen games in 1980. Grogan continued to start for the Patriots for parts of seasons until his retirement in 1990. Grogan finished his career with 135 games as starting quarterback, the second-most of any Patriots starting quarterback ever.
From 1987 until 1993, the Patriots had no regular starting quarterback, with as many as five in one season, until Drew Bledsoe was drafted as the number one overall pick in the 1993 NFL Draft. Bledsoe led the team to four playoff appearances (1994, 1996, 1997, and 1998), two AFC East championships (1996 and 1997), and an AFC Championship (1997). Bledsoe was the team 's primary starting quarterback for eight straight seasons until a hit by New York Jets linebacker Mo Lewis sheared a blood vessel in his chest, which put Bledsoe out for the rest of the 2001 season. Before the start of the 2002 season, Bledsoe was traded to the Buffalo Bills and did not get to see the opening of the new Gillette Stadium in September 2002.
Tom Brady has led the team for more regular season games (251), postseason games (35), Super Bowl appearances (7), and complete seasons (14) than any other quarterback in franchise history. Brady 's only incomplete seasons were 2001, when he replaced Bledsoe as the starting quarterback, 2008, when he suffered a season - ending knee injury in the first game of the regular season, and 2016 when he was suspended by the NFL for the first four games of the season as a result of the Deflategate incident. In 2008, Matt Cassel started the remaining 15 games, and despite missing the playoffs, the team finished with an 11 -- 5 record and second place in the AFC East. In 2016, Jimmy Garoppolo served as the starting quarterback for the first two games of the season in Brady 's absence before Garoppolo was injured and replaced by Jacoby Brissett. Brady also has led the team to all five of the franchise 's Super Bowl victories, doing so in 2001, 2003, 2004, 2014 and 2016. He is one of only four Patriots quarterbacks to have started at Gillette Stadium, the others having been Cassel, Garoppolo, and Brissett. Steve Grogan has started the second-most games in franchise history (135), 116 games fewer than Brady.
Having been the starting quarterback for the past 16 seasons, Tom Brady holds the record for the most starts in a Patriots jersey, as well as for the most overall wins. He is also the franchise leader in attempts, completions, total yards gained, and passing touchdowns, although Jimmy Garoppolo has the best pass completion percentage. Brady also holds the record for the longest completed pass by a Patriots starting quarterback, throwing a 99 - yard touchdown pass to wide receiver Wes Welker in an away game against the Miami Dolphins during the 2011 season.
Brady is also the leader in rushing attempts, but Steve Grogan has the most rushing yards and rushing touchdowns. Tom Yewcic holds the record for the longest rush with a 46 - yard run in the Patriots ' 14 -- 10 road loss to the Denver Broncos during the 1963 season.
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how many sims 4 expansion packs are there | The Sims 4 - wikipedia
The Sims 4 is the fourth major title in life simulation video game series The Sims, developed by Maxis and The Sims Studio and published by Electronic Arts. The Sims 4 was originally announced on May 6, 2013, and was released in North America on September 2, 2014 for Microsoft Windows. A Mac compatible version of the software was made available for digital download on February 17, 2015. The Sims 4 is the first PC game to top all - format charts in two years. The game has received mixed reviews since its release. Since its launch, it became the best selling PC game of 2014 and 2015. The Sims 4 has sold over 5 million copies worldwide. Versions of the game for the PlayStation 4 and Xbox One consoles are also scheduled to be released on November 17, 2017.
The game has the same concept as its predecessor, The Sims 3; players control their Sims in various activities and can form relationships. The game, like most of the series, does not have a defined final goal; gameplay is nonlinear. The Create - a-Sim and Build Mode tools have been redesigned to allow more versatility when creating game content. Emotional state plays a larger role in game play than in previous games in the series, with effects on social interaction, user interface, and personality. To date EA has released three expansion packs, with the most recent (City Living) being released in November 2016. There have also been several "game packs '' released, including Parenthood which allows the players to shape the characters ' children and teenagers as they go through life, as well as free updates that include major changes such as the addition of a toddler life stage.
The Sims 4 is a life simulation game, similar to its predecessors. Players create a Sim character and control their life to explore different personalities which change the way the game plays out. Sims can multitask such as talk while doing a task. Sims ' moodlets also change the gameplay. For example, a Sim can do a task while being either angry or totally excited.
Similar to previous Sims games, player - created challenges abound. One of the most prevalent is the Legacy Challenge, in which players create a single Sim and try to make its family line last for ten generations.
One major change to the Sims 4 Create A Sim functionality is that sliders have been replaced by direct mouse click, drag and pull. Through mouse click, drag and pull players may directly manipulate the facial features of a Sim. Players can also directly manipulate any body part including the abdomen, chest, legs, arms and feet. In previous Sims games only the fitness and fatness can be manipulated on a Sims body. However, fitness and fatness levels may still be adjusted in The Sims 4 with sliders as in previous games. The base games comes with over 40 hairstyles for both men and women. There are up to 18 hair colour options per hairstyle.
Selections of premade designs of Sims are available to choose from, ranging from different body shapes to ethnicities.
Seven life stages are available including baby, toddler, child, teenager, young adult, adult and elder. The baby life stage is accessible only through the birth of a Sim and not available in Create A Sim. Toddlers were initially absent from the original game release, but were added in the January 2017 patch.
Traits have returned with each Sim having three traits and an aspiration containing its own hidden trait.
Compared to previous Sims games where everyday, formal, sleepwear, athletic, party and swimwear wardrobes were restricted to having their own clothing options, all clothing options are now available across all forms of wardrobe and players are allowed up to 5 outfits per category. There is also a filter panel where clothing options can be sorted by color, material, outfit category, fashion choice, style, content and packs.
In a Summer 2016 update, gender options were expanded in the game, allowing any gender expression. Now all the haircuts and outfits can be worn by any Sim of any gender, and pregnancy can become a possibility regardless of the gender.
In The Sims 4, build and buy modes have been combined and is now treated as a single feature.
A detailed build - and - buy system is present along with neighborhoods and landscaping. Some locked buy mode items may be unlocked through the progression of career levels.
Entire buildings and rooms can now be moved across the lot. Wall heights can also now be adjusted.
There is also a pool tool feature, with a custom version and triangular, square and octagonal pool tools too.
There are build mode cheats such as "motherlode '', which enables the player to automatically gain § 50,000 (simoleons) to buy things with.
There is now a search option to search for build and buy mode options. When building a house for your sim you can buy already made rooms which can help but costs a lot of money depending on the style of the room.
The Sims 4 includes social features, such as importing Sims and houses other people have made from The Gallery into the player 's game. This impacts the world around the player 's Sims. Players may publish their creations into the Gallery for other players to download into their game instantly.
On January 9, 2015, EA released a version of The Gallery for iOS and Android devices.
The Sims 4 base game originally shipped with two worlds: Willow Creek and Oasis Springs. Both worlds contain five neighborhoods and a total of 21 lots. With the release of Outdoor Retreat, the world Granite Falls was available for visiting on outdoor vacations. Newcrest became available with a free update, having three neighborhoods with five empty lots in each, for a total of 15 lots. Magnolia Promenade came with the Get to Work Expansion Pack, and Windenburg was introduced in the Get Together Expansion Pack. The City Living Expansion Pack, released in November 2016, introduced the new bustling city of San Myshuno. The Vampires Game Pack added the neighborhood Forgotten Hollow.
The Sims 4 was developed by The Sims Studio, a division of the Electronic Arts subsidiary Maxis, and was distributed by Electronic Arts. This is similar yet different to the development of The Sims 3, which was developed by The Sims Studio standalone from the (at the time) diminished Maxis.
The Sims 4 is a single - player game, and does not require a constant Internet connection to play. Players will however need an Origin account and Internet access during the initial installation process for game activation. Ilan Eshkeri serves as the composer for the game 's orchestral soundtrack, which was recorded at Abbey Road Studios and performed by the London Metropolitan Orchestra.
On April 25, 2013, several screenshots from mock - up flash videos of the user interface were leaked online. On May 3, 2013, Electronic Arts sent out an e-mail to several fansites stating that there would be a big announcement on May 6, 2013, which many speculated would be The Sims 4.
On August 20, 2013, The Sims 4 was revealed via gameplay demo and release trailer at Gamescom. Previews of the building and character creation systems debuted earlier in 2014. Additional game footage and the release date were revealed at the Electronic Entertainment Expo on June 9, 2014.
Gameplay was unveiled during Gamescom 2013, held at the Koelnmesse in Cologne, Germany. Unveiled features focused on the improved Create - a-Sim with an all - new click - and - drag feature omitting the use of sliders and the addition of emotion - based gameplay. Select players called Yibsims who mostly manage fan sites and YouTube videos were invited to Sims Camp to see the game before the public and press, consequently the game received minimal coverage outside fansites. Maxis stated the game would run better on lower - end PCs than The Sims 3, which was plagued with performance issues on low - end and high - end PCs.
It was suspected that The Sims 4 was scheduled to be released in early 2014, but it was later revealed it would in fact be released September 2, 2014.
On May 14, 2014, producer Ryan Vaughan unveiled another Create - a-Sim trailer on the official The Sims YouTube channel. This included a preview of what the premade Sims Bella Goth and Mortimer Goth would look like in The Sims 4. The development team unveiled another trailer on May 28, 2014 that showcased the new Build Mode features. Players will now be able to choose between three different wall heights and adjust the location of a window on a wall, as well as be able to move an entire room from one position to another.
EA unveiled another gameplay trailer including more gameplay footage and announced the release date of the game, September 2, 2014, during a press conference at the Electronic Entertainment Expo on June 9, 2014. The Sims 4 was released on September 2 for North America and September 4 for EU, Australia and Brazil.
On June 28, 2014, a video was released showing the "originality '' of each sim and their emotions.
In January 2015, Maxis announced Outdoor Retreat, the first paid DLC for The Sims 4. The DLC focuses on outdoor activities in the national park.
Until mid-2017, there were no plans for a console release. However, versions of the game for the PlayStation 4 and Xbox One were officially confirmed for release on 17 November 2017.
Upon first announcement, EA stated that The Sims 4 was in development for both for Mac and Windows, both to be released in 2014. However, closer to release date, the company stated that they were "focused (on) Windows '' and had "no updates on the Mac at this time ''. In October 2014 further information was disclosed suggesting the future release of a Mac version. Vaughn told International Business Times that the team was "working on a Mac version right now. '' On January 13, 2015, EA confirmed the release of the Mac version as being February 2015. On February 2, they announced via the official The Sims Twitter feed that the Mac version of The Sims 4 would be released on February 17.
On June 25, 2014, EA and Maxis announced the omission of several gameplay features in The Sims 4 that had been included in previous games. These omitted features include swimming pools, swimming wear, and the "toddler '' life stage; this announcement also noted the lack of an open - world found in The Sims 3, stating neighborhood gameplay would be separated by loading screens. Earlier in the development process, a fan - site interview with a producer had revealed Create - a-Style (CAS), a customization feature introduced in the previous Sims game, would not be added to The Sims 4 in lieu of other features. The developers then announced through a series of tweets that the game would ship with a ' stripped - down ' version of story - progression (a gameplay mechanic controlling neighborhood autonomy), and that basements, grocery stores, and school and work locations would not be featured in the game. While careers and schools would still be featured, they would be represented differently from The Sims 3, more akin to the way they were featured in The Sims 2.
These announcements sparked unrest among many fans who speculated that the exclusion of arguably core features were intended by the developers or parent company to be left out for later paid content, or in order to make rushed deadlines. A petition was launched by some fans to have the features restored for the initial release, even if the release date were to be pushed back.
Maxis contended that it was not possible to include every feature in the new game that had been added over time in the six years The Sims 3 was in development, and that these could always be added at a later date, although they did not confirm exactly how this would be done, or whether it would be free or at a cost. Some have speculated that many new features would be released through paid expansion packs, but others speculated that some of the more "basic, core '' content (i.e. pools, toddlers) may be released as free patch updates, similar to how some new features were patched free into The Sims 3, such as basement features.
Questioned as to why some features, such as a cupcake machine, were implemented over what many viewed as key gameplay, Maxis and The Sims producer Graham Nardone attributed the sacrifice to time constraints, the workload and distribution of developers (and the comparative lack of available developers to some areas of production to other areas), as well as risk factors:
You ca n't weigh features by how much you want them in the game, you have to consider how many development resources it takes to create them. The tram? A couple of days from one of our FX guys and it 's finished... very low risk, very low complexity (using entirely existing tech), and adds a nice visual punch to the neighborhood. I ca n't recall ever scoping against FX... they always have time to be adding more stuff.
Our FX folks submitted their own long list of things they wanted to work on because there was n't enough for them to do. Now, you ca n't take the FX team and ask them to add pools to the game. They do n't have the work skills to do it; neither do I. Pools, toddlers... they 're extremely complex features that require months of man hours of work across multiple disciplines and introduce significant risk.
If we were to have added one of those to the game, there would have been two choices for us... cut many small features, or cut one other significantly large feature.
Maxis and The Sims producer Rachel Rubin Franklin later elaborated in an official blog post, acknowledging the concerns of fans, and explained the issue on the developer 's focus on The Sims 4 's new core game engine technologies, and that the sacrifices the team had to make were a "hard pill to swallow '':
It begins with new technology and systems that we built for this new base game for The Sims... the vision for The Sims 4 is a new experience... to do that, our technology base needed a major upgrade.
... when we sat down and looked at everything we wanted to do for this game, all the new tech we wanted to build into it, the fact was that there would be trade - offs, and these would disappoint some of our fans. Hard pill to swallow, believe me, but delivering on the vision set out for The Sims 4 required focus.
Franklin stated new features such as Sim emotions, advanced Sim animation, interaction and behaviours, as well as the new Create - a-Sim and build mode tools as a large part of the reason that detracted focus from features such as swimming pools and the toddler life stage.
However, on October 1, 2014, Maxis confirmed that one of its missing features, swimming pools, along with other new updates and features, would be added into the game for free in November, and this happened in the form of a game patch. Other features like basements have later been added in subsequent patches, and the missing "toddler '' life stage was eventually added for free in a patch released on January 12, 2017.
SteelSeries and Electronic Arts announced a series of themed peripherals to promote The Sims 4, including a pair of headphones, a computer mouse that lights up in accordance with Sims ' in - game emotional states, and a mousepad featuring a render of various Sim groups.
A demo was released to the public displaying the new Create a Sim partition of the game in which is supplied, free of charge to anyone. TV spots were also produced narrated by actor Charlie Day.
On May 9, 2014, it was reported that The Sims 4 has been rated "18 + (Prohibited for children) '' by Russia. This decision was based on the game 's portrayal of same - sex relationships contravening the Russian LGBT propaganda law that prohibits portrayal "of non-traditional sexual relationships '' to children (see also LGBT rights in Russia). Previous entries in The Sims series have routinely been rated as suitable for lower ages; for instance, The Sims 3 was considered suitable for ages 6 and up in Germany, The Sims 4 is suitable for ages 6 and up in Germany as well.
Compilations of expansion packs, game packs and stuff packs without the core game have also been released.
EA did not provide review copies of the game until September 1, meaning that critics were unable to review the game before release. In the absence of initial reviews it was indicated that players were generally dissatisfied with the game, especially the ones who were familiar with the previous games in the franchise.
At the aggregator site Metacritic, The Sims 4 received a score of 70 based on 74 reviews, indicating "mixed or average '' reception.
Hardcore Gamer gave The Sims 4 a 2.5 score out of 5 and commented "it 's a half - hearted experience wrapped in a neat and pretty package that beams a potential to both fulfill and crush your inner - Sims ' dreams. '' They criticized the game for the lack of content and having many bugs.
Jim Sterling of The Escapist, in a mixed review of the game, found there to be an "overall lack of engagement. '' Although noting some positive changes he was critical of the game in comparison to previous entries in the series, declaring that "The Sims 4 is basically The Sims 3, but shrunken and sterile, '' and recommending that game be played instead. He also complained of being "harassed '' by tutorial messages. His final score for the game was 2.5 out of 5 stars.
ABCNews.com 's reviewer Derrik J. Lang praised the game for being "remarkably more intuitive at the start, '' stating that the Sims are now smarter than before, have emotions that affect their moods, and are able to multi-task. Despite the praise, Lang awarded the game with two stars stating that he encountered annoying glitches and that he misses content from previous games, like dishwashers.
Kevin VanOrd of GameSpot gave this game a 6 out of 10. Despite praising the visuals, audio, and the new multi-tasking and moods system, he states that he misses the two main features of The Sims 3: "Create - a-Style '' and the open world. His conclusion is: "The Sims 4 's biggest problem is that The Sims 3 exists ''.
Other reviews were more favorable. CraveOnline.co.uk mentioned in an article that "the awful user reviews indicate a strong backlash. '' However, the website added that "Sims fans who have n't paid much attention to the ongoing controversy surrounding the game may look at those Amazon review scores and, without knowing that many are immediately dismissing the game due to its cut content, decide that they wo n't purchase it. ''
Kallie Plagge of IGN gave The Sims 4 a 7.5 out of 10. She was disappointed by the lack of content from previous games, and the lack of "cool '' objects that could adequately replace them; and the too frequent, albeit short, loading screens. The score she gave is relatively high, though, because "The Sims 4 does succeed in being a deep and complex game when it comes to Sim interactions, with lots of entertaining emotional potential (...) Plus, excellent building tools make architecture more fun than ever ''. Her conclusion is that "it 's a good start to what may eventually be expanded into a great Sims game, but it 's not there yet ''.
The Independent 's Jack Fleming praised the game for "The Gallery '' feature that allows users to showcase their creations easily, the new multitasking system, the visual design, the personalities and emotions, the unusual careers (that, for example, allow the sim to travel into space), and the new build mode. On the other hand, he voiced his frustration with the loading screens, the new camera controls (while noting they can be reverted to The Sims 3 style), and noted the lack of content from previous installments (such as swimming pools and toddlers) made many fans upset. In conclusion he writes: "The Sims 4 is an easy game to get into (though the constant tutorial - ising at the start can actually get a bit frustrating) and the reasons that people love this series are still present. The game 's creators have tried to make the appeal as diverse as possible and have in most ways succeeded. However, I could n't help but wish I could actually go to space and drive that spaceship around... ''
Nick Tan of Game Revolution states that the game is a case study for loss aversion. He explains that the reason for Sims fans expressing so much anger and dissatisfaction with it is because people "strongly prefer avoiding losses than acquiring gains ''. That, combined with the hatred for Electronic Arts that greatly intensified after the release of the latest SimCity game, resulted in such a backlash. Tan gave The Sims 4 a 3.5 / 5, calling it "woefully incomplete, despite being unexpectedly solid and entertaining in its current state ''.
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the encrypted version of the p code is the | GPS signals - wikipedia
Global Positioning System (GPS) satellites broadcast microwave signals to enable GPS receivers on or near the Earth 's surface to determine location and time and derive velocity. The GPS system itself is operated by the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) for use by both the military and the general public.
GPS signals include ranging signals, used to measure the distance to the satellite, and navigation messages. The navigation messages include ephemeris data, used to calculate the position of each satellite in orbit, and information about the time and status of the entire satellite constellation, called the almanac.
There are four signals available for civilian use. In order of date of introduction, these are: L1 C / A, L2C, L5 and L1C. L1 C / A is also called the legacy signal and is broadcast by all satellites. The other signals are called modernized signals and are not broadcast by all satellites. In addition, there are restricted signals, also broadcast to the general public, but whose encoding is secret and are intended to be used only by authorized parties. Nonetheless, some limited use of restricted signals can be made by civilians without access to the secret encoding details; this is called codeless and semi-codeless access, and is officially supported.
The interface to the User Segment (GPS receivers) is described in the Interface Control Documents (ICD). The format of civilian signals is described in the Interface Specification (IS) which is a subset of the ICD.
The GPS satellites (called space vehicles in the GPS interface specification documents) transmit simultaneously several ranging codes and navigation data using binary phase - shift keying (BPSK). Only a limited number of central frequencies are used; satellites using the same frequency are distinguished by using different ranging codes; in other words, GPS uses code division multiple access. The ranging codes are also called chipping codes (in reference to CDMA / DSSS), pseudorandom noise and pseudorandom binary sequences (in reference to the fact that it is predictable, but statistically it resembles noise).
Some satellites transmit several BPSK streams at the same frequency in quadrature, in a form of quadrature amplitude modulation. However, unlike typical QAM systems where a single bit stream is split in two half - symbol - rate bit streams to improve spectral efficiency, in GPS signals the in - phase and quadrature components are modulated by separate (but functionally related) bit streams.
Satellites are uniquely identified by a serial number called space vehicle number (SVN) which does not change during its lifetime. In addition, all operating satellites are numbered with a space vehicle identifier (SV ID) and pseudorandom noise number (PRN number) which uniquely identifies the ranging codes that a satellite uses. There is a fixed one - to - one correspondence between SV identifiers and PRN numbers described in the interface specification. Unlike SVNs, the SV ID / PRN number of a satellite may be changed (also changing the ranging codes it uses). At any point in time, any SV ID / PRN number is in use by at most a single satellite. A single SV ID / PRN number may have been used by several satellites at different points in time and a single satellite may have used different SV ID / PRN numbers at different points in time. The current SVNs and PRN numbers for the GPS constellation may be found at NAVCEN.
The original GPS design contains two ranging codes: the coarse / acquisition (C / A) code, which is freely available to the public, and the restricted precision (P) code, usually reserved for military applications.
The C / A PRN codes are Gold codes with a period of 1,023 chips transmitted at 1.023 Mbit / s, implying a period of 1 ms. They are combined with a navigation message using exclusive or and the resulting bit stream is used for modulation as previously described. These codes only match up, or strongly autocorrelate when they are almost exactly aligned. Each satellite uses a unique PRN code, which does not correlate well with any other satellite 's PRN code. In other words, the PRN codes are highly orthogonal to one another.
The C / A codes are generated by combining (using "exclusive or '') 2 bit streams generated by maximal period 10 stage linear feedback shift registers (LFSR). Different codes are obtained by selectively delaying one of those bit streams. Thus:
where:
The arguments of the functions therein are the number of bits or chips since their epochs, starting at 0. The epoch of the LFSRs is the point at which they are at the initial state; and for the overall C / A codes it the start of any UTC second plus any integer number of milliseconds. The output of LFSRs at negative arguments is defined consistent with the period which is 1,023 chips (this provision is necessary because B (\ displaystyle B) may have a negative argument using the above equation).
The delay for PRN numbers 34 and 37 is the same; therefore their C / A codes are identical and are not transmitted at the same time (it may make one or both of those signals unusable due to mutual interference depending on the relative power levels received on each GPS receiver).
The P - code is also a PRN; however, each satellite 's P - code PRN code is 6.1871 × 10 bits long (6,187,100,000,000 bits, ~ 720.213 gigabytes) and only repeats once a week (it is transmitted at 10.23 Mbit / s). The extreme length of the P - code increases its correlation gain and eliminates any range ambiguity within the Solar System. However, the code is so long and complex it was believed that a receiver could not directly acquire and synchronize with this signal alone. It was expected that the receiver would first lock onto the relatively simple C / A code and then, after obtaining the current time and approximate position, synchronize with the P - code.
Whereas the C / A PRNs are unique for each satellite, the P - code PRN is actually a small segment of a master P - code approximately 2.35 × 10 bits in length (235,000,000,000,000 bits, ~ 26.716 terabytes) and each satellite repeatedly transmits its assigned segment of the master code.
To prevent unauthorized users from using or potentially interfering with the military signal through spoofing, it was decided to encrypt the P - code. To that end the P - code was modulated with the W - code, a special encryption sequence, to generate the Y - code. The Y - code is what the satellites have been transmitting since the anti-spoofing module was set to the "on '' state. The encrypted signal is referred to as the P (Y) - code.
The details of the W - code are kept secret, but it is known that it is applied to the P - code at approximately 500 kHz, which is a slower rate than that of the P - code itself by a factor of approximately 20. This has allowed companies to develop semi-codeless approaches for tracking the P (Y) signal, without knowledge of the W - code itself.
In addition to the PRN ranging codes, a receiver needs to know detailed information about each satellite 's position and the network. The GPS design has this information modulated on top of both the C / A and P (Y) ranging codes at 50 bit / s and calls it the navigation message. The navigation message format described in this section is called LNAV data (for legacy navigation).
The navigation message conveys information which can be classified in 3 broad areas:
Whereas ephemeris information is highly detailed and considered valid for no more than four hours, almanac information is more general and is considered valid for up to 180 days. The almanac assists the receiver in determining which satellites to search for, and once the receiver picks up each satellite 's signal in turn, it then downloads the ephemeris data directly from that satellite. A position fix using any satellite can not be calculated until the receiver has an accurate and complete copy of that satellite 's ephemeris data. If the signal from a satellite is lost while its ephemeris data is being acquired, the receiver must discard that data and start again.
The navigation message consists of 1,500 bit long frames. Each frame consists of 5 subframes of 300 bits, numbered 1 to 5. In turn each subframe consists of 10 words of 30 bit each and requires 6 seconds to transmit. Each subframe has the GPS time. Subframe 1 contains the GPS date (week number) and information to correct the satellite 's time to GPS time, plus satellite status and health. Subframes 2 and 3 together contain the transmitting satellite 's ephemeris data. Subframes 4 and 5 contain components of the almanac but each frame contains only 1 / 25th of the complete almanac; a receiver must process 25 whole frames worth of data to retrieve the entire 15,000 bit almanac message. At this rate, 12.5 minutes are required to receive the entire almanac from a single satellite. Each of the 25 versions of frames 4 and 5 is called a page and they are numbered 1 to 25.
Frames begin and end at the start / end of week plus an integer multiple of 30 seconds. At start / end of week the cycling between pages is reset to page 1.
There are 2 navigation message types: LNAV - L is used by satellites with PRN numbers 1 to 32 (called lower PRN numbers) and LNAV - U is used by satellites with PRN numbers 33 to 63 (called upper PRN numbers). The 2 types use very similar formats. Subframes 1 to 3 are the same while subframes 4 and 5 use almost the same format. Both message types contain almanac data for all satellites using the same navigation message type, but not the other type.
Each subframe begins with a Telemetry Word (TLM), which enables the receiver to detect the beginning of a subframe and determine the receiver clock time at which the navigation subframe begins. The next word is the handover word (HOW), which gives the GPS time (actually the time when the first bit of the next subframe will be transmitted) and identifies the specific subframe within a complete frame. The remaining eight words of the subframe contain the actual data specific to that subframe. Each word includes 6 bits of parity generated using an algorithm based on Hamming codes, which take into account the 24 non-parity bits of that word and the last 2 bits of the previous word.
After a subframe has been read and interpreted, the time the next subframe was sent can be calculated through the use of the clock correction data and the HOW. The receiver knows the receiver clock time of when the beginning of the next subframe was received from detection of the Telemetry Word thereby enabling computation of the transit time and thus the pseudorange. The receiver is potentially capable of getting a new pseudorange measurement at the beginning of each subframe or every 6 seconds.
GPS time is expressed with a resolution of 1.5 seconds as a week number and a time of week count (TOW). Its zero point (week 0, TOW 0) is defined to be 1980 - 01 - 06T00: 00Z. The TOW count is a value ranging from 0 to 403,199 whose meaning is the number of 1.5 second periods elapsed since the beginning of the GPS week. Expressing TOW count thus requires 19 bits (2 = 524,288). GPS time is a continuous time scale in that it does not include leap seconds; therefore the start / end of GPS weeks may differ from that of the corresponding UTC day by an integer number of seconds.
In each subframe, each hand - over word (HOW) contains the most significant 17 bits of the TOW count corresponding to the start of the next following subframe. Note that the 2 least significant bits can be safely omitted because one HOW occurs in the navigation message every 6 seconds, which is equal to the resolution of the truncated TOW count thereof. Equivalently, the truncated TOW count is the time duration since the last GPS week start / end to the beginning of the next frame in units of 6 seconds.
Each frame contains (in subframe 1) the 10 least significant bits of the corresponding GPS week number. Note that each frame is entirely within one GPS week because GPS frames do not cross GPS week boundaries. Since rollover occurs every 1,024 GPS weeks (approximately every 19.6 years; 1,024 is 2), a receiver that computes current calendar dates needs to deduce the upper week number bits or obtain them from a different source. One possible method is for the receiver to save its current date in memory when shut down, and when powered on, assume that the newly decoded truncated week number corresponds to the period of 1,024 weeks that starts at the last saved date. This method correctly deduces the full week number if the receiver is never allowed to remain shut down (or without a time and position fix) for more than 1,024 weeks (~ 19.6 years).
The almanac consists of coarse orbit and status information for each satellite in the constellation, an ionospheric model, and information to relate GPS derived time to Coordinated Universal Time (UTC). Each frame contains a part of the almanac (in subframes 4 and 5) and the complete almanac is transmitted by each satellite in 25 frames total (requiring 12.5 minutes). The almanac serves several purposes. The first is to assist in the acquisition of satellites at power - up by allowing the receiver to generate a list of visible satellites based on stored position and time, while an ephemeris from each satellite is needed to compute position fixes using that satellite. In older hardware, lack of an almanac in a new receiver would cause long delays before providing a valid position, because the search for each satellite was a slow process. Advances in hardware have made the acquisition process much faster, so not having an almanac is no longer an issue. The second purpose is for relating time derived from the GPS (called GPS time) to the international time standard of UTC. Finally, the almanac allows a single - frequency receiver to correct for ionospheric delay error by using a global ionospheric model. The corrections are not as accurate as GNSS augmentation systems like WAAS or dual - frequency receivers. However, it is often better than no correction, since ionospheric error is the largest error source for a single - frequency GPS receiver.
Satellite data is updated typically every 24 hours, with up to 60 days data loaded in case there is a disruption in the ability to make updates regularly. Typically the updates contain new ephemerides, with new almanacs uploaded less frequently. The Control Segment guarantees that during normal operations a new almanac will be uploaded at least every 6 days.
Satellites broadcast a new ephemeris every two hours. The ephemeris is generally valid for 4 hours, with provisions for updates every 4 hours or longer in non-nominal conditions. The time needed to acquire the ephemeris is becoming a significant element of the delay to first position fix, because as the receiver hardware becomes more capable, the time to lock onto the satellite signals shrinks; however, the ephemeris data requires 18 to 36 seconds before it is received, due to the low data transmission rate.
For the ranging codes and navigation message to travel from the satellite to the receiver, they must be modulated onto a carrier wave. In the case of the original GPS design, two frequencies are utilized; one at 1575.42 MHz (10.23 MHz × 154) called L1; and a second at 1227.60 MHz (10.23 MHz × 120), called L2.
The C / A code is transmitted on the L1 frequency as a 1.023 MHz signal using a bi-phase shift keying (BPSK) modulation technique. The P (Y) - code is transmitted on both the L1 and L2 frequencies as a 10.23 MHz signal using the same BPSK modulation, however the P (Y) - code carrier is in quadrature with the C / A carrier (meaning it is 90 ° out of phase).
Besides redundancy and increased resistance to jamming, a critical benefit of having two frequencies transmitted from one satellite is the ability to measure directly, and therefore remove, the ionospheric delay error for that satellite. Without such a measurement, a GPS receiver must use a generic model or receive ionospheric corrections from another source (such as the Wide Area Augmentation System or WAAS). Advances in the technology used on both the GPS satellites and the GPS receivers has made ionospheric delay the largest remaining source of error in the signal. A receiver capable of performing this measurement can be significantly more accurate and is typically referred to as a dual frequency receiver.
Having reached full operational capability on July 17, 1995 the GPS system had completed its original design goals. However, additional advances in technology and new demands on the existing system led to the effort to "modernize '' the GPS system. Announcements from the Vice President and the White House in 1998 heralded the beginning of these changes and in 2000, the U.S. Congress reaffirmed the effort, referred to as GPS III.
The project involves new ground stations and new satellites, with additional navigation signals for both civilian and military users, and aims to improve the accuracy and availability for all users. A goal of 2013 has been established with incentives offered to the contractors if they can complete it by 2011.
Modernized GPS civilian signals have two general improvements over their legacy counterparts: a dataless acquisition aid and forward error correction (FEC) coding of the NAV message.
A dataless acquisition aid is an additional signal, called a pilot carrier in some cases, broadcast alongside the data signal. This dataless signal is designed to be easier to acquire than the data encoded and, upon successful acquisition, can be used to acquire the data signal. This technique improves acquisition of the GPS signal and boosts power levels at the correlator.
The second advancement is to use forward error correction (FEC) coding on the NAV message itself. Due to the relatively slow transmission rate of NAV data (usually 50 bits per second), small interruptions can have potentially large impacts. Therefore, FEC on the NAV message is a significant improvement in overall signal robustness.
One of the first announcements was the addition of a new civilian - use signal, to be transmitted on a frequency other than the L1 frequency used for the coarse / acquisition (C / A) signal. Ultimately, this became the L2C signal, so called because it is broadcast on the L2 frequency. Because it requires new hardware on board the satellite, it is only transmitted by the so - called Block IIR - M and later design satellites. The L2C signal is tasked with improving accuracy of navigation, providing an easy to track signal, and acting as a redundant signal in case of localized interference.
Unlike the C / A code, L2C contains two distinct PRN code sequences to provide ranging information; the civil - moderate code (called CM), and the civil - long length code (called CL). The CM code is 10,230 bits long, repeating every 20 ms. The CL code is 767,250 bits long, repeating every 1,500 ms. Each signal is transmitted at 511,500 bits per second (bit / s); however, they are multiplexed together to form a 1,023,000 bit / s signal.
CM is modulated with the CNAV Navigation Message (see below), whereas CL does not contain any modulated data and is called a dataless sequence. The long, dataless sequence provides for approximately 24 dB greater correlation (~ 250 times stronger) than L1 C / A-code.
When compared to the C / A signal, L2C has 2.7 dB greater data recovery and 0.7 dB greater carrier - tracking, although its transmission power is 2.3 dB weaker.
The civil - moderate and civil - long ranging codes are generated by a modular LFSR which is reset periodically to a predetermined initial state. The period of the CM and CL is determined by this resetting and not by the natural period of the LFSR (as is the case with the C / A code). The initial states are designated in the interface specification and are different for different PRN numbers and for CM / CL. The feedback polynomial / mask is the same for CM and CL. The ranging codes are thus given by:
where:
The initial states are described in the GPS interface specification as numbers expressed in octal following the convention that the LFSR state is interpreted as the binary representation of a number where the output bit is the least significant bit, and the bit where new bits are shifted in is the most significant bit. Using this convention, the LFSR shifts from most significant bit to least significant bit and when seen in big endian order, it shifts to the right. The states called final state in the IS are obtained after 7004102290000000000 ♠ 10 229 cycles for CM and after 7005767249000000000 ♠ 767 249 cycles for LM (just before reset in both cases).
The feedback bit mask is 100100101001001010100111100. Again with the convention that the least significant bit is the output bit of the LFSR and the most significant bit is the shift - in bit of the LFSR, 0 means no feedback into that position, and 1 means feedback into that position.
The CNAV data is an upgraded version of the original NAV navigation message. It contains higher precision representation and nominally more accurate data than the NAV data. The same type of information (time, status, ephemeris, and almanac) is still transmitted using the new CNAV format; however, instead of using a frame / subframe architecture, it uses a new pseudo-packetized format made of 12 - second 300 - bit messages analogous to LNAV frames. While LNAV frames have a fixed information content, CNAV messages may be of one of several defined types. The type of a frame determines its information content. Messages do not follow a fixed schedule regarding which message types will be used, allowing the Control Segment some versatility. However, for some message types there are lower bounds on how often they will be transmitted.
In CNAV, at least 1 out of every 4 packets are ephemeris data and the same lower bound applies for clock data packets. The design allows for a wide variety of packet types to be transmitted. With a 32 - satellite constellation, and the current requirements of what needs to be sent, less than 75 % of the bandwidth is used. Only a small fraction of the available packet types have been defined; this enables the system to grow and incorporate advances without breaking compatibility.
There are many important changes in the new CNAV message:
CNAV messages begin and end at start / end of GPS week plus an integer multiple of 12 seconds. Specifically, the beginning of the first bit (with convolution encoding already applied) to contain information about a message matches the aforesaid synchronization. CNAV messages begin with a 8 bit preamble which is a fixed bit pattern and whose purpose is to enables the receiver to detect the beginning of a message.
The convolutional code used to encode CNAV is described by:
where:
Since the FEC encoded bit stream runs at 2 times the rate than the non FEC encoded bit as already described, then t = ⌊ t ′ 2 ⌋ (\ displaystyle t = \ left \ lfloor (\ tfrac (t ') (2)) \ right \ rfloor). FEC encoding is performed independently of navigation message boundaries; this follows from the above equations.
An immediate effect of having two civilian frequencies being transmitted is the civilian receivers can now directly measure the ionospheric error in the same way as dual frequency P (Y) - code receivers. However, users utilizing the L2C signal alone, can expect 65 % more position uncertainty due to ionospheric error than with the L1 signal alone.
A major component of the modernization process is a new military signal. Called the Military code, or M - code, it was designed to further improve the anti-jamming and secure access of the military GPS signals.
Very little has been published about this new, restricted code. It contains a PRN code of unknown length transmitted at 5.115 MHz. Unlike the P (Y) - code, the M - code is designed to be autonomous, meaning that a user can calculate their position using only the M - code signal. From the P (Y) - code 's original design, users had to first lock onto the C / A code and then transfer the lock to the P (Y) - code. Later, direct - acquisition techniques were developed that allowed some users to operate autonomously with the P (Y) - code.
A little more is known about the new navigation message, which is called MNAV. Similar to the new CNAV, this new MNAV is packeted instead of framed, allowing for very flexible data payloads. Also like CNAV it can utilize Forward Error Correction (FEC) and advanced error detection (such as a CRC).
The M - code is transmitted in the same L1 and L2 frequencies already in use by the previous military code, the P (Y) - code. The new signal is shaped to place most of its energy at the edges (away from the existing P (Y) and C / A carriers).
In a major departure from previous GPS designs, the M - code is intended to be broadcast from a high - gain directional antenna, in addition to a full - Earth antenna. This directional antenna 's signal, called a spot beam, is intended to be aimed at a specific region (several hundred kilometers in diameter) and increase the local signal strength by 20 dB, or approximately 100 times stronger. A side effect of having two antennas is that the GPS satellite will appear to be two GPS satellites occupying the same position to those inside the spot beam. While the whole Earth M - code signal is available on the Block IIR - M satellites, the spot beam antennas will not be deployed until the Block III satellites are deployed, tentatively in 2018.
An interesting side effect of having each satellite transmit four separate signals is that the MNAV can potentially transmit four different data channels, offering increased data bandwidth.
The modulation method is binary offset carrier, using a 10.23 MHz subcarrier against the 5.115 MHz code. This signal will have an overall bandwidth of approximately 24 MHz, with significantly separated sideband lobes. The sidebands can be used to improve signal reception.
The L5 signal provides a means of radionavigation secure and robust enough for life critical applications, such as aircraft precision approach guidance. The signal is broadcast in a frequency band protected by the ITU for aeronautical radionavigation services. It was first demonstrated from satellite USA - 203 (Block IIR - M), and is available on all satellites from GPS IIF. The L5 band provides additional robustness in the form of interference mitigation, the band being internationally protected, redundancy with existing bands, geostationary satellite augmentation, and ground based augmentation. The added robustness of this band also benefits terrestrial applications.
Two PRN ranging codes are transmitted on L5 in quadrature: the in - phase code (called I5 - code) and the quadrature - phase code (called Q5 - code). Both codes are 10,230 bits long, transmitted at 10.23 MHz (1 ms repetition period), and are generated identically (differing only in initial states). Then, I5 is modulated (by exclusive - or) with navigation data (called L5 CNAV) and a 10 - bit Neuman - Hoffman code clocked at 1 kHz. Similarly, the Q5 - code is then modulated but with only a 20 - bit Neuman - Hoffman code that is also clocked at 1 kHz.
Compared to L1 C / A and L2, these are some of the changes in L5:
The I5 - code and Q5 - code are generated using the same structure but with different parameters. These codes are the combination (by exclusive - or) of the output of 2 differing linear - feedback shift registers (LFSRs) which are selectively reset.
where:
A (\ displaystyle A) and B (\ displaystyle B) are maximal length LFSRs. The modulo operations correspond to resets. Note that both are reset each millisecond (synchronized with C / A code epochs). In addition, the extra modulo operation in the description of A (\ displaystyle A) is due to the fact it is reset 1 cycle before its natural period (which is 8,191) so that the next repetition becomes offset by 1 cycle with respect to B (\ displaystyle B) (otherwise, since both sequences would repeat, I5 and Q5 would repeat within any 1 ms period as well, degrading correlation characteristics).
The L5 CNAV data includes SV ephemerides, system time, SV clock behavior data, status messages and time information, etc. The 50 bit / s data is coded in a rate 1 / 2 convolution coder. The resulting 100 symbols per second (sps) symbol stream is modulo - 2 added to the I5 - code only; the resultant bit - train is used to modulate the L5 in - phase (I5) carrier. This combined signal is called the L5 Data signal. The L5 quadrature - phase (Q5) carrier has no data and is called the L5 Pilot signal. The format used for L5 CNAV is very similar to that of L2 CNAV. One difference is that it uses 2 times the data rate. The bit fields within each message, message types, and forward error correction code algorithm are the same as those of L2 CNAV. L5 CNAV messages begin and end at start / end of GPS week plus an integer multiple of 6 seconds (this applies to the beginning of the first bit to contain information about a message, as is the case for L2 CNAV).
Broadcast on the L5 frequency (1176.45 MHz, 10.23 MHz × 115), which is an aeronautical navigation band. The frequency was chosen so that the aviation community can manage interference to L5 more effectively than L2.
L1C is a civilian - use signal, to be broadcast on the L1 frequency (1575.42 MHz), which contains the C / A signal used by all current GPS users. The L1C will be available with the first Block III launch, tentatively scheduled for the first half of fiscal year 2017.
L1C consists of a pilot (called L1C) and a data (called L1C) component. These components use carriers with the same phase (within a margin of error of 100 milliradians), instead of carriers in quadrature as with L5. The PRN codes are 10,230 bits long and transmitted at 1.023 Mbit / s. The pilot component is also modulated by an overlay code called L1C (a secondary code that has a lower rate than the ranging code and is also predefined, like the ranging code). Of the total L1C signal power, 25 % is allocated to the data and 75 % to the pilot. The modulation technique used is BOC (1, 1) for the data signal and TMBOC for the pilot. The time multiplexed binary offset carrier (TMBOC) is BOC (1, 1) for all except 4 of 33 cycles, when it switches to BOC (6, 1).
The L1C pilot and data ranging codes are based on a Legendre sequence with length 7004102230000000000 ♠ 10 223 used to build an intermediate code (called a Weil code) which is expanded with a fixed 7 - bit sequence to the required 10,230 bits. This 10,230 bit sequence is the ranging code and varies between PRN numbers and between the pilot and data components. The ranging codes are described by:
where:
According to the formula above and the GPS IS, the first w i (\ displaystyle w_ (i)) bits (equivalently, up to the insertion point of S (\ displaystyle S)) of L1C i ′ (\ displaystyle (\ text (L1C)) ' _ (i)) and L1C (\ displaystyle (\ text (L1C))) are the first bits the corresponding Weil code; the next 7 bits are S (\ displaystyle S); the remaining bits are the remaining bits of the Weil code.
The IS asserts that 0 ≤ p i ′ ≤ 10 222 (\ displaystyle 0 \ leq p'_ (i) \ leq 10 \, 222). For clarity, the formula for L1C i ′ (\ displaystyle (\ text (L1C)) ' _ (i)) does not account for the hypothetical case in which p i ′ > 10 222 (\ displaystyle p'_ (i) > 10 \, 222), which would cause the instance of S (\ displaystyle S) inserted into L1C i ′ (\ displaystyle (\ text (L1C)) ' _ (i)) to wrap from index 7004102290000000000 ♠ 10 229 to 0.
The overlay codes are 1,800 bits long and is transmitted at 100 bit / s, synchronized with the navigation message encoded in L1C.
For PRN numbers 1 to 63 they are the truncated outputs of maximal period LFSRs which vary in initial conditions and feedback polynomials.
For PRN numbers 64 to 210 they are truncated Gold codes generated by combining 2 LFSR outputs (S1 i (\ displaystyle (\ text (S1)) _ (i)) and S2 i (\ displaystyle (\ text (S2)) _ (i)), where i (\ displaystyle i) is the PRN number) whose initial state varies. S1 i (\ displaystyle (\ text (S1)) _ (i)) has one of the 4 feedback polynomials used overall (among PRN numbers 64 -- 210). S2 i (\ displaystyle (\ text (S2)) _ (i)) has the same feedback polynomial for all PRN numbers in the range 64 -- 210.
The L1C navigation data (called CNAV - 2) is broadcast in 1,800 bits long (including FEC) frames and is transmitted at 100 bit / s.
The frames of L1C are analogous to the messages of L1C and L5. While L2 CNAV and L5 CNAV use a dedicated message type for ephemeris data, all CNAV - 2 frames include that information.
The common structure of all messages consists of 3 frames, as listed in the adjacent table. The content of subframe 3 varies according to its page number which is analogous to the type number of L2 CNAV and L5 CNAV messages. Pages are broadcast in an arbitrary order.
The time of messages (not to be confused with clock correction parameters) is expressed in a different format than the format of the previous civilian signals. Instead it consists of 3 components:
TOI is the only content of subframe 1. The week number and ITOW are contained in subframe 2 along with other information.
Subframe 1 is encoded by a modified BCH code. Specifically, the 8 least significant bits are BCH encoded to generate 51 bits, then combined using exclusive or with the most significant bit and finally the most significant bit is appended as the most significant bit of the previous result to obtain the final 52 bits. Subframes 2 and 3 are individually expanded with a 24 bit CRC, then individually encoded using a low - density parity - check code, and then interleaved as a single unit using a block interleaver.
All satellites broadcast at the same two frequencies, 1.57542 GHz (L1 signal) and 1.2276 GHz (L2 signal). The satellite network uses a CDMA spread - spectrum technique where the low - bitrate message data is encoded with a high - rate pseudo-random (PRN) sequence that is different for each satellite. The receiver must be aware of the PRN codes for each satellite to reconstruct the actual message data. The C / A code, for civilian use, transmits data at 1.023 million chips per second, whereas the P code, for U.S. military use, transmits at 10.23 million chips per second. The L1 carrier is modulated by both the C / A and P codes, while the L2 carrier is only modulated by the P code. The P code can be encrypted as a so - called P (Y) code which is only available to military equipment with a proper decryption key. Both the C / A and P (Y) codes impart the precise time - of - day to the user.
Each composite signal (in - phase and quadrature phase) becomes:
where P I (\ displaystyle \ scriptstyle P_ (\ operatorname (I))) and P Q (\ displaystyle \ scriptstyle P_ (\ operatorname (Q))) represent signal powers; X I (t) (\ displaystyle \ scriptstyle X_ (\ operatorname (I)) (t)) and X Q (t) (\ displaystyle \ scriptstyle X_ (\ operatorname (Q)) (t)) represent codes with / without data (= ± 1) (\ displaystyle \ scriptstyle (= \; \ pm 1)). This is a formula for the ideal case (which is not attained in practice) as it does not model timing errors, noise, amplitude mismatch between components or quadrature error (when components are not exactly in quadrature).
A GPS receiver processes the GPS signals received on its antenna to determine position, velocity and / or timing. The signal at antenna is amplified, down converted to baseband or intermediate frequency, filtered (to remove frequencies outside the intended frequency range for the digital signal that would alias into it) and digitalized; these steps may be chained in a different order. Note that aliasing is sometimes intentional (specifically, when undersampling is used) but filtering is still required to discard frequencies not intended to be present in the digital representation.
For each satellite used by the receiver, the receiver must first acquire the signal and then track it as long as that satellite is in use; both are performed in the digital domain in by far most (if not all) receivers.
Acquiring a signal is the process of determining the frequency and code phase (both relative to receiver time) when it was previously unknown. Code phase must be determined within an accuracy that depends on the receiver design (especially the tracking loop); 0.5 times the duration of code chips (approx. 0.489 μs) is a representative value.
Tracking is the process of continuously adjusting the estimated frequency and phase to match the received signal as close as possible and therefore is a phase locked loop. Note that acquisition is performed to start using a particular satellite, but tracking is performed as long as that satellite is in use.
In this section, one possible procedure is described for L1 C / A acquisition and tracking, but the process is very similar for the other signals. The described procedure is based on computing the correlation of the received signal with a locally generated replica of the ranging code and detecting the highest peak or lowest valley. The offset of the highest peak or lowest valley contains information about the code phase relative to receiver time. The duration of the local replica is set by receiver design and is typically shorter than the duration of navigation data bits, which is 20 ms.
Acquisition of a given PRN number can be conceptualized as searching for a signal in a bidimensional search space where the dimensions are (1) code phase, (2) frequency. In addition, a receiver may not know which PRN number to search for, and in that case a third dimension is added to the search space: (3) PRN number.
If the almanac information has previously been acquired, the receiver picks which satellites to listen for by their PRNs. If the almanac information is not in memory, the receiver enters a search mode and cycles through the PRN numbers until a lock is obtained on one of the satellites. To obtain a lock, it is necessary that there be an unobstructed line of sight from the receiver to the satellite. The receiver can then decode the almanac and determine the satellites it should listen for. As it detects each satellite 's signal, it identifies it by its distinct C / A code pattern.
The simplest way to acquire the signal (not necessarily the most effective or least computationally expensive) is to compute the dot product of a window of the digitalized signal with a set of locally generated replicas. The locally generated replicas vary in carrier frequency and code phase to cover all the already mentioned search space which is the Cartesian product of the frequency search space and the code phase search space. The carrier is a complex number where real and imaginary components are both sinusoids as described by Euler 's formula. The replica that generates the highest magnitude of dot product is likely the one that best matches the code phase and frequency of the signal; therefore, if that magnitude is above a threshold, the receiver proceeds to track the signal or further refine the estimated parameters before tracking. The threshold is used to minimize false positives (apparently detecting a signal when there is in fact no signal), but some may still occur occasionally.
Using a complex carrier allows the replicas to match the digitalized signal regardless of the signal 's carrier phase and to detect that phase (the principle is the same used by the Fourier transform). The dot product is a complex number; its magnitude represents the level of similarity between the replica and the signal, as with an ordinary correlation of real - valued time series. The argument of the dot product is an approximation of the corresponding carrier in the digitalized signal.
As an example, assume that the granularity for the search in code phase is 0.5 chips and in frequency is 500 Hz, then there are 1,023 / 0.5 = 2,046 code phases and 10,000 Hz / 500 Hz = 20 frequencies to try for a total of 20 × 2,046 = 40,920 local replicas. Note that each frequency bin is centered on its interval and therefore covers 250 Hz in each direction; for example, the first bin has a carrier at − 4.750 Hz and covers the interval − 5,000 Hz to − 4,500 Hz. Code phases are equivalent modulo 1,023 because the ranging code is periodic; for example, phase − 0.5 is equivalent to phase 1,022.5.
The following table depicts the local replicas that would be compared against the digitalized signal in this example. "'' means a single local replica while "... '' is used for elided local replicas:
As an improvement over the simple correlation method, it is possible to implement the computation of dot products more efficiently with a Fourier transform. Instead of performing one dot product for each element in the Cartesian product of code and frequency, a single operation involving FFT and covering all frequencies is performed for each code phase; each such operation is more computationally expensive, but it may still be faster overall than the previous method due to the efficiency of FFT algorithms, and it recovers carrier frequency with a higher accuracy, because the frequency bins are much closely spaced in a DFT.
Specifically, for all code phases in the search space, the digitalized signal window is multiplied element by element with a local replica of the code (with no carrier), then processed with a discrete Fourier transform.
Given the previous example to be processed with this method, assume real - valued data (as opposed to complex data, which would have in - phase and quadrature components), a sampling rate of 5 MHz, a signal window of 10 ms, and an intermediate frequency of 2.5 MHz. There will be 5 MHz × 10 ms = 50,000 samples in the digital signal, and therefore 25,001 frequency components ranging from 0 Hz to 2.5 MHz in steps of 100 Hz (note that the 0 Hz component is real because it is the average of a real - valued signal and the 2.5 MHz component is real as well because it is the critical frequency). Only the components (or bins) within 5 kHz of the central frequency are examined, which is the range from 2.495 MHz to 2.505 MHz, and it is covered by 51 frequency components. There are 2,046 code phases as in the previous case, thus in total 51 × 2,046 = 104,346 complex frequency components will be examined.
Likewise, as an improvement over the simple correlation method, it is possible to perform a single operation covering all code phases for each frequency bin. The operation performed for each code phase bin involves forward FFT, element-wise multiplication in the frequency domain. inverse FFT, and extra processing so that overall, it computes circular correlation instead of circular convolution. This yields more accurate code phase determination than the simple correlation method in contrast with the previous method, which yields more accurate carrier frequency determination than the previous method.
Since the carrier frequency received can vary due to Doppler shift, the points where received PRN sequences begin may not differ from O by an exact integral number of milliseconds. Because of this, carrier frequency tracking along with PRN code tracking are used to determine when the received satellite 's PRN code begins. Unlike the earlier computation of offset in which trials of all 1,023 offsets could potentially be required, the tracking to maintain lock usually requires shifting of half a pulse width or less. To perform this tracking, the receiver observes two quantities, phase error and received frequency offset. The correlation of the received PRN code with respect to the receiver generated PRN code is computed to determine if the bits of the two signals are misaligned. Comparisons of the received PRN code with receiver generated PRN code shifted half a pulse width early and half a pulse width late are used to estimate adjustment required. The amount of adjustment required for maximum correlation is used in estimating phase error. Received frequency offset from the frequency generated by the receiver provides an estimate of phase rate error. The command for the frequency generator and any further PRN code shifting required are computed as a function of the phase error and the phase rate error in accordance with the control law used. The Doppler velocity is computed as a function of the frequency offset from the carrier nominal frequency. The Doppler velocity is the velocity component along the line of sight of the receiver relative to the satellite.
As the receiver continues to read successive PRN sequences, it will encounter a sudden change in the phase of the 1,023 bit received PRN signal. This indicates the beginning of a data bit of the navigation message. This enables the receiver to begin reading the 20 millisecond bits of the navigation message. The TLM word at the beginning of each subframe of a navigation frame enables the receiver to detect the beginning of a subframe and determine the receiver clock time at which the navigation subframe begins. The HOW word then enables the receiver to determine which specific subframe is being transmitted. There can be a delay of up to 30 seconds before the first estimate of position because of the need to read the ephemeris data before computing the intersections of sphere surfaces.
After a subframe has been read and interpreted, the time the next subframe was sent can be calculated through the use of the clock correction data and the HOW. The receiver knows the receiver clock time of when the beginning of the next subframe was received from detection of the Telemetry Word thereby enabling computation of the transit time and thus the pseudorange. The receiver is potentially capable of getting a new pseudorange measurement at the beginning of each subframe or every 6 seconds.
Then the orbital position data, or ephemeris, from the navigation message is used to calculate precisely where the satellite was at the start of the message. A more sensitive receiver will potentially acquire the ephemeris data more quickly than a less sensitive receiver, especially in a noisy environment.
GPS Interface Specification
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who wrote the lyrics to blowin in the wind | Blowin ' in the Wind - wikipedia
"Blowin ' in the Wind '' is a song written by Bob Dylan in 1962 and released as a single and on his album The Freewheelin ' Bob Dylan in 1963. Although it has been described as a protest song, it poses a series of rhetorical questions about peace, war, and freedom. The refrain "The answer, my friend, is blowin ' in the wind '' has been described as "impenetrably ambiguous: either the answer is so obvious it is right in your face, or the answer is as intangible as the wind ''.
In 1994, the song was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame. In 2004, it was ranked number 14 on Rolling Stone magazine 's list of the "500 Greatest Songs of All Time ''.
Dylan originally wrote and performed a two - verse version of the song; its first public performance, at Gerde 's Folk City on April 16, 1962, was recorded and circulated among Dylan collectors. Shortly after this performance, he added the middle verse to the song. Some published versions of the lyrics reverse the order of the second and third verses, apparently because Dylan simply appended the middle verse to his original manuscript, rather than writing out a new copy with the verses in proper order. The song was published for the first time in May 1962, in the sixth issue of Broadside, the magazine founded by Pete Seeger and devoted to topical songs. The theme may have been taken from a passage in Woody Guthrie 's autobiography, Bound for Glory, in which Guthrie compared his political sensibility to newspapers blowing in the winds of New York City streets and alleys. Dylan was certainly familiar with Guthrie 's work; his reading of it had been a major turning point in his intellectual and political development.
In June 1962, the song was published in Sing Out!, accompanied by Dylan 's comments:
There ai n't too much I can say about this song except that the answer is blowing in the wind. It ai n't in no book or movie or TV show or discussion group. Man, it 's in the wind -- and it 's blowing in the wind. Too many of these hip people are telling me where the answer is but oh I wo n't believe that. I still say it 's in the wind and just like a restless piece of paper it 's got to come down some... But the only trouble is that no one picks up the answer when it comes down so not too many people get to see and know... and then it flies away. I still say that some of the biggest criminals are those that turn their heads away when they see wrong and know it 's wrong. I 'm only 21 years old and I know that there 's been too many... You people over 21, you 're older and smarter.
Dylan recorded "Blowin ' in the Wind '' on July 9, 1962, for inclusion on his second album, The Freewheelin ' Bob Dylan, released in May 1963.
In his sleeve notes for The Bootleg Series Volumes 1 -- 3 (Rare & Unreleased) 1961 -- 1991, John Bauldie wrote that Pete Seeger first identified the melody of "Blowin ' in the Wind '' as an adaptation of the old African - American spiritual "No More Auction Block / We Shall Overcome ''. According to Alan Lomax 's The Folk Songs of North America, the song originated in Canada and was sung by former slaves who fled there after Britain abolished slavery in 1833. In 1978, Dylan acknowledged the source when he told journalist Marc Rowland: "' Blowin ' in the Wind ' has always been a spiritual. I took it off a song called ' No More Auction Block ' -- that 's a spiritual and ' Blowin ' in the Wind ' follows the same feeling. '' Dylan 's performance of "No More Auction Block '' was recorded at the Gaslight Cafe in October 1962, and appeared on The Bootleg Series Volumes 1 -- 3 (Rare & Unreleased) 1961 -- 1991.
The critic Michael Gray suggested that the lyric is an example of Dylan 's incorporation of Biblical rhetoric into his own style. A particular rhetorical form deployed time and again in the New Testament and based on a text from the Old Testament book of Ezekiel (12: 1 -- 2) is: "The word of the Lord came to me: ' Oh mortal, you dwell among the rebellious breed. They have eyes to see but see not; ears to hear, but hear not. '' In "Blowin ' in the Wind '', Dylan transforms this into "Yes'n ' how many ears must one man have...? '' and "Yes ' n ' how many times must a man turn his head / Pretending he just does n't see? ''
"Blowin ' in the Wind '' has been described as an anthem of the civil rights movement. In Martin Scorsese 's documentary on Dylan, No Direction Home, Mavis Staples expressed her astonishment on first hearing the song and said she could not understand how a young white man could write something that captured the frustration and aspirations of black people so powerfully. Sam Cooke was similarly deeply impressed by the song, incorporating it into his repertoire soon after its release (a version would be included on Sam Cooke at the Copa), and being inspired by it to write "A Change Is Gonna Come ''.
"Blowin ' in the Wind '' was first covered by The Chad Mitchell Trio, but their record company delayed release of the album containing it because the song included the word death, so the trio lost out to Peter, Paul and Mary, who were represented by Dylan 's manager, Albert Grossman. The single sold a phenomenal 300,000 copies in the first week of release and made the song world - famous. On August 17, 1963, it reached number two on the Billboard pop chart, with sales exceeding one million copies. Peter Yarrow recalled that, when he told Dylan he would make more than $5,000 (equivalent to $40,000 in 2017) from the publishing rights, Dylan was speechless. Peter, Paul and Mary 's version of the song also spent five weeks atop the easy listening chart.
The critic Andy Gill wrote,
"Blowin ' in the Wind '' marked a huge jump in Dylan 's songwriting. Prior to this, efforts like "The Ballad of Donald White '' and "The Death of Emmett Till '' had been fairly simplistic bouts of reportage songwriting. "Blowin ' in the Wind '' was different: for the first time, Dylan discovered the effectiveness of moving from the particular to the general. Whereas "The Ballad of Donald White '' would become completely redundant as soon as the eponymous criminal was executed, a song as vague as "Blowin ' in the Wind '' could be applied to just about any freedom issue. It remains the song with which Dylan 's name is most inextricably linked, and safeguarded his reputation as a civil libertarian through any number of changes in style and attitude.
Dylan performed the song for the first time on television in the UK in January 1963, when he appeared in the BBC television play Madhouse on Castle Street. He also performed the song during his first national US television appearance, filmed in March 1963, a performance made available in 2005 on the DVD release of Martin Scorsese 's PBS television documentary on Dylan, No Direction Home.
An allegation that the song was written by a high - school student named Lorre Wyatt and subsequently purchased or plagiarised by Dylan before he gained fame was reported in an article in Newsweek magazine in November 1963. The plagiarism claim was eventually shown to be untrue.
The first line of the song ("How many roads must a man walk down? '') is proposed as the "Ultimate Question '' in the science fiction novel The Hitchhiker 's Guide to the Galaxy, by Douglas Adams.
In the 1994 film Forrest Gump, Jenny sings this song for a show in a strip club and is introduced as "Bobbi Dylan ''. The film 's soundtrack album features Joan Baez 's 1976 live recording of the song, from her album From Every Stage.
In 1975, the song was included as poetry in a high - school English textbook in Sri Lanka. The textbook caused controversy because it replaced Shakespeare 's work with Dylan 's.
During the protests against the Iraq War, commentators noted that protesters were resurrecting songs such as "Blowin ' in the Wind '' rather than creating new ones.
The song has been embraced by many liberal churches, and in the 1960s and 1970s it was sung both in Catholic church "folk masses '' and as a hymn in Protestant ones. In 1997, Bob Dylan performed three other songs at a Catholic church congress. Pope John Paul II, who was in attendance, told the crowd of some 300,000 young Italian Catholics that the answer was indeed "in the wind '' -- not in the wind that blew things away, but rather "in the wind of the spirit '' that would lead them to Christ. In 2007, Pope Benedict XVI (who had also been in attendance) wrote that he was uncomfortable with music stars such as Dylan performing in a church environment.
In 2009, Dylan licensed the song to be used in an advertisement for the British consumer - owned Co-Operative Group. The Co-Op claimed that Dylan 's decision was influenced by "the Co-Op's high ethical guidelines regarding fair trade and the environment. '' The Co-Op, which is owned by about 3 million consumers, also includes Britain 's largest funeral parlour and farming business.
He was described by David Barrett in 2017 as a ' living legend ' and ' a true inspiration ' to customer service representatives around the globe.
"Blowin ' in the Wind '' has been recorded by hundreds of artists. The most commercially successful version is by folk music trio Peter, Paul and Mary, who released the song in June 1963, three weeks after The Freewheelin ' Bob Dylan was issued. Albert Grossman, then managing both Dylan and Peter, Paul and Mary, brought the trio the song which they promptly recorded (on a single take) and released. The trio 's version, which was the title track of their third album, peaked at number 2 on the Billboard charts. The group 's version also went to number one on the Middle - Road charts for five weeks.
"How many words can be written on a page, before they begin to bleed? How many books can one man own, before he has learned to read? How many meanings can he give to a phrase, before, from his lexicon he 's freed? ''
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where did big live in sex and the city | Mr. Big (Sex and the City) - wikipedia
Harriet Preston (mother)
John James "Mr. Big '' Preston is a recurring fictional character in the HBO series Sex and the City, portrayed by Chris Noth. He is the primary on - and - off love interest of the series ' protagonist, Carrie Bradshaw, who usually simply refers to him as "Big ''.
According to accounts in the press, the Mr. Big character was based on publishing executive Ron Galotti, former publisher of GQ and Talk. Bushnell told New York Magazine in 2004, "He was one of those New York guys with a big personality -- you just notice him as soon as he walks in the room, '' and "I called him Mr. Big because he was like a big man on campus. '' Big appeared in Comcast 's list of TV 's Most Intriguing Characters.
"Big '' appears in the first episode of Sex and the City as a very attractive stranger who helps Carrie pick up the contents of her purse (notably cosmetics and condoms) after she is accidentally bumped by a stranger on the streets of Manhattan. The nickname "Big '' refers to his status as a "major tycoon, major dreamboat, and majorly out of (Carrie 's) league ''. (His real name is not revealed to viewers until the final episode of the series; in a running joke, whenever Carrie is about to introduce Mr. Big to another character onscreen, she is interrupted before she can say his name.) When Carrie and her friend Samantha bump into Big at a nightclub, Samantha tries to hit on him, but he tactfully declines. In the first few episodes, he and Carrie frequently bump into one another, until finally Big suggests the two of them should "bump into one another on purpose ''. Carrie agrees and thus begins their on - again - off - again relationship. Big calls Carrie by the nickname "Kid ''. When Carrie asks Big if he has ever been in love, he replies, "Ab - so - fucking - lutely ''.
Carrie eventually falls in love with Big, despite his fear of commitment. His reserved communication on relationship issues and Carrie 's coping with the ambiguity are a frequent plot device. Carrie repeatedly returns to the relationship even though he is clearly emotionally unavailable to her and unable to meet her needs. Although it appears Mr. Big was emotionally crippled by a series of failed relationships, the subject is often glossed over as him simply being selfish. Mr. Big 's tendency to take major emotional steps in the relationship more slowly than Carrie is often portrayed as emotional unavailability rather than the caution born of a repeatedly broken heart. Carrie 's misinterpretation of Mr. Big 's inner turmoil as unreachable distance often creates larger issues because of her misplaced feelings of unworthiness, and due to her propensity for not communicating truthfully until too late, results in a lot of painful misunderstandings. Carrie accepts no responsibility for her impatience and lack of empathy, often issuing ultimatums (I.e. first break - up), and Big ca n't shed his ingrained emotional pessimism to fully embrace Carrie as a partner. They break up repeatedly, over the course of two years for those reasons, before Big marries a gorgeous twenty - six - year - old socialite and Ralph Lauren employee named Natasha (Bridget Moynahan) after dating her for only five months. This hurts Carrie, as she wonders why he could take steps with Natasha that he refused to take with Carrie. It becomes obvious later that Mr. Big had simply skipped many of the important emotional steps before marriage, many of which he had definitely, if slowly, taken with Carrie, ironically creating the problems of distance and unavailability between Big and Natasha, which Carrie had so feared in their own relationship.
Within seven months of his marriage, he begins to chafe at his matrimonial bonds and pines for Carrie; he initiates an affair with her. Carrie, who is in a committed relationship (with Aidan Shaw) at the time, feels guilty but continues to see Big. The affair continues until Natasha comes home unexpectedly and discovers Carrie fleeing - half dressed - from the marital apartment. Natasha trips and breaks her tooth while chasing after Carrie, who ends up taking Natasha to the emergency room. As a result, Carrie ends the affair. Carrie later finds out that Big and Natasha have divorced.
Big and Carrie eventually become close friends. He relocates to Napa Valley, and they are able to discuss their other ongoing relationships with each other. But their sexual chemistry always remains just below the surface, and their friendship never remains strictly platonic. After reading Carrie 's book, Big begins to understand how much he has hurt her, and he empathizes further when a woman he is dating treats him in a fashion similar to the way Big has treated Carrie: at arm 's length, eschewing true intimacy. The relationship between Big and the celebrity is certainly a parallel between Carrie / Big, except that the celebrity refuses physical intimacy one - sidedly, ignoring Big 's overtures except when it suits her, whereas Carrie / Big 's problems were almost completely emotional and undeniably two sided. Although it ends up allowing Big to finally get past his inner pain, the comparison is rather crude. Big grows as an emotional being, changing and evolving as the series progresses, moving past innate pain to suit Carrie 's needs better, ostensibly becoming a "better man. ''
Big seems to have no real friends, at least in New York. He is rarely shown with other males, and when he is, they are usually credited as colleagues or acquaintances. At one scene he is shown to spend New Year 's Eve celebration alone, sitting at a restaurant, but seems to feel comfortable with the situation.
The series finale, "An American Girl in Paris '', ties together the loose ends of Carrie and Big 's relationship and concludes their long, unconventional courtship. Absent for most of season six, Big suddenly reappears in Carrie 's life near the end of the season, once again at the wrong time. At this point, Carrie has grown tired and frustrated with Big 's inconsistency and rebuffs him, but also realizes her behavior towards him has often pushed him away. However, Big is desperate to win Carrie back. The season finale depicts his attempt to reunite with her.
The series finale takes place over two episodes in which Carrie moves to Paris with her current boyfriend, Russian artist Aleksandr Petrovsky (played by Mikhail Baryshnikov). In the first half of the finale, "An American Girl in Paris Part Une '', Big shows up outside Carrie 's apartment in New York after she fails to return his phone calls. She is on her way to her last dinner with the girls before departing for Paris. Big attempts to invite Carrie to dinner and drinks in order to apologize for the way he treated her, only to be turned down. Carrie explains that she is moving to Paris with a man she 's in a relationship with. Big ironically asks Carrie when she was going to tell him that she was moving to Paris, a reference to the time earlier in their relationship when Big moved to Napa and almost did n't tell Carrie. Big teases her about moving to Paris with a Russian and then tries to tell her that she 's "The One ''. Carrie loses her temper and tells Big that she is tired of having him interrupt her life and ruin her happiness for the past six years. Then she rushes off to meet her friends for dinner, leaving Big alone and confused on the street.
When Charlotte stops by Carrie 's apartment one day, she hears Big leaving a message on Carrie 's answering machine, asking her for one last chance. Charlotte picks up and invites him to meet with her, Miranda, and Samantha. At a restaurant, he asks them if they think Carrie really is happy and if he has any shot of winning her back. After much deliberation, with Carrie 's current situation and her history with Big in the forefront of their minds, Miranda tells him to "go get our girl ''. Mr. Big then does not appear again until the second installment of the finale, "An American Girl in Paris Part Deux ''.
Meanwhile, Carrie is distraught and unhappy in her relationship with Aleksandr. She passes Big in his limo on the street in Paris while looking for a cab, but neither of them see each other. Big appears to be searching for Carrie, but the limo rides on and Carrie continues on her way.
Big reappears in Carrie 's hotel lobby at just the right moment, as Carrie is squatting down, tearfully gathering up stray diamonds from her broken necklace. She is waiting for a new hotel room, as she just walked out on Aleksandr after a big fight. Big comes through the door and as Carrie looks up and sees him, she begins to cry. She explains that everything is a mess and Paris is n't what she thought it would be. Then she tells Big that Alexandr slapped her during an argument. Big becomes protective and immediately begins climbing the stairs to Aleksandr 's room to reprimand him (or as he puts it, "kick some Russian ass ''). In a desperate attempt to stop him, Carrie trips him and they both fall to the floor, laughing hysterically. They give up seeking out Petrovsky and take a romantic stroll in Paris. He finally tells her she 's the one and she asks him to take her home to New York. They arrive at Carrie 's apartment late at night and she asks him if he wants to come up. He answers with a memorable line he used in the first episode ("abso - fucking - lutely ''), which reminds the audience that he is still, in fact, the confident, sexy Big that Carrie has been in love with from day one.
His real name, John, is finally revealed on Carrie 's cell phone caller ID after she returns to the city and he calls to tell her he is closing the sale of his Napa estate and returning to New York. Executive producer Michael Patrick King has stated that by never revealing his real name, Big remained "always slightly out of reach '' for Carrie, and this plot device is maintained throughout the entire run of the series. Although we see his name in that final shot, Michael Patrick King makes a point (in the DVD commentary) that we never hear it spoken in the series.
In the feature film Sex and the City: The Movie, Carrie and Big decide to marry, after Carrie brings it up when she starts to feel anxious about her relationship 's status. She has just returned from an auction of jewelry from the collection of a woman (who was the long - time girlfriend of a wealthy man) who was abruptly dumped and thrown out of the apartment she 'd shared with him for many years. The cautionary tale worries Carrie, so Big proposes in order for Carrie to have legal rights to the fabulous penthouse they are purchasing together. However, their plans for a simple wedding balloon out of control after Vogue decides to feature her in a wedding gown in the magazine. The twice - divorced Big feels it has degenerated into a "circus '', with hundreds of guests, unwanted publicity, and a tremendous designer wedding gown taking over the original plan for a small, private ceremony. An ill - thought comment from the just - separated and upset Miranda rattles him further. Just before the ceremony Big gives in to cold feet and bails, but rethinks the decision minutes later and rushes back. He intercepts Carrie as she is leaving the ceremony. A broken - hearted and humiliated Carrie attacks him with her bouquet, shrieking "I knew you would do this! '' He repeatedly attempts to apologize and explain then and after, but Carrie ignores his letters and emails, and they spend months apart (close to a year) with no contact whatsoever.
When Carrie hires an assistant, Louise, she instructs her to "put Big in a place where she never has to hear from him again. '' So Louise creates a folder in Carrie 's e-mail that is password protected and Big 's many e-mails are saved in the secret folder. Charlotte later gives birth to a baby -- her water breaking while she is yelling at Big for breaking Carrie 's heart. Big takes her to the hospital and stays until the baby is born, hoping to run into Carrie. When Carrie arrives at the hospital, they tell her the tale. Harry reveals that Big begged her to call him, and that he 's written her many letters. Puzzled, Carrie goes home and scours her mail, realizing that his e-mails are in Louise 's secret folder. She guesses the password and finds that Big has re-written numerous love letters by poets, and one from himself promising to love her forever. Carrie 's assistant reminds her that she left a pair of never - worn Manolo Blahnik shoes in the penthouse that she and Big owned, and that the locks will be changed for the new owners that day. Carrie rushes over to the penthouse to find Big there, holding her shoes. She runs into his arms as she can no longer deny her still very strong love for him. Carrie narrates, "It was n't logic; it was love, '' and the two quietly marry at New York City Hall.
In Sex and the City 2 Carrie always wants to go out, while Mr. Big would prefer to stay home and watch television some evenings. After Carrie returns to her old apartment to work on an assignment and their reunion is particularly sweet, Big proposes to be separated for two days in the week, with one of them staying in Carrie 's old apartment, which she has always kept. Carrie agrees, despite misgivings and questioning by Charlotte.
In Abu Dhabi, Carrie runs into her former love Aidan. Carrie and Aidan dated twice. They broke up the first time because Carrie and Big had an affair. They broke up a second time because Aidan still could n't trust her after all that time due to her affair with Big, and after Aidan proposes, marriage does n't sit well with Carrie, so the two break off their engagement. Aidan is now married with three boys and is in Abu Dhabi on business. The two agree to meet for dinner, despite warnings from Charlotte, who feels that Carrie is "playing with fire ''. Aidan and Carrie kiss before Carrie breaks away and runs to her hotel. Distraught about what to do, she eventually calls Big to confess to the kiss. He becomes distant and wo n't return her phone calls.
When Carrie returns to New York, the apartment is empty and she sits all day waiting for Big to come home. He finally returns that evening with her "punishment:: Carrie must wear a black diamond ring to remind herself that she is married. The two reconcile and kiss. The film concludes with a montage of scenes from the girls ' lives - Big and Carrie have successfully combined their desires and interests, and the two are content as their married life has grown past the "Terrible Twos ''.
One interesting moment in the episode "Easy Come, Easy Go '' (season three) involves Carrie running into Big and Natasha at a furniture show, shortly after Carrie begins dating Aidan Shaw (Carrie quips that she is Aidan 's "Booth Bitch ''). After introducing her boyfriend, Carrie is about to introduce Big (presumably by name), when she nervously spills coffee on him instead, derailing the scene and thereby avoiding having to reveal the mystery of Big 's name for the audience.
When Carrie asks him on the phone "who is this '', he simply says "how have you been? ''
In the episode "Defining Moments '' in season four, Carrie begins introducing Big to the jazz musician, Ray King (played by Craig Bierko), but is interrupted when Ray tells Big that his drink is "running low ''.
In "The Caste System '', Carrie is asked by Jeremiah, a waiter at a party, who she is with. Angered at Big at this time, Carrie simply responds, "Some guy. ''
In the episode "Three 's a Crowd '' in Season 1, Carrie is talking to Big 's ex-wife, Barbara, when she asks if Carrie is with anyone. Carrie avoids the question so as not to let Barbara know she 's seeing him, therefore keeping Big 's name a mystery.
In "The Agony and the ' ex'tasy '' in season 4, Carrie calls Big but gets the answering machine on which he introduces himself with his number instead of his name.
In the episode "The Big Journey '' in season 5, Carrie is having a question and answer session during her book reading in San Francisco. Big raises his hand and asks her if the Big character in her book has a real name. Carrie responds by saying she has to protect his identity and ca n't use his real name.
In season 6 "An American Girl in Paris: Part Une '' Mr. Big is leaving a message on Carrie 's machine and is about to say his name when Charlotte picks up interrupting him.
In the final episode of the series Carrie receives a call from "John '', who is Big.
In the full trailer for the Sex and the City: The Movie, Big 's name is revealed to be John James Preston. In the movie, it is the first time we hear Carrie call him "John '' instead of Big.
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where will the currie cup final be played | Currie Cup - Wikipedia
The Currie Cup tournament is South Africa 's premier domestic rugby union competition, played each winter and spring (June to October), featuring teams representing either entire provinces or substantial regions within provinces. Although it is the premier domestic competition, South African teams also compete in the international Super Rugby competition as well as the Pro14.
Steeped in history and tradition, the Currie Cup dates back to 1891. The tournament is regarded as the cornerstone of South Africa 's rugby heritage, and the coveted gold trophy remains the most prestigious prize in South African domestic rugby.
The Currie Cup is one of the oldest rugby competitions, with the first games played in 1889 but it was only in 1892 that it became officially known as the Currie Cup. The competition had its humble beginnings as an inter-province competition in 1884, but when the South African Rugby Board was founded in 1889 it decided to organize a national competition that would involve representative teams from all the major unions. The original participating unions were Western Province, Griqualand West, Transvaal and Eastern Province. The first tournament was held in Kimberley and was won by Western Province. For a prize they received a silver cup donated by the South African Rugby Board, now displayed at the SA Rugby Museum in Cape Town. The story of how the Currie Cup came to be comes from the first overseas rugby team to tour South Africa in 1891, The British Isles, who carried with them a particularly precious bit of cargo. Among the bags, boots and balls was a golden cup given to them by Sir Donald Currie, owner of Union - Castle Lines, the shipping company that transported them to the southern tip of Africa. Sir Donald was clear with his instructions -- hand this trophy over to the team in South Africa that gives you the best game; and after a spirited display where the unbeaten British Lions narrowly won 3 - 0, Griqualand West became the first ever holders of the Currie Cup. They then handed the trophy over to the South African rugby board and it became the floating trophy for the Currie Cup competition. The inaugural Currie Cup tournament was thus held in 1892 with Western Province earning the honour of holding it aloft as the first official winners.
The competition missed a few years here and there for reasons such as war and the like, but in 1968 it became a fully fledged annual showpiece. Western Province dominated the competition 's early years, and by 1920 the team from Cape Town had already secured the trophy 10 times. Only Griqualand West could halt the rampant WP side and win the trophy in 1899 and 1911. In 1922 the Transvaal won the competition for the first time, however Western Province would continue to dominate the Currie Cup throughout the 1920s and 1930s, winning the trophy a further 4 times and sharing it twice with Border. In 1939 the trophy returned to Johannesburg for only the second time after Transvaal defeated Western Province in Cape Town. This was the first time WP had lost a final at their home ground Newlands. The Currie Cup went into hiatus during the Second World War but resumed in 1946 when Northern Transvaal claimed their first ever trophy by beating Western Province 11 - 9 in the final at Loftus Versfeld in Pretoria. The late 1940s and early 1950s were dominated by Transvaal who would win the trophy in 1950 and 1952, however in 1954 the Currie Cup would finally return south following Western Province 's narrow 11 - 8 victory over Northern Transvaal in the final at Newlands in Cape Town.
At the end of the 1980s, South African rugby supporters were treated to two of the most memorable Currie Cup finals. In 1989 winger Carel du Plessis scored a last - minute try as WP managed to draw with Northern Transvaal 16 - all, Riaan Gouws missed the conversion which would have given WP its 6th title of the decade a feat which has never been achieved. The following year the Blue Bulls slipped up, though, and Natal sneaked home 18 - 12, inspired by fly - half Joel Stransky. The 1990s saw further improvement by Natal and the rise of Francois Pienaar 's Transvaal. Since the age of professionalism in rugby union in the early 1990s, the Currie Cup has become much more competitive with no team able to carve out an era of dominance like that of WP in the early years or Northern Transvaal in the 1970s and 1980s. All five of the so - called ' big unions ' have won the Currie Cup on at least one occasion in the last 20 years; the Golden Lions (formerly Transvaal) have won the trophy 3 times in 1999, 2011 and 2015; Western Province have won the trophy on six occasions in 1997, 2000, 2001, 2012, 2014, and 2017; the Blue Bulls (formerly Northern Transvaal) have wom the trophy 5 times in 1998, 2002, 2003, 2004 and 2009; the Free State Cheetahs have won the trophy 3 times in 2005, 2007 and 2016 and the Sharks have won the trophy 3 times in 2008, 2010 and 2013. In 2006 the trophy was shared by the Free State Cheetahs and Blue Bulls following their 28 - 28 all draw in a tense final in Bloemfontein. Whilst these days the competition lags behind Super Rugby and The Rugby Championship (previously the Tri-Nations) in the order of importance, the Currie Cup still holds a special place amongst South African rugby supporters and players, with the trophy very much still the holy grail of the South African domestic rugby scene.
From 1996 to 2015, the following 14 provincial unions participated in the Currie Cup:
From 2016, the Currie Cup added Welwitschias, a team from Namibia.
Between 1892 and 1920, the competition was held as a centralised tournament, with the team with the best record crowned as the winner. Between 1922 and 1936 (as well as in three tournaments between 1957 and 1966), the winner was the team with the best record following a round - robin competition. In all the other seasons, a final was played to determine the champion.
In addition to the winners above, Western Province also won the South African Rugby Board Trophy in 1889. This tournament was effectively the precursor to the Currie Cup, which started in 1892.
Western Province and Transvaal did not compete. Contested over two seasons. Transvaal were renamed the Gauteng Lions; now known as Golden Lions. Orange Free State were renamed the Free State Cheetahs. Northern Transvaal were renamed the Blue Bulls.
Since the competition become established as an annual competition in 1968 (see History above).
SuperSport broadcasts live Currie Cup matches in South Africa. Setanta Sports Asia broadcasts live Currie Cup matches in Asia. Sky Sports broadcasts live Currie Cup matches in the United Kingdom. WatchESPN airs live Currie Cup matches in the Americas via online streaming.
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the member of rajya sabha who first became the prime minister was | List of Prime Ministers of India - Wikipedia
The Prime Minister of India is the chief executive of the Government of India. In India 's parliamentary system, the Constitution names the President as head of state de jure, but his or her de facto executive powers are vested in the Prime Minister and his Council of Ministers. Appointed and sworn - in by the President, the Prime Minister is usually the leader of the party or alliance that has a majority in the Lok Sabha, the lower house of India 's Parliament.
Since 1947, India has had fourteen Prime Ministers, fifteen including Gulzarilal Nanda who twice acted in the role. The first was Jawaharlal Nehru of the Indian National Congress party, who was sworn - in on 15 August 1947, when India gained independence from the British. Serving until his death in May 1964, Nehru remains India 's longest - serving prime minister. He was succeeded by fellow Congressman Lal Bahadur Shastri, whose 19 - month term also ended in death. Indira Gandhi, Nehru 's daughter, succeeded Shastri in 1966 to become the country 's first woman premier. Eleven years later, she was voted out of power in favour of the Janata Party, whose leader Morarji Desai became the first non-Congress prime minister. After he resigned in 1979, his former deputy Charan Singh briefly held office until Indira Gandhi was voted back six months later. Indira Gandhi 's second stint as Prime Minister ended five years later on the morning of 31 October 1984, when she was gunned down by her own bodyguards. That evening, her son Rajiv Gandhi was sworn - in as India 's youngest premier, and the third from his family. Thus far, members of Nehru -- Gandhi dynasty have been Prime Minister for a total of 37 years and 303 days.
Rajiv 's five - year term ended with his former cabinet colleague, V.P. Singh of the Janata Dal, forming the year - long National Front coalition government in 1989. A six - month interlude under Prime Minister Chandra Shekhar followed, after which the Congress party returned to power, forming the government under P.V. Narasimha Rao in June 1991. Rao 's five - year term was succeeded by four short - lived governments -- the Bharatiya Janata Party 's Atal Bihari Vajpayee for 13 days in 1996, a year each under United Front prime ministers H.D. Deve Gowda and I.K. Gujral, and Vajpayee again for 19 months in 1998 -- 99. After Vajpayee was sworn - in for the third time, in 1999, he managed to lead his National Democratic Alliance (NDA) government to a full five - year term, the first non-Congressman to do so. Vajpayee was succeeded by Congressman Manmohan Singh, the first Sikh premier, whose United Progressive Alliance government was in office for 10 years between 2004 and 2014.
The incumbent Prime Minister of India is Narendra Modi who has headed the BJP - led NDA government since 26 May 2014 which is India 's first non-Congress single party majority government.
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why were there so many american casualties in the civil war brainly | 1967 Detroit riot - wikipedia
The 1967 Detroit riot, also known as the 12th Street riot was the bloodiest race riot in the "Long, hot summer of 1967 ''. Composed mainly of confrontations between black people and police, it began in the early morning hours of Sunday July 23, 1967 in Detroit, Michigan. The precipitating event was a police raid of an unlicensed, after - hours bar then known as a blind pig, on the city 's Near West Side. It exploded into one of the deadliest and most destructive riots in American history, lasting five days and surpassing the violence and property destruction of Detroit 's 1943 race riot 24 years earlier.
To help end the disturbance, Governor George W. Romney ordered the Michigan Army National Guard into Detroit, and President Lyndon B. Johnson sent in the United States Army 's 82nd and 101st Airborne Divisions. The result was 43 dead, 1,189 injured, over 7,200 arrests, and more than 2,000 buildings destroyed. The scale of the riot was the worst in the United States since the 1863 New York City draft riots during the American Civil War, and was surpassed by the 1992 Los Angeles riots 25 years later. The riot was prominently featured in the news media, with live television coverage, extensive newspaper reporting, and extensive stories in Time and Life magazines. The staff of the Detroit Free Press won the 1968 Pulitzer Prize for general local reporting for its coverage.
The crimes reported to police included looting, arson, and sniping, and took place in many different areas of Detroit: on the west side of Woodward Avenue, extending from the 12th Street neighborhood to Grand River Avenue and as far south as Michigan Avenue and Trumbull, near Tiger Stadium. East of Woodward, the area around East Grand Boulevard, which goes east / west then north / south to Belle Isle, was involved. However, the entire city was affected between Sunday, July 23, and Thursday, July 27.
In the early hours of Sunday (3: 45 a.m.), July 23, 1967, Detroit police officers raided the unlicensed weekend drinking club in the office of the United Community League for Civic Action, above the Economy Printing Company, at 9125 12th Street. They expected a few revelers inside, but instead found a party of 82 people celebrating the return of two local GIs from the Vietnam War. The police decided to arrest everyone present. While they were arranging for transportation, a sizable crowd of onlookers gathered on the street, having witnessed the raid. Later, in a memoir, William Walter Scott III, a doorman whose father was running the raided blind pig, took responsibility for starting the riot by inciting the crowd and throwing a bottle at a police officer.
After the police left, the crowd began looting an adjacent clothing store. Shortly thereafter, full - scale looting began throughout the neighborhood. State police, Wayne County sheriffs, and the Michigan National Guard were alerted, but because it was Sunday, it took hours for the Police Commissioner Ray Girardin to assemble sufficient manpower. Meanwhile, witnesses described seeing a "carnival atmosphere '' on 12th Street. Police -- inadequate in number and wrongly believing that the rioting would soon expire -- just stood there and watched. Police did not make their first arrest until 7 a.m. To the east, on Chene Street, reports said the crowd was of mixed composition. The pastor of Grace Episcopal Church along 12th Street reported that he saw a "gleefulness in throwing stuff and getting stuff out of buildings '' The police conducted several sweeps along 12th Street, which proved ineffective because of the unexpectedly large numbers of people outside. The first major fire broke mid-afternoon in a grocery store at the corner of 12th Street and Atkinson. The crowd prevented firefighters from extinguishing it, and soon more smoke filled the skyline.
The local news media initially avoided reporting on the disturbance so as not to inspire copy - cat violence, but the rioting started to expand to other parts of the city, including looting of retail and grocery stores elsewhere. By Sunday afternoon, news had spread, and people attending events such as a Fox Theater Motown revue and Detroit Tigers baseball game were warned to avoid certain areas of the city. Motown 's Martha Reeves was on stage at the Fox, singing "Jimmy Mack, '' and was asked to ask people to leave quietly, as there was trouble outside. After the game, Tigers left fielder Willie Horton, a Detroit resident who had grown up not far from 12th Street, drove to the riot area and stood on a car in the middle of the crowd while still in his baseball uniform. Despite Horton 's impassioned pleas, he could not calm the crowd.
Mayor Jerome Cavanagh stated that the situation was "critical '' but not yet "out of control. '' On Sunday July 23, 1967 at 7: 45pm, he enacted a citywide 9: 00pm -- 5: 30am curfew, prohibited sales of alcohol and firearms, and business activity was informally curtailed in recognition of the serious civil unrest engulfing sections of the city. A number of adjoining communities also enacted curfews. There was significant white participation in the rioting and looting, raising questions as to whether the event fits into the classical race riot category.
Michigan State Police and the Wayne County Sheriff 's Department were called in to Detroit to assist an overwhelmed Detroit police force. As the violence spread, the police began to make numerous arrests to clear rioters off the streets, housing the detainees in makeshift jails. Beginning Monday, people were detained without being brought to Recorder 's Court for arraignment. Some gave false names, making the process of identifying those arrested difficult because of the need to take and check fingerprints. Windsor Police were asked to help check fingerprints.
Police began to take pictures of looters arrested, the arresting officer, and the stolen goods, to speed up the process and postpone the paperwork. More than eighty percent of those arrested were black. About twelve percent were women. Michigan National Guardsmen were not authorized to arrest people, so state troopers and police officers made all arrests without discriminating between civilians and criminals.
Michigan Governor George Romney and President Lyndon B. Johnson initially disagreed about the legality of sending in federal troops. Johnson said he could not send federal troops in without Romney 's declaring a "state of insurrection '', to meet compliance with the Insurrection Act.
As the historian Sidney Fine details in Violence in the Model City, partisan political issues complicated decisions, as is common in crisis. George Romney was expected to run for the Republican presidential nomination in 1968, and President Johnson, a Democrat, did not want to commit troops solely on Romney 's direction. Added to this was Mayor Jerome Cavanagh 's own political and personal clash with Romney. Cavanagh, a young Irish Catholic Democrat who had cultivated harmonious relations with black leaders, both inside and outside the city, was initially reluctant to ask Romney, a Republican, for assistance.
The violence escalated throughout Monday, resulting in some 483 fires, 231 incidents reported per hour, and 1,800 arrests. Looting and arson were widespread. Black - owned businesses were not spared. One of the first stores looted in Detroit was Hardy 's drug store, owned by blacks and known for filling prescriptions on credit. Detroit 's leading black - owned women 's clothing store was burned, as was one of the city 's best - loved black restaurants. In the wake of the riots, a black merchant said, "you were going to get looted no matter what color you were. '' Firefighters of the Detroit Fire Department who were attempting to fight the fires were shot at by rioters. During the riots, 2,498 rifles and 38 handguns were stolen from local stores. It was obvious that the Detroit, County, and Michigan forces were unable to restore order.
On Monday, U.S. Representative John Conyers (D - Michigan), who was against federal troop deployment, attempted to ease tensions by driving along 12th Street with a loudspeaker asking people to return to their homes. Reportedly, Conyers stood on the hood of the car and shouted through a bullhorn, "We 're with you! But, please! This is not the way to do things! Please go back to your homes! '' But the crowd refused to listen. Conyers ' car was pelted with rocks and bottles.
Shortly before midnight on Monday, July 24, President Johnson authorized the use of federal troops in compliance with the Insurrection Act of 1807, which authorizes the President to call in armed forces to fight an insurrection in any state against the government. This gave Detroit the distinction of being the only domestic American city to have been occupied by federal troops three times. The United States Army 's 82nd Airborne Division and 101st Airborne Division had earlier been positioned at nearby Selfridge Air Force Base in suburban Macomb County. Starting at 1: 30 on Tuesday, July 25, some 8,000 Michigan Army National Guardsmen were deployed to quell the disorder. Later, their number would be augmented with 4,700 paratroopers from both the 82nd and 101st Airborne Divisions, and 360 Michigan State Police officers.
Chaos continued; the police were overworked and tired. Detroit Police were found to have committed many acts of abuse against both blacks and whites who were in their custody.
Although only 26 of the over 7,000 arrests involved snipers, and not one person accused of sniping was successfully prosecuted, the fear of snipers precipitated many police searches. The "searching for weapons '' caused many homes and vehicles to be scrutinized. Curfew violations were also common sparks to police brutality. The Detroit Police 's 10th Precinct routinely abused prisoners; as mug shots later proved, many injuries came after booking. Women were stripped and fondled while officers took pictures. White landlords from New York visiting their building were arrested after a sniper call and beaten so horribly that "their testicles were still black and blue two weeks after the incident. ''
Some analysts believed that violence escalated with the deployment of troops, although they brought rioting under control within 48 hours. Nearly all of the Michigan Army National Guard were exclusively white, inexperienced militarily, and did not have urban backgrounds, while the Army paratroopers were racially integrated and had seen service in Vietnam. As a result, the Army paratroopers were at ease and able to communicate easily in the city while the National Guardsmen were not as effective. The National Guardsmen engaged in what they said were firefights with locals, resulting in the death of one Guardsman. Of the 12 people that troops shot and killed, only one was shot by a federal soldier. Army paratroopers were ordered not to load their weapons except under the direct order of an officer. The Cyrus Vance report made afterward criticized the actions of the National Guardsmen, who shot and killed nine civilians.
Tanks and machine guns were used in the effort to keep the peace. Film footage and photos that were viewed internationally showed a city on fire, with tanks and combat troops in firefights in the streets.
The Michigan Civil Rights Commission intervened in the riot to try to protect the rights of arrestees. The arrival of the CRC was "not well received '' by the police saying the observers were interfering with police work. The Detroit Police Officers Association protested to Romney, "We resent the Civil Rights Commission looking over our shoulders, just waiting for some officer to stub his toe. '' At one precinct, a white officers "bitterly abused '' a black CRC observer, saying that "all people of his kind should be killed. ''
By Thursday, July 27, sufficient order had returned to the city that officers withdrew ammunition from the National Guardsmen stationed in the riot area and ordered them to sheath their bayonets. Troop withdrawal began on Friday, July 28, the day of the last major fire in the riot. The Army troops were completely withdrawn by Saturday, July 29.
The Detroit riot was a catalyst to violence elsewhere as the riot spread from the city into adjoining suburbs and to other areas of Michigan. Minimal rioting was reported in Highland Park and River Rouge, a heavier police presence was required after a bomb threat was phoned in to an E.J. Korvette store in Southgate and very minimal violence was reported in Hamtramck. The state deployed National Guardsmen or state police to other Michigan cities as simultaneous riots erupted in Pontiac, Flint, Saginaw, and Grand Rapids, as well as in Toledo and Lima, Ohio; New York City and Rochester, New York; Cambridge, Maryland; Englewood, New Jersey; Houston, Texas; and Tucson, Arizona. Disturbances were reported in more than two dozen cities.
In Detroit, an estimated 10,000 people participated in the riots, with an estimated 100,000 gathering to watch. Thirty - six hours later, 43 were dead, 33 of whom were black and 10 white. More than 7,200 people were arrested, most of them black. Mayor Jerome Cavanagh lamented upon surveying the damage, "Today we stand amidst the ashes of our hopes. We hoped against hope that what we had been doing was enough to prevent a riot. It was not enough. ''
Over the period of five days, the damage and human loss are calculated as follows:
A total of 43 people died: 33 were black and 10 were white. Among the black deaths, 14 were shot by police officers; 9 were shot by National Guardsmen; 6 were shot by store owners or security guards; 2 were killed by asphyxiation from a building fire; 1 was killed after stepping on a downed power line; and 1 was shot by a federal soldier. The National Guardsmen and Detroit Police were found to have engaged in "uncontrolled and unnecessary firing '' that endangered civilians and increased police chaos. Many times, the police and Guardsmen were convinced of a sniper 's presence when they were the ones doing the shooting, indiscriminately killing or injuring civilians, rioters, and even sworn and military personnel alike.
One black civilian, Albert Robinson, was killed by a National Guardsman responding with Detroit Police to an apartment building on the city 's west side. The Guardsmen brought Robinson out of the building, then bayoneted and shot him. While Robinson yelled for help, a Guardsman reportedly said, "That feel good? You dead yet? '' Ernest Roquemore, a black teenager who was the last to die in the civil unrest, was killed by Army paratroopers on July 29 when caught in their crossfire directed toward someone else. The police shot three other individuals during the same firefight, with one victim needing his leg amputated. Jack Sydnor was a black sniper who fired upon police and wounded one police officer in the street. The police came close to the building where the sniper lived and ambushed in the 3rd story building room by shooting him, making Sydnor the only sniper killed during the riot.
Among the whites who died were 5 civilians, 2 firefighters, 1 looter, 1 police officer, and 1 Guardsman. Of the white sworn or military personnel killed, 2 firefighters died, with 1 stepping on a downed power line during attempts to extinguish a fire started by looters, while the other was shot while organizing fire units at Mack and St. Jean streets; 1 officer was shot by a looter while struggling with a group of looters; and 1 Guardsman was shot by fellow Guardsmen while being caught in the crossfire between the National Guard and looters. Of the white civilians killed, 2 were shot by National Guardsmen, of which 1 was staying at her hotel room and was mistaken for a sniper; 1 was shot as she and her husband tried to drive away from a group of black rioters beating a white civilian; 1 was shot by police while working as a security guard trying to protect a store from looters; and 1 was beaten to death by a black rioter after confronting looters in his store. Only 1 white looter was killed by police while trying to steal a car part at a junkyard on the outskirts of the city.
The death of Tanya Blanding symbolizes the terrible cost a riot inflicts on its victims. The four - year - old girl was huddled in her living room of a second - floor apartment, a few steps from the intersection of 12th and Euclid, in the heart of the original riot area (precinct 10).
Sporadic sniper fire had been reported in the immediate area earlier in the evening and on the previous night. Guardsmen reported one of their units under fire at the intersection and believed they had pinpointed it as coming from the apartment in which Tanya and her family lived.
As a guard tank was being moved into position directly in front of the building, one of the occupants of the Blanding apartment was said to light a cigarette. Guardsmen opened fire on the apartment with rifles and the tank 's. 50 caliber machine gun. At 1: 20 a.m. Tanya Blanding was dead.
Sgt. Mortimer J. LeBlanc, 41, admitted firing the burst into the windows of the apartment where Tanya was found, after another Guardsman told him that sniper fire had come from there. Tanya 's mother, June, filed a lawsuit for $100,000 in damages, on the grounds that Sgt. LeBlanc fired negligently into the apartment. He was exonerated.
1,189 people were injured: 407 civilians, 289 suspects, 214 Detroit police officers, 134 Detroit firefighters, 55 Michigan National Guardsmen, 67 Michigan State Police officers, 15 Wayne County Sheriff deputies, and 8 federal soldiers.
7,231 people were arrested: 6,528 adults and 703 juveniles; the youngest was 4 and the oldest was 82. Half of those arrested had no criminal record: 251 whites and 678 black. Of those arrested, 64 % were accused of looting and 14 % were charged with curfew violations.
2,509 stores were looted or burned, 388 families rendered homeless or displaced and 412 buildings burned or damaged enough to be demolished. Dollar losses from property damage ranged from $40 million to $45 million.
Joe 's Record Shop on 8434 12th Street, owned by Joe Von Battle, was one of the businesses that was destroyed in the 1967 Detroit Rebellion. The business was founded in 1945, on 3530 Hastings Street, where Battle sold records and recorded music with artists like John Lee Hooker, The Reverend C.L. Franklin and Aretha Franklin. He operated from the Hastings store until 1960 when the street was razed in order to build the Chrysler Freeway. Battle along with other business owners on Hastings St., moved to 12th Street, where his shop operated until the events of July 23, 1967. During the ' 67 riots, Battle stood guard in front of his shop with his gun and his "Soul Brother '' sign. After the first day of rioting, police authorities no longer permitted business owners to guard their shops. Days later, Battle returned to his record shop with his daughter Marsha Battle Philpot and they were met with "wet, fetid debris of what had been one of the most seminal record shops in Detroit. '' Joe 's Record Shop and much of the stock within -- including tapes and recordings of artists - were ruined. Ultimately, Battle 's store was unable to reopen due to the damaged caused by the 1967 riot.
Many Americans regarded Detroit as a leader in race relations during the early 1960s. The election of Mayor Jerome Cavanagh in 1961 brought reform to the police department, led by new Detroit Police Commissioner George Edwards. Organized labor, led by UAW President Walter Reuther, planned major redevelopment for inner - city slums. The New York Times editorialized that Detroit had "more going for it than any other major city in the North. ''
In the early 20th century, when blacks migrated to Detroit in the Great Migration, the city had a rapidly increasing population and not enough housing. Blacks encountered strong discrimination in housing and jobs -- they competed for lower scale work with rural white southern migrants as well as immigrants from southern and eastern Europe. Some of the patterns of racial and ethnic segregation (based in part on the differing religions of the Americans and Europeans), persisted after other social discrimination had eased by the mid-20th century. White mobs enforced the segregation of housing up through the 1960s: upon learning that a new homebuyer was black, whites would congregate outside the home picketing, often breaking windows, committing arson, and attacking their new neighbors. In 1956, mayor Orville Hubbard of Dearborn, part of Metro Detroit, boasted to the Montgomery Advertiser that "Negroes ca n't get in here... These people are so anti-colored, much more than you in Alabama. ''
By the 1960s, many blacks had advanced into better union and professional jobs. The city had a large and prosperous black middle class; higher - than - normal wages for unskilled black workers due to the success of the auto industry; two black congressmen (half of the black Congressmen at the time); three black judges; two black members on the Detroit Board of Education; a housing commission that was forty percent black; and twelve blacks representing Detroit in the Michigan legislature. Nicholas Hood, the sole black member of the nine - member Detroit Common Council, praised the Cavanagh administration for its willingness to listen to concerns of the inner city. Weeks prior to the riot, Mayor Cavanagh had said that residents did not "need to throw a brick to communicate with City Hall. ''
Detroit had acquired millions in federal funds through President Johnson 's Great Society programs and invested them almost exclusively in the inner city, where poverty and social problems were concentrated. The Washington Post claimed Detroit 's inner - city schools were undergoing "the country 's leading and most forceful reforms in education. '' Housing conditions were not viewed as worse than those of other Northern cities. In 1965, the American Institute of Architects gave Detroit an award for urban redevelopment. The city had mature black neighborhoods such as Conant Gardens. In the early 20th century, waves of new immigrants and migrants had generally settled in areas founded on an ethnic base. As Paul Wrobel writes in Our Way: Family, Parish, and Neighborhood in a Polish - American Community, ethnic communities in Detroit like Poletown, Chaldeantown, Corktown, Mexicantown, and Greektown are ubiquitous. In May 1967, the federal administration ranked housing for blacks in Detroit above that of Philadelphia, New York City, Chicago, and Cleveland. There were still signs of black disaffection however; In 1964, Rosa Parks, who 'd moved to Detroit in the late fifties, told an interviewer that, "I do n't feel a great deal of difference here (from Alabama)... Housing segregation is just as bad, and it seems more noticeable in the larger cities. ''
The Department of Justice 's Office of Law Enforcement Assistance designated Detroit as the "model for police - community relations ''. Fortune, Newsweek, Christian Science Monitor, Look, Harper 's, U.S. News and World Report, and The Wall Street Journal all published positive articles on the city; Mayor Cavanagh was so highly regarded nationally that he was elected to head the Conference of Mayors and the National League of Cities. He had been re-elected in 1965 with 69 % of the votes. Although Cavanagh alienated many when he ran a failed attempt to earn the Democratic nomination to the U.S. Senate in 1966, the city was proud of defusing a possible riot situation on Kercheval Street in 1966. Officials believed that police were capable of handling potential riot situations.
According to Violence in the Model City by University of Michigan 's Sidney Fine, many African - American residents were dissatisfied with social conditions in Detroit before July 23, 1967, and believed that progress was too slow. After the riot, the Kerner Commission reported that their survey of blacks in Detroit found that none were "happy '' about conditions in the city prior to the event. The areas of discrimination identified by Fine were: policing, housing, employment, spatial segregation within the city, mistreatment by merchants, shortage of recreational facilities, poor quality of public education, access to medical services, and "the way the war on poverty operated in Detroit. ''
The Detroit Police Department was administered directly by the Mayor. Prior to the riot, Mayor Cavanagh 's appointees, George Edwards and Ray Girardin, worked for reform. Edwards tried to recruit and promote blacks, but he refused to establish a civilian police review board, as African Americans had requested. In trying to discipline police officers accused of brutality, he turned the police department 's rank - and - file against him. Many whites perceived his policies as "too soft on crime. '' The Community Relations Division of the Michigan Civil Rights Commission undertook a study in 1965 of the police, published in 1968. It claimed the "police system '' was at fault for racism. The police system was blamed for recruiting "bigots '' and reinforcing bigotry through the department 's "value system. '' A survey conducted by President Johnson 's Kerner Commission found that prior to the riot, 45 percent of police working in black neighborhoods were "extremely anti-Negro '' and an additional 34 percent were "prejudiced. ''
In 1967, 93 % of the force was still white, although 30 % of the city residents were black. Incidents of police brutality made blacks feel at risk. They resented many police officers who they felt talked down to them, addressing men as "boys '' and women as "honey '' and "baby. '' Police made street searches of groups of young men, and single women complained of being called prostitutes for simply walking on the street. The police frequently arrested people who did not have proper identification. The local press reported several questionable shootings and beatings of blacks by officers in the years before 1967. After the riot, a Detroit Free Press survey showed that residents reported police brutality as the number one problem they faced in the period leading up to the riot.
Blacks complained that the police did not respond to their calls as quickly as to those of white citizens. They believed that the police profited from vice and other crime in black neighborhoods, and press accusations of corruption and connections to organized crime weakened their trust in the police. According to Sidney Fine, "the biggest complaint about vice in the ghetto was prostitution. '' The black community leadership thought the police did not do enough to curb white johns from exploiting local women. In the weeks leading up to the riot, police had started to work to curb prostitution along Twelfth Street. On July 1, a prostitute was killed, and rumors spread that the police had shot her. The police said that she was murdered by local pimps. Detroit police used Big 4 or Tac Squads, each made up of four police officers, to patrol Detroit neighborhoods, and such squads were used to combat soliciting.
Black residents felt police raids of after - hours drinking clubs were racially biased actions. Since the 1920s, such clubs had become important parts of Detroit 's social life for blacks; although they started with Prohibition, they continued because of discrimination against blacks in service at many Detroit bars, restaurants, and entertainment venues.
In the postwar period, the city had lost nearly 150,000 jobs to the suburbs. Factors were a combination of changes in technology, increased automation, consolidation of the auto industry, taxation policies, the need for different kinds of manufacturing space, and the construction of the highway system that eased transportation. Major companies like Packard, Hudson, and Studebaker, as well as hundreds of smaller companies, went out of business. In the 1950s, the unemployment rate hovered near 10 percent. Between 1946 and 1956, GM spent $3.4 billion on new plants, Ford $2.5 billion, and Chrysler $700 million, opening a total of 25 auto plants, all in Detroit 's suburbs. As a result, workers, who could do so, left Detroit for jobs in the suburbs. Other middle - class residents left the city for newer housing, in a pattern repeated nationwide. In the 1960s, the city lost about 10,000 residents per year to the suburbs. Detroit 's population fell by 179,000 between 1950 and 1960, and by another 156,000 residents by 1970, which affected all its retail businesses and city services.
By the time of the riot, unemployment among black men was more than double that among white men in Detroit. In the 1950s, 15.9 percent of blacks were unemployed, but only 6 percent of whites were unemployed. This was partially due to the union seniority system of the factories. Except for Ford, which hired a significant number of blacks for their factories, the other automakers did not hire blacks until World War II resulted in a labor shortage. With lower seniority, blacks were the first to be laid off in job cutbacks after the war. Moreover, blacks were "ghettoized '' into the "most arduous, dangerous and unhealthy jobs. '' When the auto industry boomed again in the early 1960s, only Chrysler and the Cadillac Division of General Motors assembled vehicles in the city of Detroit. The blacks they hired got "the worst and most dangerous jobs: the foundry and the body shop. '' A prosperous, black - educated class had developed in traditional professions such as social work, ministry, medicine, and nursing. Many other blacks working outside manufacturing were relegated to service industries as waiters, porters, or janitors. Many black women were limited to work in domestic service. Certain business sectors were known to discriminate against hiring blacks, even at entry - level positions. It took picketing by Arthur Johnson and the Detroit chapter of the NAACP before First Federal Bank hired their first black tellers and clerks.
Detroit had high home - ownership rates, but affordable housing was an issue. Several urban renewal projects after World War II, intended to improve housing, dramatically changed neighborhood boundaries and ethnic composition. Detroit undertook a series of urban renewal projects that especially affected blacks, who occupied some of the oldest housing. Black Bottom and Paradise Valley were on Detroit 's near lower east side, south of Gratiot. By discrimination, including then lawful deed restrictions, or by choice, from 1910 through the 1950s, these were the first places where many blacks new to Detroit settled, as they did not have the money for newer housing. The city began planning for the massive Gratiot Redevelopment Project as early as 1946. It was planned eventually to cover a 129 - acre (52 ha) site on the lower east side that included Hastings Street -- the epicenter of Paradise Valley.
Detroit was considered a world leader in urban renewal. The city 's goals were to: "arrest the exodus of business from the central city, to convert slum property to better housing, and to enlarge the city 's tax base. ''
Bolstered by successive federal legislation, including the 1941, 1949, 1950, 1954 versions of the Housing Act and its amendments through the 1960s, the city acquired funds to develop the Detroit Medical Center complex, Lafayette Park, Central Business District Project One, and the Chrysler Freeway, by appropriating land and "clearing slums. '' Money was included for replacement housing in the legislation, but the goal of urban renewal was to physically reshape the city; its social effects on neighborhoods was not well understood. As older neighborhoods were demolished, blacks and people of every color from Detroit 's skid row, moved to areas north of Black Bottom along Grand Boulevard, but especially to the west side of Woodward, along Grand Boulevard and ultimately the 12th Street neighborhood. As Ze'ev Chafets wrote in Devil 's Night and Other True Tales of Detroit (1990s), in the 1950s the area around 12th Street rapidly changed from a community of ethnic Jews to a predominantly black community, an example of white flight. Jewish residents had moved to the suburbs for newer housing but they often retained business or property interests in their old community. Thus, many of the blacks who moved to the 12th Street area rented from absentee landlords and shopped in businesses run by suburbanites. Crime rates rose in the 12th Street area.
By 1967, the neighborhood around 12th Street had a population density that was twice the city average. After the riot, respondents to a Detroit Free Press poll listed poor housing as the second most important issue leading up to the riot, behind police brutality.
Detroit Public Schools suffered from underfunding and racial discrimination before the riots. Underfunding was a function of a decreasing tax base as the population shrank while the numbers of students rose. From 1962 to 1966, enrollment grew from 283,811 to 294,653, but the loss of tax base made less funding available. At the same time, middle - class families were leaving the district, and the number of low - scoring and economically disadvantaged students, mostly black, were increasing. In 1966 - 67, the funding per pupil in Detroit was $193 compared to $225 per pupil in the suburbs. Exacerbating this inequity were the challenges in educating disadvantaged students. The Detroit Board of Education estimated it cost twice as much to educate a "ghetto child properly as to educate a suburban child. '' According to Michigan law in 1967, class sizes could not exceed thirty - five students, but in inner city schools they did, sometimes swelling to forty students per teacher. To have the same teacher / student ratio as the rest of the state, Detroit would have to hire 1,650 more teachers for the 1966 - 67 school year.
In 1959, the Detroit School Board passed a bylaw banning discrimination in all school operations and activities. From 1962 to 1966, black organizations continued to work to improve the quality of education of black students. Issues included class size, school boundaries, and how white teachers treated black students. The Citizens Advisory Committee on Equal Educational Opportunities reported a pattern of discrimination in the assignment of teachers and principals in Detroit schools. It also found "grave discrimination '' in employment, and in training opportunities in apprenticeship programs. It was dissatisfied with the rate of desegregation in attendance boundaries. The school board accepted the recommendations made by the committee, but faced increasing community pressure. The NAACP demanded affirmative action hiring of school personnel and increased desegregation through an "open schools '' policy. Foreshadowing the break between black civil rights groups and black nationalists after the riot, a community group led by Rev. Albert Cleage, Group of Advanced Leadership (GOAL), emphasized changes in textbooks and classroom curriculum as opposed to integration. Cleage wanted black teachers to teach black students in black studies, as opposed to integrated classrooms where all students were held to the same academic standards.
In April and May 1966, a student protest at Detroit Northern High School made headlines throughout the city. Northern was 98 % Black and had substandard academic testing scores. A student newspaper article, censored by the administration, claimed teachers and the principal "taught down '' to blacks and used social promotion to graduate kids without educating them. Students walked out and set up a temporary "Freedom School '' in a neighborhood church, which was staffed by many volunteer Wayne State University faculty. By May sympathy strikes were planned at Eastern, and Rev. Albert Cleage had taken up the cause. When the school board voted to remove the principal and vice principal, as well as the single police officer assigned to Northern, whites regarded the board 's actions as capitulation to "threats '' and were outraged the "students were running the school ''. City residents voted against a school - tax increase.
Under the Cavanagh administration, the school board created a Community Relations Division at the deputy superintendent level. Arthur L. Johns, the former head of the Detroit chapter of the NAACP, was hired in 1966 to advance community involvement in schools, and improve "intergroup relations and affirmative action. '' Black dominated schools in the city continued to be overcrowded as well as underfunded.
Customer surveys published by the Detroit Free Press indicated that blacks were disproportionately unhappy with the way store owners treated them compared to whites. In stores serving black neighborhoods, owners engaged in "sharp and unethical credit practices '' and were "discourteous if not abusive to their customers. '' The NAACP, Trade Union Leadership Council (TULC), and Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) all took up this issue with the Cavanagh administration before the riot. In 1968, the Archdiocese of Detroit published one of the largest shopper surveys in American history. It found that the inner - city shopper paid 20 % more for food and groceries than the suburbanite. Some of the differences were due to economies of scale in larger suburban stores, as well as ease in transportation and delivery of goods.
Shortly after the Detroit riot, Mayor Jerome Cavanagh lashed out at the "profiteering '' of merchants and asked the city council to pass an anti-gouging ordinance.
Blacks and whites in Detroit viewed the events of July 1967 in very different ways. Part of the process of comprehending the damage was to survey the attitudes and beliefs of people in Detroit. Sidney Fine 's chapter, "The Polarized Community, '' cites many of the academic and Detroit Free Press financed public opinion surveys conducted in the wake of the riot. Although Black Nationalism was thought to have been given a boost by the civil strife, as membership in Albert Cleage 's church grew substantially and the New Detroit committee sought to include black leadership like Norvell Harrington and Frank Ditto, it was whites who were much more likely to support separation.
One percent of Detroit blacks favored "total separation '' between the races in 1968, whereas 17 percent of Detroit whites did. African - Americans supported "integration '' by 88 percent, while only 24 percent of whites supported integration. Residents of the 12th Street area differed significantly from blacks in the rest of the city however. For example, 22 percent of 12th Street blacks thought they should "get along without whites entirely ''. Nevertheless, the Detroit Free Press survey of black Detroiters in 1968 showed that the highest approval rating for people was given to conventional politicians like Charles Diggs (27 percent) and John Conyers (22 percent) compared to Albert Cleage (4 percent).
One of the criticisms of the New Detroit committee, an organization founded by Henry Ford II, J.L. Hudson, and Max Fisher while the embers were still cooling, was that it gave credibility to radical black organizations in a misguided attempt to listen to the concerns of the "inner - city Negro '' and "the rioters. '' Moderate black leaders, such as Arthur L. Johnson were weakened and intimidated by the new credibility the riot gave to black radicals, some of whom favored "a black republic carved out of five southern states '' and supported "breaking into gun shops to seize weapons. '' The Kerner Commission deputy director of field operations in Detroit reported that the most militant organizers in the 12th Street area did not consider it immoral to kill whites.
Adding to the criticism of the New Detroit committee in both the moderate black and white communities was the belief that the wealthy, white industrial leadership were giving voice and money to radical black groups as a sort of "riot insurance. '' The fear that "the next riot '' would not be localized to inner city black neighborhoods but would include the white suburbs was common in the black middle class and white communities. White groups like "Breakthrough '' started by city employee Donald Lobsinger, a Parks and Recreation Department employee, wanted to arm whites and keep them in the city because if Detroit "became black '' there would be "guerrilla warfare in the suburbs ''.
Detroit Councilman Mel Ravitz said the riot divided not only the races - since it "deepened the fears of many whites and raised the militancy of many blacks '' - but it opened up wide cleavages in the black and white communities as well. Moderate liberals of each race were faced with new political groups that voiced extremist solutions and fueled fears about future violence. Compared to the rosy newspaper stories before July 1967, the London Free Press reported in 1968 that Detroit was a "sick city where fear, rumor, race prejudice and gun - buying have stretched black and white nerves to the verge of snapping. '' Yet ultimately, if the riot is interpreted as a rebellion, or a way for black grievances to be heard and addressed, it was partly successful.
The black community in Detroit received much more attention from federal and state governments after 1967, and although the New Detroit committee ultimately shed its black membership and transformed into the mainstream Detroit Renaissance group, money did flow into black - owned enterprises after the riot. However, the most significant black politician to take power in the shift from a white majority city to a black majority city, Coleman Young, Detroit 's first black mayor, wrote in 1994:
The heaviest casualty, however, was the city. Detroit 's losses went a hell of a lot deeper than the immediate toll of lives and buildings. The riot put Detroit on the fast track to economic desolation, mugging the city and making off with incalculable value in jobs, earnings taxes, corporate taxes, retail dollars, sales taxes, mortgages, interest, property taxes, development dollars, investment dollars, tourism dollars, and plain damn money. The money was carried out in the pockets of the businesses and the white people who fled as fast as they could. The white exodus from Detroit had been prodigiously steady prior to the riot, totaling twenty - two thousand in 1966, but afterwards it was frantic. In 1967, with less than half the year remaining after the summer explosion -- the outward population migration reached sixty - seven thousand. In 1968 the figure hit eighty - thousand, followed by forty - six thousand in 1969.
According to economist Thomas Sowell
Before the ghetto riot of 1967, Detroit 's black population had the highest rate of home - ownership of any black urban population in the country, and their unemployment rate was just 3.4 percent. It was not despair that fueled the riot. It was the riot which marked the beginning of the decline of Detroit to its current state of despair. Detroit 's population today is only half of what it once was, and its most productive people have been the ones who fled.
Nationally, the riot confirmed for the military and the Johnson administration that military occupation of American cities would be necessary. In particular, the riot confirmed the role of the Army Operations Center as the agent to anticipate and combat domestic guerrilla warfare.
State and local governments responded to the riot with a dramatic increase in minority hiring. On August 18, 1967, the State Police department swore in the first black trooper in the fifty - year history of the organization. In May 1968, Detroit Mayor Cavanaugh appointed a Special Task Force on Police Recruitment and Hiring. Thirty five percent of the police hired by Detroit in 1968 were black, and by July 1972, blacks made up 14 percent of the Detroit police, more than double their percentage in 1967. The Michigan government used its reviews of contracts issued by the state to secure an increase in nonwhite employment. Minority group employment by the contracted companies increased by 21.1 percent.
In the aftermath of the turmoil, the Greater Detroit Board of Commerce launched a campaign to find jobs for ten thousand "previously unemployable '' persons, a preponderant number of whom were black. By Oct 12, 1967, Detroit firms had reportedly hired about five thousand African - Americans since the beginning of the jobs campaign. According to Professor Sidney Fine, "that figure may be an underestimate. '' In a Detroit Free Press survey of residents of the riot areas in the late summer of 1968, 39 percent of the respondents thought that employers had become "more fair '' since the riot as compared to 14 percent who thought they had become "less fair. ''
After the riot, in one of the biggest changes, automakers and retailers lowered the entry - level job requirements. A Michigan Bell employment supervisor commented in 1968 that "for years businesses tried to screen people out. Now we are trying to find reasons to screen them in. ''
Prior to the disorder, Detroit enacted no ordinances to end housing segregation, and few had been enacted in the state of Michigan at all. Some liberal politicians had worked for fair housing over the years, but white conservative resistance to it was organized and powerful. The reactionary movement began to wither after the insurrection. Sidney Fine noted that:
The Detroit riot of 1967 and the racial disturbances it triggered elsewhere in the state, including Flint and Pontiac, swelled the number of Michigan Cities with fair housing ordinances to fifteen by November 1967, the largest number in any state at that time, and to thirty - five by October 1968, including some of the Detroit suburbs that had previously been almost entirely white.
Governor Romney immediately responded to the turmoil with a special session of the Michigan legislature, where he forwarded sweeping housing proposals that included not only fair housing, but "important relocation, tenants ' rights and code enforcement legislation. '' Romney had supported such proposals before in 1964 and 1965, but abandoned them in the face of organized opposition. In the aftermath of the insurrection, the proposals again faced resistance from organized white homeowners and the governor 's own Republican party, which once again voted down the legislation in the House. This time, however, Romney did not relent and once again proposed the housing laws at the regular 1968 session of the legislature.
The governor publicly warned that if the housing measures were not passed, "it will accelerate the recruitment of revolutionary insurrectionists. '' He urged "meaningful fair housing legislation '' as "the single most important step the legislature can take to avert disorder in our cities. '' This time the laws passed both houses of the legislature. The Michigan Historical Review wrote that:
The Michigan Fair Housing Act, which took effect on Nov 15, 1968, was stronger than the federal fair housing law... and than just about all the existing state fair housing acts. It is probably more than a coincidence that the state that had experienced the most severe racial disorder of the 1960s also adopted one of the strongest state fair housing acts.
A poll conducted by EPIC - MRA, a survey research firm, in July 2016 focused on the evolution of black -- white relations since the riots. The poll surveyed 600 residents of Macomb, Oakland, and Wayne counties. The poll took place from July 14 -- 19th, a time period the Detroit Free Press noted was "during the ongoing national furor over police shooting of African - American civilians, and retaliatory attacks on officers in Dallas and Baton Rouge. '' §
The respondents of the Detroit poll were more optimistic about race relations compared to the national averages. A national Washington Post / ABC News poll found that only 32 % of the people they polled believed race relations were good, as opposed to the 56 % and 47 % of the white and black Detroiters surveyed, respectively. This was unsurprising to Reynold Farley, a retired University of Michigan sociology professor and expert on Detroit racial demographics, "I think it 's easier for people in the Detroit area to have some familiarity with race relations than people in a state like Maine, where there 's virtually no black population at all and the information comes from seeing violent incidents on television, '' he explained. In the following question, Farley 's claim was validated as the stark contrast in national vs. Detroiter perception of what the future would be like was apparent. As just 10 % of those polled by the Washington Post / ABC News believed that race relations are getting better, whereas 33 % of white and 22 % of black Detroiters thought they had improved over the past 10 years and 50 % of white and 41 % of blacks believed they would improve over the next five.
Although these responses were encouraging signs of a diminishing racial gap in Detroit, and a heightened attunement to race relations in the city compared to the rest of the nation, other questions concerning Detroiters ' perception of the riots and how the improvement of race relations are actualized in their everyday life show there is still much mending to be done. When asked which word they would use to describe the 1967 riots: riot, rebellion or uprising, the white response was 61 %, 12 %, 12 % and blacks, 34 %, 27 %, 24 %, respectively. The majority of respondents did agree, however, that since the riots they believed there had been significant progress made vs little / no progress at all. Unfortunately, many black Detroiters still feel as if they are facing the type of discrimination that led to the riots in the first place. The polled black Detroiters reporting that in the past 12 months 28 % felt they had been unfairly treated in hiring, pay, or promotion, double the rate of their white counterparts. 73 % also believed that they were treated less fairly than whites when attempting to find a "good job. ''
Two years after the end of the 1967 riots, Wayne County Sheriff Roman A. Gribbs won on a law - and - order campaign platform, a code word among many white Detroiters for controlling black unrest in the city. Gribbs, a white moderate who supported integration, was seen by many white Detroiters as their last "white hope '' in a city with a growing black population. After beating Detroit 's first black mayoral candidate, Richard Austin, in 1969, Gribbs created the Stop the Robberies, Enjoy Safe Streets (STRESS), a secret and elite police unit.
STRESS used a tactic called "decoy operation, '' where a police officer tried to entrap potential criminals in an undercover sting. From its inception, STRESS all but ignored white criminals, instead focusing their operations on black communities. STRESS increased confrontations between the black community and police. For example, during its first year of operation the Detroit Police Department had the "highest number of civilian killings per capita of any American police department. '' The unit was accused of conducting 500 raids without the use of search warrants and killing 20 people within 30 months.
Community groups did not take long to start to responding to STRESS 's activities. On September 23, 1971, the State of Emergency Committee was formed to protest the killings, and thousands of people marched to demand the abolition of STRESS.
Forty years later, the event remained a source of reflection for the community. The Detroit newspapers covered the 40th anniversary of the uprising in 2007. Coverage often labeled the event in terms of a "riot ''; however, the focus of the coverage opened the door to a transition of framing. Several articles referred to the event as a "rebellion, '' and others specifically questioned the implications of thinking about the event in terms other than a riot.
Several songs directly refer to the riot. The most prominent was "Black Day in July '', written and sung by Canadian singer - songwriter Gordon Lightfoot for his 1968 album Did She Mention My Name?. Others include the 1967 song "The Motor City Is Burning '' by John Lee Hooker, which was also recorded by the MC5 on their 1969 album Kick Out the Jams; Panic in Detroit ", from David Bowie 's 1973 album Aladdin Sane; '' The Temptations ' 1970 single "Ball of Confusion (That 's What The World Is Today) ''; Marvin Gaye 's "What 's Happening Brother '' from his 1971 album What 's Going On; and the title track from Detroit producer and DJ Moodymann 's 2008 EP Det. riot ' 67, which sampled audio recordings from news reels talking about the riot.
An episode of Star Trek: The Original Series, "Let That Be Your Last Battlefield '', used footage of burning buildings from the 1967 Detroit riot to dramatize a planetary war between two humanoid - looking factions. One was colored black on the left side and white on the right, and the other the opposite. These alien races were represented by guest stars Frank Gorshin and Lou Antonio.
Judy Blume 's 1970 novel Iggie 's House, which dealt with issues of racial hatred arising from an black family 's moving into a predominantly white neighborhood, also referenced the riot. The book 's protagonist, Winnie, unintentionally gets off to a bad start with her new neighbors, the Garbers (who have just moved from Detroit), by asking the family 's three children if they participated in any of the looting.
The riot was also depicted in the films Dreamgirls and Across the Universe.
The December 7, 2010, episode of Detroit 1 - 8 - 7 on ABC aired archive footage and photos of Detroit during the 1967 riots. The episode 's primary storyline depicted a 2010 discovery of a black male body and a white female body in a fallout shelter constructed under a building burned down during the riots. In reality, there were two people, listed above, who lost their lives in a basement of a building that was burned down.
Middlesex, a novel by Jeffrey Eugenides has a detailed retelling of, and makes some social commentary on the riot. Joyce Carol Oates 's 1969, National Book Award - winning novel, them, concludes with the Detroit riot. John Hersey 's book The Algiers Motel Incident is a true crime account of an incident which occurred during the riots, and the film Detroit was a dramatization based on that incident.
The 2017 film Detroit written by Mark Boal and directed by Kathryn Bigelow attempted to recreate the events that took place inside the Algiers Motel. Survivors of the Algiers Motel incident participated in the production of the film.
Many artworks were created in response to the 1967 events. Many of have included in the "Art of Rebellion: Black Art of The Civil Rights Movement '' exhibition (2017) curated by Valerie J. Mercer. Black Attack (1967) was painted by Detroit abstract artist Allie McGhee immediately following the event. The work includes "broad strokes of color that appear spontaneous, give form to the artists memories of strength and resolve of black people facing intense opposition to change. ''
In 2017, Detroit based artist Rita Dickerson created 1967: Death in the Algiers Motel and Beyond. In the work Dickerson "depicts the Algiers Motel and portraits of three young Black men killed there by police. Below the portraits are the names of men and women who have died in recent years in encounters with police, underscoring the fact that police brutality continues to cost black people their lives. ''
Poet and playwright, Bill Harris, wrote about the condition of the Detroit Black Community - referred to him as DBC - after July 1967 in Detroit a young guide to the city. The book was edited by Sheldon Annis and published by Speedball Publications in 1970.
Two plays based on firsthand accounts were performed in 2017. "Detroit ' 67 '' presented recollections from five metro Detroiters at the Charles H. Wright Museum of African American History by the Secret Society of Twisted Storytellers. "AFTER / LIFE, '' performed at the Joseph Walker Williams Recreation Center, presented the events from the perspectives of women and girls.
Additional resources, including photos, essays and archival material depicting the events of July 1967 are available from several websites listed below:
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who played the doctor in victoria and abdul | Abdul Karim (the Munshi) - wikipedia
Hafiz Mohammed Abdul Karim, CIE, CVO (1863 -- April 1909), known as "the Munshi '', was an Indian attendant of Queen Victoria. He served her during the final fifteen years of her reign, gaining her maternal affection over that time.
Karim was born near Jhansi in British India, the son of a hospital assistant. In 1887, Victoria 's Golden Jubilee year, Karim was one of two Indians selected to become servants to the Queen. Victoria came to like him a great deal and gave him the title of "Munshi '' ("clerk '' or "teacher ''). Victoria appointed him her Indian Secretary, showered him with honours, and obtained a land grant for him in India.
The close platonic relationship between Karim and the Queen led to friction within the Royal Household, the other members of which felt themselves to be superior to him. The Queen insisted on taking Karim with her on her travels, which caused arguments between her and her other attendants. Following Victoria 's death in 1901, her successor, Edward VII, returned Karim to India and ordered the confiscation and destruction of the Munshi 's correspondence with Victoria. Karim subsequently lived quietly near Agra, on the estate that Victoria had arranged for him, until his death at the age of 46.
Mohammed Abdul Karim was born into a Muslim family at Lalitpur near Jhansi in 1863. His father, Haji Mohammed Waziruddin, was a hospital assistant stationed with the Central India Horse, a British cavalry regiment. Karim had one older brother, Abdul Aziz, and four younger sisters. He was taught Persian and Urdu privately, and as a teenager travelled across North India and into Afghanistan. Karim 's father participated in the conclusive march to Kandahar, which ended the Second Anglo - Afghan War, in August 1880. After the war, Karim 's father transferred from the Central India Horse to a civilian position at the Central Jail in Agra, while Karim worked as a vakil ("agent '' or "representative '') for the Nawab of Jaora in the Agency of Agar. After three years in Agar, Karim resigned and moved to Agra, to become a vernacular clerk at the jail. His father arranged a marriage between Karim and the sister of a fellow worker.
Prisoners in the Agra jail were trained and kept employed as carpet weavers as part of their rehabilitation. In 1886, 34 convicts travelled to London to demonstrate carpet weaving at the Colonial and Indian Exhibition in South Kensington. Karim did not accompany the prisoners, but assisted Jail Superintendent John Tyler in organising the trip, and helped to select the carpets and weavers. When Queen Victoria visited the exhibition, Tyler gave her a gift of two gold bracelets, again chosen with the assistance of Karim. The Queen had a longstanding interest in her Indian territories and wished to employ some Indian servants for her Golden Jubilee. She asked Tyler to recruit two attendants who would be employed for a year. Karim was hastily coached in British manners and in the English language and sent to England, along with Mohammed Buksh. Major - General Thomas Dennehy, who was about to be appointed to the Royal Household, had previously employed Buksh as a servant. It was planned that the two Indian men would initially wait at table, and learn to do other tasks.
After a journey by rail from Agra to Bombay and by mail steamer to Britain, Karim and Buksh arrived at Windsor Castle in June 1887. They were put under the charge of Major - General Dennehy and first served the Queen at breakfast in Frogmore House at Windsor on 23 June 1887. The Queen described Karim in her diary for that day: "The other, much younger, is much lighter (than Buksh), tall, and with a fine serious countenance. His father is a native doctor at Agra. They both kissed my feet. ''
Five days later, the Queen noted that "The Indians always wait now and do so, so well and quietly. '' On 3 August, she wrote: "I am learning a few words of Hindustani to speak to my servants. It is a great interest to me for both the language and the people, I have naturally never come into real contact with before. '' On 20 August she had some "excellent curry '' made by one of the servants. By 30 August Karim was teaching her Urdu, which she used during an audience in December to greet the Maharani Chimnabai of Baroda.
Victoria took a great liking to Karim and ordered that he was to be given additional tuition in the English language. By February 1888 he had "learnt English wonderfully '' according to Victoria. After he complained to the Queen that he had been a clerk in India and thus menial work as a waiter was beneath him, he was promoted to the position of "Munshi '' in August 1888. In her journal, the Queen writes that she made this change so that he would stay: "I particularly wish to retain his services as he helps me in studying Hindustani, which interests me very much, & he is very intelligent & useful. '' Photographs of him waiting at table were destroyed and he became the first personal Indian clerk to the Queen. Buksh remained in the Queen 's service, but only as a khidmatgar or table servant, until his death at Windsor in 1899.
According to Karim biographer Sushila Anand, the Queen 's own letters testify that "her discussions with the Munshi were wide - ranging -- philosophical, political and practical. Both head and heart were engaged. There is no doubt that the Queen found in Abdul Karim a connection with a world that was fascinatingly alien, and a confidant who would not feed her the official line. '' Karim was placed in charge of the other Indian servants and made responsible for their accounts. Victoria praised him in her letters and journal. "I am so very fond of him '' she wrote, "He is so good & gentle & understanding all I want & is a real comfort to me. '' She admired "her personal Indian clerk & Munshi, who is an excellent, clever, truly p (i) ous & very refined gentle man, who says, ' God ordered it '... God 's Orders is what they implicitly obey! Such faith as theirs & such conscientiousness set us ag (rea) t. example. '' At Balmoral Castle, the Queen 's Scottish estate, Karim was allocated the room previously occupied by John Brown, a favourite servant of the Queen 's who had died in 1883. Despite the serious and dignified manner that Karim presented to the outside world, the Queen wrote that "he is very friendly and cheerful with the Queen 's maids and laughs and even jokes now -- and invited them to come and see all his fine things offering them fruit cake to eat ''.
In November 1888, Karim was given four months ' leave to return to India, during which time he visited his father. Karim wrote to Victoria that his father, who was due to retire, had hopes of a pension and that his former employer, John Tyler, was angling for promotion. As a result, throughout the first six months of 1889, Victoria wrote to the Viceroy of India, Lord Lansdowne, demanding action on Waziruddin 's pension and Tyler 's promotion. The Viceroy was reluctant to pursue the issues because Waziruddin had told the local governor, Sir Auckland Colvin, that he desired only gratitude and also because Tyler had a reputation for tactless behaviour and bad - tempered remarks.
Karim 's swift rise began to create jealousy and discontent among the members of the Royal Household, who would normally never mingle socially with Indians below the rank of prince. The Queen expected them to welcome Karim, an Indian of ordinary origin, into their midst, but they were not willing to do so. Karim, for his part, expected to be treated as an equal. When Albert Edward, Prince of Wales (later Edward VII), hosted an entertainment for the Queen at his home in Sandringham on 26 April 1889, Karim found he had been allocated a seat with the servants. Feeling insulted, he retired to his room. The Queen took his part, stating that he should have been seated among the Household. When the Queen attended the Braemar Games in 1890, her son Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn, approached the Queen 's private secretary Sir Henry Ponsonby in outrage after he saw the Munshi among the gentry. Ponsonby suggested that as it was "by the Queen 's order '', the Duke should approach the Queen about it. "This entirely shut him up '', noted Ponsonby.
Victoria biographer Carolly Erickson described the situation:
The rapid advancement and personal arrogance of the Munshi would inevitably have led to his unpopularity, but the fact of his race made all emotions run hotter against him. Racialism was a scourge of the age; it went hand in hand with belief in the appropriateness of Britain 's global dominion. For a dark - skinned Indian to be put very nearly on a level with the queen 's white servants was all but intolerable, for him to eat at the same table as them, to share in their daily lives was viewed as an outrage. Yet the queen was determined to impose harmony on her household. Race hatred was intolerable to her, and the "dear good Munshi '' deserving of nothing but respect.
When complaints were brought to her, Victoria refused to believe any negative comments about Karim. She dismissed concerns about his behaviour, deemed high - handed by Household and staff, as "very wrong ''. In June 1889, Karim 's brother - in - law, Hourmet Ali, sold one of Victoria 's brooches to a jeweller in Windsor. She accepted Karim 's explanation that Ali had found the brooch and that it was customary in India to keep anything that one found, whereas the rest of the Household thought Ali had stolen it. In July, Karim was assigned the room previously occupied by Dr (later Sir) James Reid, Victoria 's physician, and given the use of a private sitting room.
The Queen, influenced by the Munshi, continued to write to Lord Lansdowne on the issue of Tyler 's promotion and the administration of India. She expressed reservations on the introduction of elected councils on the basis that Muslims would not win many seats because they were in the minority, and urged that Hindu feasts be re-scheduled so as not to conflict with Muslim ones. Lansdowne dismissed the latter suggestion as potentially divisive, but appointed Tyler Acting Inspector General of Prisons in September 1889.
To the Household 's surprise and concern, during Victoria 's stay at Balmoral in September 1889, she and Karim stayed for one night at a remote house on the estate, Glassalt Shiel at Loch Muick. Victoria had often been there with Brown and after his death had sworn never to stay there again. In early 1890, Karim fell ill with an inflamed boil on his neck and Victoria instructed Reid, her physician, to attend to Karim. She wrote to Reid expressing her anxiety and explaining that she felt responsible for the welfare of her Indian servants because they were so far from their own land. Reid performed an operation to open and drain the swelling, after which Karim recovered. Reid wrote on 1 March 1890 that the Queen was "visiting Abdul twice daily, in his room taking Hindustani lessons, signing her boxes, examining his neck, smoothing his pillows, etc. ''
In 1890, the Queen had Karim 's portrait painted by Heinrich von Angeli. According to the Queen, von Angeli was keen to paint Karim as he had never painted an Indian before and "was so struck with his handsome face and colouring ''. On 11 July 1890, she wrote to Lansdowne, and the Secretary of State for India Lord Cross, for "a grant of land to her really exemplary and excellent young Munshi, Hafiz Abdul Karim ''. The ageing Queen did not trust her relatives and the Royal Household to look after the Munshi after she was gone, and so sought to secure his future. Lansdowne replied that grants of land were given only to soldiers, and then only in cases of long and meritorious service. Nevertheless, the Viceroy agreed to find a grant for Karim that would provide about 600 rupees annually, the same amount that an old soldier could expect after performing exceptionally. Victoria wrote to Lansdowne repeatedly between July and October, pressuring him on the land grant. Apart from wasteland, there was little government - controlled land near Agra; thus Lansdowne was having trouble finding a suitable plot. On 30 October, the Munshi left Balmoral for four months ' leave in India, travelling on the same ship as Lady Lansdowne. On the same day, Lord Lansdowne telegraphed the Queen to let her know that a grant of land in the suburbs of Agra had been arranged. Lansdowne made a point of informing the Queen:
... quite recently one of the men who at the peril of his life, and under a withering fire helped to blow up the Kashmiri Gate of Delhi in the Mutiny, received, on his retirement from the service, a grant of land yielding only Rs 250 for life. Abdul Karim, at the age of 26, had received a perpetual grant of land representing an income of more than double that amount in recognition of his services as a member of your Majesty 's Household.
Lansdowne visited Agra in November 1890. He and the Munshi met, and Lansdowne arranged for Karim to be seated with the viceregal staff during a durbar. Lansdowne met both the Munshi and Waziruddin privately, and Lady Lansdowne met his wife and mother - in - law, who were smuggled into the Viceroy 's camp in secrecy to comply with rules of purdah.
In 1891, after Karim 's return to Britain, he asked Reid to send his father a large quantity of medicinal compounds, which included strychnine, chloral hydrate, morphine, and many other poisons. Reid calculated that the amount requested was "amply sufficient to kill 12,000 to 15,000 full grown men or an enormously large number of children '' and consequently refused. Instead, Reid persuaded the Queen that the chemicals should be obtained at her expense by the appropriate authorities in India. In June 1892, Waziruddin visited Britain and stayed at both Balmoral and Windsor Castles. He retired in 1893 and in the New Year Honours 1894 he was rewarded, to Victoria 's satisfaction, with the title of Khan Bahadur, which Lansdowne noted was "one which under ordinary circumstances the Doctor (could) not have ventured to expect ''.
In May 1892, the Munshi returned to India on six months ' leave; on his return, his wife and mother - in - law accompanied him. Both women were shrouded from head to foot and travelled in railway compartments with drawn curtains. Victoria wrote, "the two Indian ladies... who are, I believe, the first Mohammedan purdah ladies who ever came over... keep their custom of complete seclusion and of being entirely covered when they go out, except for the holes for their eyes. '' As a woman, Victoria saw them without veils. The Munshi and his family were housed in cottages at Windsor, Balmoral and Osborne, the Queen 's retreat on the Isle of Wight. Victoria visited regularly, usually bringing her female guests, including the Empress of Russia and the Princess of Wales, to meet the Munshi 's female relatives. One visitor, Marie Mallet, the Queen 's maid - in - waiting and wife of civil servant Bernard Mallet, recorded:
I have just been to see the Munshi 's wife (by Royal Command). She is fat and not uncomely, a delicate shade of chocolate and gorgeously attired, rings on her fingers, rings on her nose, a pocket mirror set in turquoises on her thumb and every feasible part of her person hung with chains and bracelets and ear - rings, a rose - pink veil on her head bordered with heavy gold and splendid silk and satin swathings round her person. She speaks English in a limited manner... ''
Dr Reid never saw Mrs Karim unveiled, though he claimed that whenever he was called to examine her, a different tongue was protruded from behind the veil for his inspection.
In 1892, the Munshi 's name began to appear in the Court Circular among the names of officials accompanying the Queen on her annual March trip to the French Riviera. As usual, Victoria spent Christmas 1892 at Osborne House, where the Munshi, as he had in previous years, participated in tableaux vivants arranged as entertainment. The following year, during Victoria 's annual holiday in continental Europe, he was presented to King Umberto I of Italy. In the words of a contemporary newspaper account, "The King did not understand why this magnificent and imposing Hindoo should have been formally presented to him. The popular idea in Italy is that the Munshi is a captive Indian prince, who is taken about by the Queen as an outward and visible sign of Her Majesty 's supremacy in the East. ''
By 1893, Victoria was sending notes to Karim signed in Urdu. She often signed off her letters to Karim as "your affectionate mother, VRI '' or "your truly devoted and fond loving mother, VRI ''.
The Munshi was perceived to have taken advantage of his position as the Queen 's favourite, and to have risen above his status as a menial clerk, causing resentment in the court. On a journey through Italy, he published an advertisement in the Florence Gazette stating that "(h) e is belonging to a good and highly respectful famiely (sic) ''. Karim refused to travel with the other Indians and appropriated the maid 's bathroom for his exclusive use. On a visit to Coburg, he refused to attend the marriage of Victoria 's granddaughter Princess Victoria Melita of Saxe - Coburg and Gotha, because her father, Victoria 's son Alfred, Duke of Saxe - Coburg and Gotha, assigned him a seat in the gallery with the servants. Confronted by the opposition of her family and retainers, the Queen defended her favourite. She wrote to her private secretary Sir Henry Ponsonby: "to make out that the poor good Munshi is so low is really outrageous & in a country like England quite out of place... She has known 2 Archbishops who were sons respectively of a Butcher & a Grocer... Abdul 's father saw good & honourable service as a Dr & he (Karim) feels cut to the heart at being thus spoken of. ''
Lord Lansdowne 's term of office ended in 1894, and he was replaced by Lord Elgin. Ponsonby 's son Frederick was Elgin 's aide - de-camp in India for a short time before being appointed an equerry to Victoria. Victoria asked Frederick to visit Waziruddin, the "surgeon - general '' at Agra. On his return to Britain, Frederick told Victoria that Waziruddin "was not the surgeon - general but only the apothecary at the jail '', which Victoria "stoutly denied '' saying Frederick "must have seen the wrong man ''. To "mark her displeasure '', Victoria did not invite Frederick to dinner for a year.
At Christmas 1894, the Munshi sent Lord Elgin a sentimental greeting card, which to Victoria 's dismay went unacknowledged. Through Frederick Ponsonby, she complained to Elgin, who replied that he did "not imagine that any acknowledgement was necessary, or that the Queen would expect him to send one '', pointing out "how impossible it would be for an Indian Viceroy to enter into correspondence of this kind ''.
Frederick wrote to Elgin in January 1895 that Karim was deeply unpopular in the Household, and that he occupied "very much the same position as John Brown used to ''. Princesses Louise and Beatrice, Prince Henry of Battenberg, Prime Minister Lord Rosebery, and Secretary of State for India Henry Fowler had all raised concerns about Karim with the Queen, who "refused to listen to what they had to say but was very angry, so as you see the Munshi is a sort of pet, like a dog or cat which the Queen will not willingly give up ''. Elgin was warned by both Ponsonby and the India Office that the Queen gave his letters to the Munshi to read, and that consequently his correspondence to her should not be of a confidential nature. Victoria 's advisors feared Karim 's association with Rafiuddin Ahmed, an Indian political activist resident in London who was connected to the Muslim Patriotic League. They suspected that Ahmed extracted confidential information from Karim to pass onto the Amir of Afghanistan, Abdur Rahman Khan. There is no indication that these fears were well - founded, or that the Munshi was ever indiscreet.
During the Queen 's annual holiday in the French Riviera, in March 1895, the local newspapers ran articles on Le Munchy, secrétaire indien and le professor de la Reine, which according to Frederick Ponsonby were instigated by Karim. In the Queen 's 1895 Birthday Honours that May, Karim was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Indian Empire (CIE), despite the opposition of both Rosebery and Fowler. Tyler was astonished by Karim 's elevation when he visited England the following month.
After the United Kingdom general election, 1895, Rosebery and Fowler were replaced by Lord Salisbury and Lord George Hamilton respectively. Hamilton thought Karim was not as dangerous as some supposed but that he was "a stupid man, and on that account he may become a tool in the hands of other men. '' In early 1896, Karim returned to India on six months ' leave, and Hamilton and Elgin placed him under "unobtrusive '' surveillance. They dared not be too obvious lest the Munshi notice and complain to the Queen. Despite fears that Karim might meet with hostile agents, his visit home appears to have been uneventful.
He left Bombay for Britain in August 1896, bringing with him his young nephew, Mohammed Abdul Rashid. Karim had no children of his own. Victoria had arranged for a female doctor to examine the Munshi 's wife in December 1893, as the couple had been trying to conceive without success. By 1897, according to Reid, Karim had gonorrhea.
In March 1897 as members of the Household prepared to depart for Cimiez for the Queen 's annual visit, they insisted that Karim not accompany the royal party, and decided to resign if he did so. When Harriet Phipps, one of the Queen 's maids of honour, informed her of the collective decision, the Queen swept the contents of her desk onto the floor in a fury. The Household backed down, but the holiday was marred by increased resentment and rows between the Household and Victoria. She thought their distrust and dislike of Karim was motivated by "race prejudice '' and jealousy. When Rafiuddin Ahmed joined Karim in Cimiez, the Household forced him to leave, which Victoria thought "disgraceful '', and she asked the prime minister to issue an apology to Ahmed, explaining he was only excluded because he had written articles in newspapers and pressmen were not permitted. Ponsonby wrote in late April, "(the Munshi) happens to be a thoroughly stupid and uneducated man, and his one idea in life seems to be to do nothing and to eat as much as he can. '' Reid warned the Queen that her attachment to Karim had led to questions about her sanity, and Hamilton telegraphed to Elgin requesting information on the Munshi and his family in an effort to discredit him. On receiving Elgin 's reply that they were "Respectable and trustworthy... but position of family humble '', Hamilton concluded "the Munshi has done nothing to my knowledge which is reprehensible or deserving of official stricture... enquiries wd not be right, unless they were in connection with some definite statement or accusation. '' He did, however, authorise further investigation of the "Mohamedan intriguer named Rafiuddin ''. Nothing was ever proven against Ahmed, who later became a Bombay government official and was knighted in 1932. The effect of the row, in Hamilton 's words, was "to put him (the Munshi) more into his humble place, and his influence will not be the same in the future ''.
After the distress of 1897, Victoria sought to reassure the Munshi. "I have in my Testamentary arrangements secured your comfort, '' she wrote to him, "and have constantly thought of you well. The long letter I enclose which was written nearly a month ago is entirely and solely my own idea, not a human being will ever know of it or what you answer me. If you ca n't read it I will help you and then burn it at once. '' She told Reid the squabbles placed her and the Munshi under strain, which he replied was unlikely in the latter 's case "judging from his robust appearance and undiminished stoutness ''. Lord Salisbury told Reid he thought it unlikely in her case too, and that she secretly enjoyed the arguments because they were "the only form of excitement she can have ''.
Reid seems to have joined with the other Household members in complaining about the Munshi, for the Queen wrote to him, "I thought you stood between me and them, but now I feel that you chime in with the rest. '' In 1899, members of the Household again insisted that Karim not accompany the royal party when the Queen took her annual holiday at Cimiez. The Queen duly had Karim remain at Windsor, then when the party had settled into the Excelsior Regina hotel, wired Karim to come and join them.
In late 1898 Karim 's purchase of a parcel of land adjacent to his earlier grant was finalised; he had become a wealthy man. Reid claimed in his diary that he had challenged Karim over his financial dealings: "You have told the Queen that in India no receipts are given for money, and therefore you ought not to give any to Sir F Edwards (Keeper of the Privy Purse). This is a lie and means that you wish to cheat the Queen. '' The Munshi told the Queen he would provide receipts in answer to the allegations, and Victoria wrote to Reid dismissing the accusations, calling them "shameful ''.
Karim asked Victoria for the title of "Nawab '', the Indian equivalent of a peer, and to appoint him a Knight Commander of the Order of the Indian Empire (KCIE), which would make him "Sir Abdul Karim ''. A horrified Elgin suggested instead that she make Karim a Member of the Royal Victorian Order (MVO), which was in her personal gift, bestowed no title, and would have little political implication in India. Privy Purse Sir Fleetwood Edwards and Prime Minister Lord Salisbury advised against even the lower honour. Nevertheless in 1899, on the occasion of her 80th birthday, Victoria appointed Karim a commander of the order (CVO), a rank intermediate between member and knight.
The Munshi returned to India in November 1899 for a year. Waziruddin, described as "a courtly old gentleman '' by Lord Curzon, Elgin 's replacement as Viceroy, died in June 1900. By the time Karim returned to Britain in November 1900 Victoria had visibly aged, and her health was failing. Within three months she was dead.
After Victoria 's death, her son, Edward VII, dismissed the Munshi and his relations from court and had them sent back to India. However, Edward did allow the Munshi to be the last to view Victoria 's body before her casket was closed, and to be part of her funeral procession. Almost all of the correspondence between Victoria and Karim was burned on Edward 's orders. Lady Curzon wrote on 9 August 1901,
Charlotte Knollys told me that the Munshi bogie which had frightened all the household at Windsor for many years had proved a ridiculous farce, as the poor man had not only given up all his letters but even the photos signed by Queen and had returned to India like a whipped hound. All the Indian servants have gone back so now there is no Oriental picture & queerness at Court.
In 1905 -- 06, George, Prince of Wales, visited India and wrote to the King from Agra, "In the evening we saw the Munshi. He has not grown more beautiful and is getting fat. I must say he was most civil and humble and really pleased to see us. He wore his C.V.O. which I had no idea he had got. I am told he lives quietly here and gives no trouble at all. ''
The Munshi died at his home, Karim Lodge, on his estate in Agra in 1909. He was survived by two wives, and was interred in a pagoda - like mausoleum in the Panchkuin Kabaristan cemetery in Agra beside his father.
On the instructions of Edward VII, the Commissioner of Agra, W.H. Cobb, visited Karim Lodge to retrieve any remaining correspondence between the Munshi and the Queen or her Household, which was confiscated and sent to the King. The Viceroy (by then Lord Minto), Lieutenant - Governor John Hewitt, and India Office civil servants disapproved of the seizure, and recommended that the letters be returned. Eventually the King returned four, on condition that they would be sent back to him on the death of the Munshi 's first wife. Karim 's family, who had emigrated to Pakistan during the Partition, kept his diary and some of his correspondence from the time concealed until 2010, when it was made public.
As the Munshi had no children, his nephews and grandnephews inherited his wealth and properties. The Munshi 's family continued to reside in Agra until Indian independence and the partition of India in August 1947, after which they emigrated to Karachi, Pakistan. The estate, including Karim Lodge, was confiscated by the Indian government and distributed among Hindu refugees from Pakistan. Half of Karim Lodge was subsequently divided into two individual residences, with the remaining half becoming a nursing home and doctor 's office.
Until the publication of Frederick Ponsonby 's memoirs in 1951, there was little biographical material on the Munshi. Scholarly examination of his life and relationship with Victoria began around the 1960s, focusing on the Munshi as "an illustration of race and class prejudice in Victorian England ''. Mary Lutyens, in editing the diary of her grandmother Edith (wife of Lord Lytton, Viceroy of India 1876 -- 80), concluded, "Though one can understand that the Munshi was disliked, as favourites nearly always are... One can not help feeling that the repugnance with which he was regarded by the Household was based mostly on snobbery and colour prejudice. '' Victoria biographer Elizabeth Longford wrote, "Abdul Karim stirred once more that same royal imagination which had magnified the virtues of John Brown... Nevertheless, (it) insinuated into her confidence an inferior person, while it increased the nation 's dizzy infatuation with an inferior dream, the dream of Colonial Empire. ''
Historians agree with the suspicions of her Household that the Munshi influenced the Queen 's opinions on Indian issues, biasing her against Hindus and favouring Muslims. But suspicions that he passed secrets to Rafiuddin Ahmed are discounted. Victoria asserted that "no political papers of any kind are ever in the Munshi 's hands, even in her presence. He only helps her to read words which she can not read or merely ordinary submissions on warrants for signature. He does not read English fluently enough to be able to read anything of importance. '' Consequently, it is thought unlikely that he could have influenced the government 's Indian policy or provided useful information to Muslim activists.
The 2017 feature film Victoria & Abdul, directed by Stephen Frears and starring Ali Fazal as Abdul Karim and Judi Dench as Queen Victoria, offers a fictionalised version of the relationship between Karim and the queen.
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what's the elevation of north port florida | Naples, Florida - wikipedia
Naples is a city in Collier County, Florida, United States. As of 2015, the city 's population was about 20,600. Naples is a principal city of the Naples - Marco Island, Florida Metropolitan Statistical Area, which had a population of about 322,000 as of 2015. Naples is one of the wealthiest cities in the United States, with the sixth highest per capita income in the country, and the second highest proportion of millionaires per capita in the US. Real estate is among the most expensive in the country, with houses for sale in excess of $40 million.
The city of Naples was founded during the late 1880s by former Confederate general and Kentucky U.S. Senator John Stuart Williams and his partner, Louisville businessman Walter N. Haldeman, the publisher of the Louisville Courier - Journal. Throughout the 1870s and ' 80s, magazine and newspaper stories telling of the area 's mild climate and abundant fish and game likened it to the sunny Italian peninsula. The name Naples caught on when promoters described the bay as "surpassing the bay in Naples, Italy ''. Major development was anticipated after the railroad reached Naples on January 7, 1927, and the Tamiami Trail linking Naples to Miami was completed in 1928, but did not begin until after the Great Depression and World War II. During the war the U.S. Army Air Forces built a small airfield and used it for training purposes; it is now the Naples Municipal Airport.
After a hurricane in 1945, fill was required to repair the damage. A local dredging company, Forrest Walker & Sons, created a lake north of 16th Avenue S, between Gordon Drive and Gulf Shore Boulevard. In 1949, Forrest Walker asked Mr. Rust to sell him the 296 acres (120 ha) from Jamaica Channel to today 's 14th Avenue S. The Jamaica Channel was widened, one canal was dredged, and 14th Avenue S was created by March 1950; a new subdivision was named "Aqualane Shores '' at the opening party that same year. Additional channels were eventually added to the south of 14th Avenue S and are named alphabetically for local water birds. The first channel south of 14th Avenue S is Anhinga Channel, then Bittern Channel is south of 15th Avenue S, Crane Channel is south of 16th Avenue S, Duck Channel is south of 17th Avenue S, and Egret Channel is north of 21st Avenue S. From the channels there are coves named Flamingo, Gull, Heron, and Ibis, as well as the original Aqua Cove. These initial channels, canals, and coves were dredged and bulldozed from the mangrove swamps. Where shallow rock precluded digging, land was filled to create lots with navigable water.
The Aqualane Shores Association was incorporated as a non-profit corporation on February 3, 1966. It served lot owners in the area roughly bounded by the Bay of Naples to the east, Gordon Drive to the west, and the land between 14th Avenue and 21st Avenue S, as well as Marina Drive, Forrest Lane, and Southwinds Drive. Thirty years later, in 1996, a state - mandated city master plan renamed the area to the Aqualane Shores Neighborhood and extended its boundary west to the Gulf of Mexico, east to the Bay of Naples, and the area from 14th Avenue S all the way south to Jamaica Channel. The numerous canals and waterfront homes add a distinctive feature to the south portion of Naples and provide access to the Gulf of Mexico for many homeowners.
As of the census of 2010, there were 19,537 people, 9,710 households, and 6,568 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,744.3 per square mile (673.2 / km). There were 16,957 housing units at an average density of 1,410.0 per square mile (544.2 / km). The racial makeup of the city was 94.1 % White, 4.5 % Black, 0.12 % Native American, 0.33 % Asian, 0.02 % Pacific Islander, 0.30 % from other races, and 1.0 % from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 4.5 % of the population.
There were 9,708 households out of which 10.9 % had children under the age of 18 living with them, 53.8 % were married couples living together, 5.0 % had a female householder with no husband present, and 39.2 % were non-families. 34.0 % of all households were made up of individuals and 20.1 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 1.92 and the average family size was 2.38.
In the city, the population was spread out with 10.9 % under the age of 18, 2.3 % from 18 to 24, 14.5 % from 25 to 44, 30.0 % from 45 to 64, and 42.3 % who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 61 years. For every 100 females there were 86.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 83.9 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $71,553, and the median income for a family was $102,262. Males had a median income of $86,092 versus $30,948 for females. The per capita income for the city was $61,141. About 3.1 % of families and 5.9 % of the population were below the poverty line, including 15.1 % of those under age 18 and 3.3 % of those age 65 or over.
The economy of Naples is based largely on tourism and was historically based on real estate development and agriculture. Due to its proximity to the Everglades and Ten Thousand Islands, Naples is also popular among ecotourists.
Companies based in Naples include Alavista Solutions, Beasley Broadcast Group and ASG Software Solutions, in addition to numerous small businesses. Due to the wealth present in Collier County, Naples is also home to many small non-profit organizations.
The surrounding Naples metro area is home to major private employers. Fortune 1000 company Health Management Associates, technology company NewsBank.
In 2009, Naples was ranked as one of 10 pricey cities worth its high cost.
Naples is located in southwest Florida at 26.139, − 81.795 on U.S. Highway 41 between Miami to the east and Fort Myers to the north.
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 16.4 square miles (42.5 km), of which 12.3 square miles (31.9 km) is land and 4.1 square miles (10.7 km), or 25.09 %, is water.
Naples experiences a tropical savanna climate (Köppen Aw), with hot and wet summers, and warm and dry winters. Naples reports more than 2900 hours of sunshine a year and more than 300 sunny days a year. Naples is normally frost free and the growing season is 365 days.
Naples is served by the District School Board of Collier County and various private institutions including the following:
Elementary schools
Middle schools
High schools
While no colleges are based within the city limits, Ave Maria School of Law 's campus is in the Vineyards Development in North Naples, and Florida Gulf Coast University near Estero operates continuing education classes from their Naples Center campus. Southwest Florida is home to several other institutions including:
With over 800 alumni living in Naples, the Ohio State University once established the nation 's biggest alumni club in the early 2000s (outside of their hometown of Columbus, Ohio). This is most likely due in large part to the overwhelming number of Midwesterners who have relocated to Naples.
Naples is served by several bus routes operated by the Collier Area Transit. Service runs seven days a week.
The region is served by the NCH Healthcare System, which currently has 681 beds between two hospitals, and Physician 's Regional Healthcare System, which has two hospitals and currently 201 beds and is owned by the Health Management Associates, headquartered at 5811 Pelican Bay Blvd in North Naples. In addition to the two hospitals, the company operates six clinics in Naples.
Healthcare Network of Southwest Florida (HCN) was founded in 1977 to serve migrant farmworkers and their families in Immokalee. It now provides care to over 41,000 residents of Collier County through 20 practices, including internal medicine, family practice, obstetrics and gynecology, pediatrics, behavioral health and dental care.
Tourism is a major industry for the city. The Naples area is home to several major land reserves, including the Corkscrew Swamp Sanctuary, Everglades National Park, Big Cypress National Preserve, Florida Panther National Wildlife Refuge, Ten Thousand Islands National Wildlife Refuge, and Picayune Strand State Forest. The Corkscrew Swamp Sanctuary is known not only for its 11,000 acres (45 km) of landscape and wildlife, but for a two and a half - mile long boardwalk winding through the sanctuary. The Naples area is also home to the Naples Zoo at Caribbean Gardens, which dates back to 1919.
The city is served by the Naples Municipal Airport.
Downtown Naples is home to The Naples Players, the 5th Avenue South, and 3rd Street South shopping districts, which feature a variety of antique shops. Gallery Row is a concentration among the numerous art galleries spread throughout the downtown area. The Village on Venetian Bay is an upscale open - air shopping district on the Gulf coast. Located directly off of Tamiami Trail are the Waterside Shops, an upscale open - air center. Near downtown on Naples Bay and the Gordon River is the shopping district of Tin City. This open - air shopping center specializes in antiques and handmade local novelties. Also, near downtown is Big Cypress Market Place with over 100 diverse vendors. Naples hosts The Oliver Group Champions Cup of the Outback Champions Tennis Series each year. Naples is also the home of swamp buggy races, held three times each year at the Florida Sports Park.
The Naples Half Marathon is a half marathon held every year in Naples since 1989, with record participation in 2013 of 2,038 runners. The race has been called one of the best half - marathons in the United States by Runner 's World magazine.
Naples is home to The Naples Players, Naples Shakespeare Festival (and sister company Marco Island Shakespeare Festival), Opera Naples, and the Equity Theatre Companies Theatre Zone and Gulfshore Playhouse. The Naples Philharmonic and the Baker Museum are located at Artis -- Naples, which also serves as the educational campus for the Naples Philharmonic Youth Orchestra and Philharmonic Youth Chorus. The Holocaust Museum and Education Center of Southwest Florida educates about 155,000 students each year both in its facility and with a locally traveling exhibit.
The beach on the coast of the Gulf of Mexico is more than 10 miles (16 km) long and is known for its cleanliness and pristine white sand. In 2005, Naples was voted the best beach in America by the Travel Channel.
Naples area beaches include:
With more than 80 championship golf courses in the Naples area, Naples is the self - titled "Golf Capital of the World '', claiming to have more holes per capita than any other community.
In December 2009, Florida Governor Charlie Crist met with Chicago Cubs president Crane Kenney, chairman Tom Ricketts and other team officials about possibly moving the Cubs ' spring training and minor league facilities from Mesa, Arizona, to Naples.
Notes
Bibliography
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who played david hagan in fire with fire | Vincent D'Onofrio - wikipedia
Vincent Philip D'Onofrio (/ dəˈnɒfrioʊ /; born June 30, 1959) is an American actor, producer, and singer.
He is known for his roles as Private Leonard "Gomer Pyle '' Lawrence in Full Metal Jacket (1987), The Kingpin / Wilson Fisk in Daredevil (2015 -- present), NYPD Detective Robert Goren in Law & Order: Criminal Intent, Edgar the Bug in Men in Black (1997), and Vic Hoskins in Jurassic World (2015). Among other honors, D'Onofrio is a Saturn Award winner and an Emmy Award nominee.
D'Onofrio was born in Bensonhurst, Brooklyn. He is of Italian descent, with ancestors from Sicily. His parents, Gennaro and Phyllis D'Onofrio, an interior designer / theater - production assistant, and server, respectively, met while Gennaro was stationed in Hawaii with the U.S. Air Force. In 1956, they had their first child, Antoinette. Their second child, Elizabeth (born 1957), is an actress and drama coach residing in Fort Myers Beach, Florida, and then Vincent was born, the youngest of the three siblings. He was raised in Hawaii and Colorado during his early years.
D'Onofrio's parents divorced when he was young; his mother later married George Meyer. He became step - brother to Meyer 's children from a previous marriage (Guy and Connie). The family moved to the Hialeah, Florida area. D'Onofrio, a shy boy who spent "a lot of time in my room, staying in my head, '' later became interested in magic and sleight of hand, tricks he learned from Cuban entertainers who owned a small magic shop.
In his teens, he worked backstage in set building and sound production at a number of community theaters run by his father. He graduated from Hialeah - Miami Lakes Senior High School.
After graduating from high school, D'Onofrio started to appear in front of the curtain. During an 18 - month stint at the University of Colorado in Boulder, Colorado, he was involved with small, community - theater productions. He later studied method acting at the American Stanislavsky Theater and the Actors Studio, under coaches Sonia Moore and Sharon Chatten, which landed him his first paid role in off - Broadway 's This Property Is Condemned. He went on to appear in a number of their productions, including Of Mice and Men and Sexual Perversity in Chicago. D'Onofrio continued his career by performing in many New York University student productions while also working as a bouncer at the Hard Rock Cafe, a bodyguard for Robert Plant and Yul Brynner and a deliveryman.
In 1984, he made his Broadway debut as Nick Rizzoli in Open Admissions. In 2012, D'Onofrio returned to teach at the Lee Strasberg Theatre and Film Institute where his daughter is a student.
In 1986, D'Onofrio took on the role often considered the defining moment in his acting career, as Pvt. Leonard Lawrence, an overweight, clumsy Marine recruit in the movie Full Metal Jacket. On a tip from friend Matthew Modine, D'Onofrio was urged to send audition tapes to director Stanley Kubrick, in England. Four tapes later, D'Onofrio landed the role. Originally, the character of Pvt. Lawrence had been written as a "skinny ignorant redneck ''; however, Kubrick believed the role would have more impact if the character were big and clumsy. D'Onofrio gained 70 lb (32 kg) for the role, bringing his weight to 280 lb (130 kg). This remains the record for most weight gained by an actor for a movie. While filming an obstacle course scene for the movie, D'Onofrio injured his left knee, compounded by the excessive weight, which required surgical reconstruction.
After filming of Full Metal Jacket was completed, having lost nearly all the weight gained for the movie in just nine months, D'Onofrio went on to play Dawson, the owner of Dawson 's Garage in Adventures in Babysitting (1987). He appears in only one scene near the end of the film. In 1988, he was cast in another supporting role in the film Mystic Pizza, playing the fiancé of Lili Taylor 's character. In the movie, which was Julia Roberts ' breakout film, he was billed under his full name Vincent Phillip D'Onofrio.
D'Onofrio continued to play a wide variety of minor or supporting roles, including the father of a saint in Nancy Savoca 's Household Saints (1993), director Orson Welles in Tim Burton 's Ed Wood (1994), farmer Edgar and the evil "Bug '' that possesses him from Men in Black (1997), a man who claims to be from the future in Happy Accidents (2000), and the serial killer Carl Stargher, opposite Jennifer Lopez 's character in The Cell (2000).
In 1992, he appeared in Robert Altman 's The Player, as an aspiring screenwriter. In 1997, he made a move to television and received an Emmy nomination for his appearance as John Lange in the Homicide: Life on the Street episode "Subway. '' In 1999, he turned down a role in The Sopranos. D'Onofrio portrayed leftist radical Abbie Hoffman in Steal This Movie in 2000, also starring Janeane Garofalo as his wife.
In 2001, he took on what became his longest and perhaps best - known role as Det. Robert Goren on the NBC / USA Network television show Law & Order: Criminal Intent. On March 1, 2008, D'Onofrio made a cameo appearance in a presidential election - related sketch in a Saturday Night Live episode as his character Det. Robert Goren. In the sketch, he interrogates Hillary Clinton (played by Amy Poehler). His entrance to and exit from the skit are punctuated by the Law & Order "dun - DUN '' sound.
In 2009, it was announced that D'Onofrio would be leaving Law & Order: Criminal Intent in the spring of 2010, with his last appearance occurring in the two - part, season - 9 premiere. He was replaced by Jeff Goldblum, but after a drop in ratings, D'Onofrio and Kathryn Erbe agreed to return for a 10th (and final) season of the show.
In 2003, it was reported that D'Onofrio and Joe Pantoliano had begun work on a small film titled Little Victories, about a 12 - year - old boy whose perceptions of the world are forever changed when his gangster uncle comes to live with him. According to a television interview with Pantoliano, the film was not completed and went into turnaround due to a failure to raise the funds necessary for production.
In November 2005, D'Onofrio won Best Actor at the Stockholm International Film Festival for his role as Mike Cobb in the independent film Thumbsucker. In 2006, he appeared in The Break - Up, starring Jennifer Aniston and Vince Vaughn, playing Vaughn 's eccentric brother. Vaughn and he had appeared together in two previous films, The Cell (2000), wherein Vaughn played an FBI agent pursuing D'Onofrio's character, and Thumbsucker (2005). He appears in the Oscar - winning short "The New Tenants '' (2009).
Over the next few years, D'Onofrio co-starred in films such as: Staten Island (2009), Brooklyn 's Finest (2010), Kill the Irishman (2011), Crackers (2011), American Falls (2012), Fire with Fire (2012), and Ass Backwards (2013).
In 2011, he began work on the Jennifer Lynch 2012 film Chained (previously titled Rabbit) in which he portrays Bob, a serial killer who kidnaps a young boy, Rabbit, and makes him his protégé. When he becomes older, Rabbit must decide whether to follow in the footsteps of his captor or plan his escape. The film shot in areas in and around Regina and Moose Jaw, both in Saskatchewan.
On May 1, 2012, due to "explicit violence '', the movie was given an NC - 17 rating by the MPAA, despite an appeal by Jennifer Lynch, and the distributor, with scenes cut to maximize theater exposure and distribution. No stranger to the NC - 17 ratings, Lynch, who responded to the ruling a day later also saw cuts made to her movie Boxing Helena.
In July 2012, a press release from Anchor Bay announced that the movie would be released on Blu - ray and DVD on October 2, 2012 and would include the deleted scene, involving a throat being cut, which caused the NC - 17 rating.
On September 14, 2011, it was announced that D'Onofrio would star alongside Ethan Hawke in a new NBC show, Blue Tilt, named after the harmful psychological effects homicide detectives experience after constantly dealing with horrific crimes.
D'Onofrio and Hawke had worked together in the films The Newton Boys, Staten Island, Brooklyn 's Finest and Sinister. The hour - long cop drama, in which D'Onofrio would play Sonny, was to follow the main characters ' attempts to balance their careers with family life. Writer Chris Brancato, fresh from Season 10 of Law and Order: Criminal Intent, was brought on board to pen the episodes. Filming of the pilot episode was set to start in February 2012. On March 27, 2012, a tweet from Kevin Dunigan, the co-creator and developer of the pilot, revealed that NBC had shelved the project because it did not have enough "pop to attract viewers. ''
On April 30, 2012, the short film "Crackers '', starring D'Onofrio as Gus, won a People 's Choice Award at the Fort Myers Beach Film Festival. The festival, which had been dormant for six years, was rekindled and partly organized by Vincent 's sister, actress Elizabeth D'Onofrio.
Fresh from his role in Jennifer Lynch 's Chained, it was announced on August 11, 2012, that D'Onofrio would star in her upcoming film A Fall From Grace. The film tells the story of Detective Michael Tabb, to be played by Tim Roth, as he investigates the murders of young girls burned and washing ashore along the Mississippi River. A further upcoming Lynch project, The Monster Next Door, was set to also star D'Onofrio.
Also in November, filming began on the Vidhu Vinod Chopra movie, Broken Horses, which focused on gang warfare around the border between the United States and Mexico. D'Onofrio starred alongside Chris Marquette and Anton Yelchin.
In 2013, D'Onofrio co-starred in the movie Escape Plan, filmed in New Orleans, also starring Sylvester Stallone, Arnold Schwarzenegger, and 50 Cent. D'Onofrio portrayed Lester Clark, deputy director of the Prisons Bureau.
D'Onofrio co-starred in the film drama The Judge (2014).
His other projects included a role in Supreme Ruler with Marcia Gay Harden and Jeffrey Dean Morgan, Eric Bogosian 's Mall which he co-wrote with his former Law & Order: Criminal Intent co-star, and Pawn Shop Chronicles.
In 2015, D'Onofrio made his Marvel Cinematic Universe debut as Wilson Fisk in the first season of Daredevil. He reprised the role in an extended cameo appearance in season 2, and in season 3 as a series regular. He also portrayed Vic Hoskins in the action adventure film Jurassic World (2015), and Jack Horne in Antoine Fuqua 's 2016 remake of The Magnificent Seven.
D'Onofrio has also had success behind the camera, producing The Whole Wide World in which he also starred in. (1996) and Guy (1997), and executive producing The Velocity of Gary (1998) and Steal This Movie (2000). In 2005, he directed and starred in the short film Five Minutes, Mr. Welles (2005), which represented a culmination of D'Onofrio's desire to improve on his performance as Welles in Ed Wood, which reportedly left director Tim Burton underwhelmed. Burton decided to procure the services of voiceover artist Maurice LaMarche due to being known for his excellent imitation of Welles ' voice to produce a more dramatically effective rendering of the character 's dialogue. Disappointed with his performance, having been given only two weeks notice to prepare for the role, D'Onofrio wrote, produced, directed, and starred in the short in answer to the critics and himself. The film depicts D'Onofrio as Welles preparing for his role in The Third Man.
In 2008, he returned to directing with the feature - length musical slasher Do n't Go in the Woods (2010), written by his friend Joe Vinciguerra, featuring a score by Sam Bisbee, and starring various unknown actors hand - picked by D'Onofrio. It follows an indie rock band who venture into the woods to write new music, only to meet a crazed murderer (Tim Lajcik). The movie, shot in 13 days near Kingston, New York, had a budget of $100,000 and played at numerous festivals throughout 2009 and 2010. Initially slated for national release in December 2011, the film opened to limited theaters on January 13, 2012, and was released on DVD on June 12, 2012. He is currently directed his next project The Kid.
On October 27, 2009, D'Onofrio made his musical debut, appearing in character as comedic country singer George Geronimo Gerkie at Joe 's Pub in New York City. He appeared as Gerkie again at New York 's Hammerstein Ballroom on December 6, 2009, during Matt Pinfield 's Holiday Extravaganza Show and at the premiere of his movie Do n't Go in the Woods at Joe 's Pub on May 28, 2010. A fourth concert was held at the pub on July 22, 2010, with proceeds from the event going to the Utah Meth Cops project.
On November 11, 2011, while teaching students at the Tribeca Flashpoint Media Arts Academy, D'Onofrio discussed plans for further concerts, and a George Gerkie documentary which is to be filmed by Ultrasuede: In Search of Halston director Whitney Smith.
In September 2011, Australian hip - hop band, The Funkoars, released an album titled The Quickening, featuring the song "Being Vincent D'Onofrio '', an homage to D'Onofrio's career and his work on Law and Order: Criminal Intent. In February 2012, the band announced their upcoming "Being Vincent D'Onofrio Tour 2012 '' with artwork featuring D'Onofrio's face in place of the band members '.
In 2014, D'Onofrio released two songs as part of an avant garde spoken - word project with multi-instrumentalist and composer Dana Lyn. The first single, "I 'm a Hamster '', gathered attention on social media. The full album was made available for purchase in March, 2015, on the band 's website.
In 1998, D'Onofrio, with his father Gene and sister Elizabeth, founded the RiverRun International Film Festival in Winston - Salem, North Carolina. In 2003, former film producer and dean of the School of Filmmaking at the University of North Carolina School of the Arts, Dale Pollock, took over the festival and moved it from Brevard, North Carolina, to Winston - Salem. Annually, the festival showcases the best films offered from the independent and international industry, as well as those from student filmmakers.
In 2008, alongside his sister, Toni, D'Onofrio began hosting events to raise money for the Utah Meth Cops Project. He served as the project 's spokesperson from 2009 -- 2012.
In the fall of 2011, D'Onofrio became a member of the advisory board for the Woodstock Film Festival, which holds an annual event for independent films. Other members of the board include Griffin Dunne, Ethan Hawke, and Aidan Quinn.
In February 2011, D'Onofrio became a public face of the gun control debate, appearing in an ad by the Citizens Crime Commission of New York City urging a ban on large - capacity ammunition magazines.
On August 9, 2012, it was announced that D'Onofrio had been chosen to narrate the documentary, Heroes Behind The Badge (2012). The film follows four fallen officers and the impact their deaths have had on their families, colleagues, and communities. The proceeds are benefitting a memorial museum being built in Washington, DC. A longtime supporter of the National Law Enforcement Officers Memorial, D'Onofrio has been the spokesperson for the National Law Enforcement Officers Memorial Fund and Museum since 2010. A follow up to the documentary, subtitled Sacrifice and Survival, was released in the fall of 2013.
On November 13, 2012, D'Onofrio joined the cast of the off - Broadway production Clive, alongside Brooks Ashmanskas and Zoe Kazan. Produced by Jonathan Marc Sherman and directed by Ethan Hawke, the play, based on Baal by Bertolt Brecht, officially opened at The New Group at Theatre Row on February 7, 2013.
In the early 1990s, D'Onofrio was in a relationship with actress Greta Scacchi, with whom he starred in several films during that period (including The Player and Fires Within). The couple had one daughter, Leila (born 1992).
On March 22, 1997, D'Onofrio married Dutch model Carin van der Donk, and the couple had a son (born 1999). The couple split in the early 2000s, but reconciled and had a second son (born 2008).
On November 10, 2004, D'Onofrio collapsed on the set of Law & Order: Criminal Intent. He collapsed again at home a few days later, and after further testing, was diagnosed with exhaustion. The cause of his exhaustion was explained later as his 14 - hour days filming Criminal Intent, coupled with the filming of his short film Five Minutes, Mr. Welles during the show 's hiatus.
During an interview in January 2012, D'Onofrio discussed his frustration with conflicting reports on his current marital status, including inaccuracies on Internet Movie Database. He has stated that, despite some reports, he is currently married. He resides with his family in a townhouse in the Gramercy Park neighborhood of Manhattan.
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how many episodes per season for game of thrones | List of Game of Thrones episodes - wikipedia
Game of Thrones is an American fantasy drama television series created by David Benioff and D.B. Weiss. The series is based on the A Song of Ice and Fire novels by author George R.R. Martin. The series takes place on the fictional continents of Westeros and Essos and chronicles the power struggles among noble families as they fight for control of the Iron Throne of the Seven Kingdoms. The series starts when House Stark, led by Lord Eddard "Ned '' Stark (Sean Bean) is drawn into schemes against King Robert Baratheon (Mark Addy) when the Hand of the King Jon Arryn (Robert 's chief advisor) dies mysteriously.
The series premiered on April 17, 2011, on HBO. David Benioff and D.B. Weiss both serve as executive producers along with Carolyn Strauss, Frank Doelger, Bernadette Caulfield and George R.R. Martin. Filming for the series has taken place in a number of locations, including Croatia, Northern Ireland, Iceland and Spain. Episodes are broadcast on Sunday at 9: 00 pm Eastern Time, and the episodes are between 50 and 81 minutes in length. The first six seasons are available on DVD and Blu - ray.
The series was renewed for a seventh season in April 2016, which premiered on July 16, 2017 and consisted of seven episodes. The series will conclude with its eighth season, which will consist of six episodes. As of August 27, 2017, 67 episodes of Game of Thrones have aired, concluding the seventh season. The show 's episodes have won numerous awards including two Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Drama Series.
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when did loyola chicago join the missouri valley | Missouri Valley Conference - wikipedia
The Missouri Valley Conference (also called MVC or simply "The Valley '') is the second - oldest collegiate athletic conference in the United States. Currently, its members are located in the midwestern United States. The conference participates in the NCAA 's Division I.
The MVC was founded in 1907 as the Missouri Valley Intercollegiate Athletic Association or MVIAA, 12 years after the Big Ten, the only Division I conference that is older. However, some consider the MVC to have been formed from a split of the MVIAA in 1928. Most of the larger schools formed a conference that retained the MVIAA name and ultimately became the Big Eight Conference. The smaller schools, plus Oklahoma A&M (now Oklahoma State University -- Stillwater, which joined the Big Eight in 1957), formed the MVC, which retained the old MVIAA 's administrative staff. During the Big Eight 's existence, both conferences claimed 1907 as their founding date, as well as the same history through 1927. It was never definitively established which conference was the original, but given that the Big Eight merged with four Texas schools of the Southwest Conference to form the Big 12 Conference in 1996, only the MVC continues to have a claim to the original heritage.
During the 2006 -- 07 college basketball season, MVC teams held a 74 -- 27 non-conference record, including a record of 44 -- 1 at home. The Valley finished in the top six of the RPI and ahead of a BCS conference for the second consecutive year, while also garnering multiple NCAA bids for the ninth straight year and 12th of 14.
The MVC has not sponsored football since 1985, when it was a hybrid I-A / I - AA (now FBS and FCS), respectively. However, five members have football programs in the Missouri Valley Football Conference (known as the Gateway from 1985 to 2008) of Division I FCS, and a sixth and a seventh compete in another FCS conference, the Pioneer Football League. The Missouri Valley Conference shares its name with the Missouri Valley Football Conference, and the two also operate from the same headquarters complex in St. Louis. However, the two are separate administratively.
After weeks of speculation, it was announced on April 7, 2017 that Wichita State would be leaving the conference to join the American Athletic Conference starting with the 2017 -- 18 season. On May 9, 2017, the Conference announced it had extended an invitation to Valparaiso University, and on May 25, the MVC announced that Valparaiso would officially join the following July 1.
Note: In the case of spring sports, the year of joining is the calendar year before the start of competition.
This list does not include current full member Valparaiso. As noted above, the Crusaders played women 's soccer in the MVC from 1996 to 1998 (ending in the 1998 -- 99 school year).
Full members (non-football) (Full members) Assoc. members (football only) Assoc. member (other sports)
The Missouri Valley Conference sponsors championship competition in seven men 's and ten women 's NCAA sanctioned sports. Central Arkansas is an affiliate member for men 's soccer, Dallas Baptist is an affiliate for baseball, Little Rock is an affiliate for swimming and diving, and Stony Brook is an affiliate in women 's tennis.
The most recent change to the roster of sports was the dropping of men 's tennis after the 2016 -- 17 school year due to a lack of participating teams. Two of the four full conference members that sponsored the sport in that season no longer play men 's tennis in the MVC. Southern Illinois dropped both men 's and women 's tennis, and Wichita State joined the American Athletic Conference. Affiliate member Stony Brook dropped men 's tennis after the 2016 -- 17 season. The two remaining MVC men 's tennis schools from 2016 -- 17, Drake and Illinois State, joined the Summit League for that sport, and incoming MVC member Valparaiso also joined the Summit League in men 's tennis.
Men 's varsity sports not sponsored by the Missouri Valley Conference which are played by Valley schools:
Women 's varsity sports not sponsored by the Missouri Valley Conference which are played by Valley schools:
The Missouri Valley Conference Men 's Basketball Championship is often referred to as Arch Madness, in reference to the Gateway Arch at the tournament 's present location of St. Louis, Missouri, and a play on "March Madness ''.
Drake
Drake
NB: Missouri State was known as Southwest Missouri State until August 2005.
School -- Number -- NCAA Championships
NCAA Championships as of March, 2013
(* - Titles won by schools in Division II / College Division prior to their moving to Division I in the late 1960s or early 1970s.)
Football poll, Helms and AIAW titles are not included in the NCAA Championship count.
Sources:
The Valley is well known for having some of the most dedicated fanbases in all of college basketball, with several members regularly selling out their large arenas on a nightly basis throughout the year. One member (Wichita State) sold out every single game for the 2006 -- 07 season and in 2012 -- 13 averaged 10,312 attendees in their 10,506 seat arena. Former member (Creighton) had the sixth highest attendance for Division I in 2012 -- 13 while Wichita State, Bradley, Illinois State, Missouri State, and Indiana State were all among the NCAA 's top 100 teams in home attendance.
In 2010 -- 11, 2011 -- 12, and 2012 -- 13, the Valley maintained its position as the eighth ranked conference in average attendance.
The Valley made history in March 2007 with record attendance for four days at St. Louis ' Scottrade Center as 85,074 fans turned out to watch the five sessions of the tournament. The two sellout crowds of 22,612 for the semifinals and final of the 2007 State Farm Tournament set an all - time attendance record for basketball at the arena and also gave The Valley the distinction of having the largest championship crowd for any of the 30 NCAA conference tournaments in 2007.
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which of the following ended slavery in the united states | Slavery in the United States - Wikipedia
Origins of the civil rights movement Civil rights movement Black Power movement
Slavery in the United States was the legal institution of human chattel enslavement, primarily of Africans and African Americans, that existed in the United States of America in the 18th and 19th centuries. Slavery had been practiced in British America from early colonial days, and was legal in all Thirteen Colonies at the time of the Declaration of Independence in 1776. It lasted in many U.S. states almost a year beyond the end of the American Civil War, replaced for decades longer by convict leasing, peonage, or sharecropping which included poor whites.
By the time of the American Revolution (1775 -- 1783), the status of slave had been institutionalized as a racial caste associated with African ancestry. When the United States Constitution was ratified (1789), a relatively small number of free people of color were among the voting citizens (male property owners). During and immediately following the Revolutionary War, abolitionist laws were passed in most Northern states and a movement developed to abolish slavery. Most of these states had a higher proportion of free labor than in the South and economies based on different industries. They abolished slavery by the end of the 18th century, some with gradual systems that kept adults as slaves for two decades. However, the rapid expansion of the cotton industry in the Deep South after the invention of the cotton gin greatly increased demand for slave labor, and the Southern states continued as slave societies. Those states attempted to extend slavery into the new Western territories to keep their share of political power in the nation; Southern leaders also wanted to annex Cuba to be used as a slave territory. The United States became polarized over the issue of slavery, represented by the slave and free states, in effect divided by the Mason -- Dixon line which delineated (free) Pennsylvania from (slave) Maryland and Delaware.
Congress during the Jefferson administration prohibited the importation of slaves, effective 1808, although smuggling (illegal importing) via Spanish Florida was not unusual. Domestic slave trading, however, continued at a rapid pace, driven by labor demands from the development of cotton plantations in the Deep South. More than one million slaves were sold from the Upper South, which had a surplus of labor, and taken to the Deep South in a forced migration, splitting up many families. New communities of African - American culture were developed in the Deep South, and the total slave population in the South eventually reached 4 million before liberation.
As the West was developed for settlement, the Southern state governments wanted to keep a balance between the number of slave and free states to maintain a political balance of power in Congress. The new territories acquired from Britain, France, and Mexico were the subject of major political compromises. By 1850, the newly rich cotton - growing South was threatening to secede from the Union, and tensions continued to rise. Many white Southern Christians, including church ministers, attempted to justify their support for slavery as modified by Christian paternalism. The largest denominations, the Baptist, Methodist, and Presbyterian churches, split over the slavery issue into regional organizations of the North and South. When Abraham Lincoln won the 1860 election on a platform of halting the expansion of slavery, seven states broke away to form the Confederacy. The first six states to secede held the greatest number of slaves in the South. Shortly after, the Civil War began when Confederate forces attacked the US Army 's Fort Sumter. Four additional slave states then seceded. Due to Union measures such as the Confiscation Acts and Emancipation Proclamation in 1863, the war effectively ended slavery, even before ratification of the Thirteenth Amendment in December 1865 formally ended the legal institution throughout the United States.
In the early years of the Chesapeake Bay settlements, colonial officials found it difficult to attract and retain laborers under the harsh frontier conditions, and there was a high mortality rate. Most laborers came from Britain as indentured laborers, signing contracts of indenture to pay with work for their passage, their upkeep and training, usually on a farm. The colonies had agricultural economies. These indentured laborers were often young people who intended to become permanent residents. In some cases, convicted criminals were transported to the colonies as indentured laborers, rather than being imprisoned. The indentured laborers were not slaves, but were required to work for four to seven years in Virginia to pay the cost of their passage and maintenance. Many Germans, Scots - Irish, and Irish came to the colonies in the 18th century, settling in the backcountry of Pennsylvania and further south.
The first 19 or so Africans to reach the English colonies arrived in Jamestown, Virginia in 1619, brought by Dutch traders who had seized them from a captured Spanish slave ship. The Spanish usually baptized slaves in Africa before embarking them. As English custom then considered baptized Christians exempt from slavery, colonists treated these Africans as indentured servants, and they joined about 1,000 English indentured servants already in the colony. The Africans were freed after a prescribed period and given the use of land and supplies by their former masters. The historian Ira Berlin noted that what he called the "charter generation '' in the colonies was sometimes made up of mixed - race men (Atlantic Creoles) who were indentured servants, and whose ancestry was African and Iberian. They were descendants of African women and Portuguese or Spanish men who worked in African ports as traders or facilitators in the slave trade. For example, Anthony Johnson arrived in Virginia in 1621 from Angola as an indentured servant; he became free and a property owner, eventually buying and owning slaves himself. The transformation of the social status of Africans, from indentured servitude to slaves in a racial caste which they could not leave or escape, happened gradually.
There were no laws regarding slavery early in Virginia 's history. But, in 1640, a Virginia court sentenced John Punch, an African, to slavery after he attempted to flee his service. The two whites with whom he fled were sentenced only to an additional year of their indenture, and three years ' service to the colony. This marked the first legal sanctioning of slavery in the English colonies and was one of the first legal distinctions made between Europeans and Africans.
In 1641, Massachusetts became the first colony to authorize slavery through enacted law. Massachusetts passed the Body of Liberties, which prohibited slavery in many instances, but did allow for three legal bases of slavery. Slaves could be held if they were captives of war, if they sold themselves into slavery or were purchased from elsewhere, or if they were sentenced to slavery as punishment by the governing authority. The Body of Liberties used the word "strangers '' to refer to people bought and sold as slaves; they were generally not English subjects. Colonists came to equate this term with Native Americans and Africans.
In 1654, John Casor, a black indentured servant in colonial Virginia, was the first man to be declared a slave in a civil case. He had claimed to an officer that his master, Anthony Johnson, himself a free black, had held him past his indenture term. A neighbor, Robert Parker told Johnson that if he did not release Casor, Parker would testify in court to this fact. Under local laws, Johnson was at risk for losing some of his headright lands for violating the terms of indenture. Under duress, Johnson freed Casor. Casor entered into a seven years ' indenture with Parker. Feeling cheated, Johnson sued Parker to repossess Casor. A Northampton County, Virginia court ruled for Johnson, declaring that Parker illegally was detaining Casor from his rightful master who legally held him "for the duration of his life ''.
During the colonial period, the status of slaves was affected by interpretations related to the status of foreigners in England. England had no system of naturalizing immigrants to its island or its colonies. Since persons of African origins were not English subjects by birth, they were among those peoples considered foreigners and generally outside English common law. The colonies struggled with how to classify people born to foreigners and subjects. In 1656 Virginia, Elizabeth Key Grinstead, a mixed - race woman, successfully gained her freedom and that of her son in a challenge to her status by making her case as the baptized Christian daughter of the free Englishman Thomas Key. Her attorney was an English subject, which may have helped her case. (He was also the father of her mixed - race son, and the couple married after Key was freed.)
Shortly after the Elizabeth Key trial and similar challenges, in 1662 the Virginia royal colony approved a law adopting the principle of partus sequitur ventrem (called partus, for short), stating that any children born in the colony would take the status of the mother. A child of an enslaved mother would be born into slavery, regardless if the father were a freeborn Englishman or Christian. This was a reversal of common law practice in England, which ruled that children of English subjects took the status of the father. The change institutionalized the skewed power relationships between slaveowners and slave women, freed the white men from the legal responsibility to acknowledge or financially support their mixed - race children, and somewhat confined the open scandal of mixed - race children and miscegenation to within the slave quarters.
The Virginia Slave codes of 1705 further defined as slaves those people imported from nations that were not Christian. Native Americans who were sold to colonists by other Native Americans (from rival tribes), or captured by Europeans during village raids, were also defined as slaves. This codified the earlier principle of non-Christian foreigner enslavement.
In 1735, the Georgia Trustees enacted a law to prohibit slavery in the new colony, which had been established in 1733 to enable the "worthy poor '' as well as persecuted European Protestants to have a new start. Slavery was then legal in the other twelve English colonies. Neighboring South Carolina had an economy based on the use of enslaved labor. The Georgia Trustees wanted to eliminate the risk of slave rebellions and make Georgia better able to defend against attacks from the Spanish to the south, who offered freedom to escaped slaves. James Edward Oglethorpe was the driving force behind the colony, and the only trustee to reside in Georgia. He opposed slavery on moral grounds as well as for pragmatic reasons, and vigorously defended the ban on slavery against fierce opposition from Carolina slave merchants and land speculators.
The Protestant Scottish highlanders who settled what is now Darien, Georgia added a moral anti-slavery argument, which became increasingly rare in the South, in their 1739 "Petition of the Inhabitants of New Inverness ''. By 1750 Georgia authorized slavery in the state because they had been unable to secure enough indentured servants as laborers. As economic conditions in England began to improve in the first half of the 18th century, workers had no reason to leave, especially to face the risks in the colonies.
During most of the British colonial period, slavery existed in all the colonies. People enslaved in the North typically worked as house servants, artisans, laborers and craftsmen, with the greater number in cities. Many men worked on the docks and in shipping. In 1703, more than 42 percent of New York City households held slaves, the second - highest proportion of any city in the colonies after Charleston, South Carolina. But slaves were also used as agricultural workers in farm communities, including in areas of upstate New York and Long Island, Connecticut and New Jersey.
The South developed an agricultural economy dependent on commodity crops. Its planters rapidly acquired a significantly higher number and proportion of slaves in the population overall, as its commodity crops were labor - intensive. Early on, enslaved people in the South worked primarily in agriculture, on farms and plantations growing indigo, rice, and tobacco; cotton did not become a major crop until after the American Revolution and after the 1790s. Before then long - staple cotton was cultivated primarily on the Sea Islands of Georgia and South Carolina.
The invention of the cotton gin in 1793 enabled the cultivation of short - staple cotton in a wide variety of mainland areas, leading in the 19th century to the development of large areas of the Deep South as cotton country. Tobacco was very labor - intensive, as was rice cultivation. In South Carolina in 1720, about 65 % of the population consisted of enslaved people. Planters (defined by historians in the Upper South as those who held 20 enslaved people or more) used enslaved workers to cultivate commodity crops. They also worked in the artisanal trades on large plantations and in many southern port cities. Backwoods subsistence farmers, the later wave of settlers in the 18th century who settled along the Appalachian Mountains and backcountry, seldom held enslaved people.
Some of the British colonies attempted to abolish the international slave trade, fearing that the importation of new Africans would be disruptive. Virginia bills to that effect were vetoed by the British Privy Council. Rhode Island forbade the import of enslaved people in 1774. All of the colonies except Georgia had banned or limited the African slave trade by 1786; Georgia did so in 1798. Some of these laws were later repealed.
Fewer than 350,000 enslaved people were imported into the Thirteen Colonies and the U.S, constituting less than 5 % of the twelve million enslaved people brought from Africa to the Americas. The great majority of enslaved Africans were transported to sugar colonies in the Caribbean and to Brazil. As life expectancy was short, their numbers had to be continually replenished. Life expectancy was much higher in the U.S., and the enslaved population was successful in reproduction. The number of enslaved people in the US grew rapidly, reaching 4 million by the 1860 Census. From 1770 until 1860, the rate of natural growth of North American enslaved people was much greater than for the population of any nation in Europe, and it was nearly twice as rapid as that of England.
Louisiana was founded as a French colony. Colonial officials in 1724 implemented Louis XIV of France 's Code Noir, which regulated the slave trade and the institution of slavery in New France and French Caribbean colonies. This resulted in a different pattern of slavery in Louisiana, purchased in 1803, compared to the rest of the United States. As written, the Code Noir gave some rights to slaves, including the right to marry. Although it authorized and codified cruel corporal punishment against slaves under certain conditions, it forbade slave owners to torture them or to separate married couples (or to separate young children from their mothers). It also required the owners to instruct slaves in the Catholic faith.
Together with a more permeable historic French system that allowed certain rights to gens de couleur libres (free people of color), often born to white fathers and their mixed - race concubines, a far higher percentage of African Americans in Louisiana were free as of the 1830 census (13.2 % in Louisiana compared to 0.8 % in Mississippi, whose population was dominated by white Anglo - Americans. Most of Louisiana 's "third class '' of free people of color, situated between the native - born French and mass of African slaves, lived in New Orleans). The Louisiana free people of color were often literate, had gained education, and a significant number owned businesses, properties, and even slaves. The Code Noir forbade interracial marriages. However, interracial unions were widespread under the system known as placage. The mixed - race offspring (cf. creoles of color) from such unions were among those in the intermediate social caste of free people of color. The English colonies insisted on a binary system, in which mulatto and black slaves were treated equally under the law, and discriminated against equally if free. But many free people of African descent were mixed race.
When the US took over Louisiana, Americans from the Protestant South entered the territory and began to impose their norms. They officially discouraged interracial relationships (although white men continued to have unions with black women, both enslaved and free.) The Americanization of Louisiana gradually resulted in a binary system of race, causing free people of color to lose status as they were grouped with the slaves. They lost certain rights as they became classified by American whites as officially "black ''.
Slavery in Great Britain had never been authorized by statute. In 1772 it was made partially unenforceable at common law in Great Britain by a legal decision. The large British role in the international slave trade continued until 1807. Slavery flourished in most of Britain 's colonies, with many wealthy slave owners living in England and holding considerable power. They were bought out in 1833 and the slaves were emancipated.
In early 1775 Lord Dunmore, royal governor of Virginia, wrote to Lord Dartmouth of his intent to free slaves owned by Patriots in case of rebellion. On November 7, 1775, Lord Dunmore issued Lord Dunmore 's Proclamation which declared martial law and promised freedom for any slaves of American patriots who would leave their masters and join the royal forces. Slaves owned by Loyalist masters, however, were unaffected by Dunmore 's Proclamation. About 1500 slaves owned by Patriots escaped and joined Dunmore 's forces. Most died of disease before they could do any fighting. Three hundred of these freed slaves made it to freedom in Britain.
Many slaves used the very disruption of war to escape their plantations and fade into cities or woods. For instance, in South Carolina, nearly 25,000 slaves (30 % of the total enslaved population) fled, migrated or died during the war. Throughout the South, losses of slaves were high, with many due to escapes. Slaves also escaped throughout New England and the mid-Atlantic, joining the British who had occupied New York.
In the closing months of the war, the British evacuated 20,000 freedmen from major coastal cities, transporting more than 3,000 for resettlement in Nova Scotia, where they were registered as Black Loyalists and eventually granted land. They transported others to the Caribbean islands, and some to England.
At the same time, the British were transporting Loyalists and their slaves, primarily to the Caribbean, but some to Nova Scotia. For example, over 5,000 enslaved Africans owned by Loyalists were transported in 1782 with their owners from Savannah to Jamaica and St. Augustine, Florida (then controlled by Britain). Similarly, over half of the black people evacuated in 1782 from Charleston by the British to the West Indies and Florida were slaves owned by white Loyalists.
Slaves and free blacks also fought on the side of rebels during the Revolutionary War. Washington authorized slaves to be freed who fought with the American Continental Army. Rhode Island started enlisting slaves in 1778, and promised compensation to owners whose slaves enlisted and survived to gain freedom. During the course of the war, about one fifth of the northern army was black. In 1781, Baron Closen, a German officer in the French Royal Deux - Ponts Regiment at the Battle of Yorktown, estimated the American army to be about one - quarter black. These men included both former slaves and free blacks.
In the 18th century, Britain became the world 's largest slave trader. Starting in 1777, the Patriots outlawed the importation of slaves state by state. They all acted to end the international trade but it was later reopened in South Carolina and Georgia. In 1807 Congress acted on President Jefferson 's advice and made importing slaves from abroad a federal crime, as the Constitution permitted, starting January 1, 1808.
The Constitution of the United States took effect in 1789 and included several provisions regarding slavery. Section 9 of Article I forbade the Federal government from banning the importation of slaves before January 1, 1808. As a protection for slavery, the delegates approved Section 2 of Article IV, which prohibited states from freeing slaves who fled to them from another state, and required the return of chattel property to owners.
In a section negotiated by James Madison of Virginia, Section 2 of Article I designated "other persons '' (slaves) to be added to the total of the state 's free population, at the rate of three - fifths of their total number, to establish the state 's official population for the purposes of apportionment of Congressional representation and federal taxation. The protections afforded slavery in the Constitution disproportionately strengthened the political power of Southern representatives, as three - fifths of the (non-voting) slave population was counted for Congressional apportionment.
In addition, many parts of the country were tied to the Southern economy. As the historian James Oliver Horton noted, prominent slaveholder politicians and the commodity crops of the South had a strong influence on United States politics and economy. Horton said,
in the 72 years between the election of George Washington and the election of Abraham Lincoln, 50 of those years (had) a slaveholder as president of the United States, and, for that whole period of time, there was never a person elected to a second term who was not a slaveholder.
This increased the power of southern states in Congress for decades, affecting national policies and legislation. The planter elite dominated the southern Congressional delegations and the United States presidency for nearly 50 years.
The U.S. Constitution barred the federal government from prohibiting the importation of slaves for 20 years. Various states passed different restrictions on the international slave trade during that period. After 1808, legal importation of slaves ceased, although there was smuggling via lawless Spanish Florida and the short - lived Republic of West Florida until they became a U.S. territory in 1821.
The replacement for the importation of slaves from abroad was increased domestic production. Virginia and Maryland had little new agricultural development, and their need for slaves was mostly for replacements for decedents. Normal reproduction more than supplied these: Virginia and Maryland had surpluses of slaves. Their tobacco farms were "worn out '' and the climate was not suitable for cotton or sugar cane. The surplus was even greater because slaves were encouraged to reproduce (though they could not marry). Where demand for slaves was the strongest was in what was then the southwest of the country: Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana, and later Texas, Arkansas, and Missouri. Here there was abundant land suitable for plantation agriculture, which young men with some capital established. This was expansion of the white, monied population: younger men seeking their fortune.
The most valuable crop that could be grown on a plantation in that climate was cotton. To grow cotton you needed workers, and the cheapest labor was slave labor. Demand for slaves exceeded the supply in the southwest; therefore slaves, never cheap if they were productive, went for a higher price. As portrayed in Uncle Tom 's Cabin (the "original '' cabin was in Maryland), "selling South '' was greatly feared. A recently (2018) publicized example of the practice of "selling South '' is the 1838 sale by Jesuits of 272 slaves from Maryland, to plantations in Louisiana, to benefit Georgetown University, which "owes its existence '' to this transaction.
In stepped capitalism, in the form of John Armfield and his uncle Isaac Franklin, who were "reputed to have made over half a million dollars (in 19th - century value) '' in the slave trade. (They did not handle the Jesuit transaction just mentioned.) Setting up an office in what was then the District of Columbia, center of the nation 's slave trade, in Alexandria, the two gentleman went into business in 1828 buying slaves in the North and selling them in the South.
This house on Duke Street is currently (2018) the Freedom House Museum, a museum on slavery.
Mr. Armfield remained in Alexandria doing the purchasing, with agents in Richmond and Warrenton, Virginia, and Baltimore, Frederick, and Easton, Maryland (on Maryland 's Eastern Shore, near Delaware). Mr. Franklin handled the selling out of New Orleans and Natchez, Mississippi, with offices in St. Francisville and Vidalia, Louisiana. Their partnership grew to the point that when the partnership was dissolved in 1836 and the business sold, they owned six ships for the sole purpose of transporting slaves, with monthly and then biweekly sailings. (The ships carried miscellaneous cargo on the return trips.) One of them, the Isaac Franklin, was built for them.
Franklin and Armfield 's Alexandria site was visited by various abolitionists, who have left us detailed descriptions of it. They concur in that Mr. Armfield was the most scrupulous of the major slave traders, who would not knowingly purchase kidnapped slaves or freedmen, and whose slaves were reasonably well treated while he owned them, at least at the Duke Street facility. Slaves concur in this relatively -- relatively -- positive picture, asking that if they were to be sold, that they be sold to Mr. Armfield. However, Armfield frequently took children from their parents, and sold them South.
In the 19th century, proponents of slavery often defended the institution as a "necessary evil ''. White people of that time feared that emancipation of black slaves would have more harmful social and economic consequences than the continuation of slavery. In 1820, Thomas Jefferson, one of the Founding Fathers of the United States, wrote in a letter that with slavery:
We have the wolf by the ear, and we can neither hold him, nor safely let him go. Justice is in one scale, and self - preservation in the other.
The French writer and traveler Alexis de Tocqueville, in Democracy in America (1835), expressed opposition to slavery while observing its effects on American society. He felt that a multiracial society without slavery was untenable, as he believed that prejudice against blacks increased as they were granted more rights (for example, in northern states). He believed that the attitudes of white southerners, and the concentration of the black population in the south, were bringing the white and black populations to a state of equilibrium, and were a danger to both races. Because of the racial differences between master and slave, he believed that the latter could not be emancipated.
Robert E. Lee wrote in 1856:
There are few, I believe, in this enlightened age, who will not acknowledge that slavery as an institution is a moral and political evil. It is idle to expatiate on its disadvantages. I think it is a greater evil to the white than to the colored race. While my feelings are strongly enlisted in behalf of the latter, my sympathies are more deeply engaged for the former. The blacks are immeasurably better off here than in Africa, morally, physically, and socially. The painful discipline they are undergoing is necessary for their further instruction as a race, and will prepare them, I hope, for better things. How long their servitude may be necessary is known and ordered by a merciful Providence.
However, as the abolitionist movement 's agitation increased and the area developed for plantations expanded, apologies for slavery became more faint in the South. Leaders then described slavery as a beneficial scheme of labor control. John C. Calhoun, in a famous speech in the Senate in 1837, declared that slavery was "instead of an evil, a good -- a positive good ''. Calhoun supported his view with the following reasoning: in every civilized society one portion of the community must live on the labor of another; learning, science, and the arts are built upon leisure; the African slave, kindly treated by his master and mistress and looked after in his old age, is better off than the free laborers of Europe; and under the slave system conflicts between capital and labor are avoided. The advantages of slavery in this respect, he concluded, "will become more and more manifest, if left undisturbed by interference from without, as the country advances in wealth and numbers ''.
Other Southern writers who also began to portray slavery as a positive good were James Henry Hammond and George Fitzhugh. They presented several arguments to defend the act of slavery in the South. Hammond, like Calhoun, believed that slavery was needed to build the rest of society. In a speech to the Senate on March 4, 1858, Hammond developed his "Mudsill Theory, '' defending his view on slavery stating, "Such a class you must have, or you would not have that other class which leads progress, civilization, and refinement. It constitutes the very mud - sill of society and of political government; and you might as well attempt to build a house in the air, as to build either the one or the other, except on this mud - sill. '' Hammond believed that in every class one group must accomplish all the menial duties, because without them the leaders in society could not progress. He argued that the hired laborers of the North were slaves too: "The difference... is, that our slaves are hired for life and well compensated; there is no starvation, no begging, no want of employment, '' while those in the North had to search for employment.
George Fitzhugh used assumptions about white superiority to justify slavery, writing that, "the Negro is but a grown up child, and must be governed as a child. '' In The Universal Law of Slavery, Fitzhugh argues that slavery provides everything necessary for life and that the slave is unable to survive in a free world because he is lazy, and can not compete with the intelligent European white race. He states that "The negro slaves of the South are the happiest, and in some sense, the freest people in the world. '' Without the South, "He (slave) would become an insufferable burden to society '' and "Society has the right to prevent this, and can only do so by subjecting him to domestic slavery. ''
On March 21, 1861, Vice President Alexander Stephens of the Confederacy delivered his Cornerstone Speech. He explained the differences between the constitution of the Confederate Republic and that of the United States, and laid out the cause for the American Civil War, and a defense of slavery.
The new Constitution has put at rest forever all the agitating questions relating to our peculiar institutions -- African slavery as it exists among us -- the proper status of the negro in our form of civilization. This was the immediate cause of the late rupture and present revolution. Jefferson, in his forecast, had anticipated this, as the "rock upon which the old Union would split. '' He was right. What was conjecture with him, is now a realized fact. But whether he fully comprehended the great truth upon which that rock stood and stands, may be doubted. The prevailing ideas entertained by him and most of the leading statesmen at the time of the formation of the old Constitution were, that the enslavement of the African was in violation of the laws of nature; that it was wrong in principle, socially, morally and politically. It was an evil they knew not well how to deal with; but the general opinion of the men of that day was, that, somehow or other, in the order of Providence, the institution would be evanescent and pass away... Those ideas, however, were fundamentally wrong. They rested upon the assumption of the equality of races. This was an error. It was a sandy foundation, and the idea of a Government built upon it -- when the "storm came and the wind blew, it fell. '' Our new Government is founded upon exactly the opposite ideas; its foundations are laid, its cornerstone rests, upon the great truth that the negro is not equal to the white man; that slavery, subordination to the superior race, is his natural and moral condition.
Beginning during the revolution and in the first two decades of the postwar era, every state in the North abolished slavery, ending with New Jersey in 1804, although in some cases existing slaves were not liberated immediately. These were the first abolitionist laws in the Atlantic World.
In Massachusetts, slavery was successfully challenged in court in 1783 in a freedom suit by Quock Walker; he said that slavery was in contradiction to the state 's new constitution of 1780 providing for equality of men. Freed slaves were subject to racial segregation and discrimination in the North, and it took decades for some states to extend the franchise to them.
Most northern states passed legislation for gradual abolition, first freeing children born to slave mothers (and requiring them to serve lengthy indentures to their mother 's masters, often into their 20s as young adults). As a result of this gradualist approach, New York did not fully free its last ex-slaves until 1827, Rhode Island had seven slaves still listed in the 1840 census. Pennsylvania 's last ex-slaves were freed in 1847, Connecticut 's in 1848, and New Hampshire and New Jersey in 1865.
None of the Southern states abolished slavery, but it was common for individual slaveholders in the South to free numerous slaves, often citing revolutionary ideals, in their wills. Methodist, Quaker and Baptist preachers traveled in the South, appealing to slaveholders to manumit their slaves. By 1810, the number and proportion of free blacks in the population of the United States had risen dramatically. Most free blacks resided in the North, but even in the Upper South, the proportion of free blacks went from less than one percent of all blacks to more than 10 percent, even as the total number of slaves was increasing through importation.
Through the Northwest Ordinance of 1787 under the Congress of the Confederation, slavery was prohibited in the territories northwest of the Ohio River; existing slaves were not freed for years, although they could no longer be sold. This was a compromise. Thomas Jefferson proposed in 1784 to end slavery in all the territories, but his bill lost in the Congress by one vote. The territories south of the Ohio River (and Missouri) had authorized slavery. Northerners predominated in the westward movement into the Midwestern territory after the American Revolution; as the states were organized, they voted to prohibit slavery in their constitutions when they achieved statehood: Ohio in 1803, Indiana in 1816, and Illinois in 1818. What developed was a Northern block of free states united into one contiguous geographic area that generally shared an anti-slavery culture. The exceptions were the areas along the Ohio River settled by Southerners, the southern portions of states such as Indiana, Ohio and Illinois. Residents of those areas generally shared in Southern culture and attitudes. In addition, these areas were devoted to agriculture longer than the industrializing northern parts of these states, and some farmers used slave labor. The emancipation of slaves in the North led to the growth in the population of northern free blacks, from several hundred in the 1770s to nearly 50,000 by 1810.
Throughout the first half of the 19th century, abolitionism, a movement to end slavery, grew in strength; most abolitionist societies and supporters were in the North. They worked to raise awareness about the evils of slavery, and to build support for abolition.
This struggle took place amid strong support for slavery among white Southerners, who profited greatly from the system of enslaved labor. But slavery was entwined with the national economy; for instance, the banking, shipping and manufacturing industries of New York City all had strong economic interests in slavery, as did similar industries in other major port cities in the North. The northern textile mills in New York and New England processed Southern cotton and manufactured clothes to outfit slaves. By 1822 half of New York City 's exports were related to cotton.
Slaveholders began to refer to slavery as the "peculiar institution '' to differentiate it from other examples of forced labor. They justified it as less cruel than the free labor of the North.
The principal organized bodies to advocate abolition and anti-slavery reforms in the north were the Pennsylvania Abolition Society and the New York Manumission Society. Before the 1830s the antislavery groups called for gradual emancipation. By the late 1820s, under the impulse of religious evangelicals, the sense emerged that owning slaves was a sin and the owner had to immediately free himself from this grave sin by emancipation.
In the early part of the 19th century, other organizations were founded to take action on the future of black Americans. Some advocated removing free black people from the United States to places where they would enjoy greater freedom; some endorsed colonization in Africa, while others advocated emigration. During the 1820s and 1830s, the American Colonization Society (ACS) was the primary organization to implement the "return '' of black Americans to Africa. The ACS was made up mostly of Quakers and slaveholders, who found uneasy common ground in support of "repatriation ''. But, by this time, most black Americans were native - born and did not want to emigrate; rather, they wanted full rights in the United States, where their people had lived and worked for generations.
In 1822 the ACS established the colony of Liberia in West Africa. The ACS assisted thousands of freedmen and free blacks (with legislated limits) to emigrate there from the United States. Many white people considered this preferable to emancipation in the United States. Henry Clay, one of the founders and a prominent slaveholder politician from Kentucky, said that blacks faced
unconquerable prejudice resulting from their color, they never could amalgamate with the free whites of this country. It was desirable, therefore, as it respected them, and the residue of the population of the country, to drain them off.
After 1830, abolitionist and minister William Lloyd Garrison promoted emancipation, characterizing slaveholding as a personal sin. He demanded that slaveowners repent and start the process of emancipation. His position increased defensiveness on the part of some southerners, who noted the long history of slavery among many cultures. A few abolitionists, such as John Brown, favored the use of armed force to foment uprisings among the slaves, as he did at Harper 's Ferry. Most abolitionists tried to raise public support to change laws and to challenge slave laws. Abolitionists were active on the lecture circuit in the North, and often featured escaped slaves in their presentations. The eloquent Frederick Douglass became an important abolitionist leader after escaping from slavery. Harriet Beecher Stowe 's novel Uncle Tom 's Cabin (1852) was an international bestseller and aroused popular sentiment against slavery. It also provoked the publication of numerous anti-Tom novels by Southerners in the years before the American Civil War.
While under the Constitution, Congress could not prohibit the import slave trade until 1808, the third Congress regulated it in the Slave Trade Act of 1794, which prohibited shipbuilding and outfitting for the trade. Subsequent acts in 1800 and 1803 sought to discourage the trade by limiting investment in import trading and prohibiting importation into states that had abolished slavery, which most in the North had by that time. The final Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves was adopted in 1807, effective in 1808. However, illegal importation of African slaves (smuggling) was common.
After Great Britain and the United States outlawed the international slave trade in 1807, British slave trade suppression activities began in 1808 through diplomatic efforts and formation of the Royal Navy 's West Africa Squadron. From 1819, they were assisted by forces from the United States Navy. With the Webster - Ashburton Treaty of 1842, the relationship with Britain was formalized, and the two countries jointly ran the Blockade of Africa with their navies.
Although Virginia, Maryland, and Delaware were slave states, the latter two already had a high proportion of free blacks by the outbreak of war. Following the Revolution, the three legislatures made manumission easier, allowed by deed or will. Quaker and Methodist ministers particularly urged slaveholders to free their slaves. The number and proportion of freed slaves in these states rose dramatically until 1810. More than half of the number of free blacks in the United States were concentrated in the Upper South. The proportion of free blacks among the black population in the Upper South rose from less than one percent in 1792 to more than 10 percent by 1810. In Delaware, nearly 75 percent of blacks were free by 1810.
In the US as a whole, by 1810 the number of free blacks reached 186,446, or 13.5 percent of all blacks. After that period few slaves were freed, as the development of cotton plantations featuring short - staple cotton in the Deep South drove up the internal demand for slaves in the domestic slave trade and high prices were paid.
The growing international demand for cotton led many plantation owners further west in search of suitable land. In addition, the invention of the cotton gin in 1793 enabled profitable processing of short - staple cotton, which could readily be grown in the uplands. The invention revolutionized the cotton industry by increasing fifty-fold the quantity of cotton that could be processed in a day. At the end of the War of 1812, fewer than 300,000 bales of cotton were produced nationally. By 1820 the amount of cotton produced had increased to 600,000 bales, and by 1850 it had reached 4,000,000. There was an explosive growth of cotton cultivation throughout the Deep South and greatly increased demand for slave labor to support it. As a result, manumissions decreased dramatically in the South.
Most of the slaves sold from the Upper South were from Maryland, Virginia, and the Carolinas, where changes in agriculture decreased the need for their labor and the demand for slaves. Before 1810, primary destinations for the slaves who were sold were Kentucky and Tennessee, but after 1810 Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana and Texas of the Deep South received the most slaves. This is where cotton became king. Kentucky and Tennessee joined the slave exporting states.
By 1815, the domestic slave trade had become a major economic activity in the United States; it lasted until the 1860s. Between 1830 and 1840 nearly 250,000 slaves were taken across state lines. In the 1850s more than 193,000 were transported, and historians estimate nearly one million in total took part in the forced migration of this new Middle Passage. By 1860 the slave population in the United States had reached 4 million. Of all 1,515,605 free families in the fifteen slave states in 1860, nearly 400,000 held slaves (roughly one in four, or 25 %), amounting to 8 % of all American families.
The historian Ira Berlin called this forced migration of slaves the "Second Middle Passage '', because it reproduced many of the same horrors as the Middle Passage (the name given to the transportation of slaves from Africa to North America). These sales of slaves broke up many families and caused much hardship. Characterizing it as the "central event '' in the life of a slave between the American Revolution and the Civil War, Berlin wrote that whether slaves were directly uprooted or lived in fear that they or their families would be involuntarily moved, "the massive deportation traumatized black people, both slave and free. '' Individuals lost their connection to families and clans. Added to the earlier colonists combining slaves from different tribes, many ethnic Africans lost their knowledge of varying tribal origins in Africa. Most were descended from families who had been in the United States for many generations.
In the 1840s, almost 300,000 slaves were transported, with Alabama and Mississippi receiving 100,000 each. During each decade between 1810 and 1860, at least 100,000 slaves were moved from their state of origin. In the final decade before the Civil War, 250,000 were moved. Michael Tadman wrote in Speculators and Slaves: Masters, Traders, and Slaves in the Old South (1989) that 60 -- 70 % of inter-regional migrations were the result of the sale of slaves. In 1820 a child in the Upper South had a 30 % chance of being sold south by 1860. The death rate for the slaves on their way to their new destination across the American South was less than that suffered by captives shipped across the Atlantic Ocean, but mortality was higher than the normal death rate.
Slave traders transported two - thirds of the slaves who moved west. Only a minority moved with their families and existing master. Slave traders had little interest in purchasing or transporting intact slave families; in the early years, planters demanded only the young male slaves needed for heavy labor. Later, in the interest of creating a "self - reproducing labor force '', planters purchased nearly equal numbers of men and women. Berlin wrote:
The internal slave trade became the largest enterprise in the South outside the plantation itself, and probably the most advanced in its employment of modern transportation, finance, and publicity. The slave trade industry developed its own unique language, with terms such as "prime hands, bucks, breeding wenches, and "fancy girls '' coming into common use.
The expansion of the interstate slave trade contributed to the "economic revival of once depressed seaboard states '' as demand accelerated the value of slaves who were subject to sale.
Some traders moved their "chattels '' by sea, with Norfolk to New Orleans being the most common route, but most slaves were forced to walk overland. Others were shipped downriver from such markets as Louisville on the Ohio River, and Natchez on the Mississippi. Traders created regular migration routes served by a network of slave pens, yards, and warehouses needed as temporary housing for the slaves. In addition, other vendors provided clothes, food, and supplies for slaves. As the trek advanced, some slaves were sold and new ones purchased. Berlin concluded, "In all, the slave trade, with its hubs and regional centers, its spurs and circuits, reached into every cranny of southern society. Few southerners, black or white, were untouched. ''
Once the trip ended, slaves faced a life on the frontier significantly different from most labor in the Upper South. Clearing trees and starting crops on virgin fields was harsh and backbreaking work. A combination of inadequate nutrition, bad water, and exhaustion from both the journey and the work weakened the newly arrived slaves and produced casualties. New plantations were located at rivers ' edges for ease of transportation and travel. Mosquitoes and other environmental challenges spread disease, which took the lives of many slaves. They had acquired only limited immunities to lowland diseases in their previous homes. The death rate was so high that, in the first few years of hewing a plantation out of the wilderness, some planters preferred whenever possible to use rented slaves rather than their own.
The harsh conditions on the frontier increased slave resistance and led owners and overseers to rely on violence for control. Many of the slaves were new to cotton fields and unaccustomed to the "sunrise - to - sunset gang labor '' required by their new life. Slaves were driven much harder than when they had been in growing tobacco or wheat back east. Slaves had less time and opportunity to improve the quality of their lives by raising their own livestock or tending vegetable gardens, for either their own consumption or trade, as they could in the east.
In Louisiana, French colonists had established sugar cane plantations and exported sugar as the chief commodity crop. After the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, Americans entered the state and joined the sugar cultivation. Between 1810 and 1830, planters bought slaves from the North and the number of slaves increased from less than 10,000 to more than 42,000. Planters preferred young males, who represented two - thirds of the slave purchases. Dealing with sugar cane was even more physically demanding than growing cotton. The largely young, unmarried male slave force made the reliance on violence by the owners "especially savage ''.
New Orleans became nationally important as a slave market and port, as slaves were shipped from there upriver by steamboat to plantations on the Mississippi River; it also sold slaves who had been shipped downriver from markets such as Louisville. By 1840, it had the largest slave market in North America. It became the wealthiest and the fourth - largest city in the nation, based chiefly on the slave trade and associated businesses. The trading season was from September to May, after the harvest.
Slave traders were men of low reputation, even in the South. In the 1828 presidential election, candidate Andrew Jackson was strongly criticized by opponents as a slave trader who transacted in slaves in defiance of modern standards or morality.
The treatment of slaves in the United States varied widely depending on conditions, times and places. The power relationships of slavery corrupted many whites who had authority over slaves, with children showing their own cruelty. Masters and overseers resorted to physical punishments to impose their wills. Slaves were punished by whipping, shackling, hanging, beating, burning, mutilation, branding and imprisonment. Punishment was most often meted out in response to disobedience or perceived infractions, but sometimes abuse was carried out to re-assert the dominance of the master or overseer of the slave. Treatment was usually harsher on large plantations, which were often managed by overseers and owned by absentee slaveholders, conditions permitting abuses.
William Wells Brown, who escaped to freedom, reported that on one plantation, slave men were required to pick 80 pounds per day of cotton, while women were required to pick 70 pounds; if any slave failed in his or her quota, they were subject to whip lashes for each pound they were short. The whipping post stood next to the cotton scales. A New York man who attended a slave auction in the mid-19th century reported that at least three - quarters of the male slaves he saw at sale had scars on their backs from whipping. By contrast, small slave - owning families had closer relationships between the owners and slaves; this sometimes resulted in a more humane environment but was not a given.
Historian Lawrence M. Friedman wrote: "Ten Southern codes made it a crime to mistreat a slave.... Under the Louisiana Civil Code of 1825 (art. 192), if a master was "convicted of cruel treatment, '' the judge could order the sale of the mistreated slave, presumably to a better master. '' Masters and overseers were seldom prosecuted under these laws.
According to Adalberto Aguirre, there were 1,161 slaves executed in the U.S. between the 1790s and 1850s. Quick executions of innocent slaves as well as suspects typically followed any attempted slave rebellions, as white militias overreacted with widespread killings that expressed their fears of rebellions, or suspected rebellions.
Although most slaves had lives that were very restricted in terms of their movements and agency, exceptions existed to virtually every generalization; for instance, there were also slaves who had considerable freedom in their daily lives: slaves allowed to rent out their labor and who might live independently of their master in cities, slaves who employed white workers, and slave doctors who treated upper - class white patients. After 1820, in response to the inability to import new slaves from Africa and in part to abolitionist criticism, some slaveholders improved the living conditions of their slaves, to encourage them to be productive and to try to prevent escapes. It was part of a paternalistic approach in the antebellum era that was encouraged by ministers trying to use Christianity to improve the treatment of slaves. Slaveholders published articles in southern agricultural journals to share best practices in treatment and management of slaves; they intended to show that their system was better than the living conditions of northern industrial workers.
Medical care for slaves was limited in terms of the medical knowledge available to anyone. It was generally provided by other slaves or by slaveholders ' family members. Many slaves possessed medical skills needed to tend to each other, and used folk remedies brought from Africa. They also developed new remedies based on American plants and herbs.
According to Andrew Fede, a master could be held criminally liable for killing a slave only if the slave he killed was "completely submissive and under the master 's absolute control ''. For example, in 1791 the North Carolina legislature defined the willful killing of a slave as criminal murder, unless done in resisting or under moderate correction (that is, corporal punishment).
Because of the power relationships at work, slave women in the United States were at high risk for rape and sexual abuse. Many slaves fought back against sexual attacks, and some died resisting. Others carried psychological and physical scars from the attacks. Sexual abuse of slaves was partially rooted in a patriarchal Southern culture which treated black women as property or chattel. Southern culture strongly policed against sexual relations between white women and black men on the purported grounds of racial purity but, by the late 18th century, the many mixed - race slaves and slave children showed that white men had often taken advantage of slave women. Wealthy planter widowers, notably such as John Wayles and his son - in - law Thomas Jefferson, took slave women as concubines; each had six children with his partner: Elizabeth Hemings and her daughter Sally Hemings (the half - sister of Jefferson 's late wife), respectively. Both Mary Chesnut and Fanny Kemble, wives of planters, wrote about this issue in the antebellum South in the decades before the Civil War. Sometimes planters used mixed - race slaves as house servants or favored artisans because they were their children or other relatives. As a result of centuries of slavery and such relationships, DNA studies have shown that the vast majority of African Americans also have historic European ancestry, generally through paternal lines.
While slaves ' living conditions were poor by modern standards, Robert Fogel argued that all workers, free or slave, during the first half of the 19th century were subject to hardship.
To help regulate the relationship between slave and owner, including legal support for keeping the slave as property, states established slave codes, most based on laws existing since the colonial era. The code for the District of Columbia defined a slave as "a human being, who is by law deprived of his or her liberty for life, and is the property of another ''.
While each state had its own slave code, many concepts were shared throughout the slave states. According to the slave codes, some of which were passed in reaction to slave rebellions, teaching a slave to read or write was illegal. This prohibition was unique to American slavery, believed to reduce slaves forming aspirations that could lead to escape or rebellion. Informal education occurred when white children taught slave companions what they were learning; in other cases, adult slaves learned from free artisan workers, especially if located in cities, where there was more freedom of movement.
In Alabama, slaves were not allowed to leave their master 's premises without written consent or passes. This was a common requirement in other states as well, and locally run patrols (known to slaves as pater rollers) often checked the passes of slaves who appeared to be away from their plantations. In Alabama slaves were prohibited from trading goods among themselves. In Virginia, a slave was not permitted to drink in public within one mile of his master or during public gatherings. Slaves were not permitted to carry firearms in any of the slave states.
Slaves were generally prohibited by law from associating in groups, with the exception of worship services (a reason why the Black church is such a notable institution in black communities today). Following Nat Turner 's rebellion in 1831, which raised white fears throughout the South, some states also prohibited or restricted religious gatherings of slaves, or required that they be officiated by white men. Planters feared that group meetings would facilitate communication among slaves that could lead to rebellion. Slaves held private, secret "brush meetings '' in the woods.
In Ohio, an emancipated slave was prohibited from returning to the state in which he or she had been enslaved. Other northern states discouraged the settling of free blacks within their boundaries. Fearing the influence of free blacks, Virginia and other southern states passed laws to require blacks who had been freed to leave the state within a year (or sometimes less time) unless granted a stay by an act of the legislature.
The United States Constitution, adopted in 1787, prevented Congress from completely banning the importation of slaves until 1808, although Congress regulated it in the Slave Trade Act of 1794, and in subsequent Acts in 1800 and 1803. After the Revolution, numerous states individually passed laws against importing slaves. By contrast, the states of Georgia and South Carolina reopened their trade due to demand by their upland planters, who were developing new cotton plantations: Georgia from 1800 until December 31, 1807, and South Carolina from 1804. In that period, Charleston traders imported about 75,000 slaves, more than were brought to South Carolina in the 75 years before the Revolution. Approximately 30,000 were imported to Georgia.
By January 1, 1808, when Congress banned further imports, South Carolina was the only state that still allowed importation of slaves. Congress allowed continued trade only in slaves who were descendants of those currently in the United States. In addition, US citizens could participate financially in the international slave trade and the outfitting of ships for that trade. The domestic slave trade became extremely profitable as demand rose with the expansion of cultivation in the Deep South for cotton and sugar cane crops. Slavery in the United States became, more or less, self - sustaining by natural increase among the current slaves and their descendants.
Despite the ban, slave imports continued through smugglers bringing in slaves past the U.S. Navy 's African Slave Trade Patrol to South Carolina, and overland from Texas and Florida, both under Spanish control. Congress increased the punishment associated with importing slaves, classifying it in 1820 as an act of piracy, with smugglers subject to harsh penalties, including death if caught. After that, "it is unlikely that more than 10,000 (slaves) were successfully landed in the United States. '' But, some smuggling of slaves into the United States continued until just before the start of the Civil War.
During the War of 1812, British Royal Navy commanders of the blockading fleet, based at the Bermuda dockyard, were instructed to offer freedom to defecting American slaves, as the Crown had during the Revolutionary War. Thousands of escaped slaves went over to the Crown with their families. Men were recruited into the Corps of Colonial Marines on occupied Tangier Island, in the Chesapeake Bay.
The freedmen fought for Britain throughout the Atlantic campaign, including the attack on Washington D.C. and the Louisiana Campaign. Seven hundred of these ex-marines were granted land (they reportedly organised themselves in villages along the lines of their military companies). Many other freed American slaves were recruited directly into existing West Indian regiments, or newly created British Army units The British later resettled a few thousand freed slaves at Nova Scotia, as they had for freedmen after the Revolution. Some of the earlier freedmen had migrated to Sierra Leone in the late 18th century, when it was established as a British colony. Descendants have established the Black Loyalist Heritage Museum and website.
Slaveholders, primarily in the South, had considerable "loss of property '' as thousands of slaves escaped to British lines or ships for freedom, despite the difficulties. The planters ' complacency about slave "contentment '' was shocked by seeing that slaves would risk so much to be free. Afterward, when some freed slaves had been settled at Bermuda, slaveholders such as Major Pierce Butler of South Carolina tried to persuade them to return to the United States, to no avail.
The Americans protested that Britain 's failure to return all slaves violated the Treaty of Ghent. After arbitration by the Tsar of Russia, the British paid $1,204,960 in damages (about $26.1 million in today 's money) to Washington, which reimbursed the slaveowners.
Prior to the American Revolution, masters and revivalists spread Christianity to slave communities, supported by the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel. In the First Great Awakening of the mid-18th century, Baptists and Methodists from New England preached a message against slavery, encouraged masters to free their slaves, converted both slaves and free blacks, and gave them active roles in new congregations. The first independent black congregations were started in the South before the Revolution, in South Carolina and Georgia.
Over the decades and with the growth of slavery throughout the South, Baptist and Methodist ministers gradually changed their messages to accommodate the institution. After 1830, white Southerners argued for the compatibility of Christianity and slavery, with a multitude of both Old and New Testament citations. They promoted Christianity as encouraging better treatment of slaves and argued for a paternalistic approach. In the 1840s and 1850s, the issue of accepting slavery split the nation 's largest religious denominations (the Methodist, Baptist and Presbyterian churches) into separate Northern and Southern organizations see Methodist Episcopal Church, South, Southern Baptist Convention, and Presbyterian Church in the Confederate States of America).
Southern slaves generally attended their masters ' white churches, where they often outnumbered the white congregants. They were usually permitted to sit only in the back or in the balcony. They listened to white preachers, who emphasized the obligation of slaves to keep in their place, and acknowledged the slave 's identity as both person and property. Preachers taught the masters responsibility and the concept of appropriate paternal treatment, using Christianity to improve conditions for slaves, and to treat them "justly and fairly '' (Col. 4: 1). This included masters having self - control, not disciplining under anger, not threatening, and ultimately fostering Christianity among their slaves by example.
Slaves also created their own religious observances, meeting alone without the supervision of their white masters or ministers. The larger plantations with groups of slaves numbering twenty, or more, tended to be centers of nighttime meetings of one or several plantation slave populations. These congregations revolved around a singular preacher, often illiterate with limited knowledge of theology, who was marked by his personal piety and ability to foster a spiritual environment. African Americans developed a theology related to Biblical stories having the most meaning for them, including the hope for deliverance from slavery by their own Exodus. One lasting influence of these secret congregations is the African - American spiritual.
"There were few phases of ante - bellum Southern life and history that were not in some way influenced by the fear of, or the actual outbreak of, militant concerted slave action. ''
Historians in the 20th century identified 250 to 311 slave uprisings in U.S. and colonial history. These include:
In 1831, Nat Turner, a literate slave who claimed to have spiritual visions, organized a slave rebellion in Southampton County, Virginia; it was sometimes called the Southampton Insurrection. Turner and his followers killed nearly 60 white inhabitants, mostly women and children. Many of the men in the area were attending a religious event in North Carolina. Eventually Turner was captured with 17 other rebels, who were subdued by the militia. Turner and his followers were hanged, and Turner 's body was flayed. In a frenzy of fear and retaliation, the militia killed more than 100 slaves who had not been involved in the rebellion. Planters whipped hundreds of innocent slaves to ensure resistance was quelled.
This rebellion prompted Virginia and other slave states to pass more restrictions on slaves and free people of color, controlling their movement and requiring more white supervision of gatherings. In 1835 North Carolina withdrew the franchise for free people of color, and they lost their vote.
See also: Anti-literacy law
Across the South, white legislatures enacted harsh new laws to curtail the already limited rights of African Americans. Virginia prohibited blacks, free or slave, from practicing preaching, prohibited blacks from owning firearms, and forbade anyone to teach slaves or free blacks how to read. It specified heavy penalties for both student and teacher if slaves were educated, including whippings or jail.
(E) very assemblage of negroes for the purpose of instruction in reading or writing, or in the night time for any purpose, shall be an unlawful assembly. Any justice may issue his warrant to any office or other person, requiring him to enter any place where such assemblage may be, and seize any negro therein; and he, or any other justice, may order such negro to be punished with stripes.
Unlike in the South, slave owners in Utah were required to send their slaves to school. Black slaves did not have to spend as much time in school as Indian slaves.
Eli Whitney 's invention of the cotton gin in 1793, made processing of short - staple cotton profitable, and it was cultivated throughout the South to satisfy US and international demand. Statistical data shows that while less than 10 % of the inhabitants of the North were slaves, by 1790, Virginia held 44 % of the total slave population. It was common in agriculture, with a more massive presence in the South -- the region where climate was more propitious for widescale agricultural activity. Some economists and historians regard slavery as a profitable system. They do not fully account for the government costs necessary to maintain the institution, nor for human suffering. The transition from indentured servants to slaves is cited to show that slaves offered greater profits to their owners. Thus, it is the near - universal consensus among economic historians and economists that slavery was not "a system irrationally kept in existence by plantation owners who failed to perceive or were indifferent to their best economic interests ''. The relative price of slaves and indentured servants in the antebellum period did decrease. Indentured servants became more costly with the increase in the demand of skilled labor in England. At the same time, slaves were mostly supplied from within the United States and thus language was not a barrier, and the cost of transporting slaves from one state to another was relatively low. In the decades preceding the civil war, the United States experienced a rapid natural increase of black population. The slave population multiplied nearly fourfold between 1810 and 1860, although the international slave trade was banned in 1808. Thus, it is also the universal consensus among modern economic historians and economists that slavery in the United States was not "economically moribund on the eve of the Civil War ''.
Robert Fogel and Stanley Engerman, in their 1974 book Time on the Cross, argued that the rate of return of slavery at the market price was close to 10 percent, a number close to investment in other assets. Fogel 's 1989 work, Without Consent or Contract: The Rise and Fall of American Slavery, elaborated on the moral indictment of slavery which ultimately led to its abolition.
Scholars disagree on how to quantify efficiency of slavery. In Time on the Cross, Fogel and Engerman equate efficiency to total factor productivity (TFP) -- the output per average unit of input on a farm. Using this measurement, southern farms that enslaved black people using the Gang System were 35 % more efficient than Northern farms which used free labor. Under the Gang System, groups of slaves perform synchronized tasks under the constant vigilance of an overseer. Each group was like a part of a machine. If perceived to be working below his capacity, a slave could be punished. Fogel argues that this kind of negative enforcement was not frequent and that slaves and free laborers had similar quality of life; however, there is controversy on this last point. A critique of Fogel and Engerman 's view was published by Paul A. David in 1976. In 1995, a random survey of 178 members of the Economic History Association sought to study the views of economists and economic historians on the debate. The study found that 72 percent of economists and 65 percent of economic historians would generally agree that "Slave agriculture was efficient compared with free agriculture. Economies of scale, effective management, and intensive utilization of labor and capital made southern slave agriculture considerably more efficient than nonslave southern farming. '' 48 percent of the economists agreed without provisos, while 24 percent agreed when provisos were included in the statement. On the other hand, 58 percent of economic historians and 42 percent of economists disagreed with Fogel and Engerman 's "proposition that the material (not psychological) conditions of the lives of slaves compared favorably with those of free industrial workers in the decades before the Civil War ''.
Controlling for inflation, prices of slaves rose dramatically in the six decades prior to Civil War, reflecting demand due to commodity cotton, as well as use of slaves in shipping and industry. Although the prices of slaves relative to indentured servants declined, both got more expensive. Cotton production was rising and relied on the use of slaves to yield high profits. Fogel and Engeman initially argued that if the Civil War had not happened, the slave prices would have increased even more, an average of more than 50 percent by 1890.
Prices reflected the characteristics of the slave -- such factors as sex, age, nature, and height were all taken into account to determine the price of a slave. Over the life - cycle, the price of enslaved women was higher than their male counterparts up to puberty age, as they would likely bear children and produce more slaves, in addition to serving as laborers. Men around the age of 25 were the most valued, as they were at the highest level of productivity and still had a considerable life - span. If slaves had a history of fights or escapes, their price was lowered reflecting what planters believed was risk of repeating such behavior. Slave traders and buyers would examine a slave 's back for whipping scars -- a large number of injuries would be seen as evidence of laziness or rebelliousness, rather than the previous master 's brutality, and would lower the slave 's price Taller male slaves were priced at a higher level, as height was viewed as a proxy for fitness and productivity.
The conditions of the market led to shocks in the supply and demand of slaves, which in turn changed prices. For instance, slaves became more expensive after the decrease in supply caused by the ban on importation of slaves in 1808. The market for the products of their work also affected slaves ' economic value: demand for slaves fell with the price of cotton in 1840. Anticipation of changes also had a huge influence on prices. As the civil war progressed, there was great doubt that slavery would continue to be legal, and prime males in New Orleans were sold at $1,116 by 1862 as opposed to $1,381 in 1861.
While slavery brought profits in the short run, discussion continues on the economic benefits of slavery in the long - run. In 1995, a random anonymous survey of 178 members of the Economic History Association found that out of the 40 propositions about American economic history that were surveyed, the propositions most disputed by economic historians and economists were those surrounding the postbellum economy of the American South. The only exception was the proposition initially put forward by historian Gavin Wright that the "modern period of the South 's economic convergence to the level of the North only began in earnest when the institutional foundations of the southern regional labor market were undermined, largely by federal farm and labor legislation dating from the 1930s. '' 62 percent of economists (24 percent with and 38 percent without provisos) and 73 percent of historians (23 percent with and 50 percent without provisos) agreed with this statement. Wright has also argued that the private investment of monetary resources in the cotton industry, among others, delayed development in the South of commercial and industrial institutions. There was little public investment in railroads or other infrastructure. Wright argues that agricultural technology was far more developed in the South, representing an economic advantage of the South over the North of the United States.
In Democracy in America, Alexis de Tocqueville noted that "the colonies in which there were no slaves became more populous and more rich than those in which slavery flourished. '' Economists Peter H. Lindert and Jeffrey G. Williamson, in a pair of articles published in 2012 and 2013, found that, despite the American South initially having per capita income roughly double that of the North in 1774, incomes in the South had declined 27 % by 1800 and continued to decline over the next four decades, while the economies in New England and the Mid-Atlantic states vastly expanded. By 1840, per capita income in the South was well behind the Northeast and the national average. (Note: This is also true of contemporary incomes in the United States in the early 21st century.)
Lindert and Williamson argue that this antebellum period is exemplary of what economists Daron Acemoglu, Simon Johnson, and James A. Robinson call "a reversal of fortune ''. Economist Thomas Sowell, in his essay "The Real History of Slavery, '' confirms the observation made by de Tocqueville, by comparing slavery in Brazil to slavery in the United States. He notes that slave societies reflected similar economic trends in those and other parts of the world, suggesting that the trend Lindert and Williamson identify may have continued until the American Civil War:
Both in Brazil and in the United States -- the countries with the two largest slave populations in the Western Hemisphere -- the end of slavery found the regions in which slaves had been concentrated poorer than other regions of these same countries. For the United States, a case could be made that this was due to the Civil War, which did so much damage to the South, but no such explanation would apply to Brazil, which fought no Civil War over this issue. Moreover, even in the United States, the South lagged behind the North in many ways even before the Civil War.
Although slavery in Europe died out before it was abolished in the Western Hemisphere, as late as 1776 slavery had not yet died out all across the continent when Adam Smith wrote in The Wealth of Nations that it still existed in some eastern regions. But, even then, Eastern Europe was much poorer than Western Europe. The slavery of North Africa and the Middle East, over the centuries, took more slaves from sub-Saharan Africa than the Western Hemisphere did... But these remained largely poor countries until the discovery and extraction of their vast oil deposits.
Sowell also notes in Ethnic America: A History, citing historians Clement Eaton and Eugene Genovese, that three - quarters of Southern white families owned no slaves at all. Most slaveholders lived on farms rather than plantations, and few plantations were as large as the fictional ones depicted in Gone with the Wind. In "The Real History of Slavery, '' Sowell draws the following conclusion regarding the macroeconomic value of slavery:
In short, even though some individual slaveowners grew rich and some family fortunes were founded on the exploitation of slaves, that is very different from saying that the whole society, or even its non-slave population as a whole, was more economically advanced than it would have been in the absence of slavery. What this means is that, whether employed as domestic servants or producing crops or other goods, millions suffered exploitation and dehumanization for no higher purpose than the... aggrandizement of slaveowners.
Because of the three - fifths compromise in the U.S. Constitution, in which slaves counted in the calculation of how many representatives a state had in Congress (though only three - fifths as much as a free person), the planter class had long held power in Congress out of proportion to the total number of free people in the US population as a whole.
In 1850, Congress passed the Fugitive Slave Act, which required law enforcement and citizens of free states to cooperate in the capture and return of slaves. This met with considerable overt and covert resistance in free states and cities such as Philadelphia, New York, and Boston. Refugees from slavery continued to flee the South across the Ohio River and other parts of the Mason -- Dixon line dividing North from South, to the North and Canada via the Underground Railroad. Some white northerners helped hide former slaves from their former owners or helped them reach freedom in Canada.
As part of the Compromise of 1850, Congress abolished the domestic slave trade (though not the legality of slavery) in the District of Columbia. After 1854, Republicans argued that the Slave Power, especially the pro-slavery Democratic Party, controlled two of the three branches of the Federal government.
The abolitionists, realizing that the total elimination of slavery was, as an immediate goal, unrealistic, had worked to prevent expansion of slavery into the new states formed out of the Western territories. The Missouri Compromise, the Compromise of 1850, and the Bleeding Kansas crisis dealt with whether new states would be slave or free, or how that was to be decided. Both sides were anxious about effects of these decisions on the balance of power in the Senate.
After the passage of the Kansas -- Nebraska Act in 1854, border fighting broke out in Kansas Territory, where the question of whether it would be admitted to the Union as a slave or free state was left to the inhabitants. Migrants from free and slave states moved into the territory to prepare for the vote on slavery. Abolitionist John Brown was active in the fighting in "Bleeding Kansas, '' but so too were many white Southerners who opposed abolition.
Abraham Lincoln 's and the Republicans ' political platform in 1860 was to stop slavery 's expansion. Historian James McPherson says that in a famous speech in 1858, Lincoln said American republicanism can be purified by restricting the further expansion of slavery as the first step to putting it on the road to ' ultimate extinction. ' Southerners took Lincoln at his word. When he won the presidency they left the Union to escape the ' ultimate extinction ' of slavery. ''
With the development of slave and free states after the American Revolution, and far - flung commercial and military activities, new situations arose in which slaves might be taken by masters into free states. Most free states not only prohibited slavery, but ruled that slaves brought and kept there illegally could be freed. Such cases were sometimes known as transit cases.
Dred Scott and his wife Harriet Scott each sued for freedom in St. Louis after the death of their master, based on their having been held in a free territory (the northern part of the Louisiana Purchase from which slavery was excluded under the terms of the Missouri Compromise). (Later the two cases were combined under Dred Scott 's name.) Scott filed suit for freedom in 1846 and went through two state trials, the first denying and the second granting freedom to the couple (and, by extension, their two daughters, who had also been held illegally in free territories). For 28 years, Missouri state precedent had generally respected laws of neighboring free states and territories, ruling for freedom in such transit cases where slaves had been held illegally in free territory. But in the Dred Scott case, the State Supreme Court ruled against the slaves, saying that "times were not what they once were ''.
After Scott and his team appealed the case to the U.S. Supreme Court, the slaveowning Supreme Court Justice Roger B. Taney denied Scott his freedom in a sweeping decision. The 1857 decision, decided 7 -- 2, held that a slave did not become free when taken into a free state; Congress could not bar slavery from a territory; and people of African descent imported into the United States and held as slaves, or their descendants, could never be citizens. A state could not bar slaveowners from bringing slaves into that state. Many Republicans, including Abraham Lincoln, considered the decision unjust and as proof that the Slave Power had seized control of the Supreme Court. Written by Chief Justice Roger B. Taney, the decision effectively barred slaves and their descendants from citizenship. Abolitionists were enraged and slave owners encouraged, contributing to tensions on this subject that led to civil war. Critics note that at the time the Constitution was drafted, five states including North Carolina allowed free blacks to vote.
The divisions became fully exposed with the 1860 presidential election. The electorate split four ways. The Southern Democrats endorsed slavery, while the Republicans denounced it. The Northern Democrats said democracy required the people to decide on slavery locally, state by state and territory by territory. The Constitutional Union Party said the survival of the Union was at stake and everything else should be compromised.
Lincoln, the Republican, won with a plurality of popular votes and a majority of electoral votes. Lincoln, however, did not appear on the ballots of ten southern slave states. Many slave owners in the South feared that the real intent of the Republicans was the abolition of slavery in states where it already existed, and that the sudden emancipation of four million slaves would be disastrous for the slave owners and for the economy that drew its greatest profits from the labor of people who were not paid.
The slave owners also argued that banning slavery in new states would upset what they saw as a delicate balance of free states and slave states. They feared that ending this balance could lead to the domination of the federal government by the northern free states. This led seven southern states to secede from the Union. When the southern forces attacked a US Army installation at Fort Sumter, the American Civil War began and four additional slave states seceded. Northern leaders had viewed the slavery interests as a threat politically, but with secession, they viewed the prospect of a new Southern nation, the Confederate States of America, with control over the Mississippi River and parts of the West, as politically unacceptable.
The consequent American Civil War, beginning in 1861, led to the end of chattel slavery in America. Not long after the war broke out, through a legal maneuver credited to Union General Benjamin F. Butler, a lawyer by profession, slaves who came into Union "possession '' were considered "contraband of war ''. General Butler ruled that they were not subject to return to Confederate owners as they had been before the war. Soon word spread, and many slaves sought refuge in Union territory, desiring to be declared "contraband ''. Many of the "contrabands '' joined the Union Army as workers or troops, forming entire regiments of the U.S. Colored Troops. Others went to refugee camps such as the Grand Contraband Camp near Fort Monroe or fled to northern cities. General Butler 's interpretation was reinforced when Congress passed the Confiscation Act of 1861, which declared that any property used by the Confederate military, including slaves, could be confiscated by Union forces.
At the beginning of the war, some Union commanders thought they were supposed to return escaped slaves to their masters. By 1862, when it became clear that this would be a long war, the question of what to do about slavery became more general. The Southern economy and military effort depended on slave labor. It began to seem unreasonable to protect slavery while blockading Southern commerce and destroying Southern production. As Congressman George W. Julian of Indiana put it in an 1862 speech in Congress, the slaves "can not be neutral. As laborers, if not as soldiers, they will be allies of the rebels, or of the Union. '' Julian and his fellow Radical Republicans put pressure on Lincoln to rapidly emancipate the slaves, whereas moderate Republicans came to accept gradual, compensated emancipation and colonization. Copperheads, the border states and War Democrats opposed emancipation, although the border states and War Democrats eventually accepted it as part of total war needed to save the Union.
The Emancipation Proclamation was an executive order issued by President Lincoln on January 1, 1863. In a single stroke it changed the legal status, as recognized by the U.S. government, of 3 million slaves in designated areas of the Confederacy from "slave '' to "free ''. It had the practical effect that as soon as a slave escaped the control of the Confederate government, by running away or through advances of federal troops, the slave became legally and actually free. Plantation owners, realizing that emancipation would destroy their economic system, sometimes moved their slaves as far as possible out of reach of the Union army. By June 1865, the Union Army controlled all of the Confederacy and had liberated all of the designated slaves.
In 1861, Lincoln expressed the fear that premature attempts at emancipation would mean the loss of the border states. He believed that "to lose Kentucky is nearly the same as to lose the whole game. '' At first, Lincoln reversed attempts at emancipation by Secretary of War Simon Cameron and Generals John C. Fremont (in Missouri) and David Hunter (in South Carolina, Georgia and Florida) to keep the loyalty of the border states and the War Democrats.
Lincoln mentioned his Emancipation Proclamation to members of his cabinet on July 21, 1862. Secretary of State William H. Seward told Lincoln to wait for a victory before issuing the proclamation, as to do otherwise would seem like "our last shriek on the retreat ''. In September 1862 the Battle of Antietam provided this opportunity, and the subsequent War Governors ' Conference added support for the proclamation. Lincoln had already published a letter encouraging the border states especially to accept emancipation as necessary to save the Union. Lincoln later said that slavery was "somehow the cause of the war ''.
Lincoln issued his preliminary Emancipation Proclamation on September 22, 1862, and said that a final proclamation would be issued if his gradual plan, based on compensated emancipation and voluntary colonization, was rejected. Only the District of Columbia accepted Lincoln 's gradual plan, and Lincoln issued his final Emancipation Proclamation on January 1, 1863. In his letter to Hodges, Lincoln explained his belief that
If slavery is not wrong, nothing is wrong... And yet I have never understood that the Presidency conferred upon me an unrestricted right to act officially upon this judgment and feeling... I claim not to have controlled events, but confess plainly that events have controlled me.
Lincoln 's Emancipation Proclamation of January 1, 1863 was a powerful action that promised freedom for slaves in the Confederacy as soon as the Union armies reached them, and authorized the enlistment of African Americans in the Union Army. The Emancipation Proclamation did not free slaves in the Union - allied slave - holding states that bordered the Confederacy. Since the Confederate States did not recognize the authority of President Lincoln, and the proclamation did not apply in the border states, at first the proclamation freed only those slaves who had escaped behind Union lines. The proclamation made the abolition of slavery an official war goal that was implemented as the Union took territory from the Confederacy. According to the Census of 1860, this policy would free nearly four million slaves, or over 12 % of the total population of the United States.
Based on the President 's war powers, the Emancipation Proclamation applied to territory held by Confederates at the time. However, the Proclamation became a symbol of the Union 's growing commitment to add emancipation to the Union 's definition of liberty. Lincoln played a leading role in getting the constitutionally - required two - thirds majority of both houses of Congress to vote for the Thirteenth Amendment, which made emancipation universal and permanent.
Enslaved African Americans had not waited for Lincoln before escaping and seeking freedom behind Union lines. From early years of the war, hundreds of thousands of African Americans escaped to Union lines, especially in Union - controlled areas such as Norfolk and the Hampton Roads region in 1862 Virginia, Tennessee from 1862 on, the line of Sherman 's march, etc. So many African Americans fled to Union lines that commanders created camps and schools for them, where both adults and children learned to read and write. The American Missionary Association entered the war effort by sending teachers south to such contraband camps, for instance, establishing schools in Norfolk and on nearby plantations.
In addition, nearly 200,000 African - American men served with distinction in the Union forces as soldiers and sailors. Most were escaped slaves. The Confederacy was outraged by armed black soldiers and refused to treat them as prisoners of war. They murdered many, as at the Fort Pillow Massacre, and re-enslaved others.
The Arizona Organic Act abolished slavery on February 24, 1863 in the newly formed Arizona Territory. Tennessee and all of the border states (except Kentucky) abolished slavery by early 1865. Thousands of slaves were freed by the operation of the Emancipation Proclamation as Union armies marched across the South. Emancipation came to the remaining southern slaves after the surrender of all Confederate troops in spring 1865.
In spite of the South 's shortage of manpower, until 1865, most Southern leaders opposed arming slaves as soldiers. However, a few Confederates discussed arming slaves. Finally in early 1865 General Robert E. Lee said black soldiers were essential, and legislation was passed. The first black units were in training when the war ended in April.
Booker T. Washington remembered Emancipation Day in early 1863, when he was a boy of nine in Virginia:
As the great day drew nearer, there was more singing in the slave quarters than usual. It was bolder, had more ring, and lasted later into the night. Most of the verses of the plantation songs had some reference to freedom... Some man who seemed to be a stranger (a United States officer, I presume) made a little speech and then read a rather long paper -- the Emancipation Proclamation, I think. After the reading we were told that we were all free, and could go when and where we pleased. My mother, who was standing by my side, leaned over and kissed her children, while tears of joy ran down her cheeks. She explained to us what it all meant, that this was the day for which she had been so long praying, but fearing that she would never live to see.
The war ended on June 22, 1865, and following that surrender, the Emancipation Proclamation was enforced throughout remaining regions of the South that had not yet freed the slaves. Slavery officially continued for a couple of months in other locations. Federal troops arrived in Galveston, Texas on June 19, 1865, to enforce the emancipation. That day of gaining freedom in Texas is now celebrated as Juneteenth in many U.S. states.
The Thirteenth Amendment, abolishing slavery except as punishment for a crime, had been passed by the Senate in April 1864, and by the House of Representatives in January 1865. The amendment did not take effect until it was ratified by three fourths of the states, which occurred on December 6, 1865, when Georgia ratified it. On that date, all remaining slaves became officially free.
Legally, the last 40,000 - 45,000 slaves were freed in the last two slave states of Kentucky and Delaware by the final ratification of the Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution on December 18, 1865. Slaves still held in Tennessee, Kentucky, Kansas, New Jersey, Delaware, West Virginia, Maryland, Missouri, Washington, D.C., and twelve parishes of Louisiana also became legally free on this date.
American historian R.R. Palmer opined that the abolition of slavery in the United States without compensation to the former slave owners was an "annihilation of individual property rights without parallel... in the history of the Western world ''. Economic historian Robert E. Wright argues that it would have been much cheaper, with minimal deaths, if the federal government had purchased and freed all the slaves, rather than fighting the Civil War. Another economic historian, Roger Ransom, writes about how Gerald Gunderson compared compensated emancipation to the cost of the war and "notes that the two are roughly the same order of magnitude -- 2.5 to 3.7 billion dollars '' Ransom also writes that compensated emancipation would have tripled federal outlays if paid over the period of 25 years and was a program that had no political support within the United States during the 1860s.
In spite of the issuance of the Emancipation Proclamation and the adoption of the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, the road to freedom remained elusive for most former slaves in the United States. While the Constitution of the United States is the supreme law of the land, it is not self - enforcing, nor was the Emancipation Proclamation. The text and principles outlined in them were only words without enforcement, and so alone, they could not and did not abolish slavery. The enactment of the Thirteenth Amendment simply made slavery and all forms of involuntary servitude, except as punishment for crime, unconstitutional. The abolition of slavery -- that is, the full enforcement of the 13th Amendment -- took many decades beyond 1865 to be realized. Enforcement of the 13th amendment began during the Reconstruction Era, but there were many setbacks between that time and full enforcement.
Proponents of the 13th Amendment to the Constitution knew that without legislation that codified the 13th Amendment in the form of laws and statutes along with law enforcement agencies to uphold the laws, there would be no true end to slavery, and this is the reason for the inclusion of Section 2 of the 13th Amendment authorizing Congress to establish laws upholding the amendment. The federal government also sent troops to the south to provide protection to the former slaves who were still living among their former masters.
During the Reconstruction Era, from January 1, 1863 to March 31, 1877, federal troops were stationed in the south specifically to protect black rights and prevent them from being re-enslaved. However, in the Gilded Age that followed the withdrawal, blacks were left at the mercy of the whites. When African Americans in the South no longer had the protection of federal troops, whites imposed laws to restrict their movement and found other ways to practice involuntary servitude.
This lasted well into the 20th century. President Lyndon B. Johnson abolished peonage in 1966, which rapidly decreased sharecropping in every plantation nationwide. Journalist Douglas A. Blackmon reported in his Pulitzer Prize - winning book Slavery By Another Name that many blacks were virtually enslaved under convict leasing programs, which started after the Civil War. Most Southern states had no prisons; they leased convicts to businesses and farms for their labor, and the lessee paid for food and board. The incentives for abuse were satisfied.
The continued involuntary servitude took various forms, but the primary forms included convict leasing, peonage, and sharecropping, with the latter eventually encompassing poor whites as well. By the 1930s, whites constituted most of the sharecroppers in the South. Mechanization of agriculture had reduced the need for farm labor, and many blacks left the South in the Great Migration.
Jurisdictions and states created fines and sentences for a wide variety of minor crimes, and used these as an excuse to arrest and sentence blacks. Under convict leasing programs, African American men, often guilty of no crime at all, were arrested, compelled to work without pay, repeatedly bought and sold, and coerced to do the bidding of the leaseholder. Sharecropping, as it was practiced during this period, often involved severe restrictions on the freedom of movement of sharecroppers, who could be whipped for leaving the plantation. Both sharecropping and convict leasing were legal and tolerated by both the north and south. However, peonage was an illicit form of forced labor. Its existence was ignored by authorities while thousands of African Americans and poor Anglo Americans were subjugated and held in bondage until the mid 1960s to the late 1970s.
With the exception of cases of peonage, beyond the period of Reconstruction, the federal government took almost no action to enforce the 13th Amendment until December 1941 when President Franklin Delano Roosevelt summoned his attorney general. Five days after Pearl Harbor, at the request of the president Attorney General Francis Biddle issued Circular No. 3591 to all federal prosecutors, instructing them to actively investigate and try any case of involuntary servitude or slavery. Several months later, convict leasing was officially abolished. But aspects have persisted in other forms, while historians argue that other systems of penal labor, were all created in 1865 and convict leasing was simply the most oppressive form.
Over time a large civil rights movement arose to bring full civil rights and equality under the law to all Americans.
With emancipation a legal reality, white Southerners were concerned with both controlling the newly freed slaves and keeping them in the labor force at the lowest level. The system of convict leasing began during Reconstruction and was fully implemented in the 1880s and officially ending in the last state, Alabama, in 1928. It persisted in various forms until it was abolished in 1942 by President Franklin D. Roosevelt during World War II, several months after the attack on Pearl Harbor involved the U.S. in the conflict. This system allowed private contractors to purchase the services of convicts from the state or local governments for a specific time period. African Americans, due to "vigorous and selective enforcement of laws and discriminatory sentencing, '' made up the vast majority of the convicts leased. Writer Douglas A. Blackmon writes of the system:
It was a form of bondage distinctly different from that of the antebellum South in that for most men, and the relatively few women drawn in, this slavery did not last a lifetime and did not automatically extend from one generation to the next. But it was nonetheless slavery -- a system in which armies of free men, guilty of no crimes and entitled by law to freedom, were compelled to labor without compensation, were repeatedly bought and sold, and were forced to do the bidding of white masters through the regular application of extraordinary physical coercion.
The constitutional basis for convict leasing is that the Thirteenth Amendment, while abolishing slavery and involuntary servitude generally, expressly permits it as a punishment for crime.
The anti-literacy laws after 1832 contributed greatly to the problem of widespread illiteracy facing the freedmen and other African Americans after Emancipation and the Civil War 35 years later. The problem of illiteracy and need for education was seen as one of the greatest challenges confronting these people as they sought to join the free enterprise system and support themselves during Reconstruction and thereafter.
Consequently, many black and white religious organizations, former Union Army officers and soldiers, and wealthy philanthropists were inspired to create and fund educational efforts specifically for the betterment of African Americans; some African Americans had started their own schools before the end of the war. Northerners helped create numerous normal schools, such as those that became Hampton University and Tuskegee University, to generate teachers, as well as other colleges for former slaves. Blacks held teaching as a high calling, with education the first priority for children and adults. Many of the most talented went into the field. Some of the schools took years to reach a high standard, but they managed to get thousands of teachers started. As W.E.B. Du Bois noted, the black colleges were not perfect, but "in a single generation they put thirty thousand black teachers in the South '' and "wiped out the illiteracy of the majority of black people in the land ''.
Northern philanthropists continued to support black education in the 20th century, even as tensions rose within the black community, exemplified by Booker T. Washington and W.E.B. Du Bois, as to the proper emphasis between industrial and classical academic education at the college level. An example of a major donor to Hampton Institute and Tuskegee was George Eastman, who also helped fund health programs at colleges and in communities. Collaborating with Washington in the early decades of the 20th century, philanthropist Julius Rosenwald provided matching funds for community efforts to build rural schools for black children. He insisted on white and black cooperation in the effort, wanting to ensure that white - controlled school boards made a commitment to maintain the schools. By the 1930s local parents had helped raise funds (sometimes donating labor and land) to create over 5,000 rural schools in the South. Other philanthropists, such as Henry H. Rogers and Andrew Carnegie, each of whom had arisen from modest roots to become wealthy, used matching fund grants to stimulate local development of libraries and schools.
On February 24, 2007, the Virginia General Assembly passed House Joint Resolution Number 728 acknowledging "with profound regret the involuntary servitude of Africans and the exploitation of Native Americans, and call for reconciliation among all Virginians ''. With the passing of this resolution, Virginia became the first state to acknowledge through the state 's governing body their state 's negative involvement in slavery. The passing of this resolution was in anticipation of the 400th anniversary commemoration of the founding of Jamestown, Virginia (the first permanent English settlement in North America), which was an early colonial slave port. Apologies have also been issued by Alabama, Florida, Maryland, North Carolina and New Jersey.
On July 30, 2008, the United States House of Representatives passed a resolution apologizing for American slavery and subsequent discriminatory laws.
The U.S. Senate unanimously passed a similar resolution on June 18, 2009, apologizing for the "fundamental injustice, cruelty, brutality, and inhumanity of slavery ''. It also explicitly states that it can not be used for restitution claims.
A 2016 study, published in The Journal of Politics, finds that "Whites who currently live in Southern counties that had high shares of slaves in 1860 are more likely to identify as a Republican, oppose affirmative action, and express racial resentment and colder feelings toward blacks. '' The study contends that "contemporary differences in political attitudes across counties in the American South in part trace their origins to slavery 's prevalence more than 150 years ago. '' The authors argue that their findings are consistent with the theory that "following the Civil War, Southern whites faced political and economic incentives to reinforce existing racist norms and institutions to maintain control over the newly freed African American population. This amplified local differences in racially conservative political attitudes, which in turn have been passed down locally across generations. ''
A 2017 study in the British Journal of Political Science argued that the British American colonies without slavery adopted better democratic institutions in order to attract migrant workers to their colonies.
During the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries, Indian slavery, the enslavement of Native Americans by European colonists, was common. Many of these Native slaves were exported to the Northern colonies and to off - shore colonies, especially the "sugar islands '' of the Caribbean. Historian Alan Gallay estimates that from 1670 to 1715, British slave traders sold between 24,000 and 51,000 Native Americans from what is now the southern part of the U.S.
Slavery of Native Americans was organized in colonial and Mexican California through Franciscan missions, theoretically entitled to ten years of Native labor, but in practice maintaining them in perpetual servitude, until their charge was revoked in the mid-1830s. Following the 1847 -- 48 invasion by U.S. troops, the "loitering or orphaned Indians '' were de facto enslaved in the new state from statehood in 1850 to 1867. Slavery required the posting of a bond by the slave holder and enslavement occurred through raids and a four - month servitude imposed as a punishment for Indian "vagrancy ''.
After 1800, some of the Cherokee and the other four civilized tribes of the Southeast started buying and using black slaves as labor. They continued this practice after removal to Indian Territory in the 1830s, when as many as 15,000 enslaved blacks were taken with them.
The nature of slavery in Cherokee society often mirrored that of white slave - owning society. The law barred intermarriage of Cherokees and enslaved African Americans, but Cherokee men had unions with enslaved women, resulting in mixed - race children. Cherokee who aided slaves were punished with one hundred lashes on the back. In Cherokee society, persons of African descent were barred from holding office even if they were also racially and culturally Cherokee. They were also barred from bearing arms and owning property. The Cherokee prohibited teaching African Americans to read and write.
By contrast, the Seminole welcomed into their nation African Americans who had escaped slavery (Black Seminoles). They tended to live alongside each other, rather than joining their cultures.
The Haida and Tlingit Indians who lived along southeast Alaska 's coast were traditionally known as fierce warriors and slave - traders, raiding as far as California. Slavery was hereditary after slaves were taken as prisoners of war. Among some Pacific Northwest tribes, about a quarter of the population were slaves. Other slave - owning tribes of North America were, for example, Comanche of Texas, Creek of Georgia, the fishing societies, such as the Yurok, that lived along the coast from what is now Alaska to California; the Pawnee, and Klamath.
Some tribes held people as captive slaves late in the 19th century. For instance, "Ute Woman '', was a Ute captured by the Arapaho and later sold to a Cheyenne. She was kept by the Cheyenne to be used as a prostitute to serve American soldiers at Cantonment in the Indian Territory. She lived in slavery until about 1880. She died of a hemorrhage resulting from "excessive sexual intercourse ''.
Slaveholders included people of African ancestry. An African former indentured servant who settled in Virginia in 1621, Anthony Johnson became one of the earliest documented slave owners in the mainland American colonies when he won a civil suit for ownership of John Casor. In 1830 there were 3,775 such black slaveholders in the South who owned a total of 12,760 slaves, a small percent, out of a total of over 2 million slaves. 80 % of the black slaveholders were located in Louisiana, South Carolina, Virginia, and Maryland.
There were economic and ethnic differences between free blacks of the Upper South and Deep South, with the latter fewer in number, but wealthier and typically of mixed race. Half of the black slaveholders lived in cities rather than the countryside, with most living in New Orleans and Charleston. Especially New Orleans had a large, relatively wealthy free black population (gens de couleur) composed of people of mixed race, who had become a third social class between whites and enslaved blacks, under French and Spanish colonial rule. Relatively few non-white slaveholders were "substantial planters ''. Of those who were, most were of mixed race, often endowed by white fathers with some property and social capital. For example, Andrew Durnford of New Orleans was listed as owning 77 slaves. According to Rachel Kranz: "Durnford was known as a stern master who worked his slaves hard and punished them often in his efforts to make his Louisiana sugar plantation a success. ''
The historians John Hope Franklin and Loren Schweninger wrote:
A large majority of profit - oriented free black slaveholders resided in the Lower South. For the most part, they were persons of mixed racial origin, often women who cohabited or were mistresses of white men, or mulatto men... Provided land and slaves by whites, they owned farms and plantations, worked their hands in the rice, cotton, and sugar fields, and like their white contemporaries were troubled with runaways.
The historian Ira Berlin wrote:
In slave societies, nearly everyone -- free and slave -- aspired to enter the slaveholding class, and upon occasion some former slaves rose into slaveholders ' ranks. Their acceptance was grudging, as they carried the stigma of bondage in their lineage and, in the case of American slavery, color in their skin.
African - American history and culture scholar Henry Louis Gates Jr. wrote:
... the percentage of free black slave owners as the total number of free black heads of families was quite high in several states, namely 43 percent in South Carolina, 40 percent in Louisiana, 26 percent in Mississippi, 25 percent in Alabama and 20 percent in Georgia.
Free blacks were perceived "as a continual symbolic threat to slaveholders, challenging the idea that ' black ' and ' slave ' were synonymous ''. Free blacks were sometimes seen as potential allies of fugitive slaves and "slaveholders bore witness to their fear and loathing of free blacks in no uncertain terms. '' For free blacks, who had only a precarious hold on freedom, "slave ownership was not simply an economic convenience but indispensable evidence of the free blacks ' determination to break with their slave past and their silent acceptance -- if not approval -- of slavery. ''
The historian James Oakes in 1982 stated that "(t) he evidence is overwhelming that the vast majority of black slaveholders were free men who purchased members of their families or who acted out of benevolence ''. After 1810 southern states made it increasingly difficult for any slaveholders to free slaves. Often the purchasers of family members were left with no choice but to maintain, on paper, the owner -- slave relationship. In the 1850s "there were increasing efforts to restrict the right to hold bondsmen on the grounds that slaves should be kept ' as far as possible under the control of white men only. ' ''
In his 1985 statewide study of black slaveholders in South Carolina, Larry Koger challenged the benevolent view. He found that the majority of black slaveholders appeared to hold at least some of their slaves for commercial reasons. For instance, he noted that in 1850 more than 80 percent of black slaveholders were of mixed race, but nearly 90 percent of their slaves were classified as black. Koger also noted that many South Carolina free blacks operated small businesses as skilled artisans, and many owned slaves working in those businesses.
Barbary pirates from North Africa began to seize North American colonists as early as 1625, and roughly 700 Americans were held captive in this region as slaves between 1785 and 1815. Some captives used their experiences as a North African slave to criticize slavery in the United States, such as William Ray in his book Horrors of Slavery.
The Barbary situation led directly to the creation of the United States Navy in March 1794. While the United States managed to secure peace treaties, these obliged it to pay tribute for protection from attack. Payments in ransom and tribute to the Barbary states amounted to 20 % of United States government annual expenditures in 1800. The First Barbary War in 1801 and the Second Barbary War in 1815 led to more favorable peace terms ending the payment of tribute.
For various reasons, the census did not always include all of the slaves, especially in the West. California was admitted as a free state and reported no slaves. However, there were many slaves that were brought to work in the mines during the California Gold Rush. Some Californian communities openly tolerated slavery, such as San Bernardino, which was mostly made up of transplants from the neighboring slave territory of Utah. New Mexico Territory never reported any slaves on the census, yet sued the government for compensation for 600 slaves that were freed when congress outlawed slavery in the territory. Utah was actively trying to hide its slave population from Congress and did not report slaves in several communities. Additionally, the census did not traditionally include Native Americans, and hence did not include Native American slaves or black slaves owned by Native Americans. There were hundreds of Native American slaves in California, Utah and New Mexico that were never recorded in the census.
As of the 1860 Census, one may compute the following statistics on slaveholding:
The historian Peter Kolchin, writing in 1993, noted that until the latter decades of the 20th century, historians of slavery had primarily concerned themselves with the culture, practices and economics of the slaveholders, not with the slaves. This was in part due to the circumstance that most slaveholders were literate and left behind written records, whereas slaves were largely illiterate and not in a position to leave written records. Scholars differed as to whether slavery should be considered a benign or a "harshly exploitive '' institution.
Much of the history written prior to the 1950s had a distinctive racist slant to it. By the 1970s and 1980s, historians were using archaeological records, black folklore, and statistical data to develop a much more detailed and nuanced picture of slave life. Individuals were shown to have been resilient and somewhat autonomous in many of their activities, within the limits of their situation and despite its precariousness. Historians who wrote in this era include John Blassingame (Slave Community), Eugene Genovese (Roll, Jordan, Roll), Leslie Howard Owens (This Species of Property), and Herbert Gutman (The Black Family in Slavery and Freedom).
Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the several states... by adding to the whole number of free persons, including those bound to service for a term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three - fifths of all other persons.
Section 1. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction. Section 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.
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in what year did the french minister of culture close the caves to the public | Lascaux - wikipedia
Lascaux, (French: Grotte de Lascaux, "Lascaux Cave ''; English: / læsˈkoʊ /, French: (lasko)) is the setting of a complex of caves near the village of Montignac, in the department of Dordogne in southwestern France. Over 600 parietal wall paintings decorate the interior walls and ceilings of the cave. The paintings are primarily of large animals, typical local and contemporary fauna that correspond with the fossil record of the Upper Paleolithic time. The drawings are the combined effort of many generations, and with continued debate, the paintings are estimated around 17,000 years BP. Lascaux was inducted into the UNESCO World Heritage Sites list in 1979, as element of the Prehistoric Sites and Decorated Caves of the Vézère Valley.
On September 12, 1940, the entrance to the Lascaux Cave was discovered by 18 year old Marcel Ravidat. Ravidat (died in 1995) returned to the scene with three friends, Jacques Marsal, Georges Agnel, and Simon Coencas, and entered the cave via a long shaft. The teenagers discovered that the cave walls were covered with depictions of animals. Galleries that suggest continuity, context or simply represent a cavern were given names. Those include the Hall of the Bulls, the Passageway, the Shaft, the Nave, the Apse, and the Chamber of Felines. The cave complex was opened to the public on July 14, 1948. By 1955, carbon dioxide, heat, humidity, and other contaminants produced by 1,200 visitors per day had visibly damaged the paintings. As air condition deteriorated fungi and lichen increasingly infested the walls. Consequently the cave was closed to the public in 1963, the paintings were restored to their original state and a monitoring system on a daily basis was introduced.
Lascaux II, an exact copy of the Great Hall of the Bulls and the Painted Gallery opened in 1983 in the cave 's vicinity, a compromise and attempt to present an impression of the paintings ' scale and composition for the public without harming the originals. A full range of Lascaux 's parietal art is presented a few kilometres from the site at the Centre of Prehistoric Art, Le Parc du Thot, where there are also live animals representing ice - age fauna.
Ochroconis lascauxensis is a species of fungus of the Ascomycota phylum, in May 2012 officially described and named after the locality of its first emergence, the Lascaux cave. It was along with a closely related second species Ochroconis anomala, first observed in 2000 inside the cave and the following year black spots appeared among the cave paintings. No official announcement on the effect and / or progress of attempted treatments has ever been made.
As of 2008, the cave contained black mold. In January 2008, authorities closed the cave for three months, even to scientists and preservationists. A single individual was allowed to enter the cave for 20 minutes once a week to monitor climatic conditions. Now only a few scientific experts are allowed to work inside the cave and just for a few days a month but the efforts to remove the mold have taken a toll, leaving dark patches and damaging the pigments on the walls. In 2009 it was announced: Mould problem "stable ''. In 2011 the fungus seemed to be in retreat after the installment of an additional, even stricter conservation program.
In its sedimentary composition, the Vézère drainage basin covers one fourth of the département of the Dordogne, the northernmost region of the Black Périgord. Before joining the Dordogne River near Limeuil, the Vézère flows in a south - westerly direction. At its centre point, the river 's course is marked by a series of meanders flanked by high limestone cliffs that determine the landscape. Upstream from this steep - sloped relief, near Montignac and in the vicinity of Lascaux, the contours of the land soften considerably; the valley floor widens, and the banks of the river lose their steepness.
The Lascaux valley is located some distance from the major concentrations of decorated caves and inhabited sites, most of which were discovered further downstream. In the environs of the village of Eyzies - de-Tayac Sireuil, there are no less than 37 decorated caves and shelters, as well as an even greater number of habitation sites from the Upper Paleolithic, located in the open, beneath a sheltering overhang, or at the entrance to one of the area 's karst cavities. This is the highest concentration in western Europe.
The cave contains nearly 6,000 figures, which can be grouped into three main categories: animals, human figures, and abstract signs. The paintings contain no images of the surrounding landscape or the vegetation of the time. Most of the major images have been painted onto the walls using red, yellow, and black colours from a complex multiplicity of mineral pigments including iron compounds such as iron oxide (ochre) haematite, and goethite, as well as manganese - containing pigments. Charcoal may also have been used but seemingly to a sparing extent. On some of the cave walls, the colour may have been applied as a suspension of pigment in either animal fat or calcium - rich cave groundwater or clay, making paint, that was swabbed or blotted on, rather than applied by brush. In other areas, the colour was applied by spraying the pigments by blowing the mixture through a tube. Where the rock surface is softer, some designs have been incised into the stone. Many images are too faint to discern, and others have deteriorated entirely.
Over 900 can be identified as animals, and 605 of these have been precisely identified. Out of these images, there are 364 paintings of equines as well as 90 paintings of stags. Also represented are cattle and bison, each representing 4 to 5 % of the images. A smattering of other images include seven felines, a bird, a bear, a rhinoceros, and a human. There are no images of reindeer, even though that was the principal source of food for the artists. Geometric images have also been found on the walls.
The most famous section of the cave is The Hall of the Bulls where bulls, equines, and stags are depicted. The four black bulls, or aurochs, are the dominant figures among the 36 animals represented here. One of the bulls is 5.2 metres (17 ft) long, the largest animal discovered so far in cave art. Additionally, the bulls appear to be in motion.
A painting referred to as "The Crossed Bison '', found in the chamber called the Nave, is often submitted as an example of the skill of the Paleolithic cave painters. The crossed hind legs create the illusion that one bison is closer to the viewer than the other. This visual depth in the scene demonstrates a primitive form of perspective which was particularly advanced for the time.
Some anthropologists and art historians theorize that the paintings could be an account of past hunting success, or could represent a mystical ritual in order to improve future hunting endeavors. This latter theory is supported by the overlapping images of one group of animals in the same cave - location as another group of animals, suggesting that one area of the cave was more successful for predicting a plentiful hunting excursion.
Applying the iconographic method of analysis to the Lascaux paintings (studying position, direction and size of the figures; organization of the composition; painting technique; distribution of the color planes; research of the image center), Thérèse Guiot - Houdart attempted to comprehend the symbolic function of the animals, to identify the theme of each image and finally to reconstitute the canvas of the myth illustrated on the rock walls.
Julien d'Huy and Jean - Loïc Le Quellec showed that certain angular or barbed signs of Lascaux may be analysed as "weapon '' or "wounds ''. These signs affect dangerous animals -- big cats, aurochs and bison -- more than others and may be explained by a fear of the animation of the image. Another finding supports the hypothesis of half - alive images. At Lascaux, bison, aurochs and ibex are not represented side by side. Conversely, one can note a bison - horses - lions system and an aurochs - horses - deer - bears system, these animals being frequently associated. Such a distribution may show the relationship between the species pictured and their environmental conditions. Aurochs and bison fight one against the other, and horses and deer are very social with other animals. Bison and lions live in open plains areas; aurochs, deer and bears are associated with forests and marshes; ibex habitat is rocky areas, and horses are highly adaptive for all these areas. The Lascaux paintings ' disposition may be explained by a belief in the real life of the pictured species, wherein the artists tried to respect their real environmental conditions.
Less known is the image area called the Abside (Apse), a roundish, semi-spherical chamber similar to an apse in a Romanesque basilica. It is approximately 4.5 meters in diameter (about 5 yards) and covered on every wall surface (including the ceiling) with thousands of entangled, overlapping, engraved drawings. The ceiling of the Apse, which ranges from 1.6 to 2.7 meters high (about 5.2 to 8.9 feet) as measured from the original floor height, is so completely decorated with such engravings that it indicates that the prehistoric people who executed them first constructed a scaffold to do so.
According to David Lewis - Williams and Jean Clottes who both studied presumably similar art of the San people of Southern Africa this type of art is spiritual in nature relating to visions experienced during ritualistic trance - dancing. These trance visions are a function of the human brain and so are independent of geographical location. Nigel Spivey, a professor of classical art and archeology at the University of Cambridge, has further postulated in his series, How Art Made the World, that dot and lattice patterns overlapping the representational images of animals are very similar to hallucinations provoked by sensory - deprivation. He further postulates that the connections between culturally important animals and these hallucinations led to the invention of image - making, or the art of drawing.
The opening of Lascaux Cave after World War II changed the cave environment. The exhalations of 1,200 visitors per day, presence of light, and changes in air circulation have created a number of problems. Lichens and crystals began to appear on the walls in the late 1950s, leading to closure of the caves in 1963. This led to restriction of access to the real caves to a few visitors every week, and the creation of a replica cave for visitors to Lascaux. In 2001, the authorities in charge of Lascaux changed the air conditioning system which resulted in regulation of the temperature and humidity. When the system had been established, an infestation of Fusarium solani, a white mold, began spreading rapidly across the cave ceiling and walls. The mold is considered to have been present in the cave soil and exposed by the work of tradesmen, leading to the spread of the fungus which was treated with quicklime. In 2007, a new fungus, which has created grey and black blemishes, began spreading in the real cave.
Organized through the initiative of the French Ministry of Culture, an international symposium titled "Lascaux and Preservation Issues in Subterranean Environments '' was held in Paris on February 26 and 27, 2009, under the chairmanship of Jean Clottes. It brought together nearly three hundred participants from seventeen countries with the goal of confronting research and interventions conducted in Lascaux Cave since 2001 with the experiences gained in other countries in the domain of preservation in subterranean environments. The proceedings of this symposium were published in 2011. Seventy - four specialists in fields as varied as biology, biochemistry, botany, hydrology, climatology, geology, fluid mechanics, archaeology, anthropology, restoration and conservation, from numerous countries (France, United States, Portugal, Spain, Japan, and others) contributed to this publication.
The problem is ongoing, as are efforts to control the microbial and fungal growths in the cave. The fungal infection crises have led to the establishment of an International Scientific Committee for Lascaux and to rethinking how, and how much, human access should be permitted in caves containing prehistoric art.
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who fired the first shot during the civil war | Battle of Fort Sumter - wikipedia
Confederate victory
The Battle of Fort Sumter (April 12 -- 13, 1861) was the bombardment of Fort Sumter near Charleston, South Carolina by the Confederate States Army, and the return gunfire and subsequent surrender by the United States Army that started the American Civil War. Following declarations of secession by seven Southern states, South Carolina demanded that the U.S. Army abandon its facilities in Charleston Harbor. On December 26, 1860, Major Robert Anderson of the U.S. Army surreptitiously moved his small command from the vulnerable Fort Moultrie on Sullivan 's Island to Fort Sumter, a substantial fortress built on an island controlling the entrance of Charleston Harbor. An attempt by U.S. President James Buchanan to reinforce and resupply Anderson using the unarmed merchant ship Star of the West failed when it was fired upon by shore batteries on January 9, 1861. South Carolina authorities then seized all Federal property in the Charleston area except for Fort Sumter.
During the early months of 1861, the situation around Fort Sumter increasingly began to resemble a siege. In March, Brigadier General P.G.T. Beauregard, the first general officer of the newly formed Confederate States Army, was placed in command of Confederate forces in Charleston. Beauregard energetically directed the strengthening of batteries around Charleston harbor aimed at Fort Sumter. Conditions in the fort, growing ever dire due to shortages of men, food, and supplies, deteriorated as the Union soldiers rushed to complete the installation of additional guns.
The resupply of Fort Sumter became the first crisis of the administration of the newly inaugurated U.S. President Abraham Lincoln following his victory in the election of November 6, 1860. He notified the Governor of South Carolina, Francis W. Pickens that he was sending supply ships, which resulted in an ultimatum from the Confederate government for the immediate evacuation of Fort Sumter, which Major Anderson refused. Beginning at 4: 30 a.m. on April 12, the Confederates bombarded the fort from artillery batteries surrounding the harbor. Although the Union garrison returned fire, they were significantly outgunned and, after 34 hours, Major Anderson agreed to evacuate. There were no deaths on either side as a direct result of this engagement, although a gun explosion during the surrender ceremonies on April 14 caused two Union deaths.
Following the battle, there was widespread support from both North and South for further military action. Lincoln 's immediate call for 75,000 volunteers to suppress the rebellion resulted in an additional four southern states also declaring their secession and joining the Confederacy. The battle is usually recognized as the first battle that opened the American Civil War.
On December 20, 1860, shortly after Abraham Lincoln 's victory in the presidential election of 1860, South Carolina adopted an ordinance declaring its secession from the United States of America and, by February 1861, six more Southern states had adopted similar ordinances of secession. On February 7, the seven states adopted a provisional constitution for the Confederate States of America and established their temporary capital at Montgomery, Alabama. A February peace conference met in Washington, D.C., but failed to resolve the crisis. The remaining eight states declined pleas to join the Confederacy.
The seceding states seized numerous Federal properties within their boundaries, including buildings, arsenals, and fortifications. President James Buchanan protested but took no military action in response. Buchanan was concerned that an overt action could cause the remaining slave states to leave the Union, and while he acknowledged there was no constitutional authority for a state to secede, he could find no constitutional authority for him to act to prevent it.
Several forts had been constructed in Charleston 's harbor, including Fort Sumter and Fort Moultrie, which were not among the sites seized initially. Fort Moultrie on Sullivan Island was the oldest -- it was the site of fortifications since 1776 -- and was the headquarters of the U.S. Army garrison. However, it had been designed as a gun platform for defending the harbor, and its defenses against land - based attacks were feeble; during the crisis, the Charleston newspapers commented that sand dunes had piled up against the walls in such a way that the wall could easily be scaled. When the garrison began clearing away the dunes, the papers objected.
Major Robert Anderson of the 1st U.S. Artillery regiment had been appointed to command the Charleston garrison that fall because of rising tensions. A native of Kentucky, he was a protégé of Winfield Scott, the general in chief of the Army, and was thought more capable of handling a crisis than the garrison 's previous commander, Col. John L. Gardner, who was nearing retirement. Anderson had served an earlier tour of duty at Fort Moultrie and his father had been a defender of the fort (then called Fort Sullivan) during the American Revolutionary War. Throughout the fall, South Carolina authorities considered both secession and the expropriation of federal property in the harbor to be inevitable. As tensions mounted, the environment around the fort increasingly resembled a siege, to the point that the South Carolina authorities placed picket ships to observe the movements of the troops and threatened to attack when forty rifles were transferred to one of the harbor forts from the U.S. arsenal in the city.
In contrast to Moultrie, Fort Sumter dominated the entrance to Charleston Harbor and, though unfinished, was designed to be one of the strongest fortresses in the world. In the fall of 1860 work on the fort was nearly completed, but the fortress was thus far garrisoned by a single soldier, who functioned as a lighthouse keeper, and a small party of civilian construction workers. Under the cover of darkness on December 26, six days after South Carolina declared its secession, Anderson abandoned the indefensible Fort Moultrie, ordering its guns spiked and its gun carriages burned, and surreptitiously relocated his command by small boats to Sumter.
South Carolina authorities considered Anderson 's move to be a breach of faith. Governor Francis W. Pickens believed that President Buchanan had made implicit promises to him to keep Sumter unoccupied and suffered political embarrassment as a result of his trust in those promises. Buchanan, a former U.S. Secretary of State and diplomat, had used carefully crafted ambiguous language to Pickens, promising that he would not "immediately '' occupy it. From Major Anderson 's standpoint, he was merely moving his existing garrison troops from one of the locations under his command to another. He had received instructions from the War Department on December 11, written by Major General Don Carlos Buell, Assistant Adjutant General of the Army, approved by Secretary of War John B. Floyd:
... you are to hold possession of the forts in this harbor, and if attacked you are to defend yourself to the last extremity. The smallness of your force will not permit you, perhaps, to occupy more than one of the three forts, but an attack on or attempt to take possession of any one of them will be regarded as an act of hostility, and you may then put your command into either of them which you may deem most proper to increase its power of resistance. You are also authorized to take similar steps whenever you have tangible evidence of a design to proceed to a hostile act.
Governor Pickens therefore ordered that all remaining Federal positions except Fort Sumter were to be seized. State troops quickly occupied Fort Moultrie (capturing 56 guns), Fort Johnson on James Island, and the battery on Morris Island. On December 27, an assault force of 150 men seized the Union - occupied Castle Pinckney fortification, in the harbor close to downtown Charleston, capturing 24 guns and mortars without bloodshed. On December 30, the Federal arsenal in Charleston was captured, resulting in the acquisition of more than 22,000 weapons by the militia. The Confederates promptly made repairs at Fort Moultrie and dozens of new batteries and defense positions were constructed throughout the Charleston harbor area, including an unusual floating battery, and armed with weapons captured from the arsenal.
President Buchanan was surprised and dismayed at Anderson 's move to Sumter, unaware of the authorization Anderson had received. Nevertheless, he refused Pickens 's demand to evacuate Charleston harbor. Since the garrison 's supplies were limited, Buchanan authorized a relief expedition of supplies, small arms, and 200 soldiers. The original intent was to send the Navy sloop - of - war USS Brooklyn, but it was discovered that Confederates had sunk some derelict ships to block the shipping channel into Charleston and there was concern that Brooklyn had too deep a draft to negotiate the obstacles. Instead, it seemed prudent to send an unarmed civilian merchant ship, Star of the West, which might be perceived as less provocative to the Confederates. As Star of the West approached the harbor entrance on January 9, 1861, it was fired upon by a battery on Morris Island, which was staffed by cadets from The Citadel, among them William Stewart Simkins, who were the only trained artillerymen in the service of South Carolina at the time. Batteries from Fort Moultrie joined in and Star of the West was forced to withdraw. Major Anderson prepared his guns at Sumter when he heard the Confederate fire, but the secrecy of the operation had kept him unaware that a relief expedition was in progress and he chose not to start a general engagement.
In a letter delivered January 31, 1861, Governor Pickens demanded of President Buchanan that he surrender Fort Sumter because, "I regard that possession is not consistent with the dignity or safety of the State of South Carolina. ''
Conditions at the fort were difficult during the winter of 1860 -- 61. Rations were short and fuel for heat was limited. The garrison scrambled to complete the defenses as best they could. Fort Sumter was designed to mount 135 guns, operated by 650 officers and men, but construction had met with numerous delays for decades and budget cuts had left it only about 90 percent finished in early 1861. Anderson 's garrison consisted of just 85 men, primarily made up of two small artillery companies: Company E, 1st U.S. Artillery, commanded by Capt. Abner Doubleday, and Company H, commanded by Capt. Truman Seymour. There were six other officers present: Surgeon Samuel W. Crawford, First Lt. Theodore Talbot of Company H, First Lt. Jefferson C. Davis of the 1st U.S. Artillery, and Second Lt. Norman J. Hall of Company H. Capt. John G. Foster and First Lt. George W. Snyder of the Corps of Engineers were responsible for construction of the Charleston forts, but they reported to their headquarters in Washington, not directly to Anderson. The remaining personnel were 68 noncommissioned officers and privates, eight musicians, and 43 noncombatant workmen.
By April the Union troops had positioned 60 guns, but they had insufficient men to operate them all. The fort consisted of three levels of enclosed gun positions, or casemates. The second level of casemates was unoccupied. The majority of the guns were on the first level of casemates, on the upper level (the parapet or barbette positions), and on the center parade field. Unfortunately for the defenders, the original mission of the fort -- harbor defense -- meant that it was designed so that the guns were primarily aimed at the Atlantic, with little capability of protecting from artillery fire from the surrounding land or from infantry conducting an amphibious assault.
In March, Brig. Gen. P.G.T. Beauregard took command of South Carolina forces in Charleston; on March 1, President Jefferson Davis had appointed him the first general officer in the armed forces of the new Confederacy, specifically to take command of the siege. Beauregard made repeated demands that the Union force either surrender or withdraw and took steps to ensure that no supplies from the city were available to the defenders, whose food was running low. He also increased drills amongst the South Carolina militia, training them to operate the guns they manned. Ironically, Major Anderson had been Beauregard 's artillery instructor at West Point; the two had been especially close, and Beauregard had become Anderson 's assistant after graduation. Both sides spent March drilling and improving their fortifications to the best of their abilities.
Beauregard, a trained military engineer, built - up overwhelming strength to challenge Fort Sumter. Fort Moultrie had three 8 - inch Columbiads, two 8 - inch howitzers, five 32 - pound smoothbores, and four 24 - pounders. Outside of Moultrie were five 10 - inch mortars, two 32 - pounders, two 24 - pounders, and a 9 - inch Dahlgren smoothbore. The floating battery next to Fort Moultrie had two 42 - pounders and two 32 - pounders on a raft protected by iron shielding. Fort Johnson on James Island had one 24 - pounder and four 10 - inch mortars. At Cummings Point on Morris Island, the Confederates had emplaced seven 10 - inch mortars, two 42 - pounders, an English Blakely rifled cannon, and three 8 - inch Columbiads, the latter in the so - called Iron Battery, protected by a wooden shield faced with iron bars. About 6,000 men were available to man the artillery and to assault the fort, if necessary, including the local militia, young boys and older men.
On March 4, 1861, Abraham Lincoln was inaugurated as president. He was almost immediately confronted with the surprise information that Major Anderson was reporting that only six weeks of rations remained at Fort Sumter. A crisis similar to the one at Fort Sumter had emerged at Pensacola, Florida, where Confederates threatened another U.S. fortification -- Fort Pickens. Lincoln and his new cabinet struggled with the decisions of whether to reinforce the forts, and how. They were also concerned about whether to take actions that might start open hostilities and which side would be perceived as the aggressor as a result. Similar discussions and concerns were occurring in the Confederacy.
After the formation of the Confederate States of America in early February, there was some debate among the secessionists whether the capture of the fort was rightly a matter for South Carolina or for the newly declared national government in Montgomery, Alabama. South Carolina governor Pickens was among the states ' rights advocates who thought that all property in Charleston harbor had reverted to South Carolina upon that state 's secession as an independent commonwealth. This debate ran alongside another discussion about how aggressively the installations -- including Forts Sumter and Pickens -- should be obtained. President Davis, like his counterpart in Washington, preferred that his side not be seen as the aggressor. Both sides believed that the first side to use force would lose precious political support in the border states, whose allegiance was undetermined; before Lincoln 's inauguration on March 4, five states had voted against secession, including Virginia, and Lincoln openly offered to evacuate Fort Sumter if it would guarantee Virginia 's loyalty.
The South sent delegations to Washington, D.C., and offered to pay for the Federal properties and enter into a peace treaty with the United States. Lincoln rejected any negotiations with the Confederate agents because he did not consider the Confederacy a legitimate nation and making any treaty with it would be tantamount to recognition of it as a sovereign government. However, Secretary of State William H. Seward, who wished to give up Sumter for political reasons -- as a gesture of good will -- engaged in unauthorized and indirect negotiations that failed.
On April 4, as the supply situation on Sumter became critical, President Lincoln ordered a relief expedition, to be commanded by former naval captain (and future Assistant Secretary of the Navy) Gustavus V. Fox, who had proposed a plan for nighttime landings of smaller vessels than the Star of the West. Fox 's orders were to land at Sumter with supplies only, and if he was opposed by the Confederates, to respond with the U.S. Navy vessels following and to then land both supplies and men. This time, Maj. Anderson was informed of the impending expedition, although the arrival date was not revealed to him. On April 6, Lincoln notified Governor Pickens that "an attempt will be made to supply Fort Sumter with provisions only, and that if such attempt be not resisted, no effort to throw in men, arms, or ammunition will be made without further notice, (except) in case of an attack on the fort. ''
Lincoln 's notification had been made to the governor of South Carolina, not the new Confederate government, which Lincoln did not recognize. Pickens consulted with Beauregard, the local Confederate commander. Soon President Davis ordered Beauregard to repeat the demand for Sumter 's surrender, and if it did not, to reduce the fort before the relief expedition arrived. The Confederate cabinet, meeting in Montgomery, endorsed Davis 's order on April 9. Only Secretary of State Robert Toombs opposed this decision: he reportedly told Jefferson Davis the attack "will lose us every friend at the North. You will only strike a hornet 's nest... Legions now quiet will swarm out and sting us to death. It is unnecessary. It puts us in the wrong. It is fatal. ''
Beauregard dispatched aides -- Col. James Chesnut, Col. James A. Chisholm, and Capt. Stephen D. Lee -- to Fort Sumter on April 11 to issue the ultimatum. Anderson refused, although he reportedly commented, "I shall await the first shot, and if you do not batter us to pieces, we shall be starved out in a few days. '' The aides returned to Charleston and reported this comment to Beauregard. At 1 a.m. on April 12, the aides brought Anderson a message from Beauregard: "If you will state the time which you will evacuate Fort Sumter, and agree in the meantime that you will not use your guns against us unless ours shall be employed against Fort Sumter, we will abstain from opening fire upon you. '' After consulting with his senior officers, Maj. Anderson replied that he would evacuate Sumter by noon, April 15, unless he received new orders from his government or additional supplies. Col. Chesnut considered this reply to be too conditional and wrote a reply, which he handed to Anderson at 3: 20 a.m.: "Sir: by authority of Brigadier General Beauregard, commanding the Provisional Forces of the Confederate States, we have the honor to notify you that he will open fire of his batteries on Fort Sumter in one hour from this time. '' Anderson escorted the officers back to their boat, shook hands with each one, and said "If we never meet in this world again, God grant that we may meet in the next. ''
At 4: 30 a.m. on April 12, 1861, Lt. Henry S. Farley, acting upon the command of Capt. George S. James, fired a single 10 - inch mortar round from Fort Johnson. (James had offered the first shot to Roger Pryor, a noted Virginia secessionist, who declined, saying, "I could not fire the first gun of the war. '') The shell exploded over Fort Sumter as a signal to open the general bombardment from 43 guns and mortars at Fort Moultrie, Fort Johnson, the floating battery, and Cummings Point. Under orders from Beauregard, the guns fired in a counterclockwise sequence around the harbor, with 2 minutes between each shot; Beauregard wanted to conserve ammunition, which he calculated would last for only 48 hours. Edmund Ruffin, another noted Virginia secessionist, had traveled to Charleston to be present for the beginning of the war, and fired one of the first shots at Sumter after the signal round, a 64 - pound shell from the Iron Battery at Cummings Point. The shelling of Fort Sumter from the batteries ringing the harbor awakened Charleston 's residents (including diarist Mary Chesnut), who rushed out into the predawn darkness to watch the shells arc over the water and burst inside the fort.
Major Anderson held his fire, awaiting daylight. His troops reported for a call at 6 a.m. and then had breakfast. At 7 a.m., Capt. Abner Doubleday fired a shot at the Ironclad Battery at Cummings Point. He missed. Given the available manpower, Anderson could not take advantage of all of his 60 guns. He deliberately avoided using guns that were situated in the fort where casualties were most likely. The fort 's best cannons were mounted on the uppermost of its three tiers -- the barbette tier -- where his troops were most exposed to incoming fire from overhead. The fort had been designed to withstand a naval assault, and naval warships of the time did not mount guns capable of elevating to shoot over the walls of the fort. However, the land - based cannons manned by the Confederates were capable of high - arcing ballistic trajectories and could therefore fire at parts of the fort that would have been out of naval guns ' reach. Fort Sumter 's garrison could only safely fire the 21 working guns on the lowest level, which themselves, because of the limited elevation allowed by their embrasures, were largely incapable of delivering fire with trajectories high enough to seriously threaten Fort Moultrie. Moreover, although the Federals had moved as many of their supplies to Fort Sumter as they could manage, the fort was quite low on ammunition, and was nearly out at the end of the 34 - hour bombardment. A more immediate problem was the scarcity of cloth gunpowder cartridges or bags; only 700 were available at the beginning of the battle and workmen sewed frantically to create more, in some cases using socks from Anderson 's personal wardrobe. Because of the shortages, Anderson reduced his firing to only six guns: two aimed at Cummings Point, two at Fort Moultrie, and two at the Sullivan 's Island batteries.
Ships from Fox 's relief expedition began to arrive on April 12. Although Fox himself arrived at 3 a.m. on his steamer Baltic, most of the rest of his fleet was delayed until 6 p.m., and one of the two warships, USS Powhatan, never did arrive. Unbeknownst to Fox, it had been ordered to the relief of Fort Pickens in Florida. As landing craft were sent toward the fort with supplies, the artillery fire deterred them and they pulled back. Fox decided to wait until after dark and for the arrival of his warships. The next day, heavy seas made it difficult to load the small boats with men and supplies and Fox was left with the hope that Anderson and his men could hold out until dark on April 13.
Although Sumter was a masonry fort, there were wooden buildings inside for barracks and officer quarters. The Confederates targeted these with Heated shot (cannonballs heated red hot in a furnace), starting fires that could prove more dangerous to the men than explosive artillery shells. At 7 p.m. on April 12, a rain shower extinguished the flames and at the same time the Union gunners stopped firing for the night. They slept fitfully, concerned about a potential infantry assault against the fort. During the darkness, the Confederates reduced their fire to four shots each hour. The following morning, the full bombardment resumed and the Confederates continued firing hot shot against the wooden buildings. By noon most of the wooden buildings in the fort and the main gate were on fire. The flames moved toward the main ammunition magazine, where 300 barrels of gunpowder were stored. The Union soldiers frantically tried to move the barrels to safety, but two - thirds were left when Anderson judged it was too dangerous and ordered the magazine doors closed. He ordered the remaining barrels thrown into the sea, but the tide kept floating them back together into groups, some of which were ignited by incoming artillery rounds. He also ordered his crews to redouble their efforts at firing, but the Confederates did the same, firing the hot shots almost exclusively. Many of the Confederate soldiers admired the courage and determination of the Yankees. When the fort had to pause its firing, the Confederates often cheered and applauded after the firing resumed and they shouted epithets at some of the nearby Union ships for failing to come to the fort 's aid.
The fort 's central flagpole was knocked down at 1 p.m. on April 13, raising doubts among the Confederates about whether the fort was ready to surrender. Col. Louis Wigfall, a former U.S. senator, had been observing the battle and decided that this indicated the fort had had enough punishment. He commandeered a small boat and proceeded from Morris Island, waving a white handkerchief from his sword, dodging incoming rounds from Sullivan 's Island. Meeting with Major Anderson, he said, "You have defended your flag nobly, Sir. You have done all that it is possible to do, and General Beauregard wants to stop this fight. On what terms, Major Anderson, will you evacuate this fort? '' Anderson was encouraged that Wigfall had said "evacuate, '' not "surrender. '' He was low on ammunition, fires were burning out of control, and his men were hungry and exhausted. Satisfied that they had defended their post with honor, enduring over 3,000 Confederate rounds without losing a man, Anderson agreed to a truce at 2: 00 p.m.
Fort Sumter raised Wigfall 's white handkerchief on its flagpole as Wigfall departed in his small boat back to Morris Island, where he was hailed as a hero. The handkerchief was spotted in Charleston and a delegation of officers representing Beauregard -- Stephen D. Lee, Porcher Miles, a former mayor of Charleston, and Roger Pryor -- sailed to Sumter, unaware of Wigfall 's visit. Anderson was outraged when these officers disavowed Wigfall 's authority, telling him that the former senator had not spoken with Beauregard for two days, and he threatened to resume firing. Meanwhile, General Beauregard himself had finally seen the handkerchief and sent a second set of officers, offering essentially the same terms that Wigfall had presented, so the agreement was reinstated.
The Union garrison formally surrendered the fort to Confederate personnel at 2: 30 p.m., April 13. No one from either side was killed during the bombardment. During the 100 - gun salute to the U.S. flag -- Anderson 's one condition for withdrawal -- a pile of cartridges blew up from a spark, mortally wounding privates Daniel Hough and Edward Galloway, and seriously wounding the other four members of the gun crew; these were the first military fatalities of the war. The salute was stopped at fifty shots. Hough was buried in the Fort Sumter parade ground within two hours after the explosion. Galloway and Private George Fielding were sent to the hospital in Charleston, where Galloway died a few days later; Fielding was released after six weeks. The other wounded men and the remaining Union troops were placed aboard a Confederate steamer, the Isabel, where they spent the night and were transported the next morning to Fox 's relief ship Baltic, resting outside the harbor bar.
Anderson carried the Fort Sumter Flag with him North, where it became a widely known symbol of the battle, and rallying point for supporters of the Union. This inspired Frederic Edwin Church to paint Our Banner in the Sky, described as a "symbolic landscape embodying the stars and stripes. '' A chromolithograph was then created and sold to benefit the families of Union soldiers.
The bombardment of Fort Sumter was the first military action of the American Civil War. Following the surrender, Northerners rallied behind Lincoln 's call for all states to send troops to recapture the forts and preserve the Union. With the scale of the rebellion apparently small so far, Lincoln called for 75,000 volunteers for 90 days. Some Northern states filled their quotas quickly. There were so many volunteers in Ohio that within 16 days they could have met the full call for 75,000 men by themselves. Other governors from border states were undiplomatic in their responses. For example, Gov. Claiborne Jackson wrote, "Not one man will the state of Missouri furnish to carry on any such unholy crusade '', and Gov. Beriah Magoffin wrote, "Kentucky will furnish no troops for the wicked purpose of subduing her sister Southern states. '' The governors of other states still in the Union were equally unsupportive. The call for 75,000 troops triggered four additional slave states to declare their secession from the Union and join the Confederacy. The ensuing war lasted four years, effectively ending in April 1865 with the surrender of General Robert E. Lee 's Army of Northern Virginia at Appomatox Courthouse.
Charleston Harbor was completely in Confederate hands for almost the entire four - year duration of the war, leaving a hole in the Union naval blockade. Union forces conducted major operations in 1862 and 1863 to capture Charleston, first overland on James Island (the Battle of Secessionville, June 1862), then by naval assault against Fort Sumter (the First Battle of Charleston Harbor, April 1863), then by seizing the Confederate artillery positions on Morris Island (beginning with the Second Battle of Fort Wagner, July 1863, and followed by a siege until September). After pounding Sumter to rubble with artillery fire, a final amphibious operation attempted to occupy it (the Second Battle of Fort Sumter, September 1863), but was repulsed and no further attempts were made. The Confederates evacuated Fort Sumter and Charleston in February 1865 as Union Maj. Gen. William T. Sherman outflanked the city in the Carolinas Campaign. On April 14, 1865, four years to the day after lowering the Fort Sumter Flag in surrender, Robert Anderson (by then a major general, although ill and in retired status) returned to the ruined fort to raise the flag he had lowered in 1861.
Two of the cannons used at Fort Sumter were later presented to Louisiana State University by General William Tecumseh Sherman, who was president of the university before the war began.
The U.S. Post Office Department released the Fort Sumter Centennial issue as the first in the series of five stamps marking the Civil War Centennial on April 12, 1961, at the Charleston post office.
The stamp was designed by Charles R. Chickering. It illustrates a seacoast gun from Fort Sumter aimed by an officer in a typical uniform of the time. The background features palmetto leaves akin to bursting shells. The state tree of South Carolina, the palmettos suggest the geopolitical area opening Civil War hostilities.
This stamp was produced by an engraving and printed by the rotary process in panes of fifty stamps each. The Postal Department authorized an initial printing of 120 million stamps.
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whose expedition stopped the british in the ohio valley | Crawford Expedition - wikipedia
The Crawford expedition, also known as the Sandusky expedition and Crawford 's Defeat, was a 1782 campaign on the western front of the American Revolutionary War, and one of the final operations of the conflict. Led by Colonel William Crawford, the campaign 's goal was to destroy enemy American Indian towns along the Sandusky River in the Ohio Country, with the hope of ending Indian attacks on American settlers. The expedition was one in a long series of raids against enemy settlements which both sides had conducted throughout the war.
Crawford led about 500 volunteer militiamen, mostly from Pennsylvania, deep into American Indian territory, with the intention of surprising the Indians. The Indians and their British allies from Detroit had already learned of the expedition, however, and gathered a force to oppose the Americans. After a day of indecisive fighting near the Sandusky towns, the Americans found themselves surrounded and attempted to retreat. The retreat turned into a rout, but most of the Americans managed to find their way back to Pennsylvania. About 70 Americans were killed; Indian and British losses were minimal.
During the retreat, Crawford and an unknown number of his men were captured. The Indians executed many of these captives in retaliation for the Gnadenhutten massacre that occurred earlier in the year, in which about 100 peaceful Indians were murdered by Pennsylvanian militiamen. Crawford 's execution was particularly brutal: he was tortured for at least two hours before being burned at the stake. His execution was widely publicized in the United States, worsening the already - strained relationship between Native Americans and European Americans.
When the American Revolutionary War began in 1775, the Ohio River marked a tenuous border between the American colonies and the American Indians of the Ohio Country. Ohio Indians -- Shawnees, Mingos, Delawares, and Wyandots -- were divided over how to respond to the war. Some Indian leaders urged neutrality, while others entered the war because they saw it as an opportunity to halt the expansion of the American colonies and to regain lands previously lost to the colonists.
The border war escalated in 1777 after British officials in Detroit began recruiting and arming Indian war parties to raid the frontier American settlements. An unknown number of American settlers in present Kentucky, West Virginia, and Pennsylvania were killed during these raids. The intensity of the conflict increased in November 1777, after enraged American militiamen murdered Cornstalk, the leading advocate of Shawnee neutrality. Despite the violence, many Ohio Indians still hoped to stay out of the war, which proved difficult because they were located directly between the British in Detroit and the Americans along the Ohio River.
In February 1778, the Americans launched their first expedition into the Ohio Country in an attempt to neutralize British activity in the region. General Edward Hand led 500 Pennsylvania militiamen on a surprise winter march from Fort Pitt towards the Cuyahoga River, where the British stored military supplies which were distributed to Indian raiding parties. However, adverse weather conditions prevented the expedition from reaching its objective. On the return march, some of Hand 's men attacked peaceful Delaware Indians, killing one man and a few women and children, including relatives of the Delaware chief Captain Pipe. Because only non-combatants had been killed, the expedition became derisively known as the "squaw campaign ''.
Despite the attack on his family, Captain Pipe said that he would not seek vengeance. Instead, in September 1778, he was one of the signers of the Treaty of Fort Pitt between the Delawares and the United States. Americans hoped this agreement with the Delawares would enable American soldiers to pass through Delaware territory and attack Detroit, but the alliance deteriorated after the death of White Eyes, the Delaware chief who had negotiated the treaty. Eventually, Captain Pipe turned against the Americans and moved his followers west to the Sandusky River, where he received support from the British in Detroit.
Over the next several years, Americans and Indians launched raids against each other, usually targeting settlements. In 1780, hundreds of Kentucky settlers were killed or captured in a British - Indian expedition into Kentucky. George Rogers Clark of Virginia responded in August 1780 by leading an expedition that destroyed two Shawnee towns along the Mad River, but did little damage to the Indian war effort. As most of the Delawares had by then become pro-British, American Colonel Daniel Brodhead led an expedition into the Ohio Country in April 1781, and destroyed the Delaware town of Coshocton. Clark then recruited men for an expedition against Detroit in the summer of 1781, but Indians decisively defeated one hundred of his volunteers along the Ohio River, effectively ending his campaign. Survivors fled to the militant towns on the Sandusky River.
Several villages of Christian Delawares lay between the combatants on the Sandusky River and the Americans at Fort Pitt. The villages were administered by the Moravian missionaries David Zeisberger and John Heckewelder. Although pacifists, the missionaries favored the American cause and kept American officials at Fort Pitt informed about hostile British and Indian activity. In September 1781, to prevent further communication between the missionaries and the American military, hostile Wyandots and Delawares from Sandusky forcibly removed the missionaries and their converts to a new village (Captive Town) on the Sandusky River.
In March 1782, 160 Pennsylvania militiamen under Lieutenant Colonel David Williamson rode into the Ohio Country, hoping to find the warriors who were responsible for raids against Pennsylvania settlers. Enraged by the gruesome murder by Indians of a white woman and her baby, Williamson 's men detained about 100 Christian Delawares at the village of Gnadenhütten. The Christian Delawares (mostly women and children) had returned to Gnadenhütten from Captive Town in order to harvest the crops they had been forced to leave behind. Accusing the Christian Indians of having aided hostile raiding parties, the Pennsylvanians murdered them all by hammer blows to the head. The Gnadenhutten massacre, as it came to be called, would have serious repercussions for the next American expedition into the Ohio Country.
In September 1781, General William Irvine was appointed commander of the Western Department of the Continental Army, which was headquartered at Fort Pitt. Although a major British army under Lord Cornwallis had surrendered at Yorktown in October 1781, virtually ending the war in the east, the conflict on the western frontier continued. Irvine quickly learned that the Americans living on the frontier wanted the army to launch an expedition against Detroit to end ongoing British support for the American Indian war parties. Irvine investigated, then wrote to George Washington, the American commander - in - chief, on December 2, 1781:
It is, I believe, universally agreed that the only way to keep Indians from harassing the country is to visit them. But we find, by experience, that burning their empty towns has not the desired effect. They can soon build others. They must be followed up and beaten, or the British, whom they draw their support from, totally driven out of their country. I believe if Detroit was demolished, it would be a good step toward giving some, at least, temporary ease to this country.
Washington agreed with Irvine 's assessment that Detroit had to be captured or destroyed to end the war in the west. In February 1782, Irvine sent Washington a detailed plan for an offensive. Irvine estimated that with 2,000 men, five cannons, and a supply caravan, he could capture Detroit. Washington replied that the bankrupt U.S. Congress would be unable to finance the campaign, writing that "offensive operations, except upon a small scale, can not just now be brought into contemplation. ''
With no resources available from either Congress or the Continental Army, Irvine gave permission for volunteers to organize their own offensive. Detroit was too far and too strong for a small - scale operation, but militiamen such as David Williamson believed that an expedition against the American Indian towns on the Sandusky River was feasible. It was to be a low - budget campaign. Each volunteer had to provide at his expense a horse, rifle, ammunition, rations, and other equipment. Their only payment would be an exemption from two months of militia duty, plus whatever plunder might be taken from the Indians. Because of ongoing Indian raids -- the wife and children of a Baptist minister were killed and scalped in western Pennsylvania on May 12, 1782 -- there was no shortage of men willing to volunteer.
Because of Washington 's reservations, Irvine believed he was not authorized to lead the expedition himself. However, he did what he could to influence the planning of the campaign. Irvine wrote detailed instructions for the yet to be chosen commander of the volunteers:
The object of your command is, to destroy with fire and sword (if practicable) the Indian town and settlement at Sandusky, by which we hope to give ease and safety to the inhabitants of this country; but, if impracticable, then you will doubtless perform such other services in your power as will, in their consequences, have a tendency to answer this great end.
On May 20, 1782, the volunteers began gathering at the rendezvous point at Mingo Bottom (present Mingo Junction, Ohio), on the Indian side of the Ohio River. They were mostly young men of Irish and Scots - Irish ancestry, and came primarily from Washington and Westmoreland counties in Pennsylvania. Many were Continental Army veterans. The exact number of men who took part in the expedition is unknown. An officer wrote to General Irvine on May 24 that there were 480 volunteers, although additional men may have subsequently joined the group, bringing the total to more than 500. Given the daunting nature of the task ahead of them, many of the volunteers made out their "last wills and testaments '' before leaving.
Because this was a volunteer expedition and not a regular army operation, the men elected their officers. The candidates for the top position were David Williamson, the militia colonel who had commanded the Gnadenhütten expedition, and William Crawford, a retired Continental Army colonel. Crawford, a friend and land agent of George Washington, was an experienced soldier and frontiersman. He was a veteran of these kinds of operations, having destroyed two Mingo villages during Dunmore 's War in 1774. He had also taken part in the failed "squaw campaign ''.
Sixty - year - old Crawford had been reluctant to volunteer, but he did so at the request of General Irvine. Williamson, although popular with the militia, was in disfavor with regular army officers such as Irvine because he had allowed the Gnadenhütten massacre. Hoping to avoid a repetition, Irvine made it known that he favored Crawford 's election as commander. The election, which was acrimonious, ended in a close vote: Crawford received 235 votes to Williamson 's 230. Colonel Crawford took command, and Williamson became second - in - command with the rank of major. The other majors included John B. McClelland, Thomas Gaddis, and either James Brenton or Joseph Brinton.
At Crawford 's request, Irvine allowed Dr. John Knight, a Continental Army officer, to accompany the expedition as surgeon. Another volunteer from Irvine 's staff was a foreigner with an aristocratic bearing who called himself "John Rose ''. Rose asked to serve as Crawford 's aide - de-camp. Unknown even to General Irvine until several years later, "Rose '' was actually Baron Gustave Rosenthal, a Baltic German nobleman from the Russian empire who had fled to America after killing a man in a duel. Rosenthal is the only Russian known to have fought on the American side of in the Revolutionary War.
Crawford 's volunteers left Mingo Bottom on May 25, 1782, carrying provisions for 30 days. In planning the operation, General Irvine had estimated the 175 - mile (282 km) journey to Sandusky would take seven days. The campaign began with high spirits. Some volunteers boasted they intended "to extermenate the whole Wiandott Tribe. ''
As was often the case with militia, who were poorly trained amateur soldiers, there was difficulty maintaining military discipline. The men wasted their rations, and often fired their muskets at wild game, despite orders to the contrary. They were slow to break camp in the mornings, and often failed to take their turn at guard duty. Crawford also proved to be a less capable leader than expected. Rose wrote that Crawford in councils "speaks incoherent, proposes matters confusedly, and is incapable of persuading people into his opinion. '' The expedition often halted as the commanders debated what to do next. Some volunteers lost heart and deserted.
The journey across the Ohio Country was mostly through woods. The volunteers initially marched in four columns, but the thick underbrush compelled them to form just two. On June 3, Crawford 's men emerged into the open country of the Sandusky Plains, a prairie region just below of the Sandusky River. The following day, they reached Upper Sandusky, the Wyandot village where they expected to find the enemy. However, they discovered it had been abandoned. Unknown to the Americans, the Wyandots had recently relocated their town eight miles (13 km) to the north. The new Upper Sandusky, also called the "Half King 's Town '', was near present - day Upper Sandusky, Ohio) and close to Captain Pipe 's town (near present - day Carey, Ohio). The Americans were unaware that Pipe 's town was nearby.
Crawford 's officers held a council of war. Some argued the abandoned village proved that the Indians knew about the expedition and were concentrating their forces elsewhere. Others expressed the desire to call off the expedition and return home immediately. Williamson asked for permission to take 50 men and burn the abandoned village, but Crawford refused as he did not wish to divide his forces. The council decided to continue the march for the rest of the day, but then to go no further. As the column halted for lunch, John Rose was sent north with a scouting party. Soon, two men returned to report that the scouts were skirmishing with a large force of Indians which was advancing towards the Americans.
While planning the expedition, General Irvine had advised Crawford that, "Your best chance of success will be, if possible, to effect a surprise '' against Sandusky. The British and Indians, however, learned about the expedition even before Crawford 's army had left Mingo Bottom. Thanks to information from a captured American soldier, on April 8 the notorious British agent Simon Girty relayed to Detroit an accurate report of Crawford 's plans.
Officials of the British Indian Department in Detroit had accordingly prepared for action. In command at Detroit was Major Arent Schuyler DePeyster, responsible to Sir Frederick Haldimand, the Governor General of British North America. DePeyster used agents such as Girty, Alexander McKee, and Matthew Elliott, who all had close relations with American Indians, to coordinate British and Indian military actions in the Ohio County. In a council at Detroit on May 15, DePeyster and McKee told a gathering of Indian leaders about the Sandusky expedition and advised them to "be ready to meet them in a great body and repulse them. '' McKee was sent to the Shawnee villages in the Great Miami River valley to recruit warriors to repel the American invasion. Captain William Caldwell was dispatched to Sandusky with a company of mounted Butler 's Rangers, as well as a number of Indians from the Detroit area led by Matthew Elliott.
Indian scouts had spied on the expedition from the beginning. As soon as Crawford 's army moved into the Ohio Country, the warning was sent to Sandusky. As the Americans approached, women and children from the Wyandot and Delaware towns were hidden in nearby ravines, while British fur traders packed their goods and hurried out of town. On June 4, Delawares under Captain Pipe and Wyandots under Dunquat, the "Half King '', along with some Mingos, joined forces to oppose the Americans. The size of the combined Delaware, Wyandot, and Mingo force has been estimated at anywhere from 200 to 500. British reinforcements were nearby, but Shawnees from the south were not expected to arrive until the next day. When the American scouts appeared, Pipe 's Delawares pursued them, while the Wyandots temporarily held back.
The first skirmishing of the Crawford expedition began at about 2 p.m. on June 4, 1782. The scout party led by John Rose encountered Captain Pipe 's Delawares on the Sandusky Plains and conducted a fighting retreat to a grove of trees where they had stored their supplies. The scouts were in danger of being overrun, but were soon reinforced by the main body of Crawford 's army. Crawford ordered the men to dismount and drive the Indians out of the woods. After intense fighting, the Americans gained possession of the grove, later known as "Battle Island ''.
The skirmish became a full - scale battle by 4: 00 p.m. After the Americans drove Captain Pipe 's Delawares out of the woods and onto the prairie, the Delawares were reinforced by Dunquat 's Wyandots. Elliott also arrived on the scene and coordinated the actions of the Delawares and the Wyandots. Pipe 's Delawares skillfully outflanked the American position and then attacked their rear. A few Indians crept close to the American lines in the tall prairie grass. The Americans responded by climbing trees to get a better shot at them. Gunsmoke filled the air, making it difficult to see. After three and a half hours of incessant firing, the Indians gradually broke off the attack with the approach of nightfall. Both sides slept with arms at the ready, and surrounded their positions with large fires to prevent surprise night attacks.
In the first day of fighting, the Americans lost 5 killed men and 19 wounded. The British and Indians suffered 5 killed and 11 wounded. The American volunteers scalped several of the Indian dead, while the Indians stripped the clothing from dead Americans and scalped at least one. Fifteen Pennsylvanians deserted during the night and reached home to report Crawford 's army had been "cut to pieces. ''
Firing began early on the morning of June 5. The Indians did not close, but remained at a distance of two or three hundred yards. Such long range firing with smooth bore muskets caused little loss to either side. The Americans thought that the Indians held back because they had suffered heavy losses on the previous day. In fact, the Indians were buying time, waiting for reinforcements to arrive. Crawford decided to hold his position in the trees and make a surprise attack on the Indians after nightfall. At this point, he was still confident of success, although his men were low on ammunition and water. Simon Girty, the British agent and interpreter, rode up with a white flag and called for the Americans to surrender, which was refused.
That afternoon, the Americans finally noticed that about 100 British rangers were fighting alongside the Indians. Unaware that the expedition had been watched from the beginning, the Americans were surprised that British troops from Detroit had been able to join in the battle on such short notice. While the Americans were discussing this, Alexander McKee arrived with about 140 Shawnees under the leadership of Blacksnake, who took up a position to Crawford 's south, effectively surrounding the Americans. The Shawnees repeatedly fired their muskets into the air, a ceremonial show of strength known as a feu de joie ("fire of joy ''), which shook American morale. Recalled Rose, the feu de joie "completed the Business with us. '' With so many enemies gathering around them, the Americans decided to retreat after dark rather than make a stand. The dead were buried, and fires were burned over the graves to prevent their discovery and desecration. The severely wounded were placed on biers in preparation for the withdrawal.
That night the Americans began to withdraw silently from the battlefield. Indian sentries detected the movement and attacked, creating confusion. Many volunteers became lost in the dark, separating into small groups. Crawford became concerned about his family members -- his son John, his son - in - law William Harrison, and his nephew, also named William Crawford. With Dr Knight, Crawford remained near the battlefield as his men passed, calling for his missing relatives and not finding them. Crawford became angry when he realized the militia, despite his orders, had left some of the wounded behind. After all the men had passed, Crawford and Knight, with two others, finally set off, but were unable to find the main body of men.
When the sun rose on June 6, about 300 Americans had reached the abandoned Wyandot town. Because Colonel Crawford was missing, Williamson assumed command. Fortunately for the Americans, the pursuit of the retreating army was disorganized because Caldwell, overall commander of the British and Indian forces, had been wounded in both legs. As the retreat continued, a force of Indians finally caught up with the main body of Americans on the eastern edge of the Sandusky Plains, near a branch of the Olentangy River. Some Americans fled as the attack began, while others milled around in confusion. However, Williamson made a stand with a small group of volunteers and drove off the Indians after an hour of fighting. Three Americans were killed and eight more wounded in the "Battle of the Olentangy ''. Indian losses are unknown.
The Americans buried their dead and resumed the retreat, the Indians and British rangers pursuing and firing occasionally from at long range. Williamson and Rose kept most of the men together by warning them that an orderly retreat was their only chance to get home alive. The Americans fell back more than 30 miles (48 km), some on foot, before making camp. The next day, two American stragglers were captured and presumably killed before the Indians and rangers finally abandoned the chase. The main body of Americans reached Mingo Bottom on June 13. Many stragglers arrived in small groups for several days more. In all, about 70 Americans never returned from the expedition.
While Williamson and Rose were retreating with the main body of men, Crawford, Knight, and four other stragglers were traveling south along the Sandusky River in present - day Crawford County, Ohio. On June 7, they came upon a party of Delawares about 28 miles (45 km) east of the battlefield. Knight raised his gun, but Crawford told him not to fire. Crawford and Knight knew some of these Delawares, who were part of a band led by a war chief named Wingenund. Crawford and Knight were taken prisoner, but the other four Americans escaped. Two of them were later tracked down, killed, and scalped.
Captives taken by American Indians during the American Revolution might be ransomed by the British in Detroit, adopted into the tribe, enslaved, or simply killed. However, after the Gnadenhütten massacre, the Ohio Indians had resolved to kill all American prisoners who fell into their hands. The number of Americans executed after the Sandusky expedition is unknown, since their fate was usually recorded only if one of the prisoners survived to tell.
While some were executed quickly, others were tortured before being killed. The public torture of prisoners was a traditional ritual in many tribes of the Eastern Woodlands. Captives might have to endure excruciating torture for hours and even days. The British Indian Department used its influence to discourage the killing and torturing of prisoners, with some success, but in 1782 the Indians revived the practice of ritual torture in order to exact revenge for the slaughter at Gnadenhütten.
Crawford and Knight were taken to Wingenund 's camp on June 7, where they found nine other prisoners. On June 11, Captain Pipe painted the faces of the prisoners black, the traditional sign they were to be executed. The prisoners were marched to the Delaware town on Tymochtee Creek, near the present - day village of Crawford, Ohio. Four prisoners were killed with tomahawks and scalped along the way. When the war party stopped, the seven remaining prisoners were made to sit, with Crawford and Knight a short distance away from the others. Delaware women and boys killed the other five with tomahawks, beheading one of them. The boys scalped the victims and slapped the bloody scalps in the faces of Crawford and Knight.
About one hundred men, women, and children had gathered at the Delaware village to witness the execution of the American leader. Dunquat and a few Wyandots were present, as well as Simon Girty and Matthew Elliott. Captain Pipe, who knew Crawford from the 1778 Fort Pitt treaty, spoke to the crowd, pointing out that Crawford had been captured while leading many of the men who had committed the Gnadenhütten murders. Crawford had nothing to do with the massacre, but he had taken part in the "squaw campaign '' in which several of Pipe 's family members had been killed. Pipe apparently mentioned this as well. Crawford was known for massacering peaceful mingoes, to force a war with the Ohio Tribes, encouraging invasions in to the aknowdledged Indian Ohio and profiting from landsales in connection with the war.
After Pipe 's speech, Crawford was stripped naked and beaten. His hands were tied behind his back, and a rope was tied from his hands to a post in the ground. A large fire was lit about six or seven yards (6 m) from the pole. Indian men shot charges of gunpowder into Crawford 's body, then cut off his ears. Crawford was poked with burning pieces of wood from the fire, and hot coals were thrown at him, which he was compelled to walk on. Crawford begged Girty to shoot him, but Girty was unwilling or afraid to intervene. After about two hours of torture, Crawford fell down unconscious. He was scalped, and a woman poured hot coals over his head, which revived him. He began to walk about insensibly as the torture continued. After he finally died, his body was burned.
The next day, Knight was marched towards the Shawnee towns, where he was to be executed. Along the way, he struck his guard with a log and managed to escape. He successfully made his way back to Pennsylvania on foot. By the time hunters found him on July 4, he was in poor health and barely coherent. They carried him to Fort McIntosh.
On the same day that Crawford was executed, at least six American prisoners were taken in two different groups to the Shawnee town of Wapatomica on the Mad River, in present Logan County, Ohio. These prisoners included Major John B. McClelland, who had been fourth in command of the expedition, as well as William Harrison (Crawford 's son - in - law) and Private William Crawford (Colonel Crawford 's nephew). Four of the six, including McClelland, Harrison, and Crawford, were painted black. The villagers, made aware of the coming of prisoners by a messenger, formed two lines. The prisoners were made to run the gauntlet towards the council house, about 300 yards (270 m) distance. As the prisoners ran by, the villagers beat them with clubs, concentrating on those who had been painted black. The blackened prisoners were then hacked to death with tomahawks and cut into pieces. Their heads and limbs were stuck on poles outside the town. One of the prisoners, a scout named John Slover, was taken to Mac - a-chack (near present West Liberty, Ohio), but escaped before he could be burnt. Still naked, he stole a horse and rode it until it gave out, then ran on foot, reaching Fort Pitt on July 10, one of the last survivors to return.
The failure of the Crawford expedition caused alarm along the American frontier, as many Americans feared that the Indians would be emboldened enough and launch a new series of raids. More defeats for the Americans were yet to come, and so for Americans west of the Appalachian Mountains, 1782 became known as the "Bloody Year ''. On 13 July 1782, the Mingo leader Guyasuta led about 100 Indians and several British volunteers into Pennsylvania, destroying Hannastown, killing nine and capturing twelve settlers. It was the hardest blow dealt by Indians in Western Pennsylvania during the war.
In Kentucky, the Americans went on the defensive while Caldwell and his Indian allies prepared a major offensive. In July 1782, more than 1,000 Indians gathered at Wapatomica, but the expedition came to a halt after scouts reported that George Rogers Clark was preparing to invade the Ohio Country from Kentucky. Most of the Indians dispersed after learning that the reports of imminent invasion were false, but Caldwell led 300 Indians into Kentucky and delivered a devastating blow at the Battle of Blue Licks in August. After his victory at Blue Licks, Caldwell was ordered to cease operations because the United States and Great Britain were about to make peace. Although General Irvine had finally gotten permission to lead his own expedition into the Ohio Country, rumors of the peace treaty killed enthusiasm for the undertaking, which never took place. In November, George Rogers Clark delivered the final blow in the Ohio Country, destroying several Shawnee towns, but inflicting little damage on the inhabitants.
Details of the forthcoming peace treaty arrived late in 1782. The Ohio Country, the land that the British and Indians had successfully defended, had been signed away by Great Britain to the United States. The British had not consulted the Indians in the peace process, and the Indians were nowhere mentioned in the treaty 's terms. For the Indians, the struggle with American settlers would resume in the Northwest Indian War, though this time without the assistance of their British allies.
Crawford 's death was widely publicized in the United States. A ballad about the expedition, titled "Crawford 's Defeat by the Indians '', became popular and was long remembered. In 1783, John Knight 's eyewitness account of Crawford 's torture was published. The editor of Knight 's narrative, Hugh Henry Brackenridge, deleted all mention of Crawford 's trial and the fact that Crawford was executed in retaliation for the Gnadenhütten massacre. By suppressing the Indians ' motivation, Brackenridge was able, according to historian Parker Brown, to create "a piece of virulent anti-Indian, anti-British propaganda calculated to arouse public attention and patriotism. '' In an introduction, Brackenridge 's publisher made clear why the narrative was being published:
But as they (the Indians) still continue their murders on our frontier, these Narratives may be serviceable to induce our government to take some effectual steps to chastise and suppress them; as from hence, they will see that the nature of an Indian is fierce and cruel, and that an extirpation of them would be useful to the world, and honorable to those who can effect it.
As intended, Knight 's narrative increased racial antipathy towards Native Americans, and was often republished over the next 80 years, especially whenever violent encounters between white Americans and Indians was in the news. Although American frontiersmen had often killed Indian prisoners, most Americans regarded Indian culture as barbaric because of the use of torture, and Crawford 's death greatly reinforced this perception of Indians as "savages ''. In the American national memory, the details of Crawford 's torture overshadowed American atrocities such as the Gnadenhütten massacre. The image of the savage Indian became a stereotype; the peacekeeping efforts of men like Cornstalk and White Eyes were all but forgotten.
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how do satellites in space detect weather conditions such as haze on earth | Weather satellite - wikipedia
The weather satellite is a type of satellite that is primarily used to monitor the weather and climate of the Earth. Satellites can be polar orbiting, covering the entire Earth asynchronously, or geostationary, hovering over the same spot on the equator.
Meteorological satellites see more than clouds and cloud systems. City lights, fires, effects of pollution, auroras, sand and dust storms, snow cover, ice mapping, boundaries of ocean currents, energy flows, etc. Other types of environmental information are collected using weather satellites. Weather satellite images helped in monitoring the volcanic ash cloud from Mount St. Helens and activity from other volcanoes such as Mount Etna. Smoke from fires in the western United States such as Colorado and Utah have also been monitored.
Other environmental satellites can detect changes in the Earth 's vegetation, sea state, ocean color, and ice fields. For example, the 2002 Prestige oil spill off the northwest coast of Spain was watched carefully by the European ENVISAT, which, though not a weather satellite, flies an instrument (ASAR) which can see changes in the sea surface.
El Niño and its effects on weather are monitored daily from satellite images. The Antarctic ozone hole is mapped from weather satellite data. Collectively, weather satellites flown by the U.S., Europe, India, China, Russia, and Japan provide nearly continuous observations for a global weather watch.
As early as 1946, the idea of cameras in orbit to observe the weather was being developed. This was due to sparse data observation coverage and the expense of using cloud cameras on rockets. By 1958, the early prototypes for TIROS and Vanguard (developed by the Army Signal Corps) were created. The first weather satellite, Vanguard 2, was launched on February 17, 1959. It was designed to measure cloud cover and resistance, but a poor axis of rotation and its elliptical orbit kept it from collecting a notable amount of useful data. The Explorer VI and VII satellites also contained weather - related experiments.
The first weather satellite to be considered a success was TIROS - 1, launched by NASA on April 1, 1960. TIROS operated for 78 days and proved to be much more successful than Vanguard 2. TIROS paved the way for the Nimbus program, whose technology and findings are the heritage of most of the Earth - observing satellites NASA and NOAA have launched since then. Beginning with the Nimbus 3 satellite in 1969, temperature information through the tropospheric column began to be retrieved by satellites from the eastern Atlantic and most of the Pacific Ocean, which led to significant improvements to weather forecasts.
The ESSA and NOAA polar orbiting satellites followed suit from the late 1960s onward. Geostationary satellites followed, beginning with the ATS and SMS series in the late 1960s and early 1970s, then continuing with the GOES series from the 1970s onward. Polar orbiting satellites such as QuikScat and TRMM began to relay wind information near the ocean 's surface starting in the late 1970s, with microwave imagery which resembled radar displays, which significantly improved the diagnoses of tropical cyclone strength, intensification, and location during the 2000s and 2010s.
Observation is typically made via different ' channels ' of the electromagnetic spectrum, in particular, the visible and infrared portions.
Some of these channels include:
Visible - light images from weather satellites during local daylight hours are easy to interpret even by the average person; clouds, cloud systems such as fronts and tropical storms, lakes, forests, mountains, snow ice, fires, and pollution such as smoke, smog, dust and haze are readily apparent. Even wind can be determined by cloud patterns, alignments and movement from successive photos.
The thermal or infrared images recorded by sensors called scanning radiometers enable a trained analyst to determine cloud heights and types, to calculate land and surface water temperatures, and to locate ocean surface features. Infrared satellite imagery can be used effectively for tropical cyclones with a visible eye pattern, using the Dvorak technique, where the difference between the temperature of the warm eye and the surrounding cold cloud tops can be used to determine its intensity (colder cloud tops generally indicate a more intense storm). Infrared pictures depict ocean eddies or vortices and map currents such as the Gulf Stream which are valuable to the shipping industry. Fishermen and farmers are interested in knowing land and water temperatures to protect their crops against frost or increase their catch from the sea. Even El Niño phenomena can be spotted. Using color - digitized techniques, the gray shaded thermal images can be converted to color for easier identification of desired information.
Each meteorological satellite is designed to use one of two different classes of orbit: geostationary and polar orbiting.
Geostationary weather satellites orbit the Earth above the equator at altitudes of 35,880 km (22,300 miles). Because of this orbit, they remain stationary with respect to the rotating Earth and thus can record or transmit images of the entire hemisphere below continuously with their visible - light and infrared sensors. The news media use the geostationary photos in their daily weather presentation as single images or made into movie loops. These are also available on the city forecast pages of www.noaa.gov (example Dallas, TX).
Several geostationary meteorological spacecraft are in operation. The United States has five in operation; GOES - 12, GOES - 13, GOES - 15, GOES - 16 and GOES - 17. GOES - 12, previously designated GOES - East and now used for South America, is located at 60 degrees west. GOES - 13 took over the role of GOES - East on April 14, 2010 and is located at 75 degrees west. GOES - 11 was GOES - West over the eastern Pacific Ocean until it was decommissioned December 2011 and replaced by GOES - 15. GOES - 16 and - 17 remain stationary over the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, respectively.
Russia 's new - generation weather satellite Elektro - L No. 1 operates at 76 ° E over the Indian Ocean. The Japanese have the MTSAT - 2 located over the mid Pacific at 145 ° E and the Himawari 8 at 140 ° E. The Europeans have four in operation, Meteosat - 8 (3.5 ° W) and Meteosat - 9 (0 °) over the Atlantic Ocean and have Meteosat - 6 (63 ° E) and Meteosat - 7 (57.5 ° E) over the Indian Ocean. China currently has three Fengyun (风云) geostationary satellites (FY - 2E at 86.5 ° E, FY - 2F at 123.5 ° E, and FY - 2G at 105 ° E) operated. India also operates geostationary satellites called INSAT which carry instruments for meteorological purposes.
Polar orbiting weather satellites circle the Earth at a typical altitude of 850 km (530 miles) in a north to south (or vice versa) path, passing over the poles in their continuous flight. Polar orbiting weather satellites are in sun - synchronous orbits, which means they are able to observe any place on Earth and will view every location twice each day with the same general lighting conditions due to the near - constant local solar time. Polar orbiting weather satellites offer a much better resolution than their geostationary counterparts due their closeness to the Earth.
The United States has the NOAA series of polar orbiting meteorological satellites, presently NOAA 17 and NOAA 18 as primary spacecraft, NOAA 15 and NOAA 16 as secondary spacecraft, NOAA 14 in standby, and NOAA 12. Europe has the Metop - A and Metop - B satellites operated by EUMETSAT. Russia has the Meteor and RESURS series of satellites. China has FY - 3A, 3B and 3C. India has polar orbiting satellites as well.
The United States Department of Defense 's Meteorological Satellite (DMSP) can "see '' the best of all weather vehicles with its ability to detect objects almost as ' small ' as a huge oil tanker. In addition, of all the weather satellites in orbit, only DMSP can "see '' at night in the visual. Some of the most spectacular photos have been recorded by the night visual sensor; city lights, volcanoes, fires, lightning, meteors, oil field burn - offs, as well as the Aurora Borealis and Aurora Australis have been captured by this 450 - mile - high space vehicle 's low moonlight sensor.
At the same time, energy use and city growth can be monitored since both major and even minor cities, as well as highway lights, are conspicuous. This informs astronomers of light pollution. The New York City Blackout of 1977 was captured by one of the night orbiter DMSP space vehicles.
In addition to monitoring city lights, these photos are a life saving asset in the detection and monitoring of fires. Not only do the satellites see the fires visually day and night, but the thermal and infrared scanners on board these weather satellites detect potential fire sources below the surface of the Earth where smoldering occurs. Once the fire is detected, the same weather satellites provide vital information about wind that could fan or spread the fires. These same cloud photos from space tell the firefighter when it will rain.
Some of the most dramatic photos showed the 600 Kuwaiti oil fires that the fleeing Army of Iraq started on February 23, 1991. The night photos showed huge flashes, far outstripping the glow of large populated areas. The fires consumed millions of gallons of oil; the last was doused on November 6, 1991.
Snowfield monitoring, especially in the Sierra Nevada, can be helpful to the hydrologist keeping track of available snowpack for runoff vital to the watersheds of the western United States. This information is gleaned from existing satellites of all agencies of the U.S. government (in addition to local, on - the - ground measurements). Ice floes, packs and bergs can also be located and tracked from weather space craft.
Even pollution whether it is nature - made or man - made can be pinpointed. The visual and infrared photos show effects of pollution from their respective areas over the entire earth. Aircraft and rocket pollution, as well as condensation trails, can also be spotted. The ocean current and low level wind information gleaned from the space photos can help predict oceanic oil spill coverage and movement. Almost every summer, sand and dust from the Sahara Desert in Africa drifts across the equatorial regions of the Atlantic Ocean. GOES - EAST photos enable meteorologists to observe, track and forecast this sand cloud. In addition to reducing visibilities and causing respiratory problems, sand clouds suppress hurricane formation by modifying the solar radiation balance of the tropics. Other dust storms in Asia and mainland China are common and easy to spot and monitor, with recent examples of dust moving across the Pacific Ocean and reaching North America.
In remote areas of the world with few local observers, fires could rage out of control for days or even weeks and consume millions of acres before authorities are alerted. Weather satellites can be a tremendous asset in such situations. Nighttime photos also show the burn - off in gas and oil fields. Atmospheric temperature and moisture profiles have been taken by weather satellites since 1969.
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who won more games east or west nba | NBA All - Star Game - wikipedia
The National Basketball Association All - Star Game is a basketball exhibition game hosted every February by the National Basketball Association (NBA), matching a mix of the league 's star players, who are drafted by the two players with the most votes. Each team consists of 12 players, making it 24 in total. It is the featured event of NBA All - Star Weekend. NBA All - Star Weekend is a three - day event which goes from Friday to Sunday. The All - Star Game was first played at the Boston Garden on March 2, 1951.
The starting lineup for each squad is selected by a combination of fan, player, and media voting, while the reserves are chosen by a vote among the head coaches from each squad 's respective conference. Coaches are not allowed to vote for their own players. If a selected player is injured and can not participate, the NBA commissioner selects a replacement. The vote leaders for each conferences are assigned as captains and can choose from a pool of players named as all - stars to form their teams. The newly formed teams will also play for a charity of choice to help the games remain competitive. On January 25, 2018, LeBron James and Stephen Curry became the first players to form their own teams according to the new selection format for the 2018 All - Star Game.
The head coach of the team with the best record in each conference is chosen to lead their respective conference in the All - Star Game, with a prohibition against repeat appearances. Known as the "Riley Rule '', it was created after perennially successful Los Angeles Lakers head coach Pat Riley earned the right to coach the Western Conference team eight times in nine seasons between 1982 and 1990. The coach of the team with the next best record serves instead.
The 2017 All - Star Weekend was originally awarded to Charlotte, North Carolina. On March 23, 2016, North Carolina passed House Bill 2 as a remedy to Charlotte Ordinance 7056. This led to the NBA threatening to pull the game from Charlotte if the bill was not repealed or revised so as to not discriminate against the LGBT community. The NBA announced on July 21, 2016 that the game would be moved from Charlotte to New Orleans.
The idea of holding an All - Star Game was conceived during a meeting between NBA President Maurice Podoloff, NBA publicity director Haskell Cohen and Boston Celtics owner Walter A. Brown. At that time, the basketball world had just been stunned by the college basketball point - shaving scandal.
In order to regain public attention to the league, Cohen suggested the league to host an exhibition game featuring the league 's best players, similar to Major League Baseball 's All - Star Game. Although most people, including Podoloff, were pessimistic about the idea, Brown remained confident that it would be a success, and he even offered to host the game and to cover all the expenses or potential losses incurred from the game. In the first All - Star Game, the Eastern All - Stars team defeated the Western All - Stars team 111 -- 94.
Boston Celtics ' Ed Macauley was named as the first NBA All - Star Game Most Valuable Player, and the All - Star Game became a success, drawing an attendance of 10,094, much higher than that season 's average attendance of 3,500. In 2010, the NBA All Star Game attendance record was set when 108,713 fans jammed Cowboys Stadium in Arlington, Texas. This shattered the existing attendance record previously held at Ford Field on Dec. 13, 2003 when 78,129 attendees watched Michigan State play Kentucky.
On October 3, 2017, the NBA and NBPA announced the changes to the NBA All - Star Game format starting with the 2018 NBA All - Star Game. The vote leaders for each conferences will be assigned as team captains and will be able to select players from the rest of the starters and the reserves, regardless of the conference they play in, to form their own teams. This marks the first time, the conferences will not play against each other since the inaugural All - Star Game.
The starting five from each conference consists of three frontcourt players and two guards, selected by a combination of fan, player, and media voting. In 2017, the NBA moved from a pure fan vote to a weighted process wherein fan voting accounts for 50 % of the total and player and media voting account for 25 % each. The league made the change in response to social media campaigns that resulted in mediocre players such as journeyman Zaza Pachulia nearly being voted as All - Star starters over more deserving players., Prior to 2013, fans selected two forwards and one center instead of generic frontcourt players. The NBA in 2003 began offering All - Star ballots in three languages -- English, Spanish and Chinese -- for fan voting of the starters.
NBA coaches vote for the reserves for their respective conferences, none of which can be players on their own team. Each coach selects two guards, three frontcourt players and two wild cards, with each selected player ranked in order of preference within each category. If a multi-position player is to be selected, coaches are encouraged to vote for the player at the position that is "most advantageous for the All - Star team '', regardless of where the player is listed on the All - Star ballot or the position he is listed in box scores. If a player is unavailable for the game due to injury, the NBA commissioner selects a replacement for the roster. If the replacement is for a fan - selected starter, the all - star coach chooses the replacement in the starting lineup, and is not limited to the commissioner 's addition to the roster. It is also possible for more than one All - Star to be selected from one team, but there has never been more than 4 All - Stars represent a team in the game. Most recently was the 2017 Golden State Warriors who had 4 players represent that team (Stephen Curry, Kevin Durant, Draymond Green, and Klay Thompson.) This has only occurred 8 times dating back to 1962 Boston Celtics and the 1962 Los Angeles Lakers.
The Game is played under normal NBA rules, but there are notable differences from an average game. Since the starting All - Stars are selected by fan vote, players sometimes start the game at atypical positions. For instance, in 2007 Kobe Bryant and Tracy McGrady had the two highest fan vote totals among Western Conference guards. As both players normally play shooting guard, Bryant, who is 6'6 '' (198 cm), started the game as a point guard, despite him also manning the shooting guard position on his team.
The player introductions are usually accompanied by a significant amount of fanfare, including lighting effects, dance music, and pyrotechnics. Special uniforms are designed for the game each year, usually red for the Western Conference and blue for the Eastern Conference, but the 1997 -- 2002 games allowed players the opportunity to wear their respective team uniforms, and until 2009 and from 2015 to the present, the host conference wore light uniforms. Originally players from the same team who share a number have the option to either keep or change numbers (e.g. Patrick Ewing trading his familiar # 33 for # 3 because of Larry Bird wearing the same number), but since 1997 players from the same team can keep their customary uniform numbers even if they share them. A major recording artist typically sings "O Canada '' and "The Star - Spangled Banner '' prior to tipoff. One of the more memorable performances was given by Marvin Gaye during the 1983 game; Gaye was accompanied by Gordon Banks, who played a tape from an all night session that used numerous elements of soul music and funk, and Banks still has that historic tape of the music to which Gaye sang his soulful version.
Gameplay usually involves players attempting spectacular slam dunks and alley oops. Defensive effort is usually limited and the final score of the game is generally much higher than an average NBA game. The coaches also try to give most of the reserve players some time on the court instead of using a limited rotation as they would in a normal game, but giving the starters more minutes because that 's who the fans want to see most. The fourth quarter of the game is often played in a more competitive fashion, if the game is close.
Halftime is also longer than a typical NBA game due to musical performances by popular artists. Recent guests have included Michael Jackson, Snoop Dogg, Ariana Grande, Elton John, Beyoncé, Mariah Carey, OutKast, Alicia Keys, Shakira, Rihanna, Nicki Minaj, Kendrick Lamar, Christina Aguilera, Pharrell Williams, Migos, and John Legend.
This is a list of each All - Star Game, the venue at which it was played, and the Game MVP. Parenthesized numbers indicate multiple times that venue, city, or player has occurred as of that instance (e.g. "Michael Jordan (2) '' in 1996 indicates that was his second All - Star MVP award). As of the 2017 All - Star Game (the 2016 -- 17 NBA season), the Eastern Conference leads with a record of 37 wins and 29 losses. The Western Conference has won the last 3 games.
Note: Stadium names are named based on the name at the day of the All - Star Game.
The All - Star Game is the featured event of All - Star Weekend, and it is held on a Sunday night. All - Star Weekend also includes a number of popular exhibition games and competitions featuring NBA players and alumni as well as players from the Women 's National Basketball Association (WNBA) and NBA G League (G League).
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