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what nfl team has won 3 superbowls in a row | List of Super Bowl champions - wikipedia
The Super Bowl is the annual American football game that determines the champion of the National Football League (NFL). The game culminates a season that begins in the previous calendar year, and is the conclusion of the NFL playoffs. The contest is held in an American city, chosen three to four years beforehand, usually at warm - weather sites or domed stadiums. Since January 1971, the winner of the American Football Conference (AFC) Championship Game has faced the winner of the National Football Conference (NFC) Championship Game in the culmination of the NFL playoffs.
Before the 1970 merger between the American Football League (AFL) and the National Football League (NFL), the two leagues met in four such contests. The first two were marketed as the "AFL -- NFL World Championship Game '', but were also casually referred to as "the Super Bowl game '' during the television broadcast. Super Bowl III in January 1969 was the first such game that carried the "Super Bowl '' moniker in official marketing; the names "Super Bowl I '' and "Super Bowl II '' were retroactively applied to the first two games. The NFC / NFL leads in Super Bowl wins with 27, while the AFC / AFL has won 25. Twenty franchises, including teams that have relocated to another city, have won the Super Bowl.
The Pittsburgh Steelers (6 -- 2) have won the most Super Bowls with six championships, while the New England Patriots (5 -- 5), the Dallas Cowboys (5 -- 3), and the San Francisco 49ers (5 -- 1) have five wins. New England has the most Super Bowl appearances with ten, while the Buffalo Bills (0 -- 4) have the most consecutive appearances with four (all losses) from 1990 to 1993. The Miami Dolphins are the only other team to have at least three consecutive appearances: 1972 -- 1974. The Denver Broncos (3 -- 5) and Patriots have each lost a record five Super Bowls. The Minnesota Vikings (0 -- 4) and the Bills have lost four. The record for consecutive wins is two and is shared by seven franchises: the Green Bay Packers (1966 -- 1967), the Miami Dolphins (1972 -- 1973), the Pittsburgh Steelers (1974 -- 1975 and 1978 -- 1979, the only team to accomplish this feat twice), the San Francisco 49ers (1988 -- 1989), the Dallas Cowboys (1992 -- 1993), the Denver Broncos (1997 -- 1998), and the New England Patriots (2003 -- 2004). Among those, Dallas (1992 -- 1993; 1995) and New England (2001; 2003 -- 2004) are the only teams to win three out of four consecutive Super Bowls. The 1972 Dolphins capped off the only perfect season in NFL history with their victory in Super Bowl VII. The only team with multiple Super Bowl appearances and no losses is the Baltimore Ravens, who in winning Super Bowl XLVII defeated and replaced the 49ers in that position. Four current NFL teams have never appeared in a Super Bowl, including franchise relocations and renaming: the Cleveland Browns, Detroit Lions, Jacksonville Jaguars, and Houston Texans, though both the Browns (1964) and Lions (1957) had won NFL championship games prior to the creation of the Super Bowl.
Numbers in parentheses in the table are Super Bowl appearances as of the date of that Super Bowl and are used as follows:
Seven franchises have won consecutive Super Bowls, one of which (Pittsburgh) has accomplished it twice:
No franchise has yet won three Super Bowls in a row, although several have come close:
Three franchises have lost consecutive Super Bowls:
In the sortable table below, teams are ordered first by number of appearances, then by number of wins, and finally by number of years since last appearing in a Super Bowl. In the "Seasons '' column, bold years indicate winning seasons, and italic years indicate games not yet completed.
Four current teams have never reached the Super Bowl. Two of them held NFL league championships prior to Super Bowl I in the 1966 NFL season:
In addition, Detroit, Houston, and Jacksonville have hosted Super Bowls, making Cleveland the only current NFL city that has neither hosted nor had its team play in a Super Bowl.
Although Jacksonville and Houston have never appeared in a Super Bowl, there are teams whose most recent Super Bowl appearance is older than when Jacksonville and Houston joined the NFL (1995 and 2002, respectively), resulting in longer Super Bowl droughts than these teams for the following eight teams.
Two of these teams have not appeared in the Super Bowl since before the AFL -- NFL merger in 1970:
However, the Jets and the Chiefs are the only non-NFL teams to win the Super Bowl, both being members of the now - defunct AFL at the time.
The most recent Super Bowl appearance for the following teams was after the AFL -- NFL merger, but prior to the 1995 regular season:
Eight teams have appeared in the Super Bowl without ever winning. In descending order of number of appearances, they are:
The following teams have faced each other more than once in the Super Bowl:
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who sang you spin me round like a record | You Spin Me Round (Like a Record) - wikipedia
"You Spin Me Round (Like a Record) '' is a song by British band Dead or Alive on their 1985 album Youthquake. Released as a single in November 1984, it reached number one in the UK in March 1985, taking 17 weeks to get there. It was the first UK number - one hit by the Stock Aitken Waterman production trio. On the US Billboard Hot 100, it peaked at no. 11 on 17 August of that year. In 2015 the song was voted by the British public as the nation 's 17th favourite 1980s number one in a poll for ITV. Musician and actor Gary Kemp described the song as "one of the best white dance records of all time ''.
The video, which features a disco ball, waving gold flags and an evocation of the six - armed Vishnu, was directed by Vaughan Arnell and Anthea Benton.
Dead or Alive 's vocalist Pete Burns stated in his autobiography that he composed "You Spin Me Round '' by using two existing songs as inspiration for creating something new:
How did I write "Spin Me ''? I listened to Luther Vandross 's ' I Wanted Your Love '. It 's not the same chord structure, but then that 's the way I make music -- I hear something and I sing another tune over it. I did n't sit and study the Luther Vandross album -- I heard the song and it locked. (...) I 'm trying to structure the music and I know what I want. (...) It 's like do this, do this, do this - and suddenly it hits. I do n't want to do Luther Vandross 's song, but I can still sing the same pattern over it. And there was another record, by Little Nell, called "See You ' Round Like A Record ''. (...) So I had those two, Van Dross (sic) and Little Nell and -- bingo! -- done deal.
According to Burns, the record company was unenthusiastic about "You Spin Me Round '', to such an extent that Burns had to take out a £ 2,500 loan to record it, then once it had been recorded "the record company said it was awful. It was unanimous -- it was awful, it was rubbish. '' Burns stated that the band had to fund production of the song 's video themselves.
The strings were based on Richard Wagner 's classical piece "Ride of the Valkyries ''.
Interviewed for BBC Radio 4 's The Reunion: The Hit Factory, in April 2015, Burns said that the confrontational attitude of the producers was met with an equally confrontational attitude from the band and that this led to "quite a bad vibe '' for the entirety of the studio time, describing the experience as "a time of intense friction ''.
A remix version of "You Spin Me Round '' was released in 2003 at the same time Dead or Alive 's greatest hits album Evolution was released. The song reached no. 23 in the UK Singles Chart. The original 1984 recording was re-released on 30 January 2006 because of lead singer Pete Burns 's controversial time as a contestant on television series Celebrity Big Brother and reached no. 5.
Earlier remixes were in 1996 and 1997 (some are included on the US, European and Australian releases of Nukleopatra). In 1999 these mixes were issued in the US as a 2 - CD set. The first disc held seven mixes of "You Spin Me Round '' while disc two has five mixes of "Sex Drive ''. In 2000, new mixes appeared on Fragile and in 2001, on Unbreakable: The Fragile Remixes. No videos were made for these.
The song has been re-released three times since its original release in 1984. Each time of its release, it achieved success, but failed to match the success of the original. However, after lead - singer Pete Burns 's appearance on Celebrity Big Brother, the single was re-released and managed a Top 5 peak on the UK Singles Chart in 2006.
According to Burns, 12 - inch singles comprised over 70 % of the original sales of You Spin Me Round, and because these were regarded by the record label as promotional tools rather than sales, the band had to threaten legal action against the label before they received the royalties on them.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone
Nu metal band Dope covered the song on their 1999 album Felons and Revolutionaries. The band 's version became their first chart entry on any Billboard chart, reaching no. 37 on the Hot Mainstream Rock Tracks chart.
Jessica Simpson 's version of the song was released as a promo single from her fifth studio album A Public Affair in 2006. Her version of the song failed to break into the Billboard Hot 100 (though it did reach number 20 on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles). Simpson 's version has new lyrics and only preserves the chorus of the song.
Danzel and Gigi D'Agostino have also done remixes. Danzel 's version peaked at no. 32 in Belgium.
Flo Rida featuring Kesha 's 2009 single "Right Round '' interpolates elements of the song.
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what is pradhan mantri jan dhan yojana in hindi | Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana - Wikipedia
Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana (PMJDY), Prime Minister 's Peoples ' Wealth Scheme, is a government scheme that aims to expand and make affordable access to financial services such as bank accounts, remittances, credit, insurance and pensions. This financial inclusion campaign was launched by the Prime Minister of India Narendra Modi on 15 August 2014. He had announced this scheme on his first Independence Day speech on 15 August 2014.
Run by Department of Financial Services, Ministry of Finance, under this scheme 1.5 Crore (15 million) bank accounts were opened on inauguration day. The Guinness Book of World Records recognised this achievement, stating: "The most bank accounts opened in one week as a part of the financial inclusion campaign is 18,096,130 and was achieved by the Government of India from August 23 to 29, 2014 ''. By 27 June 2018, over 31 crore (318 million) bank accounts were opened and over ₹ 792 billion (US $12 billion) were deposited under the scheme.
The scheme was launched by PM Narendra Modi on 15 August 2014. Slogan of the Scheme is "Mera Khatha, Bhagya Vidhatha (meaning "My account brings me good fortune '')
Pradhan Mantri Jan - Dhan Yojana statistics as on 1 August 2018 (All figures in crores)
In the run up to the formal launch of this scheme, the Prime Minister personally wrote to Chairpersons of all PSU banks to gear up for the gigantic task of enrolling over 7.5 crore (75 million) households. In this email he categorically declared that a bank account for each household was a "national priority ''.
The scheme has been started with a target to provide ' universal and clear access to banking facilities ' starting with "Basic Banking Accounts '' with overdraft facility of ₹ 5,000 (US $73) after six months and RuPay Debit card with inbuilt accident insurance cover of ₹ 1 lakh (US $1,500) and RuPay Kisan Card. As many as 1,767 claims were settled toward accidental insurance to RuPay Card holders under the government 's flagship financial inclusion programme Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana (PMJDY) as said by PM on 15 August 2017. In next phase, micro insurance & pension etc. will also be added.
Under the scheme:
Due to the preparations done in the run - up, as mentioned above, on the inauguration day, 1.5 Crore (15 million) bank accounts were opened. The Prime Minister said on this occasion - "Let us celebrate today as the day of financial freedom. '' By September 2014, 3.02 crore accounts were opened under the scheme, amongst Public sector banks, SBI had opened 30 lakh (3 million) accounts, followed by Punjab National Bank with 20.24 lakh (2 million) accounts, Canara Bank 16.21 lakh (1.62 million) accounts, Central Bank of India 15.98 lakh (1.59 million) accounts and Bank of Baroda with 14.22 lakh (1.42 million) accounts. On 20 January 2015, the scheme entered into Guinness book of world records setting new record for ' The most bank accounts opened in one week '.
The balance in Jan Dhan accounts rose by more than ₹ 270 billion (US $3.9 billion) between 9 November 2016 and 23 November 2016. 19 lakh householders have availed the overdraft facility of ₹ 2.56 billion (US $37 million) by May 2016. Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal have got 29 % of the total deposits under the scheme, whereas Kerala and Goa became the first states in the country to provide one basic bank account to every household.
The total number of account holders stood at 294.8 million, including 176.1 million account holders from rural and semi-urban branches. A total of 227 million RuPay cards have been issued by National Payments Corporation of India (NPCI) till August 2017. The amount of deposits rose to ₹ 656.97 billion (US $9.6 billion) by August 2017.
According to an analysis of various studies, "Beyond enabling account ownership and the use of financial services, the PMJDY also facilitated financial inclusion for a variety of demographics. While the programme has made significant headway towards genuine financial inclusion, it is clear that improving policy communication, widening and deepening progress in low - income states, and ironing out the kinks in the bank - agent model will be crucial if these hard - fought gains are to prove sustainable. '' At least 30 crore new families have got Jan Dhan accounts in which almost Rs 65,000 crore have been deposited, Prime Minister Narendra Modi said on 28 August 2017, on the eve of third anniversary of the scheme aimed at financial inclusion.
The scheme has been criticized by opposition as an effort to please voters that has created unnecessary work - burden on the public - sector banks. It has been claimed that the poor deserve food more than bank accounts and financial security. Further, these accounts have not yet added considerable profits to PSU banks. According to the experts, offers like zero balance, free insurance and overdraft facility would result in duplication. Many individuals who already have bank accounts may have had accounts created for themselves, lured by the insurance covers and overdraft facilities. As per the scheme, a very few people are eligible to get the life insurance worth ₹ 30,000 (US $440) with a validity of just five years. The claimed overdraft facility has been completely left upon the banks. As per the government notice, only those people would get the overdraft facility whose transaction record has satisfactory operations in their account for some time.
In addition, while the Indian Government was actively attempting to promote financial inclusion through this scheme, the Reserve Bank of India, then headed by Raghuram Rajan, permitted banks to charge customers for conducting ATM transactions beyond a certain number of times per month. This effectively prevented people from easily accessing their own savings and discouraged them from using formal banking channels.
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what is the population of the usa in 2017 | Demography of the United States - Wikipedia
The United States is estimated to have a population of 323,127,513 as of July 1, 2016, making it the third most populous country in the world. It is very urbanized, with 81 % residing in cities and suburbs as of 2014 (the worldwide urban rate is 54 %). California and Texas are the most populous states, as the mean center of U.S. population has consistently shifted westward and southward. New York City is the most populous city in the United States.
The total fertility rate in the United States estimated for 2016 is 1.82 children per woman, which is below the replacement fertility rate of approximately 2.1. The United States Census Bureau shows a population increase of 0.75 % for the twelve - month period ending in July 2012. Though high by industrialized country standards, this is below the world average annual rate of 1.1 %.
There were about 125.9 million adult women in the United States in 2014. The number of men was 119.4 million. At age 85 and older, there were almost twice as many women as men (4 million vs. 2.1 million). People under 21 years of age made up over a quarter of the U.S. population (27.1 %), and people age 65 and over made up one - seventh (14.5 %). The national median age was 37.8 years in 2015.
The United States Census Bureau defines white people as those "having origins in any of the original peoples of Europe, the Middle East, or North Africa. '' It includes people who reported "White '' or wrote in entries such as Irish, German, Italian, Lebanese, Near Easterner, Arab, or Polish. '' Whites constitute the majority of the U.S. population, with a total of about 245,532,000 or 77.7 % of the population as of 2013. Non-Hispanic whites make up 62.6 % of the country 's population. Despite major changes due to immigration since the 1960s, and the higher birth - rates of nonwhites, the overall current majority of American citizens are still white, and English - speaking, though regional differences exist.
The American population almost quadrupled during the 20th century -- at a growth rate of about 1.3 % a year -- from about 76 million in 1900 to 281 million in 2000. It reached the 200 million mark in 1968, and the 300 million mark on October 17, 2006. Population growth is fastest among minorities as a whole, and according to the Census Bureau 's estimation for 2012, 50.4 % of American children under the age of 1 belonged to minority groups.
Hispanic and Latino Americans accounted for 48 % of the national population growth of 2.9 million between July 1, 2005, and July 1, 2006. Immigrants and their U.S. - born descendants are expected to provide most of the U.S. population gains in the decades ahead.
The Census Bureau projects a U.S. population of 417 million in 2060, which is a 38 % increase from 2007 (301.3 million). However, the United Nations projects a U.S. population of 402 million in 2050, an increase of 32 % from 2007. In an official census report, it was reported that 54.4 % (2,150,926 out of 3,953,593) of births in 2010 were non-Hispanic white. This represents an increase of 0.3 % compared to the previous year, which was 54.1 %.
In 1900, when the U.S. population was 76 million, there were 66.8 million Whites in the United States, representing 88 % of the total population, 8.8 million Black Americans, with about 90 % of them still living in Southern states, and slightly more than 500,000 Hispanics.
Under the law, the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965, the number of first - generation immigrants living in the United States has increased, from 9.6 million in 1970 to about 38 million in 2007. Around a million people legally immigrated to the United States per year in the 1990s, up from 250,000 per year in the 1950s. In 2009, 37 % of immigrants originated in Asia, 42 % in North America, and 11 % in Africa.
In 1900, non-Hispanic whites comprised almost 97 % of the population of the 10 largest American cities. The Census Bureau reported that minorities (including Hispanic whites) made up 50.4 % of the children born in the U.S. between July 2010 and July 2011, compared to 37 % in 1990.
In 2010 the state with the lowest fertility rate was Rhode Island, with a rate of 1.63, while Utah had the greatest rate with a rate of 2.45. This correlates with the ages of the states ' populations: Rhode Island has the ninth - oldest median age in the US -- 39.2 -- while Utah has the youngest -- 29.0.
The U.S. total fertility rate as of 2010 census is 1.931:
Other:
(Note that ~ 95 % of Hispanics are included as "white Hispanics '' by CDC, which does not recognize the Census ' "Some other race '' category and counts people in that category as white.)
Source: National Vital statistics report based on 2010 US Census data
The most densely populated state is New Jersey (1,121 / mi or 433 / km). See List of U.S. states by population density for maps and complete statistics.
The United States Census Bureau publishes a popular "dot '' or "nighttime '' map showing population distribution at resolutions of 1,000 and 7,500 people, as well as complete listings of population density by place name.
The United States has dozens of major cities, including 31 "global cities '' of all types, with 10 in the "alpha '' group of global cities: New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, Washington, DC, Boston, San Francisco, Miami, Philadelphia, Dallas, and Atlanta. As of 2011, the United States had 51 metropolitan areas with a population of over 1,000,000 people each. (See Table of United States Metropolitan Statistical Areas.)
As of 2011, about 250 million Americans live in or around urban areas. That means more than three - quarters of the U.S. population shares just about three percent of the U.S. land area.
The following table shows the populations of the top twenty metropolitan areas. Note Denver and Baltimore have over 2.5 million residents in their metro areas.
The United States Census Bureau collects racial data in accordance with guidelines provided by the U.S. Office of Management and Budget (OMB), and these data are based on self - identification. The racial classifications and definitions used by the U.S. Census Bureau are:
According to the 2010 -- 2015 American Community Survey, the racial composition of the United States in 2015 was:
The U.S. Office of Management and Budget (OMB) defines "Hispanic or Latino '' as a person of Cuban, Mexican, Puerto Rican, South or Central American, or other Spanish culture or origin regardless of race. People who identify with the terms "Hispanic '' or "Latino '' are those who classify themselves in one of the specific Hispanic or Latino categories listed on the decennial census questionnaire and various Census Bureau survey questionnaires -- "Mexican, Mexican Am., Chicano '' or '' Puerto Rican '' or "Cuban '' -- as well as those who indicate that they are "another Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish origin. '' People who identify their origin as Hispanic or Latino may be of any race.
There were 22.1 million veterans in 2009, meaning that less than 10 % of Americans served in the Armed Forces.
In 2010, The Washington Post estimated that there were 11 million illegal immigrants in the country.
There were about 2 million people in prison in 2010.
The 2000 U.S. Census counted same - sex couples in an oblique way; asking the sex and the relationship to the "main householder '', whose sex was also asked. One organization specializing in analyzing gay demographic data reported, based on this count in the 2000 census and in the 2000 supplementary survey, that same - sex couples comprised between 0.99 % and 1.13 % of U.S. couples in 2000. A 2006 report issued by The Williams Institute on Sexual Orientation concluded that the number of same - sex couples in the U.S. grew from 2000 to 2005, from nearly 600,000 couples in 2000 to almost 777,000 in 2005. A 2006 UCLA study reported that 4.1 % of Americans aged 18 -- 45 identify as gay, lesbian, or bisexual.
A 2011 report by the Institute estimated that 4 million adults identify as gay or lesbian, representing 1.7 % of the population over 18. A spokesperson said that, until recently, few studies have tried to eliminate people who had occasionally undertaken homosexual behavior or entertained homosexual thoughts, from people who identified as lesbian or gay. (Older estimates have varied depending on methodology and timing; see Demographics of sexual orientation for a list of studies.) The American Community Survey from the 2000 U.S. Census estimated 776,943 same - sex couple households in the country as a whole, representing about 0.5 % of the population.
A report by the U.S. Census Bureau projects a decrease in the ratio of Whites between 2010 and 2050, from 79.5 % to 74.0 %. At the same time, Non-Hispanic Whites are projected to no longer make up a majority of the population by 2042, but will remain the largest single ethnic group. In 2050 they will compose 46.3 % of the population. Non-Hispanic whites made up 85 % of the population in 1960.
The report foresees the Hispanic or Latino population rising from 16 % today to 30 % by 2050, the Black percentage barely rising from 12.9 % to 13.1 %, and Asian Americans upping their 4.6 % share to 7.8 %. The United States had a population of 310 million people in October 2010, and is projected to reach 400 million by 2039 and 439 million in 2050. It is further projected that 82 % of the increase in population from 2005 to 2050 will be due to immigrants and their children.
Of the nation 's children in 2050, 62 % are expected to be of a minority ethnicity, up from 44 % today. Approximately 39 % are projected to be Hispanic or Latino (up from 22 % in 2008), and 38 % are projected to be single - race, non-Hispanic Whites (down from 56 % in 2008). Racial and ethnic minorities surpassed non-Hispanic whites as the largest group of American children under 5 years old in 2015.
In 2008, the U.S. Census Bureau projected the future censuses as follows:
The table below is based mainly on selected data as reported to the United States Census Bureau. It only includes the voluntary self - reported membership of religious bodies with 750,000 or more. The definition of a member is determined by each religious body. In 2004, the US census bureau reported that about 13 % of the population did not identify themselves as a member of any religion.
In a Pew Research Survey performed in 2012, Americans without a religion (atheists, agnostics, nothing in particular, etc.) surpassed Evangelical Protestant Americans with almost 20 % of Americans being nonreligious. If this current growth rate continues, by 2050, around 51 % of Americans will not have a religion.
A survey conducted in 2014 by the same organization indicated that the percentage of Americans unaffiliated with a religion rose to nearly 23 % of the population, up from 16 % in 2007.
Religious affiliation within each state that has the largest deviation compared to the national average, 2001.
Percentage of state populations that identify with a religion rather than "no religion '', 2001.
Plurality religion by state, 2001. Data is unavailable for Alaska and Hawaii.
The United States government does not collect religious data in its census. The survey below, the American Religious Identification Survey (ARIS) 2008, was a random digit - dialed telephone survey of 54,461 American residential households in the contiguous United States. The 1990 sample size was 113,723; 2001 sample size was 50,281.
Adult respondents were asked the open - ended question, "What is your religion, if any? ''. Interviewers did not prompt or offer a suggested list of potential answers. The religion of the spouse or partner was also asked. If the initial answer was "Protestant '' or "Christian '' further questions were asked to probe which particular denomination. About one - third of the sample was asked more detailed demographic questions.
Religious Self - Identification of the U.S. Adult Population: 1990, 2001, 2008 Figures are not adjusted for refusals to reply; investigators suspect refusals are possibly more representative of "no religion '' than any other group.
In 2010, the median age for marriage for men was 27; for women, 26.
In 2006, the median household income in the United States was around $46,326. Household and personal income depends on variables such as race, number of income earners, educational attainment and marital status.
Social classes in the United States lack distinct boundaries and may overlap. Even their existence (when distinguished from economic strata) is controversial. The following table provides a summary of some prominent academic theories on the stratification of American society:
Thompson, W. & Hickey, J. (2005). Society in Focus. Boston, MA: Pearson, Allyn & Bacon; Beeghley, L. (2004). The Structure of Social Stratification in the United States. Boston, MA: Pearson, Allyn & Bacon.
In 2010, the average man weighed 194.7 pounds (88.3 kg); the average woman 164.7 pounds (74.7 kg). The height of an American man was 5 feet 9 inches (1.75 m) and woman 5 feet 3.8 inches (1.621 m) The average BMI is 27.3 for males (overweight) and 28.5 for females (overweight).
According to a Gallup poll in 2012, an estimated 26 % of the population were obese, 21 % smoked, and 11 % had diabetes.
A nationwide study reported by The New York Times in 2010 indicated that 19.5 % of teens, aged 12 -- 19, had developed "slight '' hearing loss. "Slight '' was defined as an inability to hear at 16 to 24 decibels.
According to the Centers for Disease Control in 2011, an estimated 1.2 million people were living with HIV / AIDS in the United States.
A study by William Strauss and Neil Howe, in their books Generations and Fourth Turning, looked at generational similarities and differences going back to the 15th century and concluded that over 80 - year spans, generations proceed through four stages of about 20 years each.
A definitive recent study of US generational cohorts was done by Schuman and Scott (2012) in which a broad sample of adults of all ages was asked, "What world events are especially important to you? '' They found that 33 events were mentioned with great frequency. When the ages of the respondents were correlated with the expressed importance rankings, seven (some put 8 or 9) distinct cohorts became evident.
Today the following descriptors are frequently used for these cohorts:
Subdivided groups are present when peak boom years or inverted peak bust years are present, and may be represented by a normal or inverted bell - shaped curve (rather than a straight curve). The boom subdivided cohorts may be considered as "pre-peak '' (including peak year) and "post-peak ''. The year 1957 was the baby boom peak with 4.3 million births and 122.7 fertility rate. Although post-peak births (such as trailing edge boomers) are in decline, and sometimes referred to as a "bust '', there are still a relatively large number of births. The dearth - in - birth bust cohorts include those up to the valley birth year, and those including and beyond, leading up to the subsequent normal birth rate. The Baby boom began around 1943 to 1946.
From the decline in U.S. birth rates starting in 1958 and the introduction of the birth control pill in 1960, the Baby Boomer normal distribution curve is negatively skewed. The trend in birth rates from 1958 to 1961 show a tendency to end late in the decade at approximately 1969, thus returning to pre-WWII levels, with 12 years of rising and 12 years of declining birth rates. Pre-war birth rates were defined as anywhere between 1939 and 1941 by demographers such as the Taeuber 's, Philip M. Hauser and William Fielding Ogburn.
The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated.
Median ages are 37.3 years; males are 36.1 years; females are 38.5 years estimated as of 2012.
As of 2012, people are distributed by age as follows:
The growth rate is 0.76 % as estimated from 2014 -- 2010 by the US Census
The birth rate is 12.5 births / 1,000 population, estimated as of 2013. This was the lowest since records began. There were 3,957,577 births in 2013.
In 2009, Time magazine reported that 40 % of births were to unmarried women. The following is a breakdown by race for unwed births: 17 % Asian, 29 % White, 53 % Hispanics, 66 % Native Americans, and 72 % Black American.
The drop in the birth rate from 2007 to 2009 is believed to be associated with the Late - 2000s recession.
A study by the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ) found that more than half (51 percent) of live hospital births in 2008 and 2011 were male.
Per U.S. federal government data released in March 2011, births fell 4 % from 2007 to 2009, the largest drop in the U.S. for any two - year period since the 1970s. Births have declined for three consecutive years, and are now 7 % below the peak in 2007. This drop has continued through 2010, according to data released by the U.S. National Center for Health Statistics in June 2011. Numerous experts have suggested that this decline is largely a reflection of unfavorable economic conditions. This connection between birth rates and economic downturns partly stems from the fact that American birth rates have now fallen to levels that are comparable to the Great Depression of the 1930s. Teen birth rates in the U.S. are at the lowest level in U.S. history. In fact, teen birth rates in the U.S. have consistently decreased since 1991 through 2011, except for a brief increase between 2005 and 2007. The other aberration from this otherwise steady decline in teen birth rates is the 6 % decrease in birth rates for 15 - to 19 - year - olds between 2008 and 2009. Despite these years of decrease, U.S. teen birth rates are still higher than in other developed nations. Racial differences prevail with teen birth and pregnancy rates as well. The American Indian / Alaska Native, Hispanic, and non-Hispanic black teen pregnancy rates are more than double the non-Hispanic white teen birth rate.
Note: Hispanics are counted both by their ethnicity and by their race, giving a higher overall number. Also note that growth arrows indicate an increase or decrease in the number of births, not in the fertility rate.
NOTE:
As of July 2010, it was estimated that there were 8.18 deaths / 1,000 population per year.
13 % of the population was foreign - born in 2009 -- a rise of 350 % since 1970 when foreign - born people accounted for 3.7 % of the population, including 11.2 million illegal aliens, 80 % of whom come from Latin America. Latin America is the largest region - of - birth group, accounting for over half (53 %) of all foreign born population in US, and thus is also the largest source of both legal and illegal immigration to US. In 2011, there are 18.1 million naturalized citizens in the United States, accounting for 45 % of the foreign - born population (40.4 million) and 6 % of the total US population at the time, and around 680,000 legal immigrants are naturalized annually.
4.32 people migrate per 1,000 population, estimated in 2010.
As of July 2016, the U.S. unemployment rate was 4.9 percent (U3 Rate).
As of July 2015, the U.S. unemployment rate was 5.3 percent (U3 Rate).
As of July 2014, the U.S. unemployment rate was 6.2 percent (U3 Rate).
As of April 2017, the U6 unemployment rate is 8.6 percent. The U6 unemployment rate counts not only people without work seeking full - time employment (the more familiar U-3 rate), but also counts "marginally attached workers and those working part - time for economic reasons. '' Note that some of these part - time workers counted as employed by U-3 could be working as little as an hour a week. And the "marginally attached workers '' include those who have gotten discouraged and stopped looking, but still want to work. The age considered for this calculation is 16 years and over.
In 2013, about 15 % of Americans moved. Most of these, 67 %, moved within the same county. Of the 33 % who moved beyond local county boundaries, 13 % of those moved more than 200 miles (320 km).
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economic problems the immediate cause of the french revolution included all of the following except | French Directory - wikipedia
The Directory was a five - member committee which governed France from 1795, when it replaced the Committee of Public Safety, until it was overthrown by Napoleon Bonaparte in the Coup of 18 Brumaire (8 -- 9 November 1799) and replaced by the French Consulate. It gave its name to the final four years of the French Revolution.
The Directory was continually at war with foreign coalitions which at different times included Britain, Austria, Prussia, the Kingdom of Naples, Russia and the Ottoman Empire. It annexed Belgium and the left bank of the Rhine, while Bonaparte conquered a large part of Italy. The Directory established 196 short - lived sister republics modelled after France, in Italy, Switzerland and the Netherlands. The conquered cities and states were required to send to France huge amounts of money, as well as art treasures, which were used to fill the new Louvre museum in Paris. An army led by Bonaparte conquered Egypt and marched as far as Saint - Jean - d'Acre in Syria. The Directory defeated a resurgence of the War in the Vendée, the royalist - led civil war in the Vendée region, but failed in its venture to support the Irish Rebellion of 1798 and create an Irish Republic.
The French economy was in continual crisis during the Directory. At the beginning, the treasury was empty; the paper money, the Assignat, had fallen to a fraction of its value, and prices soared. The Directory stopped printing assignats and restored the value of the money, but this caused a new crisis; prices and wages fell, and economic activity slowed to a standstill.
In its first two years, the Directory concentrated on ending the excesses of the Jacobin Reign of Terror; mass executions stopped, and measures taken against exiled priests and royalists were relaxed. The Jacobin political club was closed and the government crushed an armed uprising planned by the Jacobins and an early socialist revolutionary, François - Noël Babeuf, known as "Gracchus Babeuf ''. However, following the discovery of a royalist conspiracy including a prominent general, Pichegru, the Jacobins took charge of the new Councils and hardened the measures against the Church and émigrés. The Jacobins took two additional seats in the Directory, hopelessly dividing it.
In 1799, after several defeats, French victories in the Netherlands and Switzerland restored the French military position, but the Directory had lost the support of all the political factions. Bonaparte returned from Egypt in October, and was engaged by the Abbé Sieyès and others to carry out a parliamentary coup d'état on 8 -- 9 November 1799. The coup abolished the Directory, and replaced it with the French Consulate led by Bonaparte.
On 27 July 1794, members of the French Convention, the revolutionary parliament of France, rose up against its leader, Maximilien Robespierre, who was in the midst of executing thousands of suspected enemies of the Revolution. Robespierre and his leading followers were declared outside the law, and on 28 July were arrested, and guillotined the same day. The Revolutionary Tribunal, which had sent thousands to the guillotine, ceased meeting and its head, Fouquier - Tinville, was arrested and imprisoned, and after trial was himself guillotined. More than five hundred suspected counter-revolutionaries awaiting trial and execution were immediately released.
In July 1794, the members of the Convention began planning a new form of government and drafting a new Constitution, which would become the Constitution of the Year III (August 1795).
An important aim was to prevent too much power from becoming concentrated in the hands of one man. One of the authors of the new Constitution, François Antoine de Boissy d'Anglas, wrote to the Convention: "We propose to you to compose an executive power of five members, renewed with one new member each year, called the Directory. This executive will have a force concentrated enough that it will be swift and firm, but divided enough to make it impossible for any member to even consider becoming a tyrant. A single chief would be dangerous. Each member will preside for three months; he will have during this time the signature and seal of the head of state. By the slow and gradual replacement of members of the Directory, you will preserve the advantages of order and continuity and will have the advantages of unity without the inconveniences. ''
The Constitution of the Year III (22 August 1795) began with the 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen and declared that "the Rights of Man in society are liberty, equality, security, and property ''. It guaranteed freedom of religion, freedom of the press, and freedom of labour, but forbade armed assemblies and even public meetings of political societies. Only individuals or public authorities could tender petitions.
The judicial system was reformed, and judges were given short terms of office: two years for justices of the peace, five for judges of department tribunals. They were elected, and could be re-elected, to assure their independence from the other branches of government.
The new legislature had two houses, a Council of Five Hundred and a Council of Ancients with two hundred fifty members. Electoral assemblies in each canton of France, which brought together a total of thirty thousand qualified electors, chose representatives to an electoral assembly in each department, which then elected the members of both houses. The members of this legislature had a term of three years, with one - third of the members renewed every year. The Ancients could not initiate new laws, but could veto those proposed by the Council of Five Hundred.
The Constitution established a unique kind of executive, a five - man Directory chosen by the legislature. It required the Council of 500 to prepare, by secret ballot, a list of candidates for the Directory. The Council of the Ancients then chose, again by secret ballot, the Directors. The Constitution required that Directors be at least forty years old. To assure gradual but continual change, one Director, chosen by lot, was replaced each year. Ministers for the various departments of State aided the Directors. These ministers did not form a council or cabinet and had no general powers of government.
The new Constitution sought to create a separation of powers; the Directors had no voice in legislation or taxation, nor could Directors or Ministers sit in either house. To assure that the Directors would have some independence, each would be elected by one portion of the legislature, and they could not be removed by the legislature unless they violated the law.
Under the new Constitution of 1795, to be eligible to vote in the elections for the Councils, voters were required to meet certain minimum property and residency standards. In towns with over six thousand population, they had to own or rent a property with a revenue equal to the standard income for at least one hundred fifty or two hundred days of work, and to have lived in their residence for at least a year. This ruled out a large part of the French population.
The big loser under the new system was the City of Paris, which had dominated events in the first part of the Revolution. On 24 August 1794, the committees of the sections of Paris, the bastions of the Jacobins, which had provided most of the manpower for demonstrations and invasions of the Convention, were abolished. Shortly afterwards, on 31 August, the municipality of Paris, which had been the domain of Danton and Robespierre, was abolished, and the city placed under direct control of the national government. When the Law of 19 Vendémiaire Year IV (11 October 1795), in application of the new Constitution, created the first twelve arrondissements of Paris, it established twelve new committees, one for each arrondissement. The city became a new department, the department of the Seine, replacing the former department of Paris created in 1790.
Meanwhile, the leaders of the still ruling National Convention tried to meet challenges from both neo-Jacobins on the left and royalists on the right. On 21 September 1794, the remains of Jean - Paul Marat, whose furious articles had promoted the Reign of Terror, were placed with great ceremony in the Panthéon, while on the same day, the moderate Convention member Merlin de Thionville described the Jacobins as "A hangout of outlaws '' and the "knights of the guillotine ''. Young men known as Muscadins, largely from middle - class families, attacked the Jacobin and radical clubs. The new freedom of the press saw the appearance of a host of new newspapers and pamphlets from the left and the right, such as the royalist L'Orateur du peuple edited by Stanislas Fréron, an extreme Jacobin who had moved to the extreme right, and at the opposite end of the spectrum, the Tribun du peuple, edited by Gracchus Babeuf, a former priest who advocated an early version of socialism. On 5 February 1795, the semi-official newspaper Le Moniteur Universel (Le Moniteur) attacked Marat for encouraging the bloody extremes of the Reign of Terror. Marat 's remains were removed from the Panthéon two days later. The surviving Girondin deputies, whose leaders had been executed during the Reign of Terror, were brought back into the Convention on 8 March 1795.
The Convention tried to bring a peaceful end to the Catholic and royalist uprising in the Vendée. The Convention signed an amnesty agreement, promising to recognize the freedom of religion and allowing territorial guards to keep their weapons if the Vendéens would end their revolt. On a proposal from Boissy d'Anglas, on 21 February 1795 the Convention formally proclaimed the freedom of religion and the separation of church and state.
Between July 1794 and the October 1795 elections for the new - style Parliament, the government tried to obtain international peace treaties and secure French gains. In January 1795 General Pichegru took advantage of an extremely cold winter and invaded the Dutch Republic. He captured Utrecht on 18 January, and on 14 February units of French cavalry captured the Dutch fleet, which was trapped in the ice at Den Helder. The Dutch government asked for peace, conceding Dutch Flanders, Maastricht and Venlo to France. On 9 February, after a French offensive in the Alps, the Grand Duke of Tuscany signed a treaty with France. Soon afterwards, on 5 April, France signed a peace treaty, the Peace of Basel, with Prussia, where King Frederick William II was tired of the war; Prussia recognized the French occupation of the western bank of the Rhine. On 22 July 1795, a peace agreement, the "Treaty of Basel '', was signed with Spain, where the French army had marched as far as Bilbao. By the time the Directory was chosen, the coalition against France was reduced to Britain and Austria, which hoped that Russia might be brought in on its side.
On 20 May 1795 (1 Prairial Year III), the Jacobins attempted to seize power in Paris. Following the model of Danton 's seizure of the National Assembly in June, 1792, a mob of sans - culottes invaded the meeting hall of the Convention at the Tuileries, killed one deputy, and demanded that a new government be formed. This time the army moved swiftly to clear the hall. Several deputies who had taken the side of the invaders were arrested. The uprising continued the following day, as the sans - culottes seized the Hôtel de Ville as they had done in earlier uprisings, but with little effect; crowds did not move to support them. On the third day, 22 May, the army moved into and occupied the working - class neighborhood of the faubourg Saint - Antoine. The sans - culottes were disarmed and their leaders were arrested. In the following days the surviving members of the Committee of Public Safety, the committee that had been led by Robespierre, were arrested, with the exception of Carnot and two others. Six of the deputies who had participated in the uprising and had been sentenced to death committed suicide before they were taken to the guillotine.
On 23 June 1795, the Chouans, royalist and Catholic rebels in Brittany, formed an army of 14,000 men near Quiberon. With the assistance of the British navy, a force of two thousand royalists was landed at Quiberon. The French army under General Hoche reacted swiftly, forcing the royalists to take refuge on the peninsula and then to withdraw. They surrendered on 21 July; 748 of the rebels were executed by firing squad.
The new Constitution of the Year III was presented to the Convention and debated between 4 July -- 17 August 1795, and was formally adopted on 22 August 1795. It was a long document, with 377 articles, compared with 124 in the first French Constitution of 1793. Even before it took effect, however, the members of the Convention took measures to assure they would still have dominance in the legislature over the government. They required that in the first elections, two hundred and fifty new deputies would be elected, while five hundred members of the old Convention would remain in place until the next elections. A national referendum of eligible voters was then held. The total number of voters was low; of five million eligible voters, 1,057,390 electors approved the Constitution, and 49,978 opposed it. A much smaller number, 205,498, approved the proposal that two thirds of members of the old Convention should remain in place.
The new Constitution of the Year III was officially proclaimed in force on 23 September 1795, but the new Councils had not yet been elected, and the Directors had not yet been chosen. The leaders of the royalists and constitutional monarchists chose this moment to try to seize power. They saw that the vote in favor of the new Constitution was hardly overwhelming. Paris voters were particularly hostile to the idea of keeping two - thirds of the old members of the Convention in the new Councils. A central committee was formed, with members from the wealthier neighborhoods of Paris, and they began planning a march on the center of the city and on the Tuileries, where the Convention still met.
The members of the Convention, very much experienced with conspiracies, were well aware that the planning was underway. A group of five republican deputies, led by Paul Barras, had already formed an unofficial directory, in anticipation of the creation of the real one. They were concerned about the national guard members from western Paris, and were unsure about the military commander of Paris, General Menou. Barras decided to turn to military commanders in his entourage who were known republicans, particularly Bonaparte, whom he had known when Bonaparte was successfully fighting the British in Toulon. Bonaparte, at this point a general of second rank in the Army of the Interior, was ordered to defend the government buildings on the right bank.
The armed royalist insurgents planned a march in two columns along both the right bank and left bank of the Seine toward the Tuileries. They were met, 6 October 1795, by the artillery of General Joachim Murat at the Sablons and by Bonaparte 's soldiers and artillery in front of the church of Saint - Roch. The whiff of grapeshot of Bonaparte 's cannons and gunfire of his soldiers brutally mowed down advancing columns, killing some four hundred insurgents, and ended the rebellion. Bonaparte was promoted to General of Division on 16 October, and General in Chief of the Army of the Interior on 26 October. It was the last uprising to take place in Paris during the French Revolution.
Paul Barras in the ceremonial dress of a Director, was a master of political intrigue
Louis Marie de La Révellière - Lépeaux
Jean - François Rewbell
Étienne - François Le Tourneur
Lazare Carnot, a brilliant organizer and mathematician but poor intriguer, was the enemy of Barras
Between 12 and 21 October 1795, immediately after the suppression of royalist uprising in Paris, the elections for the new Councils decreed by the new Constitution took place. Three - hundred seventy nine members of the old Convention, for the most part moderate republicans, were elected to the new legislature. To assure that the Directory did not abandon the Revolution entirely, the Council required that all of the members of the Directory be former members of the Convention and regicides, those who had voted for the execution of Louis XVI.
Due to the rules established by the Convention, a majority of members of the new legislature, 381 of 741 deputies, had served in the Convention and were ardent republicans, but a large part of the new deputies elected were royalists; 118 versus 11 from the left. The members of the upper house, the Council of Ancients, were chosen by lot from among all of the deputies.
On 31 October 1795, the members of the new Council of 500 submitted a list of candidates to the Council of Ancients, which chose the first Directory on 31 October. One person elected, the Abbé Sieyès, refused to take the position, saying it did n't suit his interests or personality. A new member, Lazare Carnot, was elected in his place.
The members elected to the Directory were:
The following day, the members of the new government took over their offices in the Luxembourg Palace, which had previously been occupied by the Committee of Public Safety. Nothing had been prepared, and the rooms had no furniture: they managed to find firewood to heat the room, and a table in order to work. Each member took charge of a particular sector: Rewbell diplomacy; Carnot and Le Tourneur military affairs, La Révellière - Lépeaux religion and public instruction, and Barras internal affairs.
The Council of Ancients was attributed the building at the Tuileries Palace formerly occupied by the Convention, while the Council of Five Hundred deliberated in the Salle du Manège, the former riding school west of the palace in the Tuileries Garden. One of the early decisions of the new parliament was to designate uniforms for both houses: the Five Hundred wore long white robes with a blue belt, a scarlet cloak and a hat of blue velour, while members of the Ancients wore a robe of blue - violet, a scarlet sash, a white mantle, and a violet hat.
The new Director overseeing financial affairs, La Réveillière - Lépeaux, gave a succinct description of the financial state of France when the Directory took power: "The national Treasury was completely empty; not a single sou remained. The assignats were almost worthless; the little value which remained drained away each day with accelerated speed. One could not print enough money in one night to meet the most pressing needs of the next day... The public revenues were nonexistent; citizens had lost the habit of paying taxes. All public credit was dead and all confidence lost. The depreciation of the assignats, the frightening speed of the fall, reduced the salary of all public employees to a value which was purely nominal. ''
The drop in value in the money was accompanied by extraordinary inflation. The Louis d'or (gold coin), which was worth 2000 livres in paper money at the beginning of the Directory, increased to 3000 and then 5000 livres. The price of a liter of wine increased from 50 sous in October 1795 to ten francs and then thirty francs. A measure of flour worth two livres in 1790 was worth 225 livres in October 1794.
The new government continued to print assignats, which were based on the value of property confiscated from the Church and the aristocracy, but it could not print them fast enough; even when it printed one hundred million in a day, it covered only one - third of the government 's needs. To fill the treasury, the Directory resorted in December 1795 to a forced loan of 600 million livres from wealthy citizens, who were required to pay between 50 and 6000 livres each.
To fight inflation, the government began minting more coins of gold and silver, which had real value; the government had little gold but large silver reserves, largely in the form of silverware, candlesticks and other objects confiscated from the churches and the nobility. It minted 72 million écus, and when this silver supply ran low, it obtained much more gold and silver through military campaigns outside of France, particularly from Bonaparte 's army in Italy. Bonaparte demanded gold or silver from each city he conquered, threatening to destroy the cities if they did not pay.
These measures reduced the rate of inflation. On 19 February 1796, the government held a ceremony in the Place Vendôme to destroy the printing presses which had been used to produce huge quantities of assignats. This success produced a new problem: the country was still flooded with more than two billion four hundred million (2.400. 000.000) assignats, claims on confiscated properties, which now had some value. Those who held assignats were able to exchange them for state mandates, which they could use to buy châteaux, church buildings and other biens nationaux (state property) at extremely reduced prices. Speculation became rampant, and property in Paris and other cities could change hands several times a day.
Another major problem faced by the Directory was the enormous public debt, the same problem that had led to the Revolution in the first place. In September -- December 1797, the Directory attacked this problem by declaring bankruptcy on two - thirds of the debt, but assured payment on the other third. This resulted in the ruin of those who held large quantities of government bonds, but stabilized the currency. To keep the treasury full, the Directory also imposed new taxes on property owners, based on the number of fireplaces and chimneys, and later on the number of windows, of their residences. It refrained from adding more taxes on wine and salt, which had helped cause the 1789 revolution, but added new taxes on gold and silver objects, playing cards, tobacco, and other luxury products. Through these means, the Directory brought about a relative stability of finances which continued through the Directory and Consulate.
The food supply for the population, and particularly for the Parisians, was a major economic and political problem before and during the Revolution; it had led to food riots in Paris and attacks on the Convention. To assure the supply of food to the sans - culottes in Paris, the base of support of the Jacobins, the Convention had strictly regulated grain distribution and set maximum prices for bread and other essential products. As the value of the currency dropped, the fixed prices soon did not cover the cost of production, and supplies dropped. The Convention was forced to abolish the maximum on 24 December 1794, but it continued to buy huge quantities of bread and meat which it distributed at low prices to the Parisians. This Paris food distribution cost a large part of the national budget, and was resented by the rest of the country, which did not have that benefit. By early 1796, the grain supply was supplemented by deliveries from Italy and even from Algeria. Despite the increased imports, the grain supply to Paris was not enough. The Ministry of the Interior reported on 23 March 1796 that there was only enough wheat to make bread for five days, and there were shortages of meat and firewood. The Directory was forced to resume deliveries of subsidized food to the very poor, the elderly, the sick, and government employees. The food shortages and high prices were one factor in the growth of discontent and the Gracchus Babeuf 's uprising, the Conspiracy of the Equals, in 1796. The harvests were good in the following years and the food supplies improved considerably, but the supply was still precarious in the north, the west, the southeast, and the valley of the Seine.
François Noël Babeuf. Engraving by François Bonneville, 1794. (BNF, Département des Estampes)
Attack by the followers of Babeuf of the army camp of Grenelle on 9 and 10 September 1796. Drawing by Abraham Girardet, engraving by Pierre - Gabriel Berthault, 1802. (BNF, Département des Estampes)
In 1795, the Directory faced a new threat from the left, from the followers of François Noël Babeuf, a talented political agitator who took the name Gracchus and was the organizer of what became known as the Conspiracy of the Equals. Babeuf had, since 1789, been drawn to the Agrarian law, an agrarian reform preconized by the ancient Roman brothers, Tiberius and Caius Gracchus, of sharing goods in common, as means of achieving economic equality. By the time of the fall of Robespierre, he had abandoned this as an impractical scheme and was moving towards a more complex plan. Babeuf did not call for the abolition of private property, and wrote that peasants should own their own plots of land, but he advocated that all wealth should be shared equally: all citizens who were able would be required to work, and all would receive the same income. Babeuf did not believe that the mass of French citizens was ready for self - government; accordingly, he proposed a dictatorship under his leadership until the people were educated enough to take charge. "People! '', Babeuf wrote, "Breathe, see, recognize your guide, your defender. Your tribune presents himself with confidence. ''
At first, Babeuf 's following was small; the readers of his newspaper, Le Tribun du peuple ("The Tribune of the People ''), were mostly middle - class far - left Jacobins who had been excluded from the new government. However, his popularity increased in the working - class of the capital with the drop in value of the assignats, which rapidly resulted in the decrease of wages and the rise of food prices. Beginning in October 1795, he allied himself with the most radical Jacobins, and on 29 March 1796 formed the Directoire secret des Égaux ("Secret Directory of Equals ''), which proposed to "revolutionize the people '' through pamphlets and placards, and eventually to overthrow the government. He formed an alliance of utopian socialists and radical Jacobins, including Félix Lepeletier, Pierre - Antoine Antonelle, Sylvain Marechal, Jean - Pierre - André Amar and Jean - Baptiste Robert Lindet. The Conspiracy of Equals was organized in a novel way: in the center was Babeuf and the Secret Directory, who hid their identities, and shared information with other members of the Conspiracy only via trusted intermediaries. This conspiratorial structure was later adopted by Marxist movements. Despite his precautions, the Directory infiltrated an agent into the conspiracy, and was fully informed of what he was doing. The newly named commander of the Army of the Interior, was ordered to close the Panthéon Club, the major meeting place for the Jacobins in Paris, which he did on 27 February 1796. The Directory took other measures to prevent an uprising; the Legion of Police (légion de police), a local police force dominated by Jacobins, was forced to become a part of the Army, and the Army organized a mobile column to patrol the neighborhoods and stop uprisings.
Before Babeuf and his conspiracy could strike, he was betrayed by a police spy and arrested in his hiding place on 10 May 1796. Though he was a talented agitator, he was a very poor conspirator; with him in his hiding place were the complete records of the conspiracy, with all of the names of the conspirators. Despite this setback, the conspiracy went ahead with its plans. On the night of 9 -- 10 September 1796, between 400 and 700 Jacobins went to the 21st Regiment of Dragoons (21e régiment de dragons) army camp at Grenelle and tried to incite an armed rebellion against the Convention. At the same time a column of militants was formed in the working - class neighborhoods of Paris to march on the Luxembourg Palace, headquarters of the Directory. Director Carnot had been informed the night before by the commander of the camp, and a unit of dragoons was ready. When the attack began at about ten o'clock, the dragoons appeared suddenly and charged. About twenty Jacobins were killed, and the others arrested. The column of militants, learning what had happened, disbanded in confusion. The widespread arrest of Babeuf 's militants and Jacobins followed. The practice of arresting suspects at their homes at night, stopped after the downfall of Robespierre, was resumed on this occasion.
Despite his arrest, Babeuf, in jail, still felt he could negotiate with the government. He wrote to the Directory: "Citizen Directors, why do n't you look above yourselves and treat with me as with an equal power? You have seen now the vast confidence of which I am the center... this view makes you tremble. '' Several attempts were made by Babeuf 's followers to free him from prison. He was finally moved to Vendôme for trial. The Directory did not tremble. The accused Jacobins were tried by military courts between 19 September and 27 October. Thirty Jacobins, including three former deputies of the Convention, were convicted and guillotined. Babeuf and his principal followers were tried in Vendôme between 20 February and 26 May 1797. Babeuf and Darthé, were convicted. They both attempted suicide, but failed and were guillotined on 27 May 1797. However, in the following months, the Directory and Councils gradually turned away from the royalist right and tried to find new allies on the left.
Bonaparte won his first major victory leading his soldiers across a bridge at the Battle of Arcole (November 17, 1796)
Bonaparte defeats the Austrians at the Battle of Rivoli (January 14, 1797)
A British cartoon showed the failure of the French military expedition to Ireland, dispersed by storms at sea in 1797
The major preoccupation of the Directory during its existence was the war against the coalition of Britain and Austria. The military objective set by the Convention in October, 1795 was to enlarge France to what were declared its natural limits: the Pyrenees, the Rhine and the Alps, the borders of Gaul at the time of the Roman Empire. In 1795, Prussia, Spain and the Dutch Republic quit the coalition and the war and made peace with France, but Britain refused to accept the French annexation of Belgium. Beside Britain and Austria, the only enemies remaining for France were the kingdom of Sardinia, and several small Italian states. Austria proposed a European congress to settle borders of Europe, but the Directory refused, demanding direct negotiations with Austria instead. Under British pressure, Austria agreed to continue the war against France.
Lazare Carnot, the Director who oversaw military affairs, planned a new campaign against Austria, using three armies: General Jourdan 's Army of Sambre - et - Meuse on the Rhine and General Moreau 's Army of the Rhine and Moselle on the Danube would march to Vienna and dictate a peace; a third army, the Army of Italy under General Bonaparte, who had risen in rank with spectacular speed due to his defense of the government from a royalist uprising, would carry out a diversionary operation against Austria in northern Italy. Jourdan 's army captured Mayence and Frankfurt, but on 14 August 1796 was defeated by the Austrians at the Battle of Amberg and again on 3 September 1796 at the Battle of Würzburg, and had to retreat back to the Rhine. General Moreau, without the support of Jourdan, was also forced to retreat.
The story was much different in Italy, Bonaparte, though he was only twenty - eight years old, was named commander of the Army of Italy on 2 March 1796, through the influence of Barras, his patron in the Directory. Bonaparte faced the combined armies of Austria and Sardinia, which numbered seventy - thousand men. Bonaparte slipped his army between them and defeated them in a series of battles, culminating at the Battle of Mondovi where he defeated the Sardinians on 22 April 1796, and the Battle of Lodi, where he defeated the Austrians on 10 May. The king of Sardinia and Savoy, was forced to make peace in May 1796, and ceded Nice and Savoy to France.
At the end of 1796, Austria sent two new armies to Italy to expel Bonaparte, but Bonaparte outmaneuvered them both, winning a first victory at the Battle of Arcole on 17 November 1796, then at the Battle of Rivoli on 14 January 1797. He forced Austria to sign the Treaty of Campo Formio (October 1797), whereby the emperor ceded Lombardy and the Austrian Netherlands to the French Republic in exchange for Venice and urged the Diet to surrender the lands beyond the Rhine.
The Directory was eager to form a coalition with Spain to block British commerce with the continent, and to close the Mediterranean Sea to British ships. By the Treaty of San Ildefonso, concluded in August 1796, Spain became the ally of France, and on 5 October, it declared war on Britain. The British fleet under Admiral Jervis defeated the Spanish fleet at the Cape St Vincent, keeping the Mediterranean open to British ships, but the United Kingdom was brought into such extreme peril by the mutinies in its fleet that it offered to acknowledge the French conquest of the Netherlands and to restore the French colonies.
The Directory also sought a new way to strike British interests and to repay Britain for the support it gave to royalist insurgents in Brittany. A French fleet departed Brest on 15 December 1796, carrying an expeditionary force led by General Hoche to Ireland, where they hoped to join forces with Irish rebels to expel the British. However, the fleet was separated by storms off the Irish coast, and had to return to port.
General Jean - Charles Pichegru, President of the Council of Five Hundred, was accused of being a secret royalist
General Pierre Augereau, a close ally of Bonaparte, led the army that arrested the royalist leaders of the legislature (September 4, 1797)
The army arrests General Pichegru at the Tuileries Palace (September 4, 1797)
The first elections held after the formation of the Directory were held in March and April 1797, in order to replace one - third of the members of the Councils. The elections were a crushing defeat for the old members of the Convention; 205 of the 216 of these members were defeated. Only eleven former deputies from the Convention were reelected, several of whom were royalists. The elections were a triumph for the royalists, particularly in the south and in the west; after the elections there were about 160 royalist deputies, divided between those who favored a return to an absolute monarchy, and those who wished a constitutional monarchy on the British model, The constitutional monarchists elected to the Council included Pierre Samuel du Pont de Nemours, (who later emigrated to the United States with his family, and whose son, Éleuthère Irénée du Pont, founded the "E.I. du Pont de Nemours and Company '', now known as DuPont). In Paris and other large cities, the candidates of the left dominated. General Jean - Charles Pichegru, a former Jacobin and ordinary soldier who had become one of the most successful generals of the Revolution, was elected president of the new Council of 500. François Barbé - Marbois, a diplomat and future negotiator of the sale of Louisiana to the United States. was elected President of the Council of Ancients.
Royalism was not strictly legal, and deputies could not announce themselves as such, but royalist newspapers and pamphlets soon appeared, there were pro-monarchy demonstrations in theaters, and royalists wore identifying clothing items, such as black velvet collars, in show of mourning for the execution of Louis XVI. The parliamentary royalists demanded changes in the government fiscal policies, and a more tolerant position toward religion. During the Convention, churches had been closed and priests required to take an oath to the government. Priests who had refused to take the oath were expelled from the country, on pain of the death penalty if they returned. Under the Directory, many priests had quietly returned, and many churches around the country had re-opened and were discreetly holding services. When the Directory proposed moving the ashes of the celebrated mathematician and philosopher René Descartes to the Panthéon, one deputy, Louis - Sébastien Mercier, a former Girondin and opponent of the Jacobins, protested that the ideas of Descartes had inspired the Reign of Terror of the Revolution and destroyed religion in France. Descartes ' ashes were not moved. Émigrés who had left during the Revolution had been threatened by the Convention with the death penalty if they returned; now, under the Directory, they quietly began to return.
Parallel with the parliamentary royalists, but not directly connected with them, a clandestine network of royalists existed, whose objective was to place Louis XVIII, then in exile on Germany, on the French throne. They were funded largely by Britain, through the offices of William Wickham (1761 -- 1840), the British spymaster who had his headquarters in Switzerland. These networks were too divided and too closely watched by the police to have much effect on politics. However, Wickham did make one contact that proved to have a decisive effect on French politics: through an intermediary, he had held negotiations with General Pichegru, then commander of the Army of the Rhine.
The Directory itself was divided. Carnot, Letourneur and La Révellière Lépeaux were not royalists, but favored a more moderate government, more tolerant of religion. Though Carnot himself had been a member of the Committee of Public Safety led by Robespierre, he declared that the Jacobins were ungovernable, that the Revolution could not go on forever, and that it was time to end it. A new member, François - Marie, marquis de Barthélemy, a diplomat, had joined the Directory; he was allied with Carnot. The royalists in the Councils immediately began to demand more power over the government and particularly over the finances, threatening the position of Barras.
Barras, the consummate intriguer, won La Révellière Lépeaux over to his side, and began planning the downfall of the royalists. From letters taken from a captured royalist agent, he was aware of the contacts that General Pichegru made with the British and that he had been in contact with the exiled Louis XVIII. He presented this information to Carnot, and Carnot agreed to support his action against the Councils. General Hoche, the new Minister of War, was directed to march the Army of Sambre - et - Meuse through Paris on its way to Brest, on the pretext that they would be embarked for a new expedition to Ireland. Hoche himself resigned as Minister of War on 22 July. General Pierre Augereau, a close subordinate and ally of Bonaparte, and his troops arrived in Paris on 7 August, though it was a violation of the Constitution for soldiers to be within twelve leagues of the city without permission of the Councils. The royalist members of the Councils protested, but could do nothing to send them away.
On 4 September 1797, with the army in place, the Coup d'état of 18 Fructidor, Year V was set in motion. General Augereau 's soldiers arrested Pichegru, Barthélemy, and the leading royalist deputies of the Councils. The next day, the Directory annulled the elections of about two hundred deputies in 53 departments. Sixty - five deputies were deported to Guiana, 42 royalist newspapers were closed, and 65 journalists and editors were deported. Carnot and Barthélemy were removed from the Directory. Carnot went into exile in Switzerland; he later returned and became, for a time, Bonaparte 's minister of war. Barthélemy and Pichegru both were sent to exile in French Guiana (penal colony of Cayenne). In June 1798, they both escaped, and went first to the United States and then to England. During the Consulate, Pichegru returned secretly to Paris, where he was captured on 28 February 1804. He died in prison on 6 April 1804, either strangled or having committed suicide.
The coup was followed by a scattering of uprisings by royalists in Aix - en - Provence, Tarascon and other towns, particularly in the southwest and west. A commissioner of the Directory was assassinated in Lyon, and on 22 October counter-revolutionaries seized the city government of Carpentras for twenty - four hours. These brief uprisings served only to justify a wave of repression from the new government.
With Carnot and Barthélemy gone from the Directory, and the royalists expelled from the Councils, the Jacobins were once again in control of the government. The two vacant places in the Directory were filled by Merlin de Douai, a lawyer who had helped write the Law of Suspects during the Reign of Terror; and François de Neufchâteau, a poet and expert in industry inland navigation, who served only a few months. Eight of the twelve Directors and ministers of the new government were regicides, who as deputies of the Convention had voted for the execution of Louis XVI, and were now determined to continue the Revolution.
The central administration and city governments were quickly purged of suspected royalists. The next target was the wave of noble émigrés and priests who had begun to return to France. The Jacobins in the Councils demanded that the law of 1793 be enforced; émigrés were ordered to leave France within fifteen days. If they did not, they were to be judged by a military commission, and, on simple proof of their identity, were to be executed within twenty - four hours. Military commissions were established throughout the country to judge not only returning émigrés, but also rebels and conspirators. Between 4 September 1797 and the end of the Directory in 1799, 160 persons were condemned to death by the military tribunals, including 41 priests and several women.
On 16 October 1797, the Council of Five Hundred considered a new law which banned political activities by nobles, who were to be considered as foreigners, and had to apply for naturalization in order to take part in politics. A certain number, listed by names, were to be banned permanently from political activity, were to have their property confiscated, and were to be required to leave immediately. The law called for certain exemptions for those in the government and military (Director Barras and General Bonaparte were both from minor noble families). In the end, resistance to the law was so great that it was not adopted.
The Jacobin - dominated councils also demanded the deportation of priests who refused to take an oath to the government, and an oath declaring their hatred of royalty and anarchy. 267 priests were deported to the French penal colony of Cayenne in French Guiana, of whom 111 survived and returned to France. 920 were sent to a prison colony on the Île de Ré, and 120, a large part of them Belgians, to another colony on the Île d'Oléron. The new government continued the anti-religious policy of the Convention. Several churches, including the cathedral Notre Dame de Paris and the church of Saint - Sulpice, were converted Theophilanthropic temples, a new religion based on the belief in the existence of God and the immortality of the human spirit. Religious observations were forbidden on Sunday; they were allowed only on the last day of the 10 - day week (décade) of the French Republican Calendar. Other churches remained closed, and were forbidden to ring their bells, although many religious services took place in secret in private homes. The National Guard was mobilized to search rural areas and forests for priests and nobles in hiding. As during the Reign of Terror, lists were prepared of suspects, who would be arrested in the event of attempted uprisings.
The new Jacobin - dominated Directory and government also targeted the press. Newspaper publishers were required to submit copies of their publications to the police for official approval. On 17 December 1797, seventeen Paris newspapers were closed by order of the Directory. The Directory also imposed a substantial tax on all newspapers or magazines distributed by mail, although Jacobin publications, as well as scientific and art publications, were excluded. Books critical of the Jacobins were censored; Louis - Marie Prudhomme 's six - volume Histoire générale et impartiale des erreurs, des fautes et des crimes commis pendant la Révolution française ("General and impartial history of the errors, faults and crimes committed during the French Revolution '') was seized. by the police. The Directory also authorized the opening and reading of letters coming from outside of France.
Despite all these security measures, there was a great increase in brigandage and robbery in the French countryside; travelers were frequently stopped on roads and robbed; the robberies were often blamed on royalist bands. On 18 January 1798, the Councils passed a new law against highwaymen and bandits. calling for them to be tried by military tribunals, and authorizing the death penalty for robbery or attempted robbery on the roads of France.
The political repression and terror under the Directory were real, but they were on a much smaller scale than the Reign of Terror under the Robespierre and the Convention, and the numbers of those repressed declined during the course of the Directory. After 1798, no further political prisoners were sent to French Guiana, and, in the final year of the Directory, only one person was executed for a political offense.
In the spring of 1798, not only a new third of the legislature had to be chosen, but the places of the members expelled by the revolution of Fructidor had to be filled. 437 seats were open, out of 750. The elections took place between 9 and 18 April. The royalists had been disqualified, and the moderates were in disarray, while the radical Jacobins made a strong showing. Before the new deputies could take their seats, Barras and the other Directors, more moderate than the new Jacobins, organized a commission to review the elections, and disqualified many of the more extreme Jacobin candidates, replacing them with moderates. They sent the list of candidates for Director to the Councils, excluding any radicals. François de Neufchåteau, was chosen by a drawing of lots to leave the Directory and Barras proposed only moderate Jacobins to replace him: the choice fell on Jean - Baptiste Treilhard, a lawyer. These political maneuvers secured the power of the Directory, but widened further the gap between the moderate Directory and the radical Jacobin majority in the Councils.
On 17 October 1797, General Bonaparte and the Austrians signed the Treaty of Campoformio. It was a triumph for France. France received the left bank of the Rhine as far south of Cologne, Belgium, and the islands in the Ionian Sea that had belonged to Venice. Austria in compensation was given the territories of Venice up to the Aegean Sea. In late November and December, he took part in negotiations with the Holy Roman Empire and Austria, at the Second Congress of Rastatt, to redraw the borders of Germany. He was then summoned back to Paris to take charge of an even more ambitious project, the invasion of Britain, which had been proposed by Director Carnot and General Hoche. But an eight - day inspection of the ports where the invasion fleet was being prepared convinced Bonaparte that the invasion had little chance of success: the ships were in poor condition, the crews poorly trained, and funds and logistics were lacking. He privately told his associate Marmont his view of the Directory: "Nothing can be done with these people. They do n't understand anything of greatness. We need to go back to our projects for the East. It is only there that great results can be achieved. '' The invasion of England was cancelled, and a less ambitious plan to support an Irish uprising was proposed instead (see below).
The grand plan of the Directory in 1798, with the assistance of its armies, was the creation of "Sister Republics '' in Europe which would share the same revolutionary values and same goals, and would be natural allies of France. In the Dutch Republic (Republic of the Seven United Netherlands), the French army installed the Batavian Republic with the same system of a Directory and two elected Councils. In Milan, the Cisalpine Republic was created, which was governed jointly by a Directory and Councils and by the French army. General Berthier, who had replaced Bonaparte as the commander of the Army of Italy, imitated the actions of the Directory in Paris, purging the new republic 's legislature of members whom he considered too radical. The Ligurian Republic was formed in Genoa. Piedmont was also turned by the French army into a sister republic, the Piedmontese Republic. In Turin, King Charles - Emmanuel IV, (whose wife, Clotilde was Louis XVI 's youngest sister), fled French dominance and sailed, protected by the British fleet, to Sardinia. In Savoy, General Joubert did not bother to form a sister republic, he simply made the province a department of France.
The Directory also directly attacked the authority of Pope Pius VI, who governed Rome and the Papal States surrounding it. Shortly after Christmas, anti-French riots took place in Rome, and a French general, Duphot, was assassinated. Pope Pius VI formally apologized to the Directory on 29 December 1797, but the Directory refused his apology. Instead, Berthier 's troops entered Rome and occupied the city. The Roman Republic was proclaimed on 10 February 1798. Pius VI was arrested and confined in Tuscany before being taken to France. The Vatican treasury of thirty million francs was sent to Paris, where it helped finance Bonaparte 's expedition to Egypt, and five hundred cases of paintings, statues, and other art objects were sent to France and added to the collections of the Louvre.
A French army under General Brune occupied much of Switzerland. The Helvetian Republic was proclaimed on 12 April 1798. On 26 August 1798, Geneva was detached from the new republic and made part of France. The treasury of Bern was seized, and, like the treasury of the Vatican, was used to finance Bonaparte 's expedition to Egypt.
The new military campaigns required thousands of additional soldiers. The Directory approved the first permanent law of conscription, which was unpopular in the countryside, and particularly in Belgium, which had formally become part of France. Riots and peasant uprisings took place in the Belgian countryside. Blaming the unrest on Belgian priests, French authorities ordered the arrest and deportation of several thousands of them.
The idea of a French military expedition to Egypt had been proposed by Talleyrand in a memoir to the French Institute as early as 3 July 1797, and in a letter the following month from Talleyrand to Bonaparte. The Egyptian expedition had three objectives: to cut the shortest route from England to British India by occupying he Isthmus of Suez; to found a colony which could produce cotton and sugar cane, which were in short supply in France due to the British blockade; and to provide a base for a future French attack on British India. It also had several personal advantages for Bonaparte: it allowed him to keep a distance from the unpopular Directory, while at the same time staying in the public eye.
The Directory itself was not enthusiastic about the idea, which would take its most successful general and his army far from Europe just at the time that a major new war was brewing. Director La Révellière - Lépeaux wrote: "The idea never came from the Directory or any of its members. The ambition and pride of Bonaparte could no longer support the idea of not being visible, and of being under the orders of the Directory. ''
The idea presented two other problems: Republican French policy was opposed to colonization, and France was not at war with the Ottoman Empire, to which Egypt belonged. Therefore, the expedition was given an additional scientific purpose: "to enlighten the world and to obtain new treasures for science. '' A large team of prominent scientists was added to the expedition; twenty - one mathematicians, three astronomers, four architects, thirteen naturalists and an equal number of geographers, plus painters, a pianist and the poet François - Auguste Parseval - Grandmaison
On 19 May 1798, two hundred ships carrying Bonaparte, and 35,000 men comprising the Armée d'Orient, most of them veterans of Bonaparte 's Army of Italy, sailed from Toulon. The British fleet under Nelson, expecting a French expedition toward Constantinople, was not in position to stop them. The French fleet stopped briefly at Malta, capturing the island, the government of which offered little resistance. Bonaparte 's army landed in the bay of Alexandria on 1 July, and captured that city on 2 July, with little opposition. He wrote a letter to the Pascha of Egypt, claiming that his purpose was to liberate Egypt from the tyranny of the Mamluks. His army marched across the desert, despite extreme heat, and defeated the Mameluks at the Battle of the Pyramids on 21 July 1798. A few days later, however, on 1 August, the British fleet under Admiral Nelson arrived off the coast; the French fleet was taken by surprise and destroyed in the Battle of the Nile. Only four French ships escaped. Bonaparte and his army were prisoners in Egypt...
Another attempt to support an Irish uprising was made in 7 August 1798. A French fleet sailed from Rochefort - sur - Mer (Rochefort) carrying an expeditionary force led by General Jean Joseph Amable Humbert. The attack was intended to support an uprising of Irish nationalists led by Wolfe Tone. Tone had several meetings with Bonaparte in France to coordinate the timing, but the uprising began early and was suppressed before the French fleet arrived. The French force landed at Killala, in northwest Ireland, on 22 August. It defeated British troops in two small engagements on 24 and 27 August, and Humbert declared the formation of an Irish Republic at Castlebar on 27 August, but the French forces were defeated at the Battle of Ballinamuck on 8 September 1798 by the troops of Lord Cornwallis, British Commander - in - chief in Ireland. A second part of the French expeditionary force, not knowing that the first had surrendered, left Brest on 16 September. It was intercepted by the British Navy in the bay of Donegal, and six of the French warships were captured.
Tensions between the U.S. and France developed into the Quasi-War, an undeclared naval war. France complained the U.S. was ignoring the 1778 Treaty of Alliance that had brought the French into the American Revolutionary War. The United States insisted on taking a neutral stance in the war between France and Britain. After the Jay Treaty with Britain went into effect in 1795, France began to side against the United States and by 1797 had seized over 300 American merchant ships. Federalists favored Britain, while Jeffersonian Republicans favored France. Federalist President John Adams built up the U.S. Navy, finishing three frigates, approving funds to build three more, and sending diplomats to Paris to negotiate. They were insulted by Foreign Minister Talleyrand (who demanded bribes before talking). The XYZ Affair told Americans about the negotiations and angered American public opinion. The war was fought almost entirely at sea, mostly between privateers and merchant ships. In 1800, the Convention of 1800 (Treaty of Mortefontaine) ended the conflict.
The Destruction of ' L'Orient ' at the Battle of the Nile, 1 August 1798, oil on canvas by George Arnald (1825 - 1827). Defeat at the Battle of the Nile left Bonaparte and his army stranded in Egypt. National Maritime Museum, Greenwich, England
Suvorov and a Russian - Austrian army defeat the French at the Battle of Cassano on 27 April 1799. By Luigi Schiavonetti
The French - Dutch victory over the British and Russians at the Battle of Castricum, 6 October 1799. By Jan Antoon Neuhys, Amsterdam Museum, Netherlands
Britain and Austria had been alarmed by the French creation of Sister Republics. Austria first demanded that France hand over a share of the territory of the new Republics to it. When the Directory refused, Austria began searching for partners for a new military alliance against France. The new Czar of Russia, Paul I of Russia, was extremely hostile to French republican ideas, sympathetic to the exiled Louis XVIII, and willing to join a new coalition against France. The Czar offered an army of 20,000 men, sent by sea to Holland on his Baltic fleet. He sent another army of 60,000 men, veterans of fighting in Poland and Turkey, under his best general, Alexander Suvorov, to join the Austrian forces in northern Italy.
The King of Prussia, Frederick - William III, had carefully preserved neutrality in order to profit from both sides. The Directory made the error of sending one of the most prominent revolutionaries of 1789, the Abbé Sieyés, who had voted for the death of Louis XVI, as ambassador to Berlin, where his ideas appalled the arch - conservative and ultra-monarchist king. Frederick William maintained his neutrality, refusing to support either side, a setback for France.
By the end of 1798, the coalition could count on 300,000 soldiers, and would be able to increase the number to 600,000. The best French army, headed by Bonaparte, was stranded in Egypt. General Brune had 12,000 men in Holland; Bernadotte, 10,000 men on the Rhine; Jourdan, 40,000 men in the army of the Danube; Massena, 30,000 soldiers in Switzerland; Scherer, 40,000 men on the Adige river in northern Italy, and 27,000 men under Macdonald were based in Naples: a total of 170,000 men. To try to match the coalition forces, the Directory ordered a new call up of young men between the ages of twenty and twenty five to the army, seeking to add two hundred thousand new soldiers.
On 10 November 1798, the British and Austrian governments had agreed on a common goal of suppressing the five new sister republics, and forcing France back into its 1789 borders. The King of Naples launched an attack on Rome, which was lightly defended by French soldiers. A British fleet landed three thousand Neapolitan soldiers in Tuscany. However, the French army of General Championnet responded quickly, defeating the Neapolitan army at the Battle of Civita Castellana on 5 December. French soldiers also forced the King of Sardinia to remove his soldiers from Piedmont, and to retreat to his island, his last possession. The French army marched to Naples, obliging the King of Naples to leave his city on a British warship. Naples was occupied on 23 January 1799, and a new Neapolitan republic, the sixth under French protection, was proclaimed on 26 January.
Peace negotiations with Austria went nowhere in the spring of 1799, and the Directory decided to launch a new offensive into Germany, but the arrival of the Russian army under Alexander Suvorov and fresh Austrian forces under the Archduke Charles for a time changed the balance of power. Jourdan 's Army of the Danube crossed the Rhine on 6 March but was defeated by the Archduke Charles, first at the Battle of Ostrach and then at the Battle of Stockach on 25 March 1799. Jourdan 's army withdrew while Jourdan himself returned to Paris to plea for more soldiers.
In Italy, a joint Russian - Austrian army under Suvorov 's command defeated Moreau at the Battle of Cassano on 27 April 1799 and occupied Turin and Milan. Suvorov then defeated the French Army on the Terrivva, occupied Milan and Turin. To redress the situation, Joubert was named the new head of the Army of Italy on 5 July, but his army suffered defeat by the Russians at the Battle of Novi, on 15 August; Joubert himself was shot through the heart when the battle began, and his army was routed. The Sister Republics established by the French in Italy quickly collapsed, leaving only Genoa under French control.
In August, the Russians and British opened a new front in the Netherlands. A British army was landed at Helder on 27 August, and was joined by a Russian army. On 31 August, the Dutch fleet, allied with France, was defeated by the Royal Navy. Seeing the French army and government in a crisis, the leaders of the royalist rebellions in the Vendée and Brittany came together on 15 September to prepare a renewed uprising.
The surviving leaders of the royalist rebellions in the Vendée and Brittany, which had long been dormant, saw a new opportunity for success, and met to plan strategy on 15 September 1799. The royalist commander Louis de Frotté, in exile in England, returned to France to command the new uprising.
While the French armies in Italy and Switzerland tried to preserve the Sister Republics, Bonaparte pursued his own campaign in Egypt. He explained in a letter to the Directory that Egyptian venture was just the beginning of a broader campaign "to create a formidable diversion in the campaign of Republican France versus monarchic Europe. Egypt would be the base of something much larger than the original project, and at the same time a lever which will aid in the creation of a general uprising of the Muslim world. '' This uprising, he believed, would lead to the collapse of British power from the Middle East to India. With this goal in mind, he left Cairo and marched his army across the Sinai desert into Syria, where he laid siege to the port of Saint - Jean - d'Acre, which was defended by a local army and supplied by a British fleet offshore. His long siege and attempts to storm the city were a failure; his army was ravaged by disease, it was down to 11,000 men, and he learned that an Ottoman army was to be embarked by the British fleet to sail to Cairo to recapture the city. On 17 May, he abandoned the siege, and was back in Cairo by 4 June. The British fleet landed the Ottoman army, but as soon as they were ashore they were decisively defeated by Bonaparte at the Battle of Aboukir on 25 July 1799.
Due to the British blockade of Egypt, Bonaparte had had no news at all from France for six months. He sent one of his military aides to meet with Turkish government officials and to try to get any news from France. The officer was intercepted by the British navy. The British admiral and naval commander in the eastern Mediterranean Sir Sidney Smith, who had lived in Paris and knew France well, gave the officer a packet of recent French newspapers, and sent him back to Bonaparte. Bonaparte spent the night reading the newspapers, learning about the political and military troubles in France. His orders permitted him to return home any time he chose. The next day he decided to return to France immediately. He handed over command of the army to General Kléber and left Egypt with a small party of senior officers aboard the frigate La Muiron, and escaped the British blockade, but he did not reach France until 9 October.
The military position of France, which seemed disastrous during the summer, improved greatly in September. On 19 September, General Brune won a victory over the British - Russian army in the Netherlands at Castricum. On 18 October, besieged by Brune at Alkmaar, the British - Russian forces under the Duke of York agreed to withdraw. In Switzerland, the Russian army had split in two. On 25 -- 26 September, the French army in Switzerland, led by André Masséna, defeated part the Russian army under Alexander Rimsky - Korsakov at the Second Battle of Zurich, and forced the rest of the Russian army, under Suvorov, into disastrous retreat across the Alps to Italy. Suvorov was furious at the Austrians, blaming them for not supporting his troops, and urged the Czar to withdraw his forces from the war.
The royalist uprising in the west of France planned to accompany the British - Russian - Austrian offensive also was a failure. The Chouans briefly seized Le Mans on 14 October and Nantes on 19 October, but were quickly driven out by the French Army, and the rebellion had collapsed by 29 October.
Since the beginning of the Revolution, the nation suffered from rampant inflation. By the time of the Directory, the paper money, the assignat, based on the value of goods confiscated from the church and nobility, had already lost most of its value. Prices had soared, and the government could not print money fast enough to meet its expenses. The value of the assignat had dropped drastically against the value of the livre, a coin from the old regime which contained silver. In 1790, at the beginning the Revolution, an assignat with a face value of 1000 livres could be exchanged for nine hundred real livres containing silver. In January, 1795, The Convention decided to issue assignats worth thirty billion livres, without any additional backing by gold. By March 1795, an assignat with a value of one thousand livres could buy only eighty livres containing metal. In February 1796, the Directory decided to abolish the assignat, and held a public ceremony to destroy the printing plates. The assignat was replaced by a new note, the Mandat territorial. But since this new paper money also lacked any substantial backing, its value also plummeted; by February 1797 the Mandat was worth only one percent of its original value. The Directory decided to return to the use of gold or silver coins, which kept their value. One hundred livres of Mandats was exchanged for twenty sous of metallic money. The difficulty was that the Directory had only enough gold and silver to produce three hundred million livres. The result of the shortage of money in circulation was a drastic deflation and drop in prices, which was accompanied by a drop in investment, and a drop in wages. It led to a drop in economic activity, and unemployment.
New elections to elect 315 members of the Councils were held between 21 March -- 9 April 1799. The royalists had been discredited and were gone; the major winners were the neo-Jacobins, who wanted to continue and strengthen the Revolution. The new members of the Council included Lucien Bonaparte, the younger brother of Napoleon, just twenty - four years old. On the strength of his name, he was elected the President of the Council of Five Hundred.
This time the Directors did not try to disqualify the Jacobins, but looked for other ways to keep control of the government in their hands. It was time to elect a new member of the Directory; Reubell had been designated by the drawing of lots to step down. Under the Constitution, the selection of a new member of the Directory was voted by the old members of the Councils, not the newly elected ones. The candidate selected to replace him was the Abbé Sieyés, one of the major leaders of the revolution in 1789, who had been serving as Ambassador to Berlin. Sieyés had his own project in mind: He had devised a new doctrine that the power of government should be limited in order to protect the rights of the citizens. His idea was to adopt a new Constitution with a supreme court, on the American model, to protect individual rights. He privately saw his primary mission as preventing a return of Reign of Terror of 1793, a new constitution, and bringing the Revolution to a close as soon as possible, by whoever means.
Once the elections were complete, the Jacobin majority immediately demanded that the Directory be made more revolutionary. The Councils began meeting on 20 May, and on 5 June they began their offensive to turn the Directors to the left. They declared the election of the Director Treilhard illegal on technical grounds, and voted to replace him with Louis - Jérôme Gohier, a lawyer who had been Minister of Justice during the Convention, and had overseen the arrest of the moderate Girondin deputies. The Jacobins in the Council then went a step further and demanded the resignation of two moderate Directors, La Revelliere and Merlin. They were replaced by two new members: Roger Ducos, a little - known lawyer who had been a member of the Committee of Public Safety, and was an ally of Barras; and an obscure Jacobin general, Jean - François - Auguste Moulin. The new Ministers named by the Directors were for the most part reliable Jacobins, though Sieyés arranged the appointment of one of his allies, Joseph Fouché, as the new Minister of Police.
The Jacobin members immediately began proposing laws which were largely favorable to the sans - culottes and working class, but which alarmed the upper and middle classes. The Councils imposed a forced loan of one hundred million francs, to be paid immediately according to graduated scale by all of those who paid a property tax of over three hundred francs. Those who did not pay would be classified the same as émigré nobles, and would lose all civil rights. The Councils also passed a new law which called for making hostages of the fathers, mothers and grandparents of emigre nobles whose children had emigrated or were serving in rebel bands or armies. These hostages were subject to large fines or deportation in the event of assassinations or property damage caused by royalist soldiers or bandits. On June 27 General Jourdan, a prominent Jacobin member of the Councils, proposed a mass draft of all eligible young men between twenty and twenty - five to raise two hundred thousand new soldiers for the army. This would be the first draft since 1793,
The new Jacobins opened a new political club, the Club du Manege, on the model of Jacobin clubs of the Convention. It opened on 6 July, and soon had three thousand members, including 250 deputies, including many alumni of the Jacobins during the Reign of Terror, as well as former supporters of the ultra-revolutionary François Babeuf. One prominent member, General Jourdan, greeted the members at the club 's banquet of July 14 with the toast, "to a return of the pikes ' '', referring to the weapons used the sans - culottes to parade the heads of executed nobles. The club members also were not afraid to attack the Directory itself, complaining of its lavish furnishings and the luxurious coaches used by Directory members. The Directory soon responded to the provocations; Sieyés denounced the club members as a return of Robespierre 's reign of terror. The Minister of Police, Fouché, closed the Club on 13 August.
Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès first proposed the coup d'état, but he was left out of the final resulting government
The Director Paul Barras was persuaded not to oppose Bonaparte 's coup d'état
Lucien Bonaparte, 24 - year - old brother of Napoléon, was elected President of the Council of 500, and took an active part in the 18 Brumaire coup d'état. By François - Xavier Fabre. Museo Napoleonico, Rome
Joseph Fouché, Minister of Police, assured that the police would not interfere in Bonaparte 's seizure of power
Bonaparte confronts the members of the Council of Five Hundred on November 10, 1799
Bonaparte as the new First Consul. By Antoine - Jean Gros, c. 1802. Musée de la Légion d'honneur, Paris
The rule that Directors must to be at least forty years old became one justification for the Coup of 18 Brumaire, the coup d'état by Bonaparte which took place on 9 November 1799; when Napoléon Bonaparte was thirty years old. Bonaparte returned to France, landing at the fishing village of Saint - Raphaël on 9 October 1799, and made a triumphal progression northward to Paris. His victory over the Ottoman Turks at the Battle of Aboukir had been widely reported, and overshadowed the other French victories at the Second Battle of Zurich and Battle of Bergen. Between Avignon and Paris, he was welcomed by large, enthusiastic crowds, who saw him as a saviour of the Republic from foreign enemies and the corruption of the Directory. Upon his arrival in Paris he was elected to the Institut de France for the scientific accomplishments of his expedition to Egypt. He was welcomed by royalists because he was from a minor noble family in Corsica, and by the Jacobins because he had suppressed the attempted royalist coup d'état at the beginning of the Directory. His brother Lucien, though only twenty - four years old, became a prominent figure in the Council of Five Hundred because of his name.
Bonaparte 's first ambition was to be appointed to the Directory, but he was not yet forty years old, the minimum age set by the Constitution, and the Director Gohier, a strict legalist, blocked that avenue. His earliest ally had been the Director Barras, but he disliked Barras because his wife Joséphine had been his mistress before she married Bonaparte, and because of charges of corruption that surrounded Barras and his allies. Bonaparte wrote later that the Jacobin director, General Moulin, approached Bonaparte and suggested that he lead a coup d'état, but he declined; he wished to end the Revolution, not continue it. Sieyés, who had been looking for a war hero and general to assist in a coup d'état, had originally in mind General Joubert, but Joubert had been killed at the Battle of Novi in August 1799. He then approached General Moreau, but Moreau was not interested. The first meeting between Sieyés and Bonaparte, on 23 October 1799, went badly; the two men each had enormous egos, and instantly disliked each other. Nonetheless, they had a strong common interest and, on 6 November 1799, they formalized their plan.
The coup d'état was carefully planned by Siéyes and Bonaparte, with the assistance of Bonaparte 's brother Lucien, the diplomat and consummate intriguer Talleyrand, the Minister of Police Fouché, and the Commissioner of the Directory, Pierre François Réal. The plan called for three Directors to suddenly resign, leaving the country without an Executive. The Councils would then be told that a Jacobin conspiracy threatened the Nation; the Councils would be moved for their own security to the Château de Saint - Cloud, some 5 kilometers west of Paris, safe from the mobs of the French capital. Bonaparte would be named head of government to defend the Republic against the conspiracy; the Councils would be dissolved, and a new Constitution would be written. If the coup went well, it was simply a parliamentary maneuver; it would be perfectly legal. Bonaparte would provide security and take the part of convincing the Deputies. Fouché and Réal would assure that there would be no interference from the police or the city of Paris. Fouché proposed that the leading Jacobin deputies be arrested at the start of the coup, but Bonaparte said it would not be necessary, which later proved to be an error. Shortly before the coup, Bonaparte met with the principal army commanders: Jourdan, Bernadotte, Augereau and Moreau, and informed them of the impending coup. They did not all support it, but agreed not to stand in his way. The president of the Council of Ancients was also brought into the coup, so he could play his part, and Bonaparte 's brother Lucien would manage the Council of Five Hundred. On the evening of 16 November, the Councils held a banquet at the former church of Saint - Sulpice. Bonaparte attended, but seemed cold and distracted, and departed early.
Early in the morning of 9 November, army units began taking positions in Paris, and the members of the Council of Ancients were awakened and instructed to come to the Tuileries Palace for an emergency meeting. When they gathered at seven - thirty, they were told that a Jacobin conspiracy to overthrow the government had been discovered and that they should transfer their meeting the next day to the Château de Saint - Cloud, where they would be in safety. The members were asked to approve a decree to move the meeting site, and to appoint Bonaparte as commander of troops in Paris to assure their security. Alarmed, they quickly approved the decree. Bonaparte himself appeared with his staff and told them, "Citizen representatives, the Republic was about to perish. You learned of it and your decree has just saved it. '' At eleven in the morning, the members of the Council of Five Hundred met at the Palais Bourbon and were given the same message. They agreed to move their meeting the following day to Saint - Cloud.
By the afternoon, as planned, Sieyés and Roger Ducos had given their resignations. Talleyrand was assigned to win the resignation of Barras. Talleyrand was supplied with a large amount of money to offer Barras to quit; historians differ on whether he gave the money to Barras, or kept it for himself. Barras, seeing the movements of soldiers outside, and being assured that he could keep the great wealth he had acquired as a Director, readily agreed to leave the Directory. With three members gone, the Directory could not legally meet. The Jacobin directors Moulin and Gohier were arrested and confined to the Luxembourg Palace under the guard of General Moreau. The first day of the coup had gone exactly as planned.
On 10 November, the members of both councils were taken in a procession of carriages with a strong military escort to Saint - Cloud. 6,000 soldiers had already been assembled at the château; because their pay had repeatedly been delayed, they were particularly hostile to the members of the Chambers. Bonaparte spoke first to the Council of the Ancients, assembled in the Orangerie of the domain of Saint - Cloud, and explained that the Directory was no more. Bonaparte was received coldly, but the Council did not offer any opposition. He then moved to the Council of Five Hundred which was already meeting, under the presidency of his brother Lucien. Here he received a far more hostile reception from the Jacobin deputies. He was questioned, jeered, insulted, shouted down, and jostled. His brother was unable to restore calm, and some of the Jacobin deputies began to demand that Bonaparte be declared outside the law, as Robespierre had been. If the Council voted him outside the law, Bonaparte could be arrested and executed immediately without trial. While the deputies raged and argued, Bonaparte and his brother, escorted by a handful of soldiers, left the Orangerie, approached the unit of grenadiers of General Murat waiting impatiently outside, and told them that the deputies had tried to assassinate Bonaparte with their pens. The grenadiers charged into the hall and quickly emptied it of deputies.
Bonaparte wrote his own official version of what happened, which was published in all newspapers and posted on placards on walls all over France: it vividly described how he had narrowly escaped death from the hands of "twenty Jacobin assassins '', and concluded: "The majority returned freely and peacefully to the meeting hall, listened to the propositions which had been made for assuring the public safety, deliberated and prepared a beneficial resolution which should become the new law and basis of the Republic. ''
With that event, the Directory was finished. A new government, the Consulate, was founded. According to most historians, the French Revolution was over.
Dress of upper - class Parisians in 1797. By Louis - Léopold Boilly
Les deux incroyables. Muscadins or Incroyables wore extravagant costumes, in reaction against the recent Reign of Terror. By Carle Vernet, c. 1797
Despite wars and social turmoil, the population of France continued to grow during the Directory. It was 27,800,000 in 1796, before the Directory, and had grown to 27,900,000 by 1801. Annual population growth had dropped from 16 percent in 1785, before the Revolution, to zero in 1790; but it then rebounded to 36 percent in 1795, then down to 12 percent in 1800. Part of the drop in birthrate during the Directory is attributed to the simplification of divorce, and the change in inheritance laws, which granted equal shares to all descendants. The number of young men killed in the wars during the Directory numbered 235,000 between 1795 and 1799. The high birth rate before the Revolution -- together with conscription from conquered and allied states - allowed Napoleon to fill the ranks of his Grande Armée during the Empire between 1804 and 1815.
By the time of the Directory, French society had been dramatically restructured. Nobles and clergy, the two classes which had held most of the power before the Revolution, had disappeared. An estimated one percent of the population, mostly nobles and priests, but also many members of the upper middle class who had supported the monarchy, had emigrated. The number was even higher in border regions, such as Bas - Rhin, where 4.5 percent of the population had left.
The Directory saw the middle and upper classes take a dominant position in Paris society, replacing the nobility. Enormous fortunes were made, often by providing supplies to the army or by speculation on real estate. Some parts of the middle and upper classes suffered: the abolition of the old professional guilds of lawyers and doctors brought the ruin of many members, who faced competition from anyone who wanted to use those titles. The merchants and shipowners in Bordeaux, Nantes, Marseille and other ports, were ruined by the British naval blockade. Bankers took on a more prominent role, when investment was scarce.
Two new groups gained importance during the Directory. The number of government officials of all levels increased dramatically. The writer Louis - Sébastien Mercier in his Paris pendant la Révolution (1789 -- 1798), ou Le nouveau Paris, published in 1800, wrote: "There is no one who has not complained of the insolence, or the ignorance, of the multitude of government officials employed in the bureaus to sharpen their pens and to obstruct the course of affairs. New has the bureaucracy been carried to a point so so exaggerated, so costly, to exhausting. ''
Generals and other military officers also grew greatly in importance during the Directory, and became a caste independent of the political structure. The Directory had abolished the Jacobin system of political commissioners who supervised and could overrule the military commanders. Generals like Bonaparte in Italy, Hoche in Germany and Pichegru in Alsace directed entire provinces according to their own ideas and wishes, with little interference from Paris. The soldiers of these generals were often more loyal to their generals than to the Directory, as the soldiers of Bonaparte showed during the 1799 coup d'état that ended the Directory.
The working class and poor in Paris and other large cities suffered particularly from the high inflation during the first part of the Directory, which brought higher prices for bread, meat, wine, firewood and other basic commodities. In the last two years of the Directory, the problem was the opposite: with the suppression of the assignats, the money became scarce, the economy slowed, and unemployment grew. The Directory distributed scarce food items, such as cooking oil, butter and eggs, to government employees and to members of the Councils. Before the Revolution, taking care of the poor had been the responsibility of the Church. During the Directory, the government, particularly in Paris and other large cities, was forced to take over this role. To feed the Parisians and prevent food riots, the government bought flour in the countryside at market prices with its silver coins, then gave it to the bakeries, which sold it at the traditional market price of four sous a pound, which was virtually nothing. The subsidies were reduced in the last years of the Directory, paying only for bread, but they were an enormous expense for the Directory. At the beginning, the government tried to provide the standard minimum of one pound of bread a day per person, but the shortage of money reduced the daily ration to sixty grams of bread a day. The government also tried giving rice as a substitute for bread, but the poor lacked firewood to cook it.
The Directory saw a large increase in crime, particularly in the countryside. Bands of the unemployed became beggars and turned to robbery, and brigands robbed travelers along the highways. Some of the brigands were former royalists turned highwaymen. They were later celebrated in the novel of Alexander Dumas, Les Compagnons de Jéhu ("The Companions of Jehu ''). The government did not have the money to hire more police, and the great majority of the army was occupied fighting in Italy, Switzerland and Egypt. The growing insecurity on the roads harmed the commerce in France seriously. The problem of brigands and highwaymen was not seriously addressed until after a serious wave of crimes on the roads in the winter of 1797 -- 98. The Councils passed a law calling for the death penalty for any robbery committed on the main highways or against a public vehicle, such as a coach, even if nothing was taken. If the crime was committed by more than one person, the robbers were tried by a military tribunal rather than a civilian court. The wave of highway robberies was finally stopped by Bonaparte and the Consulate, which employed special tribunals even swifter and more severe than the Directory tribunals.
Corruption was another serious problem, particularly with the businessmen who provided supplies to the army and government. In one case, the Chevalier enterprise received a contract to build three large warships and two frigates at Rochefort; the company was paid in national property seized from the aristocracy and the Church, but it never constructed the ships, or even bought the materials. Huge contracts for government supplies were passed from the furnishers to sub-contractors, who each paid the furnisher a fee. Sometimes contractors demanded to be paid for their services in advance in silver. They were paid, but never delivered the services, and then reimbursed the government with nearly - worthless assignats. The Directors themselves were accused of receiving money from contractors. The Minister of Finance of the Directory, Dominique - Vincent Ramel - Nogaret, was offered 100,000 francs for a bribe to give a contract by a furnisher named Langlois. Ramel refused and turned Langlois over to the police; however, some ministers and Directors, like Barras, left the government with large fortunes. The Directory was unable to escape the accusations of widespread corruption.
Born in reaction against the strict codes of behavior established during the Convention and the Reign of Terror, the Muscadins were fashionable young men who carried canes and sometimes, in groups, attacked sans - culottes. Following soon afterwards, the Directory had its own fashion reflecting the new social behavior, and carried out by young Parisians of both sexes, from middle and upper - class families, often survivors of the excesses of the Revolution, who had lost parents and family members to the guillotine. They dressed in extravagant costumes. They were called Incroyables and Merveilleuses. The men, the Incroyables, wore long hair to their shoulders, round hats with broad brims, short coats and silk culottes. Their female counterparts, the Merveilleuses, wore flowing, high - breasted transparent dresses remindful of the Greco - Roman era. They frequented balls called Bals des victimes, and spoke in their own particular accent and vocabulary, avoiding to pronounce the letter "R '', as it was the first letter of the word "Revolution ''
During the Directory, almost all the structures and rules of Paris society had been swept away, but no new structures and rules had yet been created to replace them. The brothers Goncourt meticulously described the period on their Histoire de la société française pendant le Directoire. Caste and rank mattered far less; all the old titles and forms of address had disappeared, along with old customs and social conventions. Men no longer took off their hats when talking to women, and people of different ranks spoke to each other as equals. Society no longer met in private, in the houses of the nobility, but in public, at balls, restaurants and public gardens. As the Goncourts said, "social anarchy '' reigned in Paris: "everyone met with everyone. '' Government ministers could be seen walking or dining with actresses, bankers with courtesans.
"Liaisons were easy '', the Goncourts reported, "marriage less so. '' The old system of marriages arranged between families based on fortune, profession, and social condition was less common. Marriages were no longer controlled by the church, but by the new civil code, which described marriage as "nature in action. '' Marriage was seen as a temporary, not a permanent state. Children born outside of marriage were given equal status concerning inheritance and other legal matters as those born to married couples. Divorce was much simpler, and could be requested by either the husband or wife. In one period of fifteen months, 5,994 civil law divorces were granted in Paris, of which 3,886 were requested by the wife. of 1,148 divorces granted on the grounds of "incompatibility of humor '', 887 were requested by the wife. The new system also led to a large increase in the number of children born outside of marriage and not wanted; in 1795 four thousand unwanted children in the Department of the Seine were turned over to founding hospitals.
The breakdown of the old system of arranged marriages led to the creation of the first newspaper where men and women could advertise themselves for suitable spouses, called the Indicateur des marriages. it also led to the establishment of the first marriage bureaus. A businessman named Liardot rented a large former mansion, brought in selected eligible young women as paying guests, and invited men seeking wives to meet them at balls, concerts and card games each given at the house each evening. The men were screened by their profession and education.
Although balls were not banned during the Reign of Terror, after the death of Robespierre and the fall of the Jacobins, the city experienced a frenzy of dancing which lasted throughout the period of the French Directory. The Goncourt brothers reported that 640 balls took place in 1797 alone. Several former monasteries were turned into ballrooms, including the Noviciate of the Jesuits, the Monastère des Carmes (turned into a prison where 191 members of the Catholic Church (bishops, priests, monks) were massacred on 2 September 1792, the Séminaire Saint - Sulpice, and even in the former Saint - Sulpice cemetery. Some of the former palatial townhouses of the nobility were rented and used for ballrooms; the Hôtel de Longueville near the Louvre put on enormous spectacles, with three hundred couples dancing, in thirty circles of sixteen dancers each, the women in nearly transparent dresses, styled after Roman tunics. In the public balls, everyone danced with everyone; merchants, clerks, artisans and workers danced with shop women and seamstresses. In the more popular public balls, the cavaliers were charged 80 sous for admission, while women paid 12 sous. At more exclusive balls, admission was five livres. Aristocrats who had survived or returned from exile held their own balls in their houses in the Faubourg Saint - Germain, where Bals des victimes ("Balls of the victims '') were attended by invitees who had lost at least one parent to the guillotine.
The formal dancing of the minuet was replaced by a much more passionate new dance, the waltz, which was introduced to Paris during this time from Germany. For summer evening entertainment, Parisians began to abandon the Tuileries Gardens and the gardens of the Palais - Royal and went to the new pleasure gardens which appeared in the neighborhood between the Grands boulevards and the Palais - Royal. The most famous was the Jardin de Tivoli, also known as Folie Boutin or Grand Tivoli, located on rue Saint - Lazare. It had belonged to an aristocrat named Boutin, who was guillotined during the Reign of Terror. It was a vast garden covering 40 arpents (13,675 hectares), and could hold as many as ten thousand persons. It had alleys filled with promenaders, greenhouses, illuminations, an orchestra, dancing, a café, and fireworks at night. Other new gardens competed by adding spectacles and pageants. The Jardin des Champs - Élysées offered a pageant of costumed soldiers on horseback performing elaborate maneuvers and firing weapons. The Mousseau (now Parc Monceau) had performers dressed as American Indians dancing and fighting battles. The former Pavillon de Hanovre, which had been part of Cardinal Richelieu 's residential complex, featured a terrace for dancing and dining decorated with Turkish tents, Chinese kiosks and lanterns.
Many new restaurants and cafés, usually close to the twenty - three theaters, appeared in and around the Palais - Royal and the new boulevards. A new café, the Tortoni, specializing in ice creams, opened in 1795 at the corner of the boulevard des Italiens and rue Taitbout. The new restaurants in the Palais - Royal were often run by the former chefs of archbishops and aristocrats who had gone into exile. The restaurant Méot offered a menu with over one hundred dishes. Beside the Méot and Beauvilliers, under the arcades of the Palais - Royal were the restaurants and cafés such as Naudet, Robert, Véry, Foy, Huré, Berceau, Lyrique, Liberté conquise, de Chartres (now Le Grand Véfour), and du Sauvage (the last owned by the former coachman of Robespierre). In the cellars of the Palais - Royal were more popular cafés, usually with music, smaller menus at more reasonable prices. One of those, the Postal, offered a menu for just 36 sous. Many of the cafés in the cellars had orchestras; the most famous was the Café des Aveugles, with an orchestra of four blind musicians.
After the Reign of Terror had ended, dining hours for upper - class Parisians returned gradually to what they had been before the Revolution, with déjeuner at midday, dinner at 6 or 7 in the evening, and supper at 2 in the morning. When the theater performances ended at 10pm, the spectators went to the nearby cafés on the boulevards.
The Roman Catholic Church was one of the greatest losers over the course of the French Revolution. Priests, who refused to take an oath to the Civil Constitution of the Clergy emigrated or were expelled from France under a penalty of death. Church property, from cathedrals to candlesticks, was seized and sold. Church ceremonies were banned, causing clandestine religious services to be conducted in private homes. During the Reign of Terror, at Robespierre 's urging, the National Convention, on 7 May 1794, proclaimed a new religion, the Cult of the Supreme Being, which in a little over a year led to the Thermidorian Reaction, and Robespierre 's downfall and execution. The Roman Catholic Church had been the official state religion during the monarchy, and the Directors were all anti-religious republicans, but the Directory, with a few exceptions, did not try to impose any particular religious views, and its policy toward priests and religious institutions changed depending upon political events. After the fall of Robespierre, the repression against the Church eased and, although the policy of repression remained, many churches, especially in the provinces, re-opened, and exiled priests began to quietly return.
In November 1797, working with the new decimal - based Republican Calendar, the week of which has ten days, the Directory replaced Sundays and religious holidays with republican celebrations. The tenth day of the week, called decadi, was designated to replace Sunday. The churches still functioning with Constitutional priests were instructed to have mass on decadi, rather than on the day that would have been Sunday in the previous calendar, and decadi became the official non-working day: government employees were off, and schools, shops and markets were closed. To replace saints ' and religious days, a whole series of secular holidays was created, in addition to the patriotic celebrations already in place, such as 14 of July and important dates of the French Revolution. There were also special days, such as, "the day of the sovereignty of the people ''; "the day of youth ''; "the day of spouses ''; "the day of agriculture '' and "the day of the elderly ''. Certain churches were given new names: the cathedral Notre Dame de Paris was renamed "Temple of the Supreme Being '', Saint - Étienne - du - Mont became the "Temple of Filial piety ''. On decadi, the constitutional priests who performed services were required to share the space with other republican religions and associations who wanted to use the buildings. Large churches were divided into sections for use by various religions.
A new religion, Theophilanthropy, had been founded in 1796 by a Freemason printer - bookseller named Jean - Baptiste Chemin - Dupontès (1760 -- 1852?). It was encouraged by the Director La Révellière - Lépeaux and the Ministry of the Interior, with the state paying for its newspaper. Members believed in God and in the immortality of the soul, but not in the original sin. The sect was similar in form to Calvinism, with readings aloud of texts, hymns and sermons. With the support of the Directory, the sect was given four churches in Paris, including Saint - Roch, Saint - Sulpice and, in April 1798, Notre - Dame de Paris, as well as churches in Dijon, Poitiers and Bordeaux. Members of the sect included some prominent figures, such as General Hoche, the industrialist Éleuthère Irénée du Pont, the painter Jean - Baptiste Regnault, and the American philosopher and political activist Thomas Paine. Beginning in May 1798, however, the Directory began to withdraw support from the newly established deistic sect, which it considered too close to the Jacobins. The sect still had eighteen churches in 1799, but in 1801 it was abolished by Bonaparte.
In Italy, the French army attacked the papal states governed by the Roman Catholic Church in Italy. In February 1797, Bonaparte occupied Ancona to force Pope Pius VI to negotiate. The pope was obliged to cede Ancona and the northern part of his states to the new French - sponsored Cispadane Republic. The gold and silver in the treasury of the Vatican was taken to France to help support the French currency. Following anti-French riots in Rome in December 1797, a French army under Berthier entered Rome and proclaimed a Roman Republic. Pius VI was taken prisoner by the French Army, and transferred to Valence in France, where he was kept prisoner until his death in 1801.
Many of the economic, social and political woes during the Directory were results of the breakdown of the financial system. The principal problem was a great shortage of money with real value; that is, coins made of silver, and an excess of paper money, the value of which shrank as more and more was printed. The Directory produced only 32 million livres worth of silver - based coins in its first two years. Much of this money was hoarded, since, unlike the paper money, it had and retained real value. As a consequence, the government, to cover its costs, was forced to print millions of notes, first called assignats and then mandats, which were based on the value of property seized from the Church and the clergy. These notes declined in value as more and more were printed. When the notes became nearly worthless, the Directory first devalued them and finally gave up and stopped printing paper money. The shortage of real money in the second part of the Directory led to a new problem: shortage of credit; interest rates rose to about ten percent, double what they had been in 1789. The consequence in the last two years of the Directory was a decline in economic activity, and in wages, while prices rose. The population lost confidence in the money and in the Directory 's management.
The lack of credit led to the creation of a number of new private banks, and the growing importance of banks and bankers in the economy. The Caisse des comptes courants, created in June 1796, had some of the most important industrialists and financiers in France as its founders, who would later become the founders of the Banque de France. Several other new private banks followed, which concentrated the wealth of France even more in Paris. Since the nobility had gone into exile, the bankers became the new nobility of France. In other words, bankers became the new aristocrats.
The transportation system within France was another handicap to the economy. The roads and canals had not been improved or maintained since the overthrow of the monarchy. Major canals that had been started in Burgundy and in the north were unfinished. Maritime commerce was in an even worse situation as a result of the war and blockade of French ports by Britain. During the Directory, the number of French ships of more than two hundred tons was one tenth of what it had been in 1789. The conquest of Belgium, the Netherlands and Italy improved the situation somewhat: French goods could be transported on the neutral ships of these countries, and maritime traffic on the Baltic Sea to Germany became an important trade route for France. However, the British navy largely cut off the trade with the French colonies in the Caribbean, which earlier had provided sugar, cotton, indigo and coffee to France; and the entry of the fleet of Admiral Nelson into the Mediterranean Sea cut off the trade routes there. The major ports of Nantes and Marseille saw their commerce and trade routes disappear.
The continual wars and fiscal crises greatly limited the expansion of French industry. The Industrial Revolution had only just begun in France. Production during the Directory had fallen below what it was in 1789. The number of workers in the silk industry in Lyon had dropped from 12,000 before 1787 to 6,500. The cotton textile industry was more successful due to the embargo against British products caused by the war. New factories and new technologies, such as mechanical looms, were introduced in Normandy and in Alsace. However, the technologies were still primitive; the steam engine had not yet arrived in French factories. The chemical industry was also advancing rapidly during he Directory; the chemist and entrepreneur Jean Antoine Claude Chaptal built a chemical factory in Montpellier, which he soon moved to Chaillot, a village west of Paris. The most effective promoter of French industry was François de Neufchâteau, who was Minister of the Interior before becoming a Director in 1797. He planned a new canal system, began work on a new road across the Pyrenees, and organized the first national industrial exposition in Paris, which opened with great success in October 1798. Once he became Consul, Bonaparte copied the idea of the industrial exposition. Despite this bright spot, French industry was primitive: without steam power, most factories in France depended upon water power, and the metallurgy industry still melted iron with wood fires, not oil.
Agriculture was another weak spot of the French economy. While the country was essentially rural, the methods of farming had not been changed in centuries. The vast majority of farmers had small plots of land, sold little and worked essentially to produce enough food for their families. The price of grain was freed from government control under the Directory in 1797, and farmers could sell their grain at whatever price they could get. Following the Revolution in 1789, the forests had been taken away from the nobles and opened to everyone; as a result, large areas of the forests were immediately cut down, and no new trees planted to replace them. The land of the nobility and Church was taken and redistributed to peasants, but under the new inheritance laws, which gave equal shares to all sons, the size of the farm plots became smaller and smaller. Small plots were not consolidated into larger fields, as was taking place in England at the same time. Most farmers were reluctant to try new methods; they did not want to leave fields idle to recover productivity, or to grow forage crops to feed cattle. Furthermore, during the endless wars of the Directory, thousands of farmers were taken into the army, and thousands of horses and mules needed for farming were taken by the Army for the use of the cavalry and transport. Under these conditions, food shortages and famines occurred regularly in France until the time of Napoleon III.
The education system of France was in a chaotic state at the beginning of the Directory. The College of Sorbonne and most other colleges of the University of Paris, had been closed because of their close association with the Catholic Church, and did not reopen until 1808. The schools run by the Catholic Church had also been closed, and any kind of religious instruction forbidden. The government of Jacobins during the Convention created several new scientific institutions, but had concentrated on primary education, which it decreed should be obligatory and free for all young people, but there were few teachers available. By forbidding religious education, seizing the property of the Church and chasing out the clergy, they effectively closed the largest part of the educational system of the country.
At the beginning of the period, the Directory reversed the policy of obligatory and free education for all, largely because of the lack of money to pay teachers. The Directory began to create a system of central schools, with the goal of one in each department, which boys could attend from the age of twelve, with a full curriculum of sciences, history and literature. The state paid a part of the cost, while each student also paid the professor a fee. The new schools had libraries (mostly confiscated from the nobility), small botanical gardens, and museums of natural history. For the first time in French schools, French instead of Latin was the basis of education. Three of these schools were organized in Paris; two of them later became the famous Lycée Henri - IV and Lycée Charlemagne. But by the end of the Directory there were only 992 students in the three Paris schools.
For primary education, each arrondissement in Paris had one school for boys and another for girls, and each commune in the country was supposed to have the same. Since the state lacked money, teachers were paid by the commune or by the students. Once a student learned to read, write, and count, he or she was graduated. In villages, the school was often located in the former church, and teachers were expected, as part of their duties, to carry water, clean the church, ring the bells, and, when needed, dig graves in the churchyard cemetery.
The choices were greater for the children of the middle and upper middle class, as these families had tutors, or sent their children to private schools, but for much of the population, schooling was minimal. There were 56 public schools in the Seine department, which by the population should have had at least 20,000 students; but they had only between 1100 and 1200.
The continual wars during the Directory also had their effect on education. Beginning in October 1797, boys in public schools were required to take part in periodic military exercises, and the Directory established five military schools, called Écoles de Mars, for a total of 15,000 students. Attendance was a requirement for entry into the higher schools of engineering and public works.
The Directory focused its attention on secondary education and especially on creating specialized higher schools for training managers, judges, doctors and engineers, for which there was an immediate and pressing need. The École Polytechnique had been founded by a member of the Directory, Lazare Carnot and the mathematician Gaspard Monge, in 1794. The school became the most prestigious engineering and public works school in France. However, by the end of the Directory there were still no law schools, and only two schools of medicine outside of Paris.
The Institut de France was also founded in 1795 by Lazare Carnot and Monge, to bring together the scientists and researchers, who previously had worked in separate academies, to share knowledge and ideas. It was divided into three large sections: physical sciences and mathematics; moral and political science; and literature and the fine arts. It organized the large party of scientists and scholars who accompanied Napoleon to Egypt, which discovered such treasures as the Rosetta Stone, which allowed the deciphering of Egyptian hieroglyphs. One of the Institut de France first members and speakers was Napoléon Bonaparte, who took the place of Carnot after the latter had been removed from the Directory and left France.
Imaginary view of the gallery of the Louvre as a ruin, by Hubert Robert (1796). Louvre, Paris
Psyche et l'Amour by François Gérard (1797). Louvre
Furniture and objects in the Directory style
Mademoiselle Lange as Venus, by Anne - Louis Girodet (1798). Museum der bildenden Künste, Leipzig
The Intervention of the Sabine Women by Jacques - Louis David (1799). Louvre
The artists of Paris were in a difficult situation during the Directory, as their most important patrons, the aristocracy, had been executed or had emigrated; however a new wealthy class was just being formed. Before the Revolution a half - figure portrait could be commissioned from a less - known artist for three hundred livres. During the Directory, the price fell to forty - eight livres. Nonetheless, the Salon took place in the Louvre in 1795 as it had since 1725, before the Revolution, and each year thereafter. The most prominent artist of the Revolution, Jacques - Louis David, closely connected with the Jacobins, was in seclusion in his studio inside the Louvre. At the end of the period, in 1799, he produced one important work, the Intervention of the Sabine Women. However, a new generation of artists, inspired by David, showed their works; François Gérard; Anne - Louis Girodet, a pupil of David, renown for his romantic paintings, particularly a 1797 painting of the prominent actress Mademoiselle Lange as Venus; Carle Vernet, the son and father of famous painters; the portrait painter and miniaturist Jean - Baptiste Isabey, known as the "painter of the kings '' or "portraitist of Europe '', who painted queen Marie - Antoinette and empress Joséphine, and remained active until the Second Empire; the genre painter Louis - Léopold Boilly; Antoine - Jean Gros, a young history and landscape painter, who soon achieved fame and a government position in 1796 with a heroic portrait of Bonaparte at the battle of Arcole; the romantic landscapes of Hubert Robert; Pierre - Paul Prud'hon, whose work combined Neoclassicism and Romanticism; and a major neoclassical sculptor from the earlier generation, Jean - Antoine Houdon, famous for his busts of George Washington and Voltaire.
Making the Louvre into an art museum had first been proposed in 1747 by Étienne La Font de Saint - Yenne and supported by Diderot in 1765 in the article on the Louvre in the Encyclopédie. The idea was accepted by Louis XVI who, in 1789, began work on the Grande Galerie of the Louvre. The Revolution intervened, and on 27 July 1793 the Convention decreed the creation of a Museum of the Republic (Musée de la République française), which opened on 10 August 1793, the first anniversary of the storming of the Tuileries.
In 1797, at the end of Bonaparte 's triumphant first Italian campaign, convoys of wagons began arriving in Paris, carrying bronze horses, Greek antiquities, tapestries, marble statues, paintings and other works of art taken from Italian cities under the terms of peace agreed by the Austrians. They included works by Raphael, Leonardo da Vinci, Titian, Paolo Veronese and other masters. Other convoys arrived from the Netherlands and Flanders with more art from the Spanish provinces. The more famous works were displayed on wagons in a festive victory parade through the center of Paris. The rest was crammed, unwrapped, into the corridors, galleries and stairways of the Louvre. Work began to rebuild the Galerie d'Apollon and other galleries to provide a home for the ' newly acquired ' art.
The Directory had no public money to spend on architecture, but the newly - wealthy upper class had abundant money to buy châteaux and town houses, and to redecorate them. The style of interior decoration, known as the Directoire style, was one of the notable contributions of the period. It was a transitional style, a compromise between classical Roman and Etruscan motifs, the Alexandrine motifs, more sensual with the styles of Louis XVI. Riesener, the famous furniture designer for Louis XVI, did not die until 1806, though his clientele changed from the nobility to the wealthy new upper class. The Directory saw the first widespread use of mahogany, an imported tropical wood used in the making of furniture.
The Directory period produced a small number of important literary works, often very critical of the excesses of Revolution. These included Essay on the Revolutions by Chateaubriand, published in 1797, which called for a return to Christian values. At the complete opposite end of the literary scale was the last major work of the Marquis de Sade, The New Justine, published in 1797. Sade also wrote a satirical brochure mocking thinly - disguised characters resembling Bonapartre and Josephine. Shortly after the end Directory, on 6 March 1801, Sade was arrested for Justine and its sequel and ended his days in the insane asylum of Charenton.
Historians generally have not been kind to the Directory. Adolphe Thiers, later twice the Prime Minister and the first president of the Third Republic, wrote the first major history in French of the Revolution, in ten volumes, published between 1823 and 1827. He described the Directory this way:
"One of the indispensable qualities of a government is to have good reputation that defends it against unjust attacks. When it has lost this reputation, and when people blame it for the faults of others, and even for bad luck, then it no longer has the ability to govern, and this incapacity should force it to retire. How many governments had been used up during the Revolution!... The Directory had been used up like the Committee of Public Safety before it, and the government of Napoleon that followed. All the accusations against the Directory proved not its faults but its nullity. ''
Thiers blamed Barras, the only Director who served from the beginning to the end of the Directory, for its failure.
"By a bizarre chance, but one that is seen often in the conflicts within revolutions, public opinion had indulgence for the one Director who merited it the least. Barras alone deserved all that was said of the Directory. First of all, he never worked; he left to his colleagues all the burden of business. He spoke only a decisive moments, when his voice was stronger than his courage. He occupied himself with nothing. He only concerned himself with the personnel of the government, which best suited his genius at intrigue. He took a share of all the profits of the government suppliers, and alone of the Directors deserved the accusation of corruption. Despite all of his faults, he was treated differently than the others, first of all because, unlike the other four, he was not a lawyer; and despite his laziness, his debauched habits, his bad manners, and his liaisons with the Jacobins, he alone was credited with 18 Fructidor (the downfall of Robespierre), and he gave the appearance of a man of action, more capable of governing than his colleagues... He was even treacherous toward his colleagues; because all of the criticism that he deserved himself he skillfully managed to shift exclusively onto them. ''
The most celebrated and vivid description of French society under the Directory was written by the Goncourt brothers, Edmond and Jules, published in 1864, which described the mores, daily life, culture and preoccupations of the Parisians. Its final chapter contained the lines:
"Like a guest at the end of an orgy, France was weary; weary of gods, of tribunes, of heroes, of executioners; weary of struggles, of efforts, of cries, of curses, of enthusiasms, of fevers, of intoxications, of storms, of triumphs, of agonies -- France was weary of revolutions, coups d'états. constitutions, legislatures... weary of conquests, weary of being saved; weary of Belgium submissive, Italy conquered; of Germany, when all the eagles of Germany had been taken to the Invalides, but France was still not the head; France was weary of climbing into the sky, of amassing empires, of monopolizing the world; France glutted with glory; France broken, sleeping on a mattress of corpses, sleeping on a bed of laurels. France, emptied of men, of silver, of crimes, of ideas, of eloquence; France, like Mirabeau when he was dying, asking of his doctors and his descendants only one single thing: to sleep! ''
The shortest and simplest description of the entire period, from the Convention to the Empire, was given by Honoré de Balzac in 1837 -- 43 in his novel Illusions perdues. The Spanish Jesuit diplomat Carlos Herrera tells Lucien de Rubempré: "In 1793 the French invented government by the people, which ended with an absolute emperor... So much for your national history. ''
In 1909, Pyotr Kropotkin wrote:
The Directory was a terribly orgy of the middle classes, in which the fortunes acquired during the Revolution, especially during the Thermidorean reaction, were squandered in unbridled luxury. For if the Revolution had put in circulation eight milliards of paper - money, the Thermidorean reaction went ten times as fast in that direction, for it issued the amazing sum of thirty milliards in paper within fifteen months.
In 1971, Robert Roswell Palmer wrote:
The Directory became a kind of ineffective dictatorship. It repudiated most of the assignats (paper money) and the debt but failed to restore financial confidence or stability. Guerrilla activity flared up again in the Vendée and other parts of western France. The religious schism became more acute; the Directory took severe measures toward the refractory clergy (those who would not swear allegiance to the government).
In 1971, the American historians Jerome Blum, Rondo Cameron, and Thomas G. Barnes wrote:
"It was a government of self - interest rather than virtue, thus losing any claim on idealism. It never had a strong base of popular support; when elections were held, most of its candidates were defeated. Historians have been quite negative on the Directory 's use of military force to overturn election returns that went against them... Having by this coup d'état forfeited its claim to be a constitutional government, the Directory henceforth clung to power only by such illegal acts as purges and quashed elections. ''
In the 1970s, other historians wrote that the achievements of the Directory, were minor, though it did establish administrative procedures and financial reforms that worked out well when Napoleon started using them. It was blamed for creating chronic violence, ambivalent forms of justice, and repeated recourse to heavy - handed repression.
In 1994, Isser Woloch wrote:
"The Terror had left a dual legacy that made such normalcy impossible. On the one hand, massive disengagement, apathy, and cynicism about government; on the other hand, rancorous, violent hostility between the politically engaged minorities of royalists and Jacobins, between whom the directorial moderates vainly attempted to navigate. Legality became the main casualty in this situation. ''
In 2007, Howard Brown wrote:
"The four years of the Directory were a time of chronic disquiet and the late atrocities had made goodwill between parties impossible. The same instinct of self - preservation which had led the members of the Convention to claim so large a part in the new legislature and the whole of the Directory impelled them to keep their predominance. War was at the center of attention, not only for the survival of France but for the loot and forced payments into the French treasury.
The Directory was officially led by a president, as stipulated by Article 141 of the Constitution of the Year III. An entirely ceremonial post, the first presidency was held by Rewbell who was chosen by lot on 2 Nov 1795. The directors conducted their elections privately, and appointed a new president every three months. The last president was Gohier, who resigned during Brumaire after his arrest by troops under the Bonapartist general Jean Victor Marie Moreau.
The following table displays all Directeurs and their dates of service:
The ministers under the Directory were:
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it can also be a hat family guy | List of family Guy characters - wikipedia
Family Guy is an American animated comedy series created by Seth MacFarlane for the Fox Broadcasting Company. Characters are listed only once, normally under the first applicable subsection in the list; very minor characters are listed with a more regular character with whom they are associated.
Peter Griffin (voiced by Seth MacFarlane) is the patriarch of the Griffin household, an Irish - American blue - collar worker. For most of the series, Peter is shown as an obese, unintelligent, lazy, outspoken, immature, and eccentric alcoholic. He has several jobs, which have included working at the Happy Go Lucky Toy Factory, a fisherman, and currently as a shipping clerk at the Pawtucket Brewery.
Lois Patrice Griffin (née Pewterschmidt) (voiced by Alex Borstein) is the matriarch of the Griffin household, Peter 's wife, and the mother of Meg, Chris, and Stewie. She is an Anglo - American housewife who cares deeply for her kids and her husband, while also working as a piano instructor. Lois is also very flirtatious and has slept with numerous people on the show.
Megan "Meg '' Griffin (voiced by Lacey Chabert in season 1, Mila Kunis since season 2) is the Griffins ' 18 - year - old daughter and oldest child. She is a self - conscious, insecure, and sensitive teenager who is more often than not ridiculed and ignored by the people around her. Meg just wants to be another face in the crowd by fitting in with her peers and being accepted, but she often finds herself to be a victim of circumstance. She has had several love interests over the course of the series, including Brian Griffin, Mayor Adam West, Tom Tucker, Glenn Quagmire, and Joe Swanson.
Christopher Cross "Chris '' Griffin (voiced by Seth Green) is the Griffins ' 15 - year - old son and middle child. He is a friendly, warm - hearted, and funny teenager who is a younger version of Peter physically, but intellectually, he very often shows better potential, as demonstrated from moments of coherence and articulation within his speech, especially when talking about films, TV series, actors and actresses, etc. Despite this, he can be very naive and gullible, often displaying a tendency to be easily fooled.
Stewart Gilligan "Stewie '' Griffin (voiced by Seth MacFarlane) is the Griffin 's 1 - year - old child, but often behaves in adult ways such as speaking in an upper - class British dialect. He is a child genius who frequently aspired to murder his mother Lois and take over the world but has since mellowed out considerably. Stewie built a time machine with which he and Brian have traveled through time. He turned 1 year old in "Chitty Chitty Death Bang, '' and has not aged past one year since. As a fact in "Road to Rupert, '' he says he is a year old.
Brian Griffin (voiced by Seth MacFarlane) is the family 's anthropomorphic talking white Labrador Retriever and the best friend of both Stewie and Peter. He and Stewie are often at the center of the show 's most critically acclaimed episodes, most notably the "Road to... '' episodes, where he and Stewie go on road - trips together. Brian is portrayed as an intellectual -- a Brown University attendee -- who often serves as the family 's voice of reason, pointing out how ridiculous Peter 's ideas are. He is not - so - secretly in love with Lois and is an unsuccessful, unemployed writer.
Brian was not revealed to be an atheist until season 7. In earlier seasons, he was shown to be very much a believer of God especially in "If I 'm Dyin ', I 'm Lyin ' '' in season 2. How this change occurred in Brian is unknown.
In "Life of Brian '', Brian is hit by a car and dies from his injuries, with the family by his side. The family then decides to adopt a new streetwise dog with a New Jersey / Italian American way of speaking named Vinny. However, in "Christmas Guy '' (two episodes later), Stewie still misses Brian. He finds a way to go back in time and successfully saves him, also meaning that the family never adopted Vinny. Though Stewie and Vinny did say their goodbyes.
The following characters have worked with Peter at different jobs:
Four actors who voiced semi-regular Family Guy characters have died:
In addition, Frank Sinatra Jr., who appeared in three episodes as himself, died in 2016.
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which of the following people was a greek philosopher | List of ancient Greek philosophers - wikipedia
This list of ancient Greek philosophers contains philosophers who studied in ancient Greece or spoke Greek. Ancient Greek philosophy began in Miletus with the pre-Socratic philosopher Thales and lasted through Late Antiquity. Some of the most famous and influential philosophers of all time were from the ancient Greek world, including Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. Abbreviations used in this list:
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a high-refractive-index polymer (hrip) is a polymer that has a refractive index greater than _ | High - refractive - index polymer - wikipedia
A high - refractive - index polymer (HRIP) is a polymer that has a refractive index greater than 1.50.
Such materials are required for anti-reflective coating and photonic devices such as light emitting diodes (LEDs) and image sensors. The refractive index of a polymer is based on several factors which include polarizability, chain flexibility, molecular geometry and the polymer backbone orientation.
As of 2004, the highest refractive index for a polymer was 1.76. Substituents with high molar fractions or high - n nanoparticles in a polymer matrix have been introduced to increase the refractive index in polymers.
A typical polymer has a refractive index of 1.30 -- 1.70, but a higher refractive index is often required for specific applications. The refractive index is related to the molar refractivity, structure and weight of the monomer. In general, high molar refractivity and low molar volumes increase the refractive index of the polymer.
Optical dispersion is an important property of an HRIP. It is characterized by the Abbe number. A high refractive index material will generally have a small Abbe number, or a high optical dispersion. A low birefringence has been required along with a high refractive index for many applications. It can be achieved by using different functional groups in the initial monomer to make the HRIP. Aromatic monomers both increase refractive index and decrease the optical anisotropy and thus the birefringence.
A high clarity (optical transparency) is also desired in a high refractive index polymer. The clarity is dependent on the refractive indexes of the polymer and of the initial monomer.
When looking at thermal stability, the typical variables measured include glass transition, initial decomposition temperature, degradation temperature and the melting temperature range. The thermal stability can be measured by thermogravimetric analysis and differential scanning calorimetry. Polyesters are considered thermally stable with a degradation temperature of 410 ° C. The decomposition temperature changes depending on the substituent that is attached to the monomer used in the polymerization of the high refractive index polymer. Thus, longer alkyl substituents results in lower thermal stability.
Most applications favor polymers which are soluble in as many solvents as possible. Highly refractive polyesters and polyimides are soluble in common organic solvents such as dichloromethane, methanol, hexanes, acetone and toluene.
The synthesis route depends on the HRIP type. The Michael polyaddition is used for a polyimide because it can be carried out at room temperature and can used for step - growth polymerization. This synthesis was first succeeded with polyimidothiethers, resulting in optically transparent polymers with high refractive index. Polycondensation reactions are also common to make high refractive index polymers, such as polyesters and polyphosphonates.
High refractive indices have been achieved either by introducing substituents with high molar refractions (intrinsic HRIPs) or by combining high - n nanoparticles with polymer matrixes (HRIP nanocomposites).
Sulfur - containing substituents including linear thioether and sulfone, cyclic thiophene, thiadiazole and thianthrene are the most commonly used groups for increasing refractive index of a polymer. Polymers with sulfur - rich thianthrene and tetrathiaanthracene moieties exhibit n values above 1.72, depending on the degree of molecular packing.
Halogen elements, especially bromine and iodine, were the earliest components used for developing HRIPs. In 1992, Gaudiana et al. reported a series of polymethylacrylate compounds containing lateral brominated and iodinated carbazole rings. They had refractive indices of 1.67 -- 1.77 depending on the components and numbers of the halogen substituents. However, recent applications of halogen elements in microelectronics have been severely limited by the WEEE directive and RoHS legislation adopted by the European Union to reduce potential pollution of the environment.
Phosphorus - containing groups, such as phosphonates and phosphazenes, often exhibit high molar refractivity and optical transmittance in the visible light region. Polyphosphonates have high refractive indices due to the phosphorus moiety even if they have chemical structures analogous to polycarbonates. Shaver et al. reported a series of polyphosphonates with varying backbones, reaching the highest refractive index reported for polyphosphonates at 1.66. In addition, polyphosphonates exhibit good thermal stability and optical transparency; they are also suitable for casting into plastic lenses.
Organometallic components result in HRIPs with good film forming ability and relatively low optical dispersion. Polyferrocenylsilanes and polyferrocenes containing phosphorus spacers and phenyl side chains show unusually high n values (n = 1.74 and n = 1.72). They might be good candidates for all - polymer photonic devices because of their intermediate optical dispersion between organic polymers and inorganic glasses.
Hybrid techniques which combine an organic polymer matrix with highly refractive inorganic nanoparticles could result in high n values. The factors affecting the refractive index of a high - n nanocomposite include the characteristics of the polymer matrix, nanoparticles and the hybrid technology between inorganic and organic components. The refractive index of a nanocomposite can be estimated as n c o m p = Φ p n p + Φ o r g n o r g (\ displaystyle (n_ (comp)) = (\ Phi _ (p)) (n_ (p)) + (\ Phi _ (org)) (n_ (org))), where n c o m p (\ displaystyle (n_ (comp))), n p (\ displaystyle (n_ (p))) and n o r g (\ displaystyle (n_ (org))) stand for the refractive indices of the nanocomposite, nanoparticle and organic matrix, respectively. Φ p (\ displaystyle (\ Phi _ (p))) and Φ o r g (\ displaystyle (\ Phi _ (org))) represent the volume fractions of the nanoparticles and organic matrix, respectively. The nanoparticle load is also important in designing HRIP nanocomposites for optical applications, because excessive concentrations increase the optical loss and decrease the processability of the nanocomposites. The choice of nanoparticles is often influenced by their size and surface characteristics. In order to increase optical transparency and reduce Rayleigh scattering of the nanocomposite, the diameter of the nanoparticle should be below 25 nm. Direct mixing of nanoparticles with the polymer matrix often results in the undesirable aggregation of nanoparticles -- this is avoided by modifying their surface. The most commonly used nanoparticles for HRIPs include TiO (anatase, n = 2.45; rutile, n = 2.70), ZrO (n = 2.10), amorphous silicon (n = 4.23), PbS (n = 4.20) and ZnS (n = 2.36). Polyimides have high refractive indexes and thus are often used as the matrix for high - n nanoparticles. The resulting nanocomposites exhibit a tunable refractive index ranging from 1.57 to 1.99.
A microlens array is a key component of optoelectronics, optical communications, CMOS image sensors and displays. Polymer - based microlenses are easier to make and are more flexible than conventional glass - based lenses. The resulting devices use less power, are smaller in size and are cheaper to produce.
Another application of HRIPs is in immersion lithography. It is a new technique for circuit manufacturing that uses both photoresists and high refractive index fluids. The photoresist needs to have an n value of greater than 1.90. It has been shown that non-aromatic, sulfur - containing HRIPs are the best materials for an optical photoresist system.
Light - emitting diodes (LEDs) are a common solid - state light source. High - brightness LEDs (HBLEDs) are often limited by the relatively low light extraction efficiency due to the mismatch of the refractive indices between the LED material (GaN, n = 2.5) and the organic encapsulant (epoxy or silicone, n = 1.5). Higher light outputs can be achieved by using an HRIP as the encapsulant.
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who plays the invisible woman in fantastic four | Invisible Woman - wikipedia
The Invisible Woman (Susan "Sue '' Storm - Richards), previously known as the Invisible Girl, is a fictional superheroine appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. The character is a founding member of the Fantastic Four and was the first female superhero created by Marvel during the Silver Age of Comics.
Sue Richards received her powers after being exposed to a cosmic storm. Her primary power deals with light waves, allowing her to render herself and others invisible. She can also project powerful fields of invisible psionic energy which she uses for a variety of offensive and defensive effects. Richards plays a central role in the lives of her hot - headed younger brother Johnny Storm, her brilliant husband Reed Richards, her close friend Ben Grimm, and her children (Franklin and Valeria).
An object of infatuation for Doctor Doom and, most notably, Namor the Sub-Mariner, Sue 's passive invisibility power translated into her frequent deployment as a damsel in distress during the team 's early adventures. Upon developing the ability to project powerful fields of energy, Sue Storm became a more powerful member of the Fantastic Four, and the team 's second - in - command with a growing assertive confidence. While Sue operated somewhat in the shadow of her brother and her husband in the early years, she is now the soul of the Fantastic Four and one of the primary heroes in the Marvel Universe.
The Invisible Woman was portrayed by Rebecca Staab in the 1994 film The Fantastic Four, Jessica Alba in the 2005 film Fantastic Four, and its 2007 sequel Fantastic Four: Rise of the Silver Surfer, and Kate Mara in the 2015 film Fantastic Four.
Created by writer Stan Lee and artist / co-writer Jack Kirby, the character first appeared in The Fantastic Four # 1 (Nov. 1961).
Stan Lee did not want Sue to have super strength, "to be Wonder Woman and punch people '', so eventually he came to invisibility, inspired by works such as The Invisible Man. His original two - page plot summary for the first issue of The Fantastic Four, reprinted in the Marvel Masterworks edition of the first ten issues, handled Susan 's powers similarly to the Universal Pictures 's "Invisible '' series, which required her to take off her clothes, but noting concern that that might be "too sexy '' for a comic book. Sue was initially presented as the sole reason for Ben Grimm, a bad guy, remaining on the group, which was significantly toned down in the published series.
Invisible Woman has primarily appeared in issues of Fantastic Four. Susan 's initial power of invisibility proved to be of minor consequence in the team 's early missions, especially compared to the abilities of the others in the group. In issue 22 (January, 1964), the creators expanded Sue 's abilities, giving her the power to render other objects and people invisible and create strong force fields and psionic blasts. Despite her enhanced abilities, Susan served primarily as an assistant and second - in - command to Reed in the early years of the series. This changed when John Byrne began his run on the title. Under his authorship, Sue became more confident and assertive in her abilities which became more versatile and impressive. For instance, she found she could use her force field abilities to manipulate matter through the air, immobilize enemies, or administer long - range attacks. Susan changed her nom de guerre to Invisible Woman, and is now recognized as one of the more powerful characters in the Marvel Universe.
As detailed in The Marvel Saga: Official History of The Marvel Universe # 16, Susan Storm, and her younger brother, Jonathan grew up in the town of Glenville, Long Island, children of a physician named Franklin Storm and a woman named Mary. The parents left their kids alone one night to travel to a dinner honoring Dr. Storm. On the way, a tire blew out but only Mary was injured. Franklin escaped injury and insisted on operating on his wife. He was unable to save her and she died. After his wife 's death, Dr. Franklin Storm became a gambler and a drunk, losing his medical practice, which led him to the accidental killing of a loan shark. Franklin did not defend himself in court, because he still felt guilty over Mary 's death. With their father in prison, Susan had to become a mother figure for her younger brother.
While living with her aunt, Susan, at the young age of 17, met her future husband, Reed Richards, a house guest who was attending college. When she graduated from high school as the award - winning captain of her Girls ' Varsity Swim Team, she moved to California to attend college, where she pursued an acting career and encountered Richards again. They began to become romantically involved with each other.
Reed Richards, working in the field of aerospace engineering, was designing a spacecraft for interstellar travel. Everything was going well until the government stopped the funding of his project. Richards, wanting to see his project through, decided to make an unscheduled test flight. Originally, it was only going to be Reed and his best friend, Ben Grimm, involved, but Susan was instrumental in persuading Reed in letting her brother and herself join them on the dangerous space mission. In space, the quartet was exposed to massive amounts of cosmic radiation. As a result, they had to abort the mission and return to Earth. After the crash landing, they realized that they gained superhuman powers; hers was the ability to become invisible at will. Realizing the potential use of their abilities, the four of them became the Fantastic Four, for the benefit of mankind. Susan adopted the code name Invisible Girl.
As the Fantastic Four, the team set up their first headquarters in the Baxter Building in Manhattan. The Fantastic Four encounter many villains in the early part of their career, but none of them contend for Susan 's affections more than Namor the Sub-Mariner. Sue feels an amount of attraction to Namor, but her heart belongs with Reed, a situation that has been called the Marvel Universe 's first love triangle.
Initially, her powers are limited to making herself invisible. However, before long Sue discovers she can make other things invisible as well as create force fields of invisible energy. After Susan is injured in battle with the Mole Man, her father escapes from prison and operates on her to save her life. Franklin makes amends with his children before returning to prison; however, the Super-Skrull finds a way to kidnap Dr. Storm, mimic his appearance, and then fight the Fantastic Four as the Invincible Man. In the process of defeating the Super-Skrull, Dr. Storm sacrifices his own life to protect the Fantastic Four from a Skrull booby trap.
Reed and Sue 's relationship progresses, with the two of them deciding to get married. The wedding is the event of the century, with several of New York City 's preeminent superheroes in attendance. Not long after that, Sue and the Fantastic Four encounter Galactus and the Silver Surfer. Sue later becomes pregnant with her first child. As a result, she takes time off as an active member of the team. Johnny 's girlfriend, the Inhuman elementalist Crystal, joins the team, taking over Susan 's roster spot.
Susan 's cosmic ray irradiated blood cells serve as an obstacle for her in carrying the unborn child to term. Knowing this, Reed, Johnny, and Ben journey into the Negative Zone to acquire the Cosmic Control Rod from Annihilus. Effectively utilizing the device, the baby is safely delivered and is named Franklin, in memory of Susan and Johnny 's father. Due to the genetically altered structure of his parents, Franklin is a mutant, possessing vast powers. Seeking to use the boy 's talents for his own sadistic purposes, Annihilus triggers a premature full release of Franklin 's latent abilities, which were already in the process of gradual emergence. Fearing that his son could release enough psionic energy to eliminate all life on Earth, Reed shuts down Franklin 's mind. Angry with Reed for not seeking her input in the matter, Susan leaves the Fantastic Four and has a marital separation from Reed. Medusa of the Inhumans takes her roster spot. With the help of Namor, Susan reconciles with Reed and returns to the Fantastic Four accompanied by Franklin.
Susan eventually becomes pregnant for a second time. However, this second child is stillborn due to Susan having been exposed to radiation inside the Negative Zone. A depressed Susan is manipulated by Psycho - Man into becoming Malice. As Malice, Susan attacks her friends and family in the Fantastic Four, utilizing her abilities at power levels she had never displayed previously. Reed saves Susan by forcing her to hate him legitimately. Susan (off - panel) does something to Psycho - Man, causing him to let out a terrifying scream. After she rejoins her teammates, Susan states that Psycho - Man will never hurt anyone ever again. Susan is profoundly affected by the entire episode, and changes her code name from "Invisible Girl '' to "Invisible Woman ''. Along with Reed, she briefly leaves the Fantastic Four and joins the Avengers. The two of them rejoin the Fantastic Four before long.
During the Infinity War, Susan faces off against Malice, who has reemerged in her subconscious. Susan absorbs Malice into her own consciousness. Subsequently, Susan 's personality is influenced by Malice, causing her to become more aggressive in battle, even creating invisible razor - like force fields she uses to slice enemies. Her son Franklin, who has traveled forward and back in time, becomes the adult hero Psi - Lord, frees his mother, and absorbs the influence of Malice into himself. He eventually defeats Malice by projecting her into the mind of the Dark Raider, an insane alternate universe counterpart of Reed Richards who later dies in the Negative Zone.
After the apparent death of Reed, Susan becomes a capable leader. Susan keeps searching for Reed, feeling he is still alive, despite romantic advances from her old flame, Namor the Sub-Mariner. The Fantastic Four eventually rescue the time - displaced Reed, who finds himself temporarily losing confidence in his leadership skills, since Susan is also a capable leader.
Following their return to their Earth of origin, the Fantastic Four encounter Valeria von Doom. This new Marvel Girl came from an alternate future, where she was the child of Susan and Doctor Doom. Susan eventually comes to accept the young girl as a friend. During a conflict with Abraxas, Franklin reveals that he used his abilities to save Susan 's original stillborn child and place it in another alternate future. After the ordeal involving Abraxas, Marvel Girl is restored to a baby again inside Susan 's womb. Susan again has a difficult birthing. Due to the help of Doctor Doom, Susan gives birth to a healthy baby girl, which Doom names Valeria, his price for helping Sue. Doom places a spell on the baby, which makes her his familiar spirit, to be used against the Fantastic Four. The Fantastic Four wrestle Valeria free from Doom 's control and defeat him.
Zius, leader of a group of Galactus refugees, kidnaps Susan. His intent was to use her powers to hide planets from Galactus. Reed finds a way to fool Zius, by switching Susan and Johnny 's powers. Susan assists in an adventure where Johnny becomes a herald of Galactus. Wielding a cosmic version of her powers, Johnny is able to see through people to the very cores of their personality.
Both Sue and Johnny gain a newfound respect for each other and how they deal with their powers. Soon, Reed tries to switch the powers back. The entire FF 's powers are granted to four random civilians before being restored to their rightful wielders.
This parallels an earlier torture by Doom, where Sue was given an extremely painful version of Johnny 's pyrokinetic ability.
During the 2006 - 07 storyline "Civil War '', which takes place in the aftermath of an explosion in a residential neighborhood in Stamford, Connecticut, and prompting calls for the government to register people with superhuman abilities, Sue 's brother Johnny is beaten up by locals angered by his celebrity superhero status. Although Sue is initially part of the pro-registration side supporting the Superhuman Registration Act, she defects after the Thor clone, created by her husband Mister Fantastic and Tony Stark, kills Bill Foster. Sue leaves the Baxter Building, informing Reed via a note that their children are in his care, as she intends to join Captain America 's underground resistance force. Her final injunction to her husband is a heartfelt request: "Please fix this. ''
The Storm siblings narrowly escape a team of S.H.I.E.L.D. agents bent on capturing them in Civil War # 5. The two further elude detection by operating under fake husband and wife identities provided by Nick Fury, becoming members of Captain America 's Secret Avengers. Before storming the Negative Zone prison, Sue visits Namor to plead for assistance. He refuses and indicates she is still attracted to him, an accusation she does not deny.
During the final battle depicted in Civil War # 7, as Susan is nearly shot by Taskmaster, but Reed Richards jumps in front of her and takes the brunt of the attack, sustaining a major injury. Outraged, Susan beats Taskmaster into the ground. Following the end of the war, Susan helps with the clean - up of New York City. She and the other Secret Avengers are granted amnesty, and she returns home to Reed. Seeking to repair the damage done to their marriage as a result of the war, Sue and Reed take time off from the Fantastic Four, but ask Storm and the Black Panther to take their places in the meantime.
In the second issue of World War Hulk, the Fantastic Four confront the Hulk. Reed has designed a machine that recreates the Sentry 's aura. The Hulk, only momentarily calmed, discovers the ruse. Sue deploys her force fields to defend Reed against the Hulk, who shatters her protective fields with such force that she collapses, leaving Reed vulnerable. Reed suffers a vicious beating at the hands of the Hulk; Sue telephones the Sentry for help.
The Hulk transforms Madison Square Garden into a gladiatorial arena. Sue and the other defeated heroes are held captive in a lower level. The heroes are outfitted with the same obedience disks that were used to suppress the Hulk 's powers and force him to fight his companions on Sakaar.
Some time after World War Hulk, but before Secret Invasion, the Richards family has hired a new nanny for their kids, Tabitha Deneuve. At the same time, a mysterious new group, calling themselves the New Defenders, commits robberies, and one of their members, Psionics, starts a relationship with Johnny. After a bad break - up, Johnny is kidnapped by the Defenders, along with Doctor Doom and Galactus, to power a massive machine that is designed to apparently save the people of the future 500 years from now, a plan orchestrated by Tabitha, who is revealed to be Susan Richards from 500 years in the future. Eventually, the present Fantastic Four are able to save both the present Earth and the future Earth by sending the future inhabitants to the Earth Trust 's private duplicate Nu - Earth, but after freeing Doctor Doom, the future Sue goes to apologize to him and is electrocuted by Doom.
While Susan is on a lecture tour in Vancouver, British Columbia, a Skrull posing as Mister Fantastic ambushes her, applying pressure to her skull with an invisible force field and knocking her unconscious. Then, a Skrull infiltrates the Baxter Building disguised as Susan and opens a portal into the Negative Zone, forcing the top three floors of the building into the Negative Zone, and in turn trapping herself, Johnny, Ben, and the two Richards children there. The Skrull impersonating her is later revealed to be Johnny 's ex-wife Lyja, who once infiltrated the Fantastic Four by impersonating Ben Grimm 's love interest Alicia Masters. The real Susan Richards is recovered alive from a downed Skrull ship after the final battle of the invasion.
Reed started the Future Foundation for the benefit of the world and for science. When the Human Torch died, the Fantastic Four was dissolved and Sue 's heroic exploits were moved entirely under the banner of the Future Foundation. It is later revealed that Johnny was revived and is still alive.
Sue and the rest of the Fantastic Four create a life raft that will save them from the coming death of the universe. However, right before the final incursion between their universe and the Ultimate Universe, Sue 's part of the ship becomes separated. Reed and Black Panther plan to get her ship back, with Sue holding her part together with her force field. However, the death of the universe proves too much, even for her, and she, Ben, and her children die at the hands of Oblivion, with Reed screaming in agony at the death of his wife and children. Captain Marvel tells him they need to go, and they leave Sue 's destroyed part of the ship behind.
When Molecule Man transfers his power to Reed, Reed used it to resurrect his family including Sue, and they began to rebuild the entire Multiverse.
As the Invisible Woman, Susan can render herself wholly or partially invisible at will. She can also render other people or objects invisible, affecting up to forty thousand cubic feet of volume. She achieves these feats by mentally bending all wavelengths of light in the vicinity around herself or the target in question, and she does this without causing any visible distortion effects; she also directs enough undistorted light to her eyes to retain her full range of vision while invisible. She can also use her powers to turn objects of similar size that are invisible by other means visible. Sue can also mentally generate a psionic field of invisible force apparently drawn from hyperspace, which she manipulates for a variety of effects. Most commonly, Sue generates near - indestructible invisible force fields around herself or other targets. She can vary the texture and tensile strength of her field to some extent, rendering it highly rigid or as soft and yielding as foam; softer variations on the field enable her to cushion impacts more gently, and are less likely to result in a psionic backlash against Sue herself (in rare cases, sufficiently powerful attacks on her psionic fields can cause her mental or physical pain). She is also able to make her shields opaque or translucent like Milk glass to effectively block variations of light such as laser - beams, or make them semipermeable to filter oxygen from water though the latter is mentally taxing.
Sue can shape her psionic force fields into invisible constructs, usually simple shapes such as barriers, columns, cones, cylinders, darts, discs, domes, platforms, rams, ramps, slides and spheres. By generating additional force behind her psionic constructs, Sue can turn them into offensive weapons, ranging from massive invisible battering rams to small projectiles such as spheres and darts. She can generate solid force constructs as small as a marble or as large as 100 feet (30 m) in diameter, and her hollow projections such as domes can extend up to several miles in area. By forming one of her force fields within an object and expanding the field, Sue can cause her target to explode. She can also travel atop animated constructs such as ramps, stairs, slides, columns and stepping discs, enabling her to fly. She can manipulate the energy of her force fields around other objects to simulate telekinetic abilities. It has been said on numerous occasions, including by the Fantastic Four 's greatest opponent, Doctor Doom, that Sue is the single-most powerful member of the quartet and she is one of the few beings able to rupture the shell of a Celestial. She is capable of generating and manipulating multiple force fields simultaneously. This power is only limited by her concentration; once she stops concentrating on a field, it simply ceases to exist.
Susan is also a competent hand - to - hand combatant and martial artist, having been trained by Iron Fist, and having received additional coaching from both the Thing and She - Hulk. Her unparalleled sense of compassion makes her a natural - born leader, and she usually acts as the Fantastic Four 's second - in - command, usually taking over complete leadership of the team during Mister Fantastic 's absence.
Sue Storm is portrayed by Rebecca Staab in the 1994 film adaptation The Fantastic Four. This film portrays Sue very much as she was in the original comics; shy, reserved and infatuated with Reed. The film concludes with Reed and Sue 's marriage.
Sue Storm is portrayed by Jessica Alba in the 2005 film Fantastic Four. Sue, a brilliant scientist, leads Victor Von Doom 's Department of Genetic Research. She is dating Von Doom at the beginning of the film. Immediately prior to the arrival of the cosmic storm which grants her the ability to manipulate light (allowing her to disappear and generate semi-visible force fields), Victor proposes to her: she turns him down. Unlike in other media, Sue was not able to render her normal clothes invisible which resulted in an embarrassing moment when Sue tried to disrobe to sneak through a crowd, only to reappear while still in her underwear. Although her powers are influenced by her emotions, she manages to control her abilities during the team 's climactic battle with Von Doom. Sue accepts Richards ' proposal of marriage at the end of the film. In the sequel, Fantastic Four: Rise of the Silver Surfer, Sue Storm 's wedding to Mister Fantastic is interrupted by the arrival of the Silver Surfer, who initially serves as a herald to the planet - consuming Galactus, but later decides to oppose Galactus ' attack upon Earth because Sue reminds him of the woman he loved back on his homeworld. While attempting to shield the Silver Surfer with a force field, Sue is stabbed through the chest by a spear created by a cosmic - powered Doctor Doom, and she dies in Reed 's arms. However, Silver Surfer uses his cosmic powers to heal and her. After the Surfer successfully fends off Galactus, Sue and Reed marry.
Kate Mara portrays Sue in the 2015 Fantastic Four film reboot, directed by Josh Trank. In the film, Susan is Albanian from Kosovo, the adoptive daughter of Franklin Storm and adoptive sister of Johnny Storm. After gaining her powers from Planet Zero, Susan develops invisibility and force field abilities. The scientists working alongside Franklin Storm were able to create a special suit to help Susan master her abilities. When Victor von Doom returns from Planet Zero and goes on a rampage trying to get back to Planet Zero, Susan is devastated when her adoptive father is killed by Victor. She later helps Reed, Ben, and Johnny defeat Victor.
Invisible Woman was ranked as the 99th greatest comic book character of all time by Wizard magazine. IGN also ranked the Invisible Woman as the 66th greatest comic book hero of all time stating that "the Fantastic Four are nothing if not a dysfunctional family, and they need someone to hold that family together. That someone tends to be Susan Richards '', and 40th in their list of "The Top 50 Avengers ''. She was ranked 85th in Comics Buyer 's Guide 's "100 Sexiest Women in Comics '' list.
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where do moose live in the united states | Moose - wikipedia
The moose (North America) or elk (Eurasia), Alces alces, is the largest extant species in the deer family. Moose are distinguished by the broad, flat (or palmate) antlers of the males; other members of the family have antlers with a dendritic ("twig - like '') configuration. Moose typically inhabit boreal forests and temperate broadleaf and mixed forests of the Northern Hemisphere in temperate to subarctic climates. Hunting and other human activities have caused a reduction in the size of the moose 's range over time. Moose have been reintroduced to some of their former habitats. Currently, most moose are found in Canada, Alaska, New England, Fennoscandia, Baltic States, and Russia. Their diet consists of both terrestrial and aquatic vegetation. The most common moose predators are the gray wolf along with bears and humans. Unlike most other deer species, moose are solitary animals and do not form herds. Although generally slow - moving and sedentary, moose can become aggressive and move quickly if angered or startled. Their mating season in the autumn features energetic fights between males competing for a female.
Alces alces is called a "moose '' in North American English, but an "elk '' in British English; its scientific name comes from its name in Latin. The word "elk '' in North American English refers to a completely different species of deer, the Cervus canadensis, also called the wapiti. A mature male moose is called a bull, a mature female a cow, and an immature moose of either sex a calf.
The word "elk '' originated in Proto - Germanic, from which Old English evolved and has cognates in other Indo - European languages, e.g. elg in Danish / Norwegian; älg in Swedish; alnis in Latvian; Elch in German; and łoś in Polish (Latin alcē or alcēs and Ancient Greek ἄλκη álkē are probably Germanic loanwords). In the continental - European languages, these forms of the word "elk '' almost always refer to the Alces alces.
The word "moose '' had first entered English by 1606 and is borrowed from the Algonquian languages (compare the Narragansett moos and Eastern Abenaki mos; according to early sources, these were likely derived from moosu, meaning "he strips off ''), and possibly involved forms from multiple languages mutually reinforcing one another. The Proto - Algonquian form was * mo swa.
The moose became extinct in Britain during the Bronze Age, long before the European arrival in the Americas. The youngest bones were found in Scotland and are roughly 3900 years old. The word "elk '' remained in usage because of its existence in continental Europe but, without any living animals around to serve as a reference, the meaning became rather vague to most speakers of English, who used "elk '' to refer to "large deer '' in general. Dictionaries of the 18th century simply described "elk '' as a deer that was "as large as a horse ''.
Confusingly, the word "elk '' is used in North America to refer to a different animal, Cervus canadensis, which is also called by the Algonkian indigenous name, "wapiti ''. The British began colonizing America in the 17th century, and found two common species of deer for which they had no names. The wapiti appeared very similar to the red deer of Europe (which itself was almost extinct in Southern Britain) although it was much larger and was not red. The moose was a rather strange - looking deer to the colonists, and they often adopted local names for both. In the early days of American colonization, the wapiti was often called a grey moose and the moose was often called a black moose, but early accounts of the animals varied wildly, adding to the confusion.
The wapiti is superficially very similar to the red deer of central and western Europe, although it is distinctly different behaviorally and genetically. Early European explorers in North America, particularly in Virginia where there were no moose, called the wapiti "elk '' because of its size and resemblance to familiar - looking deer like the red deer. The moose resembled the "German elk '' (the moose of continental Europe), which was less familiar to the British colonists. For a long time neither species had an official name, but were called a variety of things. Eventually, in North America the wapiti became known as an elk while the moose retained its Anglicized Native - American name. In 1736, Samuel Dale wrote to the Royal Society of Great Britain:
The common light - grey moose, called by the Indians, Wampoose, and the large or black - moose, which is the beast whose horns I herewith present. As to the grey moose, I take it to be no larger than what Mr. John Clayton, in his account of the Virginia Quadrupeds, calls the Elke... was in all respects like those of our red - deer or stags, only larger... The black moose is (by all that have hitherto writ of it) accounted a very large creature... The stag, buck, or male of this kind has a palmed horn, not like that of our common or fallow - deer, but the palm is much longer, and more like that of the German elke.
After expanding for most of the 20th century, the moose population of North America has been in steep decline since the 1990s. Populations expanded greatly with improved habitat and protection, but for unknown reasons, the moose population is declining rapidly. In North America, the moose range includes almost all of Canada (excluding the arctic and Vancouver Island), most of Alaska, northern New England and upstate New York, the upper Rocky Mountains, northern Minnesota, Michigan 's Upper Peninsula, and Isle Royale in Lake Superior. This massive range, containing diverse habitats, contains four of the six North American subspecies. In the West, moose populations extend well north into Canada (British Columbia and Alberta), and more isolated groups have been verified as far south as the mountains of Utah and Colorado and as far west as the Lake Wenatchee area of the Washington Cascades. The range includes Wyoming, Montana, Idaho, and smaller areas of Washington and Oregon. Moose have extended their range southwards in the western Rocky Mountains, with initial sightings in Yellowstone National Park in 1868, and then to the northern slope of the Uinta Mountains in Utah in the first half of the twentieth century. This is the southernmost naturally established moose population in the United States. In 1978, a few breeding pairs were reintroduced in western Colorado, and the state 's moose population is now more than 1,000.
In northeastern North America, the Eastern moose 's history is very well documented: moose meat was often a staple in the diet of Native Americans going back centuries, and it is a tribe that occupied present day coastal Rhode Island that gave this deer its distinctive name in American English. The Native Americans often used moose hides for leather and its meat as an ingredient in pemmican, a type of dried jerky used as a source of sustenance in winter or on long journeys. Eastern tribes also valued moose leather as a source for moccasins and other items.
The historical range of the subspecies extended from well into Quebec, the Maritimes, and Eastern Ontario south to include all of New England finally ending in the very northeastern tip of Pennsylvania in the west, cutting off somewhere near the mouth of the Hudson River in the east. The moose has been extinct in much of the eastern U.S. for as long as 150 years, due to colonial era overhunting and destruction of its habitat: Dutch, French, and British colonial sources all attest to its presence in the mid 17th century from Maine south to areas within a hundred miles of present - day Manhattan. However, by the 1870s, only a handful of moose existed in this entire region in very remote pockets of forest; less than 20 % of suitable habitat remained.
Since the 1980s, however, moose populations have rebounded, thanks to regrowth of plentiful food sources, abandonment of farmland, better land management, cleanup of pollution, and natural dispersal from the Canadian Maritimes and Quebec. South of the Canada -- US border, Maine has most of the population with a 2012 headcount of about 76,000 moose. Dispersals from Maine over the years have resulted in healthy, growing populations each in Vermont and New Hampshire, notably near bodies of water and as high up as 3,000 feet above sea level in the mountains. In Massachusetts, moose went extinct by 1870, but re-colonized the state in the 1960s, with the population expanding from Vermont and New Hampshire; by 2010, the population was estimated at 850 - 950. Moose reestablished populations in eastern New York and Connecticut and appeared headed south towards the Catskill Mountains, a former habitat.
In the Midwest U.S., moose are primarily limited to the upper Great Lakes region, but strays, primarily immature males, have been found as far south as eastern Iowa. For unknown reasons, the moose population is declining rapidly in the Midwest.
Moose were successfully introduced on Newfoundland in 1878 and 1904, where they are now the dominant ungulate, and somewhat less successfully on Anticosti Island in the Gulf of St. Lawrence.
Since the 1990s, moose populations have declined dramatically in much of temperate North America, although they remain stable in arctic and subarctic regions. The exact cause of the die - off is not determined, but most documented mortality events were due to wolf predation, bacterial infection due to injuries sustained from predators, and parasites from whitetail deer to which moose have not developed a natural defense, such as liver flukes, brain worms and winter tick infestations.
The moose population in New Hampshire fell from 7,500 in the early 2000s to a current estimate of 4,000 and in Vermont the numbers were down to 2,200 from a high of 5,000 animals in 2005. Much of the decline has been attributed to the winter tick with about 70 % of the moose calf deaths across Maine and New Hampshire due to the parasite.
In Europe, moose are currently found in large numbers throughout Norway, Sweden, Finland, Latvia, Estonia, Poland, with more modest numbers in the southern Czech Republic, Belarus and northern Ukraine. They are also widespread through Russia on up through the borders with Finland south towards the border with Estonia, Belarus and Ukraine and stretching far away eastwards to the Yenisei River in Siberia. The European moose was native to most temperate areas with suitable habitat on the continent and even Scotland from the end of the last Ice Age, as Europe had a mix of temperate boreal and deciduous forest. Up through Classical times, the species was certainly thriving in both Gaul and Magna Germania, as it appears in military and hunting accounts of the age. However, as the Roman era faded into medieval times, the beast slowly disappeared: soon after the reign of Charlemagne, the moose disappeared from France, where its range extended from Normandy in the north to the Pyrenees in the south. Farther west, it survived in Alsace and the Netherlands until the 9th century as the marshlands in the latter were drained and the forests were cleared away for feudal lands in the former. It was gone from Switzerland by the year 1000, gone from the western Czech Republic by 1300, gone from Mecklenburg in Germany by c. 1600, and has been gone from Hungary and the Caucasus since the 18th and 19th century, respectively.
By the early 20th century, the very last strongholds of the European moose appeared to be in Fennoscandian areas and patchy tracts of Russia, with a few migrants found in what is now Estonia and Lithuania. The USSR and Poland managed to restore portions of the range within its borders (such as the 1951 reintroduction into Kampinos National Park and the later 1958 reintroduction in Belarus), but political complications limited the ability to reintroduce it to other portions of its range. Attempts in 1930 and again in 1967 in marshland north of Berlin were unsuccessful. At present in Poland, populations are recorded in the Biebrza river valley, Kampinos, and in Białowieża Forest. It has migrated into other parts of Eastern Europe and has been spotted in eastern and southern Germany. Unsuccessful thus far in recolonizing these areas via natural dispersal from source populations in Poland, Belarus, Ukraine, Czech Republic and Slovakia, it appears to be having more success migrating south into the Caucasus. It is listed under Appendix III of the Bern Convention.
In 2008, two moose were reintroduced into the Scottish Highlands in Alladale Wilderness Reserve.
The East Asian moose populations confine themselves mostly to the territory of the Russian Federation, with much smaller populations in Mongolia and Northeastern China. Moose populations are relatively stable in Siberia and increasing on the Kamchatka peninsula. In Mongolia and China, where poaching took a great toll on moose, forcing them to near extinction, they are protected, but enforcement of the policy is weak and demand for traditional medicines derived from deer parts is high. In 1978, the Regional Hunting Department transported 45 young moose to the center of Kamchatka. These moose were brought from Chukotka, home to the largest moose on the planet. Kamchatka now regularly is responsible for the largest trophy moose shot around the world each season. As it is a fertile environment for moose, with a milder climate, less snow, and an abundance of food, moose quickly bred and settled along the valley of the Kamchatka River and many surrounding regions. The population in the past 20 years has risen to over 2900 animals.
The size of the moose varies. Following Bergmann 's rule, population in the south (A. a. cameloides) usually grow smaller, while moose in the north and northeast (A. a. burulini) can match the imposing sizes of the Alaskan moose (A. a. gigas) and are prized by trophy hunters.
In 1900, an attempt to introduce moose into the Hokitika area failed; then in 1910 ten moose (four bulls and six cows) were introduced into Fiordland. This area is considered a less than suitable habitat, and subsequent low numbers of sightings and kills have led to some presumption of this population 's failure. The last proven sighting of a moose in New Zealand was in 1952. However, a moose antler was found in 1972, and DNA tests showed that hair collected in 2002 was from a moose. There has been extensive searching, and while automated cameras failed to capture photographs, evidence was seen of bedding spots, browsing and antler marks.
North America:
Europe and Asia:
The moose is a herbivore and is capable of consuming many types of plant or fruit. The average adult moose needs to consume 9,770 kcal (40.9 MJ) per day to maintain its body weight. Much of a moose 's energy is derived from terrestrial vegetation, mainly consisting of forbs and other non-grasses, and fresh shoots from trees such as willow and birch. These plants are rather low in sodium, and moose generally need to consume a good quantity of aquatic plants. While much lower in energy, these plants provide the moose with its sodium requirements, and as much as half of their diet usually consists of aquatic plant life. In winter, moose are often drawn to roadways, to lick salt that is used as a snow and ice melter. A typical moose, weighing 360 kg (794 lb), can eat up to 32 kg (71 lb) of food per day.
Moose lack upper front teeth, but have eight sharp incisors on the lower jaw. They also have a tough tongue, lips and gums, which aid in the eating of woody vegetation. Moose have six pairs of large, flat molars and, ahead of those, six pairs of premolars, to grind up their food. A moose 's upper lip is very sensitive, to help distinguish between fresh shoots and harder twigs, and the lip is prehensile, for grasping their food. In the summer, moose may use this prehensile lip for grabbing branches and pulling, stripping the entire branch of leaves in a single mouthful, or for pulling forbs, like dandelions, or aquatic plants up by the base, roots and all. A moose 's diet often depends on its location, but they seem to prefer the new growths from deciduous trees with a high sugar content, such as white birch, trembling aspen and striped maple, among many others. To reach high branches, a moose may bend small saplings down, using its prehensile lip, mouth or body. For larger trees a moose may stand erect and walk upright on its hind legs, allowing it to reach branches up to 4.26 metres (14.0 ft) or higher above the ground.
Moose also eat many aquatic plants, including lilies and pondweed. Moose are excellent swimmers and are known to wade into water to eat aquatic plants. This trait serves a second purpose in cooling down the moose on summer days and ridding itself of black flies. Moose are thus attracted to marshes and river banks during warmer months as both provide suitable vegetation to eat and water to wet themselves in. Moose have been known to dive underwater to reach plants on lake bottoms, and the complex snout may assist the moose in this type of feeding. Moose are the only deer that are capable of feeding underwater. As an adaptation for feeding on plants underwater, the nose is equipped with fatty pads and muscles that close the nostrils when exposed to water pressure, preventing water from entering the nose. Other species can pluck plants from the water too, but these need to raise their heads in order to swallow.
Moose are not grazing animals but browsers (concentrate selectors). Like giraffes, moose carefully select foods with less fiber and more concentrations of nutrients. Thus, the moose 's digestive system has evolved to accommodate this relatively low - fiber diet. Unlike most hooved, domesticated animals (ruminants), moose can not digest hay, and feeding it to a moose can be fatal. The moose 's varied and complex diet is typically expensive for humans to provide, and free - range moose require a lot of forested acreage for sustainable survival, which is one of the main reasons moose have never been widely domesticated.
Bull moose have antlers like other members of the deer family. Cows select mates based on antler size. Bull moose use dominant displays of antlers to discourage competition and will spar or fight rivals. The size and growth rate of antlers is determined by diet and age; symmetry reflects health.
The male 's antlers grow as cylindrical beams projecting on each side of the head at right angles to the midline of the skull, and then fork. The lower prong of this fork may be either simple, or divided into two or three tines, with some flattening. Moose antlers are broad and palmate (flat) with tines (points) along the outer edge. The antlers of mature Alaskan adult bull moose (5 to 12 years old) have a normal maximum spread greater than 200 centimetres (79 in). By the age of 13, moose antlers decline in size and symmetry. The widest spread recorded was 210 centimetres (83 in) across. (An Alaskan moose also holds the record for the heaviest weight at 36 kilograms (79 lb)).
Antler beam diameter, not the number of tines, indicates age. In North America moose (A. a. americanus) antlers are usually larger than those of Eurasian moose and have two lobes on each side, like a butterfly. Eurasian moose antlers resemble a seashell, with a single lobe on each side. In the North Siberian moose (A. a. bedfordiae), the posterior division of the main fork divides into three tines, with no distinct flattening. In the common moose (A. a. alces) this branch usually expands into a broad palmation, with one large tine at the base and a number of smaller snags on the free border. There is, however, a Scandinavian breed of the common moose in which the antlers are simpler and recall those of the East Siberian animals. The palmation appears to be more marked in North American moose than in the typical Scandinavian moose.
After the mating season males drop their antlers to conserve energy for the winter. A new set of antlers will then regrow in the spring. Antlers take three to five months to fully develop, making them one of the fastest growing animal organs. Antler growth is "nourished by an extensive system of blood vessels in the skin covering, which contains numerous hair follicles that give it a ' velvet ' texture. '' This requires intense grazing on a highly - nutritious diet. By September the velvet is removed by rubbing and thrashing which changes the colour of the antlers. Immature bulls may not shed their antlers for the winter, but retain them until the following spring. Birds, carnivores and rodents eat dropped antlers as they are full of protein and moose themselves will eat antler velvet for the nutrients.
If a bull moose is castrated, either by accidental or chemical means, he will quickly shed his current set of antlers and then immediately begin to grow a new set of misshapen and deformed antlers that he will wear the rest of his life without ever shedding again. The distinctive - looking appendages (often referred to as "devil 's antlers '') are the source of several myths and legends among many groups of Inuit as well as several other tribes of indigenous peoples of North America.
In extremely rare circumstances, a cow moose may grow antlers. This is usually attributed to a hormone imbalance.
Their fur consist of two layers; top layer of long guard hairs and a soft wooly undercoat. The guard hairs are hollow and filled with air for better insulation, which also helps them stay afloat when swimming.
On average, an adult moose stands 1.4 -- 2.1 m (4.6 -- 6.9 ft) high at the shoulder, which is more than a foot higher than the next largest deer on average, the elk. Males (or "bulls '') normally weigh from 380 to 700 kg (838 to 1,543 lb) and females (or "cows '') typically weigh 200 to 490 kg (441 to 1,080 lb), depending on racial or clinal as well as individual age or nutritional variations. The head - and - body length is 2.4 -- 3.1 m (7.9 -- 10.2 ft), with the vestigial tail adding only a further 5 -- 12 cm (2.0 -- 4.7 in). The largest of all the races is the Alaskan subspecies (A. a. gigas), which can stand over 2.1 m (6.9 ft) at the shoulder, has a span across the antlers of 1.8 m (5.9 ft) and averages 634.5 kg (1,399 lb) in males and 478 kg (1,054 lb) in females. Typically, however, the antlers of a mature bull are between 1.2 m (3.9 ft) and 1.5 m (4.9 ft). The largest confirmed size for this species was a bull shot at the Yukon River in September 1897 that weighed 820 kg (1,808 lb) and measured 2.33 m (7.6 ft) high at the shoulder. There have been reported cases of even larger moose, including a bull that reportedly scaled 1,180 kg (2,601 lb), but none are authenticated and some may not be considered reliable. Behind only the two species of bison, the moose is the second largest land animal in both North America and Europe.
Moose are mostly diurnal. They are generally solitary with the strongest bonds between mother and calf. Although moose rarely gather in groups, there may be several in close proximity during the mating season.
Mating occurs in September and October. The males are polygamous and will seek several females to breed with. During this time both sexes will call to each other. Males produce heavy grunting sounds that can be heard from up to 500 meters away, while females produce wail - like sounds. Males will fight for access to females. Initially, the males assess which of them is dominant and one bull may retreat, however, the interaction can escalate to a fight using their antlers.
Female moose have an eight - month gestation period, usually bearing one calf, or twins if food is plentiful, in May or June. Newborn moose have fur with a reddish hue in contrast to the brown appearance of an adult. The young will stay with the mother until just before the next young are born. The life span of an average moose is about 15 -- 25 years.
(newborn) Calves nursing in spring.
(3 months) Calves stay near their mothers at all times.
(9 months) This calf is almost ready to leave its mother.
(10 -- 11 months) This yearling was probably recently chased away by its pregnant mother.
Moose are not usually aggressive towards humans, but can be provoked or frightened to behave with aggression. In terms of raw numbers, they attack more people than bears and wolves combined, but usually with only minor consequences. In the Americas, moose injure more people than any other wild mammal, and worldwide, only hippopotamuses injure more. When harassed or startled by people or in the presence of a dog, moose may charge. Also, as with bears or any wild animal, moose that have become used to being fed by people may act aggressively when denied food. During the fall mating season, bull moose may be aggressive toward humans because of the high hormone levels they experience. Cows with young calves are very protective and will attack humans who come too close, especially if they come between mother and calf. Unlike other dangerous animals, moose are not territorial, and do not view humans as food, and will therefore usually not pursue humans if they simply run away.
Like any wild animal, moose are unpredictable and should be given a respectful amount of space. They are most likely to attack if annoyed or harassed, or if their "personal space '' has been encroached upon. A moose that has been harassed may vent its anger on anyone in the vicinity, and they often do not make distinctions between their tormentors and innocent passers - by. Moose are very limber animals with highly flexible joints and sharp, pointed hooves, and are capable of kicking with both front and back legs. Unlike other large, hooved mammals, such as horses, moose can kick in all directions including sideways. Therefore, there is no safe side from which to approach. However, moose often give warning signs prior to attacking, displaying their aggression by means of body language. The maintaining of eye contact is usually the first sign of aggression, while laid - back ears or a lowered head is a definite sign of agitation. If the hairs on the back of the moose 's neck and shoulders (hackles) stand up, a charge is usually imminent. The Anchorage Visitor Centers warn tourists that "... a moose with its hackles raised is a thing to fear. ''
Studies suggest that the calls made by female moose during the rut not only call the males but can actually induce a bull to invade another bull 's harem and fight for control of it. This in turn means that the cow moose has at least a small degree of control over which bulls she mates with.
Moose often show aggression to other animals as well; especially predators. Bears are common predators of moose calves and, rarely, adults. Alaskan moose have been reported to successfully fend off attacks from black bears, brown bears and grizzlies. Moose have been known to stomp attacking wolves, which makes them less preferred as prey to the wolves. Moose are fully capable of killing bears and wolves. A moose of either sex that is confronted by danger may let out a loud roar, more resembling that of a predator than a prey animal. European moose are often more aggressive than North American moose, such as the moose in Sweden, which often become very agitated at the sight of a predator. However, like all ungulates known to attack predators, the more aggressive individuals are always darker in color.
A full - grown moose has few enemies except Siberian tigers (Panthera tigris altaica) which regularly prey on adult moose, but a pack of gray wolves (Canis lupus) can still pose a threat, especially to females with calves. Brown bears (Ursus arctos) are also known to prey on moose of various sizes, including many pregnant adult cows in some parts of Alaska and Scandinavia and even the rare bull moose, and are the only predator besides the wolf to attack moose both in Eurasia and North America. However, brown bears are more likely to take over a wolf kill or to take young moose than to hunt adult moose on their own. American black bears (Ursus americanus) and cougars (Puma concolor) can be significant predators of moose calves in May and June and can, in rare instances, prey on adults (mainly cows rather than the larger bulls). Wolverine (Gulo gulo) are most likely to eat moose as carrion but have killed moose, including adults, when the large ungulates are weakened by harsh winter conditions. Killer whales (Orcinus orca) are the moose 's only known marine predator as they have been known to prey on moose swimming between islands out of North America 's Northwest Coast, however, there is at least one recorded instance of a moose preyed upon by a Greenland Shark.
In some areas, moose are the primary source of food for wolves. Moose usually flee upon detecting wolves. Wolves usually follow moose at a distance of 100 to 400 metres (330 to 1,310 ft), occasionally at a distance of 2 to 3 kilometres (1.2 to 1.9 mi). Attacks from wolves against young moose may last seconds, though sometimes they can be drawn out for days with adults. Sometimes, wolves will chase moose into shallow streams or onto frozen rivers, where their mobility is greatly impeded. Moose will sometimes stand their ground and defend themselves by charging at the wolves or lashing out at them with their powerful hooves. Wolves typically kill moose by tearing at their haunches and perineum, causing massive blood loss. Occasionally, a wolf may immobilise a moose by biting its sensitive nose, the pain of which can paralyze a moose. Wolf packs primarily target calves and elderly animals, but can and will take healthy, adult moose. Moose between the ages of two and eight are seldom killed by wolves. Though moose are usually hunted by packs, there are cases in which single wolves have successfully killed healthy, fully - grown moose.
Research into moose predation suggests that their response to perceived threats is learned rather than instinctual. In practical terms this means moose are more vulnerable in areas where wolf or bear populations were decimated in the past but are now rebounding. These same studies suggest, however, that moose learn quickly and adapt, fleeing an area if they hear or smell wolves, bears, or scavenger birds such as ravens.
Moose are also subject to various diseases and forms of parasitism. In northern Europe, the moose botfly is a parasite whose range seems to be spreading.
European rock drawings and cave paintings reveal that moose have been hunted since the Stone Age. Excavations in Alby, Sweden, adjacent to the Stora Alvaret have yielded moose antlers in wooden hut remains from 6000 BCE, indicating some of the earliest moose hunting in northern Europe. In northern Scandinavia one can still find remains of trapping pits used for hunting moose. These pits, which can be up to 4 × 7 m wide and 2 m deep, would have been camouflaged with branches and leaves. They would have had steep sides lined with planks, making it impossible for the moose to escape once it fell in. The pits are normally found in large groups, crossing the moose 's regular paths and stretching over several kilometers. Remains of wooden fences designed to guide the animals toward the pits have been found in bogs and peat. In Norway, an early example of these trapping devices has been dated to around 3,700 BC. Trapping elk in pits is an extremely effective hunting method, and as early as the 16th century the Norwegian government tried to restrict their use. Nevertheless, the method was in use until the 19th century.
The earliest recorded description of the moose is in Julius Caesar 's Commentarii de Bello Gallico, where it is described thus:
There are also (animals), which are called moose. The shape of these, and the varied color of their skins, is much like roes, but in size they surpass them a little and are destitute of horns, and have legs without joints and ligatures; nor do they lie down for the purpose of rest, nor, if they have been thrown down by any accident, can they raise or lift themselves up. Trees serve as beds to them; they lean themselves against them, and thus reclining only slightly, they take their rest; when the huntsmen have discovered from the footsteps of these animals whither they are accustomed to betake themselves, they either undermine all the trees at the roots, or cut into them so far that the upper part of the trees may appear to be left standing. When they have leant upon them, according to their habit, they knock down by their weight the unsupported trees, and fall down themselves along with them.
In book 8, chapter 16 of Pliny the Elder 's Natural History from 77 AD the elk and an animal called achlis, which is presumably the same animal, are described thus:
... there is, also, the moose, which strongly resembles our steers, except that it is distinguished by the length of the ears and of the neck. There is also the achlis, which is produced in the land of Scandinavia; it has never been seen in this city, although we have had descriptions of it from many persons; it is not unlike the moose, but has no joints in the hind leg. Hence, it never lies down, but reclines against a tree while it sleeps; it can only be taken by previously cutting into the tree, and thus laying a trap for it, as otherwise, it would escape through its swiftness. Its upper lip is so extremely large, for which reason it is obliged to go backwards when grazing; otherwise, by moving onwards, the lip would get doubled up.
Moose are hunted as a game species in many of the countries where they are found. Moose meat tastes, wrote Henry David Thoreau in "The Maine Woods '', "like tender beef, with perhaps more flavour; sometimes like veal ''. While the flesh has protein levels similar to those of other comparable red meats (e.g. beef, deer and elk), it has a low fat content, and the fat that is present consists of a higher proportion of polyunsaturated fats rather than saturated fats.
Cadmium levels are high in Finnish elk liver and kidneys, with the result that consumption of these organs from elk more than one year old is prohibited in Finland. Cadmium intake has been found to be elevated amongst all consumers of elk meat, though the elk meat was found to contribute only slightly to the daily cadmium intake. However the consumption of moose liver or kidneys significantly increased cadmium intake, with the study revealing that heavy consumers of moose organs have a relatively narrow safety margin below the levels which would probably cause adverse health effects.
Dr. Valerius Geist, who emigrated to Canada from the Soviet Union, wrote in his 1999 book Moose: Behaviour, Ecology, Conservation:
In Sweden, no fall menu is without a mouthwatering moose dish. The Swedes fence their highways to reduce moose fatalities and design moose - proof cars. Sweden is less than half as large as the Canadian province of British Columbia, but the annual take of moose in Sweden -- upward of 150,000 -- is twice that of the total moose harvest in North America.
Boosting of moose populations in Alaska for hunting purposes is one of the reasons given for allowing aerial or airborne methods to remove wolves in designated areas, e.g., Craig Medred: "A kill of 124 wolves would thus translate to (the survival of) 1488 moose or 2976 caribou or some combination thereof ''. Many scientists believe that this artificial inflation of game populations is actually detrimental to both caribou and moose populations as well as the ecosystem as a whole. This is because studies have shown that when these game populations are artificially boosted, it leads to both habitat destruction and a crash in these populations.
The center of mass of a moose is above the hood of most passenger cars. In a collision, the impact crushes the front roof beams and individuals in the front seats. Collisions of this type are frequently fatal; seatbelts and airbags confer little protection. In collisions with higher vehicles (such as trucks), most of the deformation is to the front of the vehicle and the passenger compartment is largely spared. Moose collisions have prompted the development of a vehicle test referred to as the "moose test '' (Swedish: Älgtest, German: Elchtest).
Moose warning signs are used on roads in regions where there is a danger of collision with the animal. The triangular warning signs common in Sweden, Norway, and Finland have become coveted souvenirs among tourists traveling in these countries, causing road authorities so much expense that the moose signs have been replaced with imageless generic warning signs in some regions.
In January 2008, the Norwegian newspaper Aftenposten estimated that some 13,000 moose had died in collisions with Norwegian trains since 2000. The state agency in charge of railroad infrastructure (Jernbaneverket) plans to spend 80 million Norwegian kroner to reduce collision rate in the future by fencing the railways, clearing vegetation from near the tracks, and providing alternative snow - free feeding places for the animals elsewhere.
In the Canadian province of New Brunswick, collisions with moose are frequent enough that all new highways have fences to prevent moose from accessing the road, as has long been done in Finland, Norway, and Sweden. A demonstration project, Highway 7 between Fredericton and Saint John, which has one of the highest frequencies of moose collisions in the province, did not have these fences until 2008, although it was and continues to be extremely well signed. Newfoundland and Labrador recommended that motorists use caution between dusk and dawn because that is when moose are most active and most difficult to see, increasing the risk of collisions. Local moose sightings are often reported on radio stations so that motorists can take care while driving in particular areas.
In Sweden, a road will not be fenced unless it experiences at least one moose accident per kilometer per year.
In eastern Germany, where the scarce population is slowly increasing, there were two road accidents involving moose since 2000.
Domestication of moose was investigated in the Soviet Union before World War II. Early experiments were inconclusive, but with the creation of an moose - farm at Pechora - Ilych Nature Reserve in 1949 a small - scale moose domestication program was started, involving attempts at selective breeding of animals on the basis of their behavioural characteristics. Since 1963, the program has continued at Kostroma Moose Farm, which had a herd of 33 tame moose as of 2003. Although at this stage the farm is not expected to be a profit - making enterprise, it obtains some income from the sale of moose milk and from visiting tourist groups. Its main value, however, is seen in the opportunities it offers for the research in the physiology and behavior of the moose, as well as in the insights it provides into the general principles of animal domestication.
In Sweden, there was a debate in the late 18th century about the national value of using the moose as a domestic animal. Among other things, the moose was proposed to be used in postal distribution, and there was a suggestion to develop a moose - mounted cavalry. Such proposals remained unimplemented, mainly because the extensive hunting for moose that was deregulated in the 1790s nearly drove it to extinction. While there has been documented cases of individual moose being used for riding and / or pulling carts and sleds, Björklöf concludes no wide - scale usage has occurred outside fairytales.
Moose are an old genus. Like its relatives, Odocoileus and Capreolus, the genus Alces gave rise to very few species that endured for long periods of time. This differs from the Megacerines, such as the Irish elk, which evolved many species before going extinct. Some scientists, such as Adrian Lister, grouped all the species into one genus, while others, such as Augusto Azzaroli, used Alces for the living species, placing the fossil species into the genera Cervalces and Libralces.
The earliest known species is Libralces gallicus (French moose), which lived in the Pliocene epoch, about 2 million years ago. Libralces gallicus came from the warm savannahs of Pliocene Europe, with the best preserved skeletons being found in southern France. L. gallicus was 1.25 times larger than the Alaskan moose in linear dimensions, making it nearly twice as massive. L. gallicus had many striking differences from its modern descendants. It had a longer, narrower snout and a less - developed nasal cavity, more resembling that of a modern deer, lacking any sign of the modern moose - snout. Its face resembled that of the modern wapiti. However, the rest of its skull structure, skeletal structure and teeth bore strong resemblance to those features that are unmistakable in modern moose, indicating a similar diet. Its antlers consisted of a horizontal bar 2.5 metres (8.2 ft) long, with no tines, ending in small palmations. Its skull and neck structure suggest an animal that fought using high - speed impacts, much like the Dall sheep, rather than locking and twisting antlers the way modern moose combat. Their long legs and bone structure suggest an animal that was adapted to running at high speeds over rough terrain.
Libralces existed until the middle Pleistocene epoch and were followed briefly by a species called Cervalces carnutorum. The main differences between the two consisted of shortening of the horizontal bar in the antlers and broadening of the palmations, indicating a likely change from open plains to more forested environments, and skeletal changes that suggest an adaptation to marshy environments.
Cervalces carnutorum was soon followed by a much larger species called Cervalces latifrons (broad - fronted stag - moose). The Pleistocene epoch was a time of gigantism, in which most species were much larger than their descendants of today, including exceptionally large lions, hippopotamuses, mammoths, and deer. Many fossils of Cervalces latifrons have been found in Siberia, dating from about 1.2 to 0.5 million years ago. This is most likely the time at which the species migrated from the Eurasian continent to North America. Like its descendants, it inhabited mostly northern latitudes, and was probably well - adapted to the cold. Cervalces latifrons was the largest deer known to have ever existed, standing more than 2.1 metres (6.9 ft) tall at the shoulders. This is bigger than even the Irish elk (megacerine), which was 1.8 metres (5.9 ft) tall at the shoulders. Its antlers were smaller than the Irish elk 's, but comparable in size to those of Libralces gallicus. However, the antlers had a shorter horizontal bar and larger palmations, more resembling those of a modern moose.
Alces alces (the modern moose) appeared during the late Pleistocene epoch. The species arrived in North America at the end of the Pleistocene and coexisted with a late - surviving variety or relative of Cervalces latifrons, which Azzaroli classified as a separate species called Cervalces scotti, or the American stag - moose.
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international convention on the rights of indigenous peoples | Declaration on the rights of Indigenous peoples - wikipedia
The United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP) was adopted by the General Assembly on Thursday, 13 September 2007, by a majority of 144 states in favour, 4 votes against (Australia, Canada, New Zealand and the United States) and 11 abstentions (Azerbaijan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Burundi, Colombia, Georgia, Kenya, Nigeria, Russian Federation, Samoa and Ukraine). The work towards this declaration can be seen as far as in 1923 and 1925 by the works of Haudenosaunee Chief Deskaheh and Māori T.W. Ratana who attempted to bring issues of Canada and New Zealand failure to uphold treaties to the League of Nations (precursor to the United Nations).
In May 2016 Canada officially removed its objector status to UNDRIP, almost a decade after it was adopted by the General Assembly. By now also the other 3 objectors have, to various degrees, turned their vote.
While as a General Assembly Declaration it is not a legally binding instrument under international law, according to a UN press release it does "represent the dynamic development of international legal norms and it reflects the commitment of the UN 's member states to move in certain directions ''; the UN describes it as setting "an important standard for the treatment of indigenous peoples that will undoubtedly be a significant tool towards eliminating human rights violations against the planet 's 370 million indigenous people and assisting them in combating discrimination and marginalisation. ''
UNDRIP codifies "Indigenous historical grievances, contemporary challenges and socio - economic, political and cultural aspirations '' and is the "culmination of generations - long efforts by Indigenous organizations to get international attention, to secure recognition for their aspirations, and to generate support for their political agendas. '' Canada Research Chair and faculty member at the University of Saskatchewan Ken Coates argues that UNDRIP resonates powerfully with Indigenous peoples, while national governments have not yet fully understood its impact.
Due to the past and ongoing violence and abuse of Indigenous individuals and peoples, the UN created this non-legally binding declaration as an aspiration for how Indigenous individuals and peoples should be treated. The Declaration sets out the individual and collective rights of Indigenous peoples, as well as their rights to culture, identity, language, employment, health, education and other issues. It also "emphasizes the rights of Indigenous peoples to maintain and strengthen their own institutions, cultures and traditions, and to pursue their development in keeping with their own needs and aspirations ''. It "prohibits discrimination against indigenous peoples '', and it "promotes their full and effective participation in all matters that concern them and their right to remain distinct and to pursue their own visions of economic and social development ''. The goal of the Declaration is to encourage countries to work alongside indigenous peoples to solve global issues, like development, multicultural democracy and decentralization. According to Article 31, there is a major emphasis that the indigenous peoples will be able to protect their cultural heritage and other aspects of their culture and tradition in order to preserve their heritage from over controlling nation - states.
The elaboration of this Declaration had already been recommended by the Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action.
This declaration is a resolution, meaning it is not a law bearing document. Indigenous people are not considered a country (nation - state) and do not have right to international law protection through the international court of justice. Article 40 states that Indigenous peoples have right to fair procedures for the resolution of conflicts and dispute with countries or other parties, because Indigenous people can not use the International court of justice, UNDRIP has no indication of which judicial power indigenous peoples are to bring disputes to.
The Declaration is structured as a United Nations resolution, with 23 preambular clauses and 46 articles. In most articles, an aspiration for how the State should promote and protect the rights of indigenous people is included (see Provision for further explanation). Major themes of the articles include:
The opening and Article 2 of the Declaration provide that "indigenous peoples are equal to all other peoples '' (source). Besides asserting the rights that indigenous individuals and peoples ' have as other peoples, there are Articles (23 of the 46) pointing to how States should interact with the declaration. Most of the articles point to States working in conjunction with the indigenous peoples. Some measures countries are suggested to take are
The Declaration was over 25 years in the making. The idea originated in 1982 when the UN Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) set up its Working Group on Indigenous Populations (WGIP), established as a result of a study by Special Rapporteur José Ricardo Martínez Cobo on the problem of discrimination faced by indigenous peoples. Tasked with developing human rights standards that would protect indigenous peoples, in 1985 the Working Group began working on drafting the Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples. The draft was finished in 1993 and was submitted to the Sub-Commission on the Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities, which gave its approval the following year. During this the International Labour Organisation adopted the Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention, 1989.
The Draft Declaration was then referred to the Commission on Human Rights, which established another Working Group to examine its terms. Over the following years this Working Group met on 11 occasions to examine and fine - tune the Draft Declaration and its provisions. Progress was slow because of certain states ' concerns regarding some key provisions of the Declaration, such as indigenous peoples ' right to self - determination and the control over natural resources existing on indigenous peoples ' traditional lands. The final version of the Declaration was adopted on 29 June 2006 by the 47 - member Human Rights Council (the successor body to the Commission on Human Rights), with 30 member states in favour, 2 against, 12 abstentions, and 3 absentees.
The Declaration (document A / 61 / L. 67) was then referred to the General Assembly, which voted on the adoption of the proposal on 13 September 2007 during its 61st regular session. The vote was, in favour 143 countries: Afghanistan, Albania, Algeria, Andorra, Angola, Antigua and Barbuda, Argentina, Armenia, Austria, Bahamas, Bahrain, Barbados, Belarus, Belgium, Belize, Benin, Bolivia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Botswana, Brazil, Brunei Darussalam, Bulgaria, Burkina Faso, Cambodia, Cameroon, Cape Verde, Central African Republic, Chile, China, Comoros, Congo, Costa Rica, Croatia, Cuba, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Democratic People 's Republic of Korea, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Denmark, Djibouti, Dominica, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Egypt, El Salvador, Estonia, Finland, France, Gabon, Germany, Ghana, Greece, Guatemala, Guinea, Guyana, Haiti, Honduras, Hungary, Iceland, India, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Ireland, Italy, Jamaica, Japan, Jordan, Kazakhstan, Kuwait, Lao People 's Democratic Republic, Latvia, Lebanon, Lesotho, Liberia, Libya, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Macedonia, Madagascar, Malawi, Malaysia, Maldives, Mali, Malta, Mauritius, Mexico, Micronesia (Federated States of), Moldova, Monaco, Mongolia, Mozambique, Myanmar, Namibia, Nepal, Netherlands, Nicaragua, Niger, Norway, Oman, Pakistan, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Philippines, Poland, Portugal, Qatar, Republic of Korea, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, San Marino, Saudi Arabia, Senegal, Serbia, Sierra Leone, Singapore, Slovakia, Slovenia, South Africa, Spain, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Suriname, Swaziland, Sweden, Switzerland, Syria, Thailand, Timor - Leste, Trinidad and Tobago, Tunisia, Turkey, United Arab Emirates, United Kingdom, United Republic of Tanzania, Uruguay, Venezuela, Viet Nam, Yemen, Zambia, Zimbabwe.
Against: Australia, Canada, New Zealand, United States. All four member states that voted against have their origins as colonies of the United Kingdom, and have large non-indigenous immigrant majorities and thriving indigenous populations. Since then, all four countries have moved to endorse the declaration in some informal way in which it would not actually become binding law pleadable in court. Canada, under a Conservative Party leadership made official public statements against the application of the UN DRIP in Canada, e.g.
However, the Liberal Government elected to leadership in 2015, has unequivocally indicated Canada 's support for the UN DRIP and is working on amending Canada 's laws accordingly.
Australian government interventions have been challenged under its terms without success.
Abstaining, 11 countries: Azerbaijan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Burundi, Colombia, Georgia, Kenya, Nigeria, Russian Federation, Samoa and Ukraine. Colombia and Samoa have since endorsed the document.
Absent: Chad, Côte d'Ivoire, Equatorial Guinea, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Fiji, Gambia, Grenada, Guinea - Bissau, Israel, Kiribati, Kyrgyzstan, Marshall Islands, Mauritania, Montenegro, Morocco, Nauru, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Romania, Rwanda, Saint Kitts and Nevis, São Tomé and Príncipe, Seychelles, Solomon Islands, Somalia, Tajikistan, Togo, Tonga, Turkmenistan, Tuvalu, Uganda, Uzbekistan, Vanuatu.
In contrast to the Declaration 's initial rejection by Australia, Canada, New Zealand and the United States over legal concerns (all 4 countries later switched their positions to accepting the declaration as a non-legally - binding document), United Nations officials and other world leaders expressed pleasure at its adoption. Secretary - General Ban Ki - moon described it as a "historic moment when UN Member States and indigenous peoples have reconciled with their painful histories and are resolved to move forward together on the path of human rights, justice and development for all. '' Louise Arbour, a former justice of the Supreme Court of Canada then serving as the UN 's High Commissioner for Human Rights, expressed satisfaction at the hard work and perseverance that had finally "borne fruit in the most comprehensive statement to date of indigenous peoples ' rights. '' Similarly, news of the Declaration 's adoption was greeted with jubilation in Africa and, present at the General Assembly session in New York, Bolivian foreign minister David Choquehuanca said that he hoped the member states that had voted against or abstained would reconsider their refusal to support a document he described as being as important as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Bolivia has become the first country to approve the U.N. declaration of indigenous rights. Evo Morales, President of Bolivia, stated, "We are the first country to turn this declaration into a law and that is important, brothers and sisters. We recognize and salute the work of our representatives. But if we were to remember the indigenous fight clearly, many of us who are sensitive would end up crying in remembering the discrimination, the scorn. ''
Stephen Corry, Director of the international indigenous rights organization Survival International, said, "The declaration has been debated for nearly a quarter century. Years which have seen many tribal peoples, such as the Akuntsu and Kanoê in Brazil, decimated and others, such as the Innu in Canada, brought to the edge. Governments that oppose it are shamefully fighting against the human rights of their most vulnerable peoples. Claims they make to support human rights in other areas will be seen as hypocritical. ''
The Australian Institute of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies formally acknowledges and upholds the principles of the Declaration in both their Collection Access and Use Policy and their Guidelines for Ethical Research in Australian Indigenous Studies.
Prior to the adoption of the Declaration, and throughout the 62nd session of the General Assembly, a number of countries expressed concern about some key issues, such as self - determination, access to lands, territories and resources and the lack of a clear definition of the term "indigenous ''. In addition to those intending to vote against the adoption of the declaration, a group of African countries represented by Namibia proposed to defer action, to hold further consultations, and to conclude consideration of the declaration by September 2007. Ultimately, after agreeing on some adjustments to the Draft Declaration, a vast majority of states recognized that these issues could be addressed by each country at the national level.
The four states that voted against continued to express serious reservations about the final text of the Declaration as placed before the General Assembly. As mentioned above, all four opposing countries have since then changed their vote in favour of the Declaration.
Australia 's government opposed the Declaration in the General Assembly vote of 2007, but has since endorsed the Declaration. Australia 's Mal Brough, Minister for Families, Community Services and Indigenous Affairs, referring to the provision regarding the upholding of indigenous peoples ' customary legal systems, said that "There should only be one law for all Australians and we should not enshrine in law practices that are not acceptable in the modern world. ''
Marise Payne, Liberal Party Senator for New South Wales, further elaborated on the Australian government 's objections to the Declaration in a speech to the Australian Senate:
In October 2007 former Australian Prime Minister John Howard pledged to hold a referendum on changing the constitution to recognise indigenous Australians if re-elected. He said that the distinctiveness of people 's identity and their rights to preserve their heritage should be acknowledged.
On 3 April 2009, the Rudd Government formally endorsed the Declaration.
The Canadian government said that while it supported the "spirit '' of the declaration, it contained elements that were "fundamentally incompatible with Canada 's constitutional framework '', which includes both the Charter of Rights and Freedoms and Section 35, which enshrines aboriginal and treaty rights. In particular, the Canadian government had problems with Article 19 (which appears to require governments to secure the consent of indigenous peoples regarding matters of general public policy), and Articles 26 and 28 (which could allow for the re-opening or repudiation of historically settled land claims).
Former Minister of Indian Affairs and Northern Development Chuck Strahl described the document as "unworkable in a Western democracy under a constitutional government. '' Strahl elaborated, saying "In Canada, you are balancing individual rights vs. collective rights, and (this) document... has none of that. By signing on, you default to this document by saying that the only rights in play here are the rights of the First Nations. And, of course, in Canada, that 's inconsistent with our constitution. '' He gave an example: "In Canada... you negotiate on this... because (native rights) do n't trump all other rights in the country. You need also to consider the people who have sometimes also lived on those lands for two or three hundred years, and have hunted and fished alongside the First Nations. ''
The Assembly of First Nations passed a resolution in December 2007 to invite Presidents Hugo Chávez and Evo Morales to Canada to put pressure on the government to sign the Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, calling the two heads of state "visionary leaders '' and demanding Canada resign its membership on the United Nations Human Rights Council.
On 3 March 2010, in the Speech From the Throne, the Governor General of Canada announced that the government was moving to endorse the declaration. "We are a country with an Aboriginal heritage. A growing number of states have given qualified recognition to the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples. Our Government will take steps to endorse this aspirational document in a manner fully consistent with Canada 's Constitution and laws. ''
On 12 November 2010, Canada officially endorsed the declaration but without changing its position that it was ' aspirational '.
Anishinabek spiritual leader, Chief William Commanda (1908 - 3 August 2011) was honoured at the 21st annual week - long First Peoples ' Festival held in Montreal from 2 -- 9 August 2011, celebrating Canada 's 2010 adoption of the U.N. declaration. AFN Innu representative, Ghislain Picard 's tribute praised Grandfather Commanda for his work that was "key not only in the adoption of the U.N. declaration, but in all the work leading up to it throughout the last 25 years. ''
In 2015, Romeo Saganash (a Cree Member of Parliament for Abitibi -- Baie - James -- Nunavik -- Eeyou) sponsored Private Member 's Bill C - 641, the "United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples Act '', which would have required the Canadian government to ensure that the laws of Canada are in harmony with UNDRIP but it was defeated on May 6, 2015.
In 2016, Canada officially adopted and promised to implement the declaration fully. Speaking at the UN Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues, Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada minister Carolyn Bennett announced, "We are now a full supporter of the declaration, without qualification. We intend nothing less than to adopt and implement the declaration in accordance with the Canadian Constitution. '' Bennett described the Declaration as "breathing life into Section 35 (of the Canadian Constitution) and recognizing it as a full box of rights for Indigenous Peoples in Canada. '' In July 2016, Kwakwaka'wakw Justice Minister Jody Wilson - Raybould gave a speech that stated that "adopting the UNDRIP as being Canadian law are unworkable '', due to its incompatibility with the Indian Act, the current governing statute.
The federal government pledged on 21 June 2017 to rename its National Aboriginal Day to be consistent with the terminology used by the Declaration.
In September 2017, British Columbia provincial government announced that it will govern in accordance with the principles outlined in the Declaration.
In 2007 New Zealand 's Minister of Māori Affairs Parekura Horomia described the Declaration as "toothless '', and said, "There are four provisions we have problems with, which make the declaration fundamentally incompatible with New Zealand 's constitutional and legal arrangements. '' Article 26 in particular, he said, "appears to require recognition of rights to lands now lawfully owned by other citizens, both indigenous and non-indigenous. This ignores contemporary reality and would be impossible to implement. ''
In response, Māori Party leader Pita Sharples said it was "shameful to the extreme that New Zealand voted against the outlawing of discrimination against indigenous people; voted against justice, dignity and fundamental freedoms for all ''.
On 7 July 2009, the New Zealand government announced that it would support the Declaration; this, however, appeared to be a premature announcement by Pita Sharples, the current Minister of Māori Affairs, as the New Zealand government cautiously backtracked on Sharples ' July announcement. However, on 19 April 2010, Sharples announced New Zealand 's support of the declaration at a speech in New York.
Speaking for the United States mission to the UN, spokesman Benjamin Chang said, "What was done today is not clear. The way it stands now is subject to multiple interpretations and does n't establish a clear universal principle. '' The U.S. mission also issued a floor document, "Observations of the United States with respect to the Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples '', setting out its objections to the Declaration. Most of these are based on the same points as the three other countries ' rejections but, in addition, the United States drew attention to the Declaration 's failure to provide a clear definition of exactly whom the term "indigenous peoples '' is intended to cover.
On 16 December 2010, President Obama declared that the United States would "lend its support '' to the Declaration. The decision was announced during the second White House Tribal Nations Conference, where he said he is "working hard to live up to '' the name that was given to him by the Crow Nation: "One Who Helps People Throughout the Land. '' Obama has told Native American leaders that he wants to improve the "nation - to - nation '' relationship between the United States and the tribes and repair broken promises. Today, there are more than 560 Indian tribes in the United States that are recognized at the federal level, with some sixty - plus tribes recognized at the state level. Many had representatives at the White House conference and applauded Obama 's announcement.
The Obama administration 's decision came after three consultation meetings with Native Americans and more than 3,000 written comments on the subject. The support of the government also included several interpretations of the meaning of the Declaration. In the view of the United States government, the Declaration advances "a new and distinct international concept of self - determination specific to indigenous peoples, '' which is not the same as the existing concept in international law. The statement also interprets free, prior, and informed consent, "which the United States understands to call for a process of meaningful consultation with tribal leaders, but not necessarily the agreement of those leaders, before the actions addressed in those consultations are taken. ''
Speaking on behalf of the United Kingdom government, UK Ambassador and Deputy Permanent Representative to the United Nations, Karen Pierce, "emphasized that the Declaration was non-legally binding and did not propose to have any retroactive application on historical episodes. National minority groups and other ethnic groups within the territory of the United Kingdom and its overseas territories did not fall within the scope of the indigenous peoples to which the Declaration applied. ''
The UK position was also clearly intended to prevent formal appeal of Canadian decisions to UK courts: Canadian indigenous peoples never accepted the 1982 constitution in which such appeal (regarding early treaties made with the Crown of the British Empire) was cut off. Under the prior 1867 constitution, 1920s Dominion of Canada and earlier law, which continue to apply to these peoples and treaties, the UN DRIP could have been pleaded in a UK court in conflicts between treaty and Canadian law. Calls to pursue this approach have been common among Canadian natives. (2)
Finland signed the International Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples when it was originally put forward. However the reindeer owners and Forest Administration (Metsähallitus) have a long dispute in the area of the forests. The UN Human Rights Committee ordered the Finnish State to stop logging in some of the disputed areas.
Ukraine, which initially abstained from adopting the Declaration, changed its approach to indigenous issues in response to the recent annexation of Crimea, asserting that Crimean Tatars are an Indigenous people. In May 2014, the country formally endorsed the UNDRIP.
Ten UN member states in the Pacific, all with indigenous majorities, were absent from the assembly at the time of the vote: Fiji, Kiribati, Marshall Islands, Nauru, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Tuvalu, Vanuatu. It is unclear whether this represents the equivalent of deliberate abstention, or whether the country delegations were absent for some other reason. The constitutions of these states typically make mention of "indigenous inhabitants '' and accommodate customary laws in at least part of their modern legal systems. The constitution of Papua New Guinea, for example, has an explanatory section on the "underlying law '' being based on custom, while Sch. 1.2. says that "custom '' means "the customs and usages of indigenous inhabitants of the country... '' (emphasis added). It may be the case, therefore, that the governments of these states took the position that their own legal systems offered sufficient protection to their own indigenous peoples. There has been no suggestion at any time since decolonisation commenced in the 1960s and the present that indigenous people are absent from any of the ten countries.
Nonetheless, Papua New Guinea and Vanuatu are among countries in this group plagued by land grabbing in recent years. Researchers have warned that as much as 12 % of the land surface of Papua New Guinea has been leased without informed consultation and consent from landowners, typically suppressing customary rights for 99 years. Given that land grabbing was recently ruled to lie within the remit of the International Criminal Court, it is a reasonable conclusion that legal systems in the Pacific, unsupported by UNDRIP, have insufficient built - in safeguards for the protection of indigenous rights.
There are also significant implications in the extractive sector for these states not having signed UNDRIP. Mining companies that are members of the International Council on Mining and Metals commit to respect the ICMM 's position statement on indigenous peoples. However, ambiguity surrounds how or if member companies recognise when they are dealing with indigenous peoples. For example, Barrick Gold lists only its operations in North and South America as lying on indigenous land, yet operates in Fiji and Papua New Guinea (where a subsidiary has operated the Porgera gold mine since 2007). Another member, Newmont Mining, said in its 2011 Sustainability Report that it had been conducting mining exploration in Papua New Guinea for three years, yet its disclosures do not show how activities in this country may have followed the ICCM 's Indigenous Peoples and Mining Good Practice Guide, first published in 2010.
Africa
Asia
Europe
North America
Oceania
South America
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how many seasons were there of third watch | Third Watch - wikipedia
Third Watch is an American crime drama television series created by John Wells and Edward Allen Bernero that aired on NBC from September 23, 1999 to May 6, 2005, with a total of 132 episodes spanning over six seasons. It was produced by John Wells Productions, in association with Warner Bros. Television.
The show was set and taped in New York City, and with an ensemble cast of characters, the storylines centered on the lives of police officers of the New York City Police Department (NYPD) and the firefighters and paramedics of the New York City Fire Department (FDNY), all working the same fictional precinct during the 3 pm to 11 pm shift - the ' Third Watch '.
After the September 11 attacks hit New York in 2001, season three opened with the episode "In Their Own Words '', which aired on October 15, 2001, and featured interviews with real - life NYPD and FDNY members who responded to the attacks. The following episode was titled "September Tenth ''.
The series followed the exploits of a group of police officers, firefighters, and paramedics in the fictional NYPD 55th Precinct and the fictional FDNY Squad 55 / Ladder 100 / Battalion 24 firehouse, whose shifts fell between 3 pm and 11 pm, the "third watch ''. The precinct and fire station were located on the corner of King Boulevard and Arthur Street; hence the nickname "Camelot ''. Exterior / interior shots of the 55th Precinct and the firehouse were filmed in Long Island City, Queens, although both in the show appear to be located somewhere between the Bronx, and midtown and Inwood in Manhattan. Third Watch succeeded in presenting all three branches of New York City 's emergency services in the same show, reviving a failed attempt to do so nine years prior with the similarly themed H.E.L.P.
The show balanced numerous single - episode events with other, ongoing storylines, some of which spanned multiple seasons. Though it gained much acclaim and eventually won an award for its emotional and honest portrayal of 9 / 11 and its aftermath, Third Watch was also criticized in some circles for extremely detailed violence, and extensive (by network standards) profane language. The show was created, produced, and written by John Wells and Edward Allen Bernero. The theme song for the show was "Keep Hope Alive '' by The Crystal Method, except for the pilot episode, when "Right Here, Right Now '' by Fatboy Slim was played during the opening sequence.
In the spring of 2005, NBC decided not to renew Third Watch, making the sixth season its last. The series ' finale, "Goodbye to Camelot '', aired in the United States on Friday, May 6, 2005. Several major newspapers, including the New York Times and the Bergen Record have since listed it as a TV show that was cancelled too early.
John Wells had wanted to do a show about paramedics for some time due to his work on ER, but did not think he had enough material to make such a show. Ed Bernero, a former Chicago cop, had wanted to do a police drama partly based on his own experiences. The two worked together on the short - lived show Trinity and, after that show was cancelled, Wells asked Bernero if he wanted to co-create a show with him.
Originally, the show was only going to be about the police and paramedics, but firefighter Jimmy Doherty was added to the show after Eddie Cibrian auditioned for the role of Bosco. Cibrian lost out to Jason Wiles, but because of the attention he received from women due to his good looks, the producers decided to put him in the show as a new character. Bernero reportedly commented that they did not have any firefighters, and the fire aspect of the show was added.
The series consists of six seasons with a total of 132 episodes, produced and broadcast from September 23, 1999, to May 6, 2005.
Third Watch 's original ensemble cast in the series ' first season consisted of Michael Beach, Coby Bell, Bobby Cannavale, Eddie Cibrian, Molly Price, Kim Raver, Anthony Ruivivar, Skipp Sudduth, and Jason Wiles.
Eddie Cibrian also portrayed the contract - role of Cole on Sunset Beach while appearing on Third Watch at the same time until Sunset Beach 's cancellation in January 2000.
In 2000, Amy Carlson was added to the cast as paramedic / firefighter Alex Taylor. In 2001, series regular Bobby Cannavale willingly left the series after he asked to be written out due to lack of character use and development.
At the start of season three, Chris Bauer was added to the main credits as Fred Yokas after being a recurring guest star previously. Tia Texada became a recurring guest star, and later, a full cast member, in 2002. Carlson left the show in 2003. Later that year, Nia Long was introduced as Officer Sasha Monroe (her rank was changed in season six in one of the show 's most shocking plot twists). Yvonne Jung became a recurring guest star also in 2003, although she had been a guest in season - three episode "Act Brave '' as a lawyer defending Kim in her custody battle with Jimmy. Also in 2003, Bonnie Dennison was added as Emily Yokas, previously being recurring.
In 2004, just after celebrating the show 's 100th episode, Eddie Cibrian and Michael Beach left the show. Cibrian 's departure marked the first time a main character was written out of the show without dying. Series regular Molly Price 's character, Faith Yokas, made very few appearances in season five of the series because Price was pregnant throughout much of the season. The writers for Third Watch explained her absence by her character being seriously injured in a shootout, and then trying to recuperate at home. In the few scenes Price was in, her growing belly was frequently hidden by blankets piled on top of her while she lay in bed. Cara Buono joined the cast as Paramedic Grace Foster late in the show 's fifth season in 2004.
Kim Raver decided to leave the show after the show 's sixth - season opener and became a series regular on 24. Josh Stewart was introduced as a main cast member of season six as Probationary Officer Brendan Finney. After a several - month absence, Dennison reclaimed the role of Emily Yokas for the rest of the final season, while Chris Bauer left the show to pursue his new show Tilt, which coincidentally co-starred his former Third Watch castmate, Eddie Cibrian, but made sporadic guest - star appearances in season six. Beach, Cibrian, and Raver rejoined their former co-stars in the series finale, "Goodbye To Camelot ''.
Fred Yokas appeared on a recurring basis for the first two seasons of the show. In seasons three - five, Bauer received star billing in the episodes in which he appeared. In the final season, he returned to recurring status. The Yokas ' oldest child Emily was portrayed by P.J. Morrison in seasons one - three in a recurring role. Dennison took over the role in season four and received star billing in the final two seasons in the episodes in which she appeared.
These cast members are listed by the season in which they were introduced:
Notable guest stars include Susan Blackwell, Elizabeth Banks, Jack Klugman, Ossie Davis, Roy Scheider, Helen Mirren, Joseph Cross, Mykelti Williamson, Rosie O'Donnell, Tim Meadows, Haylie Duff, Corbin Bleu, Henry Winkler, Lea Michele, Kate Jackson, Nick Turturro, Anson Mount, Eve, Gene Simmons, DMX, Method Man, Paul Michael Glaser, Wyclef Jean, Veronica Hamel, Susan Dey, Ethan Suplee, Treach, Adam Beach, Mia Farrow, George Dzundza, Tom Berenger, Sherry Stringfield, Chris Elliott, Jason Sehorn, Will Arnett, Ted Levine, Lev Gorn, Bruce Weitz, Ann - Margret and J.K. Simmons.
All six seasons of Third Watch were originally broadcast on NBC in the United States and simulcast in Canada on CTV.
Third Watch was also broadcast worldwide including Africa, Europe, Latin America, Asia, Oceania and the Middle East.
Warner Home Video released Season 1 of Third Watch on DVD in Regions 1, 2 and 4. Season 2 was released in Region 1 on July 7, 2009.
Music licensing issues delayed the release of the first two seasons and, as of 2017, it is unknown when or if the remaining four seasons will ever be released, most likely due to the same issues. In March 2015, Crave TV began streaming the first three seasons.
The hit series won the prestigious Peabody Award for Season 3 episode "In Their Own Words '', in which series regulars Michael Beach, Coby Bell, Amy Carlson, Eddie Cibrian, Kim Raver, Anthony Ruivivar, Skipp Sudduth, and Jason Wiles introduced clips of interviews with the real - life NYPD and FDNY members who responded to the September 11 attacks on the World Trade Center. Series regular Molly Price was interviewed in a segment because she is married to real - life FDNY firefighter and Third Watch recurring guest star Derek Kelly.
Many Third Watch former cast members were nominated for awards for their work on the show. Among them, both Bobby Cannavale and Anthony Ruivivar were nominated for ALMA Awards for their positive portrayals of Latino characters. Nia Long also won several NAACP Image Awards for her portrayal of the African - American character Sasha Monroe. Other cast members, including Michael Beach, Molly Price, and Tia Texada also were nominated for various awards. The show itself was nominated for several Primetime Emmy Awards including Outstanding Stunt Coordination and Outstanding Sound Editing for a Series, which it won in 2000.
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society culture heritage arts and literature of assam | Culture of Assam - wikipedia
Ancient
Medieval
Colonial
Tribes
Dialects
Poitabhat Jolpan
Fish
Masor Tenga
Sweets
Narikol'or Laru Til'or Laru
Snacks
Pitha
Sauces
Bilahir top
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The culture of Assam (Assamese: অসমীয়া সংস্কৃতি অথবা অসমীয়া লোক - সংস্কৃতি) is traditionally a hybrid one, developed due to cultural assimilation of different ethno - cultural groups under various political - economic systems in different periods of history.
The roots of Assamese culture go back almost two thousand years when the first cultural assimilation took place between Austro - asiatic and Tibeto - Burman groups. There were three waves of cultural assimilation in Assam. First, it was the Tibeto - Burman ethnic groups which had arrived from Tibet, Yunnan and Sinchuan provinces of China who mixed with the scarcely present aboriginal Austric people like the Khasi and Jaintia. Then there was a wave of Indo - Aryans from Northern India, which brought the Vedic culture and Hinduism into Assam. The last wave of migration was that of the Ahoms (Tai / Shan) who added another chapter to the Assamese culture. The Ahoms later on brought some more Indo - Aryans like the Assamese Brahmins and Ganaks and Assamese Kayasthas to Assam.
According to the epic Mahabharata and on the basis of local folk lore, people of Assam (Kiratas and Nishadas Dasas) probably lived in a strong kingdom under the Himalayas in the era before Jesus Christ, which led to an early assimilation of various Tibeto - Burman and Autro - asiatic ethnic groups on a greater scale. Typical naming of the rivers and spatial distribution of related ethno - cultural groups also support this theory. Thereafter, western migrations of Indo - Aryans such as those of various branches of Irano - Scythians and Nordics along with mixed northern Indians (the ancient cultural mix already present in northern Indian states such as Magadha enriched the aboriginal culture and under certain stronger politico - economic systems, Sanskritisation and Hinduisation intensified and became prominent. Such an assimilated culture therefore carries many elements of source cultures, of which exact roots are difficult to trace and are a matter for research. However, in each of the elements of Assamese culture, i.e. language, traditional crafts, performing arts, festivities and beliefs, either indigenous local elements or the indigenous local elements in a Sanskritised forms are always present.
It is believed that Assamese culture developed its roots over 750 years as the country of Kamarupa during the first millennium AD. The first 300 years of Kamarupa was under the great Varman dynasty, 250 years under the Mlechchha dynasty and 200 years under the Pala dynasty. The records of many aspects of the language, traditional crafts (silk, lac, gold, bronze, etc.) are available in different forms. When the Tai - Shans entered the region in 1228 under the leadership of Sukaphaa to establish Ahom kingdom in Assam for the next 600 years, again a new chapter of cultural assimilation was written, and thus the modern form of Assamese culture developed. The original Tai - Shans assimilated with the local culture, adopted the language on one hand and on the other also influenced the culture with the elements from their own. Similarly the Chutiya kingdom in eastern Assam, the Koch Kingdom in western Assam and the medieval Kachari and Jaintia kingdoms in southern Assam provided stages for assimilation at different intensities and with different cultural - mixes.
The Vaishanav Movement, a 15th - century religio - cultural movement under the leadership of Srimanta Sankardeva and his disciples, have provided another dimension to Assamese culture. A renewed Hinduisation in local forms took place, which was initially greatly supported by the Koch and later by the Ahom Kingdoms. The resultant social institutions such as namghar and sattra - the Vaishnav Hermitage have become part of the Assamese way of life. The movement contributed greatly towards language, literature and performing and fine arts. On many occasions, the Vaishnav Movement attempted to introduce alien cultural attributes and modify the way of life of the common people. Brajavali, a language specially created by introducing words from other Indian languages, failed as a language but left its traces on the Assamese language. Moreover, new alien rules were also introduced changing people 's food habits and other aspects of cultural life. This had a greater impact on the alienation of many local ethno - cultural and political groups in the later periods.
During periods when strong politico - economic systems that emerged under powerful dynasties, greater cultural assimilation created common attributes of Assamese culture, while under less powerful politico - economic systems or during political disintegration, more localised attributes were created with spatial differentiation. Time - factors for such integrations and differentiations have also played an important role along with the position of individual events in the entire series of events.
With a strong base of tradition and history, modern Assamese culture is greatly influenced by various events those took place in under British rule of Assam and in the Post-British Era. The language was standardised by American Missionaries according to that of the Sibsagar District, the nerve centre of the Ahom politico - economic system while a renewed Sanskritisation was increasingly adopted for developing Assamese language and grammar (ব্যাকৰণ). A new wave of Western and northern Indian influence was apparent in the performing arts and literature.
Due to increasing efforts of standardisation in the 19th and 20th century, the localised forms present in different districts and also among the remaining source - cultures with the less - assimilated ethno - cultural groups have seen greater alienation. However, Assamese culture in its hybrid form and nature is one of the richest and is still under development.
Assamese culture in its true sense today is a ' cultural system ' composed of different sub-systems. It is more interesting to note that even many of the source - cultures of Assamese culture are still surviving either as sub-systems or as sister entities. In broader sense, therefore, the Assamese cultural system incorporates its source - cultures and However, it is also important to keep the broader system closer to its roots.
Symbolism is an important part of Assamese culture. Various elements are being used to represent beliefs, feelings, pride, identity, etc. Symbolism is an ancient cultural practice in Assam, which is still very important for the people. Tamulpan, Xorai and Gamosa are three important symbolic elements in Assamese culture.
Tamul - paan (the areca nut and betel leaves) or guapan (gua from kwa) are considered as the offers of devotion, respect and friendship. It is an ancient tradition and is being followed since time - immemorial with roots in the aboriginal Austric culture.
Xorai, a traditional symbol of Assam, is a manufactured bell - metal object and an article of great respect and is used as a container - medium while performing respectful offerings. It is an offering tray with a stand at the bottom similar to those found in East and South East Asia. There are xorais with or without a cover on the top. Traditionally xorai are made of bell metal although nowadays they can be made from brass and / or silver. Hajo and Sarthebari are the most important centres of traditional bell - metal and brass crafts including xorais. Xorais are used:
The Gamosa is an article of great significance for the people of Assam. Literally translated, it means ' something to wipe the body with ' (Ga = body, mosa = to wipe); interpreting the word "gamosa '' as the body - wiping towel is misleading. It is generally a white rectangular piece of cloth with primarily a red border on three sides and red woven motifs on the fourth (in addition to red, other colors are also used). Though it is used daily to wipe the body after a bath (an act of purification), the use is not restricted to this. It is used by the farmer as a waistcloth (tongali) or a loincloth (suriya); a Bihu dancer wraps it around the head with a fluffy knot. It is hung around the neck at the prayer hall and was thrown over the shoulder in the past to signify social status. Guests are welcomed with the offering of a gamosa and tamul (betel nut) and elders are offered gamosas (bihuwaan) during Bihu. It is used to cover the altar at the prayer hall or cover the scriptures. An object of reverence is never placed on the bare ground, but always on a gamosa. One can therefore, very well say, that the gamosa symbolizes the life and culture of Assam.
Significantly the gamosa is used equally by all irrespective of religious and ethnic backgrounds.
At par with Gamosa, there are beautifully woven symbolic clothes with attractive graphic designs being used by different cultural sub-systems and ethno - cultural groups as well.
There were various other traditional symbolic elements and designs in use, which are now found only in literature, art, sculpture, architecture, etc. or used for only religious purposes (in particular occasions). The typical designs of assamese - lion, dragon, flying - lion, etc. were used for symbolising various purposes and occasions.
There are several important indigenous traditional festivals in Assam. Bihu is the most celebrated festival among all. Indigenous traditional festivals are celebrated every year around different corners of Assam.
Bihu is a series of three prominent festivals of Assam. Primarily a festival celebrated to mark the seasons and the significant points of a cultivator 's life over a yearly cycle, in recent times the form and nature of celebration has changed with the growth of urban centers. Three Bihus are celebrated: rongali, celebrated with the coming of spring and the beginning of the sowing season; kongali, the barren bihu when the fields are lush but the barns are empty; and the bhogali, the thanksgiving when the crops have been harvested and the barns are full. Rongali, kongali & bhogali bihu are also known as ' bohag bihu ', ' kati bihu ' & ' magh bihu ' respectively. The day before the each bihu is known as ' uruka '. There are unique features of each bihu. The first day of ' rongali bihu ' is called ' Goru bihu ' (the bihu of the cows). On this day the cows are taken to the nearby rivers or ponds to be bathed with special care. Traditionally, cows are respected as sacred animals by the people of Assam. Bihu songs and Bihu dance are associated to rongali bihu.
Bwisagu is a very popular seasonal festival of the Bodo of Assam. Bwisagu means start of the new year. Baisagu is a Boro word which originated from the word "Baisa '' which means year or age, and "Agu '' that means starting or start
Ali - Ai - Ligang is the spring festival of the Mising people of Assam, India. The name of the festival is made up of three terms, ' Ali ', root and seed, ' Ai ', fruit and ' Ligang ', to sow.
Bohuwa dance is festival of Sonowal Kacharis of Assam, India.
Assam, being the home to many ethnic groups and different cultures, is rich in folk music. The indigenous folk music has in turn influenced the growth of a modern idiom, that finds expression in the music of such artists are Jyoti Prasad Agarwala, Bishnuprasad Rabha, Parvati Prasad Baruva, Bhupen Hazarika, Nirmalendu Choudhury & Utpalendu Choudhury, Pratima Barua Pandey, Luit Konwar Rudra Baruah, Parvati Prasad Baruva, Jayanta Hazarika, Khagen Mahanta, Beauty Sarma Baruah. Among the new generation Zubeen Garg, Angaraag Mahanta, Kalpana Patowary, Joi Barua, Jitul Sonowal and Manoj Borah are well known.
And other than traditional assamese music assam 's capital city Guwahati have become country 's capital for rock music other than Shillong. A number of talented rock bands have formed showcasing their talents around the world.
Assam has maintained a rich tradition of various traditional crafts for more than two thousand years. Presently, Cane and bamboo craft, bell metal and brass craft, silk and cotton weaving, toy and mask making, pottery and terracotta work, wood craft, jewellery making, musical instruments making, etc. are remained as major traditions. Historically, Assam also excelled in making boats, traditional guns and gunpowder, colours and paints, articles of lac, traditional building materials, utilities from iron, etc.
Cane and bamboo craft provide the most commonly used utilities in daily life, ranging from household utilities, weaving accessories, fishing accessories, furniture, musical instruments to building construction materials. Traditional utilities and symbolic articles made from bell metal and brass are found in every Assamese household. The Xorai and bota have been in use for centuries to offer gifts to respected persons and are two prominent symbolic elements. Hajo and Sarthebari are the most important centres of traditional bell - metal and brass crafts. Assam is the home of several types of silks, the most prominent and prestigious being Muga, the natural golden silk is exclusive only to Assam. Apart from Muga, there are other two varieties called Pat, a creamy - bright - silver coloured silk and Eri, a variety used for manufacturing warm clothes for winter. Apart from Sualkuchi, the centre for the traditional silk industry, in almost every parts of the Brahmaputra Valley, rural households produce silk and silk garments with excellent embroidery designs. Moreover, various ethno - cultural groups in Assam make different types of cotton garments with unique embroidery designs and wonderful colour combinations.
Moreover, Assam possesses unique crafts of toy and mask making mostly concentrated in the Vaishnav Hermitage, pottery and terracotta work in Western Assam districts and wood craft, iron craft, jewellery, etc. in many places across the region. However we can see assam populated because of these.
Traditional clothes and fabric of the Assamese include Suriya, Pirawn, Gamusa, Jaapi, Mekhela Sadawr, Riha, Tongali.
Painting is an ancient tradition of Assam. The ancient practices can be known from the accounts of the Chinese traveller Xuanzang (7th century CE). The account mentions that Bhaskaravarma, the king of Kamarupa has gifted several items to Harshavardhana, the king of Magadha including paintings and painted objects, some of which were on Assamese silk. Many of the manuscripts available from the Middle Ages bear excellent examples of traditional paintings. The most famous of such medieval works are available in the Hastividyarnava (A Treatise on Elephants), the Chitra Bhagawata and in the Gita Govinda. The medieval painters used locally manufactured painting materials such as the colours of hangool and haital. The medieval Assamese literature also refers to chitrakars and patuas. Traditional Assamese paintings have been influenced by the motifs and designs in the medieval works such as the Chitra Bhagawata.
There are several renowned contemporary painters in Assam. The Guwahati Art College in Guwahati is the only government institution for tertiary education. Several art - societies and non-government initiatives exist across the state and the Guwahati Artists Guild is a front - runner organisation based in Guwahati along with the Guwahati art college. There is a Department of Fine Arts in Assam University Silchar, a central government organization, and its thrust area concentrates on the art and craft of north east India with special reference to Assam.
The song O Mur Apunar Desh (অ ' মোৰ আপোনাৰ দেশ) (O my endearing country, ' desh ', phonetically ' dex ', with a talôibbô xô = country), composed by Rasaraj Lakshminath Bezbaroa, is popularly accepted as the state anthem of the state of Assam.
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according to the text the american dream stresses the importance of | American Dream - wikipedia
The American Dream is a national ethos of the United States, the set of ideals (democracy, rights, liberty, opportunity and equality) in which freedom includes the opportunity for prosperity and success, as well as an upward social mobility for the family and children, achieved through hard work in a society with few barriers. In the definition of the American Dream by James Truslow Adams in 1931, "life should be better and richer and fuller for everyone, with opportunity for each according to ability or achievement '' regardless of social class or circumstances of birth.
The American Dream is rooted in the Declaration of Independence, which proclaims that "all men are created equal '' with the right to "life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness. ''
The meaning of the "American Dream '' has changed over the course of history, and includes both personal components (such as home ownership and upward mobility) and a global vision. Historically the Dream originated in the mystique regarding frontier life. As the Governor of Virginia noted in 1774, the Americans "for ever imagine the Lands further off are still better than those upon which they are already settled ''. He added that, "if they attained Paradise, they would move on if they heard of a better place farther west ''.
In the 19th century, many well - educated Germans fled the failed 1848 revolution. They welcomed the political freedoms in the New World, and the lack of a hierarchical or aristocratic society that determined the ceiling for individual aspirations. One of them explained:
The German emigrant comes into a country free from the despotism, privileged orders and monopolies, intolerable taxes, and constraints in matters of belief and conscience. Everyone can travel and settle wherever he pleases. No passport is demanded, no police mingles in his affairs or hinders his movements... Fidelity and merit are the only sources of honor here. The rich stand on the same footing as the poor; the scholar is not a mug above the most humble mechanics; no German ought to be ashamed to pursue any occupation... (In America) wealth and possession of real estate confer not the least political right on its owner above what the poorest citizen has. Nor are there nobility, privileged orders, or standing armies to weaken the physical and moral power of the people, nor are there swarms of public functionaries to devour in idleness credit for. Above all, there are no princes and corrupt courts representing the so - called divine ' right of birth. ' In such a country the talents, energy and perseverance of a person... have far greater opportunity to display than in monarchies.
The discovery of gold in California in 1849 brought in a hundred thousand men looking for their fortune overnight -- and a few did find it. Thus was born the California Dream of instant success. Historian H.W. Brands noted that in the years after the Gold Rush, the California Dream spread across the nation:
The old American Dream... was the dream of the Puritans, of Benjamin Franklin 's "Poor Richard ''... of men and women content to accumulate their modest fortunes a little at a time, year by year by year. The new dream was the dream of instant wealth, won in a twinkling by audacity and good luck. (This) golden dream... became a prominent part of the American psyche only after Sutter 's Mill. ''
Historian Frederick Jackson Turner in 1893 advanced the Frontier Thesis, under which American democracy and the American Dream were formed by the American frontier. He stressed the process -- the moving frontier line -- and the impact it had on pioneers going through the process. He also stressed results; especially that American democracy was the primary result, along with egalitarianism, a lack of interest in high culture, and violence. "American democracy was born of no theorist 's dream; it was not carried in the Susan Constant to Virginia, nor in the Mayflower to Plymouth. It came out of the American forest, and it gained new strength each time it touched a new frontier, '' said Turner. In the thesis, the American frontier established liberty by releasing Americans from European mindsets and eroding old, dysfunctional customs. The frontier had no need for standing armies, established churches, aristocrats or nobles, nor for landed gentry who controlled most of the land and charged heavy rents. Frontier land was free for the taking. Turner first announced his thesis in a paper entitled "The Significance of the Frontier in American History '', delivered to the American Historical Association in 1893 in Chicago. He won wide acclaim among historians and intellectuals. Turner elaborated on the theme in his advanced history lectures and in a series of essays published over the next 25 years, published along with his initial paper as The Frontier in American History. Turner 's emphasis on the importance of the frontier in shaping American character influenced the interpretation found in thousands of scholarly histories. By the time Turner died in 1932, 60 % of the leading history departments in the U.S. were teaching courses in frontier history along Turnerian lines.
Freelance writer James Truslow Adams popularized the phrase "American Dream '' in his 1931 book Epic of America:
But there has been also the American dream, that dream of a land in which life should be better and richer and fuller for every man, with opportunity for each according to his ability or achievement. It is a difficult dream for the European upper classes to interpret adequately, and too many of us ourselves have grown weary and mistrustful of it. It is not a dream of motor cars and high wages merely, but a dream of social order in which each man and each woman shall be able to attain to the fullest stature of which they are innately capable, and be recognized by others for what they are, regardless of the fortuitous circumstances of birth or position... The American dream, that has lured tens of millions of all nations to our shores in the past century has not been a dream of merely material plenty, though that has doubtlessly counted heavily. It has been much more than that. It has been a dream of being able to grow to fullest development as man and woman, unhampered by the barriers which had slowly been erected in the older civilizations, unrepressed by social orders which had developed for the benefit of classes rather than for the simple human being of any and every class.
Martin Luther King, Jr., in his "Letter from a Birmingham Jail '' (1963) rooted the civil rights movement in the African - American quest for the American Dream:
We will win our freedom because the sacred heritage of our nation and the eternal will of God are embodied in our echoing demands... when these disinherited children of God sat down at lunch counters they were in reality standing up for what is best in the American dream and for the most sacred values in our Judeo - Christian heritage, thereby bringing our nation back to those great wells of democracy which were dug deep by the founding fathers in their formulation of the Constitution and the Declaration of Independence.
The concept is used in popular discourse, and scholars have traced its use in American literature ranging from the Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin, to Mark Twain 's The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1884), Willa Cather 's My Ántonia, F. Scott Fitzgerald 's The Great Gatsby (1925), Theodore Dreiser 's An American Tragedy (1925) and Toni Morrison 's Song of Solomon (1977). Other writers who used the American Dream theme include Hunter S. Thompson, Edward Albee, John Steinbeck, Langston Hughes and Giannina Braschi. The American Dream is also discussed in Arthur Miller 's Death of a Salesman; the play 's protagonist, Willy, is on a quest for the American Dream.
As Huang shows, the American Dream is a recurring theme in the fiction of Asian Americans.
Many American authors added American Ideals to their work as a theme or other reoccurring idea, to get their point across. There are many ideals that appear in American Literature such as, but not limited to, all people are equal, The United States of America is the Land of Opportunity, independence is valued, The American Dream is attainable, and everyone can succeed with hard work and determination. John Winthrop also wrote about this term called, American Exceptionalism. This ideology refers to the idea that Americans are the chosen ones, and that they are the light.
The American Dream has been credited with helping to build a cohesive American experience, but has also been blamed for inflated expectations. Some commentators have noted that despite deep - seated belief in the egalitarian American Dream, the modern American wealth structure still perpetuates racial and class inequalities between generations. One sociologist notes that advantage and disadvantage are not always connected to individual successes or failures, but often to prior position in a social group.
Since the 1920s, numerous authors, such as Sinclair Lewis in his 1922 novel Babbitt, and F. Scott Fitzgerald, in his 1925 classic, The Great Gatsby, satirized or ridiculed materialism in the chase for the American dream. For example, Jay Gatsby 's death mirrors the American Dream 's demise, reflecting the pessimism of modern - day Americans. The American Dream is a main theme in the book by John Steinbeck, Of Mice and Men. The two friends George and Lennie dream of their own piece of land with a ranch, so they can "live off the fatta the lan ' '' and just enjoy a better life. The book later shows that not everyone can achieve the American Dream, thus proving by contradiction it is not possible for all, although it is possible to achieve for a few. A lot of people follow the American Dream to achieve a greater chance of becoming rich. Some posit that the ease of achieving the American Dream changes with technological advances, availability of infrastructure and information, government regulations, state of the economy, and with the evolving cultural values of American demographics.
In 1949, Arthur Miller wrote Death of a Salesman, in which the American Dream is a fruitless pursuit. Similarly, in 1971 Hunter S. Thompson depicted in Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas: A Savage Journey Into the Heart of the American Dream a dark psychedelic reflection of the concept -- successfully illustrated only in wasted pop - culture excess.
The novel Requiem for a Dream by Hubert Selby, Jr. is an exploration of the pursuit of American success as it turns delirious and lethal, told through the ensuing tailspin of its main characters. George Carlin famously wrote the joke "it 's called the American dream because you have to be asleep to believe it ''. Carlin pointed to "the big wealthy business interests that control things and make all the important decisions '' as having a greater influence than an individual 's choice. Pulitzer Prize -- winning journalist Chris Hedges echos this sentiment in his 2012 book Days of Destruction, Days of Revolt:
The vaunted American dream, the idea that life will get better, that progress is inevitable if we obey the rules and work hard, that material prosperity is assured, has been replaced by a hard and bitter truth. The American dream, we now know, is a lie. We will all be sacrificed. The virus of corporate abuse - the perverted belief that only corporate profit matters - has spread to outsource our jobs, cut the budgets of our schools, close our libraries, and plague our communities with foreclosures and unemployment.
The American Dream, and the sometimes dark response to it, has been a long - standing theme in American film. Many counterculture films of the 1960s and 1970s ridiculed the traditional quest for the American Dream. For example, Easy Rider (1969), directed by Dennis Hopper, shows the characters making a pilgrimage in search of "the true America '' in terms of the hippie movement, drug use, and communal lifestyles.
Scholars have explored the American Dream theme in the careers of numerous political leaders, including Henry Kissinger, Hillary Clinton, Benjamin Franklin, and Abraham Lincoln. The theme has been used for many local leaders as well, such as José Antonio Navarro, the Tejano leader (1795 -- 1871), who served in the legislatures of Coahuila y Texas, the Republic of Texas, and the State of Texas.
In 2006 U.S. Senator Barack Obama wrote a memoir, The Audacity of Hope: Thoughts on Reclaiming the American Dream. It was this interpretation of the American Dream for a young black man that helped establish his statewide and national reputations. The exact meaning of the Dream became for at least one commentator a partisan political issue in the 2008 and 2012 elections.
Political conflicts, to some degree, have been ameliorated by the shared values of all parties in the expectation that the American Dream will resolve many difficulties and conflicts.
The ethos today implies an opportunity for Americans to achieve prosperity through hard work. According to The Dream, this includes the opportunity for one 's children to grow up and receive a good education and career without artificial barriers. It is the opportunity to make individual choices without the prior restrictions that limited people according to their class, caste, religion, race, or ethnicity. Immigrants to the United States sponsored ethnic newspapers in their own language; the editors typically promoted the American Dream. Lawrence Samuel argues:
For many in both the working class and the middle class, upward mobility has served as the heart and soul of the American Dream, the prospect of "betterment '' and to "improve one 's lot '' for oneself and one 's children much of what this country is all about. "Work hard, save a little, send the kids to college so they can do better than you did, and retire happily to a warmer climate '' has been the script we have all been handed.
A key element of the American Dream is promoting opportunity for one 's children, Johnson interviewing parents says, "This was one of the most salient features of the interview data: parents -- regardless of background -- relied heavily on the American Dream to understand the possibilities for children, especially their own children ''. Rank et al. argue, "The hopes and optimism that Americans possess pertain not only to their own lives, but to their children 's lives as well. A fundamental aspect of the American Dream has always been the expectation that the next generation should do better than the previous generation. ''
Hanson and Zogby (2010) report on numerous public opinion polls that since the 1980s have explored the meaning of the concept for Americans, and their expectations for its future. In these polls, a majority of Americans consistently reported that for their family, the American Dream is more about spiritual happiness than material goods. Majorities state that working hard is the most important element for getting ahead. However, an increasing minority stated that hard work and determination does not guarantee success. Most Americans predict that achieving the Dream with fair means will become increasingly difficult for future generations. They are increasingly pessimistic about the opportunity for the working class to get ahead; on the other hand, they are increasingly optimistic about the opportunities available to poor people and to new immigrants. Furthermore, most support programs make special efforts to help minorities get ahead.
In a 2013 poll by a YouGov, 41 % of responders said it is impossible for most to achieve the American Dream, while 38 % said it is still possible. Most Americans perceive a college education as the ticket to the American Dream. Some recent observers warn that soaring student loan debt crisis and shortages of good jobs may undermine this ticket. The point was illustrated in The Fallen American Dream, a documentary film that details the concept of the American Dream from its historical origins to its current perception.
Research published in 2013 shows that the US provides, alongside the United Kingdom and Spain, the least economic mobility of any of 13 rich, democratic countries in the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Prior research suggested that the United States shows roughly average levels of occupational upward mobility and shows lower rates of income mobility than comparable societies. Blanden et al. report, "the idea of the US as ' the land of opportunity ' persists; and clearly seems misplaced. '' According to these studies, "by international standards, the United States has an unusually low level of intergenerational mobility: our parents ' income is highly predictive of our incomes as adults. Intergenerational mobility in the United States is lower than in France, Germany, Sweden, Canada, Finland, Norway and Denmark. Research in 2006 found that among high - income countries for which comparable estimates are available, only the United Kingdom had a lower rate of mobility than the United States. '' Economist Isabel Sawhill concluded that "this challenges the notion of America as the land of opportunity ''. Several public figures and commentators, from David Frum to Richard G. Wilkinson, have noted that the American dream is better realized in Denmark, which is ranked as having the highest social mobility in the OECD. In 2015, economist Joseph Stiglitz stated, "Maybe we should be calling the American Dream the Scandinavian Dream. ''
In the United States, home ownership is sometimes used as a proxy for achieving the promised prosperity; ownership has been a status symbol separating the middle classes from the poor.
Sometimes the Dream is identified with success in sports or how working class immigrants seek to join the American way of life.
Ownby (1999) identifies four American Dreams that the new consumer culture addressed. The first was the "Dream of Abundance '' offering a cornucopia of material goods to all Americans, making them proud to be the richest society on earth. The second was the "Dream of a Democracy of Goods '' whereby everyone had access to the same products regardless of race, gender, ethnicity, or class, thereby challenging the aristocratic norms of the rest of the world whereby only the rich or well - connected are granted access to luxury. The "Dream of Freedom of Choice '' with its ever - expanding variety of good allowed people to fashion their own particular lifestyle. Finally, the "Dream of Novelty '', in which ever - changing fashions, new models, and unexpected new products broadened the consumer experience in terms of purchasing skills and awareness of the market, and challenged the conservatism of traditional society and culture, and even politics. Ownby acknowledges that the dreams of the new consumer culture radiated out from the major cities, but notes that they quickly penetrated the most rural and most isolated areas, such as rural Mississippi. With the arrival of the model T after 1910, consumers in rural America were no longer locked into local general stores with their limited merchandise and high prices in comparison to shops in towns and cities. Ownby demonstrates that poor black Mississippians shared in the new consumer culture, both inside Mississippi, and it motivated the more ambitious to move to Memphis or Chicago.
The aspirations of the "American Dream '' in the broad sense of upward mobility has been systematically spread to other nations since the 1890s as American missionaries and businessmen consciously sought to spread the Dream, says Rosenberg. Looking at American business, religious missionaries, philanthropies, Hollywood, labor unions and Washington agencies, she says they saw their mission not in catering to foreign elites but instead reaching the world 's masses in democratic fashion. "They linked mass production, mass marketing, and technological improvement to an enlightened democratic spirit... In the emerging litany of the American dream what historian Daniel Boorstin later termed a "democracy of things '' would disprove both Malthus 's predictions of scarcity and Marx 's of class conflict. '' It was, she says "a vision of global social progress. '' Rosenberg calls the overseas version of the American Dream "liberal - developmentalism '' and identified five critical components:
(1) belief that other nations could and should replicate America 's own developmental experience; (2) faith in private free enterprise; (3) support for free or open access for trade and investment; (4) promotion of free flow of information and culture; and (5) growing acceptance of (U.S.) governmental activity to protect private enterprise and to stimulate and regulate American participation in international economic and cultural exchange.
Knights and McCabe argued American management gurus have taken the lead in exporting the ideas: "By the latter half of the twentieth century they were truly global and through them the American Dream continues to be transmitted, repackaged and sold by an infantry of consultants and academics backed up by an artillery of books and videos ''.
In West Germany after World War II, says Pommerin, "the most intense motive was the longing for a better life, more or less identical with the American dream, which also became a German dream ''. Cassamagnaghi argues that to women in Italy after 1945, films and magazine stories about American life offered an "American dream. '' New York City especially represented a sort of utopia where every sort of dream and desire could become true. Italian women saw a model for their own emancipation from second class status in their patriarchal society.
The American dream regarding home ownership had little resonance before the 1980s. In the 1980s, British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher worked to create a similar dream, by selling public - housing units to their tenants. Her Conservative Party called for more home ownership: "HOMES OF OUR OWN: To most people ownership means first and foremost a home of their own... We should like in time to improve on existing legislation with a realistic grants scheme to assist first - time buyers of cheaper homes. '' Guest calls this Thatcher 's approach to the American Dream. Knights and McCabe argue that, "a reflection and reinforcement of the American Dream has been the emphasis on individualism as extolled by Margaret Thatcher and epitomized by the ' enterprise ' culture. ''
Since the fall of Communism in the Soviet Union in 1991, the American Dream has fascinated Russians. The first post-Communist leader Boris Yeltsin embraced the "American way '' and teamed up with Harvard University free market economists Jeffrey Sachs and Robert Allison to give Russia economic shock therapy in the 1990s. The newly independent Russian media idealized America and endorsed shock therapy for the economy. In 2008 Russian President Dmitry Medvedev lamented the fact that 77 % of Russia 's 142 million people live "cooped up '' in apartment buildings. In 2010 his administration announced a plan for widespread home ownership: "Call it the Russian dream '', said Alexander Braverman, the Director of the Federal Fund for the Promotion of Housing Construction Development. Russian Prime Minister Vladimir Putin, worried about his nation 's very low birth rate, said he hoped home ownership will inspire Russians "to have more babies ''.
The Chinese Dream describes a set of ideals in the People 's Republic of China. It is used by journalists, government officials and activists to describe the aspiration of individual self - improvement in Chinese society. Although the phrase has been used previously by Western journalists and scholars, a translation of a New York Times article written by the American journalist Thomas Friedman, "China Needs Its Own Dream '', has been credited with popularizing the concept in China. He attributes the term to Peggy Liu and the environmental NGO JUCCCE 's China Dream project, which defines the Chinese Dream as sustainable development. In 2013 the President of the PRC Xi Jinping began promoting the phrase as a slogan, leading to its widespread use in the Chinese media.
The concept of Chinese Dream is very similar to the idea of "American Dream ''. It stresses entrepreneurship and glorifies a generation of self - made men and women in post-reform China. Such as those rural immigrates who moved to the urban centers and achieve magnificent improvement in terms of their living standards, and social life. Chinese Dream can be interpreted as the collective consciousness of Chinese people during the era of social transformation and economic progress. The main difference is that the American Dream is an already existing phenomenon while the Chinese Dream is being built and popularised fairly recently.
The idea was put forward by the new CPC General Secretary Xi Jinping on November 29, 2012. The government hoped to create a revitalized China, while promoting innovation and technology to restore the international prestige of China. In this light, Chinese Dream, like American exceptionalism, is a nationalistic concept as well.
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word used to describe rate the temperature in a gas oven | Thermostat - wikipedia
A thermostat is a component which senses the temperature of a physical system and performs actions so that the system 's temperature is maintained near a desired setpoint.
Thermostats are used in any device or system that heats or cools to a setpoint temperature, examples include building heating, central heating, air conditioners, HVAC systems, water heaters, as well as kitchen equipment including ovens and refrigerators and medical and scientific incubators. In scientific literature, these devices are often broadly classified as thermostatically controlled loads (TCLs). Thermostatically controlled loads comprise roughly 50 % of the overall electricity demand in the United States.
A thermostat operates as a "closed loop '' control device, as it seeks to reduce the error between the desired and measured temperatures. Sometimes a thermostat combines both the sensing and control action elements of a controlled system, such as in an automotive thermostat.
The word thermostat is derived from the Greek words θερμός thermos, "hot '' and στατός statos, "standing, stationary ''.
A thermostat exerts control by switching heating or cooling devices on or off, or by regulating the flow of a heat transfer fluid as needed, to maintain the correct temperature. A thermostat can often be the main control unit for a heating or cooling system, in applications ranging from ambient air control, to such as automotive coolant control. Thermostats are used in any device or system that heats or cools to a setpoint temperature, examples include building heating, central heating, air conditioners, as well as kitchen equipment including ovens and refrigerators and medical and scientific incubators.
Thermostats use different types of sensors to measure the temperature. In one form, the mechanical thermostat, a bimetallic strip in the form of a coil directly operates electrical contacts that control the heating or cooling source. Electronic thermostats, instead, use a thermistor or other semiconductor sensor that requires amplification and processing to control the heating or cooling equipment. A thermostat is an example of a "bang - bang controller '' as the heating or cooling equipment output is not proportional to the difference between actual temperature and the temperature setpoint. Instead, the heating or cooling equipment runs at full capacity until the set temperature is reached, then shuts off. Increasing the difference between the thermostat setting and the desired temperature therefore does not change the time to achieve the desired temperature. The rate at which the target system temperature can change is determined both by the capacity of the heating or cooling equipment to respectively add or remove heat to or from a target system and the capacity of the target system to store heat.
To prevent excessively rapid cycling of the equipment when the temperature is near the setpoint, a thermostat can include some hysteresis. Instead of changing from "on '' to "off '' and vice versa instantly at the set temperature, a thermostat with hysteresis will not switch until the temperature has changed a little past the set temperature point. For example, a refrigerator set to 2 ° C might not start the cooling compressor until its food compartment 's temperature reaches 3 ° C, and will keep it running until the temperature has been lowered to 1 ° C. This reduces the risk of equipment wear from too frequent switching, although it introduces a target system temperature oscillation of a certain magnitude.
To improve the comfort of the occupants of heated or air - conditioned spaces, bimetal sensor thermostats can include an "anticipator '' system to slightly warm the temperature sensor while the heating equipment is operating, or to slightly warm the sensor when the cooling system is not operating. When correctly adjusted this reduces any excessive hysteresis in the system and reduces the magnitude of temperature variations. Electronic thermostats have an electronic equivalent.
Early technologies included mercury thermometers with electrodes inserted directly through the glass, so that when a certain (fixed) temperature was reached the contacts would be closed by the mercury. These were accurate to within a degree of temperature.
Common sensor technologies in use today include:
These may then control the heating or cooling apparatus using:
Possibly the earliest recorded examples of thermostat control were built by the Dutch innovator Cornelis Drebbel (1572 -- 1633) around 1620 in England. He invented a mercury thermostat to regulate the temperature of a chicken incubator. This is one of the first recorded feedback - controlled devices.
Modern thermostat control was developed in the 1830s by Andrew Ure (1778 -- 1857), a Scottish chemist, who invented the bi-metallic thermostat. The textile mills of the time needed a constant and steady temperature to operate optimally, so to achieve this Ure designed the bimetallic thermostat, which would bend as one of the metals expanded in response to the increased temperature and cut off the energy supply.
Warren S. Johnson (1847 -- 1911) of Wisconsin patented a bi-metal room thermostat in 1883, and two years later filed a patent for the first multi-zone thermostatic control system. Albert Butz (1849 -- 1905) invented the electric thermostat and patented it in 1886.
One of the first industrial uses of the thermostat was in the regulation of the temperature in poultry incubators. Charles Hearson, a British engineer, designed the first modern incubator for eggs that was taken up for use on poultry farms in 1879. The incubators incorporated an accurate thermostat to regulate the temperature so as to precisely simulate the experience of an egg being hatched naturally.
This covers only devices which both sense and control using purely mechanical means.
Domestic water and steam based central heating systems have traditionally been controlled by bi-metallic strip thermostats, and this is dealt with later in this article. Purely mechanical control has been localised steam or hot - water radiator bi-metallic thermostats which regulated the individual flow. However, thermostatic radiator valves (TRV) are now being widely used.
Purely mechanical thermostats are used to regulate dampers in some rooftop turbine vents, reducing building heat loss in cool or cold periods.
Some automobile passenger heating systems have a thermostatically controlled valve to regulate the water flow and temperature to an adjustable level. In older vehicles the thermostat controls the application of engine vacuum to actuators that control water valves and flappers to direct the flow of air. In modern vehicles, the vacuum actuators may be operated by small solenoids under the control of a central computer.
Perhaps the most common example of purely mechanical thermostat technology in use today is the internal combustion engine cooling system thermostat, used to maintain the engine near its optimum operating temperature by regulating the flow of coolant to an air - cooled radiator. This type of thermostat operates using a sealed chamber containing a wax pellet that melts and expands at a set temperature. The expansion of the chamber operates a rod which opens a valve when the operating temperature is exceeded. The operating temperature is determined by the composition of the wax. Once the operating temperature is reached, the thermostat progressively increases or decreases its opening in response to temperature changes, dynamically balancing the coolant recirculation flow and coolant flow to the radiator to maintain the engine temperature in the optimum range.
On many automobile engines, including all Chrysler Group and General Motors products, the thermostat does not restrict flow to the heater core. The passenger side tank of the radiator is used as a bypass to the thermostat, flowing through the heater core. This prevents formation of steam pockets before the thermostat opens, and allows the heater to function before the thermostat opens. Another benefit is that there is still some flow through the radiator if the thermostat fails.
A thermostatic mixing valve uses a wax pellet to control the mixing of hot and cold water. A common application is to permit operation of an electric water heater at a temperature hot enough to kill Legionella bacteria (above 60 ° C (140 ° F)), while the output of the valve produces water that is cool enough to not immediately scald (49 ° C (120 ° F)).
A wax pellet driven valve can be analyzed through graphing the wax pellet 's hysteresis which consists of two thermal expansion curves; extension (motion) vs. temperature increase, and contraction (motion) vs. temperature decrease. The spread between the up and down curves visually illustrate the valve 's hysteresis; there is always hysteresis within wax driven valves due to the phase change between solids and liquids. Hysteresis can be controlled with specialized blended mixes of hydrocarbons; tight hysteresis is what most desire, however some applications require broader ranges. Wax pellet driven valves are used in anti scald, freeze protection, over-temp purge, solar thermal, automotive, and aerospace applications among many others.
Thermostats are sometimes used to regulate gas ovens. It consists of a gas - filled bulb connected to the control unit by a slender copper tube. The bulb is normally located at the top of the oven. The tube ends in a chamber sealed by a diaphragm. As the thermostat heats up, the gas expands applying pressure to the diaphragm which reduces the flow of gas to the burner.
A pneumatic thermostat is a thermostat that controls a heating or cooling system via a series of air - filled control tubes. This "control air '' system responds to the pressure changes (due to temperature) in the control tube to activate heating or cooling when required. The control air typically is maintained on "mains '' at 15 - 18 psi (although usually operable up to 20 psi). Pneumatic thermostats typically provide output / branch / post-restrictor (for single - pipe operation) pressures of 3 - 15 psi which is piped to the end device (valve / damper actuator / pneumatic - electric switch, etc.).
The pneumatic thermostat was invented by Warren Johnson in 1895 soon after he invented the electric thermostat. In 2009, Harry Sim was awarded a patent for a pneumatic - to - digital interface that allows pneumatically controlled buildings to be integrated with building automation systems to provide similar benefits as direct digital control (DDC).
A wax pellet driven valve can be analyzed by graphing the wax pellet 's hysteresis which consists of two thermal expansion curves; extension (motion) vs. temperature increase, and contraction (motion) vs. temperature decrease. The spread between the up and down curves visually illustrate the valve 's hysteresis; there is always hysteresis within wax driven technology due to the phase change between solids and liquids. Hysteresis can be controlled with specialized blended mixes of hydrocarbons; tight hysteresis is what most desire, however specialized engineering applications require broader ranges. Wax pellet driven valves are used in anti scald, freeze protection, over-temp purge, solar thermal, automotive, and aerospace applications among many others.
Water and steam based central heating systems have traditionally had overall control by wall - mounted bi-metallic strip thermostats. These sense the air temperature using the differential expansion of two metals to actuate an on / off switch. Typically the central system would be switched on when the temperature drops below the setpoint on the thermostat, and switched off when it rises above, with a few degrees of hysteresis to prevent excessive switching. Bi-metallic sensing is now being superseded by electronic sensors. A principal use of the bi-metallic thermostat today is in individual electric convection heaters, where control is on / off, based on the local air temperature and the setpoint desired by the user. These are also used on air - conditioners, where local control is required.
The illustration is the interior of a common two wire heat - only household thermostat, used to regulate a gas - fired heater via an electric gas valve. Similar mechanisms may also be used to control oil furnaces, boilers, boiler zone valves, electric attic fans, electric furnaces, electric baseboard heaters, and household appliances such as refrigerators, coffee pots and hair dryers. The power through the thermostat is provided by the heating device and may range from millivolts to 240 volts in common North American construction, and is used to control the heating system either directly (electric baseboard heaters and some electric furnaces) or indirectly (all gas, oil and forced hot water systems). Due to the variety of possible voltages and currents available at the thermostat, caution must be taken when selecting a replacement device.
Not shown in the illustration is a separate bimetal thermometer on the outer case to show the actual temperature at the thermostat.
As illustrated in the use of the thermostat above, all of the power for the control system is provided by a thermopile which is a combination of many stacked thermocouples, heated by the pilot light. The thermopile produces sufficient electrical power to drive a low - power gas valve, which under control of one or more thermostat switches, in turn controls the input of fuel to the burner.
This type of device is generally considered obsolete as pilot lights can waste a surprising amount of gas (in the same way a dripping faucet can waste a large amount of water over an extended period), and are also no longer used on stoves, but are still to be found in many gas water heaters and gas fireplaces. Their poor efficiency is acceptable in water heaters, since most of the energy "wasted '' on the pilot still represents a direct heat gain for the water tank. The Millivolt system also makes it unnecessary for a special electrical circuit to be run to the water heater or furnace; these systems are often completely self - sufficient and can run without any external electrical power supply. For tankless "on demand '' water heaters, pilot ignition is preferable because it is faster than hot - surface ignition and more reliable than spark ignition.
Some programmable thermostats - those that offer simple "millivolt '' or "two - wire '' modes - will control these systems.
The majority of modern heating / cooling / heat pump thermostats operate on low voltage (typically 24 volts AC) control circuits. The source of the 24 volt AC power is a control transformer installed as part of the heating / cooling equipment. The advantage of the low voltage control system is the ability to operate multiple electromechanical switching devices such as relays, contactors, and sequencers using inherently safe voltage and current levels. Built into the thermostat is a provision for enhanced temperature control using anticipation. A heat anticipator generates a small amount of additional heat to the sensing element while the heating appliance is operating. This opens the heating contacts slightly early to prevent the space temperature from greatly overshooting the thermostat setting. A mechanical heat anticipator is generally adjustable and should be set to the current flowing in the heating control circuit when the system is operating. A cooling anticipator generates a small amount of additional heat to the sensing element while the cooling appliance is not operating. This causes the contacts to energize the cooling equipment slightly early, preventing the space temperature from climbing excessively. Cooling anticipators are generally non-adjustable.
Electromechanical thermostats use resistance elements as anticipators. Most electronic thermostats use either thermistor devices or integrated logic elements for the anticipation function. In some electronic thermostats, the thermistor anticipator may be located outdoors, providing a variable anticipation depending on the outdoor temperature. Thermostat enhancements include outdoor temperature display, programmability, and system fault indication. While such 24 volt thermostats are incapable of operating a furnace when the mains power fails, most such furnaces require mains power for heated air fans (and often also hot - surface or electronic spark ignition) rendering moot the functionality of the thermostat. In other circumstances such as piloted wall and "gravity '' (fanless) floor and central heaters the low voltage system described previously may be capable of remaining functional when electrical power is unavailable.
There are no standards for wiring color codes, but convention has settled on the following terminal codes and colors. In all cases, the manufacturer 's instructions should be considered definitive.
Line voltage thermostats are most commonly used for electric space heaters such as a baseboard heater or a direct - wired electric furnace. If a line voltage thermostat is used, system power (in the United States, 120 or 240 volts) is directly switched by the thermostat. With switching current often exceeding 40 amperes, using a low voltage thermostat on a line voltage circuit will result at least in the failure of the thermostat and possibly a fire. Line voltage thermostats are sometimes used in other applications, such as the control of fan - coil (fan powered from line voltage blowing through a coil of tubing which is either heated or cooled by a larger system) units in large systems using centralized boilers and chillers, or to control circulation pumps in hydronic heating applications.
Some programmable thermostats are available to control line - voltage systems. Baseboard heaters will especially benefit from a programmable thermostat which is capable of continuous control (as are at least some Honeywell models), effectively controlling the heater like a lamp dimmer, and gradually increasing and decreasing heating to ensure an extremely constant room temperature (continuous control rather than relying on the averaging effects of hysteresis). Systems which include a fan (electric furnaces, wall heaters, etc.) must typically use simple on / off controls.
Newer digital thermostats have no moving parts to measure temperature and instead rely on thermistors or other semiconductor devices such as a resistance thermometer (resistance temperature detector). Typically one or more regular batteries must be installed to operate it, although some so - called "power stealing '' digital thermostats use the common 24 volt AC circuits as a power source, but will not operate on thermopile powered "millivolt '' circuits used in some furnaces. Each has an LCD screen showing the current temperature, and the current setting. Most also have a clock, and time - of - day and even day - of - week settings for the temperature, used for comfort and energy conservation. Some advanced models have touch screens, or the ability to work with home automation or building automation systems.
Digital thermostats use either a relay or a semiconductor device such as triac to act as a switch to control the HVAC unit. Units with relays will operate millivolt systems, but often make an audible "click '' noise when switching on or off.
HVAC systems with the ability to modulate their output can be combined with thermostats that have a built - in PID controller to achieve smoother operation. There are also modern thermostats featuring adaptive algorithms to further improve the inertia prone system behaviour. For instance, setting those up so that the temperature in the morning at 7 a.m. should be 21 ° C (69.8 ° F), makes sure that at that time the temperature will be 21 ° C (69.8 ° F), where a conventional thermostat would just start working at that time. The algorithms decide at what time the system should be activated in order to reach the desired temperature at the desired time. It also makes sure that the temperature is very stable (for instance, by reducing overshoots).
Most digital thermostats in common residential use in North America and Europe are programmable thermostats, which will typically provide a 30 % energy savings if left with their default programs; adjustments to these defaults may increase or reduce energy savings. The programmable thermostat article provides basic information on the operation, selection and installation of such a thermostat.
With non-zoned (typical residential, one thermostat for the whole house) systems, when the thermostat 's R (or Rh) and W terminals are connected, the furnace will go through its start - up procedure and produce heat.
With zoned systems (some residential, many commercial systems -- several thermostats controlling different "zones '' in the building), the thermostat will cause small electric motors to open valves or dampers and start the furnace or boiler if it 's not already running.
Most programmable thermostats will control these systems.
Depending on what is being controlled, a forced - air air conditioning thermostat generally has an external switch for heat / off / cool, and another on / auto to turn the blower fan on constantly or only when heating and cooling are running. Four wires come to the centrally - located thermostat from the main heating / cooling unit (usually located in a closet, basement, or occasionally in the attic): One wire, usually red, supplies 24 volts AC power to the thermostat, while the other three supply control signals from the thermostat, usually white for heat, yellow for cooling, and green to turn on the blower fan. The power is supplied by a transformer, and when the thermostat makes contact between the 24 volt power and one or two of the other wires, a relay back at the heating / cooling unit activates the corresponding heat / fan / cool function of the unit (s).
A thermostat, when set to "cool '', will only turn on when the ambient temperature of the surrounding room is above the set temperature. Thus, if the controlled space has a temperature normally above the desired setting when the heating / cooling system is off, it would be wise to keep the thermostat set to "cool '', despite what the temperature is outside. On the other hand, if the temperature of the controlled area falls below the desired degree, then it is advisable to turn the thermostat to "heat ''.
The heat pump is a refrigeration based appliance which reverses refrigerant flow between the indoor and outdoor coils. This is done by energizing a reversing valve (also known as a "4 - way '' or "change - over '' valve). During cooling, the indoor coil is an evaporator removing heat from the indoor air and transferring it to the outdoor coil where it is rejected to the outdoor air. During heating, the outdoor coil becomes the evaporator and heat is removed from the outdoor air and transferred to the indoor air through the indoor coil. The reversing valve, controlled by the thermostat, causes the change - over from heat to cool. Residential heat pump thermostats generally have an "O '' terminal to energize the reversing valve in cooling. Some residential and many commercial heat pump thermostats use a "B '' terminal to energize the reversing valve in heating. The heating capacity of a heat pump decreases as outdoor temperatures fall. At some outdoor temperature (called the balance point) the ability of the refrigeration system to transfer heat into the building falls below the heating needs of the building. A typical heat pump is fitted with electric heating elements to supplement the refrigeration heat when the outdoor temperature is below this balance point. Operation of the supplemental heat is controlled by a second stage heating contact in the heat pump thermostat. During heating, the outdoor coil is operating at a temperature below the outdoor temperature and condensation on the coil may take place. This condensation may then freeze onto the coil, reducing its heat transfer capacity. Heat pumps therefore have a provision for occasional defrost of the outdoor coil. This is done by reversing the cycle to the cooling mode, shutting off the outdoor fan, and energizing the electric heating elements. The electric heat in defrost mode is needed to keep the system from blowing cold air inside the building. The elements are then used in the "reheat '' function. Although the thermostat may indicate the system is in defrost and electric heat is activated, the defrost function is not controlled by the thermostat. Since the heat pump has electric heat elements for supplemental and reheats, the heat pump thermostat provides for use of the electric heat elements should the refrigeration system fail. This function is normally activated by an "E '' terminal on the thermostat. When in emergency heat, the thermostat makes no attempt to operate the compressor or outdoor fan.
The thermostat should not be located on an outside wall or where it could be exposed to direct sunlight at any time during the day. It should be located away from the room 's cooling or heating vents or device, yet exposed to general airflow from the room (s) to be regulated. An open hallway may be most appropriate for a single zone system, where living rooms and bedrooms are operated as a single zone. If the hallway may be closed by doors from the regulated spaces then these should be left open when the system is in use. If the thermostat is too close to the source controlled then the system will tend to "short a cycle '', and numerous starts and stops can be annoying and in some cases shorten equipment life. A multiple zoned system can save considerable energy by regulating individual spaces, allowing unused rooms to vary in temperature by turning off the heating and cooling.
It has been reported that many thermostats in office buildings are non-functional dummy devices, installed to give tenants ' employees an illusion of control. These dummy thermostats are in effect a type of placebo button. However, these thermostats are often used to detect the temperature in the zone, even though their controls are disabled. This function is often referred to as "lockout ''.
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where was the hallmark movie always and forever filmed | Always and Forever (film) - Wikipedia
Always and Forever is a 2009 American made - for - television romantic comedy film starring Rena Sofer, Dean McDermott and Barbara Eden. It was directed by Kevin Connor and premiered on Hallmark Channel on October 24, 2009.
A pair of high school sweethearts, Grace (Rena Sofer) and Michael (Dean McDermott), are reunited at a school reunion twenty years after they parted ways for her to go to college for interior design. They soon realize that their love has survived the years, but their renewed affection is complicated by Philip (Rob Boltin), Grace 's current boyfriend, the meddling of Grace 's mother Mary (Barbara Eden), Grace 's son Scott, and Grace and Michael 's assistants. In the end, however, their love is realized and they get married. (Also their assistants get married.)
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what does shoes hanging from a telephone wire mean | Shoe tossing - wikipedia
Shoe tossing, the act of using shoes as projectiles or improvised weapons, is a constituent of a number of folk sports and practices. Today, it is commonly the act of throwing a pair of shoes onto telephone wires, powerlines, or other raised wires. A related practice is shoe tossing onto trees or fences. An urban legend says the shoes represent the loss of one 's virginity.
Shoe dangling, or shoe flinging, is the practice of throwing shoes whose shoelaces have been tied together so that they hang from overhead wires such as power lines or telephone cables. Once the shoes are tied together, the pair is then thrown at the wires as a sort of bolas.
Shoe flinging occurs throughout North America, Latin America and Europe, in rural as well as in urban areas. Usually, the shoes flung at the wires are sneakers; many different varieties of shoes, including leather shoes and boots, also are thrown. There are many cultural variations as well, with differences between socio - economic areas and even age groups.
A number of criminal explanations have been proposed as to why this is done. The foremost is bullying in which a bully steals a pair of shoes and puts them in a place where they are unlikely to be retrieved. Or sometimes it is done as a practical joke played on drunkards. A 2003 newsletter from the now former mayor of Los Angeles, California cited fears of many Los Angeles residents that "these shoes indicate sites at which drugs are sold or worse yet, gang turf '', and that city and utility employees had launched a program to remove the shoes.
Other, less criminal explanations have been proposed. In some cultures, shoes are flung to commemorate the end of a school year, or a forthcoming marriage, as part of a rite of passage. It has been suggested that the custom may have originated with members of the military, who are said to have thrown military boots, often painted orange or some other conspicuous color, at overhead wires as a part of a rite of passage upon completing basic training or on leaving the service. In the 1997 film Wag the Dog, shoe tossing features as an allegedly spontaneous cultural manifestation of tribute to Sgt. William Schumann, played by Woody Harrelson, who has purportedly been "shot down behind enemy lines '' in Albania.
In the Better Call Saul episode "Sunk Costs '', a pair of dangling shoes is used to surreptitiously plant illegal drugs on a truck.
Others simply say that shoe flinging is a way to get rid of shoes that are no longer wanted, are uncomfortable, or do not fit. It may also be another manifestation of the human instinct to leave their mark on, and decorate, their surroundings.
In some neighborhoods, shoes tied together and hanging from power lines or tree branches signify that someone has died. The shoes belong to the dead person. The reason they are hanging, legend has it, is that when the dead person 's spirit returns, it will walk that high above the ground, that much closer to heaven. Another superstition holds that the tossing of shoes over the power lines outside of a house is a way to keep the property safe from ghosts. Yet another legend suggests that shoes hanging from telephone wires signal someone leaving the neighborhood onto bigger and better things.
A shoe tree, not to be confused with the shoe - preservation device of the same name, is a tree (or, occasionally, a powerline pole or other wooden object) that has been festooned with old shoes. Shoe trees are generally located alongside a major local thoroughfare, and may have a theme (such as high - heeled shoes). There are currently at least seventy - six such shoe trees in the United States, and an undetermined number elsewhere.
Boot throwing, or welly wanging, has been a competitive sport in New Zealand and Britain for many years, although not one that is taken very seriously. Wellington boots are the heavy rubber boots worn by most farm workers and many other outdoor workers. A competition to see who can throw a boot, or "welly '', the furthest is a feature of many Agricultural Field Days in the rural communities. The town of Taihape in the central North Island is particularly identified with this sport; they claim to be the Gum Boot Throwing Capital of New Zealand. They hold an annual competition (Gumboot Day) in the main street and award a Golden Gumboot as the trophy. See also Wellie wanging in Yorkshire, England.
Since 2003 the sport has been practiced competitively in Eastern Europe. The 2004 World Championship Competition was won by Germany who is hosting the 2005 Competition at Döbeln. Teams were also expected from Australia and Russia. Boot throwing has been a popular sport in Finland since 1976 when the first Finnish Championships of boot throwing was organized.
The Scottish Championships were held in Oban in July 2009 where shoe - throwing pioneers RD Miller & David Gaffney created an impromptu event on the waterfront. This inspired such shoe - throwing legends as Phil Reid (who always favoured the lighter trainer) to pick up the baton -- or the sneaker in this case -- and take it to a wider audience. A more amateur watered - down version is still evident today in certain parts of Oban in July.
In many Arab cultures, it is considered an extreme insult to throw a shoe at someone. It is also considered rude even to display the sole of one 's foot to someone. In 2008, Iraqi cameraman Muntadar al - Zaidi threw two shoes at United States President George W. Bush while the president was visiting Baghdad, and was arrested and incarcerated. President Bush ducked and was not struck by the shoes. Shoe throwing as an insult is not just limited to the Muslim world, as there are also other notable incidents that have occurred involving other celebrities and world leaders. Some of these have involved Steve McCarthy, David Beckham, Harry Styles, Lily Allen, Hillary Clinton, and Wen Jiabao.
"Flippering '' has occurred in the Stoke Croft area of Bristol; a pair of flippers can be seen on Jamaica Street in Bristol. Flippers have also been seen over a wire in the East Village section of New York City (pictured).
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when did imperialism start in the middle east | Western imperialism in Asia - wikipedia
Western imperialism in Asia as presented in this article pertains to Western European entry into what was first called the East Indies. This was sparked early in the 15th century by the search for trade routes to China that led directly to the Age of Discovery, and the introduction of early modern warfare into what was then called the Far East. By the early 16th century the Age of Sail greatly expanded Western European influence and development of the Spice Trade under colonialism. There has been a presence of Western European colonial empires and imperialism in Asia throughout six centuries of colonialism, formally ending with the independence of the Portuguese Empire 's last colony East Timor in 2002. The empires introduced Western concepts of nation and the multinational state. This article attempts to outline the consequent development of the Western concept of the nation state.
The thrust of European political power, commerce, and culture in Asia gave rise to growing trade in commodities -- a key development in the rise of today 's modern world free market economy. In the 16th century, the Portuguese broke the (overland) monopoly of the Arabs and Italians of trade between Asia and Europe by the discovery of the sea route to India around the Cape of Good Hope. With the ensuing rise of the rival Dutch East India Company, Portuguese influence in Asia was gradually eclipsed. Dutch forces first established independent bases in the East (most significantly Batavia, the heavily fortified headquarters of the Dutch East India Company) and then between 1640 and 1660 wrestled Malacca, Ceylon, some southern Indian ports, and the lucrative Japan trade from the Portuguese. Later, the English and the French established settlements in India and established a trade with China and their own acquisitions would gradually surpass those of the Dutch. Following the end of the Seven Years ' War in 1763, the British eliminated French influence in India and established the British East India Company as the most important political force on the Indian Subcontinent.
Before the Industrial Revolution in the mid-to - late 19th century, demand for oriental goods such as (porcelain, silk, spices and tea) remained the driving force behind European imperialism, and (with the important exception of British East India Company rule in India) the European stake in Asia remained confined largely to trading stations and strategic outposts necessary to protect trade. Industrialisation, however, dramatically increased European demand for Asian raw materials; and the severe Long Depression of the 1870s provoked a scramble for new markets for European industrial products and financial services in Africa, the Americas, Eastern Europe, and especially in Asia. This scramble coincided with a new era in global colonial expansion known as "the New Imperialism, '' which saw a shift in focus from trade and indirect rule to formal colonial control of vast overseas territories ruled as political extensions of their mother countries. Between the 1870s and the beginning of World War I in 1914, the United Kingdom, France, and the Netherlands -- the established colonial powers in Asia -- added to their empires vast expanses of territory in the Middle East, the Indian Subcontinent, and South East Asia. In the same period, the Empire of Japan, following the Meiji Restoration; the German Empire, following the end of the Franco - Prussian War in 1871; Tsarist Russia; and the United States, following the Spanish -- American War in 1898, quickly emerged as new imperial powers in East Asia and in the Pacific Ocean area.
In Asia, World War I and World War II were played out as struggles among several key imperial powers -- conflicts involving the European powers along with Russia and the rising American and Japanese powers. None of the colonial powers, however, possessed the resources to withstand the strains of both world wars and maintain their direct rule in Asia. Although nationalist movements throughout the colonial world led to the political independence of nearly all of the Asia 's remaining colonies, decolonisation was intercepted by the Cold War; and South East Asia, South Asia, the Middle East, and East Asia remained embedded in a world economic, financial, and military system in which the great powers compete to extend their influence. However, the rapid post-war economic development of the East Asian Tigers, India, the People 's Republic of China, along with the collapse of the Soviet Union, have loosened European and American influence in Asia, generating speculation today about emergence of modern India and China as potential superpowers.
European exploration of Asia started in ancient Roman times. Knowledge of lands as distant as China were held by the Romans. Trade with India through the Roman Egyptian Red Sea ports was significant in the first centuries of the Common Era.
In the 13th and 14th centuries, a number of Europeans, many of them Christian missionaries, had sought to penetrate into China. The most famous of these travelers was Marco Polo. But these journeys had little permanent effect on East - West trade because of a series of political developments in Asia in the last decades of the 14th century, which put an end to further European exploration of Asia. The Yuan dynasty in China, which had been receptive to European missionaries and merchants, was overthrown, and the new Ming rulers were found to be unreceptive of religious proselytism. Meanwhile, the Turks consolidated control over the eastern Mediterranean, closing off key overland trade routes. Thus, until the 15th century, only minor trade and cultural exchanges between Europe and Asia continued at certain terminals controlled by Muslim traders.
Western European rulers determined to find new trade routes of their own. The Portuguese spearheaded the drive to find oceanic routes that would provide cheaper and easier access to South and East Asian goods. This chartering of oceanic routes between East and West began with the unprecedented voyages of Portuguese and Spanish sea captains. Their voyages were influenced by medieval European adventurers, who had journeyed overland to the Far East and contributed to geographical knowledge of parts of Asia upon their return.
In 1488, Bartolomeu Dias rounded the southern tip of Africa under the sponsorship of Portugal 's John II, from which point he noticed that the coast swung northeast (Cape of Good Hope). While Dias ' crew forced him to turn back, by 1497, Portuguese navigator Vasco da Gama made the first open voyage from Europe to India. In 1520, Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese navigator in the service of the Crown of Castile (' Spain '), found a sea route into the Pacific Ocean.
In 1509, the Portuguese under Francisco de Almeida won the decisive battle of Diu against a joint Mamluk and Arab fleet sent to expel the Portuguese of the Arabian Sea. The victory enabled Portugal to implement its strategy of controlling the Indian Ocean.
Early in the 16th century Afonso de Albuquerque (left) emerged as the Portuguese colonial viceroy most instrumental in consolidating Portugal 's holdings in Africa and in Asia. He understood that Portugal could wrest commercial supremacy from the Arabs only by force, and therefore devised a plan to establish forts at strategic sites which would dominate the trade routes and also protect Portuguese interests on land. In 1510, he conquered Goa in India, which enabled him to gradually consolidate control of most of the commercial traffic between Europe and Asia, largely through trade; Europeans started to carry on trade from forts, acting as foreign merchants rather than as settlers. In contrast, early European expansion in the "West Indies '', (later known to Europeans as a separate continent from Asia that they would call the "Americas '') following the 1492 voyage of Christopher Columbus, involved heavy settlement in colonies that were treated as political extensions of the mother countries.
Lured by the potential of high profits from another expedition, the Portuguese established a permanent base in Cochin, south of the Indian trade port of Calicut in the early 16th century. In 1510, the Portuguese, led by Afonso de Albuquerque, seized Goa on the coast of India, which Portugal held until 1961, along with Diu and Daman (the remaining territory and enclaves in India from a former network of coastal towns and smaller fortified trading ports added and abandoned or lost centuries before). The Portuguese soon acquired a monopoly over trade in the Indian Ocean.
Portuguese viceroy Albuquerque (1509 -- 1515) resolved to consolidate Portuguese holdings in Africa and Asia, and secure control of trade with the East Indies and China. His first objective was Malacca, which controlled the narrow strait through which most Far Eastern trade moved. Captured in 1511, Malacca became the springboard for further eastward penetration, starting with the voyage of António de Abreu and Francisco Serrão in 1512, ordered by Albuquerque, to the Moluccas. Years later the first trading posts were established in the Moluccas, or "Spice Islands '', which was the source for some of the world 's most hotly demanded spices, and from there, in Makassar and some others, but smaller, in the Lesser Sunda Islands. By 1513 - 1516, the first Portuguese ships had reached Canton on the southern coasts of China.
In 1513, after the failed attempt to conquer Aden, Albuquerque entered with an armada, for the first time for Europeans by the ocean via, on the Red Sea; and in 1515, Albuquerque consolidated the Portuguese hegemony in the Persian Gulf gates, already begun by him in 1507, with the domain of Muscat and Ormuz. Shortly after, other fortified bases and forts were annexed and built along the Gulf, and in 1521, through a military campaign, the Portuguese annexed Bahrain.
The Portuguese conquest of Malacca triggered the Malayan -- Portuguese war. In 1521, Ming dynasty China defeated the Portuguese at the Battle of Tunmen and then defeated the Portuguese again at the Battle of Xicaowan. The Portuguese tried to establish trade with China by illegally smuggling with the pirates on the offshore islands off the coast of Zhejiang and Fujian, but they were driven away by the Ming navy in the 1530s - 1540 's.
In 1557, China decided to lease Macau to the Portuguese as a place where they could dry goods they transported on their ships, which they held until 1999. The Portuguese, based at Goa and Malacca, had now established a lucrative maritime empire in the Indian Ocean meant to monopolise the spice trade. The Portuguese also began a channel of trade with the Japanese, becoming the first recorded Westerners to have visited Japan. This contact introduced Christianity and fire - arms into Japan.
In 1505 (also possibly before, in 1501), the Portuguese, through Lourenço de Almeida, the son of Francisco de Almeida, reached Ceylon. The Portuguese founded a fort at the city of Colombo in 1517 and gradually extended their control over the coastal areas and inland. In a series of military conflicts and political manoeuvres, the Portuguese extended their control over the Sinhalese kingdoms, including Jaffna (1591), Raigama (1593), Sitawaka (1593), and Kotte (1594) - However, the aim of unifying the entire island under Portuguese control faced the Kingdom of Kandy ` s fierce resistance. The Portuguese, led by Pedro Lopes de Sousa, launched a full - scale military invasion of the kingdom of Kandy in the Campaign of Danture of 1594. The invasion was a disaster for the Portuguese, with their entire army wiped out by Kandyan guerilla warfare. Constantino de Sá, romantically celebrated in the 17th century Sinhalese Epic (also for its greater humanism and tolerance compared to other governors) led the last military operation that also ended in disaster. He died in the Battle of Randeniwela, refusing to abandon his troops in the face of total annihilation.
The energies of Castile (later, the unified Spain), the other major colonial power of the 16th century, were largely concentrated on the Americas, not South and East Asia, but the Spanish did establish a footing in the Far East in the Philippines. After fighting with the Portuguese by the Spice Islands since 1522 and the agreement between the two powers in 1529 (in the treaty of Zaragoza), the Spanish, led by Miguel López de Legazpi, settled and conquered gradually the Philippines since 1564. After the discovery of the return voyage to the Americas by Andres de Urdaneta in 1565, cargoes of Chinese goods were transported from the Philippines to Mexico and from there to Spain. By this long route, Spain reaped some of the profits of Far Eastern commerce. Spanish officials converted the islands to Christianity and established some settlements, permanently establishing the Philippines as the area of East Asia most oriented toward the West in terms of culture and commerce. The Moro Muslims fought against the Spanish for over three centuries in the Spanish -- Moro conflict.
The lucrative trade was vastly expanded when the Portuguese began to export slaves from Africa in 1541; however, over time, the rise of the slave trade left Portugal over-extended, and vulnerable to competition from other Western European powers. Envious of Portugal 's control of trade routes, other Western European nations -- mainly the Netherlands, France, and England -- began to send in rival expeditions to Asia. In 1642, the Dutch drove the Portuguese out of the Gold Coast in Africa, the source of the bulk of Portuguese slave labourers, leaving this rich slaving area to other Europeans, especially the Dutch and the English.
Rival European powers began to make inroads in Asia as the Portuguese and Spanish trade in the Indian Ocean declined primarily because they had become hugely over-stretched financially due to the limitations on their investment capacity and contemporary naval technology. Both of these factors worked in tandem, making control over Indian Ocean trade extremely expensive.
The existing Portuguese interests in Asia proved sufficient to finance further colonial expansion and entrenchment in areas regarded as of greater strategic importance in Africa and Brazil. Portuguese maritime supremacy was lost to the Dutch in the 17th century, and with this came serious challenges for the Portuguese. However, they still clung to Macau, and settled a new colony on the island of Timor. It was as recent as the 1960s and 1970s that the Portuguese began to relinquish their colonies in Asia. Goa was invaded by India in 1961 and became an Indian state in 1987; Portuguese Timor was abandoned in 1975 and was then invaded by Indonesia. It became an independent country in 2002; and Macau was handed back to the Chinese as per a treaty in 1999.
The arrival of the Portuguese and Spanish and their holy wars against Muslim states in the Malayan -- Portuguese war, Spanish -- Moro conflict and Castilian War inflamed religious tensions and turned Southeast Asia into an arena of conflict between Muslims and Christians. The Brunei Sultanate 's capital at Kota Batu was assaulted by Governor Sande who led the 1578 Spanish attack.
The word "savages '' in Spanish, cafres, was from the word "infidel '' in Arabic - Kafir, and was used by the Spanish to refer to their own "christian savages '' who were arrested in Brunei. It was said Castilians are kafir, men who have no souls, who are condemned by fire when they die, and that too because they eat pork by the Brunei Sultan after the term accursed doctrine was used to attack Islam by the Spaniards which fed into hatred between Muslims and Christians sparked by their 1571 war against Brunei. The Sultan 's words were in response to insults coming from the Spanish at Manila in 1578, other Muslims from Champa, Java, Borneo, Luzon, Pahang, Demak, Aceh, and the Malays echoed the rhetoric of holy war against the Spanish and Iberian Portuguese, calling them kafir enemies which was a contrast to their earlier nuanced views of the Portuguese in the Hikayat Tanah Hitu and Sejarah Melayu. The war by Spain against Brunei was defended in an apologia written by Doctor De Sande. The British eventually partitioned and took over Brunei while Sulu was attacked by the British, Americans, and Spanish which caused its breakdown and downfall after both of them thrived from 1500 - 1900 for four centuries. Dar al - Islam was seen as under invasion by "kafirs '' by the Atjehnese led by Zayn al - din and by Muslims in the Philippines as they saw the Spanish invasion, since the Spanish brought the idea of a crusader holy war against Muslim Moros just as the Portuguese did in Indonesia and India against what they called "Moors '' in their political and commercial conquests which they saw through the lens of religion in the 16th century.
In 1578 an attack was launched by the Spanish against Jolo, and in 1875 it was destroyed at their hands, and once again in 1974 it was destroyed by the Philippines. The Spanish first set foot on Borneo in Brunei.
The Spanish war against Brunei failed to conquer Brunei but it totally cut off the Philippines from Brunei 's influence, the Spanish then started colonizing Mindanao and building fortresses. In response, the Bisayas, where Spanish forces were stationed, were subjected to retaliatory attacks by the Magindanao in 1599 - 1600 due to the Spanish attacks on Mindanao.
The Brunei royal family was related to the Muslim Rajahs who in ruled the principality in 1570 of Manila (Kingdom of Maynila) and this was what the Spaniards came across on their initial arrival to Manila, Spain uprooted Islam out of areas where it was shallow after they began to force Christianity on the Philippines in their conquests after 1521 while Islam was already widespread in the 16th century Philippines. In the Philippines in the Cebu islands the natives killed the Spanish fleet leader Magellan. Borneo 's western coastal areas at Landak, Sukadana, and Sambas saw the growth of Muslim states in the sixteenth century, in the 15th century at Nanking, the capital of China, the death and burial of the Borneo Bruneian king Maharaja Kama took place upon his visit to China with Zheng He 's fleet.
The Spanish were expelled from Brunei in 1579 after they attacked in 1578. There were half a hundred thousand inhabitants before the 1597 attack by the Spanish in Brunei.
During first contact with China, numerous aggressions and provocations were undertaken by the Portuguese They believed they could mistreat the non-Christians because they themselves were Christians and acted in the name of their religion in committing crimes and atrocities. This resulted in the Battle of Xicaowan where the local Chinese navy defeated and captured a fleet of Portuguese caravels.
Portuguese decline in Asia was accelerated by the attacks on their commercial empire by the Dutch and the English, which began a global struggle over empire in Asia that lasted until the end of the Seven Years ' War in 1763. The Netherlands revolt against Spanish rule facilitated Dutch encroachment of the Portuguese monopoly over South and East Asian trade. The Dutch looked on Spain 's trade and colonies as potential spoils in war. When the two crowns of the Iberian peninsula were joined in 1581, the Dutch felt free to attack Portuguese territories in Asia.
By the 1590s, a number of Dutch companies were formed to finance trading expeditions in Asia. Because competition lowered their profits, and because of the doctrines of mercantilism, in 1602 the companies united into a cartel and formed the Dutch East India Company, and received from the government the right to trade and colonise territory in the area stretching from the Cape of Good Hope eastward to the Strait of Magellan.
In 1605, armed Dutch merchants captured the Portuguese fort at Amboyna in the Moluccas, which was developed into the first secure base of the company. Over time, the Dutch gradually consolidated control over the great trading ports of the East Indies. Control over the East Indies trading ports allowed the company to monopolise the world spice trade for decades. Their monopoly over the spice trade became complete after they drove the Portuguese from Malacca in 1641 and Ceylon in 1658.
Dutch East India Company colonies or outposts were later established in Atjeh (Aceh), 1667; Macassar, 1669; and Bantam, 1682. The company established its headquarters at Batavia (today Jakarta) on the island of Java. Outside the East Indies, the Dutch East India Company colonies or outposts were also established in Persia (Iran), Bengal (now Bangladesh and part of India), Mauritius (1638 - 1658 / 1664 - 1710), Siam (now Thailand), Guangzhou (Canton, China), Taiwan (1624 -- 1662), and southern India (1616 -- 1795).
Ming dynasty China defeated the Dutch East India Company in the Sino - Dutch conflicts. The Chinese first defeated and drove the Dutch out of the Pescadores in 1624. The Ming navy under Zheng Zhilong defeated the Dutch East India Company 's fleet at the 1633 Battle of Liaoluo Bay. In 1662, Zheng Zhilong 's son Zheng Chenggong (also known as Koxinga) expelled the Dutch from Taiwan after defeating them in the Siege of Fort Zeelandia. (see History of Taiwan) Further, the Dutch East India Company trade post on Dejima (1641 -- 1857), an artificial island off the coast of Nagasaki, was for a long time the only place where Europeans could trade with Japan.
The Vietnamese Nguyễn lords defeated the Dutch in a naval battle in 1643.
The Cambodians defeated the Dutch in the Cambodian -- Dutch War in 1644.
In 1652, Jan van Riebeeck established an outpost at the Cape of Good Hope (the southwestern tip of Africa, currently in South Africa) to restock company ships on their journey to East Asia. This post later became a fully - fledged colony, the Cape Colony (1652 -- 1806). As Cape Colony attracted increasing Dutch and European settlement, the Dutch founded the city of Kaapstad (Cape Town).
By 1669, the Dutch East India Company was the richest private company in history, with a huge fleet of merchant ships and warships, tens of thousands of employees, a private army consisting of thousands of soldiers, and a reputation on the part of its stockholders for high dividend payments.
The company was in almost constant conflict with the English; relations were particularly tense following the Amboyna Massacre in 1623. During the 18th century, Dutch East India Company possessions were increasingly focused on the East Indies. After the fourth war between the United Provinces and England (1780 -- 1784), the company suffered increasing financial difficulties. In 1799, the company was dissolved, commencing official colonisation of the East Indies. During the era of New Imperialism the territorial claims of the Dutch East India Company (VOC) expanded into a fully fledged colony named the Dutch East Indies. Partly driven by re-newed colonial aspirations of fellow European nation states the Dutch strived to establish unchallenged control of the archipelago now known as Indonesia.
Six years into formal colonisation of the East Indies, in Europe the Dutch Republic was occupied by the French forces of Napoleon. The Dutch government went into exile in England and formally ceded its colonial possessions to Great Britain. The pro-French Governor General of Java Jan Willem Janssens, resisted a British invasion force in 1811 until forced to surrender. British Governor Raffles, who the later founded the city of Singapore, ruled the colony the following 10 years of the British interregnum (1806 -- 1816).
After the defeat of Napoleon and the Anglo - Dutch Treaty of 1814 colonial government of the East Indies was ceded back to the Dutch in 1817. The loss of South Africa and the continued scramble for Africa stimulated the Dutch to secure unchallenged dominion over its colony in the East Indies. The Dutch started to consolidate its power base through extensive military campaigns and elaborate diplomatic alliances with indigenous rulers ensuring the Dutch tricolor was firmly planted in all corners of the Archipelago. These military campaigns included: the Padri War (1821 -- 1837), the Java War (1825 -- 1830) and the Aceh War (1873 -- 1904). This raised the need for a considerable military buildup of the colonial army (KNIL). From all over Europe soldiers were recruited to join the KNIL.
The Dutch concentrated their colonial enterprise in the Dutch East Indies (Indonesia) throughout the 19th century. The Dutch lost control over the East Indies to the Japanese during much of World War II. Following the war, the Dutch fought Indonesian independence forces after Japan surrendered to the Allies in 1945. In 1949 most of what was known as the Dutch East Indies was ceded to the independent Republic of Indonesia. In 1962 also Dutch New Guinea was annexed by Indonesia de facto ending Dutch imperialism in Asia.
The English sought to stake out claims in India at the expense of the Portuguese dating back to the Elizabethan era. In 1600, Queen Elizabeth I incorporated the English East India Company (later the British East India Company), granting it a monopoly of trade from the Cape of Good Hope eastward to the Strait of Magellan. In 1639 it acquired Madras on the east coast of India, where it quickly surpassed Portuguese Goa as the principal European trading centre on the Indian Subcontinent.
Through bribes, diplomacy, and manipulation of weak native rulers, the company prospered in India, where it became the most powerful political force, and outrivaled its Portuguese and French competitors. For more than one hundred years, English and French trading companies had fought one another for supremacy, and, by the middle of the 18th century, competition between the British and the French had heated up. French defeat by the British under the command of Robert Clive during the Seven Years ' War (1756 -- 1763) marked the end of the French stake in India.
The British East India Company, although still in direct competition with French and Dutch interests until 1763, was able to extend its control over almost the whole of India in the century following the subjugation of Bengal at the 1757 Battle of Plassey. The British East India Company made great advances at the expense of a Mughal dynasty.
The reign of Aurangzeb had marked the height of Mughal power, By 1690. Mughal territorial expansion reached its greatest extent, Aurangzeb 's Empire encompassed the entire Indian Subcontinent. But this period of power was followed by one of decline. Fifty years after the death of Aurangzeb, the great Mughal empire had crumbled. Meanwhile, marauding warlords, nobles, and others bent on gaining power left the Subcontinent increasingly anarchic. Although the Mughals kept the imperial title until 1858, the central government had collapsed, creating a power vacuum.
Aside from defeating the French during the Seven Years ' War, Robert Clive, the leader of the Company in India, defeated a key Indian ruler of Bengal at the decisive Battle of Plassey (1757), a victory that ushered in the beginning of a new period in Indian history, that of informal British rule. While still nominally the sovereign, the Mughal Indian emperor became more and more of a puppet ruler, and anarchy spread until the company stepped into the role of policeman of India. The transition to formal imperialism, characterised by Queen Victoria being crowned "Empress of India '' in the 1870s was a gradual process. The first step toward cementing formal British control extended back to the late 18th century. The British Parliament, disturbed by the idea that a great business concern, interested primarily in profit, was controlling the destinies of millions of people, passed acts in 1773 and 1784 that gave itself the power to control company policies and to appoint the highest company official in India, the Governor - General. (This system of dual control lasted until 1858.) By 1818 the East India Company was master of all of India. Some local rulers were forced to accept its overlordship; others were deprived of their territories. Some portions of India were administered by the British directly; in others native dynasties were retained under British supervision.
Until 1858, however, much of India was still officially the dominion of the Mughal emperor. Anger among some social groups, however, was seething under the governor - generalship of James Dalhousie (1847 -- 1856), who annexed the Punjab (1849) after victory in the Second Sikh War, annexed seven princely states using the doctrine of lapse, annexed the key state of Oudh on the basis of misgovernment, and upset cultural sensibilities by banning Hindu practices such as sati.
The 1857 Sepoy Rebellion, or Indian Mutiny, an uprising initiated by Indian troops, called sepoys, who formed the bulk of the Company 's armed forces, was the key turning point. Rumour had spread among them that their bullet cartridges were lubricated with pig and cow fat. The cartridges had to be bit open, so this upset the Hindu and Muslim soldiers. The Hindu religion held cows sacred, and for Muslims pork was considered haraam. In one camp, 85 out of 90 sepoys would not accept the cartridges from their garrison officer. The British harshly punished those who would not by jailing them. The Indian people were outraged, and on May 10, 1857, sepoys marched to Delhi, and, with the help of soldiers stationed there, captured it. Fortunately for the British, many areas remained loyal and quiescent, allowing the revolt to be crushed after fierce fighting. One important consequence of the revolt was the final collapse of the Mughal dynasty. The mutiny also ended the system of dual control under which the British government and the British East India Company shared authority. The government relieved the company of its political responsibilities, and in 1858, after 258 years of existence, the company relinquished its role. Trained civil servants were recruited from graduates of British universities, and these men set out to rule India. Lord Canning (created earl in 1859), appointed Governor - General of India in 1856, became known as "Clemency Canning '' as a term of derision for his efforts to restrain revenge against the Indians during the Indian Mutiny. When the Government of India was transferred from the Company to the Crown, Canning became the first viceroy of India.
The Company initiated the first of the Anglo - Burmese wars in 1824, which led to total annexation of Burma by the Crown in 1885. The British ruled Burma as a province of British India until 1937, then administered her separately under the Burma Office except during the Japanese occupation of Burma, 1942 -- 1945, until granted independence on 4 January 1948. (Unlike India, Burma opted not to join the Commonwealth of Nations.)
The denial of equal status to Indians was the immediate stimulus for the formation in 1885 of the Indian National Congress, initially loyal to the Empire but committed from 1905 to increased self - government and by 1930 to outright independence. The "Home charges '', payments transferred from India for administrative costs, were a lasting source of nationalist grievance, though the flow declined in relative importance over the decades to independence in 1947.
Although majority Hindu and minority Muslim political leaders were able to collaborate closely in their criticism of British policy into the 1920s, British support for a distinct Muslim political organisation, the Muslim League from 1906 and insistence from the 1920s on separate electorates for religious minorities, is seen by many in India as having contributed to Hindu - Muslim discord and the country 's eventual Partition.
France, which had lost its empire to the British by the end of the 18th century, had little geographical or commercial basis for expansion in Southeast Asia. After the 1850s, French imperialism was initially impelled by a nationalistic need to rival the United Kingdom and was supported intellectually by the notion that French culture was superior to that of the people of Annam (Vietnam), and its mission civilisatrice -- or its "civilizing mission '' of the Annamese through their assimilation to French culture and the Catholic religion. The pretext for French expansionism in Indochina was the protection of French religious missions in the area, coupled with a desire to find a southern route to China through Tonkin, the European name for a region of northern Vietnam.
French religious and commercial interests were established in Indochina as early as the 17th century, but no concerted effort at stabilizing the French position was possible in the face of British strength in the Indian Ocean and French defeat in Europe at the beginning of the 19th century. A mid-19th century religious revival under the Second Empire provided the atmosphere within which interest in Indochina grew. Anti-Christian persecutions in the Far East provided the pretext for the bombardment of Tourane (Da Nang) in 1847, and invasion and occupation of Da Nang in 1857 and Saigon in 1858. Under Napoleon III, France decided that French trade with China would be surpassed by the British, and accordingly the French joined the British against China in the Second Opium War from 1857 to 1860, and occupied parts of Vietnam as its gateway to China.
By the Treaty of Saigon in 1862, on June 5, the Vietnamese emperor ceded France three provinces of southern Vietnam to form the French colony of Cochinchina; France also secured trade and religious privileges in the rest of Vietnam and a protectorate over Vietnam 's foreign relations. Gradually French power spread through exploration, the establishment of protectorates, and outright annexations. Their seizure of Hanoi in 1882 led directly to war with China (1883 -- 1885), and the French victory confirmed French supremacy in the region. France governed Cochinchina as a direct colony, and central and northern Vietnam under the protectorates of Annam and Tonkin, and Cambodia as protectorates in one degree or another. Laos too was soon brought under French "protection ''.
By the beginning of the 20th century, France had created an empire in Indochina nearly 50 percent larger than the mother country. A Governor - General in Hanoi ruled Cochinchina directly and the other regions through a system of residents. Theoretically, the French maintained the precolonial rulers and administrative structures in Annam, Tonkin, Cochinchina, Cambodia, and Laos, but in fact the governor - generalship was a centralised fiscal and administrative regime ruling the entire region. Although the surviving native institutions were preserved in order to make French rule more acceptable, they were almost completely deprived of any independence of action. The ethnocentric French colonial administrators sought to assimilate the upper classes into France 's "superior culture. '' While the French improved public services and provided commercial stability, the native standard of living declined and precolonial social structures eroded. Indochina, which had a population of over eighteen million in 1914, was important to France for its tin, pepper, coal, cotton, and rice. It is still a matter of debate, however, whether the colony was commercially profitable.
Tsarist Russia is not often regarded as a colonial power such as the United Kingdom or France because of the manner of Russian expansions: unlike the United Kingdom, which expanded overseas, the Russian empire grew from the centre outward by a process of accretion, like the United States. In the 19th century, Russian expansion took the form of a struggle of an effectively landlocked country for access to a warm water port.
Qing China defeated Russia in the Sino - Russian border conflicts.
While the British were consolidating their hold on India, Russian expansion had moved steadily eastward to the Pacific, then toward the Middle East. In the early 19th century it succeeded in conquering the South Caucasus and Dagestan from Qajar Persia following the Russo - Persian War (1804 -- 13), the Russo - Persian War (1826 -- 28) and the out coming treaties of Gulistan and Turkmenchay, giving Russia direct borders with both Persia 's as well as Ottoman Turkey 's heartlands. Later, they eventually reached the frontiers of Afghanistan as well (which had the largest foreign border adjacent to British holdings in India). In response to Russian expansion, the defense of India 's land frontiers and the control of all sea approaches to the Subcontinent via the Suez Canal, the Red Sea, and the Persian Gulf became preoccupations of British foreign policy in the 19th century.
Anglo - Russian rivalry in the Middle East and Central Asia led to a brief confrontation over Afghanistan in the 1870s. In Persia (Iran), both nations set up banks to extend their economic influence. The United Kingdom went so far as to invade Tibet, a land subordinate to the Chinese empire, in 1904, but withdrew when it became clear that Russian influence was insignificant and when Chinese resistance proved tougher than expected.
In 1907, the United Kingdom and Russia signed an agreement which -- on the surface -- ended their rivalry in Central Asia. (see Anglo - Russian Entente) As part of the entente, Russia agreed to deal with the sovereign of Afghanistan only through British intermediaries. In turn, the United Kingdom would not annex or occupy Afghanistan. Chinese suzerainty over Tibet also was recognised by both Russia and the United Kingdom, since nominal control by a weak China was preferable to control by either power. Persia was divided into Russian and British spheres of influence and an intervening "neutral '' zone. The United Kingdom and Russia chose to reach these uneasy compromises because of growing concern on the part of both powers over German expansion in strategic areas of China and Africa.
Following the entente, Russia increasingly intervened in Persian domestic politics and suppressed nationalist movements that threatened both St. Petersburg and London. After the Russian Revolution, Russia gave up its claim to a sphere of influence, though Soviet involvement persisted alongside the United Kingdom 's until the 1940s.
In the Middle East, in Persia (Iran) and the Ottoman Empire, a German company built a railroad from Constantinople to Baghdad and the Persian Gulf in the latter, while it built a railroad from the north of the country to the south, connecting the Caucasus with the Persian Gulf in the former. Germany wanted to gain economic influence in the region and then, perhaps, move on to India. This was met with bitter resistance by the United Kingdom, Russia, and France who divided the region among themselves.
The 16th century brought many Jesuit missionaries to China, such as Matteo Ricci, who established missions where Western science was introduced, and where Europeans gathered knowledge of Chinese society, history, culture, and science. During the 18th century, merchants from Western Europe came to China in increasing numbers. However, merchants were confined to Guangzhou and the Portuguese colony of Macau, as they had been since the 16th century. European traders were increasingly irritated by what they saw as the relatively high customs duties they had to pay and by the attempts to curb the growing import trade in opium. By 1800, its importation was forbidden by the imperial government. However, the opium trade continued to boom.
Early in the 19th century, serious internal weaknesses developed in the Qing dynasty that left China vulnerable to Western, Meiji period Japanese, and Russian imperialism. In 1839, China found itself fighting the First Opium War with Britain. China was defeated, and in 1842, signed the provisions of the Treaty of Nanjing which were first of the unequal treaties signed during the Qing Dynasty. Hong Kong Island was ceded to Britain, and certain ports, including Shanghai and Guangzhou, were opened to British trade and residence. In 1856, the Second Opium War broke out. The Chinese were again defeated, and now forced to the terms of the 1858 Treaty of Tientsin. The treaty opened new ports to trade and allowed foreigners to travel in the interior. In addition, Christians gained the right to propagate their religion. The United States Treaty of Wanghia and Russia later obtained the same prerogatives in separate treaties.
Toward the end of the 19th century, China appeared on the way to territorial dismemberment and economic vassalage -- the fate of India 's rulers that played out much earlier. Several provisions of these treaties caused long - standing bitterness and humiliation among the Chinese: extraterritoriality (meaning that in a dispute with a Chinese person, a Westerner had the right to be tried in a court under the laws of his own country), customs regulation, and the right to station foreign warships in Chinese waters, including its navigable rivers.
Jane E. Elliott criticized the allegation that China refused to modernize or was unable to defeat Western armies as simplistic, noting that China embarked on a massive military modernization in the late 1800s after several defeats, buying weapons from Western countries and manufacturing their own at arsenals, such as the Hanyang Arsenal during the Boxer Rebellion. In addition, Elliott questioned the claim that Chinese society was traumatized by the Western victories, as many Chinese peasants (90 % of the population at that time) living outside the concessions continued about their daily lives, uninterrupted and without any feeling of "humiliation ''.
Historians have judged the Qing dynasty 's vulnerability and weakness to foreign imperialism in the 19th century to be based mainly on its maritime naval weakness while it achieved military success against westerners on land, the historian Edward L. Dreyer said that "China 's nineteenth - century humiliations were strongly related to her weakness and failure at sea. At the start of the Opium War, China had no unified navy and no sense of how vulnerable she was to attack from the sea; British forces sailed and steamed wherever they wanted to go... In the Arrow War (1856 - 60), the Chinese had no way to prevent the Anglo - French expedition of 1860 from sailing into the Gulf of Zhili and landing as near as possible to Beijing. Meanwhile, new but not exactly modern Chinese armies suppressed the midcentury rebellions, bluffed Russia into a peaceful settlement of disputed frontiers in Central Asia, and defeated the French forces on land in the Sino - French War (1884 - 85). But the defeat of the fleet, and the resulting threat to steamship traffic to Taiwan, forced China to conclude peace on unfavorable terms. ''
During the Sino - French War, Chinese forces defeated the French at the Battle of Cầu Giấy (Paper Bridge), Bắc Lệ ambush, Battle of Phu Lam Tao, Battle of Zhenhai, the Battle of Tamsui in the Keelung Campaign and in the last battle which ended the war, the Battle of Bang Bo (Zhennan Pass), which triggered the French Retreat from Lạng Sơn and resulted in the collapse of the French Jules Ferry government in the Tonkin Affair.
The Qing dynasty forced Russia to hand over disputed territory in Ili in the Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1881), in what was widely seen by the west as a diplomatic victory for the Qing. Russia acknowledged that Qing China potentially posed a serious military threat. Mass media in the west during this era portrayed China as a rising military power due to its modernization programs and as a major threat to the western world, invoking fears that China would successfully conquer western colonies like Australia.
The British observer Demetrius Charles de Kavanagh Boulger suggested a British - Chinese alliance to check Russian expansion in Central Asia.
During the Ili crisis when Qing China threatened to go to war against Russia over the Russian occupation of Ili, the British officer Charles George Gordon was sent to China by Britain to advise China on military options against Russia should a potential war break out between China and Russia.
The Russians observed the Chinese building up their arsenal of modern weapons during the Ili crisis, the Chinese bought thousands of rifles from Germany. In 1880 massive amounts of military equipment and rifles were shipped via boats to China from Antwerp as China purchased torpedoes, artillery, and 260,260 modern rifles from Europe.
The Russian military observer D.V. Putiatia visited China in 1888 and found that in Northeastern China (Manchuria) along the Chinese - Russian border, the Chinese soldiers were potentially able to become adept at "European tactics '' under certain circumstances, and the Chinese soldiers were armed with modern weapons like Krupp artillery, Winchester carbines, and Mauser rifles.
Compared to Russian controlled areas, more benefits were given to the Muslim Kirghiz on the Chinese controlled areas. Russian settlers fought against the Muslim nomadic Kirghiz, which led the Russians to believe that the Kirghiz would be a liability in any conflict against China. The Muslim Kirghiz were sure that in an upcoming war, that China would defeat Russia.
Russian sinologists, the Russian media, threat of internal rebellion, the pariah status inflicted by the Congress of Berlin, the negative state of the Russian economy all led Russia to concede and negotiate with China in St Petersburg, and return most of Ili to China.
The rise of Japan since the Meiji Restoration as an imperial power led to further subjugation of China. In a dispute over China 's longstanding claim of suzerainty in Korea, war broke out between China and Japan, resulting in humiliating defeat for the Chinese. By the Treaty of Shimonoseki (1895), China was forced to recognize effective Japanese rule of Korea and Taiwan was ceded to Japan until its recovery in 1945 at the end of the WWII by the Republic of China.
China 's defeat at the hands of Japan was another trigger for future aggressive actions by Western powers. In 1897, Germany demanded and was given a set of exclusive mining and railroad rights in Shandong province. Russia obtained access to Dairen and Port Arthur and the right to build a railroad across Manchuria, thereby achieving complete domination over a large portion of northwestern China. The United Kingdom and France also received a number of concessions. At this time, much of China was divided up into "spheres of influence '': Germany dominated Jiaozhou (Kiaochow) Bay, Shandong, and the Yellow River valley; Russia dominated the Liaodong Peninsula and Manchuria; the United Kingdom dominated Weihaiwei and the Yangtze Valley; and France dominated the Guangzhou Bay and several other southern provinces.
China continued to be divided up into these spheres until the United States, which had no sphere of influence, grew alarmed at the possibility of its businessmen being excluded from Chinese markets. In 1899, Secretary of State John Hay asked the major powers to agree to a policy of equal trading privileges. In 1900, several powers agreed to the U.S. - backed scheme, giving rise to the "Open Door '' policy, denoting freedom of commercial access and non-annexation of Chinese territory. In any event, it was in the European powers ' interest to have a weak but independent Chinese government. The privileges of the Europeans in China were guaranteed in the form of treaties with the Qing government. In the event that the Qing government totally collapsed, each power risked losing the privileges that it already had negotiated.
The erosion of Chinese sovereignty and seizures of land from Chinese by foreigners contributed to a spectacular anti-foreign outbreak in June 1900, when the "Boxers '' (properly the society of the "righteous and harmonious fists '') attacked foreigners around Beijing. The Imperial Court was divided into anti-foreign and pro-foreign factions, with the pro-foreign faction led by Ronglu and Prince Qing hampering any military effort by the anti-foreign faction led by Prince Duan and Dong Fuxiang. The Qing Empress Dowager ordered all diplomatic ties to be cut off and all foreigners to leave the legations in Beijing to go to Tianjin. The foreigners refused to leave. Fueled by entirely false reports that the foreigners in the legations were massacred, the Eight - Nation Alliance decided to launch an expedition on Beijing to reach the legations but they underestimated the Qing military. The Qing and Boxers defeated the foreigners at the Seymour Expedition, forcing them to turn back at the Battle of Langfang. In response to the foreign attack on Dagu Forts the Qing responded by declaring war against the foreigners. the Qing forces and foreigners fought a fierce battle at the Battle of Tientsin before the foreigners could launch a second expedition. On their second try Gaselee Expedition, with a much larger force, the foreigners managed to reach Beijing and fight the Battle of Peking (1900). British and French forces looted, plundered and burned the Old Summer Palace to the ground for the second time (the first time being in 1860, following the Second Opium War). German forces were particularly severe in exacting revenge for the killing of their ambassador due to the orders of Kaiser Wilhelm II, who held anti-Asian sentiments, while Russia tightened its hold on Manchuria in the northeast until its crushing defeat by Japan in the war of 1904 -- 1905. The Qing court evacuated to Xi'an and threatened to continue the war against foreigners, until the foreigners tempered their demands in the Boxer Protocol, promising that China would not have to give up any land and gave up the demands for the execution of Dong Fuxiang and Prince Duan.
The correspondent Douglas Story observed Chinese troops in 1907 and praised their abilities and military skill.
Extraterritorial jurisdiction was abandoned by the United Kingdom and the United States in 1943. Chiang Kai - shek forced the French to hand over all their concessions back to China control after World War II. Foreign political control over leased parts of China ended with the incorporation of Hong Kong and the small Portuguese territory of Macau into the People 's Republic of China in 1997 and 1999 respectively.
Some Americans in the Nineteenth Century advocated for the annexation of Taiwan from China. Aboriginals on Taiwan often attacked and massacred shipwrecked western sailors. In 1867, during the Rover incident, Taiwanese aborigines attacked shipwrecked American sailors, killing the entire crew. They subsequently defeated a retaliatory expedition by the American military and killed another American during the battle.
As the United States emerged as a new imperial power in the Pacific and Asia, one of the two oldest Western imperialist powers in the regions, Spain, was finding it increasingly difficult to maintain control of territories it had held in the regions since the 16th century. In 1896, a widespread revolt against Spanish rule broke out in the Philippines. Meanwhile, the recent string of U.S. territorial gains in the Pacific posed an even greater threat to Spain 's remaining colonial holdings.
As the U.S. continued to expand its economic and military power in the Pacific, it declared war against Spain in 1898. During the Spanish -- American War, U.S. Admiral Dewey destroyed the Spanish fleet at Manila and U.S. troops landed in the Philippines. Spain later agreed by treaty to cede the Philippines in Asia and Guam in the Pacific. In the Caribbean, Spain ceded Puerto Rico to the U.S. The war also marked the end of Spanish rule in Cuba, which was to be granted nominal independence but remained heavily influenced by the U.S. government and U.S. business interests. One year following its treaty with Spain, the U.S. occupied the small Pacific outpost of Wake Island.
The Filipinos, who assisted U.S. troops in fighting the Spanish, wished to establish an independent state and, on June 12, 1898, declared independence from Spain. In 1899, fighting between the Filipino nationalists and the U.S. broke out; it took the U.S. almost fifteen years to fully subdue the insurgency. The U.S. sent 70,000 troops and suffered thousands of casualties. The Filipinos insurgents, however, suffered considerably higher casualties than the Americans. Most casualties in the war were civilians dying primarily from disease.
U.S. attacks into the countryside often included scorched earth campaigns where entire villages were burned and destroyed, and concentrated civilians into camps known as "protected zones. '' Most of these civilian casualties resulted from disease and famine. Reports of the execution of U.S. soldiers taken prisoner by the Filipinos led to disproportionate reprisals by American forces.
The Moro Muslims fought against the Americans in the Moro Rebellion.
In 1914, Dean C. Worcester, U.S. Secretary of the Interior for the Philippines (1901 -- 1913) described "the regime of civilisation and improvement which started with American occupation and resulted in developing naked savages into cultivated and educated men. '' Nevertheless, some Americans, such as Mark Twain, deeply opposed American involvement / imperialism in the Philippines, leading to the abandonment of attempts to construct a permanent U.S. naval base and using it as an entry point to the Chinese market. In 1916, Congress guaranteed the independence of the Philippines by 1945.
World War I brought about the fall of several empires in Europe. This had repercussions around the world. The defeated Central Powers included Germany and the Turkish Ottoman Empire. Germany lost all of its colonies in Asia. German New Guinea, a part of Papua New Guinea, became administered by Australia. German possessions and concessions in China, including Qingdao, became the subject of a controversy during the Paris Peace Conference when the Beiyang government in China agreed to cede these interests to Japan, to the anger of many Chinese people. Although the Chinese diplomats refused to sign the agreement, these interests were ceded to Japan with the support of the United States and the United Kingdom.
Turkey gave up her provinces; Syria, Palestine, and Mesopotamia (now Iraq) came under French and British control as League of Nations Mandates. The discovery of petroleum first in Iran and then in the Arab lands in the interbellum provided a new focus for activity on the part of the United Kingdom, France, and the United States.
In 1641, all Westerners were thrown out of Japan. For the next two centuries, Japan was free from Western influence, except for at the port of Nagasaki, which Japan allowed Dutch merchant vessels to enter on a limited basis.
Japan 's freedom from Western penetration ended on 8 July 1853, when Commodore Matthew Perry of the U.S. Navy sailed a squadron of black - hulled warships into Edo (modern Tokyo) harbor. The Japanese told Perry to sail to Nagasaki but he refused. Perry sought to present a letter from U.S. President Millard Fillmore to the emperor which demanded concessions from Japan. Japanese authorities responded by stating that they could not present the letter directly to the emperor, but scheduled a meeting on July 14 with a representative of the emperor. On 14 July, the squadron sailed towards the shore, giving a demonstration of their cannon 's firepower thirteen times. Perry landed with a large detachment of Marines and presented the emperor 's representative with Fillmore 's letter. Perry said he would return, and did so, this time with even more war ships. The U.S. show of force led to Japan 's concession to the Convention of Kanagawa on 31 March 1854. This treaty conferred extraterritoriality on American nationals, as well as, opening up further treaty ports beyond Nagasaki. This treaty was followed up by similar treaties with the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Russia and France. These events made Japanese authorities aware that the country was lacking technologically and needed the strength of industrialism in order to keep their power. This realisation eventually led to a civil war and political reform known the Meiji Restoration.
The Meiji Restoration of 1868 led to administrative overhaul, deflation and subsequent rapid economic development. Japan had limited natural resources of her own and sought both overseas markets and sources of raw materials, fuelling a drive for imperial conquest which began with the defeat of China in 1895.
Taiwan, ceded by Qing Dynasty China, became the first Japanese colony. In 1899, Japan won agreements from the great powers ' to abandon extraterritoriality for their citizens, and an alliance with the United Kingdom established it in 1902 as an international power. Its spectacular defeat of Russia 's navy in 1905 gave it the southern half of the island of Sakhalin; exclusive Japanese influence over Korea (propinquity); the former Russian lease of the Liaodong Peninsula with Port Arthur (Lüshunkou); and extensive rights in Manchuria (see the Russo - Japanese War).
The Empire of Japan and the Joseon Dynasty in Korea formed bilateral diplomatic relations in 1876. China lost its suzerainty of Korea after defeat in the Sino - Japanese War in 1894. Russia also lost influence on the Korean peninsula with the Treaty of Portsmouth as a result of the Russo - Japanese war in 1904. The Joseon Dynasty became increasingly dependent on Japan. Korea became a protectorate of Japan with the Japan -- Korea Treaty of 1905. Korea was then de jure annexed to Japan with the Japan -- Korea Treaty of 1910.
Japan was now one of the most powerful forces in the Far East, and in 1914, it entered World War I on the side of the Allies, seizing German - occupied Kiaochow and subsequently demanding Chinese acceptance of Japanese political influence and territorial acquisitions (Twenty - One Demands, 1915). Mass protests in Peking in 1919 coupled with Allied (and particularly U.S.) opinion led to Japan 's abandonment of most of the demands and Joseon 's 1922 return to China. Japan received the German territory from the Treaty of Versailles, 1919, sparking widespread Chinese nationalism.
Tensions with China increased over the 1920s, and in 1931 Japanese army units based in Manchuria seized control of the region without direction from Tokyo. Intermittent conflict with China led to full - scale war in mid-1937, drawing Japan toward an overambitious bid for Asian hegemony (Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere), which ultimately led to defeat and the loss of all its overseas territories after World War II (see Japanese expansionism and Japanese nationalism).
In the aftermath of World War II, European colonies, controlling more than one billion people throughout the world, still ruled most of the Middle East, South East Asia, and the Indian Subcontinent. However, the image of European pre-eminence was shattered by the wartime Japanese occupations of large portions of British, French, and Dutch territories in the Pacific. The destabilisation of European rule led to the rapid growth of nationalist movements in Asia -- especially in Indonesia, Malaya, Burma, and French Indochina.
The war, however, only accelerated forces already in existence undermining Western imperialism in Asia. Throughout the colonial world, the processes of urbanisation and capitalist investment created professional merchant classes that emerged as new Westernised elites. While imbued with Western political and economic ideas, these classes increasingly grew to resent their unequal status under European rule.
In India, the westward movement of Japanese forces towards Bengal during World War II had led to major concessions on the part of British authorities to Indian nationalist leaders. In 1947, the United Kingdom, devastated by war and embroiled in economic crisis at home, granted British India its independence as two nations: India and Pakistan. The following year independence was granted to Burma and Ceylon. In the Middle East, the United Kingdom granted independence to Jordan in 1946 and two years later ended its mandate of Palestine.
Following the end of the war, nationalists in Indonesia demanded complete independence from the Netherlands. A brutal conflict ensued, and finally, in 1949, through United Nations mediation, the Dutch East Indies achieved independence, becoming the new nation of Indonesia. Dutch imperialism moulded this new multi-ethnic state comprising roughly 3,000 islands of the Indonesian archipelago with a population at the time of over 100 million.
The end of Dutch rule opened up latent tensions between the roughly 300 distinct ethnic groups of the islands, with the major ethnic fault line being between the Javanese and the non-Javanese.
Netherlands New Guinea was under the Dutch administration until 1962 (see also West New Guinea dispute).
In the Philippines, the U.S. remained committed to its previous pledges to grant the islands their independence, and the Philippines became the first of the Western - controlled Asian colonies to be granted independence post-World War II. However, the Philippines remained under pressure to adopt a political and economic system similar to their old imperial master.
This aim was greatly complicated by the rise of new political forces. During the war, the Hukbalahap (People 's Army), which had strong ties to the Communist Party of the Philippines (PKP), fought against the Japanese occupation of the Philippines and won strong popularity among many sectors of the Filipino working class and peasantry. In 1946, the PKP participated in elections as part of the Democratic Alliance. However, with the onset of the Cold War, its growing political strength drew a reaction from the ruling government and the United States, resulting in the repression of the PKP and its associated organisations. In 1948, the PKP began organizing an armed struggle against the government and continued U.S. military presence. In 1950, the PKP created the People 's Liberation Army (Hukbong Mapagpalaya ng Bayan), which mobilised thousands of troops throughout the islands. The insurgency lasted until 1956, when the PKP gave up armed struggle.
In 1968, the PKP underwent a split, and in 1969 the Maoist faction of the PKP created the New People 's Army. Maoist rebels re-launched an armed struggle against the government and the U.S. military presence in the Philippines, which continues to this day.
France remained determined to retain its control of Indochina. However, in Hanoi, in 1945, a broad front of nationalists and communists led by Ho Chi Minh declared an independent Republic of Vietnam, commonly referred to as the Viet Minh regime by Western outsiders. France, seeking to regain control of Vietnam, countered with a vague offer of self - government under French rule. France 's offers were unacceptable to Vietnamese nationalists; and in December 1946 the Việt Minh launched a rebellion against the French authority governing the colonies of French Indochina. The first few years of the war involved a low - level rural insurgency against French authority. However, after the Chinese communists reached the Northern border of Vietnam in 1949, the conflict turned into a conventional war between two armies equipped with modern weapons supplied by the United States and the Soviet Union. Meanwhile, the France granted the State of Vietnam based in Saigon independence in 1949 whilst Laos and Cambodia received independence in 1953. The US recognized the regime in Saigon, and provided the French military effort with military aid.
Meanwhile, in Vietnam, the French war against the Viet Minh continued for nearly eight years. The French were gradually worn down by guerrilla and jungle fighting. The turning point for France occurred at Dien Bien Phu in 1954, which resulted in the surrender of ten thousand French troops. Paris was forced to accept a political settlement that year at the Geneva Conference, which led to a precarious set of agreements regarding the future political status of Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam.
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krishna gadi vera prema gadha full hd movie | Krishna Gaadi Veera Prema Gaadha - Wikipedia
Krishna Gaadi Veera Prema Gaadha (English: Krishna 's Great Love Story) is a 2016 Indian Telugu romantic comedy adventure film written and directed by Hanu Raghavapudi. Produced by Ram Achanta, Gopichand Achanta and Anil Sunkara under their 14 Reels Entertainment, KVPG features Nani and Mehreen Pirzada in the lead roles while the film 's (ensemble cast) includes Harish Uthaman, Sampath Raj, Murali Sharma, and Brahmaji in crucial supporting roles. The film released worldwide on 12 February 2016 to mixed and positive reviews and ended up as a box office success.
Krishna (Nani) is a soft natured person who is in love with Mahalakshmi (Mehreen Pirzada) and the world does n't know that as they are secretly talking to each other. Mahalakshmi is the sister of Ramaraju, who is, in turn, a strong follower of Rajanna, a (factionist) in the Rayalaseema region. At the same time, Rajanna has a brother, encounter specialist ACP Srikanth (Sampath) who always kills criminals without arresting them. Simultaneously, internationally most wanted mafia don David (Murali Sharma) returns to Hyderabad to fulfil his mother 's final wish, while his brother Sunny (Harish Uthaman) arranges for his safety. But things turn around when Rajanna 's house gets attacked by some hired hitmen during which Rajanna and Ramaraju get shot. In order to save the kids of Srikanth, who were in Rajanna 's house during the attack, from the attackers, Ramaraju entrusts them to Krishna to return them to ACP Srikanth 's house in Hyderabad, he tells him that if he returns the kids safely, he will marry his sister to Krishna. After a series of incidents, Krishna gets emotionally attached to the kids and returns them safely. Atlast David gets arrested and Krishna and Mahalakshmi marry and live happily ever after.
The film 's first look was released on 7 January 2016. The film 's release date was announced as 17 February 2016.
Nani 's Krishnagaadi Veera Prema Gaadha has been cleared by the Censor Board and the officials from the censor board have given U / A certificate.
Krishna gaadi veera prema gaadha Distribution Rights were sold for ₹ 15 crore (US $2.3 million) to Abhishek pictures and Reliance Entertainment from 14 Reels Entertainment however overseas rights were retained by producers, the film satellite rights ₹ 5.5 crore (US $840,000).
Krishna Gadi Veera Prema Gadha has been released in close to 700 screens worldwide, which includes 440 screens in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana alongside Aadi 's Garam
Krishna Gaadi Veera Prema Gaadha grossed ₹ 3 crore on opening day at AP / Telangana box office becoming Nani 's biggest opener in India, beating the records of his last film Bhale Bhale Magadivoy. The film grossed ₹ 6 crore in its opening weekend.
Krishna Gaadi Veera Prema Gaadha collected US $41,000 from the premier shows at the United States and US $103,000 on the first day, taking its total to US $144,583. The film witnessed growth on second day by grossing US $171,447 by collecting $316,029 (₹ 2.15 crore). The first weekend figures at the United States box office stood at US $464,239. It has collected $550,713 (₹ 3.77 crore) from 130 screens at the US box office in five days
The film collected $580,892 at the US box office in the first week. According to trade analyst Taran Adarsh the film has collected $702,288 (₹ 4.82 crore) at the US box office in 10 days. Its 31 - day US total collection has reached $772,482 (₹ 5.19 crore). The film has failed to surpass the $1 - million in its lifetime.
Nani 's Krishnagaadi Veera Prema Gaadha.
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what side of the road do they drive on in nepal | List of countries with left - hand traffic - wikipedia
This is a list of 78 countries and territories with left - hand traffic.
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how many copies of regional at best are there | Twenty One Pilots Discography - wikipedia
American musical duo Twenty One Pilots have released four studio albums, one live album, seven extended plays, 15 singles and 18 music videos. The band was formed in 2009 and currently consists of Tyler Joseph and Josh Dun. They put out two self - released albums, Twenty One Pilots in 2009 and Regional at Best in 2011, before being signed by Fueled by Ramen in 2012. They released their third studio album, Vessel, with Fueled by Ramen in 2013. Their fourth studio album, Blurryface, was released on May 15, 2015 through the same label. On November 25, 2016, they released Blurryface Live, a three - LP, Tri-Gatefold Picture Disc Vinyl featuring the live audio recorded during a concert at The Fox Theater in Oakland, CA.
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does dennis become a vampire in hotel transylvania 2 | Hotel Transylvania 2 - Wikipedia
Hotel Transylvania 2 is a 2015 American 3D computer animated fantasy - comedy film. It is the second installment in the Hotel Transylvania franchise, and the sequel to the 2012 film Hotel Transylvania, with its director, Genndy Tartakovsky, and writer, Robert Smigel, returning for the film. Produced by Sony Pictures Animation, it was animated by Sony Pictures Imageworks, with an additional funding provided by LStar Capital.
Hotel Transylvania 2 takes place seven years after the first film, with the hotel now open to human guests. Mavis and Johnny have a young son named Dennis, whose lack of any vampire abilities worries his grandfather Dracula. When Mavis and Johnny go on a visit to Johnny 's parents, Dracula calls his friends to help him make Dennis a vampire. Soon, things turn upside - down when Dracula 's old - school human - hating father Vlad unexpectedly visits the hotel.
Original voices from the first film -- Adam Sandler, Andy Samberg, Selena Gomez, Kevin James, Steve Buscemi, David Spade, Fran Drescher, Molly Shannon -- returned for the sequel, with Keegan - Michael Key replacing CeeLo Green as Murray. New additions to the cast include Mel Brooks as Count Dracula 's father, Vlad; Nick Offerman and Megan Mullally as Jonathan 's parents, Mike and Linda; and Asher Blinkoff as Mavis and Johnny 's half - human / half - vampire son, Dennis. The film was released on September 25, 2015, by Columbia Pictures and was a box office success, grossing $473 million worldwide on an $80 million budget.
A third film, titled Hotel Transylvania 3, is scheduled to be released on July 13, 2018.
Seven years after the first film, Mavis (Selena Gomez) and her new fiancé Johnny (Andy Samberg) are finally married, with the approval of her father Dracula (Adam Sandler), and the world becomes aware of (and unfazed by) the existence of monsters. Mavis later reveals to Drac that she is pregnant and a year later, she gives birth to a baby boy named Dennis (Asher Blinkoff), who later befriends Wayne 's daughter Winnie (who has a crush on Dennis) (Sadie Sandler). Nearing his fifth birthday, Dennis has yet to grow his fangs and Drac worries that his grandson might not gain vampire powers. Noticing the dangers of Transylvania, Mavis starts to consider raising Dennis where Johnny grew up, much to Drac 's disapproval.
Drac tells Johnny (who does not want to leave the hotel either) to bring Mavis to California to visit his parents, Mike (Nick Offerman) and Linda (Megan Mullally), but to make sure to keep her distracted so that she will not move, leaving Drac to "babysit '' Dennis. Drac enlists his friends, Frank (Kevin James), Wayne the Werewolf (Steve Buscemi), Griffin the Invisible Man (David Spade), Murray the Mummy (Keegan - Michael Key) and Blobby the Blob (Jonny Solomon) to help train Dennis to become a monster, to no avail.
Drac takes Dennis to his childhood summer camp, Camp Winnepacaca, where he learned to hone his vampire abilities and discovers that the camp is safer than it was when he went there. Drac stubbornly believes Dennis is a "late fanger '', so he hurls Dennis from a tall, unstable tower to pressure the boy 's transformation into a bat. Dennis does not transform, and Dracula has to fly and rescue him at the last second. The stunt is filmed by the campers and uploaded to the Internet, which eventually reaches Mavis and Johnny.
Mavis angrily transforms into a bat to fly her and Johnny back to Transylvania. Drac and his friends reach the hotel a couple of seconds after Mavis. She confronts her father for putting Dennis in grave danger and his inability to accept that he is human. She states she will move out of the hotel after Dennis ' fifth birthday the following Wednesday. Drac hangs his head with deep guilt.
Mavis invites Vlad (Mel Brooks), her grandfather and Drac 's father, to Dennis ' birthday party. As Vlad is much worse than he was when it comes to humans, Drac tells Johnny to have the human party - goers disguise themselves as monsters. Vlad receives the invitation and arrives with his monstrous bat - like servant Bela (Rob Riggle) to meet his great - grandson for the first time. Meeting him, he believes that fear will cause Dennis ' fangs to sprout and possesses a stage performer dressed as Dennis 's favorite television monster, "Kakie the Cake Monster '', to scare Dennis, but Drac shields his grandson at the last moment and exposes the deception to Vlad, who is outraged that Drac has accepted humans as guests in his hotel. Drac confronts his father about how humans are different now. Mavis becomes upset with her grandfather 's behavior.
While the family argues, Dennis sadly flees the hotel and enters the forest with Winnie in tow, hiding in her treehouse. They are attacked by Bela, who mistakes Dennis for a human. When Bela injures Winnie and threatens to destroy the hotel, Dennis ' anger causes him to instantly grow his fangs and his vampire abilities manifest. He begins to fight Bela, who calls his giant - bat minions. Drac, Mavis, Dennis, Johnny, the rest of the monsters and Johnny 's family team up to defeat his minions. A livid Bela then attempts to kill Johnny himself with a stake. Having been won over by Drac 's claim that humans are harmless now, Vlad shrinks Bela and tells him never to bother his family again. Bela then flees.
With Dennis having vampire abilities, Mavis and Johnny continue to raise him in Transylvania, and they resume the party with his friends.
Director Genndy Tartakovsky commented about the possibility of the sequel in October 2012, "Everyone is talking about it, but we have n't started writing it. There are a lot of fun ideas we could totally play with. It 's a ripe world. '' The next month it was announced that a sequel had been greenlit, and was scheduled for release on September 25, 2015. On March 12, 2014, it was announced that Tartakovsky would return to direct the sequel, even though he was originally too busy due to his developing an adaptation of Popeye, which would later get shelved.
It was suggested by director Genndy Tartakovsky that Adam Sandler had more creative control over this film than its predecessor and that at times he was difficult to work with.
In March 2015, it was announced that Mark Mothersbaugh, who scored the first film, had signed on to score the sequel.
American girl group Fifth Harmony recorded a song for the film entitled "I 'm in Love with a Monster ''. It was featured in the film 's official trailer and was also played when the film itself was released.
Columbia Pictures released the film in the United States on September 25, 2015.
Hotel Transylvania 2 was released on DVD and Blu - ray (2D and 3D) on January 12, 2016, by Sony Pictures Home Entertainment. The film was also released in Digital HD on December 22, 2015.
Hotel Transylvania 2 has grossed $169.7 million in North America and $303.5 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $473 million, against a budget of $80 million. Deadline.com calculated the net profit of the film to be $159.48 million, when factoring together all expenses and revenues for the film.
Predictions for the opening of Hotel Transylvania 2 in North America were continuously revised upwards, starting from $35 -- $48 million. Hotel Transylvania 2 earned $13.3 million from 3,754 theaters on its opening day in North America, which was the second - biggest Friday opening day in September, behind Insidious Chapter 2 ($20.3 million). During its opening weekend, Hotel Transylvania 2 earned $48.5 million from 3,754 theaters, which at the time set new records such as the highest opening for a Sony Pictures Animation film, the biggest opening in Adam Sandler 's career, beating 2005 's The Longest Yard ($47.6 million), and previously held the biggest opening in the month of September (record overtaken by It in 2017). Regarding the film 's successful opening, Josh Greenstein, Sony 's president of marketing said, "We had a great date, and this is a big win for Sony Pictures Animation. '' The largest demographic of the opening weekend audience was under the age of 25 (60 %) and female (59 %), followed by male (41 %), 25 and over (40 %) and kids (38 %). According to Rentrak 's PostTrak reports, 23 % of the audience bought tickets because it was an animated film, while 16 % were attracted to the toon 's subject matter and plot.
Hotel Transylvania 2 was released in a total of 90 countries. It was released in 42 markets between September 25 and 27, 2015, the same weekend as its North American release, and earned $30.18 million from 6,500 screens that weekend. Its overall rank for the weekend was second, behind Everest. Its opening weekends in the U.K., Ireland and Malta ($9.5 million including previews), Mexico ($7.84 million), South Korea ($4.2 million), Russia and the CIS ($6 million), Germany ($3.9 million), Italy ($3.7 million) and France and Spain ($3.2 million respectively) in October represented its largest takings. In China, it opened with an estimated $12.1 million debuting at second place behind the Chinese local film The Witness which grossed $18.5 million. While the China figures are low in comparison to recent Hollywood movie openings, it actually excelled the first film 's local lifetime gross by 19 % in just the first six days. In terms of total earnings, its largest market outside of North America is the U.K. ($29.4 million) followed by Mexico ($23.7 million) and Venezuela ($19.9 million).
On Rotten Tomatoes, the film received a rating of 55 %, based on 100 reviews, with an average rating of 5.2 / 10. The site 's consensus states: "Hotel Transylvania 2 is marginally better than the original, which may or may not be enough of a recommendation to watch 89 minutes of corny, colorfully animated gags from Adam Sandler and company. '' On Metacritic, the film has a score of 44 out of 100, based on 24 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''. In CinemaScore polls, audiences gave the film an average grade of "A - '' on an A+ to F scale.
Max Nicholson of IGN awarded it a score of 6.5 out of 10, saying "While Genndy Tartakovsky 's animation is top - notch, Hotel Transylvania 2 does n't live up to the first monster mash. '' Nick Schager of Variety gave the film a negative review, saying "Its plot comes across as just a rickety skeleton designed to prop up Sandler and company 's litany of cornball punchlines and gags, only a few of which cleverly play off of these characters ' iconography '' Alonso Duralde of The Wrap gave the film a positive review, saying "Whereas the jokes in the Grown Ups series feel reactionary and bullying, the family - friendly Hotel Transylvania gags instead come off as clever and humane, even when they 're making fun of helicopter moms and lawsuit - sensitive summer camps. '' Stephen Whitty of the Newark Star - Ledger gave the film one and a half stars out of four, saying "Great movies like ParaNorman and Frankenweenie showed the laughs you could get out of funny fiends; Hotel Transylvania 2 just digs up a few corny gags. '' Bruce Demara of the Toronto Star gave the film two and a half stars out of four, saying "While the first Hotel Trans had humour for both younger and older audiences, this one will likely fall short in its appeal to adults, although there 's plenty for the little monsters to enjoy. ''
Peter Hartlaub of the San Francisco Chronicle gave the film one out of four stars, saying "Hotel Transylvania 2 is an unfortunate throwback to about 20 years ago, when animated movies were more widely accepted as cinematic babysitters. '' Sandie Angulo Chen of The Washington Post gave the film two out of four stars, saying "Tartakovsky has n't created the sort of sequel that eclipses the original, but then again the original was n't exactly Toy Story or How to Train Your Dragon. '' Jesse Hassenger of The A.V. Club gave the film a C+, saying "It 's an episodic, energetically animated gag factory from the pen of Adam Sandler, and while it 's the best screenplay to bear his name in years, it also warps some overfamiliar family - movie concerns until they become unavoidable in their ickiness. '' Michael Rechtshaffen of The Hollywood Reporter gave the film a positive review, saying "This time around, greater attention has been paid to story and character development (while scaling back on all the sight gags) and the substantial results give the ample voice cast and returning director Genndy Tartakovsky more to sink their teeth into, with pleasing results. '' Josh Kupecki of The Austin Chronicle gave the film one out of five stars, saying "Channeling your inner child, you may find solace in Hotel Transylvania 2, but in the end it has no bite, doing continued disservice to the Universal monsters it scabs out, and adding another soiled feather to Sandler 's cap of mediocrity. ''
Michelle Murdocca, the film 's producer, said before the film 's release that the studio was "talking about number 3 and moving forward and taking the franchise to the next level. '' On November 2, 2015, it was announced Hotel Transylvania 3 will be released on September 21, 2018. Despite previously leaving the series to direct other projects, Genndy Tartakovsky will return as director for this installment. According to Tartakovsky, he returned after he got an inspiration from a "miserable '' family vacation. Adam Sandler, Selena Gomez, and Andy Samberg will also reprise their previous roles as Dracula, Mavis and Johnny in the film, which is being written by Austin Powers writer Michael McCullers. The film will take place aboard a cruise ship. On February 6, 2017, the release date was moved up to July 13, 2018.
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where did most immigrants in the 1840s come from | History of immigration to the United States - wikipedia
The history of immigration to the United States details the movement of people to the United States starting with the first European settlements from around 1600. Beginning around this time, British and other Europeans settled primarily on the east coast. Later Africans were imported as slaves. The United States experienced successive waves of immigration, particularly from Europe. Immigrants sometimes paid the cost of transoceanic transportation by becoming indentured servants after their arrival in the New World. Later, immigration rules became more restrictive; the ending of numerical restrictions occurred in 1965. Recently, cheap air travel has increased immigration from Asia and Latin America.
Attitudes towards new immigrants have cycled between favorable and hostile since the 1790s.
In 1607 the first successful English colony settled in Jamestown, Virginia. Once tobacco was found to be a profitable cash crop, many plantations were established along the Chesapeake Bay in Virginia and Maryland.
Thus began the first and longest era of immigration, lasting until the American Revolution in 1775; during this time settlements grew from initial English toe - holds from the New World to British America. It brought Northern European immigrants, primarily of British, German, and Dutch extraction. The British ruled from the mid-17th century and they were by far the largest group of arrivals, remaining within the British Empire. Over 90 % of these early immigrants became farmers.
Large numbers of young men and women came alone as indentured servants. Their passage was paid by employers in the colonies who needed help on the farms or in shops. Indentured servants were provided food, housing, clothing and training but they did not receive wages. At the end of the indenture (usually around age 21) they were free to marry and start their own farms.
Seeking religious freedom in the New World, one hundred English Pilgrims established a small settlement near Plymouth, Massachusetts in 1620. Tens of thousands of English Puritans arrived, mostly from the East Anglian parts of England (Norfolk, Suffolk, Essex), as well as Kent and East Sussex., and settled in Boston, Massachusetts and adjacent areas from around 1629 to 1640 to create a land dedicated to their religion. The earliest New English colonies, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, and New Hampshire, were established along the northeast coast. Large scale immigration to this region ended before 1700, though a small but steady trickle of later arrivals continued.
The New English colonists were the most urban and educated of all their contemporaries, and they had many skilled farmers, tradesmen and craftsmen among them. They started the first university, Harvard, in 1635 in order to train their ministers. They mostly settled in small villages for mutual support (nearly all of them had their own militias) and common religious activities. Shipbuilding, commerce, agriculture, and fishing were their main sources of income. New England 's healthy climate (the cold winters killed the mosquitoes and other disease - bearing insects), small widespread villages (minimizing the spread of disease), and an abundant food supply resulted in the lowest death rate and the highest birth rate of any of the colonies. The Eastern and Northern frontier around the initial New England settlements was mainly settled by the descendants of the original New Englanders. Immigration to the New England colonies after 1640 and the start of the English Civil War decreased to less than 1 % (about equal to the death rate) in nearly all of the years prior to 1845. The rapid growth of the New England colonies (approximately 900,000 by 1790) was almost entirely due to the high birth rate (> 3 %) and the low death rate (< 1 %) per year.
The Dutch, primarily driven by the United East Indian Company, first established settlements along the Hudson River in New York starting about 1626. Wealthy Dutch patroons set up large landed estates along the Hudson River and brought in farmers who became renters. Others established rich trading posts to trade with Native Americans and started cities such as New Amsterdam (now New York City) and Albany, New York. After the British took over and renamed the colony New York, Germans (from the Palatinate), and Yankees (from New England) began arriving.
Maryland, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Delaware formed the middle colonies. Pennsylvania was settled by Quakers from Britain, followed by Ulster Scots (Northern Ireland) on the frontier and numerous German Protestant sects, including the German Palatines. The earlier colony of New Sweden had small settlements on the lower Delaware River, with immigrants of Swedes and Finns. These colonies were absorbed by 1676.
The middle colonies ' were scattered West of New York City (established 1626; taken over by the English in 1664) and Philadelphia, Pennsylvania (established 1682). The initially Dutch colony of New York had the most eclectic collection of residents from many different nations and prospered as a major trading and commercial center after about 1700. From around 1680 to 1725, the Pennsylvania colonial center was dominated by the Quakers for decades after they emigrated, mainly from the North Midlands of England. During this time, the main commercial center of Philadelphia was run mostly by prosperous Quakers, supplemented by many small farming and trading communities, with a strong German contingent located in several small towns in the Delaware River valley.
Starting around 1680, when Pennsylvania was founded, many more settlers arrived to the middle colonies. Many Protestant sects were encouraged to settle there for freedom of religion and good, cheap land. Their origins were about 60 % British and 33 % German. By 1780, New York 's population were around 27 % descendants of Dutch settlers, about 6 % were African, and the remainder were mostly English with a wide mixture of other Europeans. New Jersey, and Delaware had a British majority, with 7 -- 11 % German - descendants, about 6 % African population, and a small contingent of the Swedish descendants of New Sweden.
The colonial frontier was mainly settled from about 1717 to 1775. These were mostly Presbyterian settlers from North England border lands, Scotland, and Ulster, fleeing hard times and religious persecution. The fourth major center of settlement was the Western frontier, located in the Western parts of Pennsylvania and in the South, which was settled during the early to late 18th century by mostly Scots - Irish, with others mostly from North England border lands. Some French Huguenots and Germans were also present. Between 250,000 and 400,000 Scotch - Irish migrated to America in the 18th century. The Scotch - Irish soon became the dominant culture of the Appalachians from Pennsylvania to Georgia. Areas where people reported ' American ' ancestry were the places where, historically, northern English, Scottish and Scotch - Irish Protestants settled: in the interior of the South, and the Appalachian region. Scotch - Irish American immigrants, were made up of people from the southernmost counties of Scotland who had initially settled in Ireland. They were heavily Presbyterian, largely self - sufficient, and generally hostile to Native Americans and Catholics. The Scotch - Irish arrived in large numbers during the early 18th century and they often preferred to settle in the back country and the frontier from Pennsylvania to Georgia, where they mingled with second generation and later English settlers. They enjoyed the very cheap land and independence from established governments common to frontier settlements. Often, the main port of entry for these immigrants was Philadelphia, after which they (or, in many cases, their descendants) migrated west and south.
The mostly agricultural Southern English colonies initially had very high death rates for new settlers due to malaria, yellow fever, and other diseases as well as skirmishes with Native Americans. Despite this, a steady flow of new settlers, mostly from Central England and the London area, kept up population growth. Initially, the large plantations were mostly owned by friends (mostly minor aristocrats) of the British - appointed governors. A group of Gaelic - speaking Scottish Highlanders created a settlement at Cape Fear in North Carolina, which remained culturally distinct until the mid-18th century, at which point it was swallowed up by the dominant English - origin culture. Many settlers arrived as indentured servants who had to work off their passage with five to seven years of work for room and board, clothing, and training, but no cash wages. After their terms of indentures expired, most of the indentures settled small farms on the frontier. The Southern colonies were about 55 % British, 38 % Black, and roughly 7 % German. The Atlantic slave trade primarily ceased after 1775 and it was outlawed in 1808, although some slaves were smuggled in afterwards.
After 1630, the initial areas of settlement had been largely cleared of Native Americans by major outbreaks of measles, smallpox, and bubonic plague beginning decades before the settlers began arriving in large numbers. The leading killer was smallpox, which arrived in the New World around 1510 -- 1530.
While the thirteen colonies differentiated in how they were settled and by whom, they had many commonalities. Nearly all were settled and financed by privately organized British settlers or families using free enterprise without any significant English Royal or Parliamentary government support or input. Nearly all commercial activity was run in small, privately owned businesses with good credit both at home and in England, which was essential since they were often cash poor. Most settlements were nearly independent of British trade since they grew or made nearly everything they needed; the average cost of imports per household was 5 -- 15 pounds per year. Most settlements were created by complete family groups with several generations often present. The population was typically rural, with close to 80 % owning the land they lived and farmed on. After 1700, as the Industrial Revolution progressed, more of the population started to move to cities, much like what had happened in Britain. Initially, the Dutch and German Americans primarily spoke dialects brought over from Europe, while English was the main trade language. Governments and laws primarily copied the English. The only major British institution to be abandoned was the aristocracy, noted by nearly universal absence. The settlers generally established their own popularly elected governments and courts on as many levels as they could and were nearly all, within a few years, self - governing, self - supporting, and self - replicating. This self - ruling pattern became so ingrained that almost all new settlements would have their own government up and running shortly after arrival for the next 200 years.
After the colonies were initially settled, their population growth was made up almost entirely of natural growth with foreign - born immigrant populations rarely exceeding 10 % (except in isolated instances). The last significant colonies to be settled primarily by immigrants were Pennsylvania (1680s+), the Carolinas (1663 +), and Georgia (1732 +). Even here the immigrants came mostly from England and Scotland with the exception of a large Germanic contingent to Pennsylvania. Elsewhere internal American migration from other colonies provided nearly all of the settlers for each new colony or state. Populations grew by about 80 % at a 3 % "natural '' annual growth rate sustained over a 20 - year interval.
Over half of all new British immigrants in the South initially arrived as indentured servants. They were mostly poor young people who could n't find work in England and could n't afford passage to America and. In addition, about 60,000 British convicts were transported to the new British colonies in Georgia in the 18th century. Most of these so - called convicts were guilty of being very poor and out of work. "Serious '' criminals were generally executed. Ironically, these "convicts '' are often the only immigrants with nearly complete immigration records as other immigrants typically showed up with few or no records.
Although Spain set up a few forts in Florida, notably San Agustín (present - day Saint Augustine) in 1565, they sent few settlers to Florida. Spaniards moving north from Mexico founded the San Juan on the Rio Grande in 1598, and Santa Fe in 1607 -- 1608. The settlers were forced to leave temporarily for 12 years (1680 -- 1692) by the Pueblo Revolt before returning.
Spanish Texas lasted from 1690 to 1821 when Texas was governed as a colony which was separate from New Spain. In 1731, Canary Islanders (or "Isleños '') arrived to establish San Antonio. The majority of the few hundred Texan and New Mexican colonizers in the Spanish colonial period were Spaniards and criollos. California, New Mexico, and Arizona all had Spanish settlements. In 1781 Spanish settlers founded Los Angeles.
At the time they joined the U.S., Californios in California numbered about 10,000 and Tejanos in Texas about 4,000. New Mexico had 47,000 Spanish settlers in 1842. Arizona was only thinly settled.
However, not all these settlers were of European descent. As in the rest of the American colonies, new settlements were based on the casta system, and although all could speak Spanish, it was really a melting pot of whites, Natives, and mestizos.
In the late 17th century, French expeditions established a foothold on the Saint Lawrence River, Mississippi River, and Gulf Coast. Interior trading posts, forts, and cities were thinly spread throughout Louisiana such as Saint Louis, Baton Rouge, Sault Sainte Marie, Prairie du Rocher, and Sainte - Geneviève. The city of Detroit was the third largest settlement in New France. New Orleans expanded when several thousand French - speaking refugees from the region of Acadia (now Nova Scotia, Canada) made their way to Louisiana following British expulsion, settling largely in the Southwest Louisiana region now called Acadiana. Their descendants are now called Cajun and still dominate the coastal areas. It is estimated that 7,000 European immigrants settled in Louisiana during the 18th century.
The following were the countries of origin for new arrivals to the United States before 1790. The regions marked with an asterisk were part of Great Britain. The ancestry of the 3.9 million population in 1790 has been estimated by various sources by sampling last names from the 1790 census and assigning them a country of origin. The Irish in the 1790 census were mostly Scotch - Irish. The French were primarily Huguenots. The total U.S. Catholic population in 1790 was probably less than 5 %. The Native American population inside territorial U.S. boundaries was less than 100,000.
The 1790 population reflected the approximately 50,000 Loyalists, or "Tories '', who immigrated to Canada at the end of the American Revolution, and 12,000 others who immigrated to other British possessions including England.
Of the total white population of just under 3.2 million in 1790, 85 % was of British ancestry (60 % English, 4.3 % Welsh, 5.4 % Scots, Irish (South) 5.8 % Scots - Irish 10.5 %). Germans were 9 %, Dutch 3.4 %, French 2.1 % and Swedish. 25 %; blacks made up 19.3 % or 762,000 (The American Revolution, Colin Bonwick, 1991, p. 254). The overwhelming majority of Southern Irish were Protestant as there were only 60,000 Catholics in the USA in 1790, 1.6 % of the population. Many were descendants of English Catholics settlers in the 17th century. The rest Irish and some Germans. In this era the population roughly doubled by natural increase every 25 years. Relentless population expansion pushed the U.S. frontier to the Pacific by 1848. Most immigrants came long distances to settle in the U.S. However, many Irish left Canada for the U.S. in the 1840s. French Canadians who came down from Quebec after 1860 and the Mexicans who came north after 1911 found it easier to move back and forth.
There was relatively little immigration from 1770 to 1830; while there was significant emigration from the U.S. to Canada, including about 75,000 Loyalists as well as Germans and others looking for better farmland in what is now Ontario. Large scale immigration resumed in the 1830s from Britain, Ireland, Germany, and other parts of Central Europe as well as Scandinavia. Most were attracted by the cheap farmland. Some were artisans and skilled factory workers attracted by the first stage of industrialization. The Irish Catholics were primarily unskilled workers who built a majority of the canals and railroads, settling in urban areas. Many Irish went to the emerging textile mill towns of the Northeast, while others became longshoremen in the growing Atlantic and Gulf port cities. Half the Germans headed to farms, especially in the Midwest (with some to Texas), while the other half became craftsmen in urban areas.
Nativism took the form of political anti-Catholicism directed mostly at the Irish (as well as Germans). It became important briefly in the mid-1850s in the guise of the Know Nothing party. Most of the Catholics and German Lutherans became Democrats, and most of the other Protestants joined the new Republican Party. During the Civil War, ethnic communities supported the war and produced large numbers of soldiers on both sides. Riots broke out in New York City and other Irish and German strongholds in 1863 when a draft was instituted, particularly in light of the provision exempting those who could afford payment.
Based on available records, immigration totaled 8,385 in 1820, with immigration totals gradually increasing to 23,322 by the year 1830; for the 1820s decade immigration more than doubled to 143,000. Between 1831 and 1840, immigration more than quadrupled to a total of 599,000. These included about 207,000 Irish, starting to emigrate in large numbers following Britain 's easing of travel restrictions, and about 152,000 Germans, 76,000 British, and 46,000 French, constituting the next largest immigrant groups of the decade.
Between 1841 and 1850, immigration nearly tripled again, totaling 1,713,000 immigrants, including at least 781,000 Irish, 435,000 Germans, 267,000 British, and 77,000 French. The Irish, driven by the Potato Famine (1845 -- 1849), emigrated directly from their homeland to escape poverty and death. The failed revolutions of 1848 brought many intellectuals and activists to exile in the U.S. Bad times and poor conditions in Europe drove people out, while land, relatives, freedom, opportunity, and jobs in the US lured them in.
2. The number of foreign born in 1830 and 1840 decades are extrapolations.
Starting in 1820, some federal records, including ship passenger lists, were kept for immigration purposes, and a gradual increase in immigration was recorded; more complete immigration records provide data on immigration after 1830. Though conducted since 1790, the census of 1850 was the first in which place of birth was asked specifically. The foreign - born population in the U.S. likely reached its minimum around 1815, at approximately 100,000 or 1 % of the population. By 1815, most of the immigrants who arrived before the American Revolution had died, and there had been almost no new immigration thereafter.
Nearly all population growth up to 1830 was by internal increase; around 98 % of the population was native - born. By 1850, this shifted to about 90 % native - born. The first significant Catholic immigration started in the mid-1840s, shifting the population from about 95 % Protestant down to about 90 % by 1850.
In 1848, the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, concluding the Mexican War, extended U.S. citizenship to approximately 60,000 Mexican residents of the New Mexico Territory and 10,000 living in California. An additional approximate 2,500 foreign born California residents also become U.S. citizens.
In 1849, the California Gold Rush attracted 100,000 would - be miners from the Eastern U.S., Latin America, China, Australia, and Europe. California became a state in 1850 with a population of about 90,000.
Between 1850 and 1930, about 5 million Germans migrated to the United States, peaking between 1881 and 1885 when a million Germans settled primarily in the Midwest. Between 1820 and 1930, 3.5 million British and 4.5 million Irish entered America. Before 1845 most Irish immigrants were Protestants. After 1845, Irish Catholics began arriving in large numbers, largely driven by the Great Famine.
After 1880 larger steam - powered oceangoing ships replaced sailing ships, which resulted in lower fares and greater immigrant mobility. Meanwhile, farming improvements in Southern Europe and the Russian Empire created surplus labor. Young people between the ages of 15 to 30 were predominant among newcomers. This wave of migration, constituting the third episode in the history of U.S. immigration, may be better referred to as a flood of immigrants, as nearly 25 million Europeans made the long trip. Italians, Greeks, Hungarians, Poles, and others speaking Slavic languages made up the bulk of this migration. 2.5 to 4 million Jews were among them.
Each group evinced a distinctive migration pattern in terms of the gender balance within the migratory pool, the permanence of their migration, their literacy rates, the balance between adults and children, and the like. But they shared one overarching characteristic: they flocked to urban destinations and made up the bulk of the U.S. industrial labor pool, making possible the emergence of such industries as steel, coal, automotive, textile, and garment production, enabling the United States to leap into the front ranks of the world 's economic giants.
Their urban destinations, numbers, and perhaps an antipathy towards foreigners, led to the emergence of a second wave of organized xenophobia. By the 1890s, many Americans, particularly from the ranks of the well - off, white, and native - born, considered immigration to pose a serious danger to the nation 's health and security. In 1893 a group formed the Immigration Restriction League, and it, along with other similarly inclined organizations, began to press Congress for severe curtailment of foreign immigration.
Irish and German Catholic immigration was opposed in the 1850s by the Nativist / Know Nothing movement, originating in New York in 1843 as the American Republican Party (not to be confused with the modern Republican Party). It was empowered by popular fears that the country was being overwhelmed by Catholic immigrants, who were often regarded as hostile to American values and controlled by the Pope in Rome. Active mainly from 1854 -- 56, it strove to curb immigration and naturalization, though its efforts met with little success. There were few prominent leaders, and the largely middle - class and Protestant membership fragmented over the issue of slavery, most often joining the Republican Party by the time of the 1860 presidential election.
European immigrants joined the Union Army in large numbers, including 177,000 born in Germany and 144,000 born in Ireland. Many Germans could see the parallels between slavery and serfdom in the old fatherland.
Between 1840 and 1930, about 900,000 French Canadians left Quebec in order to immigrate to the United States and settle, mainly in New England. Considering the fact that the population of Quebec was only 892,061 in 1851, this was a massive exodus. 13.6 million Americans claimed to have French ancestry in the 1980 census. A large portion of them have ancestors who emigrated from French Canada, since immigration from France was low throughout the history of the United States. During the same period almost 4 million other Canadians immigrated to the U.S. In the New England states 12 % of the population can trace its ancestry back to Quebec and 10 % can trace its ancestry back to the Maritime Provinces.
Shortly after the U.S. Civil War, some states started to pass their own immigration laws, which prompted the U.S. Supreme Court to rule in 1875 that immigration was a federal responsibility. In 1875, the nation passed its first immigration law, the Page Act of 1875, also known as the Asian Exclusion Act, outlawing the importation of Asian contract laborers, any Asian woman who would engage in prostitution, and all people considered to be convicts in their own countries.
In 1882 Congress passed the Chinese Exclusion Act. By excluding all Chinese laborers from entering the country, the Chinese Exclusion Act severely curtailed the number of immigrants of Chinese descent allowed into the United States for 10 years. The law was renewed in 1892 and 1902. During this period, Chinese migrants illegally entered the United States through the loosely guarded U.S. - Canadian border.
Prior to 1890, the individual states, rather than the Federal government, regulated immigration into the United States. The Immigration Act of 1891 established a Commissioner of Immigration in the Treasury Department. The Canadian Agreement of 1894 extended U.S. immigration restrictions to Canadian ports.
The Dillingham Commission was set up by Congress in 1907 to investigate the effects of immigration on the country. The Commission 's 40 - volume analysis of immigration during the previous three decades led it to conclude that the major source of immigration had shifted from Central, Northern, and Western Europeans to Southern Europeans and Russians. It was, however, apt to make generalizations about regional groups that were subjective and failed to differentiate between distinct cultural attributes.
The 1910s marked the high point of Italian immigration to the United States. Over two million Italians immigrated in those years, with a total of 5.3 million between 1880 and 1920. About half returned to Italy, after working an average of five years in the U.S.
About 1.5 million Swedes and Norwegians immigrated to the United States within this period, due to opportunity in America and poverty and religious oppression in united Sweden - Norway. This accounted for around 20 % of the total population of the kingdom at that time. They settled mainly in the Midwest, especially Minnesota and the Dakotas. Danes had comparably low immigration rates due to a better economy; after 1900 many Danish immigrants were Mormon converts who moved to Utah.
Over two million Central Europeans, mainly Catholics and Jews, immigrated between 1880 and 1924. People of Polish ancestry are the largest Central European ancestry group in the United States after Germans. Immigration of Eastern Orthodox ethnic groups was much lower.
Lebanese and Syrian immigrants started to settle in large numbers in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The vast majority of the immigrants from Lebanon and Syria were Christians, but smaller numbers of Jews, Muslims, and Druze also settled. Many lived in New York City 's Little Syria and in Boston. In the 1920s and 1930s, a large number of these immigrants set out West, with Detroit getting a large number of Middle Eastern immigrants, as well as many Midwestern areas where the Arabs worked as farmers.
From 1880 to 1924, around two million Jews moved to the United States, mostly seeking better opportunity in America and fleeing the pogroms of the Russian Empire. After 1934 Jews, along with any other above - quota immigration, were usually denied access to the United States.
Congress passed a literacy requirement in 1917 to curb the influx of low - skilled immigrants from entering the country.
Congress passed the Emergency Quota Act in 1921, followed by the Immigration Act of 1924, which was aimed at further restricting the Southern Europeans and Russians who had begun to enter the country in large numbers beginning in the 1890s. This ultimately resulted in precluding all "extra '' immigration to the United States, including Jews fleeing Nazi German persecution.
The Immigration Act of 1924 set quotas for European immigrants so that no more than 2 % of the 1890 immigrant stocks were allowed into America.
"New immigration '' was a term from the late 1880s that came from the influx of Catholic and Jewish immigrants from Italy and Russia (areas that previously sent few immigrants). Though the majority of immigrants came through New York, thus making the Northeast a major target of settlement, there were various efforts, such as the Galveston Movement, to redirect immigrants to other ports and disperse some of the settlement to other areas of the country.
Nativists feared the new arrivals lacked the political, social, and occupational skills needed to successfully assimilate into American culture. This raised the issue of whether the U.S. was still a "melting pot, '' or if it had just become a "dumping ground, '' and many old - stock Americans worried about negative effects on the economy, politics, and culture. A major proposal was to impose a literacy test, whereby applicants had to be able to read and write in their own language before they were admitted.
Restriction proceeded piecemeal over the course of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, but immediately after the end of World War I (1914 -- 18) and into the early 1920s, Congress changed the nation 's basic policy about immigration. The National Origins Formula of 1921 (and its final form in 1924) not only restricted the number of immigrants who might enter the United States, but also assigned slots according to quotas based on national origins. A complicated piece of legislation, it essentially gave preference to immigrants from Central, Northern and Western Europe, severely limiting the numbers from Russia and Southern Europe, and declared all potential immigrants from Asia unworthy of entry into the United States.
The legislation excluded the Western Hemisphere from the quota system, and the 1920s ushered in the penultimate era of U.S. immigration history. Immigrants could and did move quite freely from Mexico, the Caribbean (including Jamaica, Barbados, and Haiti), and other parts of Central and South America. This era, which reflected the application of the 1924 legislation, lasted until 1965. During those 40 years, the United States began to admit, case by case, limited numbers of refugees. Jewish refugees from Nazi Germany before World War II, Jewish Holocaust survivors after the war, non-Jewish displaced persons fleeing Communist rule in Central Europe and Russia, Hungarians seeking refuge after their failed uprising in 1956, and Cubans after the 1960 revolution managed to find haven in the United States when their plight moved the collective conscience of America, but the basic immigration law remained in place.
This law allowed foreign - born children of American mothers and alien fathers who had entered America before the age of 18 and had lived in America for five years to apply for American citizenship for the first time. It also made the naturalization process quicker for the alien husbands of American wives. This law equalized expatriation, immigration, naturalization, and repatriation between women and men. However, it was not applied retroactively, and was modified by later laws, such as the Nationality Act of 1940.
In 1934, the Tydings -- McDuffie Act provided independence of the Philippines on July 4, 1946. Until 1965, national origin quotas strictly limited immigration from the Philippines. In 1965, after revision of the immigration law, significant Filipino immigration began, totaling 1,728,000 by 2004.
In 1945, the War Brides Act allowed foreign - born wives of U.S. citizens who had served in the U.S. Armed Forces to immigrate to the United States. In 1946, The War Brides Act was extended to include the fiancés of American soldiers. In 1946, the Luce - Celler Act extended the right to become naturalized citizens to those from the newly independent nation of The Philippines and to Asian Indians, the immigration quota being set at 100 people per year per country.
At the end of World War II, "regular '' immigration almost immediately increased under the official national origins quota system as refugees from war torn Europe began immigrating to the U.S. After the war, there were jobs for nearly everyone who wanted one, when most women employed during the war went back into the home. From 1941 to 1950, 1,035,000 people immigrated to the U.S., including 226,000 from Germany, 139,000 from the UK, 171,000 from Canada, 60,000 from Mexico and 57,000 from Italy.
The Displaced Persons Act of 1948 finally allowed the displaced people of World War II to start immigrating. Some 200,000 Europeans and 17,000 orphans displaced by World War II were initially allowed to immigrate to the United States outside of immigration quotas. President Harry S. Truman signed the first Displaced Persons (DP) act on June 25, 1948, allowing entry for 200,000 DPs, then followed with the more accommodating second DP act on June 16, 1950, allowing entry for another 200,000. This quota, including acceptance of 55,000 Volksdeutschen, required sponsorship for all immigrants. The American program was the most notoriously bureaucratic of all the DP programs and much of the humanitarian effort was undertaken by charitable organizations, such as the Lutheran World Federation as well as other ethnic groups. Along with an additional quota of 200,000 granted in 1953 and more in succeeding years, a total of nearly 600,000 refugees were allowed into the country outside the quota system, second only to Israel 's 650,000.
In 1950, after the start of the Korean War, the Internal Security Act barred admission of Communists, who might engage in activities "which would be prejudicial to the public interest, or would endanger the welfare or safety of the United States. ''
In 1950, the invasion of South Korea by North Korea started the Korean War and left a war - ravaged Korea behind. There was little U.S. immigration due to the national origin quotas of the immigration law. Significant Korean immigration began in 1965 after revision of the law, totaling 848,000 by 2004.
In 1952, the McCarran Walter Immigration Act affirmed the national - origins quota system of 1924 and limited total annual immigration to one - sixth of one percent of the population of the continental United States in 1920, or 175,455. This exempted the spouses and children of U.S. citizens and people born in the Western Hemisphere from the quota. In 1953, the Refugee Relief Act extended refugee status to non-Europeans.
In 1954, Operation Wetback forced the return of thousands of illegal immigrants to Mexico. Between 1944 and 1954, "the decade of the wetback, '' the number of illegal immigrants coming from Mexico increased by 6,000 percent. It is estimated that before Operation Wetback got under way, more than a million workers had crossed the Rio Grande illegally. Cheap labor displaced native agricultural workers, and increased violation of labor laws and discrimination encouraged criminality, disease, and illiteracy. According to a study conducted in 1950 by the President 's Commission on Migratory Labor in Texas, the Rio Grande Valley cotton growers were paying approximately half of the wages paid elsewhere in Texas. The United States Border Patrol aided by municipal, county, state, federal authorities, and the military, began a quasi-military operation of the search and seizure of all illegal immigrants. Fanning out from the lower Rio Grande Valley, Operation Wetback moved Northward. Initially, illegal immigrants were repatriated through Presidio because the Mexican city across the border, Ojinaga, had rail connections to the interior of Mexico by which workers could be quickly moved on to Durango. The forces used by the government were relatively small, perhaps no more than 700 men, but were augmented by border patrol officials who hoped to scare illegal workers into fleeing back to Mexico. Ships became a preferred mode of transport because they carried illegal workers farther from the border than buses, trucks, or trains. It is difficult to estimate the number of illegal immigrants that left due to the operation -- most voluntarily. The INS claimed as many as 1,300,000, though the number officially apprehended did not come anywhere near this total. The program was ultimately abandoned due to questions surrounding the ethics of its implementation. Citizens of Mexican descent complained of police stopping all "Mexican looking '' people and utilizing extreme "police - state '' methods including deportation of American - born children who were citizens by law.
The failed 1956 Hungarian Revolution, before being crushed by the Soviets, forged a temporary hole in the Iron Curtain that allowed a burst of refugees to escape, bringing in 245,000 new Hungarian families by 1960. From 1950 to 1960, the U.S. had 2,515,000 new immigrants with 477,000 arriving from Germany, 185,000 from Italy, 52,000 new arrivals from the Netherlands, 203,000 from the UK, 46,000 from Japan, 300,000 from Mexico, and 377,000 from Canada.
The 1959 Cuban revolution led by Fidel Castro drove the upper and middle classes to exile, and 409,000 families immigrated to the U.S. by 1970. This was facilitated by the 1966 Cuban Adjustment Act, which gave permanent resident status to Cubans physically present in the United States for one year if they entered after January 1, 1959.
This all changed with passage of the Hart - Celler Act in 1965, a by - product of the civil rights revolution and a jewel in the crown of President Lyndon Johnson 's Great Society programs. The measure had not been intended to stimulate immigration from Asia, the Middle East, Africa, and elsewhere in the developing world. Rather, by doing away with the racially based quota system, its authors had expected that immigrants would come from "traditional '' societies such as Italy, Greece, and Portugal, places that labored under very small quotas in the 1924 law. The law replaced the quotas with preferential categories based on family relationships and job skills, giving particular preference to potential immigrants with relatives in the United States and with occupations deemed critical by the U.S. Department of Labor. After 1970, however, following an initial influx from European countries, immigrants from places like Korea, China, India, the Philippines, and Pakistan, as well as countries in Africa became more common.
In 1986, the Immigration Reform and Control Act (IRCA) was passed, creating, for the first time, penalties for employers who hired illegal immigrants. IRCA, as proposed in Congress, was projected to give amnesty to about 1,000,000 workers in the country illegally. In practice, amnesty for about 3,000,000 immigrants already in the United States was granted. Most were from Mexico. Legal Mexican immigrant family numbers were 2,198,000 in 1980, 4,289,000 in 1990 (includes IRCA), and 7,841,000 in 2000. Adding another 12,000,000 illegal immigrants of which about 80 % are thought to be Mexicans would bring the Mexican family total to over 16,000,000 -- about 16 % of the Mexican population.
The top ten birth countries of the foreign born population since 1830, according to the U.S. Census, are shown below. Blank entries mean that the country did not make it into the top ten for that census, not that there is no data from that census. The 1830 numbers are from immigration statistics as listed in the 2004 Year Book of Immigration Statistics.
The 1830 numbers list un-naturalized foreign citizens and does not include naturalized foreign born. The 1850 census is the first census that asks for place of birth. The historical census data can be found online in the Virginia Library Geostat Center Population numbers are in thousands.
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time taken by earth to orbit the sun | Earth 's orbit - wikipedia
Earth 's orbit is the trajectory along which Earth travels around the Sun. The average distance between the Earth and the Sun is 149.60 million km (92.96 million mi), and one complete orbit takes 365.256 days (1 sidereal year), during which time Earth has traveled 940 million km (584 million mi). Earth 's orbit has an eccentricity of 0.0167.
As seen from Earth, the planet 's orbital prograde motion makes the Sun appear to move with respect to other stars at a rate of about 1 ° (or a Sun or Moon diameter every 12 hours) eastward per solar day. Earth 's orbital speed averages about 30 km / s (108,000 km / h; 67,000 mph), which is fast enough to cover the planet 's diameter in 7 minutes and the distance to the Moon in 4 hours.
From a vantage point above the north pole of either the Sun or Earth, Earth would appear to revolve in a counter clockwise direction around the Sun. From the same vantage point, both the Earth and the Sun would appear to rotate also in a counterclockwise direction about their respective axes.
Heliocentrism is the scientific model that first placed the Sun at the center of the Solar System and put the planets, including Earth, in its orbit. Historically, heliocentrism is opposed to geocentrism, which placed the Earth at the center. Aristarchus of Samos already proposed a heliocentric model in the 3rd century BC. In the 16th century, Nicolaus Copernicus ' De revolutionibus presented a full discussion of a heliocentric model of the universe in much the same way as Ptolemy had presented his geocentric model in the 2nd century. This "Copernican revolution '' resolved the issue of planetary retrograde motion by arguing that such motion was only perceived and apparent. "Although Copernicus 's groundbreaking book... had been (printed) over a century earlier, (the Dutch mapmaker) Joan Blaeu was the first mapmaker to incorporate his revolutionary heliocentric theory into a map of the world. ''
Because of Earth 's axial tilt (often known as the obliquity of the ecliptic), the inclination of the Sun 's trajectory in the sky (as seen by an observer on Earth 's surface) varies over the course of the year. For an observer at a northern latitude, when the north pole is tilted toward the Sun the day lasts longer and the Sun appears higher in the sky. This results in warmer average temperatures, as additional solar radiation reaches the surface. When the north pole is tilted away from the Sun, the reverse is true and the weather is generally cooler. Above the Arctic Circle and below the Antarctic Circle, an extreme case is reached in which there is no daylight at all for part of the year. This is called a polar night. This variation in the weather (because of the direction of the Earth 's axial tilt) results in the seasons.
By astronomical convention, the four seasons are determined by the solstices -- the two points in the Earth 's orbit of the maximum tilt of the Earth 's axis, towards the Sun or away from the Sun -- and the equinoxes -- the two points in the Earth 's orbit where the Earth 's tilted axis and an imaginary line drawn from the Earth to the Sun are exactly perpendicular to one another. The solstices and equinoxes divide the year up into four approximately equal parts. In the northern hemisphere winter solstice occurs on or about December 21; summer solstice is near June 21; spring equinox is around March 20; and autumnal equinox is about September 23. The effect of the Earth 's axial tilt in the southern hemisphere is the opposite of that in the northern hemisphere, thus the seasons of the solstices and equinoxes in the southern hemisphere are the reverse of those in the northern hemisphere (e.g. the northern summer solstice is at the same time as the southern winter solstice).
In modern times, Earth 's perihelion occurs around January 3, and the aphelion around July 4 (for other eras, see precession and Milankovitch cycles). The changing Earth -- Sun distance results in an increase of about 6.9 % in total solar energy reaching the Earth at perihelion relative to aphelion. Since the southern hemisphere is tilted toward the Sun at about the same time that the Earth reaches the closest approach to the Sun, the southern hemisphere receives slightly more energy from the Sun than does the northern over the course of a year. However, this effect is much less significant than the total energy change due to the axial tilt, and most of the excess energy is absorbed by the higher proportion of water in the southern hemisphere.
The Hill sphere (gravitational sphere of influence) of the Earth is about 1,500,000 kilometers (0.01 AU) in radius, or approximately 4 times the average distance to the moon. This is the maximal distance at which the Earth 's gravitational influence is stronger than the more distant Sun and planets. Objects orbiting the Earth must be within this radius, otherwise they can become unbound by the gravitational perturbation of the Sun.
The following diagram shows the relation between the line of solstice and the line of apsides of Earth 's elliptical orbit. The orbital ellipse goes through each of the six Earth images, which are sequentially the perihelion (periapsis -- nearest point to the Sun) on anywhere from January 2 to January 5, the point of March equinox on March 19, 20, or 21, the point of June solstice on June 20, 21, or 22, the aphelion (apoapsis -- farthest point from the Sun) on anywhere from July 3 to July 5, the September equinox on September 22, 23, or 24, and the December solstice on December 21, 22, or 23. The diagram shows an exaggerated shape of Earth 's orbit; the actual orbit is less eccentric than pictured.
Because of the axial tilt of the Earth in its orbit, the maximal intensity of Sun rays hits the Earth 23.4 degrees north of equator at the June Solstice (at the Tropic of Cancer), and 23.4 degrees south of equator at the December Solstice (at the Tropic of Capricorn).
Mathematicians and astronomers (such as Laplace, Lagrange, Gauss, Poincaré, Kolmogorov, Vladimir Arnold, and Jürgen Moser) have searched for evidence for the stability of the planetary motions, and this quest led to many mathematical developments and several successive "proofs '' of stability for the Solar System. By most predictions, Earth 's orbit will be relatively stable over long periods.
In 1989, Jacques Laskar 's work indicated that the Earth 's orbit (as well as the orbits of all the inner planets) can become chaotic and that an error as small as 15 meters in measuring the initial position of the Earth today would make it impossible to predict where the Earth would be in its orbit in just over 100 million years ' time. Modeling the Solar System is a subject covered by the n - body problem.
Media related to Earth 's orbit at Wikimedia Commons
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which time of the day is generally the hottest period all over india | Climate of India - Wikipedia
The Climate of India comprises a wide range of weather conditions across a vast geographic scale and varied topography, making generalisations difficult. Based on the Köppen system, India hosts six major climatic subtypes, ranging from arid desert in the west, alpine tundra and glaciers in the north, and humid tropical regions supporting rainforests in the southwest and the island territories. Many regions have starkly different microclimates. The nation has four seasons: winter (December, January and February), summer (March, April and May), a monsoon rainy season (June to September), and a post-monsoon period (October to November).
India 's geography and geology are climatically pivotal: the Thar Desert in the northwest and the Himalayas in the north work in tandem to effect a culturally and economically important monsoonal regime. As Earth 's highest and most massive mountain range, the Himalayas bar the influx of frigid katabatic winds from the icy Tibetan Plateau and northerly Central Asia. Most of North India is thus kept warm or is only mildly chilly or cold during winter; the same thermal dam keeps most regions in India hot in summer.
Though the Tropic of Cancer -- the boundary between the tropics and subtropics -- passes through the middle of India, the bulk of the country can be regarded as climatically tropical. As in much of the tropics, monsoonal and other weather patterns in India can be wildly unstable: epochal droughts, floods, cyclones, and other natural disasters are sporadic, but have displaced or ended millions of human lives. There is one scientific opinion which states that in South Asia such climatic events are likely to change in unpredictability, frequency, and severity. Ongoing and future vegetative changes and current sea level rises and the attendant inundation of India 's low - lying coastal areas are other impacts, current or predicted, that are attributable to global warming.
During the Triassic period of some 251 -- 199.6 Ma, the Indian subcontinent was part of a vast supercontinent known as Pangaea. Despite its position within a high - latitude belt at 55 -- 75 ° S -- latitudes now occupied by parts of the Antarctic Peninsula, as opposed to India 's current position between 5 and 35 ° N -- India likely experienced a humid temperate climate with warm and frost - free weather, though with well - defined seasons. India later merged into the southern supercontinent Gondwana, a process beginning some 550 -- 500 Ma. During the Late Paleozoic, Gondwana extended from a point at or near the South Pole to near the equator, where the Indian craton (stable continental crust) was positioned, resulting in a mild climate favourable to hosting high - biomass ecosystems. This is underscored by India 's vast coal reserves -- much of it from the late Paleozoic sedimentary sequence -- the fourth - largest reserves in the world. During the Mesozoic, the world, including India, was considerably warmer than today. With the coming of the Carboniferous, global cooling stoked extensive glaciation, which spread northwards from South Africa towards India; this cool period lasted well into the Permian.
Tectonic movement by the Indian Plate caused it to pass over a geologic hotspot -- the Réunion hotspot -- now occupied by the volcanic island of Réunion. This resulted in a massive flood basalt event that laid down the Deccan Traps some 60 -- 68 Ma, at the end of the Cretaceous period. This may have contributed to the global Cretaceous -- Paleogene extinction event, which caused India to experience significantly reduced insolation. Elevated atmospheric levels of sulphur gases formed aerosols such as sulphur dioxide and sulphuric acid, similar to those found in the atmosphere of Venus; these precipitated as acid rain. Elevated carbon dioxide emissions also contributed to the greenhouse effect, causing warmer weather that lasted long after the atmospheric shroud of dust and aerosols had cleared. Further climatic changes 20 million years ago, long after India had crashed into the Laurasian landmass, were severe enough to cause the extinction of many endemic Indian forms. The formation of the Himalayas resulted in blockage of frigid Central Asian air, preventing it from reaching India; this made its climate significantly warmer and more tropical in character than it would otherwise have been.
India is home to an extraordinary variety of climatic regions, ranging from tropical in the south to temperate and alpine in the Himalayan north, where elevated regions receive sustained winter snowfall. The nation 's climate is strongly influenced by the Himalayas and the Thar Desert. The Himalayas, along with the Hindu Kush mountains in Pakistan, prevent cold Central Asian katabatic winds from blowing in, keeping the bulk of the Indian subcontinent warmer than most locations at the similar latitudes. Simultaneously, the Thar Desert plays a role in attracting moisture - laden southwest summer monsoon winds that, between June and October, provide the majority of India 's rainfall. Four major climatic groupings predominate, into which fall seven climatic zones that, as designated by experts, are defined on the basis of such traits as temperature and precipitation. Groupings are assigned codes (see chart) according to the Köppen climate classification system.
A tropical rainy climate governs regions persistent to warm or high temperatures, which normally do not fall below 18 ° C (64 ° F). India hosts two climatic subtypes - tropical monsoon climate, tropical wet and dry climate that fall under this group.
1) The most humid is the tropical wet climate -- also known as a tropical monsoon climate -- that covers a strip of southwestern lowlands abutting the Malabar Coast, the Western Ghats, and southern Assam. India 's two island territories, Lakshadweep and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, are also subject to this climate. Characterised by moderate to high year - round temperatures, even in the foothills, its rainfall is seasonal but heavy -- typically above 2,000 mm (79 in) per year. Most rainfall occurs between May and November; this moisture is enough to sustain lush forests and other vegetation for the rest of the mainly dry year. December to March are the driest months, when days with precipitation are rare. The heavy monsoon rains are responsible for the exceptional biodiversity of tropical wet forests in parts of these regions.
2) In India a tropical wet and dry climate is more common. Noticeably drier than areas with a tropical monsoon climate, it prevails over most of inland peninsular India except for a semi arid rain shadow east of the Western Ghats. Winter and early summer are long and dry periods with temperatures averaging above 18 ° C (64 ° F). Summer is exceedingly hot; temperatures in low - lying areas may exceed 50 ° C (122 ° F) during May, leading to heat waves that can each kill hundreds of Indians. The rainy season lasts from June to September; annual rainfall averages between 750 -- 1,500 mm (30 -- 59 in) across the region. Once the dry northeast monsoon begins in September, most precipitation in India falls on Tamil Nadu, leaving other states comparatively dry.
The Ganges Delta lies mostly in the tropical wet climate zone: it receives between 1,500 to 2,000 mm (59 to 79 in) of rainfall each year in the western part, and 2,000 to 3,000 mm (79 to 118 in) in the eastern part. The coolest month of the year, on average, is January; April and May are the warmest months. Average temperatures in January range from 14 to 25 ° C (57 to 77 ° F), and average temperatures in April range from 25 to 35 ° C (77 to 95 ° F). July is on average the wettest month: over 330 mm (13 in) of rain falls on the delta.
A tropical arid and semi-arid climate dominates regions where the rate of moisture loss through evapotranspiration exceeds that from precipitation; it is subdivided into three climatic subtypes - tropical semi-arid steppe, arid climate, tropical and sub-tropical steppe climate.
1) The first, a tropical semi-arid steppe climate, (Hot semi-arid climate) predominates over a long stretch of land south of Tropic of Cancer and east of the Western Ghats and the Cardamom Hills. The region, which includes Karnataka, inland Tamil Nadu, western Andhra Pradesh, and central Maharashtra, gets between 400 -- 750 millimetres (15.7 -- 29.5 in) annually. It is drought - prone, as it tends to have less reliable rainfall due to sporadic lateness or failure of the southwest monsoon. Karnataka is divided into three zones -- coastal, north interior and south interior. Of these, the coastal zone receives the heaviest rainfall with an average rainfall of about 3,638.5 mm per annum, far in excess of the state average of 1,139 mm (45 in). In contrast to norm, Agumbe in the Shivamogga district receives the second highest annual rainfall in India. North of the Krishna River, the summer monsoon is responsible for most rainfall; to the south, significant post-monsoon rainfall also occurs in October and November. In December, the coldest month, temperatures still average around 20 -- 24 ° C (68 -- 75 ° F). The months between March to May are hot and dry; mean monthly temperatures hover around 32 ° C, with 320 millimetres (13 in) precipitation. Hence, without artificial irrigation, this region is not suitable for permanent agriculture.
2) Most of western Rajasthan experiences an arid climatic regime (Hot desert climate). Cloudbursts are responsible for virtually all of the region 's annual precipitation, which totals less than 300 millimetres (11.8 in). Such bursts happen when monsoon winds sweep into the region during July, August, and September. Such rainfall is highly erratic; regions experiencing rainfall one year may not see precipitation for the next couple of years or so. Atmospheric moisture is largely prevented from precipitating due to continuous downdrafts and other factors. The summer months of May and June are exceptionally hot; mean monthly temperatures in the region hover around 35 ° C (95 ° F), with daily maxima occasionally topping 50 ° C (122 ° F). During winters, temperatures in some areas can drop below freezing due to waves of cold air from Central Asia. There is a large diurnal range of about 14 ° C (25.2 ° F) during summer; this widens by several degrees during winter.
To the west, in Gujarat, diverse climate conditions obtain. The winters are mild, pleasant, and dry with average daytime temperatures around 29 ° C (84 ° F) and nights around 12 ° C (54 ° F) with virtually full sun and clear nights. Summers are hot and dry with daytime temperatures around 41 ° C (106 ° F) and nights no lower than 29 ° C (84 ° F). In the weeks before the monsoon temperatures are similar to the above, but high humidity makes the air more uncomfortable. Relief comes with the monsoon. Temperatures are around 35 ° C (95 ° F) but humidity is very high; nights are around 27 ° C (81 ° F). Most of the rainfall occurs in this season, and the rain can cause severe floods. The sun is often occluded during the monsoon season.
3) East of the Thar Desert, the Punjab - Haryana - Kathiawar region experiences a tropical and sub-tropical steppe climate. Haryana 's climate resembles other states of the northern plains: extreme summer heat of up to 50 ° C and winter cold as low as 1 ° C. May and June are hottest; December and January are coldest. Rainfall is varied, with the Shivalik Hills region being the wettest and the Aravali Hills region being the driest. About 80 % of the rainfall occurs in the monsoon season of July -- September, which can cause flooding. The Punjabi climate is also governed by extremes of hot and cold. Areas near the Himalayan foothills receive heavy rainfall whereas those eloigned from them are hot and dry. Punjab 's three - season climate sees summer months that span from mid-April to the end of June. Temperatures typically range from -- 2 ° C to 40 ° C, but can reach 47 ° C (117 ° F) in summer and − 4 ° C in winter. In this zone, a transitional climatic region separating tropical desert from humid sub-tropical savanna and forests, experiences temperatures that are less extreme than those of the desert. Average annual rainfall is 300 -- 650 millimetres (11.8 -- 25.6 in), but is very unreliable; as in much of the rest of India, the southwest monsoon accounts for most precipitation. Daily summer temperature maxima rise to around 40 ° C (104 ° F); this results in natural vegetation typically comprising short, coarse grasses.
Most of Northeast India and much of North India are subject to a humid subtropical climate. Though they experience hot summers, temperatures during the coldest months may fall as low as 0 ° C (32 ° F). Due to ample monsoon rains, India has only one subtype of this climate under the Köppen system: Cwa. In most of this region, there is very little precipitation during the winter, owing to powerful anticyclonic and katabatic (downward - flowing) winds from Central Asia.
Humid subtropical regions are subject to pronounced dry winters. Winter rainfall -- and occasionally snowfall -- is associated with large storm systems such as "Nor'westers '' and "Western disturbances ''; the latter are steered by westerlies towards the Himalayas. Most summer rainfall occurs during powerful thunderstorms associated with the southwest summer monsoon; occasional tropical cyclones also contribute. Annual rainfall ranges from less than 1,000 millimetres (39 in) in the west to over 2,500 millimetres (98 in) in parts of the northeast. As most of this region is far from the ocean, the wide temperature swings more characteristic of a continental climate predominate; the swings are wider than in those in tropical wet regions, ranging from 24 ° C (75 ° F) in north - central India to 27 ° C (81 ° F) in the east.
India 's northernmost areas are subject to a montane, or alpine, climate. In the Himalayas, the rate at which an air mass 's temperature falls per kilometre (3,281 ft) of altitude gained (the dry adiabatic lapse rate) is 9.8 ° C / km. In terms of environmental lapse rate, ambient temperatures fall by 6.5 ° C (11.7 ° F) for every 1,000 metres (3,281 ft) rise in altitude. Thus, climates ranging from nearly tropical in the foothills to tundra above the snow line can coexist within several hundred metres of each other. Sharp temperature contrasts between sunny and shady slopes, high diurnal temperature variability, temperature inversions, and altitude - dependent variability in rainfall are also common.
The northern side of the western Himalayas, also known as the trans - Himalayan belt, has a cold desert climate. It is a region of barren, arid, frigid and wind - blown wastelands. Areas south of the Himalayas are largely protected from cold winter winds coming in from the Asian interior. The leeward side (northern face) of the mountains receives less rain.
The southern slopes of the western Himalayas, well - exposed to the monsoon, get heavy rainfall. Areas situated at elevations of 1,070 -- 2,290 metres (3,510 -- 7,510 ft) receive the heaviest rainfall, which decreases rapidly at elevations above 2,290 metres (7,513 ft). Most precipitation occurs as snowfall during the late winter and spring months. The Himalayas experience their heaviest snowfall between December and February and at elevations above 1,500 metres (4,921 ft). Snowfall increases with elevation by up to several dozen millimetres per 100 metre (~ 2 in; 330 ft) increase. Elevations above 6,000 metres (19,685 ft) never experience rain; all precipitation falls as snow.
The India Meteorological Department (IMD) designates four climatological seasons:
The Himalayan states, being more temperate, experience an additional season, spring, which coincides with the first weeks of summer in southern India. Traditionally, Indians note six seasons or Ritu, each about two months long. These are the spring season (Sanskrit: vasanta), summer (grīṣma), monsoon season (varṣā), autumn (śarada), winter (hemanta), and prevernal season (śiśira). These are based on the astronomical division of the twelve months into six parts. The ancient Hindu calendar also reflects these seasons in its arrangement of months.
Once the monsoons subside, average temperatures gradually fall across India. As the Sun 's vertical rays move south of the equator, most of the country experiences moderately cool weather; temperatures change by about per degree of latitude. December and January are the coldest months, with mean temperatures of in Indian Himalayas. Mean temperatures are higher in the east and south.
In northwestern India region, virtually cloudless conditions prevail in October and November, resulting in wide diurnal temperature swings; as in much of the Deccan Plateau, they register at 16 -- 20 ° C (61 -- 68 ° F). However, from January to February, "western disturbances '' bring heavy bursts of rain and snow. These extra-tropical low - pressure systems originate in the eastern Mediterranean Sea. They are carried towards India by the subtropical westerlies, which are the prevailing winds blowing at North India 's range of latitude. Once their passage is hindered by the Himalayas, they are unable to proceed further, and they release significant precipitation over the southern Himalayas.
There is a huge variation in the climatic conditions of Himachal Pradesh due to variation in altitude (450 -- 6500 metres). The climate varies from hot and subtropical humid (450 -- 900 meters) in the southern low tracts, warm and temperate (900 -- 1800 metres), cool and temperate (1900 -- 2400 metres) and cold glacial and alpine (2400 -- 4800 meters) in the northern and eastern elevated mountain ranges. By October, nights and mornings are very cold. Snowfall at elevations of nearly 3000 m is about 3 m and lasts from December start to March end. Elevations above 4500 m support perpetual snow. The spring season starts from mid February to mid April. The weather is pleasant and comfortable in the season. The rainy season starts at the end of the month of June. The landscape lushes green and fresh. During the season streams and natural springs are replenished. The heavy rains in July and August cause a lot of damage resulting in erosion, floods and landslides. Out of all the state districts, Dharamsala receives the highest rainfall, nearly about 3,400 mm (134 in). Spiti is the driest area of the state, where annual rainfall is below 50 mm. The five Himalayan states (Jammu and Kashmir in the extreme north, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh) along Northern West Bengal experience heavy snowfall, Manipur and Nagaland are not located in the Himalayas but experience occasional snowfall; in Jammu and Kashmir, blizzards occur regularly, disrupting travel and other activities.
The rest of North India, including the Indo - Gangetic Plain and Madhya Pradesh almost never receives snow. Temperatures in the plains occasionally fall below freezing, though never for more than one or two days. Winter highs in Delhi range from 16 to 21 ° C (61 to 70 ° F). Nighttime temperatures average 2 -- 8 ° C (36 -- 46 ° F). In the plains of Punjab, lows can fall below freezing, dropping to around − 3 ° C (27 ° F) in Amritsar. Frost sometimes occurs, but the hallmark of the season is the notorious fog, which frequently disrupts daily life; fog grows thick enough to hinder visibility and disrupt air travel 15 -- 20 days annually. In Bihar in middle of the Ganges plain, hot weather sets in and the summer lasts until the middle of June. The highest temperature is often registered in May which is the hottest time. Like the rest of the north, Bihar also experiences dust - storms, thunderstorms and dust raising winds during the hot season. Dust storms having a velocity of 48 -- 64 km / h (30 -- 40 mph) are most frequent in May and with second maximum in April and June. The hot winds (loo) of Bihar plains blow during April and May with an average velocity of 8 -- 16 km / h (5 -- 10 mph). These hot winds greatly affect human comfort during this season. Rain follows. The rainy season begins in June. The rainiest months are July and August. The rains are the gifts of the southwest monsoon. There are in Bihar three distinct areas where rainfall exceeds 1,800 mm (71 in). Two of them are in the northern and northwestern portions of the state; the third lies in the area around Netarhat. The southwest monsoon normally withdraws from Bihar in the first week of October. Eastern India 's climate is much milder, experiencing moderately warm days and cool nights. Highs range from 23 ° C (73 ° F) in Patna to 26 ° C (79 ° F) in Kolkata (Calcutta); lows average from 9 ° C (48 ° F) in Patna to 14 ° C (57 ° F) in Kolkata. In Madhya Pradesh which is towards the south - western side of the Gangetic Plain similar conditions prevail albeit with much less humidity levels. Capital Bhopal averages low of 9 ° C (48 ° F) and high of 24 ° C (75 ° F).
Frigid winds from the Himalayas can depress temperatures near the Brahmaputra River. The Himalayas have a profound effect on the climate of the Indian subcontinent and the Tibetan plateau by preventing frigid and dry Arctic winds from blowing south into the subcontinent, which keeps South Asia much warmer than corresponding temperate regions in the other continents. It also forms a barrier for the monsoon winds, keeping them from travelling northwards, and causing heavy rainfall in the Terai region instead. The Himalayas are indeed believed to play an important role in the formation of Central Asian deserts such as the Taklamakan and Gobi. The mountain ranges prevent western winter disturbances in Iran from travelling further east, resulting in much snow in Kashmir and rainfall for parts of Punjab and northern India. Despite the Himalayas being a barrier to the cold northerly winter winds, the Brahmaputra valley receives part of the frigid winds, thus lowering the temperature in Northeast India and Bangladesh. The Himalayas, which are often called "The Roof of the World '', contain the greatest area of glaciers and permafrost outside of the poles. Ten of Asia 's largest rivers flow from there. The two Himalayan states in the east, Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh, receive substantial snowfall. The extreme north of West Bengal centred on Darjeeling experiences snowfall, but only rarely.
In South India, particularly the hinterlands of Maharashtra, parts of Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh, somewhat cooler weather prevails. Minimum temperatures in western Maharashtra and Chhattisgarh hover around 10 ° C (50 ° F); in the southern Deccan Plateau, they reach 16 ° C (61 ° F). Coastal areas -- especially those near the Coromandel Coast and adjacent low - elevation interior tracts -- are warm, with daily high temperatures of 30 ° C (86 ° F) and lows of around 21 ° C (70 ° F). The Western Ghats, including the Nilgiri Range, are exceptional; lows there can fall below freezing. This compares with a range of 12 -- 14 ° C (54 -- 57 ° F) on the Malabar Coast; there, as is the case for other coastal areas, the Indian Ocean exerts a strong moderating influence on weather. The region averages 800 millimetres (31 in) per year, most of which falls between October and December. The topography of the Bay of Bengal and the staggered weather pattern prevalent during the season favours the northeast monsoon, which has a tendency to cause cyclones and hurricanes rather than steady precipitation. As a result, the coast is hit by what can mildly be termed as inclement weather almost every year between October and January.
Summer in northwestern India starts from April and ends in July, and in the rest of the country from March to May. The temperatures in the north rise as the vertical rays of the Sun reach the Tropic of Cancer. The hottest month for the western and southern regions of the country is April; for most of North India, it is May. Temperatures of 50 ° C (122 ° F) and higher have been recorded in parts of India during this season. Another striking feature of summer is the Loo (wind). These are strong, gusty, hot, dry winds that blow during the day in India. Direct exposure to these winds may be fatal. In cooler regions of North India, immense pre-monsoon squall - line thunderstorms, known locally as "Nor'westers '', commonly drop large hailstones. In Himachal Pradesh, Summer lasts from mid April till the end of June and most parts become very hot (except in alpine zone which experience mild summer) with the average temperature ranging from 28 ° C (82 ° F) to 32 ° C (90 ° F). Winter lasts from late November till mid March. Snowfall is generally common in alpine tracts that are above 2,200 metres (7,218 ft), especially those in the higher - and trans - Himalayan regions. Near the coast the temperature hovers around 36 ° C (97 ° F), and the proximity of the sea increases the level of humidity. In southern India, the temperatures are higher on the east coast by a few degrees compared to the west coast.
By May, most of the Indian interior experiences mean temperatures over 32 ° C (90 ° F), while maximum temperatures often exceed 40 ° C (104 ° F). In the hot months of April and May, western disturbances, with their cooling influence, may still arrive, but rapidly diminish in frequency as summer progresses. Notably, a higher frequency of such disturbances in April correlates with a delayed monsoon onset (thus extending summer) in northwest India. In eastern India, monsoon onset dates have been steadily advancing over the past several decades, resulting in shorter summers there.
Altitude affects the temperature to a large extent, with higher parts of the Deccan Plateau and other areas being relatively cooler. Hill stations, such as Ootacamund ("Ooty '') in the Western Ghats and Kalimpong in the eastern Himalayas, with average maximum temperatures of around 25 ° C (77 ° F), offer some respite from the heat. At lower elevations, in parts of northern and western India, a strong, hot, and dry wind known as the loo blows in from the west during the daytime; with very high temperatures, in some cases up to around 45 ° C (113 ° F); it can cause fatal cases of sunstroke. Tornadoes may also occur, concentrated in a corridor stretching from northeastern India towards Pakistan. They are rare, however; only several dozen have been reported since 1835.
The southwest summer monsoon, a four - month period when massive convective thunderstorms dominate India 's weather, is Earth 's most productive wet season. A product of southeast trade winds originating from a high - pressure mass centred over the southern Indian Ocean, the monsoonal torrents supply over 80 % of India 's annual rainfall. Attracted by a low - pressure region centred over South Asia, the mass spawns surface winds that ferry humid air into India from the southwest. These inflows ultimately result from a northward shift of the local jet stream, which itself results from rising summer temperatures over Tibet and the Indian subcontinent. The void left by the jet stream, which switches from a route just south of the Himalayas to one tracking north of Tibet, then attracts warm, humid air.
The main factor behind this shift is the high summer temperature difference between Central Asia and the Indian Ocean. This is accompanied by a seasonal excursion of the normally equatorial intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ), a low - pressure belt of highly unstable weather, northward towards India. This system intensified to its present strength as a result of the Tibetan Plateau 's uplift, which accompanied the Eocene -- Oligocene transition event, a major episode of global cooling and aridification which occurred 34 -- 49 Ma.
The southwest monsoon arrives in two branches: the Bay of Bengal branch and the Arabian Sea branch. The latter extends towards a low - pressure area over the Thar Desert and is roughly three times stronger than the Bay of Bengal branch. The monsoon typically breaks over Indian territory by around 25 May, when it lashes the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal. It strikes the Indian mainland around 1 June near the Malabar Coast of Kerala. By 9 June, it reaches Mumbai; it appears over Delhi by 29 June. The Bay of Bengal branch, which initially tracks the Coromandal Coast northeast from Cape Comorin to Orissa, swerves to the northwest towards the Indo - Gangetic Plain. The Arabian Sea branch moves northeast towards the Himalayas. By the first week of July, the entire country experiences monsoon rain; on average, South India receives more rainfall than North India. However, Northeast India receives the most precipitation. Monsoon clouds begin retreating from North India by the end of August; it withdraws from Mumbai by 5 October. As India further cools during September, the southwest monsoon weakens. By the end of November, it has left the country.
Monsoon rains impact the health of the Indian economy; as Indian agriculture employs 600 million people and comprises 20 % of the national GDP, good monsoons correlate with a booming economy. Weak or failed monsoons (droughts) result in widespread agricultural losses and substantially hinder overall economic growth. Yet such rains reduce temperatures and can replenish groundwater tables, rivers.
During the post-monsoon months of October to December, a different monsoon cycle, the northeast (or "retreating '') monsoon, brings dry, cool, and dense air masses to large parts of India.It is called autumn. Winds spill across the Himalayas and flow to the southwest across the country, resulting in clear, sunny skies. Though the India Meteorological Department (IMD) and other sources refers to this period as a fourth ("post-monsoon '') season, other sources designate only three seasons. Depending on location, this period lasts from October to November, after the southwest monsoon has peaked. Less and less precipitation falls, and vegetation begins to dry out. In most parts of India, this period marks the transition from wet to dry seasonal conditions. Average daily maximum temperatures range between 28 and 34 ° C (82 and 93 ° F).
The northeast monsoon, which begins in September, lasts through the post-monsoon seasons, and only ends in March. It carries winds that have already lost their moisture out to the ocean (opposite from the summer monsoon). They cross India diagonally from northeast to southwest. However, the large indentation made by the Bay of Bengal into India 's eastern coast means that the flows are humidified before reaching Cape Comorin and rest of Tamil Nadu, meaning that the state, and also some parts of Kerala, experience significant precipitation in the post-monsoon and winter periods. However, parts of West Bengal, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Mumbai also receive minor precipitation from the north - east monsoon.
Shown below are temperature and precipitation data for selected Indian cities; these represent the full variety of major Indian climate types. Figures have been grouped by the four - season classification scheme used by the IMD; year - round averages and totals are also displayed.
Climate - related natural disasters cause massive losses of Indian life and property. Droughts, flash floods, cyclones, avalanches, landslides brought on by torrential rains, and snowstorms pose the greatest threats. Other dangers include frequent summer dust storms, which usually track from north to south; they cause extensive property damage in North India and deposit large amounts of dust from arid regions. Hail is also common in parts of India, causing severe damage to standing crops such as rice and wheat.
In the Lower Himalaya, landslides are common. The young age of the region 's hills result in labile rock formations, which are susceptible to slippages. Short duration high intensity rainfall events typically trigger small scale landslides while long duration low intensity rainfall periods tend to trigger large scale catastrophic landslides. Rising population and development pressures, particularly from logging and tourism, cause deforestation. The result, denuded hillsides, exacerbates the severity of landslides, since tree cover impedes the downhill flow of water. Parts of the Western Ghats also suffer from low - intensity landslides. Avalanches occur in Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh.
Floods are the most common natural disaster in India. The heavy southwest monsoon rains cause the Brahmaputra and other rivers to distend their banks, often flooding surrounding areas. Though they provide rice paddy farmers with a largely dependable source of natural irrigation and fertilisation, the floods can kill thousands and displace millions. Excess, erratic, or untimely monsoon rainfall may also wash away or otherwise ruin crops. Almost all of India is flood - prone, and extreme precipitation events, such as flash floods and torrential rains, have become increasingly common in central India over the past several decades, coinciding with rising temperatures. Mean annual precipitation totals have remained steady due to the declining frequency of weather systems that generate moderate amounts of rain.
Tropical cyclones, which are severe storms spun off from the Intertropical Convergence Zone, may affect thousands of Indians living in coastal regions. Tropical cyclogenesis is particularly common in the northern reaches of the Indian Ocean in and around the Bay of Bengal. Cyclones bring with them heavy rains, storm surges, and winds that often cut affected areas off from relief and supplies. In the North Indian Ocean Basin, the cyclone season runs from April to December, with peak activity between May and November. Each year, an average of eight storms with sustained wind speeds greater than 63 km / h (39 mph) form; of these, two strengthen into true tropical cyclones, which sustain gusts greater than 117 km / h (73 mph). On average, a major (Category 3 or higher) cyclone develops every other year.
During summer, the Bay of Bengal is subject to intense heating, giving rise to humid and unstable air masses that morph into cyclones. The 1737 Calcutta cyclone, the 1970 Bhola cyclone, and the 1991 Bangladesh cyclone rank among the most powerful cyclones to strike India, devastating the coasts of eastern India and neighbouring Bangladesh. Widespread death and property destruction are reported every year in the exposed coastal states of West Bengal, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu. India 's western coast, bordering the more placid Arabian Sea, experiences cyclones only rarely; these mainly strike Gujarat and, less frequently, Kerala.
Cyclone 05B, a supercyclone that struck Orissa on 29 October 1999, was the deadliest in more than a quarter - century. With peak winds of 160 miles per hour (257 km / h), it was the equivalent of a Category 5 hurricane. Almost two million people were left homeless; another 20 million people lives were disrupted by the cyclone. Officially, 9,803 people died from the storm; unofficial estimates place the death toll at over 10,000.
Indian agriculture is heavily dependent on the monsoon as a source of water. In some parts of India, the failure of the monsoons results in water shortages, resulting in below - average crop yields. This is particularly true of major drought - prone regions such as southern and eastern Maharashtra, northern Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Western Orissa, Gujarat, and Rajasthan. In the past, droughts have periodically led to major Indian famines. These include the Bengal famine of 1770, in which up to one third of the population in affected areas died; the 1876 -- 1877 famine, in which over five million people died; the 1899 famine, in which over 4.5 million died; and the Bengal famine of 1943, in which over five million died from starvation and famine - related illnesses.
All such episodes of severe drought correlate with El Niño - Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events. El Niño - related droughts have also been implicated in periodic declines in Indian agricultural output. Nevertheless, ENSO events that have coincided with abnormally high sea surfaces temperatures in the Indian Ocean -- in one instance during 1997 and 1998 by up to 3 ° C (5 ° F) -- have resulted in increased oceanic evaporation, resulting in unusually wet weather across India. Such anomalies have occurred during a sustained warm spell that began in the 1990s. A contrasting phenomenon is that, instead of the usual high pressure air mass over the southern Indian Ocean, an ENSO - related oceanic low pressure convergence centre forms; it then continually pulls dry air from Central Asia, desiccating India during what should have been the humid summer monsoon season. This reversed air flow causes India 's droughts. The extent that an ENSO event raises sea surface temperatures in the central Pacific Ocean influences the extent of drought.
A study from 2005 concluded that heat waves significantly increased in frequency, persistence and spatial coverage in the decade 1991 - 2000, when compared to the period between 1971 -- 80 and 1981 - 90. A severe heat wave in Orissa in 1998 resulted in nearly 1300 deaths. Based on observations, heat wave related mortality has increased in India prior to 2005. The 2015 Indian heat wave killed more than 2,500 people.
India 's lowest recorded temperature was − 33.9 ° C (− 29 ° F) in Dras, Ladakh, in eastern Jammu and Kashmir. Figures as low as − 30.6 ° C (− 23 ° F) have been taken in Leh, further east in Ladakh. However, temperatures on the disputed but Indian - controlled Siachen Glacier near Bilafond La (5,450 metres or 17,881 feet) and Sia La (5,589 metres or 18,337 feet) have fallen below − 55 ° C (− 67 ° F), while blizzards bring wind speeds in excess of 250 km / h (155 mph), or hurricane - force winds ranking at 12 -- the maximum -- on the Beaufort scale. These conditions, not hostile actions, caused more than 97 % of the roughly 15,000 casualties suffered among Indian and Pakistani soldiers during the Siachen conflict.
The highest temperature ever recorded in India occurred on 19 May 2016 in Phalodi, Jodhpur District, Rajasthan at 51.0 ° C (123.8 ° F). Before this, the highest reliable temperature reading was 50.6 ° C (123.1 ° F) in Alwar, Rajasthan in 1955. The India Meteorological Department doubts the validity of 55 ° C (131 ° F) readings reported in Orissa during 2005.
The average annual precipitation of 11,872 millimetres (467 in) in the village of Mawsynram, in the hilly northeastern state of Meghalaya, is the highest recorded in Asia, and possibly on Earth. The village, which sits at an elevation of 1,401 metres (4,596 ft), benefits from its proximity to both the Himalayas and the Bay of Bengal. However, since the town of Cherrapunji, 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) to the east, is the nearest town to host a meteorological office -- none has ever existed in Mawsynram -- it is officially credited as being the world 's wettest place. In recent years the Cherrapunji - Mawsynram region has averaged between 9,296 and 10,820 millimetres (366 and 426 in) of rain annually, though Cherrapunji has had at least one period of daily rainfall that lasted almost two years. India 's highest recorded one - day rainfall total occurred on 26 July 2005, when Mumbai received more than 650 mm (26 in); the massive flooding that resulted killed over 900 people.
Remote regions of Jammu and Kashmir such as Baramulla district in the east and the Pir Panjal Range in the southeast experience exceptionally heavy snowfall. In southern areas around Jammu the climate is typically monsoonal, though the region is sufficiently far west to average 40 -- 100 mm (2 -- 4 in) of rain monthly from January and March. In the hot season, Jammu city is very hot and can reach up to 40 ° C (104 ° F) while in July and August, very heavy -- though erratic -- rainfall occurs with monthly extremes of up to 650 millimetres (26 in). Rainfall declines in September; by October conditions are extremely dry, with temperatures of around 29 ° C (84 ° F). Across from the Pir Panjal range, the South Asian monsoon is no longer a factor and most precipitation falls in the spring from southwestern cloudbands. Because of its closeness to the Arabian Sea, Srinagar receives as much as 25 inches (635 mm) of rain from this source, with the wettest months being March to May with around 85 mm (3.3 inches) per month.
North of the main Himalaya Range, even the southwestern cloudbands break up or founder; hence the climate of Leh and the Zanskars is extremely dry and cold. Annual precipitation is only around 100 mm (4 inches) per year and humidity is very low. This region is almost entirely above 3,000 metres (9,750 ft) above sea level; thus winters are extremely cold. In the Zanskars, the average January temperature is − 20 ° C (− 4 ° F) with extremes as low as − 40 ° C (− 40 ° F). All rivers freeze over; locals cross unbridged rivers in winter because summer glacier melt deepens the waters and inhibits fording. Summer in Leh and the Zanskars are a pleasantly warm 20 ° C (68 ° F), but the low humidity and thin air can render nights cold. Kashmir 's highest recorded monthly snowfall occurred in February 1967, when 8.4 metres (27.6 ft) fell in Gulmarg, though the IMD has recorded snowdrifts up to 12 metres (39.4 ft) in several Kashmiri districts. In February 2005, more than 200 people died when, in four days, a western disturbance brought up to 2 metres (6.6 ft) of snowfall to parts of the state.
Current sea level rise, increased cyclonic activity, increased ambient temperatures, and increasingly fickle precipitation patterns are effects of global warming that have affected or are projected to impact India. Thousands of people have been displaced by ongoing sea level rises that have submerged low - lying islands in the Sundarbans. Temperature rises on the Tibetan Plateau are causing Himalayan glaciers to retreat, threatening the flow rate of the Ganges, Brahmaputra, Yamuna, and other major rivers; the livelihoods of hundreds of thousands of farmers depend on these rivers. A 2007 World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) report states that the Indus River may run dry for the same reason.
Severe landslides and floods are projected to become increasingly common in such states as Assam. Ecological disasters, such as a 1998 coral bleaching event that killed off more than 70 % of corals in the reef ecosystems off Lakshadweep and the Andamans and was brought on by elevated ocean temperatures tied to global warming, are also projected to become increasingly common. Meghalaya and other northeastern states are also concerned that rising sea levels will submerge much of Bangladesh and spawn a refugee crisis. If severe climate changes occurs, Bangladesh and parts of India that border it may lose vast tracts of coastal land.
The Indira Gandhi Institute of Development Research has reported that, if the predictions relating to global warming made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change come to fruition, climate - related factors could cause India 's GDP to decline by up to 9 %. Contributing to this would be shifting growing seasons for major crops such as rice, production of which could fall by 40 %. Around seven million people are projected to be displaced due to, among other factors, submersion of parts of Mumbai and Chennai if global temperatures were to rise by a mere 2 ° C (3.6 ° F). Such shifts are not new. Earlier in the Holocene epoch (4,800 -- 6,300 years ago), parts of what is now the Thar Desert were wet enough to support perennial lakes; researchers have proposed that this was due to much higher winter precipitation, which coincided with stronger monsoons. Kashmir 's erstwhile subtropical climate dramatically cooled 2.6 -- 3.7 Ma and experienced prolonged cold spells starting 600,000 years ago.
Thick haze and smoke originating from burning biomass in northwestern India and air pollution from large industrial cities in northern India often concentrate over the Ganges Basin. Prevailing westerlies carry aerosols along the southern margins of the sheer - faced Tibetan Plateau towards eastern India and the Bay of Bengal. Dust and black carbon, which are blown towards higher altitudes by winds at the southern margins of the Himalayas, can absorb shortwave radiation and heat the air over the Tibetan Plateau. The net atmospheric heating due to aerosol absorption causes the air to warm and convect upwards, increasing the concentration of moisture in the mid-troposphere and providing positive feedback that stimulates further heating of aerosols.
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when was oriental life insurance company established in india | Life insurance Corporation - Wikipedia
Life Insurance Corporation of India (LIC) is an Indian state - owned insurance group and investment company headquartered in Mumbai. It is the largest insurance company in India with an estimated asset value of ₹ 2,529,390 crore (US $350 billion) (2016). As of 2013 it had total life fund of ₹ 1,433,103.14 crore and total number of policies sold coming in at ₹ 367.82 lakh that year (2012 - 13).
The Life Insurance Corporation of India was founded in 1956 when the Parliament of India passed the Life Insurance of India Act that nationalised the private insurance industry in India. Over 245 insurance companies and provident societies were merged to create the state owned Life Insurance Corporation.
The Oriental Life Insurance Company, the first company in India offering life insurance coverage, was established in Kolkata in 1818 by "Anita Bhavsar '' and others. Its primary target market was the Europeans based in India, and it charged Indians heftier premiums. Surendranath Tagore had founded Hindusthan Insurance Society, which later became Life Insurance Corporation.
The Bombay Mutual Life Assurance Society, formed in 1870, was the first native insurance provider. Other insurance companies established in the pre-independence era included
The first 150 years were marked mostly by turbulent economic conditions. It witnessed India 's First War of Independence, adverse effects of the World War I and World War II on the economy of India, and in between them the period of worldwide economic crises triggered by the Great depression. The first half of the 20th century saw a heightened struggle for India 's independence. The aggregate effect of these events led to a high rate of and liquidation of life insurance companies in India. This had adversely affected the faith of the general in the utility of obtaining life cover.
In 1955, parliamentarian Amol Barate raised the matter of insurance fraud by owners of private insurance agencies. In the ensuing investigations, one of India 's wealthiest businessmen, Ramkrishna Dalmia, owner of the Times of India newspaper, was sent to prison for two years.
The Parliament of India passed the Life Insurance of India Act on 19 June 1956 creating the Life Insurance Corporation of India, which started operating in September of that year. It consolidated the business of 245 private life insurers and other entities offering life insurance services; this consisted of 154 life insurance companies, 16 foreign companies and 75 provident companies. The nationalisation of the life insurance business in India was a result of the Industrial Policy Resolution of 1956, which had created a policy framework for extending state control over at least 17 sectors of the economy, including life insurance.
From its creation, the Life Insurance Corporation of India, which commanded a monopoly of soliciting and selling life insurance in India, created huge surpluses and by 2006 was contributing around 7 % of India 's GDP.
The corporation, which started its business with around 300 offices, 5.7 million policies and a corpus of INR 45.9 crores (US $92 million as per the 1959 exchange rate of roughly ₹ 5 for US $1), had grown to 25,000 servicing around 350 million policies and a corpus of over ₹ 800,000 crore (US $110 billion) by the end of the 20th century.
In August 2000, the Indian Government embarked on a program to liberalise the insurance sector and opened it up for the private sector. LIC emerged as a beneficiary from this process with robust performance, albeit on a base substantially higher than the private sector.
In 2013 the first year premium compound annual growth rate (CAGR) was 24.53 % while total life premium CAGR was 19.28 % matching the growth of the life insurance industry and outperforming general economic growth.
Today LIC functions with 2048 fully computerized branch offices, 8 zonal offices, around 113 divisional offices, 2,048 branches and 1408 satellite offices and the Central Office; it also has 54 customer zones and 25 metro - area service hubs located in different cities and towns of India. It also has a network of 1,537,064 individual agents, 342 Corporate Agents, 109 Referral Agents, 114 Brokers and 42 Banks for soliciting life insurance business from the public.
LIC 's slogan yogakshemam vahaamyaham is in Sanskrit which loosely translates into English as "Your welfare is our responsibility ''. This is derived from ancient Hindu text, the Bhagavad Gita 's 9th chapter, 22nd verse. The slogan can be seen in the logo, written in Devanagari script. This line means "I carry what they lack, and I preserve what they have '' (refers to Krishna speaking to Arjuna), when taken in context of the entire verse.
As on 31 March 2014, LIC had 1, 20,388 employees, out of which 24,867 were women (20.65 %).
The total number of Agents on our roll is 11, 31,181 as at 31.03. 2017 as against 10, 61,560 as on 31.03. 2016. The number of Active Agents is 10, 46,484 as at 31.03. 2017 as compared to 10, 18,039 as on 31.03. 2016.
Golden Jubilee Foundation LIC Golden Jubilee Foundation was established in 2006 as a charity organization. This entity has the aim of promoting education, alleviation of poverty, and providing better living conditions for the under privileged. Out of all the activities conducted by the organisation, Golden Jubilee Scholarship awards is the best known. Each year, this award is given to the meritorious students in standard XII of school education or equivalent, who wish to continue their studies and have a parental income less than ₹ 100,000 (US $1,400).
LIC holds shares worth about Rs 2.33 lakh crore in all the Nifty companies put together, but it lowered its holding in a total of 27 Nifty companies during the quarter.
The cumulative value of LIC holding in these 27 companies fell by little over Rs 8,000 crore during the quarter shows the analysis of changes in their shareholding patterns.
Individually, LIC is estimated to have sold shares worth Rs 500 - 1,000 crore in each of Mahindra & Mahindra, HDFC Bank, ICICI Bank, Tata Motors, L&T, HDFC, Wipro, SBI, Maruti Suzuki, Dr Reddys and Bajaj Auto.
The insurance behemoth also trimmed holdings in Ambuja Cements, Cipla, TCS, Lupin and Asian Paints. A marginal decline was also witnessed in its stakes in companies such as IDFC, Hindustan Unilever, Grasim, ACC, BPCL, Bank of Baroda, Punjab National Bank, Sun Pharma and Tata Power.
On the other hand, LIC further ramped up its stake in a total of 14 Nifty constituents with purchase of shares worth an estimated Rs 4,000 crore.
The major companies where LIC has raised its stake include Infosys, RIL, Coal India Ltd and Cairn India. Other such companies are ITC, Power Grid Corp, NTPC, Siemens, Bharti Airtel and Hero MotoCorp.
The state - run insurer also marginally hiked its exposure in Ultratech, Gail India, Ranbaxy, Kotak Mahindra Bank and HCL Technologies, while its shareholding remained almost unchanged in companies like ONGC, Tata Steel, BHEL and Reliance Infra.
Among the Nifty companies, LIC 's holding in terms of value in 2012 were estimated to be the highest in ITC (Rs 27,326 crore), followed by RIL (Rs 21,659 crore), ONGC (Rs 17,764 crore), SBI (Rs 17,058 crore), L&T (Rs 16,800 crore), and ICICI Bank (Rs 10,006 crore). its
The share price drop in ITC on July 18, 2017 had caused LIC a major loss of around 7000 Crores.
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did they ever find the heart of the ocean necklace | Heart of the Ocean - wikipedia
The Heart of the Ocean (also known as Le Cœur de la Mer) is the name of a fictional blue diamond featured prominently in the 1997 film Titanic. In the story, the diamond was originally owned by Louis XVI and cut into a heart shape after the French Revolution. In the film the necklace was purchased by Caledon Hockley, played by Billy Zane, a week before he sailed on the ill - fated ocean liner Titanic. The necklace was meant to be given as an engagement present to his fiancée Rose, played by Kate Winslet and Gloria Stuart. It is believed that both Rose and the necklace went down with the ship, leading some of the main characters to believe the necklace lies somewhere within the wreckage of the Titanic.
The story of the Hope Diamond bears many similarities to the story of the Heart of the Ocean with the obvious exception of the Hope Diamond not actually having been on board the Titanic. In the 1953 film Titanic, a blue diamond plays an important role in a love affair as well. A primary plot point in this earlier film is the theft of the diamond, which creates a dramatic break in a romantic relationship which is similar to the 1997 film.
In the 1997 film a fictional treasure hunter, Brock Lovett (Bill Paxton), searches for a priceless blue diamond necklace which he believes lies within the wreck of the RMS Titanic. Lovett explains that the necklace was fashioned from a large blue diamond worn by Louis XVI in his royal crown. Shortly after the King 's execution in 1793, the diamond was cut into a heart shape and became known as the Heart of the Ocean. The story of the Heart of the Ocean is similar to the story of the Hope Diamond, except the Hope Diamond was worn by Louis XIV in a royal necklace. Lovett 's hunch about the diamond 's whereabouts seems to be confirmed when his team salvages a drawing in which a nude woman is wearing the necklace. The drawing is dated April 14, 1912, the day the Titanic sank.
Later on an elderly woman (Gloria Stuart) watches Lovett 's discovery on the news and immediately contacts the salvage team. Claiming to be both the woman in the picture and Rose Dewitt Bukater she is immediately flown out to Lovett 's salvage ship. Rose requests to view the recovered drawing and Lovett shows her some artifacts salvaged from the wreck, specifically those recovered from her stateroom on Titanic. During this scene Lovett reveals the origins of the diamond and that if it is recovered the Heart of the Ocean would be worth more than the Hope Diamond. While examining an ornate butterfly comb, Rose becomes emotional and begins detailing her time aboard the Titanic. During the film the audience 's perspective alternates between the past and present as Rose shares her memories. Rose divulges the intimate details of her relationship with the artist of the drawing, Jack Dawson (Leonardo DiCaprio), which leads up to the night of the sinking.
On the night of the sinking the diamond changes hands a few times between Rose and Jack, resulting in Jack being framed of its theft by Rose 's fiancé Cal. As the ship starts to list dramatically it becomes quite clear that the unsinkable Titanic will indeed sink. With this in mind Rose 's fiancé, Cal, returns to the suite and empties the safe placing the precious gem in his overcoat. Later on Cal puts this same coat on Rose as she enters a lifeboat, forgetting about the diamond in its pocket. It is not thoroughly stated whether or not Rose (Gloria Stuart) tells Brock Lovett about Cal emptying his safe along with the diamond, it is assumed she does n't as Lovett does n't have any follow up questions. At the end of the film, Rose walks alone to the stern of the salvage ship and opens her hands revealing both the necklace and Rose 's identity as Rose Dewitt Bukater. While examining the necklace, Rose has a flashback to 1912 on her arrival in New York and discovers the necklace in the overcoat. Returning to the present, Rose, with a smile, drops the necklace from her hand into the water presumably above the Titanic wreck site.
London - based jewelers Asprey & Garrard used cubic zirconias set in white gold to create an Edwardian - style necklace to be used as a prop in the film. Asprey & Garrard produced and designed the necklaces: the result was three different and unique designs. Two of their designs were used in the film while the other went unused until after the film had been released. The three necklaces are commonly known as the original prop, the J. Peterman necklace, and the Asprey necklace. The three necklaces are all very similar but have distinguishable differences.
The original necklace was the necklace seen throughout the film. This necklace has a large London - blue stone cut into a trillion / cleftless heart surrounded by white round cut cubic zirconias set in white gold. The chain is composed of a mix of round, pear, and marquise cut white cubic zirconias. The bail on this necklace was a heart cut white cubic zirconia attached to a white round cut stone which was attached to the cage on the main stone. The necklace is owned today by a private collector by the name of George Holmes, and is currently being lent to James Cameron to display next to props from his other films. The necklace is available to view during tours of his office in California.
Due to The J. Peterman Company 's acquisition of this particular necklace through the sale of props from the film, this design is often referred to as the J. Peterman design, though officially the necklace does not hold this designation. This particular design is another blue cubic zirconia; however, it is cut into the shape of a heart rather than a trillion cut. The main stone is surrounded by round cut cubic zirconias and features a white round cut stone at the top where it attaches to the chain. The chain is composed of white round cut cubic zirconias, with a larger inverted pear cut cubic zirconia as the bail. This particular design is featured in the film for a brief moment when Caledon retrieves the necklace from his safe during the sinking, this is the only time the necklace is seen on screen. This particular necklace is believed to still be in the possession of the J. Peterman Company.
The third and final design was not used in the film. After the film 's success, Asprey & Garrard were commissioned to create an authentic Heart of the Ocean necklace using the original design. The result was a platinum - set, 171 - carat (34.2 g) heart - shaped Ceylon sapphire surrounded by 103 diamonds. This design featured a much larger inverted pear shaped Ceylon sapphire with a subtle cleft to resemble a heart. The chain for this necklace also featured a mix of round, pear, and marquise cut white diamonds. The bail also featured a heart cut white diamond with another round cut diamond attached to an inverted pear shape diamond which was then attached to the cage of the main stone. The necklace was donated to Sotheby 's auction house in Beverly Hills for an auction benefiting the Diana, Princess of Wales Memorial Fund and Southern California 's Aid For AIDS. It was sold to an unidentified Asprey client for $1.4 million, under the agreement that Celine Dion would wear it two nights later at the 1998 Academy Awards ceremony. This necklace has since not been made available for public viewing.
After the release of the film in 1998, The J. Peterman Company sold less expensive reproductions. Their necklace consisted of 137 Austrian crystals and a detachable, inauthentic "blue diamond '' pendant packaged in a navy blue, hinged presentation box. This is the only officially licensed reproduction of the necklace. This particular replica can still be found on the secondary market, although likely in used condition. There are many other unofficial inspired reproductions available on the secondary market ranging from as little as five dollars to thousands of dollars.
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trevor journey to the center of the earth | Journey to the Center of the Earth (2008 theatrical film) - wikipedia
Journey to the Center of the Earth (also promoted as Journey to the Center of the Earth 3 - D or Journey 3 - D) is a 2008 American 3D science fantasy adventure film directed by Eric Brevig and starring Brendan Fraser, Anita Briem, and Josh Hutcherson. It is the remake of the 1959 film of the same name and was released in 3D and 2D theaters by New Line Cinema on July 11, 2008. This film was also the introduction for the special "4D '' motion effects cinema in Seoul, South Korea, which feature tilting seats to convey motion, wind, sprays of water and sharp air, probe lights to mimic lightning, fog, scents, and other theatrical special effects. This format is known as 4DX. The film received mixed to positive reviews from critics and it earned $242 million on a $60 million budget.
Max Anderson (Jean - Michel Paré) is being pursued by a Tyrannosaurus until a fissure vent opens in the ground. When he tries to jump across, he calls out his brother 's name before falling into the vent. Ten years later, Max 's 13 - year - old son, Sean Anderson (Josh Hutcherson), visit Max 's brother, volcanologist Trevor Anderson (Brendan Fraser). In a box of items that belonged to Max is a book, Journey to the Center of the Earth by Jules Verne. Notes written by Max are found inside the book.
In Trevor 's volcanology laboratory, a device shows activity on Snæfell, a dormant volcano in Iceland. Trevor and Sean travel to Iceland to investigate. They try to contact Icelandic volcanologist Sigurbjörn Ásgeirsson, but instead encounter his daughter Hannah Ásgeirsson (Anita Briem) since her father had died some years earlier. It turns out that Sigurbjörn and Max were both Vernians, a group of people who believe the works of Jules Verne to be fact and not fiction.
Hannah offers to help them climb the volcano. While the group is hiking up the volcano, a lightning storm forces them to take shelter in a cave. The cave entrance collapses, trapping them in what appears to be an abandoned mine. The trio rappel down a giant hole and ride on out - of - control mine carts, in which the tracks start to branch off in three ways. Hannah and Trevor save each other from dead - ends and Sean reunites with them. They reach the bottom of a volcanic vent filled with different varieties of crystals, including Diamonds, but learn the floor is actually Muscovite. Sean accidentally drops a diamond, which breaks the Muscovite, and they begin to fall towards the center of the Earth. The vent eventually becomes a water slide which drops them safely into a lake in the center of the Earth, which turns out to be a completely separate world contained within the Earth.
The group starts seeking a way back to the surface. Along the way, they find evidence that someone had been there a hundred years ago. Trevor remarks that some instruments found are Lidenbrock 's (the name of a character in the book), suggesting that another group had previously made the journey, somehow returned to the surface and recounted the tale of their adventure to Verne. They find a large tree with some of Max 's things inside of it. While Trevor and Sean are examining what they 've found, Hannah finds Max 's body. They bury Max on the beach of the underground ocean and Trevor reads a letter to Sean found in Max 's journal. Trevor discovers that his brother died due to dehydration because of hot magma surrounding the center of the Earth.
Using information from Max 's journal, Trevor determines that they must find a geyser that can send them to the surface before the temperature rises to 200 ° F (about 93 ° C). Further, they must reach the geyser within 48 hours or the water for the geyser will have evaporated. They build a raft and begin crossing the underground ocean, but soon encounter a pack of Xiphactinus. They use large branches has bats to hit them away, until a pod of Elasmosaurus attacks the Xiphactinus, allowing the trio to escape. The raft 's sail becomes loose. Sean tries to hold on, but is blown away and separated from the two adults.
A little Bio-luminescent bird guides Sean towards the river. Meanwhile, Trevor and Hannah decide to take a rest, but are attacked by Carnivorous Plants. Hannah is captured and starts being strangled by the plants. Trevor tears the plant that is holding Hannah by the neck out of the ground, and they continue towards the geyser.
When they arrive at the river, Trevor calls out to Sean but gets no response. Trevor says he is going to look for Sean, but tells Hannah she should continue on to the geyser and save herself. Before he goes, Hannah kisses Trevor in case he does not return. Meanwhile, Sean has entered an arid, bone - filled area. He hears roars, hides behind a rock and looks at both sides of him but does n't see anything until a puddle of saliva falls in front of him, he looks up and sees an enormous Albino Tyrannosaurus Rex, which upon seeing him, begins to chase after him. Trevor finds him, after he is cornered by the dinosaur, and Trevor runs toward a field of Muscovite, the carnivore follows him and the ground collapses under it 's massive weight, causing it to fall into the sinkhole, seemingly killing it. When they get to a river, they find Hannah sailing a boat fashioned from the bottom jaw of a carnivorous dinosaur. They sail to a volcano with magma rising in its crater, but realized they missed the geyser that will get them back to the surface.
Sean notices that the crater walls are wet. Trevor hears water flowing on the other side of the walls and sees that the crater walls contain magnesium. After he uses a flare to ignite the magnesium, the resulting water - magma collision triggers the geyser, shooting them up and out of the center of the Earth through Mount Vesuvius. When they fall, they accidentally destroy some of the vines in a vineyard. To make amends with the vineyard 's farmer, Sean gives the owner a diamond that he found while in the center of the Earth. Trevor sees that Sean has many more diamonds in his backpack.
After the adventure, Sean visits Trevor and Hannah in their new home, purchased using some of the diamonds Sean took from the cave; Trevor is also using them to fund his late brother 's laboratory. Trevor hands Sean a book about another strange land, Atlantis: The Antediluvian World by Ignatius L. Donnelly, and suggests they get together during Sean 's Christmas break. Sean reveals that he has brought the little bird back from the center of the Earth to keep as a pet. However, the bird happily flies away, possibly reproducing his extinct species.
On September 22, 2001, Walden Media announced that Eric Brevig was hired and set to direct Journey to the Center of the Earth based on the book of the same name by Jules Verne. Michael D. Weiss, Mark Levin and Jennifer Flackett wrote the script for the film. Beau Flynn and Charlotte Huggins produced the film with the budget of $60 million for release in 2008. On April 16, 2003, it was announced that Brendan Fraser, Anita Briem, Josh Hutcherson, Seth Meyers, Jean - Michel Paré, Jane Wheeler, Giancarlo Caltabiano and Garth Gilker joined the film. On 9 December 2005, it was announced that Andrew Lockington would compose the music for the film. On March 2006, development and filming of the film was completed in Canada and Iceland. On April 20, 2006, principal photography and production began. On January 2, 2007, New Line Cinema acquired distribution rights to the film. Journey to the Center of the Earth was filmed in 2006. The film transposes the novel into the present day and is mostly live action, with only the landscape and creatures supplied by computer - generated graphics. The film is projected using Real D Cinema and Dolby 3D.
Josh Hutcherson 's character, Sean, is named after the professor and conservation biologist Dr. Sean Anderson.
The first trailer was shown before screenings of Meet the Robinsons, the re-release of The Nightmare Before Christmas and the release of Beowulf, with the Hannah Montana & Miley Cyrus: Best of Both Worlds Concert, and during the 2008 Kids ' Choice Awards. Warner Bros. marketed the film like a theme park attraction. However, the studio had to slightly tweak the campaign (including dropping "3D '' from the title) when it became clear that the film would be shown in 3 - D in far fewer theaters than anticipated.
In May 2009, the film premiered as "Journey to the Center of the Earth 4 - D '' at Stone Mountain Park in Georgia. It also opened in the motion simulator at Dollywood under the same name on June 12, 2009. It also featured in the new 4D Cinema at the Weston Super-Mare Grand Pier in the U.K. It was also shown in Movieworld on the Gold Coast.
Journey to the Center of the Earth was released on DVD and Blu - ray on October 28, 2008, in standard 2 - D format as well as a magenta / green anaglyph. It opened at # 2 at the DVD sales chart, selling 843,224 units in the 1st week which translates to $13,238,617 in revenue. As per the latest figures, 1,642,994 DVD units have been sold, bringing in $25,346,260 in revenue. This does n't include Blu - ray Disc sales / DVD rentals. The 2008 2 - disc BD edition of the movie does n't conform to the -- only later established -- Blu - ray 3D specifications, which means that this version does n't take advantage of any dedicated 3D HDTVs, although it can be watched on 3D HDTVs, as well as on any other TV in anaglyph 3D, by using red - cyan paper glasses (four pairs are included). A 3D Blu - ray version was released on January 17, 2012.
The film received mixed to positive reviews. It received a 61 % approval rating by Rotten Tomatoes, based on 158 reviews with an average rating of 6 / 10. The website 's critical consensus reads, "Modern visuals and an old fashioned storyline make this family adventure / comedy a fast - paced, kitschy ride. '' Metacritic gave the film a 57 out of 100, based on 35 reviews, indicating "mixed or average reviews. '' Roger Ebert gave the film 2 stars out of 4. Peter Travers gave it 2.5 stars and Owen Glieberman gave it a B -.
Journey to the Center of the Earth grossed $101.7 million in the US and $139.2 million foreign sales, with a total of $242 million worldwide.
The film opened at # 3 in North America, behind Hellboy II: The Golden Army and Hancock. The film grossed $21,018,141 in 2,811 theaters in its first week of release with an average of $7,477. 57 percent of the opening gross was taken from theaters which showed the film in 3 - D. In second weekend it dropped to $12,340,435 and in third to $9,717,217.
In March 2009, Walden Media announced a sequel to Journey to the Center of the Earth, Journey 2: The Mysterious Island, with Josh Hutcherson, Dwayne Johnson, Michael Caine, Luis Guzman, and Vanessa Hudgens. Jane Wheeler was replaced by Kristin Davis. Journey 2 was filmed between November 2010 and February 2011 and was released in February 2012. Like the first film, the sequel was shot in 3D, and the script is loosely based on a Verne novel -- this time The Mysterious Island.
Journey to the Center of the Earth 4 - D Adventure is a 15 - minute 4D film shown at various 4D theatres all over the world. It retells the condensed story of the film with the help of 3D projection and sensory effects, including moving seats, wind, mist and scents. Produced by SimEx - Iwerks, the 4D experience premiered in 2009. Locations included Warner Bros. Movie World (2010 -- 2012), Dollywood (2009 -- 2012), Enchanted Kingdom (2009 --), Stone Mountain, and Rainbows End.
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when are you required to show police id | Stop and identify statutes - wikipedia
"Stop and identify '' statutes are statutory laws in the United States that authorize police to legally obtain the identification of someone whom they reasonably suspect of having committed a crime. If there is no reasonable suspicion that a crime has been committed, is being committed, or is about to be committed, an individual is not required to provide identification, even in "Stop and ID '' states. In the case of Utah v. Strieff (2016), the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that an officer 's stop of Edward Strieff and his demand for identification from Strieff was unlawful under Utah state law, but that the evidence collected pursuant to the stop was admissible due to the determination that Strieff was subject to a pre-existing arrest warrant. Therefore, the pre-existing warrant "attenuated '' the unlawful stop - and - identify.
The Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution prohibits unreasonable searches and seizures and requires any warrant to be judicially sanctioned and supported by probable cause. Terry v. Ohio, 392 U.S. 1 (1968) established that it is constitutionally permissible for police to temporarily detain a person based on an articulable reasonable suspicion that a crime has been committed, and to conduct a search for weapons based on a reasonable belief that the person is armed. The question whether it is constitutionally permissible for the police to demand that a detainee provide his or her name was considered by the U.S. Supreme Court in Hiibel v. Sixth Judicial District Court of Nevada, 542 U.S. 177 (2004), which held that the name disclosure did not violate the Fourth Amendment prohibition on unreasonable searches and seizures. The Hiibel case also held that, because Hiibel had no reasonable belief that his name would be used to incriminate him, the name disclosure did not violate the Fifth Amendment right against self - incrimination; however, the Court left open the possibility that Fifth Amendment right might apply in situations where there was a reasonable belief that giving a name could be incriminating. The Court accepted the Nevada supreme court interpretation of the Nevada statute that a detained person could satisfy the Nevada law by simply stating his name. The Court did not rule on whether particular identification cards could be required, though it did mention one state law requiring "credible and reliable '' identification had been struck down for vagueness.
In the United States, interactions between police and citizens fall into three general categories: consensual ("contact '' or "conversation ''), detention (often called a Terry stop, after Terry v. Ohio, 392 U.S. 1 (1968)), or arrest. "Stop and identify '' laws pertain to detentions.
Different obligations apply to drivers of motor vehicles, who generally are required by state vehicle codes to present a driver 's license to police upon request.
At any time, police may approach a person and ask questions. The objective may simply be a friendly conversation; however, the police also may suspect involvement in a crime, but lack "specific and articulable facts '' that would justify a detention or arrest, and hope to obtain these facts from the questioning. The person approached is not required to identify himself or answer any other questions, and may leave at any time. Police are not usually required to tell a person that he is free to decline to answer questions and go about his business; however, a person can usually determine whether the interaction is consensual by asking, "Am I free to go? ''
A person is detained when circumstances are such that a reasonable person would believe he is not free to leave.
Police may briefly detain a person if they have reasonable suspicion that the person has committed, is committing, or is about to commit a crime. Many state laws explicitly grant this authority. In Terry v. Ohio, the U.S. Supreme Court established that police may conduct a limited search for weapons (known as a "frisk '') if they reasonably suspect that the person to be detained may be armed and dangerous.
Police may question a person detained in a Terry stop, but in general, the detainee is not required to answer. However, many states have "stop and identify '' laws that explicitly require a person detained under the conditions of Terry to identify himself to police, and in some cases, provide additional information.
Before Hiibel, it was unresolved whether a detainee could be arrested and prosecuted for refusing to disclose his name. Authority on this issue was split among the federal circuit courts of appeal, and the U.S. Supreme Court twice expressly refused to address the question. In Hiibel, the Court held, in a 5 -- 4 decision, that a Nevada "stop and identify '' law did not violate the United States Constitution. The Court opinion implied that a detainee was not required to produce written identification, but could satisfy the requirement merely by stating his name. Some "stop and identify '' laws do not require that a detainee identify himself, but allow refusal to do so to be considered along with other factors in determining whether there is probable cause to arrest. In some states, providing a false name is an offense.
As of February 2011, the Supreme Court has not addressed the validity of requirements that a detainee provide information other than his name, however some states such as Arizona have specifically codified that a detained person is not required to provide any information aside from their full name.
A detention requires only that police have reasonable suspicion that a person is involved in criminal activity. However, to make an arrest, an officer must have probable cause to believe that the person has committed a crime. Some states require police to inform the person of the intent to make the arrest and the cause for the arrest. But it is not always obvious when a detention becomes an arrest. After making an arrest, police may search a person, his or her belongings, and his or her immediate surroundings.
Whether an arrested person must identify himself may depend on the jurisdiction in which the arrest occurs. If a person is under arrest and police wish to question him, they are required to inform the person of his Fifth - Amendment right to remain silent by giving a Miranda warning. However, Miranda does not apply to biographical data necessary to complete booking. It is not clear whether a "stop and identify '' law could compel giving one 's name after being arrested, although some states have laws that specifically require an arrested person to give his name and other biographical information, and some state courts have held that refusal to give one 's name constitutes obstructing a public officer. As a practical matter, an arrested person who refused to give his name would have little chance of obtaining a prompt release.
States not listed do not have a requirement to show Identification to law enforcement officers. Some states listed have "Stop and ID '' laws which may or may not require someone to identify themselves during an investigative detention.
While Wisconsin statutes allow law enforcement officers to "demand '' ID, there is no statutory requirement to provide them ID nor is there a penalty for refusing to, hence Wisconsin is not a must ID state. Henes v. Morrissey, 194 Wis. 2d 338, 353 - 54 (1995). Annotations for Wisconsin § 968.24, however, state "The principles of Terry permit a state to require a suspect to disclose his or her name in the course of a Terry stop and allow imposing criminal penalties for failing to do so '', citing Hiibel as authority. Hiibel held that statutes requiring suspects to disclose their names during police investigations did not violate the Fourth Amendment if the statute first required reasonable and articulable suspicion of criminal involvement. The Wisconsin Supreme Court held in Henes v. Morrissey that "A crime is made up of two parts: proscribed conduct and a prescribed penalty. "The former without the latter is no crime... In this case no statute penalizes a refusal to identify oneself to a law enforcement officer, and no penalty is set forth in the statute for refusing to identify oneself. This statute is part of Chapter 968 entitled "Commencement of Criminal Proceedings. By its very terms sec. 968.24 empowers a law enforcement officer to stop and question "in the vicinity where the person was stopped. '' The statute does not authorize a law enforcement officer to make an arrest. '' Additionally Henes v. Morrissey held that a detained person not providing their name is n't on its own a violation of 946.41 Resisting or obstructing officer as the act of not identifying ones self is n't a false statement with intent to mislead the officer in the performance of his or her duty.
Neither is Illinois, since the Illinois Second District Appellate Court Decision in People v. Fernandez, 2011 IL App (2d) 100473, which specifically states that section 107 - 14 is found in the Code of Criminal Procedure of 1963, not the Criminal Code of 1961, and governs the conduct of police officers. The fact remains that there is no corresponding duty in the Criminal Code of 1961 for a suspect to identify himself or herself.
By contrast, in Hiibel v. Sixth Judicial District Court of Nevada, 542 U.S. 177, 181 (2004), a Nevada statute (Nev. Rev. Stat. § 171.123 (2003)) specifically required that a person subjected to a Terry stop "shall identify himself. '' The Supreme Court held that the statute was constitutional.
As of February 2011, there is no U.S. federal law requiring that an individual identify himself during a Terry stop, but Hiibel held that states may enact such laws, provided the law requires the officer to have reasonable and articulable suspicion of criminal involvement, and 24 states have done so. The opinion in Hiibel implied that persons detained by police in jurisdictions with constitutional "stop and identify '' laws listed are obligated to identify themselves, and that persons detained in other jurisdictions are not. The issue may not be that simple, however, for several reasons:
As of February 2011, the validity of a law requiring that a person detained provide anything more than stating his or her name has not come before the U.S. Supreme Court.
In states whose "stop and identify laws '' do not directly impose penalties, a lawful arrest must be for violation of some other law, such as one to the effect of "resisting, obstructing, or delaying a peace officer ''. For example, the Nevada "stop and identify '' law challenged in Hiibel did not impose a penalty on a person who refused to comply, but the Justice Court of Union Township, Nevada, determined that Hiibels refusal to identify himself constituted a violation of Nevada "obstructing '' law. A similar conclusion regarding the interaction between Utah "stop and identify '' and "obstructing '' laws was reached in Oliver v. Woods (10th Cir. 2000).
"Stop and identify '' laws in different states that appear to be nearly identical may be different in effect because of interpretations by state courts. For example, California "stop and identify '' law, Penal Code § 647 (e) had wording similar to the Nevada law upheld in Hiibel, but a California appellate court, in People v. Solomon (1973), 33 Cal. App. 3d 429 construed the law to require "credible and reliable '' identification that carries a "reasonable assurance '' of its authenticity. Using this construction, the U.S. Supreme Court held the law to be void for vagueness in Kolender v. Lawson, 461 U.S. 352 (1983).
Some courts have recognized a distinction authorizing police to demand identifying information and specifically imposing an obligation of a suspect to respond. Other courts have apparently interpreted demand to impose an obligation on the detainee to comply.
Wording and interpretation by state courts of "obstructing '' laws also varies; for example, New York "obstructing '' law apparently requires physical rather than simply verbal obstruction; likewise, a violation of the Colorado "obstructing '' law appears to require use or threat of use of physical force. However, the Colorado Supreme Court held in Dempsey v. People, No. 04SC362 (2005) (PDF) that refusing to provide identification was an element in the "totality of the circumstances '' that could constitute obstructing an officer, even when actual physical interference was not employed. Utah "obstructing '' law does not require a physical act, but merely a failure to follow a "lawful order... necessary to effect the... detention ''; a divided court in Oliver v. Woods concluded that failure to present identification constituted a violation of that law.
It is not universally agreed that, absent a "stop and identify law '', there is no obligation for a detainee to identify himself. For example, as the U.S. Supreme Court noted in Hiibel, California "stop and identify '' statute was voided in Kolender v. Lawson. But in People v. Long, decided four years after Kolender, a California appellate court found no constitutional impropriety in a police officer 's demand for written identification from a detainee. The issue before the Long court was a request for suppression of evidence uncovered in a search of the defendant 's wallet, so the issue of refusal to present identification was not directly addressed; however, the author of the Long opinion had apparently concluded in a 1980 case that failure to identify oneself did not provide a basis for arrest. Nonetheless, some cite Long in maintaining that refusal to present written identification constitutes obstructing an officer. Others disagree, and maintain that persons detained by police in California can not be compelled to identify themselves.
Some courts, e.g., State v. Flynn (Wis. 1979) and People v. Loudermilk (Calif. 1987) have held that police may perform a search for written identification if a suspect refuses to provide it; a later California decision, People v. Garcia (2006) strongly disagreed.
Some legal organizations, such as the National Lawyers Guild and the ACLU of Northern California, recommend to either remain silent or to identify oneself whether or not a jurisdiction has a "stop and identify '' law:
In a more recent pamphlet, the ACLU of Northern California elaborated on this further, recommending that a person detained by police should:
Many countries allow police to demand identification and arrest people who do not carry any. Normally these countries provide all residents with national identity cards, which have the identity information the police would want to know, including citizenship. Foreign visitors need to have their passport available to show at all times. In some cases national identity cards from certain other countries are accepted.
For example, in Portugal it is compulsory to carry the state ID card at all times. This card named Cartão de Cidadão - Citizen Card is an electronic card which includes biometric information, id number, social security number, fiscal information, place of birth, etc. Police can only ask for the ID card in public or a place open to public and only if there is a reasonable suspicion the person committed a crime. A certified copy of the ID card can be presented in such situations. If a citizen does not carry the ID card or its certified copy, the police will escort the person to the police department to remain detained until clear identification can be obtained.
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where does the last name dew come from | Dew - wikipedia
Dew is water in the form of droplets that appears on thin, exposed objects in the morning or evening due to condensation. As the exposed surface cools by radiating its heat, atmospheric moisture condenses at a rate greater than that at which it can evaporate, resulting in the formation of water droplets.
When temperatures are low enough, dew takes the form of ice; this form is called frost.
Because dew is related to the temperature of surfaces, in late summer it forms most easily on surfaces that are not warmed by conducted heat from deep ground, such as grass, leaves, railings, car roofs, and bridges.
Dew should not be confused with guttation, which is the process by which plants release excess water from the tips of their leaves.
Water vapour will condense into droplets depending on the temperature. The temperature at which droplets form is called the dew point. When surface temperature drops, eventually reaching the dew point, atmospheric water vapor condenses to form small droplets on the surface. This process distinguishes dew from those hydrometeors (meteorological occurrences of water), which form directly in air that has cooled to its dew point (typically around condensation nuclei), such as fog or clouds. The thermodynamic principles of formation, however, are the same. Dew is usually formed at night.
Adequate cooling of the surface typically takes place when it loses more energy by infrared radiation than it receives as solar radiation from the sun, which is especially the case on clear nights. Poor thermal conductivity restricts the replacement of such losses from deeper ground layers, which are typically warmer at night. Preferred objects of dew formation are thus poor conducting or well isolated from the ground, and non-metallic, while shiny metal coated surfaces are poor infrared radiators. Preferred weather conditions include the absence of clouds and little water vapor in the higher atmosphere to minimize greenhouse effects and sufficient humidity of the air near the ground. Typical dew nights are classically considered calm, because the wind transports (nocturnally) warmer air from higher levels to the cold surface. However, if the atmosphere is the major source of moisture (this type is called dewfall), a certain amount of ventilation is needed to replace the vapor that is already condensed. The highest optimum wind speeds could be found on arid islands. If the wet soil beneath is the major source of vapor, however (this type of dew formation is called distillation), wind always seems adverse.
The processes of dew formation do not restrict its occurrence to the night and the outdoors. They are also working when eyeglasses get steamy in a warm, wet room or in industrial processes. However, the term condensation is preferred in these cases.
A classical device for dew measurement is the drosometer. A small, ((artificial)) condenser surface is suspended from an arm attached to a pointer or a pen that records the weight changes of the condenser on a drum. Besides being very wind sensitive, however, this, like all artificial surface devices, only provides a measure of the meteorological potential for dew formation. The actual amount of dew in a specific place is strongly dependent on surface properties. For its measurement, plants, leaves, or whole soil columns are placed on a balance with their surface at the same height and in the same surroundings as would occur naturally, thus providing a small lysimeter. Further methods include estimation by means of comparing the droplets to standardized photographs, or volumetric measurement of the amount of water wiped from the surface. Some of these methods include guttation, while others only measure dewfall and / or distillation.
Due to its dependence on radiation balance, dew amounts can reach a theoretical maximum of about 0.8 mm per night; measured values, however, rarely exceed 0.5 mm. In most climates of the world, the annual average is too small to compete with rain. In regions with considerable dry seasons, adapted plants like lichen or pine seedlings benefit from dew. Large - scale, natural irrigation without rainfall, such as in the Atacama Desert and Namib desert, however, is mostly attributed to fog water. In the Negev Desert in Israel, dew has been found to account for almost half of the water found in three dominant desert species, Salsola inermis, Artemisia sieberi and Haloxylon scoparium.
Another effect of dew is its hydration of fungal substrates and the mycelia of species such as Pleated Inkcaps on lawns and Phytophthora infestans which causes blight on potato plants.
The book De Mundo (composed before 250 BC or between 350 and 200 BC) described; Dew is moisture minute in composition falling from a clear sky; ice is water congealed in a condensed form from a clear sky; hoar - frost is congealed dew, and ' dew - frost ' is dew which is half congealed.
In Greek mythology, Ersa is the goddess of dew.
Dew, known in Hebrew as טל (tal), is significant in the Jewish religion for agricultural and theological purposes. On the first day of Passover, the Chazan, dressed in a white kittel, leads a service in which he prays for dew between that point and Sukkot. During the rainy season between December and Passover there are also additions in the Amidah for blessed dew to come together with rain. There are many midrashim that refer to dew as being the tool for ultimate resurrection.
In the Biblical Old Testament dew is used symbolically in Deuteronomy 32: 2: "My doctrine shall drop as the rain, my speech shall distill as the dew, as the small rain upon the tender herb, and as the showers upon the grass. ''
Several man - made devices such as antique, big stone piles in Ukraine, medieval "dew ponds '' in southern England, or volcanic stone covers on the fields of Lanzarote have been thought to be dew - catching devices, but could be shown to work on other principles. At present, the International Organisation for Dew Utilization is working on effective, foil - based condensers for regions where rain or fog can not cover water needs throughout the year.
Large scale dew harvesting systems have been made by Indian Institute of Management Ahmedabad (IIMA) with the participation of the International Organisation for Dew Utilization (OPUR) at coastal semi arid region Kutch. These condensers can harvest more than 200 litres (on average) of dew water per night for about 90 nights in the dew season October -- May. The research lab of IIMA has shown that dew can serve as a supplementary source of water in coastal arid areas.
A scheme for large scale harvesting of dew has been proposed. The scheme envisages circulating cold sea water in EPDM collectors near the seashore. These condense dew and fog to supply clean drinking water.
A magnified view of dew on a leaf
Dew that has formed on a spider web
Dew that has formed on a Chinese Hibiscus flower
Dew on broken leaf
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which are the 12 teams of pro kabaddi 2017 | 2017 Pro Kabaddi League season - wikipedia
The 2017 Pro Kabaddi League season is the fifth season of Pro Kabaddi League, a professional kabaddi league in India since 2014. It is organised by Mashal Sports and Star India. This season includes 12 teams after the inclusion of four new teams from Uttar Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Haryana and Gujarat.
Auctions for the new season were held in May, before which the existing teams were allowed to retain one player each. The auction saw over 400 players go under the hammer and a total of Rs 46.99 crore spent by the 12 teams.
The most expensive pick of the auction was raider Nitin Tomar, who was bought by the new UP franchise for a sum of Rs 93 lakh. Following in second place was Rohit Kumar after the Bengaluru Bulls picked him for a Rs 81 lakh price. The most expensive foreign player was South Korea 's Jang Kun Lee after he was retained by the Bengal Warriors for Rs 80.3 lakhs.
The opening ceremony is held on the first match of every leg in each stadium. This is similar to that of IPL 2017. It is done so to highlight the importance of the tradition and culture all over the country.
The 12 teams are divided into two zones of six each. Each team plays a total of 22 matches in the league stage:
1. Teams from the same zone play each other thrice, totalling 15 matches in the zone.
2. Then, a team will play an additional of 6 matches with the teams from the other zone. (Each team plays other team from the other zone once). These 6 inter-zone matches for each team will be held on three different weeks. These weeks are known as inter-zone challenge weeks and the respective weeks are:
3. Then, each team plays one wild card match which is an additional inter-zone match in the penultimate week, selected by a random mid-season draw, totalling 22 matches in the league stage.
The top three teams from each zone qualify for the super playoffs and compete for the title.
The teams are divided into two zones with each zone having six teams based on their geographical proximity. Each team will play 15 intra-zonal matches and 7 inter-zonal matches.
Updated after match 83 Source: prokabaddi.com
Source: prokabaddi.com
(Updated after Match 81)
Source: prokabaddi.com
Bengal waa
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processes that help balance the ecosystems such as balancing nutrient cycling are known as | Nutrient cycle - wikipedia
A nutrient cycle (or ecological recycling) is the movement and exchange of organic and inorganic matter back into the production of matter. Energy flow is an unidirectional and noncyclic pathway, whereas the movement of mineral nutrients is cyclic. Mineral cycles include carbon cycle, sulfur cycle, nitrogen cycle, water cycle, phosphorus cycle, oxygen cycle, among others that continually recycle along with other mineral nutrients into productive ecological nutrition.
The nutrient cycle is nature 's recycling system. All forms of recycling have feedback loops that uses energy in the process of putting material resources back into use. Recycling in ecology is regulated to a large extent during the process of decomposition. Ecosystems employ biodiversity in the food webs that recycle natural materials, such as mineral nutrients, which includes water. Recycling in natural systems is one of the many ecosystem services that sustain and contribute to the well - being of human societies.
There is much overlap between the terms for biogeochemical cycle and nutrient cycle. Most textbooks integrate the two and seem to treat them as synonymous terms. However, the terms often appear independently. Nutrient cycle is more often used in direct reference to the idea of an intra-system cycle, where an ecosystem functions as a unit. From a practical point it does not make sense to assess a terrestrial ecosystem by considering the full column of air above it as well as the great depths of Earth below it. While an ecosystem often has no clear boundary, as a working model it is practical to consider the functional community where the bulk of matter and energy transfer occurs. Nutrient cycling occurs in ecosystems that participate in the "larger biogeochemical cycles of the earth through a system of inputs and outputs. ''
Ecosystems are capable of complete recycling. Complete recycling means that 100 % of the waste material can be reconstituted indefinitely. This idea was captured by Howard T. Odum when he penned that "it is thoroughly demonstrated by ecological systems and geological systems that all the chemical elements and many organic substances can be accumulated by living systems from background crustal or oceanic concentrations without limit as to concentration so long as there is available solar or other source of potential energy '' In 1979 Nicholas Georgescu - Roegen proposed a fourth law of entropy stating that complete recycling is impossible. Despite Georgescu - Roegen 's extensive intellectual contributions to the science of ecological economics, the fourth law has been rejected in line with observations of ecological recycling. However, some authors state that complete recycling is impossible for technological waste.
Ecosystems execute closed loop recycling where demand for the nutrients that adds to the growth of biomass exceeds supply within that system. There are regional and spatial differences in the rates of growth and exchange of materials, where some ecosystems may be in nutrient debt (sinks) where others will have extra supply (sources). These differences relate to climate, topography, and geological history leaving behind different sources of parent material. In terms of a food web, a cycle or loop is defined as "a directed sequence of one or more links starting from, and ending at, the same species. '' An example of this is the microbial food web in the ocean, where "bacteria are exploited, and controlled, by protozoa, including heterotrophic microflagellates which are in turn exploited by ciliates. This grazing activity is accompanied by excretion of substances which are in turn used by the bacteria, so that the system more or less operates in a closed circuit. ''
An example of ecological recycling occurs in the enzymatic digestion of cellulose. "Cellulose, one of the most abundant organic compounds on Earth, is the major polysaccharide in plants where it is part of the cell walls. Cellulose - degrading enzymes participate in the natural, ecological recycling of plant material. '' Different ecosystems can vary in their recycling rates of litter, which creates a complex feedback on factors such as the competitive dominance of certain plant species. Different rates and patterns of ecological recycling leaves a legacy of environmental effects with implications for the future evolution of ecosystems.
Ecological recycling is common in organic farming, where nutrient management is fundamentally different compared to agri - business styles of soil management. Organic farms that employ ecosystem recycling to a greater extent support more species (increased levels of biodiversity) and have a different food web structure. Organic agricultural ecosystems rely on the services of biodiversity for the recycling of nutrients through soils instead of relying on the supplementation of synthetic fertilizers. The model for ecological recycling agriculture adheres to the following principals:
The persistent legacy of environmental feedback that is left behind by or as an extension of the ecological actions of organisms is known as niche construction or ecosystem engineering. Many species leave an effect even after their death, such as coral skeletons or the extensive habitat modifications to a wetland by a beaver, whose components are recycled and re-used by descendants and other species living under a different selective regime through the feedback and agency of these legacy effects. Ecosystem engineers can influence nutrient cycling efficiency rates through their actions.
Earthworms, for example, passively and mechanically alter the nature of soil environments. Bodies of dead worms passively contribute mineral nutrients to the soil. The worms also mechanically modify the physical structure of the soil as they crawl about (bioturbation), digest on the moulds of organic matter they pull from the soil litter. These activities transport nutrients into the mineral layers of soil. Worms discard wastes that create worm castings containing undigested materials where bacteria and other decomposers gain access to the nutrients. The earthworm is employed in this process and the production of the ecosystem depends on their capability to create feedback loops in the recycling process.
Shellfish are also ecosystem engineers because they: 1) Filter suspended particles from the water column; 2) Remove excess nutrients from coastal bays through denitrification; 3) Serve as natural coastal buffers, absorbing wave energy and reducing erosion from boat wakes, sea level rise and storms; 4) Provide nursery habitat for fish that are valuable to coastal economies.
Fungi contribute to nutrient cycling and nutritionally rearrange patches of ecosystem creating niches for other organisms. In that way fungi in growing dead wood allow xylophages to grow and develop and xylophages in turn affect dead wood, contributing to wood decomposition and nutrient cycling in the forest floor.
Nutrient cycling has a historical foothold in the writings of Charles Darwin in reference to the decomposition actions of earthworms. Darwin wrote about "the continued Following the Greeks, the idea of a hydrological cycle (water is considered a nutrient) was validated and quantified by Halley in 1687.
In 1926 Vernadsky coined the term biogeochemistry as a sub-discipline of geochemistry. However, the term nutrient cycle pre-dates biogeochemistry in a pamphlet on silviculture in 1899: "These demands by no means pass over the fact that at places where sufficient quantities of humus are available and where, in case of continuous decomposition of litter, a stable, nutrient humus is present, considerable quantities of nutrients are also available from the biogenic nutrient cycle for the standing timber. In 1898 there is a reference to the nitrogen cycle in relation to nitrogen fixing microorganisms. Other uses and variations on the terminology relating to the process of nutrient cycling appear throughout history:
Water is also a nutrient. In this context, some authors also refer to precipitation recycling, which "is the contribution of evaporation within a region to precipitation in that same region. '' These variations on the theme of nutrient cycling continue to be used and all refer to processes that are part of the global biogeochemical cycles. However, authors tend to refer to natural, organic, ecological, or bio-recycling in reference to the work of nature, such as it is used in organic farming or ecological agricultural systems.
An endless stream of technological waste accumulates in different spatial configurations across the planet and turns into a predator in our soils, our streams, and our oceans. This idea was similarly expressed in 1954 by ecologist Paul Sears: "We do not know whether to cherish the forest as a source of essential raw materials and other benefits or to remove it for the space it occupies. We expect a river to serve as both vein and artery carrying away waste but bringing usable material in the same channel. Nature long ago discarded the nonsense of carrying poisonous wastes and nutrients in the same vessels. '' Ecologists use population ecology to model contaminants as competitors or predators. Rachel Carson was an ecological pioneer in this area as her book Silent Spring inspired research into biomagification and brought to the worlds attention the unseen pollutants moving into the food chains of the planet.
In contrast to the planets natural ecosystems, technology (or technoecosystems) is not reducing its impact on planetary resources. Only 7 % of total plastic waste (adding up to millions upon millions of tons) is being recycled by industrial systems; the 93 % that never makes it into the industrial recycling stream is presumably absorbed by natural recycling systems In contrast and over extensive lengths of time (billions of years) ecosystems have maintained a consistent balance with production roughly equaling respiratory consumption rates. The balanced recycling efficiency of nature means that production of decaying waste material has exceeded rates of recyclable consumption into food chains equal to the global stocks of fossilized fuels that escaped the chain of decomposition.
Microplastics and nanosilver materials flowing and cycling through ecosystems from pollution and discarded technology are among a growing list of emerging ecological concerns. For example, unique assemblages of marine microbes have been found to digest plastic accumulating in the worlds oceans. Discarded technology is absorbed into soils and creates a new class of soils called technosols. Human wastes in the Anthropocene are creating new systems of ecological recycling, novel ecosystems that have to contend with the mercury cycle and other synthetic materials that are streaming into the biodegradation chain. Microorganisms have a significant role in the removal of synthetic organic compounds from the environment empowered by recycling mechanisms that have complex biodegradation pathways. The effect of synthetic materials, such as nanoparticles and microplastics, on ecological recycling systems is listed as one of the major concerns for ecosystem in this century.
Recycling in human industrial systems (or technoecosystems) differs from ecological recycling in scale, complexity, and organization. Industrial recycling systems do not focus on the employment of ecological food webs to recycle waste back into different kinds of marketable goods, but primarily employ people and technodiversity instead. Some researchers have questioned the premise behind these and other kinds of technological solutions under the banner of ' eco-efficiency ' are limited in their capability, harmful to ecological processes, and dangerous in their hyped capabilities. Many technoecosystems are competitive and parasitic toward natural ecosystems. Food web or biologically based "recycling includes metabolic recycling (nutrient recovery, storage, etc.) and ecosystem recycling (leaching and in situ organic matter mineralization, either in the water column, in the sediment surface, or within the sediment. ''
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where was the ceremony held on may 10 1869 to celebrate the joining of two railroads | Golden spike - wikipedia
Coordinates: 41 ° 37 ′ 4.67 '' N 112 ° 33 ′ 5.87 '' W / 41.6179639 ° N 112.5516306 ° W / 41.6179639; - 112.5516306
The golden spike (also known as The Last Spike) is the ceremonial final spike driven by Leland Stanford to join the rails of the First Transcontinental Railroad across the United States connecting the Central Pacific and Union Pacific railroads on May 10, 1869, at Promontory Summit, Utah Territory. The term last spike has been used to refer to one driven at the usually ceremonial completion of any new railroad construction projects, particularly those in which construction is undertaken from two disparate origins towards a meeting point. The spike is now displayed in the Cantor Arts Center at Stanford University.
Completing the last link in the transcontinental railroad with a spike of gold was the brainchild of David Hewes, a San Francisco financier and contractor. The spike had been manufactured earlier that year especially for the event by the William T. Garratt Foundry in San Francisco. Two of the sides were engraved with the names of the railroad officers and directors. A special tie of polished California laurel was chosen to complete the line where the spike would be driven. The ceremony was originally to be held on May 8, 1869 (the date actually engraved on the spike), but it was postponed two days because of bad weather and a labor dispute that delayed the arrival of the Union Pacific side of the rail line.
On May 10, in anticipation of the ceremony, Union Pacific No. 119 and Central Pacific No. 60 (better known as the Jupiter) locomotives were drawn up face - to - face on Promontory Summit. It is unknown how many people attended the event; estimates run from as low as 500 to as many as 3,000; government and railroad officials and track workers were present to witness the event.
Before the last spike was driven, three other commemorative spikes, presented on behalf of the other three members of the Central Pacific 's Big Four who did not attend the ceremony, had been driven in the pre-bored laurel tie:
The golden spike was made of 17.6 - karat (73 %) copper - alloyed gold, and weighed 14.03 troy ounces (436 g). It was dropped into a pre-drilled hole in the laurel ceremonial last tie, and gently tapped into place with a silver ceremonial spike maul. The spike was engraved on all four sides:
A second golden spike, exactly like the one from the ceremony, was cast and engraved at the same time. It was held, unknown to the public, by the Hewes family until 2005. This second spike is now on permanent display, along with Thomas Hill 's famous painting The Last Spike, at the California State Railroad Museum in Sacramento.
With the locomotives drawn so near, the crowd pressed so closely around Stanford and the other railroad officials that the ceremony became somewhat disorganized, leading to varying accounts of the actual events. Contrary to the myth that the Central Pacific 's Chinese laborers were specifically excluded from the festivities, A.J. Russell stereoview No. 539 shows the "Chinese at Laying Last Rail UPRR ''. Eight Chinese laid the last rail, and three of these men, Ging Cui, Wong Fook, and Lee Shao, lived long enough to also participate in the 50th anniversary parade. At the conclusion of the ceremony, the Chinese participating were honored and cheered by the CPRR officials and that road 's construction chief, J.H Strobridge, at a dinner in his private car.
To drive the final spike, Stanford lifted a silver spike maul and drove the spike into the tie, completing the line. Stanford and Hewes missed the spike, but the single word "done '' was nevertheless flashed by telegraph around the country. In the United States, the event has come to be considered one of the first nationwide media events. The locomotives were moved forward until their "cowcatchers '' met, and photographs were taken. Immediately afterwards, the golden spike and the laurel tie were removed, lest they be stolen, and replaced with a regular iron spike and normal tie. At exactly 12: 47 pm, the last iron spike was driven, finally completing the line.
After the ceremony, the Golden Spike was donated to the Stanford Museum (now Cantor Arts Center) in 1898. The last laurel tie was destroyed in the fires caused by the 1906 San Francisco earthquake.
A.J. Russell image of the celebration following the driving of the "Last Spike '' at Promontory Summit, U.T., May 10, 1869. Because of temperance feelings the liquor bottles held in the center of the picture were removed from some later prints.
The Jupiter leads the train that carried Leland Stanford, one of the "Big Four '' owners of the Central Pacific Railroad, and other railway officials to the Golden Spike Ceremony.
May 10, 1869 Celebration of completion of the Transcontinental Railroad
Although the Promontory event marked the completion of the transcontinental railroad line, it did not actually mark the completion of a seamless coast - to - coast rail network: neither Sacramento nor Omaha was a seaport, nor did they have rail connections until after they were designated as the termini. The Mossdale Bridge, which was the final section across the San Joaquin River near Lathrop, California, was finally completed in September 1869 connecting Sacramento in California. Passengers were required to cross the Missouri River between Council Bluffs, Iowa, and Omaha, Nebraska, by boat until the building of the Union Pacific Missouri River Bridge in 1872. In the meantime, a coast - to - coast rail link was achieved in August 1870 in Strasburg, Colorado, by the completion of the Denver extension of the Kansas Pacific Railway.
In 1904 a new railroad route called the Lucin Cutoff was built by - passing the Promontory location to the south. By going west across the Great Salt Lake from Ogden, Utah, to Lucin, Utah, the new railroad line shortened the distance by 43 miles and avoided curves and grades. Main line trains no longer passed over Promontory Summit.
In 1942, the old rails over Promontory Summit were salvaged for the war effort; the event was marked by a ceremonial "undriving '' of the last iron spike. The original event had been all but forgotten except by local residents, who erected a commemorative marker in 1943. The following year a commemorative postage stamp was issued to mark the 75th anniversary. The years after the war saw a revival of interest in the event; the first re-enactment was staged in 1948.
In 1957, Congress established the Golden Spike National Historic Site to preserve the area around Promontory Summit as closely as possible to its appearance in 1869. O'Connor Engineering Laboratories in Costa Mesa, California, designed and built working replicas of the locomotives present at the original ceremony for the Park Service. These engines are drawn up face - to - face each Saturday during the summer for a re-enactment of the event.
For the May 10, 1969, centennial of the driving of the last spike, the High Iron Company ran a steam - powered excursion train round trip from New York City to Promontory. The Golden Spike Centennial Limited transported over 100 passengers including, for the last leg into Salt Lake City, actor John Wayne. The Union Pacific Railroad also sent a special display train and the US Army Transportation Corp sent a steam - powered 3 - car special from Fort Eustis, Virginia.
On May 10, 2006, on the anniversary of the driving of the spike, Utah announced that its state quarter design would be a depiction of the driving of the spike. The Golden Spike design was selected as the winner from among several others by Utah 's governor, Jon Huntsman, Jr., following a period during which Utah residents voted and commented on their favorite of three finalists.
A replica of the Jupiter (CP # 60) at the Golden Spike National Historic Site
A replica of UP # 119 at Golden Spike N.H.S.
The current site of the Golden Spike National Historic Site, with replicas of No. 119 and the Jupiter facing each other to re-enact the driving of the Golden Spike.
An elaborate four - day event called the "Golden Spike Days Celebration '' was held in Omaha, NE, from April 26 to 29, 1939, to commemorate the 70th anniversary of the joining of the UP and CPRR rails and driving of the Last Spike at Promontory Summit, UT, in 1869. The center piece event of the celebration occurred on April 28 with the World Premiere of the Cecil B. DeMille feature motion picture Union Pacific which took place simultaneously in the city 's Omaha, Orpheum, and Paramount theaters. The film features an elaborate reenactment of the original Golden Spike ceremony (filmed in Canoga Park, CA) as the motion picture 's closing scene for which DeMille borrowed the actual Golden Spike from Stanford University to be held by Dr. W.H. Harkness (Stanley Andrews) as he delivered his remarks prior to its driving to complete the railroad. (A prop spike was used for the actual hammering sequence.)
Also included as a part of the overall celebration 's major attractions was the Golden Spike Historical Exposition, a large assemblage of artifacts (including the Golden Spike itself), tools, equipment, photographs, documents, and other materials from the construction of the Pacific Railroad that were put on display at Omaha 's Municipal Auditorium. The four days of events drew over 250,000 people to Omaha during its run, a number roughly equivalent to the city 's then population. The celebration was opened by President Franklin D. Roosevelt who inaugurated it by pressing a telegraph key at the White House in Washington, DC.
On the same day as the premiere of the movie, a still standing gold - colored concrete spike called the "Golden Spike Monument '' and measuring some 56 feet (17 m) in height was also unveiled at 21st Street and 9th Avenue in Council Bluffs, IA, adjacent to the UP 's main yard, the location of milepost 0.0 of that road 's portion of the Pacific Railroad.
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what rank do navy jag officers start at | Judge Advocate General 's Corps, U.S. Navy - wikipedia
The Judge Advocate General 's Corps also known as the "JAG Corps '' or "JAG '' is the legal arm of the United States Navy. Today, the corps consists of a worldwide organization of more than 730 commissioned officers serving as Judge Advocates, 30 limited duty officers (law), 500 enlisted members (primarily in the Legalman rating) and nearly 275 civilian personnel, all serving under the direction of the Judge Advocate General of the Navy.
The headquarters of the Judge Advocate General 's Corps of the United States Department of the Navy is located at the Washington Navy Yard in Washington, D.C.
In 1775, the Continental Congress enacted the Articles of Conduct, governing the ships and men of the Continental Navy. However, soon after the end of the Revolutionary War, all of these ships were sold and the Continental Navy, to include its Continental Marines, the precursor of today 's United States Navy and Marine Corps, were disbanded. In July 1797, Congress, after authorizing construction of six frigates, enacted the Rules for Regulation of the Navy as a temporary measure. Then, in 1800, Congress enacted a more sophisticated code adopted directly from the British Naval Code of 1749. There was little or no need for lawyers to interpret these simple codes, nor was there a need for lawyers in the uncomplicated administration of the Navy prior to the American Civil War.
During the Civil War, however, Secretary of the Navy Gideon Welles named a young assistant U.S. Attorney in the District of Columbia named Nathaniel Wilson to present the government 's case in complicated courts - martial. Without any statutory authority, Secretary Welles gave Wilson the title of "Solicitor of the Navy Department, '' making him the first House counsel to the United States Navy.
By the Act of March 2, 1865, Congress authorized "the President to appoint, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, for service during the rebellion and one year thereafter, an officer of the Navy Department to be called the ' Solicitor and Naval Judge Advocate General. ' '' The United States Congress maintained the billet on a year - to - year basis by amendments to the Naval Appropriations Acts. In 1870, Congress transferred the billet to a newly established Justice Department with the title of Naval Solicitor.
Colonel William Butler Remey, USMC, was the first uniformed chief legal officer of the Navy, in 1878. Colonel Remey was able to convince Congress that the Navy Department needed a permanent uniformed Judge Advocate General and that naval law was so unique it would be better to appoint a line officer of the Navy or Marine Corps. The bill to create the billet of Judge Advocate General of the Navy was signed in 1880.
During World War I, the Naval Appropriations Act of 1918 elevated the billets of Navy Bureau Chiefs and Judge Advocate General to Rear Admiral. In July 1918, Captain George Ramsey Clark was appointed the first Judge Advocate General to hold the rank of Rear Admiral.
During the rapid expansion of the Navy during World War II, line officers who had been attorneys in civilian life were often pressed into service, frequently ad hoc, to serve as prosecutors and defense attorneys in court martial proceedings. Many of these attorneys remained in the Navy following the end of the war as general line officers, but serving as de facto judge advocates. In 1947, the Navy created a "law specialist '' program to allow line officers restricted duty to perform legal services. By the Act of May 5, 1950, Congress required that the Judge Advocate General be a lawyer. The Act also required each Judge Advocate General of any service be a member of the bar with not less than eight years of legal duties as a commissioned officer. The Act also enacted the first Uniform Code of Military Justice (UCMJ).
By 1967, the Navy had 20 years of experience with the law specialist program. There was, however, increasing pressure to create a separate corps of lawyers. That year, Congress decided to establish the Judge Advocate General 's Corps (JAGC) within the Department of the Navy. The legislation was signed into law by President Lyndon B. Johnson on December 8, 1967, and redesignated all Navy lawyers as staff officers within the Navy, similar to physicians and chaplains. Prior to this change, all Navy lawyers were Line Naval Officers.
Prior to 2005, JAG Corps personnel primarily worked in one of three offices: Navy Legal Service Offices (NLSO) providing defense and legal assistance to eligible personnel; Trial Service Offices (TSO) providing courts - martial prosecution, court reporting and administrative trial support; and Staff Judge Advocates (SJA) providing legal advice to U.S. naval base commanding officers. In 2005, the Judge Advocate General of the Navy approved a pilot program which resulted in the merger of the Navy 's Trial Service Offices and Staff Judge Advocates into new commands known as Region Legal Service Offices (RLSO). Additionally, the JAG Corps has attorneys and paralegals on aircraft carriers, amphibious assault ships and flag ships, as well as in support of Seabee battalions and special operations commands.
The official insignia of the JAG Corps consists of two gold oak leaves, curving to form a semicircle in the center of which is balanced a silver "mill rinde '' (sic). In ancient France, the fer de moline, or millrind, was a symbol of equal justice for all under the law. The two counterbalancing oak leaves are identical and connote the scales upon which justice is weighed. Oak leaves denote a corps, and symbolize strength, particularly the strength of the hulls of the early American Navy, which were oak - timbered. In the milling of grains, the millrind was used to keep the stone grinding wheels an equal distance apart to provide consistency in the milling process. It, thus, symbolizes that the wheels of justice must grind exceedingly fine and exceptionally even. In the 16th century, this symbol was adopted in England as a symbol for lawyers.
The millrind can also be found in both the Staff Corps Officers Specialty Insignia and in the Enlisted Rating Insignia (LN Legalman).
Legalmen are trained paralegals who assist Navy and Marine Corps lawyers and work in Navy legal offices.
On January 4, 1972, Secretary of the Navy John H. Chafee approved the recommendation for establishment of the Legalman enlisted rating. A memorandum from the Chairman of the Rating Review Board announced the approval, stating in part, "the scope of the new rating will provide judge advocates with the personnel trained in court reporting, claims matters, investigations, legal administration, and legal research. This scope is in consonance with the new concept in the civilian legal community where many areas of legal services can be provided by competent trained personnel under the supervision of a lawyer. '' On October 4, 1972, 275 petty officers were selected for conversion to the new Legalman rating.
In 2007, the Legalman education and training pipeline was adapted in order to fully train Legalmen as paralegals. The Naval Justice School 's (NJS curriculum was adapted to include four American Bar Association (ABA) approved paralegal college courses. Legalmen now leave NJS with 10 semester hours of college credit in paralegal studies.
The Judge Advocate General of the Navy (JAG) and the Deputy Judge Advocate General of the Navy (DJAG) are appointed positions. They are both nominated by the President and must be confirmed via majority vote by the Senate. The JAG and DJAG are appointed to a four - year term of office but they usually serve for three. The JAG and DJAG have historically been officers in the service of the Navy. Federal statutes, however, state that a Marine officer can be appointed to either position as long as he meets the requirements stated in the section. By statute the JAG is appointed as a three - star vice admiral or lieutenant general while holding office and the DJAG is appointed as a two - star rear admiral or a major general. Other than age and years of military service, there is no other statute of limitations on how many times a JAG or DJAG can be renominated for appointment to that position if the President so chooses.
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the supreme court ruled the death penalty as unconstitutional in the case of | List of United States Supreme Court decisions on capital punishment - wikipedia
The U.S. Supreme Court has issued numerous rulings on the use of capital punishment (the death penalty). While some rulings applied very narrowly, perhaps to only one individual, other cases have had great influence over wide areas of procedure, eligible crimes, acceptable evidence and method of execution.
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name something you might see at a rock concert | Concert - wikipedia
A concert is a live music performance in front of an audience. The performance may be by a single musician, sometimes then called a recital, or by a musical ensemble, such as an orchestra, choir, or band. Concerts are held in a wide variety and size of settings, from private houses and small nightclubs, dedicated concert halls, arenas and parks to large multipurpose buildings, and even sports stadiums. Indoor concerts held in the largest venues are sometimes called arena concerts or amphitheatre concerts. Informal names for a concert include show and gig.
Regardless of the venue, musicians usually perform on a stage. Concerts often require live event support with professional audio equipment. Before recorded music, concerts provided the main opportunity to hear musicians play.
The nature of a concert varies by musical genre, individual performers, and the venue. Concerts by a small jazz combo or small bluegrass band may have the same order of program, mood, and volume -- but vary in music and dress. In a similar way, a particular musician, band, or genre of music might attract concert attendees with similar dress, hairstyle, and behavior. For example, concert goers in the 1960s often had long hair (sometimes in dread lock form), sandals and inexpensive clothing made of natural fibers. Regular attendees to a concert venue might also have a recognizable style that comprises that venue 's scene.
A recital is a concert by a soloist or small group which follows a program. It can highlight a single performer, sometimes accompanied by piano, or a performance of the works of a single composer, or a single instrument (organ recital). The invention of the solo piano recital has been attributed to Franz Liszt. Also, a recital may have many participants, as for a dance recital. A dance recital is a presentation of choreographed moves for an audience, usually in an established performing arts venue, possibly competitively. Some dance recitals are seasonal.
Some performers or groups put on very elaborate and expensive shows. To create a memorable and exciting atmosphere and increase the spectacle, performers frequently include additional entertainment devices. These can include elaborate stage lighting, electronic imagery via (IMAG) system and / or pre-recorded video, inflatable sets, artwork or other set pieces, various special effects such as theatrical smoke and fog and pyrotechnics, and unusual costumes or wardrobe. Some singers, especially popular music, augment concert sound with pre-recorded accompaniment, back - up dancers, and even broadcast vocal tracks of the singer 's own voice. Activities during these concerts can include dancing, sing - alongs, and moshing. Performers known for including these elements in their performances include: Pink Floyd, The Flaming Lips, Cher, Prince, Alice Cooper, Iron Maiden, Daft Punk, Lady Gaga, Jean Michel Jarre, Sarah Brightman, KISS, Gwar, Slipknot, and Madonna.
Concerts involving a greater number of artists, especially those that last for multiple days, are known as festivals. Unlike other concerts, which typically remain in a single genre of music or work of a particular artist, festivals often cover a broad scope of music and arts. Due to their size, festivals are almost exclusively held outdoors. New platforms for festivals are becoming increasingly popular such as Jam Cruise, which is a festival held on a cruise ship, as well as Mayan Holidaze, which is a destination festival held in Tulum. A few examples of the hundreds of festivals around the world include:
A concert tour is a series of concerts by an artist or group of artists in different cities, countries or locations. Often concert tours are named, to differentiate different tours by the same artist and associate a specific tour with a particular album or product (for example: Iron Maiden World Slavery Tour). Especially in the popular music world, such tours can become large - scale enterprises that last for several months or even years, are seen by hundreds of thousands or millions of people, and bring in millions of dollars (or the equivalent) in ticket revenues.
A concert residency or musical residency is a series of live music concerts similar to a concert tour, but only performed at one location.
While admission to some concerts is free, it is common practice to charge money for concerts by selling admission tickets. Before the advent of recorded - music sales and mechanical royalties in the early 20th century, concerts were the primary source of revenue for musicians. Revenue from ticket sales typically goes to the performing artists, producers, venue, organizers and the brokers. In the case of benefit concerts, a portion of profits often go towards a charitable organization.
Additional revenue is also often raised through in - concert advertising, from free local concerts for local sponsorships to sponsorships from corporations during major tours e.g. 2009 's "Vans ' Warped Tour Presented by AT&T ''. Both Vans and AT&T would have paid significant amounts to have their company names included at the forefront in all marketing material for the Warped Tour.
Concessions and merchandise are also often sold during and after concerts; often by the venue in the case of the former, and by the performing band or artist in the case of the latter.
As of 2017, Italian singer Vasco Rossi holds the record for the biggest attendance of a ticketed concert with a total of 220,000 tickets sold for his show at Enzo Ferrari Park, Modena, Italy on 1 July 2017. The record was previously held by Paul McCartney 's 1990 concert with a paying audience of 185,000 in Maracanã Stadium, Rio de Janeiro. Rod Stewart also holds the record for the biggest attendance in a free concert, with an estimated audience of 3.5 million during his 1994 New Year 's Eve concert in Copacabana Beach, Rio de Janeiro.
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the adventures of sharkboy and lavagirl characters wiki | The Adventures of Sharkboy and Lavagirl in 3 - D - wikipedia
The Adventures of Sharkboy and Lavagirl (also known simply as Sharkboy and Lavagirl) is a 2005 American science fantasy comedy superhero adventure film written and directed by Robert Rodriguez and originally released in the United States on June 10, 2005 by Miramax Films, Columbia Pictures and Dimension Films. The film uses the anaglyph 3 - D technology, similar to the one used in Spy Kids 3 - D: Game Over (2003). The film stars Taylor Lautner, Taylor Dooley, Cayden Boyd, David Arquette, Kristin Davis and George Lopez. Many of the concepts and much of the story were conceived by Rodriguez 's children. The special effects were done by Hybride Technologies, CafeFX, The Orphanage, Post Logic, Hydraulx, Industrial Light & Magic, R! ot Pictures, Tippett Studio, Amalgamated Pixels, Intelligent Creatures and Troublemaker Digital. The film received negative reviews from critics with much of the criticism directed at the decision to post-convert the film into 3 - D which damaged the film 's visual look, and earned $69.4 million on a $50 million budget.
Max is a lonely child in the suburbs of Austin who creates an imaginary dreamworld named Planet Drool, where all of his dreams come to life. He creates two characters; Sharkboy, who was raised by sharks after losing his father at sea, and Lavagirl, who can produce fire and lava, but has trouble touching objects without setting them alight. The two left Max to guard Planet Drool. In reality, Max 's parents have little time for him, and their marital relationship is not going well. Max is also bullied by fellow schoolmate Linus. However, he does receive friendship from Marissa, the daughter of his teacher Mr. Electricidad, whose name is Spanish for "electricity ''. After a chase, Linus steals Max 's dream journal (where all of his most precious dreams are kept) and vandalizes it. The next day, as Max attempts to retaliate, twin tornadoes form outside the school. Sharkboy and Lavagirl emerge from the tornadoes and have Max accompany them to Planet Drool, which he learns is turning bad because of Mr. Electric, the dreamworld 's now - corrupt electrician.
They confront Mr. Electric, who drops them in the Dream Graveyard, where some of Max 's dreams have been dumped. They find Tobor, a robot toy that Max never finished building. Tobar gives them a lift to other parts of the planet. The three form a friendship during their journey, but they face hardships, such as Sharkboy 's anger for the oceans being frozen over, and Lavagirl 's desperation to find her true purpose on Planet Drool. They are pursued by Mr. Electric and his "plughounds '' across the planet. They plan to visit the Ice Princess and obtain the Crystal Heart, which can freeze time, giving them enough time to get to the center of Planet Drool and fix the dreamworld using Max 's daydreaming. However, they are captured by Mr. Electric, and delivered to Linus 's Planet Drool incarnation Minus, who has altered the dreamworld with Max 's own dream journal, and traps the three in a cage. Sharkboy gets annoyed by Minus and has a shark frenzy, destroying the cage. After they escape, Max retrieves the dream journal from Minus while he is sleeping. Max informs Sharkboy that his father is alive in his book, but when Lavagirl wishes to learn what it says about her true identity, she burns the book to ash. In rage, Lavagirl asks Max why she was made out of lava, but Sharkboy tells him to let her cool down.
After an encounter with the Ice Guardian, Max, Sharkboy, and Lavagirl reach the Ice Princess, the Planet Drool incarnation of Marissa Electricidad. She hands over the Crystal Heart, but they are too late to stop the corruption since the ice princess is the only one who can use the Crystal Heart 's power, and she can not leave her home. Mr. Electric fools Sharkboy into jumping into water filled with electric eels, seemingly killing him. Lavagirl also dies after jumping into the water to retrieve Sharkboy. Tobor appears and convinces Max to dream a better and unselfish dream, which in turn revives Sharkboy, who then races Lavagirl to a volcano to revive her. Max concludes that her purpose is as a light against the dark clouds which have engulfed Planet Drool 's skies. Max gains reality warping as the Daydreamer and defeats Minus, then offers to make a better dreamworld between the two of them, to which Minus agrees.
Mr. Electric refuses to accept the new dreamworld, and flies to Earth to kill Max while he is dreaming. Max awakens back in his classroom during the tornado storm. Mr. Electric materializes, and Max 's parents get sucked into the storm, but are saved by Sharkboy and Lavagirl. Max gives the Crystal Heart to Marissa so she can use the Ice Princess 's powers to destroy Mr. Electric. Mr. Electricidad, Linus and Max make peace with one another, and Max reunites with his parents.
Max later informs his class that Planet Drool became a proper dreamworld again, Sharkboy became the King of the Ocean, and Lavagirl became Queen of the Volcanoes, and as the film shows Max finally finishing Tobor, he reminds the class to "dream a better dream, and work to make it real. ''
Robert Rodriguez has an uncredited role voicing a shark. As seen in the credits, two of Robert Rodriguez 's children, Rebel and Racer, portray Sharkboy at age five and age seven respectively. Rico Torres plays Sharkboy 's father. Marc Musso and Shane Graham play kids at Max 's school.
Parts of the film were shot on location in Texas, where Max resides and goes to school in the film. Much of the film was shot in a studio against green screen. Most of the ships, landscapes and other effects including some creatures and characters, were accomplished digitally. According to Lautner and Dooley, when filming the scene with the dream train, the front part of the train was an actual physical set piece. "The whole inside was there and when they have all the gadgets you can pull on, that was all there but everything else was a green screen, '' said Dooley. Eleven visual effects companies (Hybride Technologies, CafeFX, The Orphanage, Post Logic, Hydraulx, Industrial Light & Magic, R! ot Pictures, Tippett Studio, Amalgamated Pixels and Intelligent Creatures and Rodriguez 's Texas - based Troublemaker Digital) worked on the film in order to accomplish over 1,000 visual effect shots.
Robert Rodriguez appears in the credits fourteen times, most notably as director, a producer, a screenwriter (along with Marcel Rodriguez), visual effects supervisor, director of photography, editor, a camera operator, and a composer and performer. The story is credited to Racer Max Rodriguez, with additional story elements by Rebecca Rodriguez, who also wrote the lyrics for the main song, "Sharkboy and Lavagirl ''. Other members of the Rodriguez family can be seen in the film or were involved in the production.
Miley Cyrus had auditioned for the film with Lautner, and said it came down to her and another girl who was also auditioning; however, Cyrus began production on Hannah Montana.
The Adventures of Sharkboy and Lavagirl received a 20 % rating on Rotten Tomatoes and the consensus: "The decision to turn this kiddie fantasy into a 3 - D film was a miscalculation. '' Roger Ebert gave the film 2 out of 4 stars and agreed with the other criticisms in which the 3 - D process used was distracting and muted the colors, thus, he believes, "spoiling '' much of the film and that the film would look more visually appealing when released in the home media market.
For its opening weekend, the film earned $12.6 million in 2,655 theaters. It also was placed # 5 at the box office, being overshadowed by Mr. & Mrs. Smith, Madagascar, Star Wars: Episode III -- Revenge of the Sith, and The Longest Yard. The film was not very successful in the US, taking in $39,177,541 and was a box office bomb. However, it did manage to gross $30,248,282 overseas, for a total of $69,425,966 worldwide.
The Total Nonstop Action professional wrestler Dean Roll, who trademarked the name "Shark Boy '' in 1999, sued Miramax on June 8, 2005, claiming that his trademark had been infringed and demanding "(any) money, profits and advantages wrongfully gained ''. In April 2007, the suit was settled for a disclosed amount of $200,000.
Director Robert Rodriguez composed parts of the score himself, with contributions by composers John Debney and Graeme Revell. Green Day were reportedly set to contribute "Wake Me Up When September Ends '' to the soundtrack, but Robert Rodriguez declined it.
Around the time of the film 's debut Rodriguez co-wrote a series of children 's novels entitled Sharkboy and Lavagirl Adventures with acclaimed science fiction writer Chris Roberson. They include Book 1, The Day Dreamer, and Book 2, Return to Planet Drool, which announces that it will be continued in a third volume, Deep Sleep, which has yet to appear. They are illustrated throughout by Alex Toader, who designed characters and environments for the film and the previous Spy Kids franchise.
In the first book, the story of the film is told from Lavagirl 's and Sharkboy 's perspective, with at least one new event. In Return to Planet Drool, Sharkboy, remembering his encounter with the Imagineer in the first book, continues the search for his father by seeking to return to the Dream World. He meets a very bored Lavagirl in the underwater city of Vent, where she now reigns as queen, and together they embark on a subterranean journey. They encounter piranhas, a gargantuan red bear, and a city of inhabited by the dreams of bygone eras, where they are held captive by superheroes, pirates, and cowboys. By the end, after learning the city 's secrets, Sharkboy still hopes to find his father, and Lavagirl the secrets of her origin.
Jeff Jensen of Entertainment Weekly praised another book appearing around the time of the film, The Adventures of SharkBoy and LavaGirl: The Movie Storybook (by Racer Max Rodriguez and Robert Rodriguez), as a far cry from the usual movie storybook tie - in, and also praised Alex Toader 's "cartoony yet detailed '' illustrations.
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where did memphis may fire get their name | Memphis May Fire - wikipedia
Memphis May Fire, formerly known as Oh Captain, My Captain is an American Christian metalcore band formed in Dallas, Texas and currently signed to Rise Records. Formed in 2006, they have released five studio albums and two EP 's to date. Their fourth album, Unconditional, debuted at No. 4 on the US Billboard 200 and atop the Alternative Albums chart.
The band, founded by guitarist Kellen McGregor, formed in 2006, but it was not until February 2007 that the group decided on the name Memphis May Fire having previously gone by Oh Captain, My Captain. In early 2007, the band recorded and self - released an EP, and began creating a local following. Shortly thereafter, Memphis May Fire caught the attention of Josh Grabelle, the president of Trustkill Records. Grabelle commented on his feelings toward the band in a press release stating, "There is a lot of really exciting, young, dangerous music coming out right now, and Memphis May Fire are the cream of the crop. Not since Bullet for My Valentine 's Hand of Blood have we heard a more compelling set of songs for an EP, where absolutely every song is bone - chillingly perfect, and timeless. These guys are on their way to something huge. '' In September 2007 the band had officially signed to Trustkill, and their self - titled EP was reissued through the label in December 2007. In 2007, through 2008, the band embarked on Twelve Gauge Valentine 's final - tour along with The Handshake Murders.
Memphis May Fire had hoped to release their debut album by summer 2006 produced by their guitarist, Kellen McGregor. However, after the recording sessions for the album during tour, lead singer Chase and short time drummer Dooley decided to part ways with the band. Chase explained that he felt that his priorities should be with his child, and not a touring band. Dooley would pursue the front stage briefly with Eyes Set to Kill, to end back in St. Louis. Upon announcing their resignations, bass player Tanner Oakes left the tour and the band. Bassist Austin Radford joined the band to finish the tour but would decide to part ways with the band shortly after creating his own band called, American Mantra as the lead singer. He would be replaced by Daniel De Los Santos as a substitute, and then later by Cory Elder, who is a current member. Open auditions were held shortly after Chase 's departure with an instrumental song called "Decade '' on their MySpace (later known as "Destiny for the Willing ''), and he was eventually replaced by a new vocalist, Matty Mullins (Nights in Fire). By this time, Memphis May Fire had already recorded their instruments for the new album with producer Casey Bates and only needed Mullins to contribute his vocals.
Their debut full - length studio album, Sleepwalking, was released on July 21, 2009, through Trustkill Records. Memphis May Fire has described the album as "a new breed of rock n ' roll '' and musically it has "more aggressive guitar work and noticeably more melodic, but still retains that southern swagger. '' Their song "Ghost in the Mirror '' was used on the soundtrack for the movie Saw VI. Rhythm guitarist, Ryan Bentley, was not featured in the music video due to his short break away from the band. Joel Seier joined the band as a substitute for Bentley 's place until he would join back in late 2009. Seier was featured in "Ghost in the Mirror '' and "North Atlantic vs. North Carolina '' music videos as the rhythm guitarist.
The official music video for "Ghost in the Mirror '' was released February 2, 2010, through the Trustkill YouTube page.
Memphis May Fire released a second EP entitled Between the Lies on November 2, 2010, through Bullet Tooth Records (formerly Trustkill Records) with more energy and a different style than their previous releases. On December 9, 2010, the band post in their Facebook that the song "Action / Adventure '' will be featured in the video game Rock Band 3. In 2010, Matty Mullins was featured in the song "That 's What She Said '', from Kid Liberty 's debut album Fight with Your Fists.
On January 17, 2011, Rise Records announced Memphis May Fire signed to the label and that a new album will be released in spring. The band recently wrapped up the recording of their upcoming full - length record at Chango Studios (Of Machines, I See Stars, Sleeping with Sirens, etc.) in Orlando, Florida. It is expected to be heavier and darker than Sleepwalking and Between the Lies, while further incorporating elements of modern metal and electronics.
On March 3, 2011, a full album teaser for their sophomore album The Hollow was released via Rise Records YouTube page, including its release date of April 26, 2011. On March 22, a full song from The Hollow, titled "The Sinner '', was released to Rise Records YouTube page and on iTunes. On April 23, the entire album was released on the Rise Records YouTube page.
On September 15, the video for the lead single from The Hollow, "The Sinner '', directed by Thunder Down Country was released on YouTube.
On February 15, 2012, a live music video recorded in Orlando, Florida for the song titled "The Unfaithful '' was released on their YouTube Page.
It was announced through the Vans Warped Tour 's website on December 7 that Memphis May Fire would be participating in the 2012 Vans Warped Tour. The band was called to perform on the Monster Energy stage for the majority of the tour, and both Kia Rio and Kia Soul main stages on selected dates.
On February 11, it was announced by Kellen McGregor that the band would be working with Cameron Mizell shortly again at Chango Studios, to record their third studio album.
On April 11, rhythm guitarist and original member, Ryan Bentley, announced on Twitter he has parted ways with the band in a tweet saying "I 'm no longer in Memphis May Fire. Details later. '', around midnight. On the band 's direct - to - fan fanbridge, Kellen McGregor responded saying that they had to let go of Ryan because he did not have the right attitude and was not willing to push the band to a positive direction. On April 17, the band announced that Anthony Sepe (ex-Decoder) would be replacing Ryan Bentley as their new guitarist: "For those who may not know already, we recently decided to part ways with our guitarist, Ryan Bentley, and wish him nothing but the best. He 's a talented individual and we have no doubt that he will be successful no matter where life leads him. With that said, we 'd like all of you to give a warm welcome to our new guitarist Anthony Sepe. ''
Bentley 's departure from the band makes guitarist Kellen McGregor the only remaining original member of Memphis May Fire.
Their third studio album, Challenger was released on June 26 through Rise Records. The album debuted at number 16 on the Billboard Charts while the band was on tour as part of the Warped Tour.
The band continued to tour following the album throughout the USA, Europe, and the UK.
On February 1, 2013, Memphis May Fire was announced as part of the Vans Warped Tour 2013 alongside Black Veil Brides, Sleeping with Sirens, We Came as Romans, Blessthefall, The Used, Billy Talent and Bring Me the Horizon. The band was called to play main stage (Kia Soul Stage), they played the entire tour with an eight - song set, featuring Kellin Quinn singing the bridge of "Legacy ''.
On August 4, the band announced that they will be supporting Sleeping With Sirens, on the Feel This Tour. Breathe Carolina, Issues (band), and Our Last Night will be supporting the tour with them on selected dates.
Memphis May Fire has announced that they are hoping to release their new album in early 2014. Kellen McGregor finished writing the album demos after the band got off of the Vans Warped Tour. Currently, the band is recording at Chango Studios with Kellen and Cameron Mizell as the producers. In an interview with PropertyOfZach, vocalist Matty Mullins stated the expected the album release date to be in February -- March 2014. He also divulged that Memphis May Fire will set out on a US headlining tour in support of the album.
In an Alternative Press interview released on September 7, 2013, the band stated that their new album will "have more of a theatrical feel, as well as orchestral presence '' also describing their new album as a "soundtrack to an action film ''.
In an interview with Propertyofzack on September 9, 2013, the band described the sound of their new album, "(It) Just shows maturity. The newest record is very theatrical. It almost feels like a movie soundtrack from start to finish. It 's really awesome. A lot of orchestra stuff playing a big role in the record. It 's just -- it 's more mature. I think that our younger audience is going to love it -- certain aspects of it -- and our older audience is going to really appreciate how far we 've come as artists. They 're really going to love the record too. It 's great. ''
On December 14, 2013, the band tweeted that they had finished recording their forthcoming album with vocalist Matty Mullins expressing on how proud he is of the album. The album is expected to be an early 2014 release. On December 18, the band announced "The Unconditional Tour '' beginning late February through March with fellow acts The Word Alive, A Skylit Drive, Hands Like Houses and Beartooth in the US.
On January 4, 2014, the band released their first studio update for their forthcoming album via Alternative Press.
In the third and final studio update for the album, it was announced that it would be titled "Unconditional '' and was released on March 25, 2014, through Rise Records.
On February 6, 2014 the first single, "No Ordinary Love '' was streamed through the Rise Records YouTube channel. Pre-order bundles for the album were also made available on this date. The second single, "Sleepless Nights '' was released on February 24, via Facebook and Rise Records YouTube Channel.
On March 13, 2014 the full "Unconditional '' album was streamed through Rise Records YouTube channel.
Mullins announced on August 12, 2014, that he would be releasing his debut solo record, "Matty Mullins '', on September 23, through Rise Records. Pre-orders were made available that same day.
On May 25, 2015, the band announced that they would be releasing the deluxe edition of "Unconditional '' on July 17. The first new track, ' My Generation ' was release that same day. The album will contain two new tracks, as well as acoustic versions of ' Beneath the Skin ', ' Need to Be ' and a remixed / remastered version of the album.
On February 9, 2016, the band announced through their Facebook page that they were entering the studio with material that was written and prepared over the last year, recording in Good Sounds Studio with Matt Good producing the instrumentals and Cameron Mizell producing the vocals.
The band premiered the single "Carry On '' on BBC Radio 1 on August 28, 2016 and announced their fifth studio album, This Light I Hold, on the same day. The album is set to be released on October 28, 2016 through Rise Records. The band will tour as headliners on the Rise Up Tour with The Devil Wears Prada and Silverstein as special guests and supporting act Like Moths to Flames in North America and the United Kingdom from October 11 to December 10, 2016.
On September 23, 2016, Memphis May Fire released the title track as the second single to their new album, "This Light I Hold, '' which features Jacoby Shaddix (of Papa Roach). On January 30, 2017, the band announced the departure of Guitarist Anthony Sepe. Samuel Penner, former guitarist for In the Midst of Lions and For Today, announced that he would be filling in for the band.
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north korea and south korea on a map | Korean Demilitarized Zone - wikipedia
The Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ; Hangul: 한반도 비무장 지대; Hanja: 韓 半島 非 武裝 地帶) is a strip of land running across the Korean Peninsula. It is established by the provisions of the Korean Armistice Agreement to serve as a buffer zone between the Democratic People 's Republic of Korea (North Korea) and the Republic of Korea (South Korea). The demilitarized zone (DMZ) is a border barrier that divides the Korean Peninsula roughly in half. It was created by agreement between North Korea, China and the United Nations in 1953. The DMZ is 250 kilometres (160 miles) long, and about 4 kilometres (2.5 miles) wide.
Within the DMZ is a meeting point between the two nations in the small Joint Security Area near the western end of the zone, where negotiations take place. There have been various incidents in and around the DMZ, with military and civilian casualties on both sides.
The Korean Demilitarized Zone intersects but does not follow the 38th parallel north, which was the border before the Korean War. It crosses the parallel on an angle, with the west end of the DMZ lying south of the parallel and the east end lying north of it.
The DMZ is 250 kilometres (160 miles) long, approximately 4 km (2.5 mi) wide. Though the zone separating both sides is demilitarized, beyond that strip the border is one of the most heavily militarized borders in the world. The Northern Limit Line, or NLL, is the disputed maritime demarcation line between North and South Korea in the Yellow Sea, not agreed in the armistice. The coastline and islands on both sides of the NLL are also heavily militarized.
The 38th parallel north -- which divided the Korean Peninsula roughly in half -- was the original boundary between the United States and Soviet Union 's brief administration areas of Korea at the end of World War II. Upon the creation of the Democratic People 's Republic of Korea (DPRK, informally North Korea) and the Republic of Korea (ROK, informally South Korea) in 1948, it became a de facto international border and one of the most tense fronts in the Cold War.
Both the North and the South remained dependent on their sponsor states from 1948 to the outbreak of the Korean War. That conflict, which claimed over three million lives and divided the Korean Peninsula along ideological lines, commenced on 25 June 1950, with a full - front DPRK invasion across the 38th parallel, and ended in 1953 after international intervention pushed the front of the war back to near the 38th parallel.
In the Armistice Agreement of 27 July 1953, the DMZ was created as each side agreed to move their troops back 2,000 m (2,200 yards) from the front line, creating a buffer zone 4 km (2.5 mi) wide. The Military Demarcation Line (MDL) goes through the center of the DMZ and indicates where the front was when the agreement was signed.
Owing to this theoretical stalemate, and genuine hostility between the North and the South, large numbers of troops are still stationed along both sides of the line, each side guarding against potential aggression from the other side. The armistice agreement explains exactly how many military personnel and what kind of weapons are allowed in the DMZ. Soldiers from both sides may patrol inside the DMZ, but they may not cross the MDL; ROK soldiers, however heavily armed, patrol under the aegis of military police, and have memorized each line of the armistice. Sporadic outbreaks of violence have killed over 500 South Korean soldiers, 50 US soldiers and 250 soldiers from DPRK along the DMZ between 1953 and 1999.
Daeseong - dong (also written Tae Sung Dong) and Kijŏng - dong are the only settlements allowed by the armistice committee to remain within the boundaries of the DMZ. Residents of Tae Sung Dong are governed and protected by the United Nations Command and are generally required to spend at least 240 nights per year in the village to maintain their residency. In 2008, the village had a population of 218 people. The villagers of Tae Sung Dong are direct descendants of people who owned the land before the 1950 -- 53 Korean War.
To continue to deter North Korean incursion, in 2014 the United States government exempted the Korean DMZ from its pledge to eliminate anti-personnel landmines.
Inside the DMZ, near the western coast of the peninsula, Panmunjom is the home of the Joint Security Area (JSA). Originally, it was the only connection between North and South Korea but that changed on 17 May 2007, when a Korail train went through the DMZ to the North on the new Donghae Bukbu Line built on the east coast of Korea. However, the resurrection of this line was short - lived, as it closed again in July 2008 following an incident where a South Korean tourist was shot to death.
There are several buildings on both the north and the south side of the Military Demarcation Line (MDL), and there have been some built on top of it. The JSA is the location where all negotiations since 1953 have been held, including statements of Korean solidarity, which have generally amounted to little except a slight decline of tensions. The MDL goes through the conference rooms and down the middle of the conference tables where the North Koreans and the United Nations Command (primarily South Koreans and Americans) meet face to face.
Within the JSA are a number of buildings for joint meetings called Conference Row. These are used for direct talks between the Korean War participants and parties to the armistice. Facing the Conference Row buildings are the North Korean Panmungak (English: Panmun Hall) and the South Korean Freedom House. In 1994, North Korea enlarged Panmungak by adding a third floor. In 1998, South Korea built a new Freedom House for its Red Cross staff and to possibly host reunions of families separated by the Korean War. The new building incorporated the old Freedom House Pagoda within its design.
Since 1953 there have been occasional confrontations and skirmishes within the JSA. The axe murder incident in August 1976 involved the attempted trimming of a tree which resulted in two deaths (Captain Arthur Bonifas and First Lieutenant Mark Barrett). Another incident occurred on 23 November 1984, when a Soviet tourist named Vasily Matuzok (sometimes spelled Matusak), who was part of an official trip to the JSA (hosted by the North), ran across the MDL shouting that he wanted to defect. North Korean troops immediately chased after him, opening fire. Border guards on the South Korean side returned fire, eventually surrounding the North Koreans as they pursued Matusak. One South Korean and three North Korean soldiers were killed in the action, and Matusak was not captured.
In late 2009, South Korean forces in conjunction with the United Nations Command began renovation of its three guard posts and two checkpoint buildings within the JSA compound. Construction was designed to enlarge and modernize the structures. Work was undertaken a year after North Korea finished replacing four JSA guard posts on its side of the MDL.
Both North and South Korea maintain peace villages in sight of each other 's side of the DMZ. In the South, Daeseong - dong is administered under the terms of the DMZ. Villagers are classed as Republic of Korea citizens, but are exempt from paying tax and other civic requirements such as military service. In the North, Kijŏng - dong features a number of brightly painted, poured - concrete multi-story buildings and apartments with electric lighting. These features represented an unheard - of level of luxury for rural Koreans, north or south, in the 1950s. The town was oriented so that the bright blue roofs and white sides of the buildings would be the most distinguishing features when viewed from the border. However, based on scrutiny with modern telescopic lenses, it has been claimed the buildings are mere concrete shells lacking window glass or even interior rooms, with the building lights turned on and off at set times and the empty sidewalks swept by a skeleton crew of caretakers in an effort to preserve the illusion of activity.
In the 1980s, the South Korean government built a 98.4 m (323 ft) flagpole in Daeseong - dong, which flies a South Korean flag weighing 130 kilograms (287 pounds). In what some have called the "flagpole war, '' the North Korean government responded by building the 160 m (525 ft) Panmunjeom flagpole in Kijŏng - dong, only 1.2 km (0.7 mi) west of the border with South Korea. It flies a 270 kg (595 lb) flag of North Korea. As of 2014, the Panmunjom flagpole is the fourth tallest in the world, after the Jeddah Flagpole in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, at 170 m (558 ft), the Dushanbe Flagpole in Dushanbe, Tajikistan, at 165 m (541 ft) and the pole at the National Flag Square in Baku, Azerbaijan, which is 162 m (531 ft).
Since demarcation, the DMZ has had numerous cases of incidents and incursions by both sides, although the North Korean government typically never acknowledges direct responsibility for any of these incidents (there are exceptions, such as the axe incident). This was particularly intense during the Korean DMZ Conflict (1966 -- 1969) when a series of skirmishes along the DMZ resulted in the deaths of 43 American, 299 South Korean and 397 North Korean soldiers. This included the Blue House Raid in 1968, an attempt to assassinate President Park Chung Hee at the Blue House.
In 1976, in now - declassified meeting minutes, U.S. Deputy Secretary of Defense William Clements told Henry Kissinger that there had been 200 raids or incursions into North Korea from the south, though not by the U.S. military. Details of only a few of these incursions have become public, including raids by South Korean forces in 1967 that had sabotaged about 50 North Korean facilities.
Since 15 November 1974, South Korea has discovered four tunnels crossing the DMZ that had been dug by North Korea; the orientation of the blasting lines within each tunnel indicated they were dug by North Korea. North Korea claimed that the tunnels were for coal mining; however, no coal was found in the tunnels, which were dug through granite. Some of the tunnel walls were painted black to give the appearance of anthracite.
The tunnels are believed to have been planned as a military invasion route by North Korea. They run in a north - south direction and do not have branches. Following each discovery, engineering within the tunnels has become progressively more advanced. For example, the third tunnel sloped slightly upwards as it progressed southward, to prevent water stagnation. Today, visitors from the south may visit the second, third and fourth tunnels through guided tours.
The first of the tunnels was discovered on 20 November 1974, by a South Korean Army patrol, noticing steam rising from the ground. The initial discovery was met with automatic fire from North Korean soldiers. Five days later, during a subsequent exploration of this tunnel, US Navy Commander Robert M. Ballinger and ROK Marine Corps Major Kim Hah - chul were killed in the tunnel by a North Korean explosive device. The blast also wounded five Americans and one South Korean from the United Nations Command.
The tunnel, which was about 0.9 by 1.2 m (3 by 4 ft), extended more than 1 km (0.62 mi) beyond the MDL into South Korea. The tunnel was reinforced with concrete slabs and had electric power and lighting. There were weapon storage and sleeping areas. A narrow - gauge railway with carts had also been installed. Estimates based on the tunnel 's size suggest it would have allowed considerable numbers of soldiers to pass through it.
The second tunnel was discovered on 19 March 1975. It is of similar length to the first tunnel. It is located between 50 and 160 m (160 and 520 ft) below ground, but is larger than the first, approximately 2 by 2 m (7 by 7 feet).
The third tunnel was discovered on 17 October 1978. Unlike the previous two, the third tunnel was discovered following a tip from a North Korean defector. This tunnel is about 1,600 m (5,200 ft) long and about 73 m (240 ft) below ground. Foreign visitors touring the South Korean DMZ may view inside this tunnel using a sloped access shaft.
A fourth tunnel was discovered on 3 March 1990, north of Haean town in the former Punchbowl battlefield. The tunnel 's dimensions are 2 by 2 m (7 by 7 feet), and it is 145 metres (476 ft) deep. The method of construction is almost identical in structure to the second and the third tunnels.
According to North Korea, between 1977 and 1979 the South Korean and United States authorities constructed a concrete wall along the DMZ. North Korea, however, began to propagate information about the wall after the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989, when the symbolism of a wall unjustly dividing a people became more apparent.
Various organisations, such as the North Korean tour guide company Korea Konsult, claimed a wall was dividing Korea, saying that:
In the area south of the Military Demarcation Line, which cuts across Korea at its waist, there is a concrete wall which... stretches more than 240 km (149 mi) from east to west, is 5 -- 8 m (16 -- 26 ft) high, 10 -- 19 m (33 -- 62 ft) thick at the bottom, and 3 -- 7 m (10 -- 23 ft) wide in the upper part. It is set with wire entanglements and dotted with gun embrasures, look - outs and varieties of military establishments.
In December 1999, Chu Chang - jun, North Korea 's ambassador to China, repeated claims that a "wall '' divided Korea. He said the south side of the wall is packed with soil, which permits access to the top of the wall and makes it effectively invisible from the south side. He also claimed that it served as a bridgehead for any northward invasion.
The United States and South Korea deny the wall 's existence, although they do claim there are anti-tank barriers along some sections of the DMZ.
In the RT documentary 10 Days in North Korea, the crew shot footage of a wall as seen from North Korea and described it as a "5 metre high wall stretching from east to west ''. Dutch journalist and filmmaker Peter Tetteroo also shot footage of a barrier in 2001 which his North Korean guides said was the Korean Wall.
The North Korean side of the DMZ primarily serves to defend North Korea from invasion by South Korean forces. However, it also serves a similar function as the Berlin Wall and the inner German border did against its own citizens in the former East Germany in that it stops North Korean citizens from defecting to South Korea.
From the armistice until 1972, approximately 7,700 South Korean soldiers and agents infiltrated North Korea to sabotage military bases and industrial areas.
North Korea has thousands of artillery pieces near the DMZ. According to a 2018 article in The Economist, North Korea could bombard Seoul with over 10,000 rounds every minute. Experts believe that 60 percent of its total artillery is positioned within a few kilometers of the DMZ acting as a deterrent against any South Korean invasion.
From 1953 until 2004 both sides broadcast audio propaganda across the DMZ. Massive loudspeakers mounted on several of the buildings delivered DPRK propaganda broadcasts directed towards the south as well as propaganda radio broadcasts across the border. In 2004, the North and South agreed to end the broadcasts.
In August 2015, a border incident occurred where two South Korean soldiers were wounded after stepping on landmines that had allegedly been laid on the southern side of the DMZ by North Korean forces near an ROK guard post. Both North Korea and South Korea then resumed broadcasting propaganda by loudspeaker. After four days of negotiations, on August 25, 2015 South Korea agreed to discontinue the broadcasts following a statement from North Korea 's government expressing "regret '' for the landmine incident.
On 8 January 2016, in response to North Korea 's supposed successful testing of a hydrogen bomb, South Korea resumed broadcasts directed at the north. On 15 April 2016, it was reported that the South Koreans purchased a new stereo system to combat the North 's broadcasts.
Both North and South Korea have held balloon propaganda leaflet campaigns since the Korean War.
In recent years, mainly South Korean non-governmental organizations have been involved in launching balloons targeted at the DMZ and beyond. Due to the winds, the balloons tend to fall near the DMZ where there are mostly North Korean soldiers to see the leaflets. As with the loudspeakers, balloon operations were mutually agreed to be halted between 2004 and 2010. It has been assessed that the activists ' balloons may contribute to the decay of remaining cooperation between the Korean governments, and the DMZ has become more militarized in recent years.
Many North Korean leaflets during the Cold War gave instructions and maps to help the targeted South Korean soldiers in defecting. One of the leaflets found on the DMZ included a map of Cho Dae - hum 's route of defection to North Korea across the DMZ. In addition to using balloons as a means of delivery, North Koreans have also used rockets to send leaflets to the DMZ.
The Civilian Control Line is a line that designates an additional buffer zone to the DMZ within a distance of 5 to 20 km from the Southern Limit Line of the DMZ. Its purpose is to limit and control the entrance of civilians into the area in order to protect and maintain the security of military facilities and operations near the DMZ. The commander of the 8th US Army ordered the creation of the CCL and it was activated and first became effective in February 1954.
The buffer zone that falls south of the Southern Limit Line is called the Civilian Control Zone. Barbed wire fences and manned military guard posts mark the Civilian Control Line. The Civilian Control Zone is necessary for the military to monitor civilian travel to tourist destinations close to the Southern Limit Line of the DMZ like the discovered infiltration tunnels and tourist observatories. Usually when traveling within the Civilian Control Zone, South Korean soldiers accompany tourist buses and cars as armed guards to monitor the civilians as well as to protect them from North Korean intruders.
Right after the ceasefire, the Civilian Control Zone outside the DMZ encompassed 100 or so empty villages. The government implemented migration measures to attract settlers into the area. As a result, in 1983, when the area delineated by the Civilian Control Line was at its largest, a total of 39,725 residents in 8,799 households were living in the 81 villages located within the Civilian Control Zone.
Most of the tourist and media photos of the "DMZ fence '' are actually photos of the CCL fence. The actual DMZ fence on the Southern Limit Line is completely off - limits to everybody except soldiers and it is illegal to take pictures of the DMZ fence. The CCL fence acts more as a deterrent for South Korean civilians from getting too close to the dangerous DMZ and is also the final barrier for North Korean infiltrators if they get past the Southern Limit Line DMZ fence.
The whole estuary of the Han River is deemed a "Neutral Zone '' and is off - limits to all civilian vessels and is treated like the rest of the DMZ. Only military vessels are allowed within this neutral zone.
According to the July 1953 Korean Armistice Agreement civil shipping was supposed to be permissible in the Han River estuary and allow Seoul to be connected to the Yellow Sea (West Sea) via the Han River. However, both Koreas and the UNC failed to make this happen. The South Korean government ordered the construction of the Ara Canal to finally connect Seoul to the Yellow Sea (West Sea), which was completed in 2012. Seoul was effectively landlocked from the ocean until 2012. The biggest limitation of the Ara Canal is it is too narrow to handle any vessels except small tourist boats and recreational boats, so Seoul still can not receive large commercial ships or passenger ships in its port.
In recent years Chinese fishing vessels have taken advantage of the tense situation in the Han River Estuary Neutral Zone and illegally fished in this area due to both the North Korean and South Korean navies never patrolling this area due to the fear of naval battles breaking out. This has led to firefights and sinkings of boats between Chinese fishermen and the South Korean Coast Guard.
Within the DMZ itself, in the town of Cheorwon, is the old capital of the kingdom of Taebong (901 -- 918), a regional upstart that became Goryeo, the dynasty that ruled a united Korea from 918 to 1392.
Taebong was founded by the charismatic leader Gung Ye, a brilliant if tyrannical one - eyed ex-Buddhist monk. Rebelling against the kingdom of Silla, Korea 's then ruling dynasty, he proclaimed the kingdom of Taebong -- also called Later Goguryeo, in reference to the ancient kingdom of Goguryeo (37BC - 668AD) -- in 901, with himself as king. The kingdom consisted of much of central Korea, including areas around the DMZ. He placed his capital in Cheorwon, a mountainous region that was easily defensible (in the Korean War, this same region would earn the name "the Iron Triangle '').
As a former Buddhist monk, Gung Ye actively promoted the religion of Buddhism and incorporated Buddhist ceremonies into the new kingdom. Even after Gung Ye was dethroned by his own generals and replaced by Wang Geon, the man who would rule over a united Korea as the first king of Goryeo, this Buddhist influence would continue, playing a major role in shaping the culture of medieval Korea.
As the ruins of Gung Ye 's capital lie in the DMZ itself, visitors can not see them. Moreover, excavation work and research have been hampered by political realities. In the future, inter-Korean peace may allow for proper archaeological studies to be conducted on the castle site and other historical sites within and underneath the DMZ.
The ruins of the capital city of Taebong, the ruins of the castle of Gung Ye, and King Gung Ye 's tomb all lie within the DMZ and are off - limits to everybody except soldiers who patrol the DMZ.
Panmunjeom is the site of the negotiations that ended the Korean War and is the main center of human activity in the DMZ. The village is located on the main highway and near a railroad connecting the two Koreas.
The railway, which connects Seoul and Pyongyang, was called the Gyeongui Line before division in the 1940s. Currently the South uses the original name, but the North refers to the route as the P'yŏngbu Line. The railway line has been mainly used to carry materials and South Korean workers to the Kaesong Industrial Region. Its reconnection has been seen as part of the general improvement in the relations between North and South in the early part of this century. However, in November 2008 North Korean authorities closed the railway amid growing tensions with the South. Following the death of former South Korean President Kim Dae - jung, conciliatory talks were held between South Korean officials and a North Korean delegation who attended Kim 's funeral. In September 2009, the Kaesong rail and road crossing was reopened.
The road at Panmunjeom, which was known historically as Highway One in the South, was originally the only access point between the two countries on the Korean Peninsula. Passage is comparable to the strict movements that occurred at Checkpoint Charlie in Berlin at the height of the Cold War. Both North and South Korea 's roads end in the JSA; the highways do not quite join as there is a 20 cm (8 in) concrete line that divides the entire site. People given the rare permission to cross this border must do so on foot before continuing their journey by road.
In 2007, on the east coast of Korea, the first train crossed the DMZ on the new Donghae Bukbu (Tonghae Pukpu) Line. The new rail crossing was built adjacent to the road which took South Koreans to Mount Kumgang Tourist Region, a region that has significant cultural importance for all Koreans. More than one million civilian visitors crossed the DMZ until the route was closed following the shooting of a 53 - year - old South Korean tourist in July 2008. After a joint investigation was rebuffed by North Korea, the South Korean government suspended tours to the resort. Since then the resort and the Donghae Bukbu Line have effectively been closed by North Korea.
Currently, the South Korean Korea Railroad Corporation (Korail) organizes tours to DMZ with special DMZ themed trains.
In the past half century, the Korean DMZ has been a deadly place for humans, making habitation impossible. Only around the village of Panmunjeom and more recently the Donghae Bukbu Line on Korea 's east coast have there been regular incursions by people.
This natural isolation along the 250 km (160 mi) length of the DMZ has created an involuntary park which is now recognized as one of the most well - preserved areas of temperate habitat in the world. In 1966 it was first proposed to turn the DMZ into a national park.
Several endangered animal and plant species now exist among the heavily fortified fences, landmines and listening posts. These include the endangered red - crowned crane (a staple of Asian art), the white - naped crane, and, potentially, the extremely rare Siberian tiger, Amur leopard, and Asiatic black bear. Ecologists have identified some 2,900 plant species, 70 types of mammals and 320 kinds of birds within the narrow buffer zone. Additional surveys are now being conducted throughout the region.
The DMZ owes its varied biodiversity to its geography, which crosses mountains, prairies, swamps, lakes, and tidal marshes. Environmentalists hope that the DMZ will be conserved as a wildlife refuge, with a well - developed set of objective and management plans vetted and in place. In 2005, CNN founder and media mogul Ted Turner, on a visit to North Korea, said that he would financially support any plans to turn the DMZ into a peace park and a UN-protected World Heritage Site.
In September 2011, South Korea submitted a nomination form to Man and the Biosphere Programme (MAB) in UNESCO for designation of 435 km (168 sq mi) in the southern part of the DMZ below the Military Demarcation Line, as well as 2,979 km (1,150 sq mi) in privately controlled areas, as a Biosphere Reserve according to the Statutory Framework of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves. MAB National Committee of the Republic of Korea mentioned only southern part of DMZ to be nominated since there was no response from Pyongyang when it requested Pyongyang to push jointly. North Korea is a member nation of the international coordinating council of UNESCO 's Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme, which designates Biosphere Reserves.
North Korea opposed the application as a violation of the armistice agreement during the council 's meeting in Paris on July 9 to 13. The South Korean government 's attempt to designate the Demilitarized Zone (DMZ) a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve was turned down at UNESCO 's MAB council meeting in Paris in July 2012. Pyongyang expressed its opposition by sending letters to 32 council member countries, except for South Korea, and the UNESCO headquarters a month prior to the meeting. At the council meeting, Pyongyang said the designation violated the Armistice Agreement.
Coordinates: 38 ° 19 ′ 44 '' N 127 ° 15 ′ 00 '' E / 38.329 ° N 127.250 ° E / 38.329; 127.250
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when does dance moms season 7 episode 22 come out | List of Dance Moms episodes - wikipedia
Dance Moms is an American reality television series that began airing on Lifetime on July 13, 2011. Season 7 premiered on November 29, 2016. As of February 21, 2017, 198 episodes of Dance Moms have aired.
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let me go by hailee steinfeld & alesso | Let Me Go (Hailee Steinfeld and Alesso song) - wikipedia
"Let Me Go '' is a song by American singer Hailee Steinfeld and Swedish DJ and record producer Alesso, featuring American country music duo Florida Georgia Line and American singer - songwriter Andrew Watt. It was written by Ali Tamposi, Brian Lee, Jamie Lidell, Alesso and Watt, with production handled by the latter two. The song was released through Republic Records on September 8, 2017.
On September 5, 2017, Republic Records confirmed the forthcoming collaboration, and revealed its release and radio airplay date. On September 7, 2017, Steinfeld posted teasers on social media, officially announcing the song 's release date.
David Rishty of Billboard called the song an "eye - popping collaboration '', and felt it "has all the right ingredients for its lyrics to quickly get stuck in your head ''. Kat Bein of the same publication deemed it "a radio - ready pop ballad '', "a feel - good breakup song with pop and country crossover ''. He opined that it "drips with tropical coconut notes with central vocals from Steinfeld and a strong backup from Florida Georgia Line '', and sounds similar to Kygo 's 2016 song "Carry Me ''. Brittany Provost of EDMTunes called it "a surprisingly very catchy and upbeat track ''. Kelly Brickey of Sounds Like Nashville felt it "bops like the next big club hit with FGL and Steinfeld trading off verses for an up - tempo love song ''.
Credits adapted from Tidal.
sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone sales + streaming figures based on certification alone
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which country no need visa for philippines passport | Visa requirements for Philippine citizens - wikipedia
Visa requirements for Philippine citizens are administrative entry restrictions imposed on citizens of the Philippines by the authorities of other territories. As of January 1, 2017, Philippines citizens had visa - free or visa on arrival access to 61 countries and territories, ranking the Philippine passport 75th in terms of travel freedom (tied with Ugandan passport) according to the Visa Restrictions Index.
Certain countries allow Filipino citizens to enter without a visa if they are in a possession of a valid visa or resident permit for Canada, Ireland, the Schengen area, the United States or the United Kingdom.
Visa requirements for Filipino citizens for entry to various territories, disputed areas, partially recognized countries and restricted zones:
Holders of an APEC Business Travel Card (ABTC) travelling on business do not require a visa to the following countries:
The card must be used in conjunction with a passport and has the following advantages:
Many countries require passports to be valid for at least 6 months upon arrival.
Countries requiring passports to be valid at least 6 months on arrival include Afghanistan, Algeria, Anguilla, Bahrain, Bhutan, Botswana, British Virgin Islands, Brunei, Cambodia, Cameroon, Cayman Islands, Central African Republic, Chad, Comoros, Côte d'Ivoire, Curaçao, Ecuador, Egypt, El Salvador, Equatorial Guinea, Fiji, Gabon, Guinea Bissau, Guyana, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq (except when arriving at Basra and Erbil or Sulaimaniyah), Israel, Jordan, Kenya, Kiribati, Laos, Madagascar, Malaysia, Marshall Islands, Micronesia, Myanmar, Namibia, Nicaragua, Nigeria, Oman, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Qatar, Rwanda, Saint Lucia, Samoa, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Solomon Islands, Somalia, Somaliland, Sri Lanka, Suriname, Taiwan, Tanzania, Thailand, Timor - Leste, Tokelau, Tonga, Tuvalu, Uganda, United Arab Emirates, Vanuatu, Venezuela, Vietnam, Yemen and Zimbabwe.
Countries requiring passports valid for at least 4 months on arrival include Micronesia and Zambia.
Countries requiring passports valid for at least 3 months on arrival include European Union countries (except Denmark, Republic of Ireland and the United Kingdom, and except for EU / EEA / Swiss citizens), Albania, Belarus, Georgia, Honduras, Iceland, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Liechtenstein, Moldova, Monaco, Nauru, Panama, Saint Barthélemy, San Marino, Switzerland and the United Arab Emirates.
Bermuda requires passports to be valid for at least 45 days upon entry.
Countries that require a passport validity of at least 1 month on arrival include Eritrea, Hong Kong, Macao, New Zealand and South Africa.
Other countries require either a passport valid on arrival or a passport valid throughout the period of the intended stay.
Many countries require a minimum number of blank pages in the passport being presented, generally one or two pages.
Many African countries, including Angola, Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Republic of the Congo, Côte d'Ivoire, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Ghana, Guinea, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Rwanda, São Tomé and Príncipe, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Uganda, and Zambia require all incoming passengers to have a current International Certificate of Vaccination.
Some other countries require vaccination only if the passenger is coming from an infected area.
Iran, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Syria and Yemen do not allow entry to people with passport stamps from Israel or whose passports have either a used or an unused Israeli visa, or where there is evidence of previous travel to Israel such as entry or exit stamps from neighbouring border posts in transit countries such as Jordan and Egypt.
To circumvent this Arab League boycott of Israel, the Israeli immigration services have now mostly ceased to stamp foreign nationals ' passports on either entry to or exit from Israel. Since 15 January 2013, Israel no longer stamps foreign passports at Ben Gurion Airport, giving passengers a card instead: "Since January 2013 a pilot scheme has been introduced whereby visitors are given an entry card instead of an entry stamp on arrival. You should keep this card with your passport until you leave. This is evidence of your legal entry into Israel and may be required, particularly at any crossing points into the Occupied Palestinian Territories. '' Passports are still (as of 22 June 2017) stamped at Erez when travelling into and out of Gaza. Also, passports are still stamped (as of 22 June 2017) at the Jordan Valley / Sheikh Hussein and Yitzhak Rabin / Arava land borders with Jordan.
Due to a state of war existing between the Republic of Armenia and Azerbaijan, the government of Azerbaijan not only bans entry of citizens from Armenia, but also all citizens and nationals of any other country who are of Armenian descent, to the Republic of Azerbaijan (although there have been exceptions, notably for Armenia 's participation at the 2015 European Games held in Azerbaijan).
Azerbaijan also strictly bans any visit by foreign citizens to the separatist region of Nagorno - Karabakh (the de facto independent Republic of Artsakh), its surrounding territories and the Azerbaijani exclaves of Karki, Yuxarı Əskipara, Barxudarlı and Sofulu which are de jure part of Azerbaijan but under control of Armenia, without the prior consent of the government of Azerbaijan. Foreign citizens who enter these occupied territories, will be permanently banned from entering the Republic of Azerbaijan and will be included in their "list of personae non gratae ''.
Upon request, the Republic of Artsakh authorities may attach their visa and / or stamps to a separate piece of paper in order to avoid detection of travel to their country.
British Overseas Territories. Open border with Schengen Area. Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia, therefore Russia as a whole is included as a European country here. Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace. Azerbaijan (Artsakh) and Georgia (Abkhazia; South Ossetia) are transcontinental countries. Both have part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus. Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has part of its territories located west of the Urals in Eastern Europe. Armenia and Cyprus (Northern Cyprus; Akrotiri and Dhekelia) are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe. Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai Peninsula. Part of the Realm of New Zealand. Partially recognized. Unincorporated territory of the United States. Part of Norway, not part of the Schengen Area, special open - border status under Svalbard Treaty
British Overseas Territories. Open border with Schengen Area. Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The vast majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia. Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has a small part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace. Azerbaijan and Georgia (Abkhazia; South Ossetia) are transcontinental countries. Both have a small part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus. Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has a small part of its territories located west of the Urals in Eastern Europe. Armenia (Artsakh) and Cyprus (Northern Cyprus) are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe. Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has a small part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai peninsula. Partially recognized.
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what episode of ghost whisper does jim die | Ghost Whisperer (season 4) - wikipedia
The fourth season of Ghost Whisperer, an American television series created by John Gray, commenced airing in the United States on October 3, 2008, concluded May 15, 2009, and consisted of 23 episodes. The series follows the life of Melinda Gordon (Jennifer Love Hewitt), who has the ability to see and communicate with ghosts. While trying to live as normal a life as possible -- she is married and owns an antique store -- Melinda helps earthbound spirits resolve their problems and cross over into the Light, or the spirit world. Her tasks are difficult and at times she struggles with people who push her away and disbelieve her ability. In addition, the ghosts are mysterious and sometimes menacing in the beginning and Melinda must use the clues available to her to understand the spirit 's needs and help them.
Ghost Whisperer 's fourth season aired in the United States (U.S.) on Fridays at 8: 00 pm ET on CBS, a terrestrial television network, where it received an average of 10.62 million viewers per episode, becoming the most watched season of the series.
In the fourth season, Melinda meets Eli James (Jamie Kennedy) after a fire at Rockland University who, after his own near - death experience, develops the ability to hear ghosts. Melinda says goodbye to her close friend Rick Payne, who leaves Grandview on a research trip for the university. In this season, Jim is shot and killed. He does not "cross over '' because he does not want to leave Melinda, and his spirit later enters the body of a man named Sam Lucas, who died in an unrelated accident in Grandview and crossed over. When Jim / Sam regains consciousness, he has no memory of being Jim. Melinda works to get him to remember his past life and her, and succeeds after much difficulty and skepticism on the part of her friends. They soon discover that Melinda is pregnant and that the date of conception was right before Jim died.
At the end of the season, Ned and Eli find the Book of Changes, a book written by the Watchers (a benevolent group of ghosts who keep watch over the living). The book tells them of past and future prominent dates, such as Andrea and Jim 's deaths. One date is listed as September 25, 2009; Melinda 's due date. Melinda learns from a Watcher named Carl that her child is destined to not only inherit her gift, but be far more powerful than her. Melinda and Jim decide to remarry and have a small ceremony on a snowy night, on the street where they first met.
Ghost Whisperer is based on the work of "Spirit Communicator '' James Van Praagh, who is co-executive producer and regularly updates a blog about the show through LivingTV. The stories are also said to be based in part on the work of "Spirit Communicator '' Mary Ann Winkowski. Development of the show dates back to at least two years before its premiere.
The show was produced by Sander / Moses Productions in association with CBS Television Studios (originally Paramount Network Television in season one and ABC Studios (originally Touchstone Television in the first two seasons) and CBS Paramount Network Television in seasons two and three).
The show was filmed on the Universal Studios back lot in Los Angeles. One area on the lot is Courthouse Square from the Back to the Future trilogy, though it has been drastically modified to depict Grandview. For example, the clock tower in Back to the Future has been completely covered up. Cast and crew members believe that the set gets visits from real spirits.
Sound effects were completed at Smart Post Sound. Visual effects for the pilot and some season one episodes were completed at Flash Film Works. Visual effects for nearly the entire series were created at Eden FX.
Creator John Gray grew up in Brooklyn, New York, which is not far from Grandview - On - Hudson, west of the Hudson River. Piermont is often referenced in episodes as the neighboring town, which is accurate to real life as Grandview - On - Hudson is actually located just north of Piermont. Professor Rick Payne worked in the fictional "Rockland University, '' and perhaps not coincidentally, the actual Grandview, New York is a village located in Rockland County, New York.
Melinda hears that there has been a fire at the Rockland University Building when Jim is called over there, and hurries over, fearful for Professor Rick Payne, but he is revealed to be alive and well. However, a therapist by the name Eli James dies, and Melinda witnesses his soul being brought back. This ' near - death ' experience grants him the ability to hear ghosts. The episode is focused on the ghost of one of Eli 's patients, who was possibly more than that, and whether or not she has been starting fires since she was 12. Whilst Melinda is trapped in the archives, she meets a group of seemingly benign ghosts calling themselves the watchers, who warn her that dealing with death may brush off on something she loves.
Note: This was Jay Mohr 's last appearance as Professor Payne. First appearance of Jamie Kennedy
Melinda and Jim go to a cruise ship that is going to be scrapped soon and meet the newlywed couple staying in the room next to theirs who want to swap because they are having problems with their room and marriage. Mel sees lots of ghosts on the ship and one is very friendly and helpful. Mel realises room M108 is haunted by a ghost who is looking for her fiancé and swaps rooms so she can help her. She figures out the story of how the ghost died and who her fiancé was - he happens to be the owner of the ship, and has to get him to help the ghost cross over.
A girl swims in a lake and is scared away. It is later discovered that there are many dead bodies in the lake and one of them is the girls ' father. Mel and Eli have to figure out what happened to the bodies to stop the ghosts from being so angry and helping them move on, and it has something to do with the owner of the funeral home, who now has cancer and wo n't take his medication. Sam 's fiancé Nikki ends up staying with Mel and spending a lot of time with Sam, which worries Delia, who urges Mel to fight for him. The Watchers return and warn Mel again, and she learns that they chose to stay earthbound to help the living. After his past life regression session with Eli, Sam remembers loving Mel, but he thinks he is remembering Nikki.
Delia asks Sam and Mel to help her chaperone Ned 's school dance, and Mel sees a ghost trying to stop a girl leaving with an older boy. She quickly realises the ghost is the girls ' mother, and must figure out why she does n't want the two to be together, with very little help from the ghost herself. Delia and Eli help her. Sam asks her on a date and she accepts, but helping the ghost causes her to miss it, and leads Sam to think she 's not ready to date after losing her husband.
A young woman in Eli 's apartment building is being haunted, but claims she does n't know anyone who has died. Mel and Eli investigate together and figure out who the ghost is, and when they find out that Morgan was lying about knowing him, they wonder what else she 's been lying about, and quickly discover that she is ill herself. Meanwhile, Jim misses his job and friends but realises that ca n't be his life anymore, and he eventually decides he wants to go to Med School. Mel and Eli realise there is much more to Morgan 's story, and have to stop the ghost hurting her out of his anger at being lied to.
A TV show is shooting in Grandview and wants to use Melinda 's store. Mel, Delia, Jim and Eli go to a Promotional Event, and Mel and Eli quickly pick up that a ghost is haunting the writer of the show and the lead male actor, and is also involving a seemingly random girl in the audience. They discover that they were all in a play together and the ghost was shot on stage when the blank gun malfunctioned. Mel and Eli think he blames the other three for his death and Eli jumps to the conclusion that the ghost is trying to kill someone on the show. They have to unravel the truth behind what happened in the play all those years ago so the ghost can cross over. After an accident shooting a walk - on part, Jim takes Mel to the hospital and they get some great news.
Melinda is at Delia 's when she realises that one of the girls in Ned 's study group is being haunted. After a sleepwalking incident, Mel and Eli try to work out who the ghost is and what he wants. Eli 's friend Zoe (who told him about Voodoo in the previous episode) recognises the hauntings as Vampire Myths, leading Mel to wonder if Serena knew the ghost, and whether she was into Vampires. When she tries to ask her about it, Serena ends up thinking Vampires are real, and is surprised when Mel reveals she was talking about a ghost. The ghost leads Serena to his crypt after she says she wants to see him, and Mel has to race against time to get there and get her out of the sealed crypt before all the oxygen runs out. Also, Mel and Jim plan their second wedding - with Jim as Sam.
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don't change horses in midstream wag the dog | Wag the Dog - wikipedia
Wag the Dog is a 1997 black comedy film produced and directed by Barry Levinson. The screenplay by Hilary Henkin and David Mamet was loosely adapted from Larry Beinhart 's novel American Hero. The film stars Dustin Hoffman and Robert De Niro, with Anne Heche, Denis Leary, and William H. Macy in supporting roles.
The film follows a Washington, D.C. spin doctor (De Niro) who, mere days before a presidential election, distracts the electorate from a sex scandal by hiring a Hollywood film producer (Hoffman) to construct a fake war with Albania.
Wag the Dog was released one month before the outbreak of the Lewinsky scandal and the subsequent bombing of the Al - Shifa pharmaceutical factory in Sudan by the Clinton administration, which prompted the media to draw comparisons between the film and reality.
The President of the United States is caught making advances on an underage "Firefly Girl '' less than two weeks before Election Day. Conrad Brean (De Niro), a top - notch spin doctor, is brought in to take the public 's attention away from the scandal. He decides to construct a diversionary war with Albania, hoping the media will concentrate on this instead. Brean contacts Hollywood producer Stanley Motss (Hoffman) to create the war, complete with a theme song and fake film footage of a photogenic orphan (Kirsten Dunst) in Albania.
When the CIA learns of the plot, they send Agent Young (Macy) to confront Brean who convinces him that revealing the deception is against his best interests. The CIA announces that the war has ended, but otherwise maintains the deception and the media begins to turn back to the President 's abuse scandal. Motss decides to invent a hero who was left behind enemy lines, and inspired by the idea that he was "discarded like an old shoe '' has the Pentagon provide him with a soldier named Schumann (Harrelson) around whom he constructs a further narrative including T - shirts, additional patriotic songs, and faux - grassroots demonstrations of patriotism. At each stage of the plan, Motss continually dismisses setbacks as "nothing '' and compares them to past movie - making catastrophes he averted.
When the team goes to retrieve Schumann, they discover he is in fact a criminally insane Army prison convict before their plane crashes en route to Andrews Air Force Base. The team survives and is rescued by a farmer, but Schumann attempts to rape the farmer 's daughter and the farmer kills him. Motss then stages an elaborate military funeral, claiming that Schumann died from wounds sustained during his rescue.
While watching a political talk show Motss gets frustrated that the media are crediting the president 's win to a tired campaign slogan of "Do n't change horses in mid-stream '' rather than Motss 's hard work. Despite previously claiming he was inspired by the challenge, Motss announces that he wants credit and will reveal his involvement, despite Brean 's warning that he is "playing with his life ''. Motss refuses to back down, so Brean reluctantly has him killed and makes it look as if he had a heart attack. The president is successfully re-elected and a news report about a violent incident in Albania is shown, but it is ambiguous whether this is a true event or simply a continuation of the fictional war.
The title of the film comes from the idiomatic English - language expression "the tail wagging the dog '', which is referenced at the beginning of the film by a caption that reads:
Why does the dog wag its tail? Because a dog is smarter than its tail. If the tail were smarter, it would wag the dog.
Hoffman 's character, Stanley Motss, is said to have been based directly upon famed producer Robert Evans. Similarities have been noted between the character and Evans ' work habits, mannerisms, quirks, clothing style, hairstyle, and large, square - framed eyeglasses; in fact, the real Evans is said to have joked, "I 'm magnificent in this film. '' Hoffman has never discussed any inspiration Evans may have provided for the role, and claims on the commentary track for the film 's DVD release that much of Motss ' characterization was based on Hoffman 's father, Harry Hoffman, a former prop manager for Columbia Pictures.
The award of writing credits on the film became controversial at the time, due to objections by Barry Levinson. After Levinson became attached as director, David Mamet was hired to rewrite Hilary Henkin 's screenplay, which was loosely adapted from Larry Beinhart 's novel American Hero.
Given the close relationship between Levinson and Mamet, New Line Cinema asked that Mamet be given sole credit for the screenplay. However, the Writers Guild of America intervened on Henkin 's behalf to assure that Henkin received first - position shared screenplay credit, finding that -- as the original screenwriter -- Henkin had created the screenplay 's structure as well as much of the screen story and dialogue.
Levinson thereafter threatened to (but did not) quit the Guild, claiming that Mamet had written all of the dialogue as well as creating the characters of Motss and Schumann, and had originated most of the scenes set in Hollywood and all of the scenes set in Nashville. Levinson attributed the numerous similarities between Henkin 's original version and the eventual shooting script to Henkin and Mamet working from the same novel, but the WGA disagreed in its credit arbitration ruling.
The film featured many songs created for the fictitious campaign waged by the protagonists; these songs include "Good Old Shoe '', "The American Dream '', and "The Men of the 303 ''. However, none of these pieces made it onto the soundtrack CD. The CD featured only the title track (by British guitarist / vocalist Mark Knopfler) and seven of Knopfler 's instrumentals.
On Rotten Tomatoes, Wag the Dog has an approval rating of 85 % based on 72 reviews, with an average rating of 7.3 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Smart, well - acted, and uncomfortably prescient political satire from director Barry Levinson and an all - star cast. '' On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating, the film has a score of 73 out of 100, based on 22 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''
Roger Ebert awarded the film four out of four stars and wrote in his review for the Chicago Sun - Times, "The movie is a satire that contains just enough realistic ballast to be teasingly plausible; like Dr. Strangelove, it makes you laugh, and then it makes you wonder. ''
The film was nominated for two 70th Academy Awards: Dustin Hoffman for the Academy Award for Best Actor, and Hilary Henkin and David Mamet for Best Adapted Screenplay. The film was also entered into the 48th Berlin International Film Festival, where it won the Silver Bear -- Special Jury Prize.
American Film Institute recognition
On April 27, 2017, Deadline reported that Barry Levinson, Robert De Niro, and Tom Fontana are developing a TV series based on the movie for HBO. De Niro 's Tribeca Productions will co-produce along with Levinson and Fontana 's company.
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what are 3 important events in earth’s atmospheric history | Geological history of Earth - wikipedia
The geological history of Earth follows the major events in Earth 's past based on the geologic time scale, a system of chronological measurement based on the study of the planet 's rock layers (stratigraphy). Earth formed about 4.54 billion years ago by accretion from the solar nebula, a disk - shaped mass of dust and gas left over from the formation of the Sun, which also created the rest of the Solar System.
Earth was initially molten due to extreme volcanism and frequent collisions with other bodies. Eventually, the outer layer of the planet cooled to form a solid crust when water began accumulating in the atmosphere. The Moon formed soon afterwards, possibly as a result of the impact of a planetoid with the Earth. Outgassing and volcanic activity produced the primordial atmosphere. Condensing water vapor, augmented by ice delivered from comets, produced the oceans.
As the surface continually reshaped itself over hundreds of millions of years, continents formed and broke apart. They migrated across the surface, occasionally combining to form a supercontinent. Roughly 750 million years ago, the earliest - known supercontinent Rodinia, began to break apart. The continents later recombined to form Pannotia, 600 to 540 million years ago, then finally Pangaea, which broke apart 200 million years ago.
The present pattern of ice ages began about 40 million years ago, then intensified at the end of the Pliocene. The polar regions have since undergone repeated cycles of glaciation and thaw, repeating every 40,000 -- 100,000 years. The last glacial period of the current ice age ended about 10,000 years ago.
The Precambrian includes approximately 90 % of geologic time. It extends from 4.6 billion years ago to the beginning of the Cambrian Period (about 541 Ma). It includes three eons, the Hadean, Archean, and Proterozoic.
Major volcanic events altering the Earth 's environment and causing extinctions may have occurred 10 times in the past 3 billion years.
During Hadean time (4.6 -- 4 Ga), the Solar System was forming, probably within a large cloud of gas and dust around the sun, called an accretion disc from which Earth formed 4,500 million years ago. The Hadean Eon is not formally recognized, but it essentially marks the era before we have adequate record of significant solid rocks. The oldest dated zircons date from about 4,400 million years ago.
Earth was initially molten due to extreme volcanism and frequent collisions with other bodies. Eventually, the outer layer of the planet cooled to form a solid crust when water began accumulating in the atmosphere. The Moon formed soon afterwards, possibly as a result of the impact of a large planetoid with the Earth. Some of this object 's mass merged with the Earth, significantly altering its internal composition, and a portion was ejected into space. Some of the material survived to form an orbiting moon. More recent potassium isotopic studies suggest that the Moon was formed by a smaller, high - energy, high - angular - momentum giant impact cleaving off a significant portion of the Earth. Outgassing and volcanic activity produced the primordial atmosphere. Condensing water vapor, augmented by ice delivered from comets, produced the oceans.
During the Hadean the Late Heavy Bombardment occurred (approximately 4,100 to 3,800 million years ago) during which a large number of impact craters are believed to have formed on the Moon, and by inference on Earth, Mercury, Venus and Mars as well.
The Earth of the early Archean (4,000 to 2,500 million years ago) may have had a different tectonic style. During this time, the Earth 's crust cooled enough that rocks and continental plates began to form. Some scientists think because the Earth was hotter, that plate tectonic activity was more vigorous than it is today, resulting in a much greater rate of recycling of crustal material. This may have prevented cratonisation and continent formation until the mantle cooled and convection slowed down. Others argue that the subcontinental lithospheric mantle is too buoyant to subduct and that the lack of Archean rocks is a function of erosion and subsequent tectonic events.
In contrast to the Proterozoic, Archean rocks are often heavily metamorphized deep - water sediments, such as graywackes, mudstones, volcanic sediments and banded iron formations. Greenstone belts are typical Archean formations, consisting of alternating high - and low - grade metamorphic rocks. The high - grade rocks were derived from volcanic island arcs, while the low - grade metamorphic rocks represent deep - sea sediments eroded from the neighboring island rocks and deposited in a forearc basin. In short, greenstone belts represent sutured protocontinents.
The Earth 's magnetic field was established 3.5 billion years ago. The solar wind flux was about 100 times the value of the modern Sun, so the presence of the magnetic field helped prevent the planet 's atmosphere from being stripped away, which is what probably happened to the atmosphere of Mars. However, the field strength was lower than at present and the magnetosphere was about half the modern radius.
The geologic record of the Proterozoic (2,500 to 541 million years ago) is more complete than that for the preceding Archean. In contrast to the deep - water deposits of the Archean, the Proterozoic features many strata that were laid down in extensive shallow epicontinental seas; furthermore, many of these rocks are less metamorphosed than Archean - age ones, and plenty are unaltered. Study of these rocks show that the eon featured massive, rapid continental accretion (unique to the Proterozoic), supercontinent cycles, and wholly modern orogenic activity. Roughly 750 million years ago, the earliest - known supercontinent Rodinia, began to break apart. The continents later recombined to form Pannotia, 600 -- 540 Ma.
The first - known glaciations occurred during the Proterozoic, one began shortly after the beginning of the eon, while there were at least four during the Neoproterozoic, climaxing with the Snowball Earth of the Varangian glaciation.
The Phanerozoic Eon is the current eon in the geologic timescale. It covers roughly 541 million years. During this period continents drifted about, eventually collected into a single landmass known as Pangea and then split up into the current continental landmasses.
The Phanerozoic is divided into three eras -- the Paleozoic, the Mesozoic and the Cenozoic.
Most of biological evolution occurred during this time period.
The Paleozoic spanned from roughly 541 to 252 million years ago (Ma) and is subdivided into six geologic periods; from oldest to youngest they are the Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous and Permian. Geologically, the Paleozoic starts shortly after the breakup of a supercontinent called Pannotia and at the end of a global ice age. Throughout the early Paleozoic, the Earth 's landmass was broken up into a substantial number of relatively small continents. Toward the end of the era the continents gathered together into a supercontinent called Pangaea, which included most of the Earth 's land area.
The Cambrian is a major division of the geologic timescale that begins about 541.0 ± 1.0 Ma. Cambrian continents are thought to have resulted from the breakup of a Neoproterozoic supercontinent called Pannotia. The waters of the Cambrian period appear to have been widespread and shallow. Continental drift rates may have been anomalously high. Laurentia, Baltica and Siberia remained independent continents following the break - up of the supercontinent of Pannotia. Gondwana started to drift toward the South Pole. Panthalassa covered most of the southern hemisphere, and minor oceans included the Proto - Tethys Ocean, Iapetus Ocean and Khanty Ocean.
The Ordovician period started at a major extinction event called the Cambrian -- Ordovician extinction event some time about 485.4 ± 1.9 Ma. During the Ordovician the southern continents were collected into a single continent called Gondwana. Gondwana started the period in the equatorial latitudes and, as the period progressed, drifted toward the South Pole. Early in the Ordovician the continents Laurentia, Siberia and Baltica were still independent continents (since the break - up of the supercontinent Pannotia earlier), but Baltica began to move toward Laurentia later in the period, causing the Iapetus Ocean to shrink between them. Also, Avalonia broke free from Gondwana and began to head north toward Laurentia. The Rheic Ocean was formed as a result of this. By the end of the period, Gondwana had neared or approached the pole and was largely glaciated.
The Ordovician came to a close in a series of extinction events that, taken together, comprise the second - largest of the five major extinction events in Earth 's history in terms of percentage of genera that became extinct. The only larger one was the Permian - Triassic extinction event. The extinctions occurred approximately 447 to 444 million years ago and mark the boundary between the Ordovician and the following Silurian Period.
The most - commonly accepted theory is that these events were triggered by the onset of an ice age, in the Hirnantian faunal stage that ended the long, stable greenhouse conditions typical of the Ordovician. The ice age was probably not as long - lasting as once thought; study of oxygen isotopes in fossil brachiopods shows that it was probably no longer than 0.5 to 1.5 million years. The event was preceded by a fall in atmospheric carbon dioxide (from 7000ppm to 4400ppm) which selectively affected the shallow seas where most organisms lived. As the southern supercontinent Gondwana drifted over the South Pole, ice caps formed on it. Evidence of these ice caps have been detected in Upper Ordovician rock strata of North Africa and then - adjacent northeastern South America, which were south - polar locations at the time.
The Silurian is a major division of the geologic timescale that started about 443.8 ± 1.5 Ma. During the Silurian, Gondwana continued a slow southward drift to high southern latitudes, but there is evidence that the Silurian ice caps were less extensive than those of the late Ordovician glaciation. The melting of ice caps and glaciers contributed to a rise in sea levels, recognizable from the fact that Silurian sediments overlie eroded Ordovician sediments, forming an unconformity. Other cratons and continent fragments drifted together near the equator, starting the formation of a second supercontinent known as Euramerica. The vast ocean of Panthalassa covered most of the northern hemisphere. Other minor oceans include Proto - Tethys, Paleo - Tethys, Rheic Ocean, a seaway of Iapetus Ocean (now in between Avalonia and Laurentia), and newly formed Ural Ocean.
The Devonian spanned roughly from 419 to 359 Ma. The period was a time of great tectonic activity, as Laurasia and Gondwana drew closer together. The continent Euramerica (or Laurussia) was created in the early Devonian by the collision of Laurentia and Baltica, which rotated into the natural dry zone along the Tropic of Capricorn. In these near - deserts, the Old Red Sandstone sedimentary beds formed, made red by the oxidized iron (hematite) characteristic of drought conditions. Near the equator Pangaea began to consolidate from the plates containing North America and Europe, further raising the northern Appalachian Mountains and forming the Caledonian Mountains in Great Britain and Scandinavia. The southern continents remained tied together in the supercontinent of Gondwana. The remainder of modern Eurasia lay in the Northern Hemisphere. Sea levels were high worldwide, and much of the land lay submerged under shallow seas. The deep, enormous Panthalassa (the "universal ocean '') covered the rest of the planet. Other minor oceans were Paleo - Tethys, Proto - Tethys, Rheic Ocean and Ural Ocean (which was closed during the collision with Siberia and Baltica).
The Carboniferous extends from about 358.9 ± 0.4 to about 298.9 ± 0.15 Ma.
A global drop in sea level at the end of the Devonian reversed early in the Carboniferous; this created the widespread epicontinental seas and carbonate deposition of the Mississippian. There was also a drop in south polar temperatures; southern Gondwana was glaciated throughout the period, though it is uncertain if the ice sheets were a holdover from the Devonian or not. These conditions apparently had little effect in the deep tropics, where lush coal swamps flourished within 30 degrees of the northernmost glaciers. A mid-Carboniferous drop in sea - level precipitated a major marine extinction, one that hit crinoids and ammonites especially hard. This sea - level drop and the associated unconformity in North America separate the Mississippian Period from the Pennsylvanian period.
The Carboniferous was a time of active mountain building, as the supercontinent Pangea came together. The southern continents remained tied together in the supercontinent Gondwana, which collided with North America - Europe (Laurussia) along the present line of eastern North America. This continental collision resulted in the Hercynian orogeny in Europe, and the Alleghenian orogeny in North America; it also extended the newly uplifted Appalachians southwestward as the Ouachita Mountains. In the same time frame, much of present eastern Eurasian plate welded itself to Europe along the line of the Ural mountains. There were two major oceans in the Carboniferous the Panthalassa and Paleo - Tethys. Other minor oceans were shrinking and eventually closed the Rheic Ocean (closed by the assembly of South and North America), the small, shallow Ural Ocean (which was closed by the collision of Baltica, and Siberia continents, creating the Ural Mountains) and Proto - Tethys Ocean.
The Permian extends from about 298.9 ± 0.15 to 252.17 ± 0.06 Ma.
During the Permian all the Earth 's major land masses, except portions of East Asia, were collected into a single supercontinent known as Pangaea. Pangaea straddled the equator and extended toward the poles, with a corresponding effect on ocean currents in the single great ocean (Panthalassa, the universal sea), and the Paleo - Tethys Ocean, a large ocean that was between Asia and Gondwana. The Cimmeria continent rifted away from Gondwana and drifted north to Laurasia, causing the Paleo - Tethys to shrink. A new ocean was growing on its southern end, the Tethys Ocean, an ocean that would dominate much of the Mesozoic Era. Large continental landmasses create climates with extreme variations of heat and cold ("continental climate '') and monsoon conditions with highly seasonal rainfall patterns. Deserts seem to have been widespread on Pangaea.
The Mesozoic extended roughly from 252 to 66 million years ago.
After the vigorous convergent plate mountain - building of the late Paleozoic, Mesozoic tectonic deformation was comparatively mild. Nevertheless, the era featured the dramatic rifting of the supercontinent Pangaea. Pangaea gradually split into a northern continent, Laurasia, and a southern continent, Gondwana. This created the passive continental margin that characterizes most of the Atlantic coastline (such as along the U.S. East Coast) today.
The Triassic Period extends from about 252.17 ± 0.06 to 201.3 ± 0.2 Ma. During the Triassic, almost all the Earth 's land mass was concentrated into a single supercontinent centered more or less on the equator, called Pangaea ("all the land ''). This took the form of a giant "Pac - Man '' with an east - facing "mouth '' constituting the Tethys sea, a vast gulf that opened farther westward in the mid-Triassic, at the expense of the shrinking Paleo - Tethys Ocean, an ocean that existed during the Paleozoic.
The remainder was the world - ocean known as Panthalassa ("all the sea ''). All the deep - ocean sediments laid down during the Triassic have disappeared through subduction of oceanic plates; thus, very little is known of the Triassic open ocean. The supercontinent Pangaea was rifting during the Triassic -- especially late in the period -- but had not yet separated. The first nonmarine sediments in the rift that marks the initial break - up of Pangea -- which separated New Jersey from Morocco -- are of Late Triassic age; in the U.S., these thick sediments comprise the Newark Supergroup. Because of the limited shoreline of one super-continental mass, Triassic marine deposits are globally relatively rare; despite their prominence in Western Europe, where the Triassic was first studied. In North America, for example, marine deposits are limited to a few exposures in the west. Thus Triassic stratigraphy is mostly based on organisms living in lagoons and hypersaline environments, such as Estheria crustaceans and terrestrial vertebrates.
The Jurassic Period extends from about 201.3 ± 0.2 to 145.0 Ma. During the early Jurassic, the supercontinent Pangaea broke up into the northern supercontinent Laurasia and the southern supercontinent Gondwana; the Gulf of Mexico opened in the new rift between North America and what is now Mexico 's Yucatan Peninsula. The Jurassic North Atlantic Ocean was relatively narrow, while the South Atlantic did not open until the following Cretaceous Period, when Gondwana itself rifted apart. The Tethys Sea closed, and the Neotethys basin appeared. Climates were warm, with no evidence of glaciation. As in the Triassic, there was apparently no land near either pole, and no extensive ice caps existed. The Jurassic geological record is good in western Europe, where extensive marine sequences indicate a time when much of the continent was submerged under shallow tropical seas; famous locales include the Jurassic Coast World Heritage Site and the renowned late Jurassic lagerstätten of Holzmaden and Solnhofen. In contrast, the North American Jurassic record is the poorest of the Mesozoic, with few outcrops at the surface. Though the epicontinental Sundance Sea left marine deposits in parts of the northern plains of the United States and Canada during the late Jurassic, most exposed sediments from this period are continental, such as the alluvial deposits of the Morrison Formation. The first of several massive batholiths were emplaced in the northern Cordillera beginning in the mid-Jurassic, marking the Nevadan orogeny. Important Jurassic exposures are also found in Russia, India, South America, Japan, Australasia and the United Kingdom.
The Cretaceous Period extends from circa 145 million years ago to 66 million years ago.
During the Cretaceous, the late Paleozoic - early Mesozoic supercontinent of Pangaea completed its breakup into present day continents, although their positions were substantially different at the time. As the Atlantic Ocean widened, the convergent - margin orogenies that had begun during the Jurassic continued in the North American Cordillera, as the Nevadan orogeny was followed by the Sevier and Laramide orogenies. Though Gondwana was still intact in the beginning of the Cretaceous, Gondwana itself broke up as South America, Antarctica and Australia rifted away from Africa (though India and Madagascar remained attached to each other); thus, the South Atlantic and Indian Oceans were newly formed. Such active rifting lifted great undersea mountain chains along the welts, raising eustatic sea levels worldwide.
To the north of Africa the Tethys Sea continued to narrow. Broad shallow seas advanced across central North America (the Western Interior Seaway) and Europe, then receded late in the period, leaving thick marine deposits sandwiched between coal beds. At the peak of the Cretaceous transgression, one - third of Earth 's present land area was submerged. The Cretaceous is justly famous for its chalk; indeed, more chalk formed in the Cretaceous than in any other period in the Phanerozoic. Mid-ocean ridge activity -- or rather, the circulation of seawater through the enlarged ridges -- enriched the oceans in calcium; this made the oceans more saturated, as well as increased the bioavailability of the element for calcareous nanoplankton. These widespread carbonates and other sedimentary deposits make the Cretaceous rock record especially fine. Famous formations from North America include the rich marine fossils of Kansas 's Smoky Hill Chalk Member and the terrestrial fauna of the late Cretaceous Hell Creek Formation. Other important Cretaceous exposures occur in Europe and China. In the area that is now India, massive lava beds called the Deccan Traps were laid down in the very late Cretaceous and early Paleocene.
The Cenozoic Era covers the 66 million years since the Cretaceous -- Paleogene extinction event up to and including the present day. By the end of the Mesozoic era, the continents had rifted into nearly their present form. Laurasia became North America and Eurasia, while Gondwana split into South America, Africa, Australia, Antarctica and the Indian subcontinent, which collided with the Asian plate. This impact gave rise to the Himalayas. The Tethys Sea, which had separated the northern continents from Africa and India, began to close up, forming the Mediterranean sea.
The Paleogene (alternatively Palaeogene) Period is a unit of geologic time that began 66 and ended 23.03 Ma and comprises the first part of the Cenozoic Era. This period consists of the Paleocene, Eocene and Oligocene Epochs.
The Paleocene, lasted from 66 million years ago to 56 million years ago.
In many ways, the Paleocene continued processes that had begun during the late Cretaceous Period. During the Paleocene, the continents continued to drift toward their present positions. Supercontinent Laurasia had not yet separated into three continents. Europe and Greenland were still connected. North America and Asia were still intermittently joined by a land bridge, while Greenland and North America were beginning to separate. The Laramide orogeny of the late Cretaceous continued to uplift the Rocky Mountains in the American west, which ended in the succeeding epoch. South and North America remained separated by equatorial seas (they joined during the Neogene); the components of the former southern supercontinent Gondwana continued to split apart, with Africa, South America, Antarctica and Australia pulling away from each other. Africa was heading north toward Europe, slowly closing the Tethys Ocean, and India began its migration to Asia that would lead to a tectonic collision and the formation of the Himalayas.
During the Eocene (56 million years ago - 33.9 million years ago), the continents continued to drift toward their present positions. At the beginning of the period, Australia and Antarctica remained connected, and warm equatorial currents mixed with colder Antarctic waters, distributing the heat around the world and keeping global temperatures high. But when Australia split from the southern continent around 45 Ma, the warm equatorial currents were deflected away from Antarctica, and an isolated cold water channel developed between the two continents. The Antarctic region cooled down, and the ocean surrounding Antarctica began to freeze, sending cold water and ice floes north, reinforcing the cooling. The present pattern of ice ages began about 40 million years ago.
The northern supercontinent of Laurasia began to break up, as Europe, Greenland and North America drifted apart. In western North America, mountain building started in the Eocene, and huge lakes formed in the high flat basins among uplifts. In Europe, the Tethys Sea finally vanished, while the uplift of the Alps isolated its final remnant, the Mediterranean, and created another shallow sea with island archipelagos to the north. Though the North Atlantic was opening, a land connection appears to have remained between North America and Europe since the faunas of the two regions are very similar. India continued its journey away from Africa and began its collision with Asia, creating the Himalayan orogeny.
The Oligocene Epoch extends from about 34 million years ago to 23 million years ago. During the Oligocene the continents continued to drift toward their present positions.
Antarctica continued to become more isolated and finally developed a permanent ice cap. Mountain building in western North America continued, and the Alps started to rise in Europe as the African plate continued to push north into the Eurasian plate, isolating the remnants of Tethys Sea. A brief marine incursion marks the early Oligocene in Europe. There appears to have been a land bridge in the early Oligocene between North America and Europe since the faunas of the two regions are very similar. During the Oligocene, South America was finally detached from Antarctica and drifted north toward North America. It also allowed the Antarctic Circumpolar Current to flow, rapidly cooling the continent.
The Neogene Period is a unit of geologic time starting 23.03 Ma. and ends at 2.588 Mya. The Neogene Period follows the Paleogene Period. The Neogene consists of the Miocene and Pliocene and is followed by the Quaternary Period.
The Miocene extends from about 23.03 to 5.333 Ma.
During the Miocene continents continued to drift toward their present positions. Of the modern geologic features, only the land bridge between South America and North America was absent, the subduction zone along the Pacific Ocean margin of South America caused the rise of the Andes and the southward extension of the Meso - American peninsula. India continued to collide with Asia. The Tethys Seaway continued to shrink and then disappeared as Africa collided with Eurasia in the Turkish - Arabian region between 19 and 12 Ma (ICS 2004). Subsequent uplift of mountains in the western Mediterranean region and a global fall in sea levels combined to cause a temporary drying up of the Mediterranean Sea resulting in the Messinian salinity crisis near the end of the Miocene.
The Pliocene extends from 5.333 million years ago to 2.588 million years ago. During the Pliocene continents continued to drift toward their present positions, moving from positions possibly as far as 250 kilometres (155 mi) from their present locations to positions only 70 km from their current locations.
South America became linked to North America through the Isthmus of Panama during the Pliocene, bringing a nearly complete end to South America 's distinctive marsupial faunas. The formation of the Isthmus had major consequences on global temperatures, since warm equatorial ocean currents were cut off and an Atlantic cooling cycle began, with cold Arctic and Antarctic waters dropping temperatures in the now - isolated Atlantic Ocean. Africa 's collision with Europe formed the Mediterranean Sea, cutting off the remnants of the Tethys Ocean. Sea level changes exposed the land - bridge between Alaska and Asia. Near the end of the Pliocene, about 2.58 million years ago (the start of the Quaternary Period), the current ice age began. The polar regions have since undergone repeated cycles of glaciation and thaw, repeating every 40,000 -- 100,000 years.
The Pleistocene extends from 2.588 million years ago to 11,700 years before present. The modern continents were essentially at their present positions during the Pleistocene, the plates upon which they sit probably having moved no more than 100 kilometres (62 mi) relative to each other since the beginning of the period.
The Holocene Epoch began approximately 11,700 calendar years before present and continues to the present. During the Holocene, continental motions have been less than a kilometer.
The last glacial period of the current ice age ended about 10,000 years ago. Ice melt caused world sea levels to rise about 35 metres (115 ft) in the early part of the Holocene. In addition, many areas above about 40 degrees north latitude had been depressed by the weight of the Pleistocene glaciers and rose as much as 180 metres (591 ft) over the late Pleistocene and Holocene, and are still rising today. The sea level rise and temporary land depression allowed temporary marine incursions into areas that are now far from the sea. Holocene marine fossils are known from Vermont, Quebec, Ontario and Michigan. Other than higher latitude temporary marine incursions associated with glacial depression, Holocene fossils are found primarily in lakebed, floodplain and cave deposits. Holocene marine deposits along low - latitude coastlines are rare because the rise in sea levels during the period exceeds any likely upthrusting of non-glacial origin. Post-glacial rebound in Scandinavia resulted in the emergence of coastal areas around the Baltic Sea, including much of Finland. The region continues to rise, still causing weak earthquakes across Northern Europe. The equivalent event in North America was the rebound of Hudson Bay, as it shrank from its larger, immediate post-glacial Tyrrell Sea phase, to near its present boundaries.
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3. how did the inventors and developers contribute to the development of ict | Information and communication technologies for development - Wikipedia
Information and communication technologies for development (ICT4D) refers to the application of information and communication technologies (ICT) toward social, economic, and political development, with a particular emphasis on helping poor and marginalized people and communities. It aims to help in international development by bridging the digital divide and providing equitable access to technologies. ICT4D is grounded in the notions of "development '', "growth '', "progress '' and "globalization '' and is often interpreted as the use of technology to deliver a greater good. Another similar term used in the literature is "digital development ''. ICT4D draws on theories and frameworks from many disciplines, including sociology, economics, development studies, library, information science, and communication studies.
ICT4D grew out of the attempts to use emerging computing technologies to improve conditions in the developing countries. According to a paper by Crysta Highfield, ((https://mdp.berkeley.edu/social-media-and-development/ 1)) "as internet connectivity spreads, and cell phone usage spreads even further, there are millions of new potential content creators gaining access to social media each year. ''
It formalized through a series of reports, conferences, and funding initiatives that acted as key policy - making avenues: the 1998 World Development Report from the World Bank, highlighting the role of knowledge and ICTs in development; a report from the G8 Digital Opportunities Task Force, concluding that ICTs play a key role in modern human development, the World Summits on the Information Society held in Geneva in 2003 and Tunis in 2005.
At least three phases can be identified in ICT4D evolution:
The table below summarizes the ICT4D evolution:
Proponents of ICT4D proposed four arguments focused on: first, ICT 's role to national and global advancements; second, information and communication technology as an integral part of economic development; third, it can and it should influence to end exploitive regimes and dismantle asymmetrical structures; lastly, it is argued that communication through new media are extensions of mankind. They are believed to provide the infrastructure for an evolving world brain. (Flor, A.G., 2009)
As information and communication technologies evolve, so does ICT4D: more recently it has been suggested that big data can be used as an important ICT tool for development and that it represents a natural evolution of the ICT4D paradigm.
According to Carlota Perez: "this quantum jump in productivity can be seen as a technological revolution, which is made possible by the appearance in the general cost structure of a particular input that we could call the ' key factor ', fulfilling the following conditions: (1) clearly perceived low - and descending - relative cost; (2) unlimited supply for all practical purposes; (3) potential all - pervasiveness; (4) a capacity to reduce the costs of capital, labour and products as well as to change them qualitatively ''. Information and Communication Technology is expected to fulfill these requirements and bring socio - economic and political transformation which result in a modern and developed society. This type of society is often referred to as the post-industrial society, the fifth Kondratiev, Information society, digital age and network society.
The major goal of ICT for Development is to utilize the benefits of technology for social transformation for good. Previously when such social transformations took place (e.g. industrial revolution), the result was derived from a combined effect of a powerful technology and effective policy and strategy. In the case of ICT4D, this three - dimensional interplay has been depicted as a cube. In line with the Schumpeterian school of thought, the first enabling factor for the associated socio - economic transformations is the existence of technological infrastructure: hardware infrastructure and generic software services. Additionally, capacity and knowledge are the human requirements to make use of these technologies. These foundations (horizontal green dimension in Figure) are the basis for the digitization of information flows and communication mechanisms in different sectors of society. When part of the information flows and communication processes in these sectors are carried out in e-lectronic networks, the prefix "e - '' is often added to the sector 's name, resulting in e-government, e-business and e-commerce, e-health, and e-learning, etc. (vertical blue dimension in Figure). This process of transformation represent the basic requirements and building blocks, but they are not sufficient for development. The mere existence of technology is not enough to achieve positive outcomes (no technological determinism). ICT4D strategies and policies focus on accelerating development works, minimizing drawbacks and removing bottlenecks with the use of technology to meet goals. Generally, interventions are of two kinds: Positive Assessment (e.g. incentives, projects, financing etc.) that make existing opportunities more prominent and Negative Assessment (e.g. regulation and legislation, etc.) that controls and suppress negative developments (diagonal yellow - red dimension in Figure).
ICT development includes many types of infrastructure and services, ranging from telecommunications, such as voice, data, and media services, to specific applications, such as banking, education, or health, to the implementation of electronic government (e-government). Each of these types has its own trends that vary across countries and regions.
One of the most positive trends has been observed in voice communications. Thus, the proportion of mobile phone subscriptions in developing countries increased from about 30 percent of the world total in 2000 to more than 50 percent in 2004 and to almost 70 percent in 2007. In India, the total number of mobile phone subscriptions reached 851.70 million in June 2011, among which 289.57 million came from rural areas, with a higher percentage of increase than that in urban areas. Only about 35 percent of the population in developing countries has access to the Internet (versus about 80 percent in advanced economies).
Access to ICTs in the developing world has been framed through the concepts of digital divide and use / non-use. Market liberalization and competition as well as various regulatory and technical solutions are believed to be useful in closing the digital divide and ensuring the universal access to ICTs. The general perception is that people who have access to ICT will benefit from it, and those who do n't would not. Benefits include boundless information sharing, connectivity, participation in the global economy. The use of mobile phones as part of ICT4D initiatives shows some positive effects in improving access to information and services. For example, the arrival of mobiles brought reduction in the variability of price and the amount of waste in the fishing system along the Kerala coast, India. A study in Kenya identified innovation in mobile technologies for development, in particular the success of M - PESA mobile banking through the partnerships between private and public sectors. Another analysis of mobile phone use in developing countries shows that the use of mobile phones improves access to information, helps to address market inefficiencies, and can be used in disaster relief.
In contrast, studies from rural regions in Ethiopia, India, and Indonesia suggest that farmers use mobile phones to connect to those who are already in their social network, which limits the usability of mobile phones for wider information sharing and change in practices.
Furthermore, it has been suggested that those who do n't have access to technology run the risk of being marginalized and bypassed.
The users and non-users of ICTs can be categorized into Non-Users, Indirect Users, Shared Users, and Owner - Use.
One of the goals of ICT4D is to employ robust low - cost technologies that can be available for poor and low income communities around the world.
Short - and long - term negative effects of ICTs also need to be studied.
Examples of specific technologies used in developing countries include:
According to David Edelstein, the interim president and CEO of the Grameen Foundation (May 2015 to May 2016), this is how transformational change may be achieved with ICTD.
Agriculture is considered to be the most vital sector for ICT intervention. It is considered as the primary economic sector. It produces the most basic of human needs - food, clothing, shelter.
Farmers in the developing countries use ICTs to access price information from national and international markets as well as connect to policy makers and other farmers. There are also smartphone apps that can show the user information about the status of their crops and irrigation system remotely. In livestock farming, cattle - breeding now includes scientific crossbreeding techniques that produce cattle with greatly improved fertility. Having a local radio / TV show will be a great help in informing the community on updates from the agricultural sector. ICTs can also be used for training purposes.
For an experimental assessment of the role of mobile phones for farmers ' access to agricultural information from extension agents and from other farmers see a recent article.
ICT4D initiatives in agriculture can be generally classified into direct interventions, when farmers are connected to information and opportunities that can directly improve their income or well - being, and indirect interventions -- supportive, long - term programs that can improve established agricultural services over time through capacity building, research, and training.
ICT4D not only strengthens agricultural production but also helps in market development. Thus it supports creating future opportunities for agricultural sector and the development of rural livelihoods.
A document released by the World Bank 's eTransform Africa project presents a summary of ICT application in agriculture in the African continent. The report includes a roadmap on ICT 's application in farming, a list of African eAgriculture accomplishments called the Africa Scan, and agricultural case studies performed in countries such as Namibia and Egypt, which focuses on livestock production and irrigation efficiency, respectively.
The Open Agriculture (OpenAG) project by MIT is an ICT - enabled project with an Agriculture development focus. In this project, users have a controlled environment agriculture device where "every time users grow and harvest, they will contribute to a library of Climate Recipes that can be borrowed and scaled so that users around the world can gain access to the best and freshest foods ''.
Rice is the main food of half of the population. In the Philippines, the FutureRice program by the Philippine Rice Research Institute (PhilRice) is close to completing its vision of Philippine farms of the future as of 2015. The goal is to have farms that are automated, connected to apps for the people to save on water, harness green energy, and make use of natural fertilizers and pesticides. The demo farms aim to prepare farmers for two probable future scenarios: natural farming for a world where fuel has become expensive and scarce due to high demand, and high - tech, mechanized farming to make Philippine rice competitive in the world market.
With farming equipment, farmers can significantly save time, money, and labor. For instance, a mechanical rice transplanter -- a machine used to transfer rice seedlings onto a rice paddy -- can finish one hectare in one hour compared to an entire day with 8 to 10 laborers without a transplanter. Organic, farm - sourced waste like carabao poop and rice straw are turned into fertilizer through the action of microbacteria and earthworms. It is a process called vermicompost.
Today, there are apps customized to the needs of farmers. Rice Crop Manager, a web and mobile - based app developed by the International Rice Research Institute together with PhilRice, presents farmers with a set of questions about their farm. Once all the questions are answered, the app will generate recommendations on how the farmer can improve his yield (e.g. the app will tell him when, how much, and how often to apply fertilizer). Rice Crop Manager can be viewed and downloaded from Google Play as "RCM PH ''.
"Rice Doctor Tagalog '' is a Filipino version of the mobile application. It aims to aid in the identification and management of the rice crop issues here in the country. Leading authorities from International Rice Research Institute, Philippine Rice Research Institute, the Indonesian Research Institute for Rice, and the Lucid team at the University of Queensland in Australia developed the application. IRRI said that workers, farmers, researchers, and students using Rice Doctor can identify more than 80 pests, diseases and other disorders affecting rice with text and images. Experts from PhilRice and students taking up development communication from the University of the Philippines aided in the reviewing, editing and finalizing of the Filipino translation of the summary of the signs, symptoms and management options. IRRI stated that this recent meeting at in Laguna was the next step of the Filipino translation held by the project, Improving Technology Promotion and Delivery through Capability Enhancement of Next - Gen Rice Extension Professionals and Other Intermediaries, under the Food Staples Sufficiency Program. Last year, the first part of the workshop was primarily for the terms and translation of the diagnostic questions. IRRI claims that the Filipino translated Rice Doctor is the stepping stone for the translation and localization of a diagnostic tool for the country - specific crop problems. Currently, these are also being done in other countries such as Bangladesh and India.
The use of ICT in weather forecasting is broad. Weather forecasting offices use mass media to inform the public on weather updates. After tropical storm Ondoy in the Philippines, the Filipino people are more curious and aware about the weather hazards. Meteorological offices are also using advanced tools to monitor the weather and the weather systems that may affect a certain area.
Monitoring devices include:
In Africa, flood is one of the major concerns of farmers. The International Water Management Institute launched the mobile services for flood management, specifically in East Sudan. These mobile services are considered as a next - generation ICT for weather and water information. The tool converts complex satellite sensor information to simple text messages which are sent to farmers informing them about the optimum use of flood water for crop production. The text messages would also warn the farmers about the flood events which would help them prepare their fields and advise on how to mitigate flood damage in estimating the risk of future flood events.
Climate change is a global phenomenon affecting the lives of mankind. In times of calamities, information and communication technology is needed for disaster management. Various organisations, government agencies and small and large - scale research projects have been exploring the use of ICT for relief operations, providing early warnings and monitoring extreme weather events. A review of new ICTs and climate change in developing countries highlighted that ICT can be used for (1) Monitoring: observing, detecting and predicting, and informing science and decision making; (2) Disaster management: supporting emergency response through communications and information sharing, and providing early warning systems; and (3) Adaptation: supporting environmental, health and resource management activities, up - scaling technologies and building resilience. In the Philippines, institutions like the National Disaster and Risk Reduction and Management Council help the public in monitoring the weather and advisory for any possible risks due to hazardous weather. NetHope is another global organization which contributes disaster management and awareness through information technology. According to ICTandclimatechange.com ICT companies can be victims, villains or heroes of climate change.
In 2014 when Typhoon Haiyan hit the Philippines, the CDAC network utilized different technologies to coordinate and communicate efforts between the affected communities and the different network 's volunteer organizations. CDAC saw the value of communication in responding to the disaster. They emphasized getting accurate and timely information as being crucial to saving lives. One of the organizations and tools that they tapped was the Digital Humanitarian Network. The Digital Humanitarian Network is a group of organizations with various tools that contribute to crisis mapping. These tools were used to manage information that are received about the disaster. The tools they use allow them to monitor media -- including social media, create live crisis maps, analyze the data they have, etc.
In 2015, the Metro Manila Development Authority (MMDA) launched a website called Be Prepared Metro Manila. The website collates information regarding earthquake preparedness. This was created in response to a predicted earthquake, expected to hit Metro Manila with a 7.2 intensity and it contains different info - graphics containing precautionary measures that can be used to monitor and prepare for earthquakes. Be Prepared Metro Manila explains how to respond in the event of an earthquake, illustrates the valley fault system, lists down details of emergency contacts, and opens a sign - up process for people interested to be volunteers. In addition to the campaign launched by the Metro Manila Development Authority (MMDA), the Department of Science and Technology (DOST) has also utilized ICT through the use of both web application and mobile application for the DOST -- Project Noah. According to DOST, NOAH 's mission is to undertake disaster science research and development, advance the use of cutting edge technologies, and recommend innovative information services in government 's disaster prevention and mitigation efforts. Through the use of science and technology and in partnership with the academe and other stakeholders, the DOST through Project NOAH is taking a multi-disciplinary approach in developing systems, tools, and other technologies that could be operationalized by government to help prevent and mitigate disasters. Project NOAH can be accessed here
Geographic information systems (GIS) are also used in several ICT4D applications, such as the Open Risk Data Initiative (OpenRDI). OpenRDI aims to minimize the effect of disaster in developing countries by encouraging them to open their disaster risk data. GIS technologies such as satellite imagery, thematic maps, and geospatial data play a big part in disaster risk management. One example is the HaitiData, where maps of Haiti containing layers of geospatial data (earthquake intensity, flooding likelihood, landslide and tsunami hazards, overall damage, etc.) are made available which can then be used by decision makers and policy makers for rehabilitation and reconstruction of the country. The areas which are receiving priority attention include natural resources information assessment, monitoring and management, water shed development, environmental planning, urban services and land use planning.
Government, non-government and other organizations are encouraged to use ICT as a tool for protecting environment and developing sustainable systems that save natural resources, to implement green computing and to establish surveillance systems to forecast and monitor natural and man - made disasters.
According to a research by OECD, ICTs can be tools for dealing with environmental issues as follows:
Examples: The Tropical Ecology Assessment and Monitoring Network, Atlas of Our Changing Environment, Climate Change in Our World,
The use of ICTs in the educational system that would not be able to solve the current problems in the educational system, but rather provide alternative solutions to the obstacles encountered in the conventional educational system. ICTs would be able to provide education and knowledge in a wider reach, even with a limited amount of resources, unlike conventional systems of education.
ICT has been employed in many education projects and research over the world. The Hole in the Wall (also known as minimally invasive education) is one of the projects which focuses on the development of computer literacy and the improvement of learning. Other projects included the utilization of mobile phone technology to improve educational outcomes.
In the Philippines, there are key notes that have been forwarded to expand the definition of ICT4E from an exclusive high - end technology to include low - end technology; that is, both digital and analog. As a leading mobile technology user, the Philippines can take advantage of this for student learning. One project that serves as an example is Project Mind, a collaboration of the Molave Development Foundation, Health Sciences University of Mongolia, ESP Foundation, and the University of the Philippines Open University (UPOU) which focuses on the viability of Short Message System (SMS) for distance learning. Pedagogy, Teacher Training, and Personnel Management are some of the subgroups of ICT4E. UPOU is one of the best examples of education transformation that empowers the potential of ICT in the Philippines ' education system. By maximizing the use of technology to create a wide range of learning, UPOU promotes lifelong learning in a more convenient way.
Furthermore, ICTs allow learning to become student - centered rather than teacher - dominated, such as in the case of distance - learning programs. It has multiple impacts on student achievements and motivations, including but not limited to: confidence in computer usage, increased autonomy when learning, improved development in language and communication skills. However, it is not without its flaws -- ICTs can easily become the focus of a program, in which the technology is given and provided before much thought is given to the application of it.
As education is a key factor of socio - economic development, the education system of developing countries must be aligned with modern technology. ICT can improve the quality of education and bring better outcomes by making information easily accessible to students, helping to gain knowledge and skill easily and making trainings more available for teachers.
Many current initiatives to improve global, regional and national literacy rates use ICT, particularly mobile phones and SMS. For example, in India a project titled "Mobile Learning Games for English as Second Language Literacy '' (2004 - 2012) aimed to enhance the literacy sub-skills of boys and girls in low - income rural areas (and in urban slums) via mobile game - based learning of English in non-formal, formal and informal education contexts.
A project in Niger titled "Alphabetisation de Base par Cellulaire (ABC) '' (2009 - 2011) was based on the observation that ' illiterate traders in Niger were teaching themselves how to read and write in order to be able to benefit from the lower prices that sending SMS offered compared with calling. If mobile phones could encourage illiterate traders to become partially literate, how useful would it be to incorporate mobile phones in adult literacy classes? ' In consequence, this project provided mobile phones and instruction to adults (including participants from producers ' associations) on how to use mobiles in literacy programmes (including ' functional literacy topics ').
In Senegal, "The Jokko Initiative '' (2009 - 2010) provided participants the opportunity to practice basic literacy skills via SMS messaging during an ongoing non-formal literacy component offered as part of an overall Community Empowerment Program (CEP). Participants also made use of digital and visual literacy skills linking mobile phone menu features with visual symbols and signs related to mango picking -- a common community livelihood practice. The mobile phone literacy component was created as a response to an identified drop in participants ' attendance and motivation during the third phase of the CEP, and the low retention of literacy skills among participants.
In Somali, the "Dab IYO DAHAB Initiative '' (2008 - 2011) used mobile phone technology to ' build basic money management skills (financial skills) among youth and women so that they could make informed decisions about their personal, households and / or small businesses ' and was used ' as a tool to empower Somali youth, particularly young Somali women, and more generally, to enhance existing grassroots education, financial literacy, and poverty - reduction initiatives '. The overall Somali community empowerment programme has been documented as boosting job training and placement for 8,000 young people (women and men). Tests before and after showed statistically significant improvement in skills, with the youth livelihoods programme being linked to job placements.
ICTs can be a supportive tool to develop and serve with reliable, timely, high - quality and affordable health care and health information systems and to provide health education, training and improve health research.
According to the World Health Organization (WHO), 15 % of the world 's total population have disabilities. This is approximately 600 million people wherein three out of every four are living in developing countries, half are of working age, half are women and the highest incidence and prevalence of disabilities occurs in poor areas. With ICT, lives of people with disabilities can be improved, allowing them to have a better interaction in society by widening their scope of activities.
Goals of ICT and disability work
At the international level, there are numerous guiding documents impacting on the education of people with disabilities such as Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948), moving to the Convention against Discrimination in Education (1960), the Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989), the Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions (2005). The Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) includes policies about accessibility, non-discrimination, equal opportunity, full and effective participation and other issues. The key statement within the CRPD (2006) relevant for ICT and people with disabilities is within Article 9:
Another international policy that has indirect implications for the use of ICT by people with disabilities are the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). Although these do not specifically mention the right to access ICT for people with disabilities, two key elements within the MDGs are to reduce the number of people in poverty and to reach out to the marginalised groups without access to ICT.
New forms of technology, such as social media platforms, provide spaces where individuals can participate in expressions of civic engagement. Researchers are now realizing that activity such as Twitter use "... that could easily be dismissed as leisure or mundane should be considered under a broader conceptualization of development research. ''
Social Networking Sites (SNS) are indispensable for it provides a venue for civic engagement for its users to call attention to issues that needs action because of the nature of social media platforms as an effective tool in disseminating information to all its users. Social media can also be used as a support venue for solving problems and also a means for reporting criminal activity or calamity issues that affects the well being of communities. Social media is also used for inciting volunteerism by letting others know of situations in places that requires civic intervention and organize activities to make it happen.
Civic engagement plays a large part in e-government, particularly in the area of Transparency and Accountability. ICTs are used to promote openness in the government as well as a platform for citizens to report on anomalous government activities for the purpose of reducing corruption and in promoting efficiency.
Even before the advent or popularity of social media platforms, internet forums were already present. Here, people could share their concerns about pertinent topics to seek solutions.
In third - world countries like the Philippines, the text brigade is an easy method for informing and gathering people for whatever purpose. It usually starts with an individual sending an SMS to his / her direct contacts about a civic engagement. Then he / she requests the recipients to send the same message to their own contacts as well until the number of people involved gets bigger and bigger.
The e-government action plan includes applications and services for ensuring transparency, improving efficiency, strengthening citizen relations, making need - based initiatives, allocating public resources efficiently and enhancing international cooperation.
Writing about ICTs for government use in 1954, W. Howard Gammon can be credited as writing the first e-government research paper. Though not mentioning the word "e-government '', his article "The Automatic Handling of Office Paper Work '' tackled tactics regarding government processes and information systems or electronic machinery.
In the Philippines, the administration now uses social media to converse more with its citizens for it makes people feel more in touch with the highest official in the land. However, according to Mary Grace P. Mirandilla - Santos, it has been suggested from research in the Philippines, that an average citizen does not actively seek information about politics and government, even during an election campaign. Another innovation is a standard suite of city indicators that enable mayors and citizens to monitor the performance of their city with others, a valuable tool in obtaining consistent & comparable city - level data.
Tourism industry takes advantage of the beneficial use of information and communication technology to cater their market through e-commerce. A journal entitled, "E-Tourism: The role of ICT in tourism industry '', enumerated several ways how e-commerce is expected to benefit economic development in tourism industry. These are:
The ITU commitment to close the digital gender gap is installed in the 2030 Agenda, the Addis Ababa Action plan 2015: develop gender - responsive strategies and policies, ensure access and mitigate online threats, build content and services that meet women 's needs, promote women in the technology sector in decision - making positions, and establish multi-stakeholder partnerships.
Mr. Opeolu Akinola, the President of Nigerian Association of the Blind, says "Accessibility is ensuring that all the people in the society can access available resources irrespective of disability, which means that persons with disability can participate and have the same choice as non-disabled community members.
ICT is a great aid in improving the lives of PWDs by enlarging the opportunities that will be available for them particularly in terms of social, cultural, political and economic integration in certain communities. The UNESCO advocates the concept of knowledge societies which includes the promotion of the rights and needs of PWDs and enrich them with the effective use of ICTs which are accessible, adaptive and affordable by raising global awareness on disability rights, developing innovative ICT solutions, building inclusive or assistive technologies for accessibility, designing proper frameworks and tools, and to contribute to the implementation of UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities.
ICT improves the status of education in the world and it is now the most convenient tool for the said field. Assistive technologies (AT) open the students with sensory impairments such as visual, hearing, physical, cognitive impairments, and speech - language and learning impairments to the opportunity to participate and enjoy the educational process with special techniques, treatment and equipment. In addition, it helps the PWDs to further have employment opportunities. ICT and AT gives a hope for PWDs to a barrier - free information society by bridging the disability divide. An information society where everyone can access, utilize, create and share information and knowledge that will aid the people to achieve their full potential and will aid the society to progress.
The expansion of ICT can have direct negative outcomes. Expenditure on ICT has been known to cause intra-household conflict, foster male dominance over resources and divert household resources away from food and other essentials. Human right concerns such as child labor have also been raised over the use of conflict materials in the production of ICT devices.
In many impoverished regions of the world, legislative and political measures are required to facilitate or enable application of ICTs, especially with respect to monopolistic communications structures and censorship laws.
The literacy issue is one of the key factors why projects fail in rural areas; as education in literacy sets the foundation for digital and information literacy, proper education and training are needed to make the user at least understand how to manipulate the applications to get the information they need. Constant follow - up with the community is needed to monitor if the project has been successfully implemented and is being used meaningfully.
In the case of India, technological advancement has been more of leapfrogging in nature: the affordability of mobile phones allowed more people to acquire mobile phones before learning to use personal computers and desktops. This unfamiliarity with computers could be seen as problematic as it creates digital divide if technological devices provided are computers; a disconnect between computing technology and people causes difficulty for some of the ICT4D project initiatives to take effect. For instance, in rural parts of India, the Ministry of Education rejected OLPC initiative due to lack of facilities and trained professionals for computer teaching and maintenance. While closing the gap of digital divide through training teachers so that technology may be used for teaching process is challenging, there is yet another problem of failing to recognize technology as a tool for learning process. Studying how learners and / or students interact with technology is vital for developing and designing technologies for them.
Projects in marginalised rural areas face the most significant hurdles -- but since people in marginalised rural areas are at the very bottom of the pyramid, development efforts should make the most difference in this sector. ICTs have the potential to multiply development effects and are thus also meaningful in the rural arena.
However, introducing ICTs in these areas is also most costly, as the following barriers exist:
Another significant problem can be the selection of software installed on technology -- instructors trained in one set of software (for example Ubuntu) can be expected to have difficulty in navigating computers donated with different software (for example Windows XP).
A pressing problem is also the misuse of electronic waste in dangerous ways. Burning technology to obtain the metals inside will release toxic fumes into the air. Plastics, chips and circuit boards are destroyed to gather their raw and sellable materials. These practices cost the health of communities, affecting the respiratory and immune system. Presence of harmful chemicals are stuck on soils like lead, mercury and cadmium. Sadly electronic wastes are profound in developing countries where they are dumped due to large recycling costs. Developing countries are forced to labor on these waste to get money. (Certification of recyclers to e-stewards or R2 Solutions standards is intended to preclude environmental pollution.)
Finally, while the training, support, hardware and software may all be donated, it is rare for another vital component of technology, Internet access, to be made available at a discounted rate. "In about half the countries in Africa, one year of (dial - up) Internet supply will cost more than the average annual income. ''
TechChange, The Social Impact Lab and the World Bank have highlighted many of the above issues and complexities around implementing ICT4D projects through an animation short.
These negative impacts are observable but the platforms to identify, measure, analyze, and address them are insufficient. This is exacerbated by the idea that ICT only provides benefits to society. As new ICT practices are introduced, new challenges tag after them. However, conceiving policies to minimize the negative impacts requires time and resources. Conceptualization of effective and definite measures to counter these negative impacts is in the development stage as part of future priorities.
Crucial in making any ICT4D effort successful is effective partnership between four key stakeholders:
InfoDev has published six lessons from an analysis of 17 of their pilot programmes (see below). These lessons are backed by a variety of examples as well as a list of recommendations:
Currently, the main two perspectives coming out of this sector are to emphasize the need for external aid to build infrastructure so that projects can reach viability, and the need to develop and build on local talent.
Establishing a clear and effective initial design serves as a foundation of any development projects. Starting on existing community assets and knowledge promotes collaboration and cooperation among participants resulting to collective decision - making. Thus, involvement of potential participants in the design, implementation, and monitoring and evaluation is valuable. Adding a substantial effect on a project 's long - term sustainability is the implementation. The success of project implementation is reflected in a comprehensive evaluation of the expected net benefits. The interdependence between these project components based on a holistic consideration of livelihood systems, needs and opportunities, provides significant contribution to the overall impact of the project on the community.
A growing perspective in the field is also the need to build projects that are sustainable and scalable, rather than focusing on those which must be propped up by huge amounts of external funding and can not survive for long without it. Sustaining the project 's scalability is a huge challenge of ICT for development; how the target user will continue using the platform. ICT4D is not a one - shot implementation but rather it is a complex process to be undertaken continuously, and the progress of each project evolves around the local education for, and adaptability of, the technology
Also, a number of developing countries have proven their skills in IT (information technology). Using these skills to build on ICT4D projects will tap local potential and a key indigenous partner in the growth of this sector will be gained. The balance of trade for these nations due to imports in both hardware and software might be an additional consideration.
Different countries have variety on these strengths some are better in hardware production, both high end and low end. There are some who are good in production of programs and other content. ICT is a US $3 trillion industry (2010) and is growing every year. Communication, media and IT present opportunities for further growth and expansion.
In 2015, the UN Development Program and the UN Development group postulated a set of 17 goals whose ultimate goal is to transform the world into a better one with emphasis to developing countries. Some of the goals included are aims to end extreme hunger, poverty and gender inequality. While none of the Sustainable Development Goals are specifically meant for Information and Communication Technologies, the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development believes that it can help at some extent in achieving the SDGs adding that "The spread of information and communication technology and global interconnectedness has great potential to accelerate human progress, to bridge the digital divide and to develop knowledge societies ''. The International Telecommunication Union also shares this sentiment and considers that the ICTs can "fast forward progress on the SDGs '' which would fundamentally improve the lives of the people.
Currently, there are over two billion people in the world who do n't have a bank account. Digital financial services through ICT helps these people engage with digital economy. It has been proven that access to financial services empowers people to get out of poverty.
Information services can also provide accurate and timely financial information to the people which promulgates their rights to economic resources and market perceptions which would ultimately benefit all those who are concerned.
It is evident that the skyrocketing number of the world 's population signals the need for new methods in order to improve crop yields. Through ICT, farmers can gain access to information systems that provide content such as weather forecasts, trading information and training courses that are tailored to their needs.
ICTs have the potential to bring the medical personnel and their patients closer wherever they may be. Patients can remotely contact healthy care services for help. Health care workers can run tests that would otherwise be impossible without the help of ICTs such as conducting remote diagnostic check - up of their patients and prescribing treatment solutions.
Analyzing all of these data in a large scale would help in analyzing trends, create forecasts about disease outbreaks, improving traditional and ICT - based health services and more.
Education is where a citizen is prepared. E-learning systems serve as a leeway in educating learners through ICT. With these technologies, it can contribute a worldwide spread of access and quality in education for all, as well as excellent delivery. Teachers have pointed out that with the implementation of ICT in their school, it has helped enhance the students ' attention and perception skills. Around the globe, there are programs that are self - paced, available competitive college courses from known universities with certification, online competitions and labs which in turn act as tools for livelihood opportunities. There are also smart systems that analyze the learning pattern of the student which it uses in constructing individual learning plans as maximized pedagogy. In Europe, it has been said the use of ICT is one of the big fundamental factors in improving quality education. The implementation of the use of ICT in education is highly encouraged by the European Commission in their E-Learning Action Plan wherein one of their goals are, "to improve the quality of learning by facilitating access to resources and services as well as remote exchange and collaboration ''.
Access to ICT helps women in understanding the importance of their productive and reproductive roles in the society at the local community, government and global level. Women can be empowered as economic, social and political actors by providing new space and opportunity where they can contribute to the community. These opportunities can be in form of advocacy, ICT - based entrepreneurship or other community development activities through ICT.
Contaminated water and inadequate sanitation accounts to more than 800,000 deaths annually. ICTs can provide ways for smarter water management such as automated systems handling the measurement and observation of the water supply and propose possible solutions and interventions based on the data gathered. ICTs can also be used to provide data to practitioners in the field enabling them to provide more water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) services.
ICT - powered solutions such as smart electrical grids, smart homes and buildings, and automated industrial processes can be deployed to replace their inefficient counterparts towards usability and energy efficiency.
ICTs are also being developed to create a lesser carbon - footprint so as to make them environmentally sound.
ICTs are paving way for interested entities to conduct business virtually anywhere in the world. Some of examples of these businesses are online education platforms, computing services and online boutiques. This creates a plethora of new employment opportunities which ultimately fosters market growth.
ICT is a crucial tool in industrialization. In emerging information and knowledge societies, open access to academic research, online collaboration and optimization of ICT enable countries to provide infrastructures well - suited for knowledge - based societies such as power networks, transportation systems, water supplies and communication networks.
ICTs can help reduce inequality within and between countries by providing knowledge to the disadvantaged section of the society such as those living with disabilities and women. For example, to those who are visually challenged, there are now accessibility solutions that accept speech as input and output for computing operations. Interactive lectures can also be used to engage people into learning and developing their ICT skills with the goal of bridging the digital divide.
City management can be done effectively with the help of ICTs. Innovative concepts such as smart buildings, smart waterworks facilities and intelligent transport systems not only provide increased work efficiency but also boasts a reduced energy consumption and waste impact.
ICTs application help participate in the dematerialization and virtualization of materials such as the case of virtual receipts and electronic books replacing their paper - based counterparts.
Innovative ICT applications can also stimulate a sustainable consumption and production of resources. Some examples of these include smart grids, cloud computing and ICT - based power plants.
ICTs such as satellite monitoring are critical in monitoring the earth, interacting with climate and weather information, generating forecasts and using results gathered to enable early warning systems.
Besides monitoring the effects of climate change, ICTs also play a role in alleviating the effects of climate change by providing timely and accurate forecasting and early warning systems.
Utilization of ICTs can also pave the way to the conservation and responsible use of oceans and the marine resources that they hold. Satellite - based monitoring can improve overall monitoring and reporting efficiencies which results to increased liability. On a smaller scale, local sensors and other related systems can also deliver real - time updates to improve the accuracy and efficiency of data gathered from satellite - based monitoring.
Big data from the monitoring activities can be analyzed to look for short and long - term trends in terms of pollution, weather patterns and migration cycles.
ICTs can play a major role in the conservation of terrestrial ecosystems and prevention of biodiversity loss. Like on oceans and marine resources, global monitoring systems such as satellite - based monitoring can improve the monitoring efforts which would increase accountability. As a result, several illegal activities such as poaching and illegal wildlife trade can be alleviated through this way.
Data gathered from the monitoring activities can be used to analyze trends in terms of biodiversity, changes in ecosystems as well as to plan mitigation efforts.
The Environment Public Authority in Kuwait has created an environmental portal, Beatona.net. The portal aims to share verified environmental information to the public. One of the key feature of this portal is the ability of the public to interact with it by reporting environmental phenomena and illegal activities.
ICTs can help in strengthening the accountability and reliability of institutions. The emerging trend of governments opening their data to the public increases transparency ratings, enables citizens and helps stimulate financial growth. ICTs are also vital in areas such as monitoring and tracking government data and public demographics.
ICTs are also important when natural or man - made disasters occur because it is responsible for retrieving, communicating and sending reliable and timely crisis information. This allows efficient and correct solutions to be carried out. In the future, analysis of big data can also pave way to accurate forecasting and early warning systems which would be open to anyone.
Ultimately, ICT plays the biggest role in SDG, although not specifically mentioned. But with the three pillars of sustainable development namely economic growth, social inclusion and environmental sustainability, it is no doubt needed in providing innovative and effective means of implementation in a global scale. It helps in enhancing international coordination, multi-stakeholder partnerships, data monitoring and accountability.
The Sustainable Development Goals is an opportunity for the world to work together to reach goals such as ending poverty, protecting the earth and ensuring prosperity for the planet. Technology if used effectively will accelerate the SDG 's task of reaching its goals.
In order for SDGs to achieve their goals, changes are required of each sector. Development sectors like livelihood, agriculture, health, education, water, sanitation and power, infrastructure, disaster relief, government and human rights, environmental protection and crosscutting should achieve their goals of ending poverty by providing sustainable agriculture to ensure food security and improved nutrition for people to have healthy lives. Sustainable management of water, sanitation and modern energy should be achieved as well as the construction of safe and resilient infrastructure for communities. Laws promulgating equal rights should also be achieved. Lastly, protection of the environment should be undertaken.
ICT can address the needs and provide benefits to various organizations and individuals. These organizations include consumers, entrepreneurs or employees, businesses, government agencies and civil society organizations.
However, there are a lot of challenges in implementing SDGs at it focuses on many aspects. Suggestions have been made on how the goals can be achieved at the desired timeline, such as decreasing cost in implementing ICT and increasing public awareness about ICT. Another hindrance is the hierarchy of organizations. There are reports that some agencies are treated as higher than the other, thus, making the development slower. Also, though there are a lot of talented leaders, not all of them are exposed to the real situation. The most contributing factor is that once they are pushed to do something, most individuals and institutions focus on their own sectors, thus, not being able to have a collective mind towards one goal. SDGs also have a huge territory; they focus on too many fields, making it slower for the development of ICT to happen. Though they focus on the most crucial needs of the people, the progression is not at par with their previous goals. SDGs have a long way to go with its goal to be reached by 2030. Improvements are still on its way but there are challenges that needs to be resolved to be able to move forward, by having a collective mind.
Moreover, during the 2000s, a pattern showed that ICTs had a strong drop down the international development agenda. It may even fully disappear from the international development agenda. This is all because of some failures of ICT4D. These failures include: inability to become engaged with the twin colossi of development goals going forward; inability to grasp the meaning, concepts, and discourse in development; and inability to create a role for itself in sustainable and inclusive development.
ICT4D should be able to solve these failures and do its tasks accordingly to be able to have a fitting place in the development agenda.
' Inclusive innovation ' refers to the knowledge creation, acquisition, absorption and distribution efforts targeted directly at meeting the needs of the low - income or the base - of - the - pyramid (BoP) population. The focus of Inclusive Innovation is on delivering high performance products and services or high experience at ultra-low cost to the people whose needs are generally not addressed.
There are 5 guiding principles:
There has been a rapid rise of interest in inclusive innovation and its application to various spheres. In the past few years, the World Bank, IDRC, GIZ, OECD and other development agencies have all launched inclusive innovation actions. India, Thailand, China, South Africa, Indonesia and other national governments have added inclusive innovation elements into their policies. Many organizations and agencies like World Bank, IDRC, GIZ, OECD and many more are still launching inclusive actions -- which many countries are increasingly using inclusive innovation in various sectors and fields, like China, India, Indonesia, South Africa, Thailand, and other national governments.
Here we can view the two key aspects of how inclusive innovation plays: first, who are affected or included? And second, what way they are included? First, the first part who are affected or included? The first part of key aspect is defined as someone is being affected or included in marginalized or poverty line. How these people are being included in some way, which can be redirected to the second key aspect, what way they are included? The most beneficial way to answer that is to comprehend the different perspectives in the "ladder of inclusive innovation '', in a group of steps, which in every succeeding step illustrates a higher idea of inclusivity as related to how innovation works. Below are the detailing of the steps:
In the field of ICT4D, an impact is said to occur when efforts are able to reach outside the academia. Research alone is insufficient. Beyond academic citations, the impact created by ICT4D research must extend to policy and practice as well. An impact that is said to contribute to the understanding or re-composition of policy issues and their debates is described as conceptual, while an impact that reforms the growth of policy, provision of services, and practice, additionally guiding legislation, is described as instrumental. Furthermore, the development of capacity in the ICT4D field could be considered as another dimension of impact; one which is attained by interdisciplinary sharing.
For ICT4D research to make an impact beyond theory, it must be treated as the following:
There are many initiatives and projects being done in line with information, communication and technology for development. Government, NGOs, public and private sectors have different projects lined up to promote development in different communities. But these projects, although have the objectives to help people in their everyday life, there are little study on whether the technology applied is effective or not. Impact assessment is one way to determine the effectiveness of one technology.
For ICT4D, impact assessment can be based on these questions:
Heeks and Molla described two different ways in categorizing impact assessment of ICT4D projects. One is based on the attainment of the ICT4D goals and the other is based on how to undertake such assessment.
Here is the classification of the impact of ICT4D based on the attainment of goals:
Another categorization of assessing the impacts of ICT4D projects is based on "frameworks '' (understanding ICT4D projects and organizing knowledge about them) which are: Generic: general frameworks usable in assessment of any development project.
Mainstreaming ICTs means they should be understood as one among a number of tools seeking to achieve other development goals such as poverty alleviation, health, education of the MDG variety. This tool pertains to the programmes crafted by ICT4D experts who have spearheaded ICT4D, and some have undergone various academic training from ICT4D recognized institutions (Chib&Harris Linking research to practice). Programmes that are developed by these experts are determined to have a social impact which are contributing to the development goals of MDGs.
On what is described as mainstreaming ICT is an implementation of various programmes by converging the techno - social activities that would contribute to address development goals. In the Philippines, the Open and Distance Education of the University of the Philippines Open University is one among in Asia that has successfully developed academic curriculum in information and communication science and has supported various ICT4D programmes in different government sectors such as agriculture and in local government units.
According to Richard Heeks, mainstreaming has its own dangers: losing focus for learning about ICT4D and downplay technological innovation are among them. While these are theoretically true, the need of sidestreaming to support the development ICT4D programmes should be placed. Retaining and supporting specialist of ICT4D units or "sidestreaming '' in variety of organization that involves ICT4D together with the mainstreaming of ICT4D resonates an effective structure towards development goals of MDGs.
According to Richard Heeks, ICT has a compelling narrative which drew attention, money, and resources during the turn of the century. It foresaw the creation of an information society within developing countries from a variety of terms. Currently, there is no narrative in ICT4D for post-2015 development because it struggles with the weight to balance different innovations of the modern technology. The development goals and sectors that ICT serves are considered sub-fragments within the economic, social, political and environmental fragments. There is no defined core of an information society, it 's mostly far - reaching or grasping for straws in the hope that they may amount to something.
It is quite understandable that the erosion of vision in ICT happened because it was well ahead of its time in the early 2000s. It became path dependent. Absorbing all that it came its way, which is why it is harder to maintain. From casting visions, it now reflects realities. The only solution is to throw the useless loads and start to reinvent a single coherent core.
Heeks suggest that ICT could try to join another 's army or try grabbing someone else 's flag so that they could push ahead and into the post-2015 discussions. They could also try developing their own internal narrative, one that can reintroduce a single core for its further development. Either way, the future of ICT, its structure, and its policy, depends on how far they are eager to develop and explore.
As it has grown in popularity, especially in the international development sector, ICT4D has also come under criticism.
Questions have been raised about whether projects that have been implemented at enormous cost are actually designed to be scalable, or whether these projects make enough of an impact to produce noticeable change. For example, in Sri Lanka, journalist Nalaka Gunawardene argued that thousands of pilot projects had been seeded without regard to generalisability, scalability, and sustainability, implying that these projects will always require external funding to continue running and that their impact is limited. This sentiment echoes a 2003 report by the World Bank.
Further criticism of ICT4D concerns the impact of ICTs on traditional cultures and the so - called cultural imperialism which might be spread with ICTs. It is emphasised that local language content and software seem to be good ways to help soften the impact of ICTs in developing areas.
Many fear of the potential of ICT to seriously widen the Digital Divide and the gap between people with access to the information economy and those without such access. This issue was brought to the forefront of the international agenda and was heavily discussed in some major international political meetings such as the G8 meeting in Okinawa, Japan in July 2000. Anriette Esterhuysen, an advocate for ICT4D and human rights in South Africa, pointed out that some ICT4D projects often give more emphasis to how ICT can help its beneficiaries economically rather than helping them create a society where social justice and equal rights prevail. She believes that sustainable development can only be achieved if there are human rights and people can speak freely.
Another point of criticism against ICT4D is that its projects are in the long term seldom environmentally friendly. Beneficiary communities are often given the responsibility to dispose of the toxic electronic scrap when an equipment breaks down beyond repair. Since transporting the equipment to a recycling facility is costly; the equipment is often disposed of improperly, thus contributing to the pollution of the environment.
More often than not, ICT programs are expected to be the solution for all socioeconomic problems. However, disorganized implementation that disregards factors such as cultural realities make ICT for development efforts ineffective.
It is therefore important to pursue regionalized ICT programs first before globalization. There 's a need for ICT4D practitioners to seek out ways in which to enable programs make their impact. Establishing regional and national ICT strategies that commit to action is the first step towards creating effective solutions.
A 2010 research report from the Governance and Social Development Resource Centre found "Very few ICT4D activities have proved sustainable... Recent research has stressed the need to shift from a technology - led approach, where the emphasis is on technical innovation towards an approach that emphasises innovative use of already established technology (mobiles, radio, television). '' However, of 27 applications of ICTs for development, E-government, E-learnings and E-health were found to be possible of great success, as well as the strengthening of social networks and boosting of security (particularly of women).
According to Kentaro Toyama, co-founder and assistant managing director of Microsoft Research India, there are a number of myths that surround the field of ICT4D. He argues that these myths can confuse our thinking about the proper role for technology in addressing development problems.
Here are the ten myths of ICT4D that Toyama identified:
Toyama also mentioned the reasons why these myths persist.
In his presentation, Toyama concluded that technology is just one part of the solution. Part of his conclusion mentions that "Successful ICT4D interventions work as a part of well - intentioned, competent organizations. '' Toyama ended his presentation with the Key Lesson saying, "Technology is a magnifier of human will, competence, and institutions. ''
Kentaro Tayoma argued that the under - performing schools should try to adjust the particular attention to other elements such as teaching improvement skills and administration. He also recommended to use cost - effective depart from traditional means of technology when venturing to other educational resources. Myths below are the most heard praise about technology in schools.
To summarize the myths in education above regarding technology, there is no alternative or easiest way to achieve a good education system. He has written more articles about this the connection of technology and education.
Proponents of ICT have always highlighted the benefits of technology when applied in the different sectors of society especially in education. There is a belief that using ICT will make the lives of the people better. According to Flor (n.d.), education has benefited immensely from ICT for it "offered an entire new range of possibilities to enhance teaching - learning situation ''. In the Philippines, pedagogic as well as social and economic benefits are cited as reasons for the government 's ICT for education policies and programs. The Philippine government believes that an ICT education will prepare the youth to be able to meet the challenges and demands of the economic market once they graduate. In short, the government wants to "produce a critical mass of ICT professionals and ICT - literate manpower ''.
The need to supply an ICT - literate workforce is anchored on the Information Age wherein the global economy 's primary commodity is now information. Labor - intensive production has become knowledge - intensive, thus, the ever - growing need for information workers. Corporate businesses who need information workers thrive on ICT. They do not only own the technology, but they also exert power through it. This results in a parasitic and predatory relationship between those who own the technology and their labor and consumer market. ICT, in the context of global capitalism, is therefore being used to advance private corporate interests towards what Schiller (as cited in Waller, 2007) calls a "corporate controlled information society ''.
This restructuring of the global economy through ICT has implications that affect us immensely, even more so with the inclusion of ICT in education. It reinforces the exploitative nature of capitalism for it allows business interests to enter into and control our educational system.
To exert its economic power in the global economy and "justify the more aggressive drive of the Transnational Corporations in the global order, '' capitalist - led WB and the World Trade Organization has put forth the theories of the "global village '' and the globalization of market. This global village, according to Lelliot et al. (as cited in Zemblyas and Vrasidas, 2005), is where "the educational and political significance and desirability of ICT '' is based on. ICT therefore becomes a symbol and an aspect of globalization because globalization builds on and drives from it.
Consequently, ICT as a symbol and aspect of globalization makes it a central component in the neoliberalist agenda in education of privatizing, deregulating and marketizing education and producing a surplus of skilled information workers for transnational corporations.
Neoliberalism dictates that universities and colleges must look for their own funding in order to operate. This leads to increasing private and corporate influence on schools through study and project grants and the state abandonment of the education system. In line with market capitalism, neoliberalism seeks to restructure the public orientation of education by steering it away from state control towards the private sphere. With corporate interests being allowed to gain control of schools, the capitalist - led international development assistance agencies have been actively pushing for ICT in the education system.
Furthermore, neoliberalism seeks to transform education into a commodity that can be bought at a price. This new kind of set - up, Petten explains, "stands in opposition to education as a social right '' where everyone has a right to education regardless of economic status. With the introduction of ICT in education, education now comes with a price tag. Thus, the democratic character of education is threatened.
In the 2007 Manila Workshop, the three key challenges of ICT4D (also referred to as the three problem trees) were clustered. These are the result of clustering the core problems that are seen in the field of ICT4D. The participants of the workshop grouped the core problems or challenges into lack of rigour problem tree, interdisciplinary research problem tree and lack of collaboration problem tree. The problem trees investigates the cause and effect of the problem.
Shown below is a list of the 16 largest ICT4D gaps (as of 2016) arranged in a descending order according to the priority it receives. In an online article, Heeks states that ICT4D analyses tend to underplay its negative impacts. The "Dark Side of ICT 's '' is placed 15th in the list -- just a place away from the least prioritized ICT4D gap.
These gaps, along with other key topics, are used to come up with a list of post-2015 ICT4D priorities which in turn will be of valuable use in ICT4D activities of policymakers, strategists and practitioners.
Again, this list is topics that are under - represented in post-2015, but not a totality of ICT4D priorities. Works on ICT and education, ICT and health, ICT infrastructure and few others which is not on the list shall continue during this period.
The other issues that affects the innovation are: legal and regulatory, moral and ethical, social, economic, technology, language and script, and security.
In the Development Goals, under Environmental and Sustainability is the topic on waste which is an important aspect of the relation between ICTs and environment. When ICT goes faulty and obsolete they become waste. It 's necessary to pay a particular attention on the impact of electrical and electronic wastes. Assessing the side - effects of ICT waste or electronic waste disposal -- CRTs, busted fluorescent lamp, used lead - acid batteries, ink toners and cartridges, used oil, contaminated containers etc. The installation of standardized solutions on E-waste management such as improved design example The International Telecommunications Union (ITU) approved new standards for green ICT, including an environmentally friendly charger for laptops and other portable devices (Recommendation ITU - T L. 1002) and green batteries for smartphones and handheld devices (Recommendation ITU - T L. 1010).
The use of technology to exchange information is the main objective of ICT4D. However, there are still a lot of people who can not have access nor are able to use these kinds of technology. According to the World Bank (2014), only 85 % of the world has electricity. And also as of 2014, almost 14 % of the world population is still illiterate. Most of the information are now being shared with the use of computers or mobile devices. For the percentage of people who still do not have electricity nor those who still do n't know how to read, this shared information would simply be rendered useless.
ICT4D can not push forward with these hurdles on the way, so to address these first should be a priority.
Arguably, ICT 's good effects are also being negated by its bad effects to the environment.
Negative impacts come mainly from energy consumption and the materials used to the production and distribution of ICT equipment, energy consumption in use directly and for cooling, short product life cycles and e-waste and exploitative applications.
Also, E-commerce may not save energy if it encourages long distance delivery. Tele - working can increase the home use of energy and demand for electronic equipment such as routers and printers.
One concern on the rebound effects of Smart Grids is with lower energy cost and thereby increased use, potential emissions reductions from energy efficiency gains are lost to rebound effects.
The Darkside of ICT4D still needs research and analysis, because of the perceived benefits of ICT, these outweigh the disbenefits that are encountered and generated by it.
The following are disbenefits that are acknowledged in the two core review and vision documents (WSIS 2014a, WSIS 2014b)
What does this mean? Two things need to happen.
All of these disbenefits will increase as ICTs penetrate more into development. More resources need to be allocated to them and they will need to be a part of future ICT4D policy and practice.
Many challenges emerged upon the implementation of WSIS + 10 in Geneva in 2014. The following issues have been addressed to proper implement future projects like Information Society beyond 2015 and the Post-2015 Development Agenda.
Sustainable Development and Information Society are two factors considered as basis in establishing the priorities for WSIS + 10 Vision beyond 2015.
The Philippines, one of newly industrialized countries (NICs) in Asia, is continuously boosting ICT4D in sectors like education, agriculture, livelihood and even disaster preparedness. Directed by the Philippine Digital Strategy 2011 - 2016, the government and the private sector have been harnessing ICT to achieve development agenda.
The Philippine 's Commission of Information and Communications Technology (CICT) drafted a Philippine ICT - Roadmap in 2006 to "establish new policy directions for CICT as the lead government agency for ICT development in the country ''. This roadmap is governed by seven guiding principles that centers on the role of government in ICT development as an enabling policy, legal and regulatory environment. CICT also advocates for a "multi-stakeholder approach '' which involves the private sector, civil society, civic organizations, international organizations and other partners to have an important role and responsibility in the development of Philippine Information Society.
The Philippine Digital Strategy (PDS) calls upon the knowledge given in the CICT 's ICT - Roadmap and builds on it further. Of the four major areas covered in the said roadmap, the PDS has given e-Government the highest priority, stating "ease of access, ease of use, efficiency and quality of services rendered, and establishment of privacy and security standards '' for the people of the country. The prioritization also focuses on the aim of the government to fight corruption and poverty, and for government services and information to be more transparent and widely accessible to all citizens. This will also give the government an opportunity to create an open, two - way interaction in order to receive and acknowledge feedback and suggestions from the citizens.
(Based on excerpt from Mapping ICT4D by Noriel Tiglao Erwin A. Alampay)
1. E-government / E-governance
In Philippines, most of the ICT4D works are done by the government and the e-governance projects are diverse.
The Department of Information and Communications Technology or DICT foresee to build a technologically advanced, integrated, and digitally empowered Philippines that constantly provides responsive and accessible public services to Filipino citizens across the globe.
The main problems in the government services in the Philippines are the long lines, slow action, and inadequate processes. Today many government offices and organizations have already implemented different e-government procedures for accessible services, which they call "One stop shop ''. Below are different online procedures in the Philippines:
Many e-governance projects are linked to other areas (i.e. health, learning, business, science, etc.) and different types of technology are used to implement them (e.g. web - based services, SMS, other forms of Management Information Systems, Local Area Network etc.).
NCDA Board Resolution No. 13 Series 2008 on Web Accessibility
To promote equality when it comes to web accessibility, the National Council on Disability Affairs granted the Philippine Web Accessibility Group (PWAG) the right of becoming its deputy to assess the competency of government organization and NGO websites when it comes to web accessibility, especially for the disabled. On one assessment conducted by PWAG, only 11 GO websites and 33 NGO websites passed their criteria on web accessibility. This resolution was released with the sign of the Deputy Executive Director of NCDA, Mateo A. Lee Jr.
To address this issue, NCDA released Board Resolution No. 13 that grants PWAG to conduct website assessments of NCDA 's participating and member agencies and to enforce upon them the minimum requirements for the websites to become web accessible to the disabled.
The following actions were created to comply to the United Nations ' Article 9 regarding Accessibility, which states that people with disability should experience equality when it comes to access to information. A list of offices whose web accessible sites were evaluated by PWAG are listed on their official site, which includes but are not limited to the following: the House of Representatives, the National Council on Disability Affairs, the Department of Health, the Commission on Elections, and the Department of Justice.
2. E-business / E-commerce
37 e-commerce applications running in Philippines are enlisted in different databases. Among them some notable applications are:
3. E-science
TV White Space and Free Wi - Fi
In lieu with the drive for better Internet penetration as mandated by the Philippine Digital Strategy, the DOST (Department of Science and Technology) has begun experimenting on novel ways to further Internet coverage.
One of this is the TV White Space (TVWS) pilot testing that has been deemed to be the most extensive in the Asian region. This project aims to address the connectivity deficiency in rural areas by harnessing TVWS, the blank frequencies between broadcast TV channels. This can be tapped to provide wireless data connectivity due to its long - range propagation features (with signals traveling through water and thick foliage).
The project is to be rolled out slowly, and the initial ideas involved using TVWS as a means of connectivity for the eHealth eEducation, and other eGovernment services. It can also help the environmental sensor networks utilized by the DOST.
Another initiative to help increase the country 's Internet connection is the DOST 's drive to provide free Wi - Fi hotspots in public places across the Philippines. These connectios are envisioned to be available 24 / 7, and uses NGH (Next Generation Hotspot) technology. The project, which was originally slated to culminate in 2016, will provide free Wi - Fi hotspots to the following coverage areas (in order of priority):
3. Cross Cutting Trade, Agriculture, and Health Philippine integration into the ASEAN economic community (AEC) requires alignment of standards, especially in safety of food and feed. One of the outputs of the Philippines partnership with the European Union 's Trade - Related Technical Assistance Project 3 has resulted in the development of a Philippine Rapid Alert System for Food and Feed (PhilRASFF). Relevant officials of the Departments of Trade and Industry, Agriculture, and Health with the Food Administration Authority can share information in real time, including measures taken, for food and feed safety.
4. E-Health in the Philippines
The Department of Health (DOH), a sector in the Philippine local government, is in charge of overseeing the nation 's development. They develop health policies, guidelines, regulate health services and products, and provide healthcare assistance to local government units (LGUs).
The World Health Organization defines eHealth as the use of information and communication technologies for health. eHealth in the Philippines grants Filipinos access to multiple health - related ICTs which promote efficiency and effectiveness.
The Department of Health in cooperation with the Department of Science and Technology has created the Philippine eHealth Strategic Framework and Plan (PeHSFP) for the years 2014 - 2020 to implement more projects and programs under the National eHealth Program (NeHP) One of its goals is an ICT - enabled Philippine Health System.
Currently, a Filipino 's health information is stored only in the hospital where they are receiving treatment or consultation. The Philippines still uses traditional methods of storing information such as paper forms when storing records of patients. While more hospitals have shifted to storing data on computers with backup servers, many are yet to shift into this practice. This leads to inaccurate, lost, and misinterpreted medical data.
The role of ICT has grown significantly and is inextricably linked with eHealth in the Philippines. The following are some of the achievements of these two local government departments:
As the National eHealth states as their vision: "By 2020, eHealth will enable widespread access to health care services, health information, and securely share and exchange patients ' information in support to a safer, quality healthcare, more equitable and responsive health system for all the Filipino people by transforming the way information is used to plan, manage, deliver and monitor health services. ''
5. E-agriculture and e-Learning in the Philippines
The Department of Agriculture is the executive department of the Philippine government that is responsible for the promotion of agricultural and fisheries development and growth.
E-agriculture or ICT in agriculture is an emerging field that is focused on the improvement of rural and agricultural development through improved ICT processes. Focusing on agriculture, it also includes the conceptualization, design, development, evaluation, and application of innovative ways to use ICts in rural areas.
ICT4D PROJECTS
e-Learning for Agriculture and Fisheries, a project initiated by the Department of Agriculture 's e-Extension Program, with the help of Agricultural Training Institute (ATI) as the head implementing agency is offering certificate courses on farming and fishing technologies as well as social technology courses related to extension and training. This project is in partnership with other government agencies, state universities and colleges and non-government organizations. And, is provided online, offline and blended.
The Philippines is one of the most high - risk countries from multiple hazards, suffering from hundreds of natural occurrences every year. These disasters include periodic typhoons (e.g., 2013 Typhoon Yolanda), earthquakes (e.g., 1990 Luzon earthquake), tsunamis (e.g., Mindanao Tsunami), volcanic eruptions (e.g., 1991 Mt. Pinatubo Eruption), tropical cyclones, floods, droughts, landslides, forest fires, and pandemics. The country is also facing agricultural and natural resource risks including those associated with rapid urbanization, migration and socio - economic changes.
So, the Food and Agriculture Organizations of the United Nations together with the Department of Agriculture developed the EPRiMA (Enhanced Production and Risk Management in Agriculture) Integrated Decision Support System. This project aims to increase resilience against multiple - threats to the agriculture sector by facilitating the development of an Integrated Decision Support System for EPRiMA. This project will allow key actors in the Department of Agriculture to make more effective and timely decisions through more comprehensive and near - real - time access to crop production, and risk and damage assessment information and tools. This project will run from January 2017 to June 2018.
The government of the Philippines have supports the modernization of the society by promulgating the ICT4D in the country but then due to the risks involved with this innovation the came up with several laws to be implemented and mandated in the country.
House Bill No. 4115 "Data Privacy Act of 2011 ''
Senate Bill No. 2965 "Data Privacy Act of 2011 ''
House Bill No. 5808 "Cybercrime Prevention Act of 2011 ''
Senate Bill No. 2796 "Cybercrime Prevention Act of 2011 ''
House Bill No. 4667 "Department of Information and Communications Technology Act of 2010 ''
Senate Bill No. 50 "Department of Information and Communications Technology Act of 2010 ''
Executive Order 893 "Promoting the Deployment and Use of Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPv6) ''
CICT MC No. 01 Implementing Rules and Regulations for E.O. No. 893 -- "Promoting the Deployment and Use of Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPv6) ''
Over the last decade, the ICT access in Africa has increased immensely. As access increases, opportunities arise to leverage ICT to extend timely information and services to previously underserved populations, and to increase productivity and innovation in the public and private sectors. Examples of this are the increase in the number of people who are able to acquire mobile phone service, improved disease monitoring and vaccination planning and m - banking services using the mobile to extend access financial services to populations that never before had a bank account. But despite of the dramatic ICT improvements made, significant access gaps are still there.
infoDev, a global multi-donor program in the World Bank Group that supports growth - oriented entrepreneurs through business incubators and innovation hubs, aims to help African countries leverage ICT to reach their development goals by building local capacity. Along with the Global Information and Communications Technology Department of the World Bank (GICT) as a co-sponsor, a study entitled "Broadband for Africa: Policy for Promoting the Development of Backbone Networks '' was made to review the current of backbone network infrastructure in Sub-Saharan Africa and investigate the significance of this for the development of mass - market broadband ICT services in the region. Through this study, the underlying reasons for the current pattern of infrastructure development were examined. Options for policy - makers to promote further development and use of these networks were also set out.
Furthermore, infoDev has helped with innovation and entrepreneurship as well as education. Small enterprises serve as one of the biggest contributors of production and employment in Sub-Saharan Africa but these enterprises are not able to reach their full potential due to three reasons:
Entrepreneurs who wishes to start and grow their businesses can seek support from business incubators who provide shared facilities that reduce the cost of setting up a business, business development services and mentoring that strengthen the management capacity of the entrepreneur, market linkages that result in more cost - effective supplies and a larger customer base, and financial services that cater to start - up enterprises. infoDev 's Incubator Initiative, launched in 2002 with support from the Government of Japan, supports the incubation and growth of competitive entrepreneurs and SMEs through a global network of over 150 business incubators spanning 70 developing countries.
When it comes to education, a series of ICT initiatives serves as a representation of the enormous potential of ICTs in the region. Just like small enterprises, education has an important role in the development of the region. infoDev aids by sponsoring a series of substantive cutting - edge research and analytical studies as well as capacity - building activities designed to enhance policy - relevant knowledge about what works, and what does not, in using ICT in education in developing countries, especially as it relates to the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and to make this knowledge more accessible to developing country policymakers and their colleagues in the donor community.
These are elements that P. Clint Rogers observed in successful ICT4D projects in Africa:
A cross-cutting study of Regional Trade and Integration was carried out by ICT Development Associates, and includes case studies of Botswana, Kenya and Senegal. Africa 's trade performance is weak compared with other world regions, particularly in trade within the continent, and is undermined by inefficiencies and poor coordination between national agencies along the supply chain. The study describes experience and opportunities for using ICTs in trade facilitation -- - especially in improving the efficiency and coordination of trade and transport logistics; port, customs and border management; and the availability to trading businesses of information about markets and trade requirements. Data sharing through national and regional "single windows '' can reduce costs and delays, improve reliability and enhance the profitability of trade. ICTs should, however, form part of a broad approach to trade promotion, and implementation needs careful planning and resources. Regional integration through Regional Economic Communities (RECs) can play a crucial role. The RECs and International Financial Institutions (IFIs) should work with other stakeholders to advance ICT - enabled trade facilitation.
A second cross-cutting study on ICT Competitiveness was carried out by Excelsior with TNO, with country case studies of Kenya, Morocco and Nigeria. These countries are embracing the use of ICTs in novel ways to improve the social and economic opportunities available to firms and citizens. Provided the African ICT market continues its impressive double - digit growth, the market could be worth more than US $150 billion by 2016. The study highlights the need to build a competitive ICT industry to promote innovation, job creation and the export potential of African companies.
Of course, challenges remain. The continent largely lags behind the rest of the world in terms of ICT readiness and Africa has made slower progress in the past two years when compared to other regions. The Arab Spring has caused a short - term decline in inward FDI in the north of the continent. Pricing of ICT services, especially broadband, continues to be higher than other regions. Furthermore, the growing trend towards taxing incoming international calls suggests a worrying reversion to the former view of the ICT sector as a cash cow. The challenge for the next decade is to build on the mobile success story and complete the transformation. This will require reducing the cost of access for mobile broadband, supporting government private - sector collaboration, improving the e-commerce environment, enhancing ICT labour market skills, encouraging innovative business models that drive employment, such as microwork and business process outsourcing, and creating spaces that support ICT entrepreneurship, such as ICT incubators, and local ICT development clusters.
Cambodia, one of the 6 countries comprising the Greater Mekong Subregion (GMS), has been actively participating in the development of the telecommunication infrastructure of the subregion. The GMS Economic Cooperation Program includes the Telecommunications Backbone as one of its 11 flagship projects. This project focuses on the development of optical fiber network of the telecommunications systems of the GMS countries, and it is now largely completed through the aid of Asian Development Bank (ADB) and bilateral financing from Germany, the People 's Republic of China, JICA and KOICA.
Together with Lao PDR and Vietnam and through the funding of ADB, Cambodia participated in the Establishment of Backbone Telecommunications Networks Project - Phase I (Phase - I Backbone Project). A telecommunications sector policy study "GMS Telecommunications Sector Policy Formulation and Capacity Building '', through the funding of ADB, preceded the project.
As the Telecommunications Backbone comes to completion, Cambodia now focuses on another GMS project -- the Information Superhighway Network (ISN). The country is also taking part in development and poverty reduction programs through ICT applications.
One of the strengths of Cambodia when it comes to ICT is the country 's wireless connectivity. Theirs is the most developed compared with Lao PDR and Vietnam. The number of cellular phone subscribers in Cambodia is greater than the number of landline subscribers -- the first in the world to achieve it. As of May 2016, there are already 21.2 million mobile phone subscribers in the country.
However, among the three countries mentioned, the Cambodian backbone is the least developed, which may be attributed to the low availability of electricity and the high generation cost. There is also a very low demand for eServices in the country.
Subscribers:
DNS: 2563
Internet Cafe: 289 sites
Local TV Channels: 15
Local Radio Channels: 160
Total length of fiber optic backbone: 26,411 km
GDICT / MPTC (2003)
ICT is being adapted in Lao PDR as a possible means of reducing poverty in the country. Being one of the poorest countries in Asia, its Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry is refining its strategies for agricultural development to:
The challenge is in the level of their workforce and staff: they lack the required breadth of knowledge and skills for them to become effective and creative problem solvers. Their solution to this challenge is the creation of the Bachelors in Poverty Reduction and Agriculture Management (PRAM) degree program to provide broad skills at the grassroots level. The United Nations University International Institute for Software Technology (UNU - IIST), in partnership with the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, is designing and building a software for capacity building. It is designed with the help from district up to national levels and the PRAM teachers and students themselves.
Thailand prioritizes ICT by establishing a National Information Technology Committee (NITC) which is chaired by the Prime Minister. The committee has four modules that cover agriculture, industry, finance and government. The National Electronics and Computer Technology Center (NECTEC) serves as support to the committee through R & D program and initiatives. The committees ' job is to develop ICT policies and to promote ICT development and utilization in Thailand. The first ICT policy created was the IT2000 which has three main goals, (1) the development of a sound IT infrastructure (2) the development of people in the area of IT to ensure growth of the IT sector (3) good governance in delivery of public services and in government administration. Under this new policy, several initiatives have been started. Here are some of them:
It seeks to improve and provide equal access to education to Thai youths whether living in urban or rural areas by connecting schools through a shared network using the internet. Also the network has a program that allows teachers to create their content to add to the existing library in the network.
This network provides a private network for government agencies but also provides other services like government directory, e-Government Portal and secure electronic mail using digital ID and public - key infrastructure (PKI).
NICT has passed several laws, including data protection laws and computer crime laws, that have already been enacted.
This framework was approved in 2002. For the first decade of the 21st century. His Majesty recognized that to build a strong economy that can compete internationally it must exploit the benefits of Information Technology to move to a knowledge based economy which plans on investing on technological infrastructure to build the information industry and to promote innovation. Also to increase the amount of knowledge workers.
Malaysia has a road map called the Eight Malaysia Plan (2001 -- 2005). The plan focuses on making Malaysia in to a major ICT hub by promoting e-commerce and R&D activities on soft factors of ICT developments, upgrading ICT infrastructure, supporting local - content developers and ICT - based small to medium enterprises. The plan seeks to hit 21 development areas because ICT 's general purpose can be applied in to many areas. Malaysia positions ICT as an important complement to support the 21 development areas. The government takes an active role in initiating projects but non-government organizations have also played a significant role in initiating ICT projects. Here is a list of some of the development areas and the initiatives that go with it. Note: Not all of the 21 development areas have ICT usage yet.
semi-urban areas across Malaysia. Thu hubs have hardware and software and an internet connection for the teachers and students to engage in ICT training for the overall goal, which is part of Malaysia vision of building a knowledge economy.
introduces the subject of computer literacy to primary and secondary schools across Malaysia. It trained 1230 teachers on CIE in education and created 90 laboratories for secondary schools and 20 laboratories for primary school.
access to internet for e-learning and e-commerce. It encourages the usage of communications based media all over Malaysia.
the agriculture sub-sectors Wwth the goal of bridging the digital divide in the agriculture communities. The four main goals are:
The goal of this software is to help local farming projects to produce low - cost solutions to prepare them for participation to the e-Marketplace.
unbiased medical information, medicine and self - care for minor ailments and any other health related information. The portal also allows users to have direct contact with pharmacists who can complete a pharmaceutical transaction online.
Women 's Organization created to teach ICT skills to women. The website serves as a hub for other women organizations and as a platform to conduct research on the impact of ICT in women lives.
area of Karpan Malaysia with ICT knowledge for sustainable community development. The project is design in phases. The first phase will teach them about basic computer usage from operating windows to surfing the internet.
information on forms and public services. E-PS will enable the public to easily download application forms and to access a variety of government services online.
Digital Bangladesh implies the broad use of computers, and embodies the modern philosophy of effective and useful use of technology in terms of implementing the promises in education, health, job placement and poverty reduction. The party underscored a changing attitude, positive thinking and innovative ideas for the success of "Digital Bangladesh ''.
The philosophy of "Digital Bangladesh '' comprises ensuring people 's democracy and human rights, transparency, accountability, establishing justice and ensuring delivery of government services to the citizens of Bangladesh through maximum use of technology, with the ultimate goal being the overall improvement of the daily lifestyle of general people. This includes all classes of people and does not discriminate people in terms of technology.
The government further emphasized on the four elements of "Digital Bangladesh Vision '' which are human resource development, people involvement, civil services and use of information technology in business.
The National Portal Framework (NPF) is the single platform for accessing all public information from any government organization to ensure easy accessibility to information for citizens and easy management and share of data and information among various organizations.
Multimedia classrooms has been introduced in 500 schools, 15,200 secondary schools and 5,300 Madrasa through Ministry of Education of Bangladesh within 2014. A number of 23,661 primary and secondary school teachers now use multimedia contents through teacher 's portal. More than 300 electronic text books of primary and secondary education are made available online for students.
The system allows the sugar mills all over Bangladesh to send purchase orders to the sugarcane growers through SMS. Sugar and Food Industries Corporation of Bangladesh has been running the e-Purjee system in 15 state - owned sugar mills of Bangladesh since 2011 -- 12.
Jatiyo e-Tathyakosh is an online knowledge bank on livelihood related information and contents. The medium is Bangla and contents are delivered in audio - visual, text and animation formats.
China is the world 's biggest nation and fastest growing economy. Firstly, China develop both satellite and fiber optics technology for its rural infrastructure. However, there 's an agreement with the Government of Israel for provision of 500 small aperture terminals (VSAT) for its rural satellite broadcast and internet access. Secondly, the eCommunity centers belong to a centralized multi-tiered network (national, provincial, prefecture, township and villages). Thirdly, the Ministry of Agriculture are building such networks service providers in agricultural bureaus, agricultural information centers, local government and distance education institutions. Fourthly, eCommunity centers that is part of distance -- learning network called as the Central Agricultural Broadcasting and Television School (CABTS).
CABTS is huge network. It has 1 central school in Beijing administering the network, 38 provincial schools, 330 prefecture schools, 2,480 county school, 23 000 township training centers, 60 virtual classrooms, that will increase soon in 560 Israel 's donation of VSAT units, 2 750 administrators, and 4 107 staff.
While the CABTS is growing, its network is now being linked and sooner it will focus on livelihood sector in non-agricultural sector and this will shift into ICT4L. (Reference: AGFlor BGFlor book in ICT4D version 2.0)
China implemented various types of information dissemination models such as a web portal, an SMS - based service where information can be distributed through text messages; a membership - based online community where people can share their experiences and information, an interactive video conferencing services and many more. Its initial stages began during the 1970s to 1990s when China imported their very first computer for agricultural informatization and established their first computer application research institute in agriculture. During this period, they also began their research and invested more on ICTs, mainly in adding more computers in the different departments of their agricultural sector. They also conducted computer seminars for their staff in order to push through with their development goals. It 's establishing stage was around 1990 to 2000s where more informatization programs were added, expanding their ICT networks all over the country. And from 2000s to today, China 's rural ICT infrastructures and development programs continues to expand and improve, benefiting their country and their economy. These information dissemination models helped China improve its agricultural landscape, which improved farmers ' income, disaster preparedness, trading, marketing, policy - making and in establishing best practices for their agricultural sector. Human actors were key proponents to the success of these information dissemination models in China. The success of these models were based on people related factors such as farmer 's ICT literacy, level of awareness and education and motivation.
Indonesia implemented Presidential Decree Number 3 of 2003 and Republic Act Number 22 of 1999 (known as the Local Government Code). The first promulgates the application of E-Governance all over Indonesia and the latter is for decentralizing the agricultural extension function from the Ministry of Agriculture to the Dinas Pertanian of the decentralized local governments.
Another law implemented in Indonesia is Republic Act Number 25 of 1999, which is intended for the distribution of the agricultural budget extension to local governments, which will further relocate this budget for other urgent priorities. But this law has weakened the Information and Communications capabilities of the agricultural extension force since the funds were channeled elsewhere.
Further, Republic Act Number 8 of 2003has limited the number of Dinases in each district to three unless the criteria for establishing more than three is fulfilled. In addition, the Ministry of Agriculture has no direct influence on any decisions regarding agricultural programs at the local level.
The government of Indonesia invested heavily in ICT for basic delivery of services in the country, in fact Indonesia was the first Southeast Asian country to launch its own satellite for telecommunication purposes. Indonesia was leading in programs promoting rural access. However, internet access in Indonesia is still among the lowest in Southeast Asia. Furthermore, The MOA Center for Agricultural Database and Information gets services from commercial Internet Service Providers for the district and sub-district level programs since the noncommercial internet backbone is not effectively tapped for agricultural extension.
The Ministry of Agriculture has sufficient hardware, software and networking facilities up to the provincial level and district level but at the sub-district level and below the hardware is lacking and aging.
Despite the existence of the potential for ICT infrastructure, it is not being employed effectively for agricultural development, the noncommercial internet backbone should be developed and utilized accordingly.
The Agency for Agricultural Human Resource Development (AAHRD) can not directly implement ICT programs at the field level for agricultural extension.
However, the following ICT - related programs, which may be linked to the agricultural extension ICT system in Indonesia, are in the pipeline:
Even though there is a lack in programs on agricultural extension ICT systems, there are still opportunities to link - up with exiting and upcoming programs that are related directly to agriculture.
Indonesia should develop a strategy that that utilizes high - end ICTs such as the Web, cable modem, PDAs, 3G Cellular telephony and low - end ICTs such as cable television, SMS, rural radio and indigenous media.
The Agency for Agricultural Research and Development (AARD) has kept its Assessment Institutes for Agricultural Technology (AIATs) and retained its nationwide agricultural research network, this network enabled the AARD to implement field level activities from national program perspectives. Dismantling the agricultural extension system has left an empty space, which did force the AARD to carry part of the extension burden in the countryside since the content for innovative agricultural technologies is housed in the AIATs.
The participation of AIATs in the agricultural extension ICT system makes content available.
Indonesia has 8,000 researchers compared to 35,000 extension workers, most of them receive their salaries from the local governments. The AIATs carry part of the agricultural extension burden, yet the AIATs are ran by researchers and not by extension workers.
Other than that, most extension workers in local governments are over 40 years and awaiting retirement, which means that they belong to the old school of ICTs. Agricultural extension workers need training courses for designing, developing and utilizing ICTs, these courses should include sessions on digital multimedia production, they should also incorporate interfaces with conventional and traditional media and last mile linkage strategies.
eLAC is an intergovernmental strategy that conceives of information and communications technologies as instruments for economic development and social inclusion in Latin America and the Caribbean. eLAC is based on a public - private sector partnership and is part of a long - term vision (until 2015) in line with the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and those of the World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS). The inter-governmental strategy contributes to the implementation of these long - term goals by pursuing a consecutive series of frequently adjusted short - term achtion plans with concrete qualitative and quantitative goals to be achieved. Three plans have already been worked on to implement this vision:
2005 - 2007: eLAC2007 with 30 goals and 70 activities for the years 2005 - 2007
2008 - 2010: eLAC2010 with 83 goals to be achieved during the 2008 - 2010 period
2010 - 2015: eLAC2015 with 24 goals to be achieved during the period 2010 - 2015
The monitoring of eLAC through United Nations ECLAC has produced a wealth of important statistics of the most diverse aspects of ICT4D in Latin America and the Caribbean.
Strengthening Capacity Research in Asia (SIRCA) is a pioneer capacity - building programme that intends to develop social science research skills of emerging researchers in Asia Pacific region in the information and communication technologies for development (ICTD) space by supporting research that was scientific, replicable, generalisable, collaborative, and actionable (i.e. applied research). It is conceptualized by the Singapore Internet Research Centre (SiRC) and the International Development Research Centre (IDRC) and was initiated in August 2008.
SIRCA has the following objectives:
The SIRCA programme facilitated 15 research projects (12 grant recipients, and three graduate student awardees) of emerging ICTD from eight Asian countries from 2008 to 2011. The topics covered on these studies address key development goals in agriculture, education, health, migration, livelihoods, and disaster - preparedness for the benefit and advancement of individuals, organizations, nations, and societies in Asia. The program mentors ensured that projects had not only an applied practical context but were grounded in theory, a necessity for publication in the best peer reviewed journals, and for contribution to the scientific community.
To further improve SIRCA to become one of the best ICT4D programs in Asia, SiRC hired an external evaluator in cooperation with their management. Two evaluations were done: a formative, The SIRCA Programme Evaluation; and a qualitative, The Mentorship Model Evaluation. The formative evaluation spanned for two years and four months (March 2008 -- July 2010). Grant Review Process, Mentorship Programme, SIRCA Workshops, and Conferences were areas of The SIRCA Programme Evaluation. On the other hand, the second evaluation (qualitative) consisted of interviews of Principal Investigators (PI) and mentors.
SIRCA II
Following the success of SIRCA, the International Development Research Centre (IDRC) and the Singapore Internet Research Centre (SiRC) decided to launch a second programme that will extend to a larger group of emerging scholars from Africa, Asia and Latin America. Launched in 2011, the Strengthening Information Society Research Capacity Alliance (or SIRCA II) would put more emphasis on regional collaboration and real world (policy) impacts.
SIRCA II would maintain the primary goals of SIRCA I, which is to provide support to emerging ICT4D scholars by awarding them with research grants; and to shape them into future research leaders by developing their capacities to conduct research in ICT4D. However, it is intended that SIRCA II would go beyond the extent of SIRCA I by giving an increased emphasis on research take - up, as Harris & Chib (2012) explained: "the utilisation of the knowledge generated by research within the fields of policy advocacy and programme practice through the packaging of research in a more suitable manner such that it can be presented to policy - makers and have direct or even indirect impacts on policy. ''
Harris & Chib (2012) also pointed that SIRCA II "will achieve the same academic impact in terms of peer - reviewed publications that remain a priority within the professional context, but will add this new layer of socio - economic impact in order to further promote ICTD research as a tool for advocating for policy formulation and enhancing programme practice ''.
Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) is the federal government agency tasked to administer most of Canada 's official cooperation program with developing countries and countries in transition. CIDA 's mandate is to reduce poverty and to contribute to a better world by supporting sustainable development in developing countries. To attain this goal, CIDA focuses on the following priorities:
CIDA 's strategy in participating in ICT projects is guided by needs and priorities of developing / transition countries. This strategy is meant to guide and inform CIDA 's work in the ICT sector, especially its involvement in international projects and initiatives for the next three to five years. All of these are based on the principle of country ownership. This further recommends that CIDA 's approach to be at two levels:
CIDA has been programming in ICTs for over 25 years. Through the years, its interventions and contributions are deemed relevant, addressed real needs, and participated in balancing the development of institutional, human, and infrastructure capacity without letting go of the rapidly changing ICT dynamics. Its work in ICT4D can be divided into 3 categories:
W. TEC is a Nigerian non-governmental organization working for the economic and social empowerment of girls and women, using information and communication technologies (ICTs). We have chosen to focus on this area because statistical evidence has shown that in most African countries, women 's use and knowledge of ICTs (to store, share, organise and process information) is lower than men 's, denying them of income - generating opportunities and the chance to network with others.
W. TEC 's programmes will consist of technology literacy training, technology - based projects, mentoring and work placement. W. TEC will also research and publish works examining pivotal issues related to how African women use technology, barriers preventing or limiting technology use, and strategies for more efficient technology use.
Our objectives are for Nigerian women to develop financial independence by: training for ICT - specific jobs, like computer engineer, programmer, system analysts, hardware and network specialists, designers; developing technology skills that can be used for other ICT - reliant jobs or self - employment. We also want women to develop skills and confidence to use ICTs for activism, learning, awareness - raising and advocacy for a better quality of life.
The Girls in ICT initiative of the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) is a global effort to raise awareness on empowering and encouraging girls and young women to consider studies and careers in Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs). The initiative is committed to celebrate and commemorate the International Girls in ICT Day on the fourth Thursday of every April as established by the ITU membership.
The Girls in ICT Portal is a tool for girls and young women to get an insight into the ICT sector as well as for partners to understand the importance of the International Girls in ICT Day, developed by the Digital Inclusion programme of ITU Telecommunication Development Bureau.
ICT4Peace is an international foundation established in 2006 that utilizes ICT to improve crisis information management, provide humanitarian aid and promote peace. Before it became a foundation, it originated as a project of Daniel Stauffacher (Ambassador of Switzerland to the WSIS) to address the armed conflicts in many countries that undermines progress towards the Millennium Development Goals through ICTs. Stauffacher held a series of meetings that bore groundbreaking outcomes in advocacy, research and networking. The ICT4Peace Project then became ICT4Peace Foundation with Stauffacher as its chairman.
The following are the initiatives and programs of the foundation:
"Based on the article by AGFlor BGFlor version 2.0 ''
According to their resource material, it was mentioned that experts and economists warned everyone about an imminent danger of facing a global food crisis that was unlikely similar to what we 've encountered before. To put it another way, the Industrial Age we took advantage of, brought with it were problems that harms the agricultural sector which leads to food shortages and price hike at a global scale.
Factors of agriculture causing the surge in food prices:
The global crisis that these factors contribute is simply a product of social entropy or societal break down. Fortunately, entropy can be countered by information because it is true that in the process of information exchange, the world may find its salvation.
Through exchange of information, communities of practice must do this in order to correct unsound policies (land conversion), uninformed decisions (biofuel), and unwarranted practices (using staples as animal feeds, and inaccurate prediction and forecasts. As a result, these would lead to the potential advocacies of eAgriculture: alternative fuel, alternative fertilizers, alternative feeds, and alternative foods. Unfortunately, since most eAgriculture involves the participation of mobile communities, they have been confronted by the following challenges: Carriage, Critical mass, Collaboration, Content, and Costs.
The Five Cs
As technology advances, the mentioned challenges of the participating mobile communities were offset by devices such as the iPhone 3G.
In terms of carriage, a device like the iPhone 3G with such capabilities can successfully address all of these problems and = solve first mile / last mile challenges. Modern devices can also create shareable and reusable user - generated content which helpful especially among farmng communities.
In terms of critical mass, back in 1998, the Philippines quickly reached the sufficient of adopters of an innovation (devices with 2G or GSM). Thus, becomes beneficial to the community and promotes growth in mass communication.
In terms of collaboration, advance devices capable of an effective Web 2.0 would lead everyone to collaborate, share and reuse, and simply to exchange information. Students of would benefit especially in matters of online learning because it is cheaper and has no significant difference in learning.
In terms of content, web communities can effectively use audio and video, with the language of their choice, to exchange information.
Lastly, in terms of cost, as technology is getting better, faster, stronger, and cheaper. One can afford a phone with the right components to achieve the minimum requirement for an effective performance in exchanging information.
There is a lot of debate and critical thinking about solving the problem on ICT4D especially in the eAgricultural sector. It means it still needs a lot of study on how to entropy the poverty alleviation and the step by step productivity of ICTs.
Artificial Intelligence is the future of ICT4D. Therefore, agriculture should be the focus.
Food stocks are necessary for long term cultivation of life. We have to prepare for the worst. Due to recent escalating issue on climate change the natural resources are at risk and in order for it to maintain its purpose is to monitor and analyse its activities 24x7 by cognitive technologies. Crop choice allows diversity. Mixed crops can be adapted to develop further ways of consumption and production. Analyzing the information at hand and working hard through intelligence technologies will change outcomes and probabilities of maximizing the crop returns. Virtual assistant is another automation that may interact with agricultural farmers. Conversational approach to understand and learn techniques at the right time and moment of need. We can leverage to this technology to assist farmers in their questions and answers can be given right away.
Artificial intelligence technologies are making its way to agriculture and it is now the future that we see for ICT4D. Food stocks, crop choice and virtual assistant are the main focus of the advance intellectual technology that can bring the livestock and agriculture to industrial and to information links back again. As a result, these will shape the future of ICT4D.
This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC - BY - SA IGO 3.0 License statement: Mobile phones and literacy: Empowerment in Women 's Hands; A Cross-Case Analysis of Nine Experiences, 49 - 51, 105 - 110, UNESCO, UNESCO. UNESCO. To learn how to add open license text to Wikipedia articles, please see Wikipedia: Adding open license text to Wikipedia. For information on reusing text from Wikipedia, please see the terms of use.
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in what episode of grey's anatomy do lexie and mark get together | Lexie Grey - wikipedia
Alexandra Caroline "Lexie '' Grey, M.D. is a fictional character from ABC 's medical drama television series Grey 's Anatomy, portrayed by actress Chyler Leigh. Created by showrunner Shonda Rhimes, the character is introduced in season three as protagonist Meredith Grey 's younger half - sister, who has transferred to Seattle Grace Hospital as a new surgical intern after her mother 's sudden death. Lexie is eventually named a surgical resident in season six. Leigh was originally contracted to appear for a multi-episode story arc, but ultimately received star billing from seasons four to eight. Leigh has also reprised her role as Lexie on the spin - off show Private Practice.
Characterized by Rhimes as a dork with issues expressing her feelings, Lexie 's focal storyline in the series involved her romantic relationship with plastics attending Mark Sloan (Eric Dane). Both she and Mark sustained life - threatening injuries during an aviation accident in the eighth - season finale, which resulted in their deaths. Seattle Grace Mercy West is later renamed Grey - Sloan Memorial Hospital in their memory. The reason given for Lexie 's departure after five years on the show was Leigh 's desire to spend more time with her family.
Both the character and Leigh 's performance have received positive feedback and acclaim, as Lexie has been cited as a favorite of critics and fans alike. Leigh was among the cast to receive a Screen Actors Guild Award nomination for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series in 2007.
Alexandra Caroline "Lexie '' Grey was the daughter of Susan (Mare Winningham) and Thatcher Grey (Jeff Perry), and the elder sister of Molly Grey - Thompson (Mandy Siegfried). Throughout her childhood, Lexie remained unaware that she also had an older half - sister, Meredith Grey (Ellen Pompeo), born to Thatcher and his first wife Ellis (Kate Burton), a famed surgeon. Lexie was extremely intelligent as a child, having skipped third grade and "aced '' her psych clerkship. When she turned seven, her parents threw her a surprise party that she always remembered as one of her best birthdays. She was very popular and had a great group of friends in high school, where she was crowned prom queen and class valedictorian.
In contrast to Meredith, Lexie came from a loving home with a happy and idealistic upbringing. Meredith once said: "She (Lexie) was raised right. With parents and rules and smiley face posters on her wall. '' Despite this, Meredith and Lexie ultimately form a close familial bond, with Lexie eventually moving into Meredith 's house.
Lexie possessed an eidetic memory, which was often used as a valuable resource and earned her the nickname "Lexipedia ''. She demonstrated a high aptitude for both plastics and neurosurgery and was generally viewed as one of the better young surgeons at the hospital, often being asked to assist on many high profile surgeries; she was considered the best of the interns in her year.
Near the end of Meredith 's intern year, Molly mentions that Lexie is a student at Harvard Medical School. After she graduates, Lexie is accepted by and chooses Massachusetts General Hospital as her residency spot. Following her mother 's sudden death of complications stemming from the hiccups, however, Lexie decides to move back to Seattle to care for her father, taking up a surgical internship at Seattle Grace Hospital instead, one year behind Meredith who is due to begin her second year of residency. On the day of her mother 's funeral, Lexie waits in the car while Thatcher, accompanied by Molly, goes to tell Meredith that she is n't welcome at the event, again missing the opportunity to meet her older half - sister. Later that night, before her internship at Seattle Grace begins, Lexie meets Derek Shepherd (Patrick Dempsey) at Joe 's Bar, mirroring Derek 's initial meeting with Meredith. The pair flirt and Lexie forwardly offers to buy Derek a drink, but Derek says that he is there with some friends and declines. Upon arriving at the hospital 's intern locker room the next day, Lexie meets George O'Malley (T.R. Knight) during the end of his first year as an intern. After Lexie introduces herself, George immediately realizes her identity as Meredith 's half - sister.
Lexie quickly befriends George and promises not to tell anyone that he is repeating his internship after failing his intern exam. Lexie 's assigned supervising resident is Meredith 's best friend Cristina Yang (Sandra Oh), who does n't take the time to learn her interns ' names and thus, dubs Lexie as "Three ''. Although Cristina is initially rude and strict with her, Lexie eventually stands up for herself and manages to earn her mentor 's respect, with Yang going so far as to acknowledge Lexie as her best student. Lexie is eager to get to know Meredith but receives a hostile response when she first introduces herself, and her later attempts to bond with her half - sister are similarly rebuffed. Lexie begins sleeping with resident Alex Karev (Justin Chambers), who discovers that Thatcher has descended into alcoholism following his wife 's death and often unreasonably lashes out at Lexie. When Lexie is lectured by Meredith for not looking after Thatcher, she finally retaliates and decides to stop pursuing a relationship with Meredith. After ending her casual sexual relationship with Alex, Lexie bonds with patient Nick Hanscom (Seth Green) and is present when his exposed artery blows, causing him to suffer massive blood loss. She manages to stop the bleeding but is distraught when Nick later dies anyway. Feeling sympathy, Cristina invites Lexie to join her and Meredith in drinking and dancing, causing the sisters ' relationship to begin to thaw. The following morning, Meredith goes out of her way to make Lexie breakfast, which Lexie politely eats despite being allergic to eggs, resulting in her having to be treated at the hospital. Lexie and George later agree to rent a place together, but they are only able to afford a dilapidated apartment that Lexie attempts to improve by stealing decorations and furniture from the hospital. Lexie begins to develop romantic feelings for George and secretly steals his personnel files from Chief Richard Webber 's (James Pickens Jr.) office, discovering that George had only failed his intern exam by one point. She encourages George to try and convince the Chief that he deserves a second chance, to which the Chief agrees. An ecstatic George then casually plants a kiss on Lexie, completely unaware of her feelings for him.
Lexie continues to harbor romantic feelings for an oblivious George; their relationship is a reflection of George 's previous infatuation with the oblivious Meredith. She prioritizes helping George study over taking part in a rare surgery offered to her by plastics attending Mark Sloan (Eric Dane), but feels betrayed when George fails to even request that she become one of his interns after he passes his exam. Finally realizing that George does n't feel the same way about her, Lexie gives up on her feelings for him and the pair 's friendship begins to fizzle out. She soon discovers that some of her fellow interns have secretly been practicing simple procedures on each other, and begins taking part in these unauthorized operations to prove that she 's "hardcore ''. Seeking a more daring procedure, Sadie Harris (Melissa George) later suggests that they remove her appendix. Although Lexie agrees, she quickly finds herself out of her depth and is forced to seek the aid of Meredith and Cristina to save Sadie 's life, after which all of the interns in the "cabal '' are put on probation. Derek finds Lexie exhausted and distraught at the day 's events and allows her to move into the attic at his and Meredith 's house. Lexie then begins a flirtation with Mark, and is highly impressed after watching him successfully perform a cutting - edge surgery. Later that night, she shows up at Mark 's hotel room and undresses herself while repeating to him, "Teach me. '' The pair grow close very quickly and enter a romantic relationship, though they are forced to keep it a secret when Derek warns Mark away from Lexie due to their large age gap and the latter being Meredith 's younger sister (earning Lexie the nickname "Little Grey ''). When Derek 's mother (Tyne Daly) visits Seattle, Mark is initially fearful that she will disapprove of his relationship with Lexie. After meeting Lexie, however, Mrs. Shepherd tells Mark that she is exactly the kind of youthful person he should be with. When Lexie and Mark are making out in an on - call room, she accidentally gives him a penile fracture and has to seek the help of Callie Torres (Sara Ramirez) and Owen Hunt (Kevin McKidd) to treat him. Sadie then publicly takes the blame for Mark 's injury to spare Lexie the burden of suffering further humiliation and guilt. Lexie later wins an intern competition organized by Izzie Stevens (Katherine Hiegl) and is congratulated by Mark. Wanting to date Mark in public, Lexie convinces him to come clean to Derek about their relationship, to which Mark agrees. But during his confession, Mark does not realize that Derek has just been devastated by the loss of a patient, and they then get into a fist fight. The two men continue to feud, resulting in Lexie beginning to stress eat until they eventually reconcile. Lexie is chosen by Mark to assist him with an extremely rare facial transplant surgery only to be judged and mocked by her peers; they believe that Mark is taking advantage of her and that she is using him. Lexie then kisses Mark in front of the other interns before stating, "They think that we 're ugly but I know that we 're beautiful, and we can adapt to a hostile environment. '' Lexie is delighted when Meredith asks her to be a bridesmaid at her and Derek 's wedding, though they ultimately give the ceremony to Alex and cancer - stricken Izzie, which Lexie attends with Mark. Lexie later asks Mark to meet her newly - sober father, which Mark initially refuses as he states that fathers have never liked him. However, Mark realizes how much he wants to build a future with Lexie, so he ends up going for dinner with her and Thatcher. Soon after, Mark decides to purchase a house and invites Lexie to move in with him only for her to decline, concerned about how fast their relationship is progressing.
Lexie feels immense guilt following George 's death, having abandoned their friendship after he failed to reciprocate her romantic feelings towards him. She is consoled by Mark and, after becoming a surgical resident, agrees to move into his new apartment with him. Lexie and the other residents grow increasingly stressed in the wake of Chief Webber 's announcement that there will be a merger with Mercy West Hospital, meaning that Seattle Grace will have to layoff a large portion of its staff members. Mark encourages Lexie to relax and just try her best during this period, advising her not to worry as she deserves her job. Lexie soon finds that while she is safe from the layoffs, many of her friends have been cut from the program. To take everyone 's minds off the merger, Owen takes Lexie, Mark, Derek, Meredith, and Cristina to play baseball together. Thatcher is later admitted into the hospital with liver failure stemming from his former alcoholism. When Lexie discovers that she is not a suitable transplant candidate, Meredith steps in and donates part of her liver to Thatcher to spare Lexie the grief of losing her father. Following the merger, Lexie develops a rivalry with Mercy West resident April Kepner (Sarah Drew), who desperately attempts to undermine Lexie while they are both on Derek 's service. Lexie retaliates by stealing April 's notebook and using its personal contents to humiliate her, though Lexie later apologizes. When a patient dies from a medical negligence mistake committed by one of the many surgeons who treated her, Webber starts a witch hunt to trace back the culprit and identify the cause of death, and Lexie is among the doctors who are questioned. It is ultimately discovered that April was the one at fault, after which Lexie and the other residents muse over the absurdity of her mistake. Despite Webber 's objections, Derek recruits Lexie for his "rogue surgery '' on hospital technician Isaac 's (Faran Tahir) "inoperable '' tumor, with Lexie acting as Derek 's own caregiver during the long and exhausting procedure. Lexie is supported by Mark and, to avoid having to leave the operating room, resorts to using a diaper so that she can sufficiently hydrate herself before and during the surgery. Near the year 's end, Mark and Lexie receive a shock when a pregnant teenage girl named Sloan Riley (Leven Rambin) shows up claiming to be Mark 's daughter, and her parentage is soon confirmed. Mark quickly agrees to let Sloan and the baby move in permanently without consulting Lexie, resulting in her ending their relationship as she feels she is still too young to be a grandmother. An upset and drunk Lexie then engages in a one - night stand with Alex but feels guilty and confesses to Mark, who becomes furious with her despite also admitting that he had a one - night stand with Addison Montgomery (Kate Walsh). Although she secretly suppresses her feelings for Mark, Lexie and Alex assume a casual relationship that Lexie flaunts to make Mark jealous. Lexie later breaks down in front of Meredith when Alex tells her that Mark has started dating Teddy Altman (Kim Raver). After Sloan gives her baby up for adoption and leaves Seattle, however, Mark approaches Lexie and confesses his love to her. A stunned Lexie hesitantly states that Alex is now her boyfriend, to which Mark replies, "I know. I 'm just saying you could have a husband. '' Lexie takes part in a surgery on Alison Clark (Caroline Williams) and informs her husband Gary Clark (Michael O'Neill) that it was a success, only for Alison to suffer a stroke and fall into a coma that Derek and Webber state she is unlikely to wake from. As Alison had signed a DNR form, Lexie is forced to turn off the machines keeping her alive despite Gary begging her to stop. After failing in an attempt to sue Seattle Grace Mercy West, a grief - stricken Gary Clark later returns to the hospital with a gun, seeking revenge on Derek, Webber, and Lexie. Mark shields Lexie during the shooting and the pair attempt to save a critically wounded Alex. Lexie heads out into the evacuated hospital to search for supplies and comes face - to - face with Clark. Before Clark can shoot her, however, a SWAT team member wounds him and Lexie manages to escape. Lexie and Mark proceed to save Alex 's life, during which Lexie realizes that Alex is still in love with his ex-wife Izzie, as he calls for her while delirious and on the verge of death. After having a conversation with Webber, Gary Clark eventually commits suicide, having killed eleven people and wounded another seven as well as causing Meredith to suffer a miscarriage.
After openly acknowledging the shooting as a mass murder during a therapy session with trauma counselor Andrew Perkins (James Tupper) and the other residents, Lexie experiences a psychotic breakdown stemming from PTSD and sleep deprivation while she is treating a patient. She is admitted to the hospital 's psychiatric ward, where she is sedated for over fifty hours with Meredith remaining by her side. Alex breaks off his relationship with Lexie because he can not handle having to care for a person going through PTSD and he enjoys sleeping with women that find having been shot to be attractive. Lexie, after recovering and being cleared for surgery, confronts Alex at Cristina and Owen 's wedding and knocks him down a peg by telling him that the reason he is alive is because of her. Lexie becomes irritated when others at the hospital view her as fragile and incompetent due to her breakdown and works hard to repair her image; she saves a woman from being paralyzed when no one else caught the issue. She continues to gain her confidence throughout the season and helps attending Miranda Bailey (Chandra Wilson) discover a cure for hospital fistulas. Lexie 's rivalry with April intensifies when the latter begins growing closer to Meredith, but Meredith later assures Lexie that she will always be her sister. Meanwhile, Lexie and Mark continue to work together but never seem to get their timing right, with Lexie acting hostile towards Mark when he wishes to reconcile, and Mark being caught sleeping with a flavor of the day when Lexie wants to rekindle their romance. When Lexie and Mark both realize that they continue to have feelings for each other, however, they resume their relationship. Lexie nearly suffers another breakdown when the victims of a school shooting are sent to Seattle Grace Mercy West for treatment, which reminds her of her near - death experience during the shooting at the hospital. Mark comforts Lexie and the doctors ultimately manage to save all the victims of the shooting, after which Lexie tells Mark that she loves him. Lexie and Mark 's happiness once again comes to a halt when she discovers that during their break - up, Mark had unintentionally impregnated Callie, and she ends their relationship once more because she is not ready for children. Thatcher is admitted to the hospital with kidney stones and Lexie is shocked to discover that he is dating a 20 - year - old girl. Concerned about Lexie 's well - being and eager to win her back, Mark recruits his protégé Jackson Avery (Jesse Williams) to find out what is upsetting her. Lexie reveals to Jackson that she is frustrated with the people she cares about, specifically Mark and her father, making major life - changing decisions without considering her feelings. When Lexie overhears Mark saying that he will take care of his and Callie 's child regardless of what sickness it is born with, she expresses regret for neglecting to even let Mark explain the situation before she walked away from him. However, Jackson manages to convince Lexie that nobody simply has one soulmate and the two subsequently begin dating. Mark is furious and distraught when he discovers that Jackson has entered a relationship with Lexie and desperately attempts to win her back but shortly after, Callie is involved in a severe car accident and Lexie consoles Mark. After Mark and Callie 's baby is born, Mark tells Lexie that she is the only thing missing to make his life perfect. Lexie explains that she will always love Mark and will go back to him if he continues to pursue her, but she believes that they are n't suited because they have different desires. Mark then agrees to let her go, giving her and Jackson his blessing.
Although initially happy in her relationship with Jackson, Lexie grows increasingly distraught and frustrated when she discovers that Mark has started dating an ophthalmologist named Julia. When she sees Mark and Julia flirting during a charity softball match, Lexie 's jealousy gets the better of her and she throws a ball at Julia, injuring the latter 's chest. Jackson senses that Lexie is still in love with Mark and ends their relationship. Lexie begins working under Derek 's service and becomes increasingly proficient in neurosurgery, helping Derek with a set of "hopeless cases '' - high risk surgeries for patients who had otherwise run out of options. During a surgery, Derek is called away on an emergency, leaving Lexie and Meredith to carry out the procedure on their own. Though Derek had instructed them to merely reduce the patient 's brain tumor, Meredith allows Lexie to remove it completely, despite not being authorized by either the patient or Derek to do so. The sisters celebrate the successful surgery but Lexie is devastated when she discovers that the patient suffered severe brain damage, thus losing the ability to speak. Alex, Jackson and April move out of Meredith 's house without inviting Lexie to join them, and with Derek and Meredith settling down with baby Zola, Lexie begins to feel lonely and isolated. After being left babysitting Zola on Valentine 's Day, she contemplates confessing her true feelings to Mark. However, after plucking up the courage to visit his apartment, she finds Mark studying with Jackson and loses her nerve, instead claiming that she wanted to set up a play date for Zola and Sofia. When Mark confides in Derek that he and Julia have been discussing moving in together, Derek warns Lexie not to miss her chance again, resulting in her professing her love to a shell - shocked Mark, who merely thanks her for her candor. Mark later confesses to Derek that he feels the same way about Lexie, but is unsure of how to go about things. Days later, Lexie is named as part of a team of surgeons that will be sent to Boise to separate conjoined twins, along with Mark, Meredith, Derek, Cristina and Arizona Robbins (Jessica Capshaw). However, while flying to their destination, the doctors ' plane crashes in the wilderness and Lexie is crushed under debris from the aircraft but manages to alert Mark and Cristina to help her. The pair try in vain to free Lexie, who realizes that she is suffering from a hemothorax and is unlikely to survive. While Cristina tries to find an oxygen tank and water to save Lexie, Mark holds Lexie 's hand and professes his love for her, telling her that they will get married, have kids and live the best life together, as they are "meant to be ''. While fantasizing about the future that she and Mark could have had together, Lexie succumbs to her injuries and dies moments before Meredith arrives. The remaining doctors are left stranded in the woods waiting for rescue, with a devastated Meredith crying profusely and Mark refusing to let go of Lexie 's hand.
The remaining surgeons are rescued from the wilderness days later, and Lexie 's body is returned to Seattle. Still devastated by Lexie 's passing, Mark advises his protégé Jackson, ' when you love someone, tell them ', which Mark felt that he never told Lexie enough when she was alive. Mark subsequently makes a clean break with Julia, stating that he had always only truly loved Lexie. Mark is soon placed on life support due to the extensive internal injuries he sustained during the plane crash and, as determined by his will, the machines keeping him alive are eventually turned off as he showed no signs of waking after 30 days. After Mark 's death, flashbacks of several moments in his life showed him being videotaped at Callie and Arizona 's wedding; at the end of his congratulations speech, Mark declares that Lexie was the partner he wanted to grow old and dance with at their granddaughter 's wedding. When the remaining survivors of the plane crash pool their compensation money to purchase the hospital, they agree to rename it "Grey Sloan Memorial Hospital '' in tribute to Lexie and Mark.
Following Lexie and Mark 's deaths, series producer Shonda Rhimes mused regarding the pair 's relationship: '... he (Mark) and Lexie get to be together in a way. Their love remains true. ''
Leigh on her early days at Grey 's Anatomy
Leigh first appeared on the show during the last two episodes of the third season as Meredith 's half - sister, Lexie Grey. Following Isaiah Washington 's departure who portrayed Preston Burke, it was reported that show 's executives were planning on adding new cast members, such as Lexie. She was officially upgraded to a series ' regular on July 11, 2007, for the fourth season. On casting Chyler Leigh as Lexie, Grey 's Anatomy creator Shonda Rhimes said: "We met with a lot of young actresses, but Chyler stood out -- she had a quality that felt right and real to me. It felt like she could be Meredith 's sister, but she had a depth that was very interesting. ''
In September 2011, Leigh requested an extended summer hiatus to spend more time with her family. This was granted by Rhimes, though the actress returned in mid-October. Leigh 's character died in the eighth - season finale. In May 2012, Rhimes revealed why she decided to have Lexie die: "I love Chyler and I love the character of Lexie Grey. She was an important member of my Grey 's family. This was not an easy decision. But it was a decision that Chyler and I came to together. We had a lot of thoughtful discussion about it and ultimately we both decided this was the right time for her character 's journey to end. As far as I 'm concerned, Chyler will always remain a part of the Shondaland family and I ca n't wait to work with her again in the future. '' Following the death of her character, Leigh released a statement saying:
Rhimes on Lexie 's personality
Leigh 's character has been called "reliable, trustworthy, timid, and apprehensive '' by Grey 's Anatomy executives. In her early appearances, it was learned that Lexie has a photographic memory, which she applied to her surgical career. This led her to being nicknamed "Lexipedia '' by Alex Karev. The character has also been described as an "innocent young intern '' by Alex Keen of The Trades.
Of the character, Leigh said: "She 's a very vulnerable person from a very healthy background -- she knows how to make good relationships but at this point (season four), she 's coming into so much opposition she 's trying to adjust to it. '' Debbie Chang of BuddyTV commented on Lexie 's early characterization, including her sexual relationship with Karev:
Similarities have been established between Lexie and Meredith. Series writer, Stacy McKee, commented on this:
"Lexie 's struggling to be hardcore herself. I do n't know if I 'd go so far as to say, perhaps, this kind of struggle must run in the family, but... Okay. Fine. It must run in the family -- because Lexie, though she 's very different from Meredith in many many ways, in this one way -- they seem to be exactly alike. Meredith and Lexie both want to succeed. They want to be strong. They want to feel normal. They want, so much, to be whole. But it 's a struggle -- a genuine struggle for them. Being hardcore does n't come naturally. Sometimes, they have to fake it. ''
Lexie entertained several relationships throughout her time on Grey 's Anatomy. In her early appearances, she maintained a friendship with George O'Malley, until developing romantic feelings towards him. Rhimes offered the insight: "I love them as friends. They make good friends. We all have that friend we met in school or the gym or somewhere -- we just hit it off right away. And right away there was no pretense or airs. Just pure honesty. That 's Lexie and George. They 're really good friends and I can see the friendship evolving into something even greater. At least, that 's what Lexie is hoping. She is my kind of girl. The girl who likes the guy because he is a GOOD guy and that 's what George is. He is a good guy and that 's something that Lexie could use now. She 's going through her own challenges what with Meredith and losing her own mother and trying to keep things afloat. I 'm rooting for Lexie. She 's my kind of girl and I hope that she gets what she deserves: love. And more kisses. There should always be that. '' Lexie 's most significant relationship was with Mark Sloan. Following her death, Rhimes said:
While reception to Lexie Grey was initially mixed, both the character and Chyler Leigh 's performance garnered positive feedback and acclaim as her role on the series progressed, and Lexie soon became a favorite of critics and fans of the show. Eileen Lulevitch, entertainment reviewer for TV Guide, praised Lexie 's introduction. Former The Star - Ledger columnist Alan Sepinwall was also favorable of Lexie 's arrival at Seattle Grace, feeling that "she 's still being written as Meredith circa season one in an attempt to make us like her, but I did n't mind the manipulation, if only because there are so few characters left on this show to like. The Buzzsugar television reviewer also praised Lexie 's introduction in the Buzzsugar review. On the other hand, People was initially less than impressed with Lexie and criticized the way Leigh 's character first approached her sister, calling it "rude ''. Laura Burrows from IGN wrote: "Everything she says and does is obnoxious and does harm to someone. Lexie is an idiot and should be shot or drowned or exploded. '' Jennifer Armstrong of Entertainment Weekly was also critical of Leigh 's early appearances, referring to her as "awkward ''. However, Armstrong later noted that the "sparkling '' friendship development between Lexie and O'Malley "won her over ''.
The character 's transition from seasons four to five was positively reviewed, with Alex Keen of The Trades writing: "Her presence and confidence have increased quite a bit since last season, and actress, Chyler Leigh, does a fantastic job of making this progression feel seamless. Since the series has defused the tension between Little Grey and Big Grey (aka Meredith), Lexie has clear sailing through the season and steals the show as one of the best current characters on the series. '' The character 's romantic relationship with Eric Dane 's Mark Sloan has been acclaimed, with Chris Monfette of IGN writing: "Sloan 's honest relationship with Lexie helped to make both characters infinitely more interesting and mature. '' BuddyTV lauded the development and progression of Lexie and Mark 's relationship throughout season five, saying, "They are beautiful, and they can adapt to a hostile environment. '' The Huffington Post 's Michael Pascua praised Leigh 's performance and Lexie 's evolution in season six. Pascua wrote that he enjoyed Lexie 's "humorous '' and "emotionally connective '' role as a "genuine character '' during the merger and layoffs, commenting: "She still maintained that book - smart ability to repeat facts (like the merger cases) and shows a command of medical situations... She should n't be worried about the merger because she 's a good doctor. '' TV Guide 's Adam Bryant praised Leigh 's "powerful performance '' in season six, writing: "The bond that is growing between Lexie and Meredith is nice to see. From Meredith finally saying out loud how she feels about Lexie, to Lexie being at Mer 's side when she wakes up, I am really glad to see these sisters ' happy. '' Lexie 's storyline in season six was also praised by PopSugar. Leigh served as a primary vocalist in season seven 's musical episode, "Song Beneath the Song '', and received rave reviews from television critics, including the Boston Herald 's Mark Perigard. Leigh 's performance in the season eight finale, which was also her character 's final appearance, was deemed as "phenomenal '' by Digital Spy 's Ben Lee.
Lexie Grey was listed in Wetpaint 's "10 Hottest Female Doctors on TV ''. In 2007, at the 14th Screen Actors Guild Awards, Leigh and the rest of the cast of Grey 's Anatomy received a nomination for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series.
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what came out first league of legends or dota | League of Legends - Wikipedia
League of Legends (abbreviated LoL) is a multiplayer online battle arena video game developed and published by Riot Games for Microsoft Windows and macOS. The game follows a freemium model and is supported by microtransactions, and was inspired by the Warcraft III: The Frozen Throne mod, Defense of the Ancients.
In League of Legends, players assume the role of an unseen "summoner '' that controls a "champion '' with unique abilities and battle against a team of other players or computer - controlled champions. The goal is usually to destroy the opposing team 's "nexus '', a structure which lies at the heart of a base protected by defensive structures, although other distinct game modes exist as well. Each League of Legends match is discrete, with all champions starting off fairly weak but increasing in strength by accumulating items and experience over the course of the game. The champions and setting blend a variety of elements, including high fantasy, steampunk, and Lovecraftian horror.
League of Legends was generally well received upon its release in 2009, and has since grown in popularity, with an active and expansive fanbase. By July 2012, League of Legends was the most played PC game in North America and Europe in terms of the number of hours played. As of January 2014, over 67 million people played League of Legends per month, 27 million per day, and over 7.5 million concurrently during peak hours. League has among the largest footprints of any game in streaming media communities on platforms such as YouTube and Twitch.tv; it routinely ranks first in the most - watched hours. In September 2016 the company estimated that there are over 100 million active players each month. The game 's popularity has led it to expand into merchandise, with toys, accessories, apparel, as well as tie - ins to other media through music videos, web series, documentaries, and books.
League of Legends has an active and widespread competitive scene. In North America and Europe, Riot Games organizes the League Championship Series (LCS), located in Los Angeles and Berlin respectively, which consists of 10 professional teams in each continent. Similar regional competitions exist in China (LPL), South Korea (LCK), Taiwan (LMS), Southeast Asia (GPL), and various other regions. These regional competitions culminate with the annual World Championship. The 2017 World Championship had 60 million unique viewers and a total prize pool of over 4 million USD. The finals of 2018 Mid-Season Invitational became the most watched eSports match in history (across all video games), with 127 million unique viewers.
League of Legends is a 3D, third - person multiplayer online battle arena (MOBA) game. The game consists of 3 current running game modes: Summoner 's Rift, Twisted Treeline, and Howling Abyss. Another game mode, The Crystal Scar, has since been removed. Players compete in matches, lasting anywhere from 20 to 60 minutes on average. In each game mode teams work together to achieve a victory condition, typically destroying the core building (called the Nexus) in the enemy team 's base after bypassing a line of defensive structures called turrets, or towers.
In all game modes, players control characters called champions, chosen or assigned every match, who each have a set of unique abilities. Champions begin every match at a low level, and then gain experience over the course of the match to achieve a maximum level of 18. Gaining champion levels in matches allows players to unlock their champion 's special abilities and augment them in a number of ways unique to each character. If a champion loses all their health, they are defeated, but are automatically revived in their base after enough time passes. Players also begin each match with a low amount of gold, and can earn additional gold throughout the match in a variety of ways: by killing non-player characters known as minions and monsters; by killing or helping to kill enemy players; by destroying enemy structures; passively over time; and through unique item interactions or champion abilities. This gold can then be spent throughout the match to buy in - game items that further augment each champion 's abilities and game play in a variety of ways. Champion experience, gold earned, and items bought are specific to each match and do not carry over to subsequent matches. Thus, all players begin each match on more - or-less equal footing relative to their opposing team.
Across matches, players also earn rewards that are applied to their account. Player accounts begin at level one and progress onward with games played. Player level is separate from character level; both a level 30 account and a level 5 account would begin at character level 1 at the start of a new game. From 2009 -- 2017, the maximum account level was 30, and as players progressed, they unlocked additional content and abilities. This system was reworked in November 2017, with the removal of the level 30 limit and removal of a Runes / Masteries system that gave progressive bonuses to players based on their account level. Playing matches and leveling up provides "Blue Essence '' (called "Influence Points '' (IP) from 2009 -- 2017), a currency that can be used in lieu of "real money '' to access certain locked features.
Accounts are given rankings based on the Elo rating system, with proprietary adjustments. These ratings are used in automated matchmaking to make games with players of comparable skill level on each team.
League of Legends consists of three main maps, or "Fields of Justice. '' Each have different terrain, objectives and victory conditions, as well as varied summoner spells and items. A fourth map, the Crystal Scar, was discontinued.
Summoner 's Rift is the most popular map in League of Legends. On this map type, two teams of five players compete to destroy an enemy building called a Nexus, which is guarded by the enemy team and a number of defensive structures called turrets, or towers. One nexus is located in each enemy base on opposite sides of the map, in the lower - left and upper - right hand corners. These structures continually create weak non-player characters known as minions, which advance toward the enemy base along three paths: top, middle, and bottom lanes. Players compete to advance these waves of minions into the enemy base, which allows them to destroy enemy structures and ultimately win the match. Between lanes are neutral areas of the map known as the ' jungle ', arrayed in four quadrants. A shallow river divides the map between the teams, but does n't actually impede movement; all champions can wade through it no differently than dry land.
Each team wishes to defend their own structures and destroy the other team 's structures. These include:
Some objectives are ' neutral ', meaning that they will not attack champions who pass by, but champions can choose to pick a fight with them if they wish to gain a reward at the cost of having to fight for it. They include:
Many of the details have changed over time; League is not a static game, with mechanics being both introduced and removed since launch in 2009. For example, the Rift Herald was only added in 2016, and had its abilities reworked in 2017; Dragons gave gold rather than buffs from 2009 -- 2014, and the dragons only became elementally flavored drakes in 2016; jungle monsters have been added and retuned; the length of time it took for inhibitors to respawn was 4 minutes rather than 5 minutes for a time; Baron Nashor gave a stronger buff to the statistics of champions but no buff to minions from 2009 -- 2014; and so on.
In the Twisted Treeline, two teams of three players compete to destroy the opposing team 's Nexus, which is guarded enemy Towers. It is conceptually similar to Summoner 's Rift, but smaller to account for three vs. three rather than five vs. five. Rather than Summoner 's Rift 3 lanes of turrets and 3 inhibitors, Twisted Treeline has only 2 lanes and 2 inhibitors, with the jungle in between. The other differences are the addition of two "Altars '', control of which grants the occupying team a variety of bonuses, and the replacement of Baron Nashor with Vilemaw, an evil spider deity. Living members of the team that slays Vilemaw are granted a temporary bonus, similar to the death of Nashor.
The Howling Abyss is used for "ARAM '' (All Random All Mid) matches, and is five vs. five. The difference between the Abyss and the other maps is that there is only a single narrow lane of Turrets and an Inhibitor, and no neutral jungle area. Thus, rather than skirmishes and hidden movement, the Abyss focuses exclusively on large team - fights in the sole middle lane. Players can not return to their allied base to replenish health and mana or purchase items unless they have been killed. ARAM was launched as an official mode in September 2013.
The Crystal Scar was used for Dominion mode, a discontinued game format where teams of five players competed to capture control points and hold those points for the longest possible period of time. The map consists of a circle with 5 control points. Each team controls a base known as a fountain, located at the bottom left and right hand corners of the map. Each team scores points by capturing and owning more objectives than the other team over time, which is then reduced from the other team 's "life '' total. These points count down from an initial score of 200. The first team to reduce the other team to 0 points achieves victory. Dominion was launched on September 26, 2011 and was retired on February 22, 2016, although the Crystal Scar is used for certain other rotating formats, such as Ascension.
League of Legends includes several game types players can select.
League of Legends also includes three ways teams may choose what champion they will play for a given match:
There are currently 140 champions in League of Legends as of March 17, 2018. League divides its champion types up a number of ways. The most salient difference is the type of damage a champion deals; some champions deal largely physical damage, which is resisted by the armor stat, and other champions deal largely magic damage, which is resisted by the magic resistance stat. Some champions deal a combination of both and can choose which to emphasize; and some rare abilities deal ' true ' damage which is not mitigable by either armor or magic resistance. Riot Games has classified all champions as one of six types to aid beginners. Not all champions perfectly fit their type, of course. The official Riot classifications are as follows:
Item choice plays an important role in the above, and can shift the style of a champion. For example, if the champion Jarvan IV purchases all damage items, he functions something like an Assassin; he can kill enemies quickly, but dies rapidly himself. If Jarvan buys all defensive items, he 's a Tank focused on disruption and buffing his allies. Somewhere in - between, he 's a Fighter. In the same way, champions like Morgana, Annie, and Karma can build item sets that are focused on high damage like a Mage, or item sets focused on disrupting enemies and aiding allies like a Support.
Riot Games, starting in 2013, has released a number of special limited - time game modes. These special modes would usually be accessible for two weeks, then retired. In 2016, Riot announced that "Rotating Games Mode '' would be a recurring event, so that every weekend a previously released game mode would be made accessible again for that weekend. Game modes in the current rotation include Ascension, Ultra Rapid Fire (URF), Hexakill (Twisted Treeline), One For All (Summoner 's Rift), Nemesis Draft, Nexus Siege, Legend of the Poro King, Doom Bots of Doom, and Hunt of the Blood Moon. Special game modes not seen in the rotation include One For All (Howling Abyss), Hexakill (Summoner 's Rift), Black Market Brawlers, Definitely Not Dominion, and Snowdown Showdown.
The Ultra Rapid Fire (URF) mode was originally a 2014 April Fools ' Day prank that proved so popular it became a proper rotating game mode; in URF, champion abilities have no resource cost and have their cooldowns reduced by 80 %, double the normal cap of 40 % that can be attained through items. Additionally, champions have increased movement speed, faster passive gold gain, and faster attacks.
League of Legends is funded through microtransactions using Riot Points (RP), an in - game currency which can be purchased by players in the client store. RP can be used to purchase champions, champion skins, ward skins, summoner icons, emotes, and certain multi-game boosts. An additional currency, Blue Essence (BE) (known as Influence Points from 2009 -- 2017), is earned by playing the game and leveling up. League of Legends is free - to - play and all in - game purchases with a material effect on game - play may be acquired by either RP or BE; only cosmetic items are locked to RP - only.
League of Legends takes place in the fictional world of Runeterra. In Runeterra, the champions of League of Legends are a collection of heroes and villains who have a variety of backstories, often related to the political struggles of the various countries of the main continent of Valoran. Additionally, some champions are extraplanar and come from worlds other than Runeterra, but are visiting for their own purposes. These champions sometimes clash with each other, roughly reflected in the gameplay of League of Legends.
The setting has gone through two phases: the ' original ' setting that was canon from 2009 - 2014, and the rebooted setting from 2014 -- present. The original setting was very focused on justifying the exact mechanics of a game of League in the world of Runeterra. The MOBA predecessor to League, Defense of the Ancients, featured two warring sides with two separate hero rosters; however, in League, any combination of champions was legal to create a team. To explain this, in the original setting, Valoran was functionally ruled by extremely powerful time mages who could intimidate the other nations into compliance with their whims. They created the "Institute of War '', also known as the "League of Legends '', to resolve disputes and act as something like an international sports league. In these disputes, "Summoners '' (aka the game player) could control any of Runeterra 's greatest heroes or villains in their struggles, thus justifying why a team of 5 characters who all hated each other might form. Additionally, these time mages would actually power - down the characters to "level 1 '' before each match to make things ' fair '; some character 's backstories even involved them explicitly having their powers sealed by the Institute of War due to them being too powerful otherwise, such as the demigoddesses Kayle and Morgana. This explained why characters might participate in multiple matches and have to relearn the same skills each time. After a match, a "Judgment '' would sometimes be handed down, with the winning Summoners able to give land and privileges to those they favored.
The narrative team at Riot eventually decided this setup was too constraining, and "rebooted '' the story behind League of Legends in 2014. In essence, the original story put too much emphasis on the faceless player stand - in Summoners and the Time Mages of the Institute; "the very idea of all - powerful Summoners made Champions little more than puppets manipulated by godlike powers. '' Any interesting champions the Narrative team created were rendered as secondary, mere servants to the Summoners, unable to influence their own destiny. Many champion 's lore did not give them reason to join the Institute, such as serial killer fire spirit Brand or void monster Rek'Sai. Riot wished to let champions take the center stage and have stories of their own, pursuing their own unique goals. For example, Riot has since released a plotline about a lost empire in the Shurima desert and a plotline about a clash between the pirate Gangplank and the pirate - hunter Miss Fortune in the city of Bilgewater, both of which were driven by the champions of League of Legends, not Summoners. Riot compared this style of narrative to comic book characters and classic literature, where interesting characters can have many adventures over time and not necessarily have all of them make sense in the same continuity. A side effect of this is "that the game and story are n't one - to - one copies of each other. ''
The world of Runeterra consists of a number of countries and city - states, locked in a web of rivalry, alliance, and conflict. The two largest and most powerful entities are the states of Demacia and Noxus, who have fought wars in the past, and are in a Cold War-esque state currently, with each seeking to quietly undermine the other. Demacia is inspired by an idealized Medieval European kingdom, while Noxus is reminiscent of the Roman Empire. Demacian champions tend to value themes like chivalry and honor, while Noxus prides itself on vision, might, and guile. Piltover and Zaun are a city - state at the forefront of technology; Piltover, the "respectable '' half of the city, has a "steampunk '' style, while Zaun, the neglected undercity of Piltover, is a darker vision of the power of technology, engaging in ethically questionable research. The Freljord is an icy domain riven by a three - way civil war between rival claimant Queens Ashe, Sejuani, and Lissandra. Bandle City is a peaceful domain of yordles, a race of small humanoids unique to League of Legends. Ionia is an island nation with a strong connection to magic and features champions inspired by monk and ninja archetypes, as well the Vastaya, a race of animal - human hybrid creatures also unique to League of Legends. Bilgewater is a port town with a pirate theme. The Shadow Isles is an island chain that was magically corrupted, and has become haunted by a malign force known as the "Black Mist '' which leeches life and empowers the undead. Targon is an ancient mountain peak with a Greek mythology theme. Shurima is a recently resurrected empire that was until recently lost to the desert, with a somewhat Egyptian theme. Icathia is another fallen and abandoned city where Void monsters from another dimension have crossed into Runeterra, with a Lovecraftian theme.
Of the current maps, Summoner 's Rift is set at the Institute of War from the ' original ' League storyline; the Twisted Treeline is set in the Shadow Isles; and the Howling Abyss map is set in the Frejlord.
The game 's developer Riot Games was co-founded by Brandon "Ryze '' Beck and Marc "Tryndamere '' Merrill, who were roommates while they attended the University of Southern California. They partnered with Steve "Guinsoo '' Feak, the previous designer of the popular Warcraft III: The Frozen Throne custom map Defense of the Ancients, and Steve "Pendragon '' Mescon, the administrator of the former official support base for the map, to develop League of Legends.
The original inspiration for "DotA '' was a 1998 mod for StarCraft created by community member Aeon64 called "Aeon of Strife ''. After the release of Warcraft III: Reign of Chaos and its subsequent World Editor in 2002, DotA was created by another modder, Eul. He ported and expanded the "Aeon of Strife '' mod to the new engine and named it "Defense of the Ancients ''. Guinsoo later made DotA Allstars by inserting his own mix of content to "DotA '', greatly expanding the number of heroes, added recipes and items, and introduced various gameplay changes. Guinsoo then passed the mod to IceFrog after accepting a job at the newly formed Riot Games.
The idea of a spiritual successor to Defense of the Ancients was that it would be its own stand - alone game with its own engine, rather than another mod of Warcraft III, began to materialize at the end of 2005. League of Legends was born "when a couple of very active DotA community members believed that the gameplay was so much fun and so innovative that it represented the spawning of a new genre and deserved to be its own professional game with significantly enhanced features and around - game services. ''
Riot Games officially opened its office in September 2006, and, as of 2013, has over 1,000 people working on League of Legends. According to Marc Merrill, when creating the various champions in the game, instead of leaving the champion creation to just a few people, they decided to open up the champion creation process to everyone in the company based upon a template where they could vote on which champions made it into the game.
League of Legends was first announced on October 7, 2008. It was in a closed beta from April 10, 2009 to October 22, 2009. It then transitioned to open beta until release.
League of Legends was released on October 27, 2009. Riot Games self - publishes and operates the game and all of its customer service aspects in North America. Riot Games has signed deals regarding the distribution of League of Legends in Asia, Europe, and North America. By July 2013, the game has been released and was distributed in Australia, the United States, Canada, Europe, Philippines, and South Korea.
The game is distributed in China by Tencent Inc., the largest Internet value - added services company in China best known for its QQ Instant Messaging client. The game has been distributed to Tencent 's growing 300 million Internet user base through its leading QQ Game portal. The deal was one of only a handful of partnerships to bring a U.S. - developed online game directly to China.
In Europe, Riot Games initially signed an international licensing partnership with GOA, the video games department of Orange 's Content Division and Europe 's largest gaming portal. On October 13, 2009, GOA and Riot announced that they would start channeling server access for players located in Europe to GOA 's dedicated servers. This partnership did not last; on May 10, 2010, Riot Games announced that they would take over distribution and operation of the game in Europe. To do so, Riot Games established a European HQ in Dublin.
On July 16, 2010, Riot Games announced that Garena would publish the game in Southeast Asia. Additionally, Southeast Asian players had the ability "transfer accounts '' to import their progress stored in North American or European servers into the Southeast Asian server. The game has since been distributed by Garena in Taiwan as well.
In March 2013, Riot Games released a beta version of an OS X client in addition to their Windows client. The Mac client was since moved out of beta and OS X / macOs players have had full access to League.
Riot has since expanded to many countries, after the initial North America / Europe / Korea / Garena 's Southeast Asia launch. In 2012, a Brazilian and Turkish server were added; in 2013, Latin American & Russian servers; and a beta of a Japanese server was launched in 2016.
In a release published in November 2011, Riot Games stated that League of Legends had accumulated 32.5 million players, 11.5 million of whom play monthly, of which 4.2 million play daily. Riot said in October 2013, the game had 12 million active daily players and 32 million active monthly players. In January 2014, the game had 27 million active daily players, 7.5 million concurrent players at peak times, and 67 million active monthly players. Global concurrent users online peaked at over 5 million players as of March 2013.
By March 2012, League of Legends had become the # 1 title in Korean PC cafés. League continues to be popular in Korea; it remained the # 1 game until the middle of 2016, when Overwatch displaced it, and is still the # 2 game (disclaimer: these numbers do not include home playership rates). In July 2012, Xfire released a report stating that League of Legends was the most played PC game in North America and Europe, with 1.3 billion hours logged by players in those regions between July 2011 and June 2012. League of Legends is also very popular in the Philippines, and, as of July 2013, it is the second most played game in internet cafés in the country (just behind Defense of the Ancients). In Taiwan, it is estimated that almost 5 percent of their entire population played the game, with almost 1 million players subscribed on the server.
League of Legends received generally favorable reviews, according to review aggregator Metacritic.
IGN initially awarded League of Legends an 8 out of 10 in 2009, highlighting an enjoyable game design, inventive champion design with good customization options, and lively visuals. However, the game 's confusing launch was criticized: it was felt that the title was released too early, with some features missing and others to be removed. Finally, the reviewer noted that high level players in the game have "little patience for newcomers '', though the reviewer believed that matchmaking (not implemented at the time of review) would solve the problem by matching players of similar level together.
Leah B. Jackson of IGN re-reviewed the game in 2014, changing IGN 's score from 8.0 to 9.2. Jackson hailed the game "as an example of excellence '', praising the variety of champions, rewarding progression systems, and fast but intensely strategic team play.
As compared to fellow MOBA games Heroes of Newerth and Dota 2, Mike Minotti of VentureBeat considered League of Legends as the easiest to learn and to have fastest gameplay pace of the three, while the other two feature more complex gameplay mechanics and are considered closer in style to the original DoTA All - Stars.
In 2015, the game placed 15th on USgamer 's The 15 Best Games Since 2000 list.
In 2009, the game won the Reader 's Choice award for PC Best Strategy Game in IGN 's Best of 2009 Awards, and the PC Gamers ' Choice in GameSpy 's Gamers ' Choice Awards 2009. In 2017, the game was nominated for Best Spectator Game in IGN 's Best of 2017 Awards.
League of Legends is one of the largest eSports, with various annual tournaments taking place worldwide. In terms of eSports professional gaming as of June 2016 2016, League of Legends has had $29,203,916 USD in prize money, 4,083 Players, and 1,718 tournaments, compared to Dota 2 's $64,397,286 USD of prize money, 1,495 players, and 613 tournaments.
At the collegiate level, Riot Games sponsors play of the game by college teams in the United States and Canada, offering scholarship money to teams that reach their conference playoffs. Riot organizes their own four regional conferences, but also partners with two NCAA athletic conferences, the Peach Belt Conference and Big Ten Conference, who organize their own conference play based off their existing institutional membership. Additionally, since 2017, the Big Ten has partnered with Riot to provide $35,000 in scholarship funds yearly to each of the Big Ten 's 14 member teams and to broadcast play on the conference 's own television network, BTN, through 2019.
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eric b and rakim follow the leader full album | Follow the Leader (Eric B. & Rakim album) - wikipedia
Follow the Leader is the second studio album by American hip hop duo Eric B. & Rakim. It was released on July 26, 1988, by Uni Records as the follow - up to the duo 's 1987 debut album Paid in Full. Follow the Leader was recorded at Power Play Studios in New York City, and produced, arranged, and composed by the duo, with additional contributions from Rakim 's brother Stevie Blass Griffin.
While its singles attained moderate success, the album performed better on music charts than Eric B. & Rakim 's debut album and reached number 22 on the U.S. Billboard Pop Albums chart. It was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America, having shipped 500,000 copies in the United States.
Following the breakthrough success of their debut album Paid in Full (1987), Eric B. & Rakim left 4th & B'way Records and signed with Uni Records, a subsidiary label of major label MCA Records. They recorded Follow the Leader at Power Play Studios in New York City. The duo produced, composed, and arranged the album with additional contributions from Rakim 's brother Stevie Blass Griffin, who contributed with various instruments. Eric B. & Rakim worked with audio engineers Carlton Batts and Patrick Adams on the album. In a similar manner to their first album, a "ghost producer '' was brought in for two songs. In a 2007 interview with Unkut.com, The 45 King said he produced both "Microphone Fiend '' and "The R ''. "Microphone Fiend '' was originally made for Fab 5 Freddy, until 45 King gave it over to Eric B., the group 's "DJ ''.
Follow the Leader peaked at number 22 on the U.S. Billboard Top Pop Albums and at number seven on Billboard 's Top Black Albums chart. It achieved higher charting than Eric B. & Rakim 's debut album and serves as their best - charting album in the United States. The album produced four singles, "Follow the Leader '', "Microphone Fiend '', "The R '', and "Lyrics of Fury ''. "Follow the Leader '' peaked at number 16 on the Hot Black Singles, at number 11 on the Hot Dance / Disco, and at number five on the Hot Dance Music / Maxi - Singles Sales chart. "The R '' reached number 79 on the Hot Black Singles, number 28 on the Hot Dance / Disco, number 41 on the Hot Dance Music / Maxi - Singles Sales, and number 14 on the Hot Rap Singles chart. On September 27, 1988, the album was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America for shipments in excess of 500,000 copies in the United States.
Follow the Leader was well received by contemporary critics. Los Angeles Times writer Jonathan Gold viewed it as "far more consistent '' than the duo 's Paid in Full, calling Eric B. "a master of chill, understated beats '' and complimenting Rakim for weaving "a laid - back web of words, his whiskey - smooth tenor less noisy but more intense than the machine - gun mutterings you hear booming from beat boxes, his keen rhymes all the more devastating for being near - whispered where lesser rappers would shout ''. In his review for The Village Voice, Robert Christgau found the duo 's sampling as an improvement from their previous work 's "Brownian motion '' and complimented Rakim 's "ever - increasing words - per - minute ratio -- the man loves language like a young Bob D ''. Peter Watrous of The New York Times commended Eric B. 's mixes and described him as "a minimalist virtuoso ''. Watrous called Rakim "one of the most distinctive rappers in the business '' and elaborated on his lyricism: "His voice soars as gracefully as a well - thrown football; it 'll change direction on the spot. He will vary rhythms, pushing and pulling against the beat to highlight his lyrics. Insistent, cool and dedicated, his rapping has an urgency that makes the music much more than pop; it sounds like a musical version of a political, social vision.
In the 2006 book To the Break of Dawn: A Freestyle on the Hip Hop Aesthetic, author William Jelani Cobb later wrote of the album 's significance:
On the heels of Paid in Full, Eric B. & Rakim delivered a full clip of album titled Follow the Leader in 1988. Featuring a broader spectrum of sounds than the James Brown samples that had defined the initial release, Follow the Leader saw Rakim at his most lyrically fierce, issuing deft and def threats on such tracks as ' Microphone Fiend, ' ' Lyrics of Fury, ' and the nearly felonious ' No Competition. ' The release marked the high point in the collaboration between the two and prefaced the long slide they faced in the 1990s. ''
In a retrospective review, AllMusic editor Steve Huey gave the album five out of five stars and viewed it as an improvement over Paid in Full, commending Rakim 's "agile, up - tempo lyrical showcases ''. In a dual review of both Paid in Full and Follow the Leader 's reissues, Pitchfork Media 's Jess Harvell expressed that the high points of the latter album "are as high as any rap group has gotten '' and wrote that both albums ' music serve as "a reminder of a brief period where people thought they could become a millionaire on skills alone, where the reality of that was so far away that no one had to think about what being a millionaire would mean to the culture that nurtured those skills ''. In 1998, Follow the Leader was selected as one of The Source 's 100 Best Rap Albums, and in 2005, it was ranked number 12 on comedian Chris Rock 's list of the "Top 25 Hip - Hop Albums ''. The track "Lyrics of Fury '' was ranked number five on About.com 's list of "Top 100 Rap Songs ''.
Credits for Follow the Leader adapted from Allmusic.
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the american recovery and retirement act of 2009 | American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 - wikipedia
The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 (ARRA) (Pub. L. 111 -- 5), nicknamed the Recovery Act, was a stimulus package enacted by the 111th U.S. Congress and signed into law by President Barack Obama in February 2009. Developed in response to the Great Recession, the ARRA 's primary objective was to save existing jobs and create new ones as soon as possible. Other objectives were to provide temporary relief programs for those most affected by the recession and invest in infrastructure, education, health, and renewable energy.
The approximate cost of the economic stimulus package was estimated to be $787 billion at the time of passage, later revised to $831 billion between 2009 and 2019. The ARRA 's rationale was based on the Keynesian economic theory that, during recessions, the government should offset the decrease in private spending with an increase in public spending in order to save jobs and stop further economic deterioration.
Since its inception, the impact of the stimulus has been a subject of disagreement. Studies on its effects have produced a range of conclusions, from strongly positive to strongly negative and all reactions in between. In 2012, the IGM Forum poll conducted by the University of Chicago Booth School of Business found 80 % of leading economists agree unemployment was lower at the end of 2010 than it would have been without the stimulus. Regarding whether the benefits of the stimulus outweighed its costs: 46 % "agreed '' or "strongly agreed '' that the benefits outweighed the costs, 27 % were uncertain, and 12 % disagreed or strongly disagreed. IGM Forum asked the same question to leading economists in 2014. This new poll found 82 % of leading economists strongly agreed or agreed that unemployment was lower in 2010 than it would have been without the stimulus. Revisiting the question about the benefits outweighing the costs, 56 % strongly agreed or agreed that it did, 23 % were uncertain, and 5 % disagreed.
Both the House and the Senate versions of the bills were primarily written by Democratic Congressional committee leaders and their staffs. Because work on the bills started before President Obama officially took office on January 20, 2009, top aides to President - Elect Obama held multiple meetings with committee leaders and staffers. On January 10, 2009, President - Elect Obama 's administration released a report that provided a preliminary analysis of the impact to jobs of some of the prototypical recovery packages that were being considered.
The House version of the bill, H.R. 1, was introduced on January 26, 2009. It was sponsored by Democrat David Obey, the House Appropriations Committee chairman, and was co-sponsored by nine other Democrats. On January 23, Speaker of the House Nancy Pelosi said that the bill was on track to be presented to President Obama for him to sign into law before February 16, 2009. Although 206 amendments were scheduled for floor votes, they were combined into only 11, which enabled quicker passage of the bill.
On January 28, 2009, the House passed the bill by a 244 -- 188 vote. All but 11 Democrats voted for the bill, and 177 Republicans voted against it (one Republican did not vote).
The senate version of the bill, S. 1, was introduced on January 6, 2009, and later substituted as an amendment to the House bill, S. Amdt. 570. It was sponsored by Harry Reid, the Majority Leader, co-sponsored by 16 other Democrats and Joe Lieberman, an independent who caucused with the Democrats.
The Senate then began consideration of the bill starting with the $275 billion tax provisions in the week of February 2, 2009. A significant difference between the House version and the Senate version was the inclusion of a one - year extension of revisions to the alternative minimum tax, which added $70 billion to the bill 's total.
Republicans proposed several amendments to the bill directed at increasing the share of tax cuts and downsizing spending as well as decreasing the overall price. President Obama and Senate Democrats hinted that they would be willing to compromise on Republican suggestions to increase infrastructure spending and to double the housing tax credit proposed from $7,500 to $15,000 and expand its application to all home buyers, not just first - time buyers. Other considered amendments included the Freedom Act of 2009, an amendment proposed by Senate Finance Committee members Maria Cantwell (D) and Orrin Hatch (R) to include tax incentives for plug - in electric vehicles.
The Senate called a special Saturday debate session for February 7 at the urging of President Obama. The Senate voted, 61 -- 36 (with 2 not voting) on February 9 to end debate on the bill and advance it to the Senate floor to vote on the bill itself. On February 10, the Senate voted 61 -- 37 (with one not voting) All the Democrats voted in favor, but only three Republicans voted in favor (Susan Collins, Olympia Snowe, and Arlen Specter). Specter switched to the Democratic Party later in the year. At one point, the Senate bill stood at $838 billion.
Senate Republicans forced a near unprecedented level of changes (near $150 billion) in the House bill, which had more closely followed the Obama plan. A comparison of the $827 billion economic recovery plan drafted by Senate Democrats with an $820 billion version passed by the House and the final $787 billion conference version shows huge shifts within these similar totals. Additional debt costs would add about $350 billion or more over 10 years. Many provisions were set to expire in two years.
The main funding differences between the Senate bill and the House bill were: More funds for health care in the Senate ($153.3 vs $140 billion), renewable energy programs ($74 vs. $39.4 billion), for home buyers tax credit ($35.5 vs. $2.6 billion), new payments to the elderly and a one - year increase in AMT limits. The House had more funds appropriated for education ($143 vs. $119.1 billion), infrastructure ($90.4 vs. $62 billion) and for aid to low income workers and the unemployed ($71.5 vs. $66.5 billion).
Congressional negotiators said that they had completed the Conference Report on February 11. On February 12, House Majority Leader Steny Hoyer scheduled the vote on the bill for the next day, before wording on the bill 's content had been completed and despite House Democrats having previously promised to allow a 48 - hour public review period before any vote. The Report with final handwritten provisions was posted on a House website that evening. On February 13, the Report passed the House, 246 - 183, largely along party lines with all 246 Yes votes given by Democrats and the Nay vote split between 176 Republicans and 7 Democrats.
The Senate passed the bill, 60 - 38, with all Democrats and Independents voting for the bill along with three Republicans. On February 17, 2009, President Barack Obama signed the Recovery Act into law.
Section 3 of ARRA listed the basic intent behind crafting the law. This Statement of Purpose included the following:
The Act specifies that 37 % of the package is to be devoted to tax incentives equaling $288 billion and $144 billion, or 18 %, is allocated to state and local fiscal relief (more than 90 % of the state aid is going to Medicaid and education). The remaining 45 %, or $357 billion, is allocated to federal spending programs such as transportation, communication, waste water and sewer infrastructure improvements; energy efficiency upgrades in private and federal buildings; extension of federal unemployment benefits; and scientific research programs. The following are details to the different parts of the final bill:
Total: $237 billion
Total: $51 billion
ARRA included the enactment of the Health Information Technology for Economic and Clinical Health Act, also known as the HITECH Act.
Total health care spending: $155.1 billion
Total: $100 billion
Total: $82.2 billion
Total: $105.3 billion
Total: $48.1 billion, some in the form of Transportation Income Generating Economic Recovery (TIGER) Grants
Total: $18 billion
Total: $7.2 billion
Total: $10.5 billion
Total: $21.5 billion
Total: $27.2 billion
Total: $14.7 billion
Total: $7.6 billion
Total: $10.6 billion
ARRA included a protectionist ' Buy American ' provision, which imposed a general requirement that any public building or public works project funded by the new stimulus package must use only iron, steel and other manufactured goods produced in the United States.
A May 15, 2009, Washington Post article reported that the ' Buy American ' provision of the stimulus package caused outrage in the Canadian business community, and that the government in Canada "retaliated '' by enacting its own restrictions on trade with the U.S. On June 6, 2009, delegates at the Federation of Canadian Municipalities conference passed a resolution that would potentially shut out U.S. bidders from Canadian city contracts, in order to help show support for Prime Minister Stephen Harper 's opposition to the "Buy American '' provision. Sherbrooke Mayor Jean Perrault, president of the federation, stated, "This U.S. protectionist policy is hurting Canadian firms, costing Canadian jobs and damaging Canadian efforts to grow in the world - wide recession. '' On February 16, 2010, the United States and Canada agreed on exempting Canadian companies from Buy American provisions, which would have hurt the Canadian economy.
Economists such as Martin Feldstein, Daron Acemoğlu, National Economic Council director Larry Summers, and Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences winners Joseph Stiglitz and Paul Krugman favored a larger economic stimulus to counter the economic downturn. While in favor of a stimulus package, Feldstein expressed concern over the act as written, saying it needed revision to address consumer spending and unemployment more directly. Just after the bill was enacted, Krugman wrote that the stimulus was too small to deal with the problem, adding, "And it 's widely believed that political considerations led to a plan that was weaker and contains more tax cuts than it should have -- that Mr. Obama compromised in advance in the hope of gaining broad bipartisan support. '' Conservative economist John Lott was more critical of the government spending.
On January 28, 2009, a full - page advertisement with the names of approximately 200 economists who were against Obama 's plan appeared in The New York Times and The Wall Street Journal. This included Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences laureates Edward C. Prescott, Vernon L. Smith, and James M. Buchanan. The economists denied the quoted statement by President Obama that there was "no disagreement that we need action by our government, a recovery plan that will help to jumpstart the economy ''. Instead, the signers believed that "to improve the economy, policymakers should focus on reforms that remove impediments to work, saving, investment and production. Lower tax rates and a reduction in the burden of government are the best ways of using fiscal policy to boost growth. '' The funding for this advertisement came from the Cato Institute.
On February 8, 2009, a letter to Congress signed by about 200 economists in favor of the stimulus, written by the Center for American Progress Action Fund, said that Obama 's plan "proposes important investments that can start to overcome the nation 's damaging loss of jobs '', and would "put the United States back onto a sustainable long - term - growth path ''. This letter was signed by Nobel Memorial laureates Kenneth Arrow, Lawrence R. Klein, Eric Maskin, Daniel McFadden, Paul Samuelson and Robert Solow. The New York Times published projections from IHS Global Insight, Moodys.com, Economy.com and Macroeconomic Advisers that indicated that the economy may have been worse without the ARRA.
The CBO estimated ARRA would positively impact GDP and employment. It projected an increase in the GDP of between 1.4 percent and 3.8 percent by the end of 2009, between 1.1 percent and 3.3 percent by the end of 2010, between 0.4 percent and 1.3 percent by the end of 2011, and a decrease of between zero and 0.2 percent beyond 2014. The impact to employment would be an increase of 0.8 million to 2.3 million by the end of 2009, an increase of 1.2 million to 3.6 million by the end of 2010, an increase of 0.6 million to 1.9 million by the end of 2011, and declining increases in subsequent years as the U.S. labor market reaches nearly full employment, but never negative. Decreases in GDP in 2014 and beyond are accounted for by crowding out, where government debt absorbs finances that would otherwise go toward investment. A 2013 study by economists Stephen Marglin and Peter Spiegler found the stimulus had boosted GDP in line with CBO estimates.
A February 4, 2009, report by the Congressional Budget Office (CBO) said that while the stimulus would increase economic output and employment in the short run, the GDP would, by 2019, have an estimated net decrease between 0.1 % and 0.3 % (as compared to the CBO estimated baseline).
The CBO estimated that enacting the bill would increase federal budget deficits by $185 billion over the remaining months of fiscal year 2009, by $399 billion in 2010, and by $134 billion in 2011, or $787 billion over the 2009 -- 2019 period.
In a February 11 letter, CBO Director Douglas Elmendorf noted that there was disagreement among economists about the effectiveness of the stimulus, with some skeptical of any significant effects while others expecting very large effects. Elmendorf said the CBO expected short term increases in GDP and employment. In the long term, the CBO expects the legislation to reduce output slightly by increasing the nation 's debt and crowding out private investment, but noted that other factors, such as improvements to roads and highways and increased spending for basic research and education may offset the decrease in output and that crowding out was not an issue in the short term because private investment was already decreasing in response to decreased demand.
A May 21, 2009, article in The Washington Post stated, "To build support for the stimulus package, President Obama vowed unprecedented transparency, a big part of which, he said, would be allowing taxpayers to track money to the street level on Recovery.gov... '' But three months after the bill was signed, Recovery.gov offers little beyond news releases, general breakdowns of spending, and acronym - laden spreadsheets and timelines. '' The same article also stated, "Unlike the government site, the privately run Recovery.org is actually providing detailed information about how the $787 billion in stimulus money is being spent. ''
Reports regarding errors in reporting on the Web site made national news. News stories circulated about Recovery.gov reporting fund distribution to congressional districts that did not exist.
A new Recovery.gov website was redesigned at a cost estimated to be $9.5 million through January 2010. The section of the act that was intended to establish and regulate the operation of Recovery.gov was actually struck prior to its passage into law. Section 1226, which laid out provisions for the structure, maintenance, and oversight of the website were struck from the bill. Organizations that received stimulus dollars were directed to provide detailed reports regarding their use of these funds; these reports were posted on recovery.gov.
On July 20, 2009, the Drudge Report published links to pages on Recovery.gov that Drudge alleged were detailing expensive contracts awarded by the U.S. Department of Agriculture for items such as individual portions of mozzarella cheese, frozen ham and canned pork, costing hundreds of thousands to over a million dollars. A statement released by the USDA the same day corrected the allegation, stating that "references to ' 2 pound frozen ham sliced ' are to the sizes of the packaging. Press reports suggesting that the Recovery Act spent $1.191 million to buy "2 pounds of ham '' are wrong. In fact, the contract in question purchased 760,000 pounds of ham for $1.191 million, at a cost of approximately $1.50 per pound. ''
As of 2016, the servers for recovery.gov have been shut down and the site is unavailable.
The Congressional Budget Office reported in October 2009 the reasons for the changes in the 2008 and 2009 deficits, which were approximately $460 billion and $1.41 trillion, respectively. The CBO estimated that ARRA increased the deficit by $200 billion for 2009, split evenly between tax cuts and additional spending, excluding any feedback effects on the economy.
On February 12, 2010, the Bureau of Labor Statistics, which regularly issues economic reports, published job - loss data on a month - by - month basis since 2000. Organizing for America, a community organizing project of the Democratic National Committee, prepared a chart presenting the BLS data for the period beginning in December 2007. OFA used the chart to argue, "As a result (of the Recovery Act), job losses are a fraction of what they were a year ago, before the Recovery Act began. '' Others argue that job losses always grow early in a recession and naturally slow down with or without government stimulus spending, and that the OFA chart was mis - leading.
In the primary justification for the stimulus package, the Obama administration and Democratic proponents presented a graph in January 2009 showing the projected unemployment rate with and without the ARRA. The graph showed that if ARRA was not enacted the unemployment rate would exceed 9 %; but if ARRA was enacted it would never exceed 8 %. After ARRA became law, the actual unemployment rate exceeded 8 % in February 2009, exceeded 9 % in May 2009, and exceeded 10 % in October 2009. The actual unemployment rate was 9.2 % in June 2011 when it was projected to be below 7 % with the ARRA. However, supporters of the ARRA claim that this can be accounted for by noting that the actual recession was subsequently revealed to be much worse than any projections at the time when the ARRA was drawn up.
According to a March 2009 Industry Survey of and by the National Association of Business Economists, 60.3 % of their economists who had reviewed the fiscal stimulus enacted in February 2009 projected it would have a modest impact in shortening the recession, with 29.4 % anticipating little or no impact as well as 10.3 % predicting a strong impact. The aspects of the stimulus expected by the NABE to have the greatest effectiveness were physical infrastructure, unemployment benefits expansion, and personal tax - rate cuts.
One year after the stimulus, several independent macroeconomic firms, including Moody 's and IHS Global Insight, estimated that the stimulus saved or created 1.6 to 1.8 million jobs and forecast a total impact of 2.5 million jobs saved by the time the stimulus is completed. The Congressional Budget Office considered these estimates conservative. The CBO estimated according to its model 2.1 million jobs saved in the last quarter of 2009, boosting the economy by up to 3.5 percent and lowering the unemployment rate by up to 2.1 percent. The CBO projected that the package would have an even greater impact in 2010. The CBO also said, "It is impossible to determine how many of the reported jobs would have existed in the absence of the stimulus package. '' The CBO 's report on the first quarter of 2010 showed a continued positive effect, with an employment gain in that quarter of up to 2.8 million and a GDP boost of up to 4.2 percent. Economists Timothy Conley of the University of Western Ontario and Bill Dupor of the Ohio State University found that while the stimulus ' effects on public sector job creation were unambiguously positive, the effects on private sector job creation were ambiguous. Economist Dan Wilson of the Federal Reserve, who used similar methodology, without the same identified errors, estimates that "ARRA spending created or saved about 2 million jobs in its first year and over 3 million by March 2011. ''
The CBO also revised its assessment of the long - term impact of the bill. After 2014, the stimulus is estimated to decrease output by zero to 0.2 %. The stimulus is not expected to have a negative impact on employment in any period of time.
In 2011, the Department of Commerce revised some of its previous estimates. Economist Dean Baker commented:
(T) he revised data... showed that the economy was plunging even more rapidly than we had previously recognised in the two quarters following the collapse of Lehman. Yet, the plunge stopped in the second quarter of 2009 -- just as the stimulus came on line. This was followed by respectable growth over the next four quarters. Growth then weakened again as the impact of the stimulus began to fade at the end of 2010 and the start of this year. In other words, the growth pattern shown by the revised data sure makes it appear that the stimulus worked. The main problem would seem to be that the stimulus was not big enough and it was n't left in place long enough to lift the economy to anywhere near potential output.
The Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee (DCCC) established a "Hypocrisy Hall of Fame '' to list Republican Representatives who had voted against ARRA but who then sought or took credit for ARRA programs in their districts. As of September 2011, the DCCC was listing 128 House Republicans in this category. Newsweek reported that many of the Republican legislators who publicly argued that the stimulus would not create jobs were writing letters seeking stimulus programs for their districts on the grounds that the spending would create jobs.
The stimulus has been criticized as being too small. In July 2010, a group of 40 prominent economists issued a statement calling for expanded stimulus programs to reduce unemployment. They also challenged the view that the priority should be reducing the deficit: "Making deficit reduction the first target, without addressing the chronic underlying deficiency of demand, is exactly the error of the 1930s. ''
In July 2010, the White House Council of Economic Advisers (CEA) estimated that the stimulus had "saved or created between 2.5 and 3.6 million jobs as of the second quarter of 2010 ''. At that point, spending outlays under the stimulus totaled $257 billion and tax cuts totaled $223 billion. In July 2011, the CEA estimated that as of the first quarter of 2011, the ARRA raised employment relative to what it otherwise would have been by between 2.4 and 3.6 million. The sum of outlays and tax cuts up to this point was $666 billion. Using a straight mathematical calculation, critics reported that the ARRA cost taxpayers between $185,000 to $278,000 per job that was created, though this computation does not include the permanent infrastructure that resulted.
In August 2010, Republican Senators Tom Coburn and John McCain released a report listing 100 projects it described as the "most wasteful projects '' funded by the Act. In total, the projects questioned by the two senators amounted to about $15 billion, or less than 2 % of the $862 billion. The two senators did concede that the stimulus has had a positive effect on the economy, though they criticized it for failing to give "the biggest bang for our buck '' on the issue of job creation. CNN noted that the two senators ' stated objections were brief summaries presenting selective accounts that were unclear, and the journalists pointed out several instances where they created erroneous impressions.
One of the primary purposes and promises of the Act was to launch a large number of "shovel - ready '' projects that would generate jobs. However, a sizable number of these projects, most of which pertained to infrastructure, took longer to implement than they had expected by most. This was largely attributed to the regulatory process that is involved in such projects.
Some of the tax incentives in the Act, including those related to the American opportunity tax credit and Earned Income Tax Credit, were extended for a further two years by the Tax Relief, Unemployment Insurance Reauthorization, and Job Creation Act of 2010.
In November 2011, the Congressional Budget Office (CBO) updated its earlier reports concerning the Act. The CBO stated that "the employment effects began to wane at the end of 2010 and have continued to do so throughout 2011. '' Nevertheless, in the third quarter of 2011, the CBO estimated that the Act had increased the number of full - time equivalent jobs by 0.5 million to 3.3 million. Section 1513 of the Recovery Act stated that reports on the impact of the act were to be submitted quarterly, however the last report issued occurred for the second quarter of 2011. As of December 2012, 58.6 % of Americans are employed.
In 2013, the Reason Foundation, an American libertarian group, conducted a study of the results of the ARRA. Only 23 % of the 8,381 sampled companies hired new workers and kept all of them when the project was completed. Also, just 41 % of sampled companies hired workers at all, while 30 % of sampled companies did hire but laid off all workers once the government money stopped funding. These results cast doubt on previously stated estimates of job creation numbers, which do not factor those companies that did not retain their workers or hire any at all.
In February 2014, the White House stated in a release that the stimulus measure saved or created an average of 1.6 million jobs a year between 2009 and 2012, thus averting having the recession descend into another Great Depression. Republicans, such as House Speaker John Boehner of Ohio, criticized the report since, in their views, the Act cost too much for too little result.
In addition to the Vice President Biden 's oversight role, a high - level advisory body, the President 's Economic Recovery Advisory Board (later renamed and reconstituted as the "President 's Council on Jobs and Competitiveness ''), was named concurrent to the passage of the act.
As well, the President named Inspector General of the United States Department of the Interior Earl Devaney and the Recovery Accountability and Transparency Board (RATB) to monitor administration of the Act. Eleven other inspectors general served on the RATB, and the board also had a Recovery Independent Advisory Panel.
In late 2011, Devaney and his fellow inspectors general on RATB, and more who were not, were credited with avoiding any major scandals in the administration of the Act, in the eyes of one Washington observer.
In May 2016, the chairman of the U.S. Senate Finance Committee, Senator Orrin Hatch (R - UT), launched the first steps of an investigation into a part of the stimulus law that gave grants to solar and green energy companies. Hatch sent a letter to the IRS and Treasury Department with a list of questions about the program. According to the Wall Street Journal, letters from senior senators who chair committees can lead to formal investigations by Congress.
One part of the stimulus law, section 1603, gave cash grants to solar companies to encourage investment in solar technology. Because many companies did n't yet make a profit in 2009 in that industry, they were offered cash instead of tax credits. In September 2015, the U.S. government asked that a Spanish company return $1 million it had received from the program. The company issued a statement saying it fully complied with the request.
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the following describe knowledge from synthetic statement except | Analytic -- synthetic distinction - wikipedia
The analytic -- synthetic distinction (also called the analytic -- synthetic dichotomy) is a semantic distinction, used primarily in philosophy to distinguish propositions (in particular, statements that are affirmative subject -- predicate judgments) into two types: analytic propositions and synthetic propositions. Analytic propositions are true by virtue of their meaning, while synthetic propositions are true by how their meaning relates to the world. However, philosophers have used the terms in very different ways. Furthermore, philosophers have debated whether there is a legitimate distinction.
The philosopher Immanuel Kant uses the terms "analytic '' and "synthetic '' to divide propositions into two types. Kant introduces the analytic -- synthetic distinction in the Introduction to his Critique of Pure Reason (1781 / 1998, A6 -- 7 / B10 -- 11). There, he restricts his attention to statements that are affirmative subject - predicate judgments and defines "analytic proposition '' and "synthetic proposition '' as follows:
Examples of analytic propositions, on Kant 's definition, include:
Kant 's own example is:
Each of these statements is an affirmative subject - predicate judgment, and, in each, the predicate concept is contained within the subject concept. The concept "bachelor '' contains the concept "unmarried ''; the concept "unmarried '' is part of the definition of the concept "bachelor ''. Likewise, for "triangle '' and "has three sides '', and so on.
Examples of synthetic propositions, on Kant 's definition, include:
Kant 's own example is:
As with the previous examples classified as analytic propositions, each of these new statements is an affirmative subject -- predicate judgment. However, in none of these cases does the subject concept contain the predicate concept. The concept "bachelor '' does not contain the concept "alone ''; "alone '' is not a part of the definition of "bachelor ''. The same is true for "creatures with hearts '' and "have kidneys ''; even if every creature with a heart also has kidneys, the concept "creature with a heart '' does not contain the concept "has kidneys ''.
In the Introduction to the Critique of Pure Reason, Kant contrasts his distinction between analytic and synthetic propositions with another distinction, the distinction between a priori and a posteriori propositions. He defines these terms as follows:
Examples of a priori propositions include:
The justification of these propositions does not depend upon experience: one need not consult experience to determine whether all bachelors are unmarried, nor whether 7 + 5 = 12. (Of course, as Kant would grant, experience is required to understand the concepts "bachelor '', "unmarried '', "7 '', "+ '' and so forth. However, the a priori / a posteriori distinction as employed here by Kant refers not to the origins of the concepts but to the justification of the propositions. Once we have the concepts, experience is no longer necessary.)
Examples of a posteriori propositions include:
Both of these propositions are a posteriori: any justification of them would require one 's experience.
The analytic / synthetic distinction and the a priori / a posteriori distinction together yield four types of propositions:
Kant posits the third type as obviously self - contradictory. Ruling it out, he discusses only the remaining three types as components of his epistemological framework -- each, for brevity 's sake, becoming, respectively, "analytic '', "synthetic a priori '', and "empirical '' or "a posteriori '' propositions. This triad will account for all propositions possible.
Part of Kant 's argument in the Introduction to the Critique of Pure Reason involves arguing that there is no problem figuring out how knowledge of analytic propositions is possible. To know an analytic proposition, Kant argued, one need not consult experience. Instead, one need merely to take the subject and "extract from it, in accordance with the principle of contradiction, the required predicate '' (A7 / B12). In analytic propositions, the predicate concept is contained in the subject concept. Thus, to know an analytic proposition is true, one need merely examine the concept of the subject. If one finds the predicate contained in the subject, the judgment is true.
Thus, for example, one need not consult experience to determine whether "All bachelors are unmarried '' is true. One need merely examine the subject concept ("bachelors '') and see if the predicate concept "unmarried '' is contained in it. And in fact, it is: "unmarried '' is part of the definition of "bachelor '' and so is contained within it. Thus the proposition "All bachelors are unmarried '' can be known to be true without consulting experience.
It follows from this, Kant argued, first: All analytic propositions are a priori; there are no a posteriori analytic propositions. It follows, second: There is no problem understanding how we can know analytic propositions; we can know them because we only need to consult our concepts in order to determine that they are true.
After ruling out the possibility of analytic a posteriori propositions, and explaining how we can obtain knowledge of analytic a priori propositions, Kant also explains how we can obtain knowledge of synthetic a posteriori propositions. That leaves only the question of how knowledge of synthetic a priori propositions is possible. This question is exceedingly important, Kant maintains, because all important metaphysical knowledge is of synthetic a priori propositions. If it is impossible to determine which synthetic a priori propositions are true, he argues, then metaphysics as a discipline is impossible. The remainder of the Critique of Pure Reason is devoted to examining whether and how knowledge of synthetic a priori propositions is possible.
Over a hundred years later, a group of philosophers took interest in Kant and his distinction between analytic and synthetic propositions: the logical positivists.
Part of Kant 's examination of the possibility of synthetic a priori knowledge involved the examination of mathematical propositions, such as
Kant maintained that mathematical propositions such as these are synthetic a priori propositions, and that we know them. That they are synthetic, he thought, is obvious: the concept "equal to 12 '' is not contained within the concept "7 + 5 ''; and the concept "straight line '' is not contained within the concept "the shortest distance between two points ''. From this, Kant concluded that we have knowledge of synthetic a priori propositions.
Gottlob Frege 's notion of analyticity included a number of logical properties and relations beyond containment: symmetry, transitivity, antonymy, or negation and so on. He had a strong emphasis on formality, in particular formal definition, and also emphasized the idea of substitution of synonymous terms. "All bachelors are unmarried '' can be expanded out with the formal definition of bachelor as "unmarried man '' to form "All unmarried men are unmarried '', which is recognizable as tautologous and therefore analytic from its logical form: any statement of the form "All X that are (F and G) are F ''. Using this particular expanded idea of analyticity, Frege concluded that Kant 's examples of arithmetical truths are analytical a priori truths and not synthetic a priori truths.
Thanks to Frege 's logical semantics, particularly his concept of analyticity, arithmetic truths like "7 + 5 = 12 '' are no longer synthetic a priori but analytical a priori truths in Carnap 's extended sense of "analytic ''.
Hence logical empiricists are not subject to Kant 's criticism of Hume for throwing out mathematics along with metaphysics.
(Here "logical empiricist '' is a synonym for "logical positivist ''.)
The logical positivists agreed with Kant that we have knowledge of mathematical truths, and further that mathematical propositions are a priori. However, they did not believe that any complex metaphysics, such as the type Kant supplied, are necessary to explain our knowledge of mathematical truths. Instead, the logical positivists maintained that our knowledge of judgments like "all bachelors are unmarried '' and our knowledge of mathematics (and logic) are in the basic sense the same: all proceeded from our knowledge of the meanings of terms or the conventions of language.
Since empiricism had always asserted that all knowledge is based on experience, this assertion had to include knowledge in mathematics. On the other hand, we believed that with respect to this problem the rationalists had been right in rejecting the old empiricist view that the truth of "2 + 2 = 4 '' is contingent on the observation of facts, a view that would lead to the unacceptable consequence that an arithmetical statement might possibly be refuted tomorrow by new experiences. Our solution, based upon Wittgenstein 's conception, consisted in asserting the thesis of empiricism only for factual truth. By contrast, the truths of logic and mathematics are not in need of confirmation by observations, because they do not state anything about the world of facts, they hold for any possible combination of facts.
Thus the logical positivists drew a new distinction, and, inheriting the terms from Kant, named it the "analytic / synthetic distinction ''. They provided many different definitions, such as the following:
(While the logical positivists believed that the only necessarily true propositions were analytic, they did not define "analytic proposition '' as "necessarily true proposition '' or "proposition that is true in all possible worlds ''.)
Synthetic propositions were then defined as:
These definitions applied to all propositions, regardless of whether they were of subject -- predicate form. Thus, under these definitions, the proposition "It is raining or it is not raining '' was classified as analytic, while for Kant it was analytic by virtue of its logical form. And the proposition "7 + 5 = 12 '' was classified as analytic, while under Kant 's definitions it was synthetic.
Two - dimensionalism is an approach to semantics in analytic philosophy. It is a theory of how to determine the sense and reference of a word and the truth - value of a sentence. It is intended to resolve a puzzle that has plagued philosophy for some time, namely: How is it possible to discover empirically that a necessary truth is true? Two - dimensionalism provides an analysis of the semantics of words and sentences that makes sense of this possibility. The theory was first developed by Robert Stalnaker, but it has been advocated by numerous philosophers since, including David Chalmers and Berit Brogaard.
Any given sentence, for example, the words,
is taken to express two distinct propositions, often referred to as a primary intension and a secondary intension, which together compose its meaning.
The primary intension of a word or sentence is its sense, i.e., is the idea or method by which we find its referent. The primary intension of "water '' might be a description, such as watery stuff. The thing picked out by the primary intension of "water '' could have been otherwise. For example, on some other world where the inhabitants take "water '' to mean watery stuff, but, where the chemical make - up of watery stuff is not H O, it is not the case that water is H O for that world.
The secondary intension of "water '' is whatever thing "water '' happens to pick out in this world, whatever that world happens to be. So if we assign "water '' the primary intension watery stuff then the secondary intension of "water '' is H O, since H O is watery stuff in this world. The secondary intension of "water '' in our world is H O, which is H O in every world because unlike watery stuff it is impossible for H O to be other than H O. When considered according to its secondary intension, "Water is H O '' is true in every world.
If two - dimensionalism is workable it solves some very important problems in the philosophy of language. Saul Kripke has argued that "Water is H O '' is an example of the necessary a posteriori, since we had to discover that water was H O, but given that it is true, it can not be false. It would be absurd to claim that something that is water is not H O, for these are known to be identical.
Rudolf Carnap was a strong proponent of the distinction between what he called "internal questions '', questions entertained within a "framework '' (like a mathematical theory), and "external questions '', questions posed outside any framework -- posed before the adoption of any framework. The "internal '' questions could be of two types: logical (or analytic, or logically true) and factual (empirical, that is, matters of observation interpreted using terms from a framework). The "external '' questions were also of two types: those that were confused pseudo-questions ("one disguised in the form of a theoretical question '') and those that could be re-interpreted as practical, pragmatic questions about whether a framework under consideration was "more or less expedient, fruitful, conducive to the aim for which the language is intended ''. The adjective "synthetic '' was not used by Carnap in his 1950 work Empiricism, Semantics, and Ontology. Carnap did define a "synthetic truth '' in his work Meaning and Necessity: a sentence that is true, but not simply because "the semantical rules of the system suffice for establishing its truth ''.
The notion of a synthetic truth is of something that is true both because of what it means and because of the way the world is, whereas analytic truths are true in virtue of meaning alone. Thus, what Carnap calls internal factual statements (as opposed to internal logical statements) could be taken as being also synthetic truths because they require observations, but some external statements also could be "synthetic '' statements and Carnap would be doubtful about their status. The analytic -- synthetic argument therefore is not identical with the internal -- external distinction.
In 1951, Willard Van Orman Quine published the essay "Two Dogmas of Empiricism '' in which he argued that the analytic -- synthetic distinction is untenable. The argument at bottom is that there are no "analytic '' truths, but all truths involve an empirical aspect. In the first paragraph, Quine takes the distinction to be the following:
Quine 's position denying the analytic - synthetic distinction is summarized as follows:
It is obvious that truth in general depends on both language and extralinguistic fact... Thus one is tempted to suppose in general that the truth of a statement is somehow analyzable into a linguistic component and a factual component. Given this supposition, it next seems reasonable that in some statements the factual component should be null; and these are the analytic statements. But, for all its a priori reasonableness, a boundary between analytic and synthetic statements simply has not been drawn. That there is such a distinction to be drawn at all is an unempirical dogma of empiricists, a metaphysical article of faith.
To summarize Quine 's argument, the notion of an analytic proposition requires a notion of synonymy, but establishing synonymy inevitably leads to matters of fact -- synthetic propositions. Thus, there is no non-circular (and so no tenable) way to ground the notion of analytic propositions.
While Quine 's rejection of the analytic -- synthetic distinction is widely known, the precise argument for the rejection and its status is highly debated in contemporary philosophy. However, some (for example, Boghossian) argue that Quine 's rejection of the distinction is still widely accepted among philosophers, even if for poor reasons.
Paul Grice and P.F. Strawson criticized "Two Dogmas '' in their 1956 article "In Defense of a Dogma ''. Among other things, they argue that Quine 's skepticism about synonyms leads to a skepticism about meaning. If statements can have meanings, then it would make sense to ask "What does it mean? ''. If it makes sense to ask "What does it mean? '', then synonymy can be defined as follows: Two sentences are synonymous if and only if the true answer of the question "What does it mean? '' asked of one of them is the true answer to the same question asked of the other. They also draw the conclusion that discussion about correct or incorrect translations would be impossible given Quine 's argument. Four years after Grice and Strawson published their paper, Quine 's book Word and Object was released. In the book Quine presented his theory of indeterminacy of translation.
In Speech Acts, John R. Searle argues that from the difficulties encountered in trying to explicate analyticity by appeal to specific criteria, it does not follow that the notion itself is void. Considering the way which we would test any proposed list of criteria, which is by comparing their extension to the set of analytic statements, it would follow that any explication of what analyticity means presupposes that we already have at our disposal a working notion of analyticity.
In "' Two Dogmas ' Revisited '', Hilary Putnam argues that Quine is attacking two different notions:
It seems to me there is as gross a distinction between ' All bachelors are unmarried ' and ' There is a book on this table ' as between any two things in this world, or at any rate, between any two linguistic expressions in the world;
Analytic truth defined as a true statement derivable from a tautology by putting synonyms for synonyms is near Kant 's account of analytic truth as a truth whose negation is a contradiction. Analytic truth defined as a truth confirmed no matter what, however, is closer to one of the traditional accounts of a priori. While the first four sections of Quine 's paper concern analyticity, the last two concern a priority. Putnam considers the argument in the two last sections as independent of the first four, and at the same time as Putnam criticizes Quine, he also emphasizes his historical importance as the first top rank philosopher to both reject the notion of a priority and sketch a methodology without it.
Jerrold Katz, a one - time associate of Noam Chomsky, countered the arguments of "Two Dogmas '' directly by trying to define analyticity non-circularly on the syntactical features of sentences.
In Philosophical Analysis in the Twentieth Century, Volume 1: The Dawn of Analysis, Scott Soames has pointed out that Quine 's circularity argument needs two of the logical positivists ' central theses to be effective:
It is only when these two theses are accepted that Quine 's argument holds. It is not a problem that the notion of necessity is presupposed by the notion of analyticity if necessity can be explained without analyticity. According to Soames, both theses were accepted by most philosophers when Quine published "Two Dogmas ''. Today, however, Soames holds both statements to be antiquated. He says: "Very few philosophers today would accept either (of these assertions), both of which now seem decidedly antique. ''
Philosopher Leonard Peikoff, in his essay "The Analytic - Synthetic Dichotomy '', expands upon Rand 's analysis. He posits that:
The theory of the analytic - synthetic dichotomy presents men with the following choice: If your statement is proved, it says nothing about that which exists; if it is about existents, it can not be proved. If it is demonstrated by logical argument, it represents a subjective convention; if it asserts a fact, logic can not establish it. If you validate it by an appeal to the meanings of your concepts, then it is cut off from reality; if you validate it by an appeal to your percepts, then you can not be certain of it.
To Peikoff, the critical question is: What is included in the meaning of a concept? He rejects the idea that some of the characteristics of a concept 's referents are excluded from the concept. Applying Rand 's theory that a concept is a "mental integration '' of similar existents, treated as "units '', he argues that concepts stand for and mean the actual existents, including all their characteristics, not just those used to pick out the referents or define the concept. He states,
Since a concept is an integration of units, it has no content or meaning apart from its units. The meaning of a concept consists of the units -- the existents -- which it integrates, including all the characteristics of these units... The fact that certain characteristics are, at a given time, unknown to man, does not indicate that these characteristics are excluded from the entity -- or from the concept.
Furthermore, he argues that there is no valid distinction between "necessary '' and "contingent '' facts, and that all truths are learned and validated by the same process: the application of logic to perceptual data. Associated with the analytic - synthetic dichotomy are a cluster of other divisions that Objectivism also regards as false and artificial, such as logical truth vs. factual truth, logically possible vs. empirically possible, and a priori vs. the a posteriori.
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india south africa one day series schedule 2018 | Indian cricket team in South Africa in 2017 -- 18 - Wikipedia
The India cricket team toured South Africa in January and February 2018 to play three Tests, six One Day Internationals (ODIs) and three Twenty20 International (T20I) matches. In January 2017, Cricket South Africa (CSA) revealed that this tour would replace the scheduled visit by Sri Lanka due to costs and scheduling congestion. The Test series was played for the Freedom Trophy, with South Africa winning the trophy following victories in the first two Tests. South Africa went on to win the Test series 2 -- 1. It was the first Test series of three matches or more in which all 40 wickets fell in each match of the series. With India 's win the third Test, they retained the number one place in the ICC Test Championship, taking an unassailable lead before the April 2018 cut - off date for next season 's rankings.
In August 2017, it was announced that the traditional Boxing Day Test at Kingsmead will not take place, as India 's home series against Sri Lanka will not conclude until 24 December 2017. The following month it was announced that tour would likely to start on 5 January 2018. CSA confirmed the fixtures in September 2017. Before the Test matches, India were scheduled to play in a two - day warm - up match at Boland Park, Paarl. However, this was cancelled, as India opted to do training sessions instead of the match.
The Test series marked Dale Steyn 's return to international cricket. He last played in a Test match for South Africa in November 2016 against Australia in Perth, where he suffered a shoulder injury. However, on day two of the first Test, Steyn damaged his left heel. This ruled him out of the rest of the Test, with a recovery time of 4 to 6 weeks. Two days later, he was ruled out of the rest of the series.
During the first ODI, South Africa 's captain, Faf du Plessis, suffered a finger injury and was ruled out of the remaining ODI matches. Aiden Markram was named as South Africa 's captain for the remaining ODI fixtures, becoming the second - youngest South African to lead South Africa in ODIs.
India ensured an ODI series victory after beating South Africa by 73 runs in the fifth match, after they had already won the first three fixtures. This resulted in India 's first ODI series win in South Africa, with India maintaining their number one ranking in the ICC ODI Championship. India went on to win the ODI series 5 -- 1. Virat Kohli scored the most runs in a bilateral ODI series by a player, with 558. India were also victorious in the T20I matches, winning the series 2 -- 1.
Duanne Olivier and Lungi Ngidi were added to South Africa 's squad for the second Test after Dale Steyn suffered an injury during the first Test. Dinesh Karthik was called up as replacement to India 's Test squad for Wriddhiman Saha after Saha was ruled out of the series due to an injury in training. Temba Bavuma suffered a finger injury in a domestic one - day game and was ruled out of South Africa 's squad ahead of the third and final Test. South Africa 's AB de Villiers was ruled out of first three ODIs due to a finger injury. He was added back into South Africa 's squad for the final three matches.
Following the first ODI, Faf du Plessis was ruled out of South Africa 's squad for the remaining ODI matches and the T20I series, after suffering a finger injury. Du Plessis was replaced by Farhaan Behardien in the ODI squad and Heinrich Klaasen was added to South Africa 's squad as a reserve wicket - keeper. Aiden Markram was named as captain of South Africa for the remaining ODIs in du Plessis ' absence. South Africa 's Quinton de Kock suffered an injury during the second ODI and was ruled out of the rest of the ODI matches and the T20I series.
AB de Villiers was ruled out of South Africa 's squad for the T20I series after suffering an injury before the fifth ODI match.
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information about saudi arabia the land of hot sands | Arabian desert - wikipedia
The Arabian Desert is located in Western Asia. It is a vast desert wilderness stretching from Yemen to the Persian Gulf and Oman to Jordan and Iraq. It occupies most of the Arabian Peninsula, with an area of 2,330,000 square kilometers (900,000 sq mi). It is the fourth largest desert in the world, and the largest in Asia. At its center is the Rub'al - Khali, one of the largest continuous bodies of sand in the world. Gazelles, oryx, sand cats, and spiny - tailed lizards are just some of the desert - adapted species that survive in this extreme environment, which features everything from red dunes to deadly quicksand. The climate is mostly dry (the major part receives around 100 mm of rain per year but some very rare places receives down to 50 mm), and temperatures oscillate between very high heat and seasonal night time freezes. It is part of the Deserts and xeric shrublands biome and the Palearctic ecozone. This ecoregion holds little biodiversity, although a few endemic plants grow here. Many species, such as the striped hyena, jackal and honey badger have become extinct in this area due to hunting, human encroachment and habitat destruction. Other species have been successfully re-introduced, such as the sand gazelle, and are protected at a number of reserves. Overgrazing by livestock, off - road driving, and human destruction of habitat are the main threats to this desert ecoregion.
Detailed geological features:
Some of natural resources available in the Arabian Desert are oil, natural gas, phosphates, and sulfur.
The Rub'al - Khali has very limited floristic diversity. There are only 37 species, 20 recorded in the main body of the sands and 17 around the outer margins. Among these 37 species, only one or two are endemic. Vegetation is very diffuse but fairly evenly distributed, with some interruptions of near sterile dunes. Some typical plants are:
Other widespread species are:
Very little trees may be found except at the outer margin (typically Acacia ehrenbergiana and Prosopis cineraria). Other species are a woody perennial Calligonum comosum and annual herbs such as Danthonia forskallii
The Arabian Desert has a subtropical, hot desert climate, close to the climate of the Sahara Desert, the world 's largest hot desert located in North Africa. In fact, the Arabian Desert is an extension of the Sahara Desert over the Arabian peninsula. The climate is mainly hot and dry with plenty of sunshine throughout the year. The rainfall amount is generally around 100 mm, and the driest areas can receive between 30 and 40 mm of annual rain. Such dryness remains very rare throughout the desert, however. There are hardly any hyperarid areas in the Arabian Desert, in contrast with the Sahara Desert, where more than half of the area is hyperarid (annual rainfall below 50 mm). The sunshine duration is very high by global standards in the Arabian Desert, between 2,900 hours (66.2 % of the daylight hours) and 3,600 hours (82.1 % of the daylight hours) but is typically around 3,400 hours (77.6 % of the daylight hours), which clearly indicates clear - sky conditions prevails over the region and cloudy periods are just intermittent. Even though the sun and moon is bright, the dust and humidity has a lower visibility for the traveler. The temperatures remain high all year round. Average high temperatures in summer are generally over 40 ° C (104 ° F) at low elevations, and can even soar to 48 ° C (114.8 ° F) at extremely low elevations, especially along the Persian Gulf near the sea level. Average low temperatures in summer remain high, over 20 ° C (68 ° F) and sometimes over 30 ° C (77 ° F) in the southernmost regions. Record high temperatures are above 50 ° C (122 ° F) in much of the desert, due in part to very low elevation.
The desert lies mostly in Saudi Arabia, extending into the surrounding countries of Egypt (Sinai), southern Iraq and southern Jordan. The Arabian desert is bordered by 5 countries. Bordering the Persian Gulf, there is an extension into Qatar and, further east, the region covers almost all of Abu Dhabi in the United Arab Emirates (UAE). The Rub'al - Khali crosses over from Saudi Arabia into western Oman and eastern Yemen.
The area is home to several different cultures, languages, and peoples, with Islam as the predominant faith. The major ethnic group in the region is the Arabs, whose primary language is Arabic.
Weaponry used by the United States during the Gulf War also poses a huge risk to the environmental stability of the area. Tank columns in the desert plains may disrupt the fragile stability that exists in the desert currently. In 1991, the movement of US tanks over the desert damaged the top protective layer of the desert soil. As a result, a sand dune was released and has started slowly moving downhill. Some people fear this dune could ultimately reach Kuwait City.
The conservation status of the desert is critical / endangered, with species including the sand gazelle and white oryx threatened, and honey badgers, jackals, and striped hyaenas already extirpated.
No formal protected areas exist, but a number of protected areas are planned for Abu Dhabi.
In January 1991 during the Gulf War, Iraqi forces released about 1.7 million m3 (11 million barrels) of oil from storage tanks and tankers directly into the Persian Gulf. In February, they also destroyed 1,164 Kuwaiti oil wells. It took nine months to extinguish these oil fires. These oil spills contaminated 1,000 km (620 mi) of Persian Gulf coast.
The result of the pollution was the death of thousands of water birds and serious damage to the Persian Gulf 's aquatic ecosystem, particularly shrimp, sea turtles, dugongs, whales, dolphins and fish.
The damaged wells also released 10 million m3 (60 million barrels) of oil into the desert and formed lakes (total surface of 49 square kilometers).
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where can i carry a concealed weapon in pa | Gun laws in Pennsylvania - wikipedia
Gun laws in Pennsylvania regulate the sale, possession, and use of firearms and ammunition in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania in the United States.
To purchase a firearm, you must be at least 18 years of age. You also can never have been convicted of a violent crime, must not be an undocumented immigrant, declared mentally ill by the court, a drug addict or habitual drunkard, a fugitive from justice, have been convicted of three separate DUI charges within a five - year period or are subject to an active protection from abuse order.
No firearms are known to be prohibited by state law. Private sales of handguns must go through a licensed dealer, though long guns may be sold privately without the use of a licensed dealer. Licensed dealers must provide locking devices with handguns unless the handgun has a locking device incorporated in its design.
In Pennsylvania, there are more than 2,500 federally licensed firearm dealers where one may make a purchase. Individuals interested in purchasing a firearm must first fill out an application with their basic information. Once the application has been completed, the firearms dealer will input the information into the Pennsylvania Instant Check System to check the if individual is legally allowed to own a firearm. On average in Pennsylvania, this background check costs $20.00 for handgun purchases and $25.00 for a long gun purchase.
Residents in Pennsylvania may also purchase firearms from gun shows and private dealers. When purchasing from a federally licensed dealer, the process remains the same. However, when purchasing a long gun from a private dealer, an individual is exempt from obtaining a background check. When purchasing a handgun from a private dealer, the individual is legally required to complete a firearm transfer at a federally licensed dealer. There is a $2 fee for the instant check and a $3 firearm sale surcharge to cover telephone costs.
Transfers of handguns between spouses, parent and child, grandparent and grandchild or between active law enforcement officers are exempt from the above requirements. Rifles and shotguns may be transferred between unlicensed individuals. Antique firearms are exempt from the requirements regarding transfer of firearms through dealers.
The Pennsylvania Uniform Firearms Act defines "firearm '' as "any pistol or revolver with a barrel less than 15 inches, any shotgun with a barrel less than 18 inches, any rifle with a barrel of less than 16 inches or any pistol, revolver, rifle or shotgun with an overall length of less than 26 inches. '' However, several sections of the law include a broader definition that includes all firearms, i.e. handguns, rifles and shotguns, and pertains to that section only. The distinction should be closely noted when interpreting the statutes.
Dealers are prohibited from transferring the firearm if the Pennsylvania State Police has issued a "temporary delay '' in order to investigate whether the person has been convicted of a domestic violence misdemeanor that disqualifies the person from firearm possession.
To sell a handgun or short - barreled rifle or shotgun, a dealer must also:
Individuals in Pennsylvania are permitted to open carry firearms as long as the firearm is in plain view. When concealing a firearm, individuals must obtain a Concealed Carry Permit from the local sheriffs ' office. An individual must have a Concealed Carry Permit to carry loaded firearm in Pennsylvania.
In first - class cities, such as Philadelphia, a permit is required for both concealed carry, and open carry. A total of 31 states recognized Pennsylvania 's permit to concealed carry.
When transporting firearms in Pennsylvania without a Concealed Carry Permit, the firearm and ammunition must be in two separate containers within the vehicle.
To apply for a license to carry in Pennsylvania, individuals must be at least 21 years of age. The application process requires submitting the Pennsylvania License to Carry Firearms application to the sheriff of the county in which they reside. Individuals who are not residents of Pennsylvania but are 21 years of age or older may submit the Application for a Pennsylvania License to Carry Firearms to any Pennsylvania County Sheriff 's office along with the required fee.
Firearms are prohibited from certain places, including federal court facilities; all other court facilities must provide a locker to secure your firearm while conducting business within the court facility as per 18 Pa. C.S 913 (e). Concealed carry on school property used to be an unsettled area of the law with many in law enforcement arguing that the practice is absolutely prohibited and firearms right supporters arguing that 18 Pa. C.S. 912 (c) permits those who have a concealed carry license to carry on school grounds as an "other lawful purpose. '' On February 16, 2017, the Superior Court ruled in the case of Commonwealth v. Goslin that the "other lawful purpose '' clause is a valid defense for people who are otherwise carrying a weapon legally on school grounds regardless of any connection to a school activity. Carrying a handgun on public streets and public property of Philadelphia, or in a vehicle anywhere in the state, or concealed on or about one 's person anywhere in the state is prohibited without a "License To Carry Firearms '' (LTCF) or a license or permit issued by another state which is honored by Pennsylvania for that purpose. A LTCF is generally not required to openly carry a firearm on or about one 's person, except in a vehicle or in Philadelphia, or during a declared State of Emergency. A bill proposed in September 2014 would allow teachers and school employees carry guns.
Pennsylvania shall issue a LTCF to resident and non-resident applicants if no good cause exists to deny the license. Non-resident applicants must first obtain a license from their home state, unless their home state does not issue licenses.
Article 1, section 21 of the Constitution of Pennsylvania states, "The right of the citizens to bear arms in defense of themselves and the State shall not be questioned. ''
Pennsylvania has state preemption for regulation of the lawful ownership, possession, transfer or transportation of firearms, ammunition, or ammunition components. That is, only state laws, not local laws, can regulate those matters.
Most items that are required to be registered under the National Firearms Act such as machine guns, suppressors, short barreled rifles and shotguns, are prohibited in Pennsylvania as "offensive weapons '' unless they are registered under the NFA.
There are no regulating laws for the sale, purchase, or possession of ammunition, however armor - piercing ammunition is illegal in the state.
Pennsylvania law requires that information received by the Pennsylvania State Police pursuant to a sale is destroyed within 72 hours of the completion of the background check. The Pennsylvania Firearm Owners Association notes that the Pennsylvania State Police nonetheless keep a "sales database '' of all handguns purchased within the state. The database was challenged based on what was asserted as the unambiguous text of the statute, specifically "nothing... shall be construed to allow any government or law enforcement agency or any agent thereof to create, maintain or operate any registry of firearm ownership within this Commonwealth '' (full statute text above), the Pennsylvania Supreme Court nonetheless ruled in Allegheny County Sportsmen 's League v. Rendell, 860 A. 2d 10 (Pa. 2004), that Pennsylvania 's database of handgun sales is not prohibited by state law because the registration was only of handgun sales and not of all guns.
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who plays eddie on season 8 of shameless | Shameless (Season 8) - wikipedia
The eighth season of Shameless, an American comedy - drama television series based on the British series of the same name by Paul Abbott, was announced on December 19, 2016, a day after the seventh season finale. The season, which premiered on November 5, 2017, will consist of a total of 12 episodes.
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whats the distance between earth and the moon | Lunar distance (Astronomy) - wikipedia
Lunar distance (LD or Δ ⊕ L (\ textstyle \ Delta _ (\ oplus L))), also called Earth -- Moon distance, Earth -- Moon characteristic distance, or distance to the Moon, is a unit of measure in astronomy. It is the average distance from the center of Earth to the center of the Moon. More technically, it is the mean semi-major axis of the geocentric lunar orbit. It may also refer to the time - averaged distance between the centers of the Earth and the Moon, or less commonly, the instantaneous Earth -- Moon distance. The lunar distance is approximately a quarter of a million miles (7008400000000000000 ♠ 400 000 km).
The mean semi-major axis has a value of 384,402 km (238,856 mi). The time - averaged distance between Earth and Moon centers is 385,000.6 km (239,228.3 mi). The actual distance varies over the course of the orbit of the Moon, from 356,500 km (221,500 mi) at the perigee to 406,700 km (252,700 mi) at apogee, resulting in a differential range of 50,200 km (31,200 mi).
Lunar distance is commonly used to express the distance to near - Earth object encounters. Lunar distance is also an important astronomical datum; the precision of this measurement to a few parts in a trillion has useful implications for testing gravitational theories such as general relativity, and for refining other astronomical values such as Earth mass, Earth radius, and Earth 's rotation. The measurement is also useful in characterizing the lunar radius, the mass of the Sun and the distance to the Sun.
Millimeter - precision measurements of the lunar distance are made by measuring the time taken for light to travel between LIDAR stations on the Earth and retroreflectors placed on the Moon. The Moon is spiraling away from the Earth at an average rate of 3.8 cm (1.5 in) per year, as detected by the Lunar Laser Ranging Experiment. By coincidence, the diameter of corner cubes in retroreflectors on the Moon is also 6998380000000000000 ♠ 3.8 cm.
The instantaneous lunar distance is constantly changing. In fact the true distance between the Moon and Earth can change as quickly as 7001750000000000000 ♠ 75 meters per second, or more than 7006100000000000000 ♠ 1000 km in just 6 hours, due to its non-circular orbit. There are other effects that also influence the lunar distance. Some factors are described in this section.
The distance to the Moon can be measured to an accuracy of 6997200000000000000 ♠ 2 mm over a 1 - hour sampling period, which results in an overall uncertainty of 6998200000000000000 ♠ 2 -- 3 cm for the average distance. However, due to its elliptical orbit with varying eccentricity, the instantaneous distance varies with monthly periodicity. Furthermore, the distance is perturbed by the gravitational effects of various astronomical bodies - most significantly the Sun and less so Jupiter. Other forces responsible for minute perturbations are: gravitational attraction to other planets in the solar system and to asteroids; tidal forces; and relativistic effects. The effect of radiation pressure from the Sun contributes an amount of ± 6997360000000000000 ♠ 3.6 mm to the lunar distance.
Although the instantaneous uncertainty is sub-millimeter, the measured lunar distance can change by more than 7007210000000000000 ♠ 21 000 km from the mean value throughout a typical month. These perturbations are well understood and the lunar distance can be accurately modeled over thousands of years.
Through the action of tidal forces, angular momentum is slowly being transferred from the Earth 's rotation to the Moon 's orbit. The result is that Earth 's rate of spin is imperceptibly decreasing (at a rate of 7000229999999999999 ♠ 2.3 milliseconds / century), and the lunar orbit is gradually expanding. The current rate of recession is 7000380500000000000 ♠ 3.805 ± 0.004 cm per year. However, it is believed that this rate has recently increased, as a rate of 6991120417206325883 ♠ 3.8 cm / year would imply that the Moon is only 1.5 billion years old, whereas scientific consensus assumes an age of about 4 billion years. It is also believed that this anomalously high rate of recession may continue to accelerate.
It is predicted that the lunar distance will continue to increase until (in theory) the Earth and Moon become tidally locked. This would occur when the duration of the lunar orbital period equals the rotational period of Earth. The two bodies would then be at equilibrium, and no further rotational energy would be exchanged. However models predict that 50 billion years would be required to achieve this configuration, which is significantly longer than the expected lifetime of the solar system.
The average lunar distance is increasing, which implies that the Moon was closer in the past. There is geological evidence that the average lunar distance was about 52 R (i.e. 52 x the radius of the Earth, or 205,000 miles) during the Precambrian Era; 2,500 million years BP.
The giant impact hypothesis, a widely accepted theory, states that the Moon was created as a result of a catastrophic impact between Earth and another planet, resulting in a re-accumulation of fragments at an initial distance of 3.8 R (15,000 miles). In this theory, the initial impact is assumed to have occurred 4.5 billion years ago.
Until the late 1950s all measurements of lunar distance were based on optical angular measurements: the earliest accurate measurement was by Hipparchus in the 2nd century BC. The space age marked a turning point when the accuracy of our knowledge of this value was much improved. During the 1950s and 1960s, there were experiments using radar, lasers, spacecraft, and computer modeling.
This section is intended to illustrate some of the historically significant or otherwise interesting methods of determining the lunar distance, and is not intended to be an exhaustive or all - encompassing list.
The oldest method of determining the lunar distance involved measuring the angle between the Moon and a chosen reference point from multiple locations, simultaneously. The synchronization can be coordinated by making measurements at a pre-determined time, or during an event which is observable to all parties. Before accurate mechanical chronometers, the synchronization event was typically a lunar eclipse, or the moment when the Moon crossed the meridian (if the observers shared the same longitude). This measurement technique is known as lunar parallax.
For increased accuracy, certain adjustments must be made, such as adjusting the measured angle to account for refraction and distortion of light passing through the atmosphere.
Early attempts to measure the distance to the Moon exploited observations of a lunar eclipse combined with knowledge of Earth 's radius and an understanding that the Sun is much further than the Moon. By observing the geometry of a lunar eclipse, the lunar distance can be calculated using trigonometry.
The earliest accounts of attempts to measure the lunar distance using this technique were by Greek astronomer and mathematician Aristarchus of Samos in the 4th century BC and later by Hipparchus, whose calculations produced a result of 59 - 67 R (233,000 - 265,000 miles). This method later found its way into the work of Ptolemy, who produced a result of 64 ⁄ R (253,000 miles) at its farthest point.
An expedition by French astronomer A.C.D. Crommelin observed lunar transits through the meridian (the moment when the Moon crosses an imaginary great circle that passes directly overhead and through the celestial poles) on the same night) from two different locations. Careful measurements from 1905 - 1910 measured the angle of elevation at the moment when a specific lunar crater (Mösting A) crossed the meridian, from stations at Greenwich and at Cape of Good Hope, which share nearly the same longitude. A distance was calculated with an uncertainty of 7004300000000000000 ♠ 30 km, and this remained the definitive lunar distance value for the next half century.
By recording the instant when the Moon occults a background star, (or similarly, measuring the angle between the moon and a background star at a predetermined moment) the lunar distance can be determined, as long as the measurements are taken from multiple locations of known separation.
Astronomers O'Keefe and Anderson calculated the lunar distance by observing four occultations from nine locations in 1952. They calculated a mean distance of 7008384407600000000 ♠ 384 407. 6 ± 4.7 km; however this value was refined in 1962 by Irene Fischer, who incorporated updated geodetic data to produce a value of 7008384403700000000 ♠ 384 403. 7 ± 2 km.
An experiment was conducted in 1957 at the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory that used the echo from radar signals to determine the Earth - Moon distance. Radar pulses lasting 6994200000000000000 ♠ 2 μs were broadcast from a 7001152400000000000 ♠ 50 ft diameter radio dish. After the radio waves echoed off the surface of the Moon, the return signal was detected and the delay time measured. From that measurement, the distance could be calculated. In practice, however, the signal - to - noise ratio was so low that an accurate measurement could not be reliably produced.
The experiment was repeated in 1958 at the Royal Radar Establishment, in England. Radar pulses lasting 6994499999999999999 ♠ 5 μs were transmitted with a peak power of 2 megawatts, at a repetition rate of 260 pulses per second. After the radio waves echoed off the surface of the Moon, the return signal was detected and the delay time measured. Multiple signals were added together to obtain a reliable signal by superimposing oscilloscope traces onto photographic film. From the measurements, the distance was calculated with an uncertainty of 7003125000000000000 ♠ 1.25 km.
These initial experiments were intended to be proof - of - concept experiments and only lasted one day. Follow - on experiments lasting one month produced a mean value of 7008384402000000000 ♠ 384 402 ± 1.2 km, which was the most accurate measurement of the lunar distance at the time.
An experiment which measured the round - trip time of flight of laser pulses reflected directly off the surface of the Moon was performed in 1962, by a team from Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and a Soviet team at the Crimean Astrophysical Observatory.
During the Apollo missions in 1969, astronauts placed retroreflectors on the surface of the Moon for the purpose of refining the accuracy of this technique. The measurements are ongoing and involve multiple laser facilities. The instantaneous accuracy of the Lunar Laser Ranging experiments can exceed sub-millimeter resolution, and is the most reliable method of determining the lunar distance, to date.
Due to the modern accessibility of accurate timing devices, high resolution digital cameras, GPS receivers, powerful computers and near - instantaneous communication, it has become possible for amateur astronomers to make high accuracy measurements of the lunar distance.
On May 23, 2007 digital photographs of the Moon during a near - occultation of Regulus were taken from two locations, in Greece and England. By measuring the parallax between the Moon and the chosen background star, the lunar distance was calculated.
A more ambitious project called the "Aristarchus Campaign '' was conducted during the lunar eclipse of 15 April 2014. During this event, participants were invited to record a series of five digital photographs from moonrise until culmination (the point of greatest altitude).
The method took advantage of the fact that the Moon is actually closest to an observer when it is at its highest point in the sky, compared to when it is on the horizon. Although it appears that the Moon is biggest when it is near the horizon, the opposite is true. This phenomenon is known as the moon illusion. The reason for the difference in distance is that the distance from the center of the Moon to the center of the Earth is nearly constant throughout the night, but an observer on the surface of Earth is actually 1 Earth radius from the center of Earth. This offset brings them closest to the Moon when it is overhead.
Modern cameras have now reached a resolution level capable of capturing the Moon with enough precision to perceive and more importantly to measure this tiny variation in apparent size. The results of this experiment were calculated as LD = 7001605100000000000 ♠ 60.51 + 3.91 − 4.19 R. The accepted value for that night was 60.61, which implied a 7000300000000000000 ♠ 3 % accuracy. The benefit of this method is that the only measuring equipment needed is a modern digital camera (equipped with an accurate clock, and a GPS receiver).
Other experimental methods of measuring the lunar distance that can be performed by amateur astronomers involve:
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who are the world's highest paid athletes | Forbes ' list of World 's Highest - Paid Athletes - wikipedia
This is a list of the highest - paid athletes in the world as ranked by Forbes magazine.
The 2017 list:
The 2016 list:
The 2015 list was released on 10 June 2015.
The 2014 list was released on 11 June 2014.
The 2013 list was released on 5 June 2013.
The 2012 list was released on 18 June 2012.
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how did the rise in free oxygen change the evolution of certain species on earth | Great Oxygenation Event - wikipedia
The Great Oxygenation Event, the beginning of which is commonly known in scientific media as the Great Oxidation Event (GOE, also called the Oxygen Catastrophe, Oxygen Crisis, Oxygen Holocaust, Oxygen Revolution, or Great Oxidation) was the biologically induced appearance of dioxygen (O) in Earth 's atmosphere. Geological, isotopic, and chemical evidence suggests that this major environmental change happened around 2.45 billion years ago (2.45 Ga), during the Siderian period, at the beginning of the Proterozoic eon. The causes of the event remain unclear. As of 2016, the geochemical and biomarker evidence for the development of oxygenic photosynthesis before the Great Oxidation Event has been mostly inconclusive.
Oceanic cyanobacteria, which evolved into coordinated (but not multicellular or even colonial) macroscopic forms more than 2.3 billion years ago (approximately 200 million years before the GOE), are believed to have become the first microbes to produce oxygen by photosynthesis. Before the GOE, any free oxygen they produced was chemically captured by dissolved iron or by organic matter. The GOE started when these oxygen sinks became saturated, at which point oxygen produced by the cyanobacteria started escaping into the atmosphere.
The increased production of oxygen set Earth 's original atmosphere off - balance. Free oxygen is toxic to obligate anaerobic organisms, and the rising concentrations may have destroyed most such organisms at the time.
A spike in chromium contained in ancient rock - deposits formed underwater shows the accumulation had been washed off from the continental shelves. Chromium is not easily dissolved and its release from rocks would have required the presence of a powerful acid. One such acid, sulfuric acid (H SO), might have formed through bacterial reactions with pyrite. Mats of oxygen - producing cyanobacteria can produce a thin layer, one or two millimeters thick, of oxygenated water in an otherwise anoxic environment even under thick ice; before oxygen started accumulating in the atmosphere, these organisms would already have adapted to oxygen. Additionally, the free oxygen would have reacted with atmospheric methane, a greenhouse gas, greatly reducing its concentration and triggering the Huronian glaciation, possibly the longest episode of glaciation in Earth 's history and called "snowball Earth ''.
Eventually, the evolution of aerobic organisms that consumed oxygen established an equilibrium in its availability. Free oxygen has been an important constituent of the atmosphere ever since.
The most widely accepted chronology of the Great Oxygenation Event suggests that free oxygen was first produced by prokaryotic and then later eukaryotic organisms that carried out photosynthesis more efficiently, producing oxygen as a waste product. The first oxygen - producing organisms arose long before the GOE, perhaps as early as 3,400 million years ago.
Initially, the oxygen they produced would have quickly been removed from the atmosphere by the chemical weathering of reducing (oxidizable) minerals, most notably iron. This ' mass rusting ' led to the deposition of iron (III) oxide in the form of banded - iron formations such as the sediments in Minnesota and Pilbara, Western Australia. The saturation of these mineral sinks, and the resulting persistence of oxygen in the atmosphere, led within 50 million years to the start of the GOE. Oxygen could have accumulated very rapidly: at today 's rates of photosynthesis (much greater than those in the Precambrian without land plants), modern atmospheric O levels could be produced in only 2,000 years.
Another hypothesis is that oxygen producers did not evolve until a few million years before the major rise in atmospheric oxygen concentration. This is based on a particular interpretation of a supposed oxygen indicator used in previous studies, the mass - independent fractionation of sulfur isotopes. This hypothesis would eliminate the need to explain a lag in time between the evolution of oxyphotosynthetic microbes and the rise in free oxygen.
In either case, oxygen did eventually accumulate in the atmosphere, with two major consequences.
Firstly, it oxidized atmospheric methane (a strong greenhouse gas) to carbon dioxide (a weaker one) and water. This decreased the greenhouse effect of the Earth 's atmosphere, causing planetary cooling, and triggered the Huronian glaciation. Starting around 2.4 billion years ago, this lasted 300 - 400 million years, and may have been the longest ever snowball Earth episode.
Secondly, the increased oxygen concentrations provided a new opportunity for biological diversification, as well as tremendous changes in the nature of chemical interactions between rocks, sand, clay, and other geological substrates and the Earth 's air, oceans, and other surface waters. Despite the natural recycling of organic matter, life had remained energetically limited until the widespread availability of oxygen. This breakthrough in metabolic evolution greatly increased the free energy available to living organisms, with global environmental impacts. For example, mitochondria evolved after the GOE, giving organisms the energy to exploit new, more complex morphologies interacting in increasingly complex ecosystems.
There may have been a gap of up to 900 million years between the start of photosynthetic oxygen production and the geologically rapid increase in atmospheric oxygen about 2.5 -- 2.4 billion years ago. Several hypotheses propose to explain this time lag.
The oxygen increase had to await tectonically driven changes in the Earth, including the appearance of shelf seas, where reduced organic carbon could reach the sediments and be buried. The newly produced oxygen was first consumed in various chemical reactions in the oceans, primarily with iron. Evidence is found in older rocks that contain massive banded iron formations apparently laid down as this iron and oxygen first combined; most present - day iron ore lies in these deposits. Evidence suggests oxygen levels spiked each time smaller land masses collided to form a super-continent. Tectonic pressure thrust up mountain chains, which eroded to release nutrients into the ocean to feed photosynthetic cyanobacteria.
Early chemosynthetic organisms likely produced methane, an important trap for molecular oxygen, since methane readily oxidizes to carbon dioxide (CO) and water in the presence of UV radiation. Modern methanogens require nickel as an enzyme cofactor. As the Earth 's crust cooled and the supply of volcanic nickel dwindled, oxygen - producing algae began to out - perform methane producers, and the oxygen percentage of the atmosphere steadily increased. From 2.7 to 2.4 billion years ago, the rate of deposition of nickel declined steadily from a level 400 times today 's.
Another hypothesis posits a model of the atmosphere that exhibits bistability: two steady states of oxygen concentration. The state of stable low oxygen concentration (0.02 %) experiences a high rate of methane oxidation. If some event raises oxygen levels beyond a moderate threshold, the formation of an ozone layer shields UV rays and decreases methane oxidation, raising oxygen further to a stable state of 21 % or more. The Great Oxygenation Event can then be understood as a transition from the lower to the upper steady states.
Another theory credits the appearance of cyanobacteria with suppressing hydrogen gas and increasing oxygen.
Some bacteria in the early oceans could separate water into hydrogen and oxygen. Under the Sun 's rays, hydrogen molecules were incorporated into organic compounds, with oxygen as a by - product. If the hydrogen - heavy compounds were buried, it would have allowed oxygen to accumulate in the atmosphere.
However, in 2001 scientists realized that the hydrogen would instead escape into space through a process called methane photolysis, in which methane releases its hydrogen in a reaction with oxygen. This could explain why the early Earth stayed warm enough to sustain oxygen - producing lifeforms.
The oxygen indicator might have been misinterpreted. During the proposed lag era in the previous theory, there was a change in sediments from mass - independently fractionated (MIF) sulfur to mass - dependently fractionated (MDF) sulfur. This was assumed to show the appearance of oxygen in the atmosphere, since oxygen would have prevented the photolysis of sulfur dioxide, which causes MIF. However, the change from MIF to MDF of sulfur isotopes may instead have been caused by an increase in glacial weathering, or the homogenization of the marine sulfur pool as a result of an increased thermal gradient during the Huronian glaciation period (which in this interpretation was not caused by oxygenation).
The Great Oxygenation Event triggered an explosive growth in the diversity of minerals, with many elements occurring in one or more oxidized forms near the Earth 's surface. It is estimated that the GOE was directly responsible for more than 2,500 of the total of about 4,500 minerals found on Earth today. Most of these new minerals were formed as hydrated and oxidized forms due to dynamic mantle and crust processes.
Million years ago. Age of Earth = 4,560
It has been proposed that a local rise in oxygen levels due to cyanobacterial photosynthesis in ancient microenvironments was highly toxic to the surrounding biota, and that this selective pressure drove the evolutionary transformation of an archaeal lineage into the first eukaryotes. Oxidative stress involving production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) might have acted in synergy with other environmental stresses (such as ultraviolet radiation and / or desiccation) to drive selection in an early archaeal lineage towards eukaryosis. This archaeal ancestor may already have had DNA repair mechanisms based on DNA pairing and recombination and possibly some kind of cell fusion mechanism. The detrimental effects of internal ROS (produced by endosymbiont proto - mitochondria) on the archaeal genome could have promoted the evolution of meiotic sex from these humble beginnings. Selective pressure for efficient DNA repair of oxidative DNA damages may have driven the evolution of eukaryotic sex involving such features as cell - cell fusions, cytoskeleton - mediated chromosome movements and emergence of the nuclear membrane. Thus the evolution of eukaryotic sex and eukaryogenesis were likely inseparable processes that evolved in large part to facilitate DNA repair. Constant pressure of endogenous ROS has been proposed to explain the ubiquitous maintenance of meiotic sex in eukaryotes.
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why were there widespread decolonization efforts and independence movements after world war ii | Decolonization - wikipedia
Decolonization (US) or decolonisation (UK) is the undoing of colonialism: where a nation establishes and maintains its domination over dependent territories. The Oxford English Dictionary defines decolonization as "the withdrawal from its colonies of a colonial power; the acquisition of political or economic independence by such colonies. '' The term refers particularly to the dismantlement, in the years after World War II, of the colonial empires established prior to World War I throughout the world. However, decolonization not only refers to the complete "removal of the domination of non-indigenous forces '' within the geographical space and different institutions of the colonized, but it also refers to the "decolonizing of the mind '' from the colonizers ' ideas that made the colonized feel inferior.
The United Nations Special Committee on Decolonization has stated that in the process of decolonization there is no alternative to the colonizer allowing a process of self - determination, but in practice decolonization may involve either nonviolent revolution or national liberation wars by pro-independence groups. It may be intramural or involve the intervention of foreign powers acting individually or through international bodies such as the United Nations. Although examples of decolonization can be found as early as the writings of Thucydides, there have been several particularly active periods of decolonization in modern times. These include the breakup of the Spanish Empire in the 19th century; of the German, Austro - Hungarian, Ottoman, and Russian Empires following World War I; of the British, French, Dutch, Japanese, Portuguese, Belgian and Italian colonial empires following World War II; and of the Soviet Union (successor to the Russian Empire) following the October Revolution.
Decolonization is a political process and vital internalization of the rejection of colonialist mindsets and "norms. '' In extreme circumstances, there is a war of independence, sometimes following a revolution. More often, there is a dynamic cycle where negotiations fail, minor disturbances ensue resulting in suppression by the police and military forces, escalating into more violent revolts that lead to further negotiations until independence is granted. In rare cases, the actions of the pro-independence movements are characterized by nonviolence, with the Indian independence movement led by Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi being one of the most notable examples, and the violence comes as active suppression from the occupying forces or as political opposition from forces representing minority local communities who feel threatened by the prospect of independence. For example, there was a war of independence in French Indochina, while in some countries in French West Africa (excluding the Maghreb countries) decolonization resulted from a combination of insurrection and negotiation. The process is only complete when the de facto government of the newly independent country is recognized as the de jure sovereign state by the community of nations.
Independence is often difficult to achieve without the encouragement and practical support from one or more external parties. The motives for giving such aid are varied: nations of the same ethnic and / or religious stock may sympathize with the people of the country, or a strong nation may attempt to destabilize a colony as a tactical move to weaken a rival or enemy colonizing power or to create space for its own sphere of influence; examples of this include British support of the Haitian Revolution against France, and the Monroe Doctrine of 1823, in which the United States warned the European powers not to interfere in the affairs of the newly independent states of the Western Hemisphere.
As world opinion became more pro-independence following World War I, there was an institutionalized collective effort to advance the cause of decolonization through the League of Nations. Under Article 22 of the Covenant of the League of Nations, a number of mandates were created. The expressed intention was to prepare these countries for self - government, but are often interpreted as a mere redistribution of control over the former colonies of the defeated powers, mainly the German Empire and the Ottoman Empire. This reassignment work continued through the United Nations, with a similar system of trust territories created to adjust control over both former colonies and mandated territories.
In referendums, some colonial populations have chosen to retain their colonial status, such as Gibraltar and French Guiana. There are even examples, such as the Falklands War, in which an Imperial power goes to war to defend the right of a colony to continue to be a colony. Colonial powers have sometimes promoted decolonization in order to shed the financial, military and other burdens that tend to grow in those colonies where the colonial governments have become more benign.
Decolonization is rarely achieved through a single historical act, but rather progresses through one or more stages of decolonization, each of which can be offered or fought for: these can include the introduction of elected representatives (advisory or voting; minority or majority or even exclusive), degrees of autonomy or self - rule. Thus, the final phase of decolonization may, in fact, concern little more than handing over responsibility for foreign relations and security, and soliciting de jure recognition for the new sovereignty. But, even following the recognition of statehood, a degree of continuity can be maintained through bilateral treaties between now equal governments involving practicalities such as military training, mutual protection pacts, or even a garrison and / or military bases.
Beginning with the emergence of the United States in the 1770s, decolonization took place in the context of Atlantic history, against the background of the American and French revolutions. Decolonization became a popular movement in many colonies in the 20th century, and a reality after 1945.
Great Britain 's Thirteen North American colonies were the first to break from the British Empire in 1776, and were recognized as an independent nation by France in 1778 and Britain in 1783. The United States of America was the first set of European established colonies to achieve independence and establish itself as a nation, and was the first independent nation in the Americas.
The Haitian Revolution was a slave uprising that began in 1791 in the French colony of Saint - Domingue, on the Caribbean island of Hispaniola. In 1804, Haiti secured independence from France as the Empire of Haiti, which later became a republic.
The chaos of the Napoleonic wars in Europe cut the direct links between Spain and its American colonies, allowing for process of decolonization to begin.
With the invasion of Spain by Napoleon in 1806, the American colonies declared autonomy and loyalty to the King Fernand VII. The contract was broken and the regions of the Spanish Empire had to decide whether to show allegiance to the Junta of Cadiz (the only territory in Spain free from Napoleon) or have a junta (assembly) of its own. The economic monopoly of the metropolis was the main reason why many countries decided to become independent from Spain. In 1809, the independence wars of Latin America begun with a revolt in La Paz, Bolivia. In 1807 and 1808, the Vice Royalty of the River Plate was invaded by the British, after their 2nd defeat a Frenchman called Santiague de Liniers was proclaimed new Vice Roy by the local population, and later accepted by Spain. In May 1810 in Buenos Aires, a Junta was created, but in Montevideo it was not recognized by the local government who followed the authority of the Junta of Cadiz, the rivalry between the 2 harbors was the main reason for the distrust between the 2 cities. During the next 15 years, the Spanish and Royalist on one side, and the rebels fought in South America and Mexico. Numerous countries declared their independence. In 1824, the Spanish forces were defeated in the Battle of Ayacucho. The mainland was free and in 1898, Spain lost Cuba and Puerto Rico in the Spanish -- American War, Puerto Rico became a Colony of the U.S.A. but Cuba was independent in 1902.
Cyprus
Cyprus was invaded and taken over by the Ottoman Empire in 1570. It was later relinquished by the Ottomans in 1878. The Cypriots expressed their true disdain for Ottoman rule through revolts and nationalist movements. The Ottomans only suppressed these revolts in the harshest of fashion but that only ended up fueling the revolts and desire for independence. The Cypriots desired to merge with Greece because they felt a close connection with Greece. They were tired of 3 centuries of Turkic rule and openly expressed their desire for enosis. The Cypriots would embrace Greek culture and traditions. They abandoned Ottoman architecture and showed little respect for Ottoman rule. All these acts of defiance could be attributed to decolonization. When the Cypriots made acts of nationalism, they were participating in a form of decolonization because they were attempting to remove all trace of Turkic and Muslim influence within their society. The Greek War of Independence had major affects on Cyprus and after the Ottomans had left, Cyprus continued to create a Greek culture they wished to be a part of. Cyprus would continue to create this imagined identity of Greek culture. This can also be a form of imagined human geography because Cyprus used this identity to justify its revolts and nationalist movements.
A number of people (mainly Christians in the Balkans) previously conquered by the Ottoman Empire were able to achieve independence in the 19th century, a process that peaked at the time of the Ottoman defeat in the Russo - Turkish War of 1877 -- 78.
The Ottoman Empire had failed to raise revenue and a monopoly of effective armed forces. This may have caused the fall of the Ottoman Empire.
In the wake of the 1798 French Invasion of Egypt and its subsequent expulsion in 1801, the commander of an Albanian regiment, Muhammad Ali, was able to gain control of Egypt. Although he was acknowledged by the Sultan in Constantinople in 1805 as his pasha, Muhammad Ali, and eventually his successors, were de facto monarchs of a largely independent state managing its own foreign relations. However, despite this de facto independence, Egypt did remain nominally a vassal state of the Ottoman Empire obliged to pay a hefty annual tribute to the Sultan. The Ottoman Empire 's residual powers over Egypt remained a threat to its independence, as was shown in 1882 when Great Britain, with the Sultan 's agreement, occupied Egypt permanently. Upon declaring war on Turkey in November 1914, Britain unilaterally declared the Sultan 's rights and title over Egypt abolished and proclaimed its own protectorate over the country.
The Greek War of Independence (1821 -- 1829) was fought to liberate Greece from a three centuries long Ottoman occupation. Independence was secured by the intervention of the British and French navies and the French and Russian armies, but Greece was limited to an area including perhaps only one - third of ethnic Greeks, that later grew significantly with the Megali Idea project. The war ended many of the privileges of the Phanariot Greeks of Constantinople.
Following a failed Bulgarian revolt in 1876, the subsequent Russo - Turkish war ended with the provisional Treaty of San Stefano established a huge new realm of Bulgaria including most of Macedonia and Thrace. The final 1878 Treaty of Berlin allowed the other Great Powers to limit the size of the new Russian client state and even briefly divided this rump state in two, Bulgaria and Eastern Rumelia, but the irredentist claims from the first treaty would direct Bulgarian claims through the first and second Balkan Wars and both World Wars.
Romania fought on the Russian side in the Russo - Turkish War and in the 1878 Treaty of Berlin, Romania was recognized as an independent state by the Great Powers.
Centuries of armed and unarmed struggle ended with the recognition of Serbian independence from the Ottoman Empire at the Congress of Berlin in 1878.
The independence of the Principality of Montenegro from the Ottoman Empire was recognized at the congress of Berlin in 1878. However, the Montenegrin nation has been de facto independent since 1711 (officially accepted by the Tsardom of Russia by the order of Tsar Petr I Alexeyevich - Romanov. In the period 1795 - 8, Montenegro once again claimed independence after the Battle of Krusi. In 1806, it was recognized as a power fighting against Napoleon, meaning that it had a fully mobilized and supplied army (by Russia, trough Admiral Dmitry Senyavin at the Bay of Kotor). In the period of reign of Petar II Petrović - Njegoš, Montenegro was again colonized by Turkey, but that changed with the coming of Knyaz Danilo I, with a totally successful war against Turkey in the late 1850s ending with a decisive victory of the Montenegrin army under Grand Duke Mirko Petrović - Njegoš, brother of Danilo I, at the Battle of Grahovac. The full independence was given to Montenegro, after almost 170 years of fighting the Turks, Bosniaks, Albanians and the French (1806 - 1814) at the Congress of Berlin.
The New Imperialism period of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, which included the scramble for Africa and the Opium Wars, marked the zenith of European colonization. It also accelerated the trends that would end colonialism. The extraordinary material demands of the conflict had spread economic change across the world (notably inflation), and the associated social pressures of "war imperialism '' created both peasant unrest and a burgeoning middle class.
Economic growth created stakeholders with their own demands, while racial issues meant these people clearly stood apart from the colonial middle - class and had to form their own group. The start of mass nationalism, as a concept and practice, would fatally undermine the ideologies of imperialism.
There were, naturally, other factors, from agrarian change (and disaster -- French Indochina), changes or developments in religion (Buddhism in Burma, Islam in the Dutch East Indies, marginally people like John Chilembwe in Nyasaland), and the impact of the 1930s Great Depression.
The Great Depression, despite the concentration of its impact on the industrialized world, was also exceptionally damaging in the rural colonies. Agricultural prices fell much harder and faster than those of industrial goods. From around 1925 until World War II, the colonies suffered. The colonial powers concentrated on domestic issues, protectionism and tariffs, disregarding the damage done to international trade flows. The colonies, almost all primary "cash crop '' producers, lost the majority of their export income and were forced away from the "open '' complementary colonial economies to "closed '' systems. While some areas returned to subsistence farming (British Malaya) others diversified (India, West Africa), and some began to industrialise. These economies would not fit the colonial straitjacket when efforts were made to renew the links. Further, the European - owned and - run plantations proved more vulnerable to extended deflation than native capitalists, reducing the dominance of "white '' farmers in colonial economies and making the European governments and investors of the 1930s co-opt indigenous elites -- despite the implications for the future. Colonial reform also hastened their end; notably the move from non-interventionist collaborative systems towards directed, disruptive, direct management to drive economic change. The creation of genuine bureaucratic government boosted the formation of indigenous bourgeoisie.
The emergence of indigenous bourgeois elites was especially characteristic of the British Empire, which seemed less capable (or less ruthless) in controlling political nationalism. Driven by pragmatic demands of budgets and manpower the British made deals with the nationalist elites. Across the empire, the general protocol was to convene a constitutional conference in London to discuss the transition to greater self - government and then independence, submit a report of the constitutional conference to parliament, if approved submit a bill to Parliament at Westminster to terminate the responsibility of the United Kingdom (with a copy of the new constitution annexed), and finally, if approved, issuance of an Order of Council fixing the exact date of independence.
After World War I, several former German and Ottoman territories in the Middle East, Africa, and the Pacific were governed by the UK as League of Nations mandates. Some were administered directly by the UK, and others by British dominions - Nauru and the Territory of New Guinea by Australia, South West Africa by the Union of South Africa, and Western Samoa by New Zealand.
Egypt became independent in 1922, although the UK retained security prerogatives, control of the Suez Canal, and effective control of the Anglo - Egyptian Sudan. The 1931 Statute of Westminster established full legislative independence for six dominions -- Canada, Newfoundland, Australia, the Irish Free State, New Zealand, and the Union of South Africa. Newfoundland ceded self - rule back to the UK in 1934. Iraq, a League of Nations mandate, became independent in 1932.
In response to a growing Indian independence movement, the UK made successive reforms to the British Raj, culminating in the Government of India Act (1935). These reforms included creating elected legislative councils in some of the Provinces of British India. Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, India 's independence movement leader, led a peaceful resistance to the British rule. By becoming a symbol of both peace and opposition to British imperialism, many Indian citizens began to view the British as the cause of India 's problems leading to a newfound sense of nationalism among its population. With this new wave of Indian nationalism, Gandhi was eventually able to garner the support needed to push back the British and create an independent India in 1947.
Tropical Africa was only fully drawn into the colonial system at the end of the 19th century. In the north - east the continued independence of the Empire of Ethiopia remained a beacon of hope to pro-independence activists. However, with the anti-colonial wars of the 1900s (decade) barely over, new modernising forms of African Nationalism began to gain strength in the early 20th - century with the emergence of Pan-Africanism, as advocated by the Jamaican journalist Marcus Garvey (1887 -- 1940) whose widely distributed newspapers demanded swift abolition of European imperialism, as well as republicanism in Egypt. Kwame Nkrumah (1909 -- 1972) who was inspired by the works of Garvey led Ghana to independence from colonial rule.
A former colony itself, the United States approached imperialism differently from the Great Powers and Japan. Much of its energy and rapidly expanding population was directed westward across the North American continent against Native Americans, English territorial pretensions, Spain, and Mexico. With eventual assistance from the British Navy, its Monroe Doctrine reserved the Americas as its sphere of interest, prohibiting other states (particularly Spain) from recolonizing the recently freed polities of Latin America. However, France, taking advantage of the American government 's paralysis following the outbreak of the Civil War, intervened militarily in Mexico to consolidate a French - protected monarchy, and, for the same reason, Spain took the step to occupy the Dominican Republic and restore colonial rule. The end of the Civil War in 1865 prompted both France and Spain to evacuate those two countries. Spain also fought several wars against Chile and Peru for the guano deposits of their islands. Economic and political pressure, as well as assaults by filibusters, were brought to bear, but Northern fears of the expansion of slavery into new territories and the still strong Spanish Empire restrained the United States from early expansion into Cuba or Central America. America 's only African colony, Liberia, was formed privately and achieved independence early. While the United States had few qualms about opening the markets of Japan, Korea, and China by military force, it advocated an Open Door Policy and opposed the direct division and colonization of those states even though Europeans kept doing it.
Following the Civil War and particularly during and after the presidency of Theodore Roosevelt, direct intervention in Latin America and elsewhere expanded. The United States purchased Russian America from the tsar and accepted the offer of Hawaii from rebel expatriates and seized several colonies from Spain in 1898. Barred from annexing Cuba outright by the Teller Amendment, the U.S. established it as a client state with obligations including the perpetual lease of Guantánamo Bay to the U.S. Navy. The attempt of the first governor to void the island 's constitution and remain in power past the end of his term provoked a rebellion that provoked a reoccupation between 1906 and 1909, but this was again followed by devolution. Similarly, the McKinley administration, despite prosecuting the Philippine -- American War against a native republic, set out that the Territory of the Philippine Islands was eventually granted independence.
Britain 's 1895 attempt to reject the Monroe Doctrine during the Venezuela Crisis of 1895, the Venezuela Crisis of 1902 -- 1903, and the establishment of the client state of Panama in 1903 via gunboat diplomacy, however, all necessitated the maintenance of Puerto Rico as a naval base to secure shipping lanes to the Caribbean and the new canal zone. In 1917, "Puerto Ricans were collectively made U.S. citizens '' via the Jones Act, and in 1952 the US Congress turned the territory into a commonwealth after ratifying the Constitution born out of United States Public Law 600. The US government then declared the territory was no longer a colony and stopped transmitting information about Puerto Rico to the United Nations Decolonization Committee. As a result, the UN General Assembly removed Puerto Rico from the U.N. list of non-self - governing territories. Dissatisfied with their new political status, Puerto Ricans turned to political referendums to let make their opinions known. Several internal plebiscites, non-binding upon the United States, proposing statehood or independence for the island did not garnish a majority in 1967, 1993, and 1998. As a result of the UN not applying the full set of criteria which was enunciated in 1960 when it took favorable note of the cessation of transmission of information regarding the non-self - governing status of Puerto Rico, the nature of Puerto Rico 's relationship with the U.S. continues to be the subject of ongoing debate in Puerto Rican politics, the United States Congress, and the United Nations.
The Monroe Doctrine received the Roosevelt Corollary in 1904, providing that the United States had a right and obligation to intervene "in flagrant cases of such wrongdoing or impotence '' that a nation in the Western Hemisphere became vulnerable to European control. In practice, this meant that the United States was led to act as a collections agent for European creditors by administering customs duties in the Dominican Republic (1905 -- 1941), Haiti (1915 -- 1934), and elsewhere. The intrusiveness and bad relations this engendered were somewhat checked by the Clark Memorandum and renounced by President Franklin D. Roosevelt 's "Good Neighbor Policy. '' The end of World War II saw America producing 46 % of the world 's GDP, but pouring billions of dollars into the Marshall Plan and restoring independent (if anti-Communist) democracies in Japan and West Germany. The post-war period also saw America push hard to accelerate decolonialization and bring an end to the colonial empires of its Western allies, most importantly during the 1956 Suez Crisis, but American military bases were established around the world and direct and indirect interventions continued in Korea, Indochina, Latin America (inter alia, the 1965 occupation of the Dominican Republic), Africa, and the Middle East to oppose Communist invasions and insurgencies. Since the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the United States has been far less active in the Americas, but invaded Afghanistan and Iraq following the September 11 attacks in 2001, establishing army and air bases in Central Asia.
Before World War I, Japan had gained several substantial colonial possessions in East Asia such as Taiwan (1895) and Korea (1910). Japan joined the allies in World War I, and after the war acquired the South Pacific Mandate, the former German colony in Micronesia, as a League of Nations Mandate. Pursuing a colonial policy comparable to those of European powers, Japan settled significant populations of ethnic Japanese in its colonies while simultaneously suppressing indigenous ethnic populations by enforcing the learning and use of the Japanese language in schools. Other methods such as public interaction, and attempts to eradicate the use of Korean, Hokkien, and Hakka among the indigenous peoples, were seen to be used. Japan also set up Imperial universities in Korea (Keijo Imperial University) and Taiwan (Taihoku University) to compel education.
In 1931, Japan seized Manchuria from the Republic of China, setting up a puppet state under Puyi, the last Manchu emperor of China. In 1933 Japan seized the Chinese province of Jehol, and incorporated it into its Manchurian possessions. The Second Sino - Japanese War started in 1937, and Japan occupied much of eastern China, including the Republic 's capital at Nanjing. An estimated 20 million Chinese died during the 1931 - 1945 war with Japan.
In December 1941, the Japanese Empire joined World War II by invading the European and US colonies in Southeast Asia and the Pacific, including French Indochina, Hong Kong, the Philippines, Burma, Malaya, Indonesia, Portuguese Timor, and others. Following its surrender to the Allies in 1945, Japan was deprived of all its colonies. The Soviet Union declared war on Japan in August 1945, and shortly after occupied and annexed the southern Kuril Islands, which Japan still claims.
After World War I, the colonized people were frustrated at France 's failure to recognize the effort provided by the French colonies (resources, but more importantly colonial troops - the famous tirailleurs). Although in Paris the Great Mosque of Paris was constructed as recognition of these efforts, the French state had no intention to allow self - rule, let alone grant independence to the colonized people. Thus, nationalism in the colonies became stronger in between the two wars, leading to Abd el - Krim 's Rif War (1921 -- 1925) in Morocco and to the creation of Messali Hadj 's Star of North Africa in Algeria in 1925. However, these movements would gain full potential only after World War II.
After World War I, France administered the former Ottoman territories of Syria and Lebanon, and the former German colonies of Togoland and Cameroon, as League of Nations mandates. Lebanon declared its independence in 1943, and Syria in 1945.
The Russian, German, and Austro - Hungarian empires collapsed at the end of World War I, and were replaced by republics. Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, and Czechoslovakia became independent countries. Yugoslavia and Romania expanded into former Austro - Hungarian territory. The Soviet Union succeeded the Russian empire in the remainder if its former territory, and Germany, Austria, and Hungary were reduced in size.
In 1938, Nazi Germany annexed Austria and part of Czechoslovakia, and in 1939, Nazi Germany and the USSR concluded a pact to occupy the countries that lie between them; the USSR occupied Finland, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania, and Germany and the USSR split Poland in two. The occupation of Poland started World War II. Germany attacked the USSR in 1941. The USSR allied with the UK and USA, and emerged as one of the victors of the war, occupying most of central and eastern Europe...
When the United Nations was formed in 1945, it established trust territories. These territories included the League of Nations mandate territories which had not achieved independence by 1945, along with the former Italian Somaliland. The Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands was transferred from Japanese to US administration. By 1990 all but one of the trust territories had achieved independence, either as independent states or by merger with another independent state; the Northern Mariana Islands elected to become a commonwealth of the United States.
The term "Third World '' was coined by French demographer Alfred Sauvy in 1952, on the model of the Third Estate, which, according to Abbé Sieyès, represented everything, but was nothing: "... because at the end this ignored, exploited, scorned Third World like the Third Estate, wants to become something too '' (Sauvy). The emergence of this new political entity, in the frame of the Cold War, was complex and painful. Several tentatives were made to organize newly independent states in order to oppose a common front towards both the US 's and the USSR 's influence on them, with the consequences of the Sino - Soviet split already at works. Thus, the Non-Aligned Movement constituted itself, around the main figures of Jawaharlal Nehru, the first Prime Minister of India, Sukarno, the Indonesian president, Josip Broz Tito the Communist leader of Yugoslavia, and Gamal Abdel Nasser, head of Egypt who successfully opposed the French and British imperial powers during the 1956 Suez crisis. After the 1954 Geneva Conference which put an end to the First Indochina War, the 1955 Bandung Conference gathered Nasser, Nehru, Tito, Sukarno, the leader of Indonesia, and Zhou Enlai, Premier of the People 's Republic of China. In 1960, the UN General Assembly voted the Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples. The next year, the Non-Aligned Movement was officially created in Belgrade (1961), and was followed in 1964 by the creation of the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) which tried to promote a New International Economic Order (NIEO). The NIEO was opposed to the 1944 Bretton Woods system, which had benefited the leading states which had created it, and remained in force until 1971 after the United States ' suspension of convertibility from dollars to gold. The main tenets of the NIEO were:
The UNCTAD however was n't very effective in implementing this New International Economic Order (NIEO), and social and economic inequalities between industrialized countries and the Third World kept on growing throughout the 1960s until the 21st century. The 1973 oil crisis which followed the Yom Kippur War (October 1973) was triggered by the OPEC which decided an embargo against the US and Western countries, causing a fourfold increase in the price of oil, which lasted five months, starting on October 17, 1973, and ending on March 18, 1974. OPEC nations then agreed, on January 7, 1975, to raise crude oil prices by 10 %. At that time, OPEC nations -- including many who had recently nationalised their oil industries -- joined the call for a New International Economic Order to be initiated by coalitions of primary producers. Concluding the First OPEC Summit in Algiers they called for stable and just commodity prices, an international food and agriculture program, technology transfer from North to South, and the democratization of the economic system. But industrialized countries quickly began to look for substitutes to OPEC petroleum, with the oil companies investing the majority of their research capital in the US and European countries or others, politically sure countries. The OPEC lost more and more influence on the world prices of oil.
The second oil crisis occurred in the wake of the 1979 Iranian Revolution. Then, the 1982 Latin American debt crisis exploded in Mexico first, then Argentina and Brazil, which proved unable to pay back their debts, jeopardizing the existence of the international economic system.
The 1990s were characterized by the prevalence of the Washington consensus on neoliberal policies, "structural adjustment '' and "shock therapies '' for the former Communist states.
In 1945, Africa had four independent countries - Egypt, Ethiopia, Liberia, and South Africa.
After Italy 's defeat in World War II, France and the UK occupied the former Italian colonies. Libya became an independent kingdom in 1951. Eritrea was merged with Ethiopia in 1952. Italian Somaliland was governed by the UK, and by Italy after 1954, until its independence in 1960.
Although France was ultimately a victor of World War II, Nazi Germany 's occupation of France and its North African colonies during the war had disrupted colonial rule. On October 27, 1946 France adopted a new constitution creating the Fourth Republic, and substituted the French Union for the colonial empire. However power over the colonies remained concentrated in France, and the power of local assemblies outside France was extremely limited. On the night of March 29, 1947, a nationalist uprising in Madagascar led the French government headed by Paul Ramadier (Socialist) to violent repression: one year of bitter fighting, 11,000 - 40,000 Malagasy died.
In 1956, Morocco and Tunisia gained their independence from France. In 1960 eight independent countries emerged from French West Africa, and five from French Equatorial Africa. The Algerian War of Independence raged from 1954 to 1962. To this day, the Algerian war -- officially called a "public order operation '' until the 1990s -- remains a trauma for both France and Algeria. Philosopher Paul Ricœur has spoken of the necessity of a "decolonization of memory '', starting with the recognition of the 1961 Paris massacre during the Algerian war, and the decisive role of African and especially North African immigrant manpower in the Trente Glorieuses post -- World War II economic growth period. In the 1960s, due to economic needs for post-war reconstruction and rapid economic growth, French employers actively sought to recruit manpower from the colonies, explaining today 's multiethnic population.
Independence for the United Kingdom 's colonies in Africa began with the independence of Sudan in 1956, and Ghana in 1957. All of the UK 's colonies on mainland Africa became independent by 1966, although Rhodesia 's unilateral declaration of independence in 1965 was not recognized by the UK or internationally.
In 1975, Spain ceded administration of Western Sahara to Morocco and Mauritania. Mauritania later withdrew, and Morocco 's claim to the territory is not internationally recognized.
By 1977 European colonial rule in mainland Africa had ended. Most of Africa 's island countries had also become independent, although Réunion and Mayotte remain part of France. However the black majorities in Rhodesia and South Africa were disenfranchised until 1980 in Rhodesia, which became Zimbabwe that year, and until 1994 in South Africa. Namibia, Africa 's last UN Trust Territory, became independent of South Africa in 1990.
Most independent African countries exist within prior colonial borders. However Morocco merged French Morocco with Spanish Morocco, and Somalia formed from the merger of British Somaliland and Italian Somaliland. Eritrea merged with Ethiopia in 1952, but became an independent country in 1993.
Most African countries became independent as republics. Morocco, Lesotho, and Swaziland remain monarchies under dynasties that predate colonial rule. Egypt and Libya gained independence as monarchies, but both countries ' monarchs were later deposed, and they became republics.
African countries cooperate in various multi-state associations. The African Union includes all 55 African states. There are several regional associations of states, including the East African Community, Southern African Development Community, and Economic Community of West African States, some of which have overlapping membership.
Japan expanded its occupation of Chinese territory during the 1930s, and occupied Southeast Asia during World War II. After the war, the Japanese colonial empire was dissolved, and national independence movements resisted the re-imposition of colonial control by European countries and the United States.
The Republic of China regained control of Japanese - occupied territories in Manchuria and eastern China. Taiwan was put under the post-war occupation of the Republic of China in accordance with the arrangement in General Order No. 1, however, the sovereignty of Taiwan has never been officially transferred to China. European countries and the United States ceded control of Treaty Ports in China, with the exceptions of Hong Kong and Macau.
The Allied powers divided Korea into two occupation zones, which became the states of North Korea and South Korea. The Philippines became independent of the US in 1946.
In 1946, the states of French Indochina withdrew from the French Union, leading to the Indochina War (1946 -- 54). Ho Chi Minh, who had been a co-founder of the French Communist Party in 1920 and had founded the Vietminh in 1941, declared independence from France, and led the armed resistance against France 's reoccupation of Indochina. Cambodia and Laos became independent in 1953, and the 1954 Geneva Accords ended France 's occupation of Indochina, leaving North Vietnam and South Vietnam independent.
Some of the United Kingdom 's colonies in Asia were directly administered by British officials, while others were ruled by local monarchs as protectorates or in subsidiary alliance with the UK.
In 1947, British India was partitioned into the independent dominions of India and Pakistan. Hundreds of princely states, states ruled by monarchs in treaty of subsidiary alliance with Britain, were integrated into India and Pakistan. India and Pakistan fought several wars over the former princely state of Jammu and Kashmir. French India was integrated into India between 1950 and 1954, and India annexed Portuguese India in 1961, and the Kingdom of Sikkim in 1975.
The Netherlands recognized Indonesia 's independence in 1949, after a four - year independence struggle. Indonesia annexed Netherlands New Guinea in 1963, and Portuguese Timor in 1975. In 2002, former Portuguese Timor became independent as East Timor.
The following list shows the colonial powers following the end of hostilities in 1945, and their colonial or administrative possessions. The year of decolonization is given chronologically in parentheses.
The Soviet Union emerged as a victor in World War II, and controlled most of central and eastern Europe. Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania were incorporated into the USSR, together with portions of Finland, Poland, Czechoslovakia, and Romania. Of the nations that comprised former Russian Empire, only Finland would remain independent throughout the Cold War. Other neighboring countries were dominated by the USSR, and integrated into Soviet - led military and economic organizations like the Warsaw Pact and Comecon. Most Western states did not formally recognize the incorporation of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania into the USSR.
Italy had occupied the Dodecanese islands in 1912, but Italian occupation ended after World War II, and the islands were integrated into Greece. British rule ended in Cyprus in 1960, and Malta in 1964, and both islands became independent republics.
Soviet colonial policy was most famously marked by the use of violent repression against liberalization and dissent, including Hungarian Revolution of 1956 and the Prague Spring in 1968. The era of Soviet colonialism would ultimately end due to numerous anti-colonialism efforts of individuals such as Lech Walesa and alliances such as the Solidarity Movement. The Revolutions of 1989 ended of Soviet domination and Communist party rule in Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, East Germany, Romania, and Bulgaria. Within the USSR, movements for democratization and self - government gained strength during 1990 and 1991. The Soviet coup d'état attempt in August 1991 began the breakup of the USSR, which formally ended on December 26, 1991. The Republics of the Soviet Union become sovereign states - Armenia, Azerbaijan, Byelorussia (later Belarus), Estonia, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, the Russian Federation, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, and Uzbekistan. Historian Robert Daniels says, "A special dimension that the anti-Communist revolutions shared with some of their predecessors was decolonisation. '' Moscow 's policy was to settle ethnic Russians in the USSR 's non-Russian republics. After independence, minority rights for Russian - speakers has been an issue; see Russians in the Baltic states.
Typical challenges of decolonization include state - building, nation - building, and economic development.
After independence, the new states needed to establish or strengthen the institutions of a sovereign state -- governments, laws, a military, schools, administrative systems, and so on. The amount of self - rule granted prior to independence, and assistance from the colonial power and / or international organizations after independence, varied greatly between colonial powers, and between individual colonies.
Except for a few absolute monarchies, most post-colonial states are either republics or constitutional monarchies. These new states had to devise constitutions, electoral systems, and other institutions of representative democracy.
Nation - building is the process of creating a sense of identification with, and loyalty to, the state. Nation - building projects seek to replace loyalty to the old colonial power, and / or tribal or regional loyalties, with loyalty to the new state. Elements of nation - building include creating and promoting symbols of the state like a flag and an anthem, monuments, official histories, national sports teams, codifying one or more indigenous official languages, and replacing colonial place - names with local ones. Nation - building after independence often continues the work began by independence movements during the colonial period.
Decolonization is not an easy matter in colonies where a large population of settlers lives, particularly if they have been there for several generations. This population, in general, was often repatriated, often losing considerable property. For instance, the decolonisation of Algeria by France was particularly uneasy due to the large European and Sephardic Jewish population (see also pied noir), which largely evacuated to France when Algeria became independent. In Zimbabwe, former Rhodesia, president Robert Mugabe has, starting in the 1990s, targeted white African farmers and forcibly seized their property. Other ethnic minorities that are also the product of colonialism may pose problems as well. A large Indian community lived in Uganda - as in most of East Africa - as a result of Britain colonizing both India and East Africa. As many Indians had considerable wealth Idi Amin expelled them for domestic political gain. In some cases, decolonisation is hardly possible or impossible because of the importance of the settler population or where the indigenous population is now in the minority; such is the case of the British population of the Cayman Islands or the European population of the United States of America.
Newly independent states also had to develop independent economic institutions - a national currency, banks, companies, regulation, tax systems, etc.
Many colonies were economically dependent on the colonizing country -- serving as resource colonies which produced raw materials and agricultural products, and as a captive market for goods manufactured in the colonizing country. Many decolonized countries created programs to promote industrialization. Some nationalized industries and infrastructure, and some engaged in land reform to redistribute land to individual farmers or create collective farms.
Some decolonized countries maintain strong economic ties with the former colonial power. The CFA franc is a currency shared by 14 countries in West and Central Africa, mostly former French colonies. The CFA franc is guaranteed by the French treasury.
After independence, many countries created regional economic associations to promote trade and economic development among neighboring countries, including the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), and the Gulf Cooperation Council.
John Kenneth Galbraith argues that the post -- World War II decolonization was brought about for economic reasons. In A Journey Through Economic Time, he writes:
"The engine of economic well - being was now within and between the advanced industrial countries. Domestic economic growth -- as now measured and much discussed -- came to be seen as far more important than the erstwhile colonial trade... The economic effect in the United States from the granting of independence to the Philippines was unnoticeable, partly due to the Bell Trade Act, which allowed American monopoly in the economy of the Philippines. The departure of India and Pakistan made small economic difference in the United Kingdom. Dutch economists calculated that the economic effect from the loss of the great Dutch empire in Indonesia was compensated for by a couple of years or so of domestic post-war economic growth. The end of the colonial era is celebrated in the history books as a triumph of national aspiration in the former colonies and of benign good sense on the part of the colonial powers. Lurking beneath, as so often happens, was a strong current of economic interest -- or in this case, disinterest. ''
In general, the release of the colonized caused little economic loss to the colonizers. Part of the reason for this was that major costs were eliminated while major benefits were obtained by alternate means. Decolonization allowed the colonizer to disclaim responsibility for the colonized. The colonizer no longer had the burden of obligation, financial or otherwise, to their colony. However, the colonizer continued to be able to obtain cheap goods and labor as well as economic benefits (see Suez Canal Crisis) from the former colonies. Financial, political and military pressure could still be used to achieve goals desired by the colonizer. Thus decolonization allowed the goals of colonization to be largely achieved, but without its burdens.
Due to a common history and culture, former colonial powers created institutions which more loosely associated their former colonies. Membership is voluntary, and in some cases can be revoked if a member state loses some objective criteria (usually a requirement for democratic governance). The organizations serve cultural, economic, and political purposes between the associated countries, although no such organization has become politically prominent as an entity in its own right.
A non-exhaustive list of assassinated leaders would include:
This list includes formerly non-self - governing territories, such as colonies, protectorates, condominia, and leased territories. Changes in status of autonomy leading up to and after independence are not listed, and some dates of independence may be disputed. For details, see each national history.
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who won the 2018 24 hours of lemans | 2018 24 Hours of Le Mans - wikipedia
The 86th 24 Hours of Le Mans (French: 86 24 Heures du Mans) was an automobile endurance event that took place on 16 and 17 June 2018, at the Circuit de la Sarthe, Le Mans, France. It was the 86th running of the 24 Hour race organised by the Automobile Club de l'Ouest, and the second round of the 2018 -- 19 FIA World Endurance Championship.
The race was won by the No. 8 Toyota Gazoo Racing driven by Fernando Alonso, Kazuki Nakajima, and Sébastien Buemi, who also started from pole position. Toyota entered the only hybrid LMP1 cars and dominated the race weekend.
The LMP2 class was won by Signatech Alpine, after G - Drive TDS Racing finished first but were subsequently disqualified. The LMGTE Professional class was won by Porsche GT Team, whilst Dempsey - Proton Racing were class winners in LMGTE Amateur.
During the winter following the 2017 24 Hours of Le Mans, modifications were made to the Porsche Curves section of the Circuit de la Sarthe to increase safety. Barriers on the inside of the final right - hand corner were dismantled and relocated further away from the circuit, allowing for the construction of paved run - off area and escape roads. This same alteration had been done on the barriers outside the corner the previous year. This modification re-profiled the corner slightly, shortening the lap distance by 3 metres (9.8 ft). The ACO also constructed a new starting line gantry 145 metres (476 ft) further up the main straight to allow more cars on the straight at the start of the race. The finish line and all timing beacons however remain at the previous starting line at the exit of the Ford Chicane.
Automatic entry invitations are earned by teams that won their class in the previous running of the 24 Hours of Le Mans, or won championships in the European Le Mans Series, Asian Le Mans Series, and the Michelin GT3 Le Mans Cup. The second - place finisher in the European Le Mans Series LMGTE championship also earns an automatic invitation. Two participants from the WeatherTech SportsCar Championship are chosen by the series to be automatic entries by the ACO regardless of their performance or category. As invitations are granted to teams, they were allowed to change their cars from the previous year to the next, but not allowed to change their category. The LMGTE class invitations from the European and Asian Le Mans Series are allowed to choose between the Pro and Am categories. European Le Mans Series ' LMP3 champion is required to field an entry in LMP2 while the Asian Le Mans Series LMP3 champion may choose between LMP2 or LMGTE Am. The Michelin Le Mans Cup LMP3 champion does not receive an automatic entry and the GT3 champion is limited to the LMGTE Am category.
The initial entry list was announced, along with the FIA World Endurance Championship and European Le Mans Series entries, on 9 February.
Coming into the race, Toyota was the heavy favorite for the overall victory due to its hybrid power capabilities in the LMP1 category, amongst its mostly new non-hybrid / privateer rival teams of Rebellion Racing, SMP Racing, DragonSpeed, ByKolles Racing Team, and CEFC TRSM Racing. The recent departure of Porsche from the LMP1 category in 2017 and Audi in 2016, Toyota was the only hybrid prototype, for the 2018 -- 19 FIA World Endurance Championship. Consequently, this merged the hybrids and non-hybrids / privateers together in the LMP1 class. The race featured the debut of Ginetta 's chassis raced by CEFC TRSM Racing with a Mecachrome engine. It joined the Rebellion R13, raced by Rebellion Racing, BR Engineering BR1, raced by SMP Racing and DragonSpeed (making their debut in LMP1), and the CLM P1 / 01, raced by ByKolles Racing. Fernando Alonso also made his first 24 Hours of Le Mans race start, racing with Toyota. Toyota led throughout all the test, practice, and qualifying sessions. Its time in qualifying of a 3: 15.377 was good enough to place first on the grid, well ahead of the other cars in its class. Its sister car took 2nd overall followed by Rebellion Racing on the grid.
LMP2 was the biggest class in the race with 20 entries, IDEC Sport claimed the top spot after claiming the fastest time in qualifying of a 3: 24.842 and 10th overall followed closely behind by the DragonSpeed, G - Drive Racing, and TDS Racing, all in Oreca 07 's in 11th, 12th, and 13th places overall off the grid. Jackie Chan DC Racing, last year 's LMP2 winner started 15th in class, 26th overall starting position. In LMGTE both classes were mainly controlled by Porsche. LMGTE Pro was led by the Porsche GT Team with 3: 42.504 and 31st overall, with another one of its sister cars in second off the grid in the class and 32nd overall. Ford Chip Ganassi Team UK and AF Corse where 3rd, 33rd overall and 4th, 34th overall respectively to start the race. The new BMW M8 GTE was deployed and raced by BMW Team MTEK made its Le Mans debut and started off the grid 12th in class, 42nd overall. The sister car started behind it in 43rd overall. Dempsey - Proton was able to qualify top in the LMGTE Am class, with a time of 3: 50.728 and placed 44th overall, ahead of the second of the LMGTE Pro entries of Corvette and Ferrari. Gulf Racing UK and the sister Dempsey - Proton car rounded out the top 3 in LMGTE Am on the grid.
Provisional pole positions in each class are denoted in bold. The fastest time set by each entry is denoted with a gray background.
Notes
The race began at 15: 00 Central European Summer Time, with tennis champion Rafael Nadal waving the French tricolour at the starting line. Sébastien Buemi led the field from pole position in the No. 8 Toyota.
As had been widely predicted, the two hybrid Toyota cars dominated the race. The lead swapped between the Toyotas several times over the first half of the race, before the # 8 car was assessed a 60 - second penalty when Buemi exceeded the speed limit in a caution zone during the night. This put the # 7 car over two minutes ahead, a lead they maintained until Fernando Alonso closed the gap during a quadruple stint in the dark. After 16 hours, Kazuki Nakajima took the # 8 car into the lead, which they maintained for the rest of the race. During the final hour, Kamui Kobayashi in the # 7 Toyota missed a pit stop, forcing him to complete most of a lap on electrical batteries alone when he ran out of fuel. The car made it back to the pits on the next lap, allowing Toyota to complete a one - two finish, ending with the # 8 car two laps ahead of the # 7 car.
Toyota were the second Japanese manufacturer to win at the 24 Hours of Le Mans, following Mazda 's triumph in 1991. Fernando Alonso, Sébastien Buemi, and Kazuki Nakajima all earned their first wins. Buemi and Nakajima had come close at the 2016 race, when their car broke down whilst leading on the final lap. Alonso 's win meant he had completed two of the three legs of the Triple Crown of Motorsport.
In the LMP2 class, G - Drive TDS Racing finished two laps ahead of their competitors, but were subsequently disqualified when it was discovered that they had made illegal modifications to their pit lane refuelling equipment. Signatech Alpine were therefore promoted to LMP2 class winners.
The LMGTE Professional class was won by Porsche GT Team, whilst Dempsey - Proton Racing were class winners in LMGTE Amateur.
The minimum number of laps for classification (70 % of the overall winning car 's race distance) was 272 laps. Class winners are in bold.
Notes
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what is the name of the church of england | Church of England - wikipedia
The Church of England (C of E) is the Established Church of England. The Archbishop of Canterbury is the most senior cleric, although the monarch is the supreme governor. The Church of England is also the mother church of the international Anglican Communion. It traces its history to the Christian church recorded as existing in the Roman province of Britain by the third century, and to the 6th - century Gregorian mission to Kent led by Augustine of Canterbury.
The English church renounced papal authority when Henry VIII failed to secure an annulment of his marriage to Catherine of Aragon in 1534. The English Reformation accelerated under Edward VI 's regents, before a brief restoration of papal authority under Queen Mary I and King Philip. The Act of Supremacy 1558 renewed the breach and the Elizabethan Settlement charted a course enabling the English church to describe itself as both catholic and reformed:
In the earlier phase of the English Reformation there were both Catholic martyrs and radical Protestant martyrs. The later phases saw the Penal Laws punish Roman Catholic and nonconforming Protestants. In the 17th century, the Puritan and Presbyterian factions continued to challenge the leadership of the Church which under the Stuarts veered towards a more catholic interpretation of the Elizabethan Settlement especially under Archbishop Laud and the rise of the concept of Anglicanism as the Via Media. After the victory of the Parliamentarians the Prayer Book was abolished and the Presbyterian and Independent factions dominated. The Episcopacy was abolished. The Restoration restored the Church of England, episcopacy and the Prayer Book. Papal recognition of George III in 1766 led to greater religious tolerance.
Since the English Reformation, the Church of England has used a liturgy in English. The church contains several doctrinal strands, the main three known as Anglo - Catholic, Evangelical and Broad Church. Tensions between theological conservatives and progressives find expression in debates over the ordination of women and homosexuality. The church includes both liberal and conservative clergy and members.
The governing structure of the church is based on dioceses, each presided over by a bishop. Within each diocese are local parishes. The General Synod of the Church of England is the legislative body for the church and comprises bishops, other clergy and laity. Its measures must be approved by both Houses of Parliament.
According to tradition, Christianity arrived in Britain in the 1st or 2nd century, during which time southern Britain became part of the Roman Empire. The earliest historical evidence of Christianity among the native Britons is found in the writings of such early Christian Fathers as Tertullian and Origen in the first years of the 3rd century. Three Romano - British bishops, including Restitutus, are known to have been present at the Council of Arles in 314. Others attended the Council of Serdica in 347 and that of Ariminum in 360, and a number of references to the church in Roman Britain are found in the writings of 4th century Christian fathers. Britain was the home of Pelagius, who opposed Augustine of Hippo 's doctrine of original sin.
While Christianity was long established as the religion of the Britons at the time of the Anglo - Saxon invasion, Christian Britons made little progress in converting the newcomers from their native paganism. Consequently, in 597, Pope Gregory I sent the prior of the Abbey of St Andrew 's (later canonised as Augustine of Canterbury) from Rome to evangelise the Angles. This event is known as the Gregorian mission and is the date the Church of England generally marks as the beginning of its formal history. With the help of Christians already residing in Kent, Augustine established his church at Canterbury, the capital of the Kingdom of Kent, and became the first in the series of Archbishops of Canterbury in 598. A later archbishop, the Greek Theodore of Tarsus, also contributed to the organisation of Christianity in England. The Church of England has been in continuous existence since the days of St Augustine, with the Archbishop of Canterbury as its episcopal head. Despite the various disruptions of the Reformation and the English Civil War, the Church of England considers itself to be the same church which was more formally organised by Augustine.
While some Celtic Christian practices were changed at the Synod of Whitby, the Christian in the British Isles was under papal authority from earliest times. Queen Bertha of Kent was among the Christians in England who recognised papal authority before Augustine arrived, and Celtic Christians were carrying out missionary work with papal approval long before the Synod of Whitby.
The Synod of Whitby established the Roman date for Easter and the Roman style of monastic tonsure in England. This meeting of the ecclesiastics with Roman customs with local bishops was summoned in 664 at Saint Hilda 's double monastery of Streonshalh (Streanæshalch), later called Whitby Abbey. It was presided over by King Oswiu, who did not engage in the debate but made the final ruling.
In 1534, King Henry VIII separated the English Church from Rome. A theological separation had been foreshadowed by various movements within the English Church, such as Lollardy, but the English Reformation gained political support when Henry VIII wanted an annulment of his marriage to Catherine of Aragon so he could marry Anne Boleyn. Pope Clement VII, considering that the earlier marriage had been entered under a papal dispensation and how Catherine 's nephew, Emperor Charles V, might react to such a move, refused the annulment. Eventually, Henry, although theologically opposed to Protestantism, took the position of Supreme Head of the Church of England to ensure the annulment of his marriage. He was excommunicated by Pope Paul III.
In 1536 -- 40 Henry VIII engaged in the Dissolution of the Monasteries, which controlled much of the richest land. He disbanded monasteries, priories, convents and friaries in England, Wales and Ireland, appropriated their income, disposed of their assets, and provided pensions for the former residents. The properties were sold to pay for the wars. Bernard argues:
The population of England at the time is estimated to have been only 2.5 million: half male of whom 750,000 adult. This is one in 75, not 1 in 50. However the latter figure is creditable if secular clergy are included.
Henry maintained a strong preference for traditional Catholic practices and, during his reign, Protestant reformers were unable to make many changes to the practices of the Church of England. Indeed, this part of Henry 's reign saw trials for heresy of Protestants as well as Roman Catholics.
Under his son, King Edward VI, more Protestant - influenced forms of worship were adopted. Under the leadership of the Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Cranmer, a more radical reformation proceeded. A new pattern of worship was set out in the Book of Common Prayer (1549 and 1552). These were based on the older liturgy in particular the Prayer Book of 1549, but both influenced by Protestant doctrines such as justification by faith alone, the rejection of the sacrifice of the Mass, and the Real Presence understood as physical presence (Cranmer was Calvinist in that he believed Christ was truly and really present in the Eucharist but after a spiritual manner as in a sacrament). The confession of the reformed Church of England was set out in the Forty - two Articles (later revised to thirty - nine). The reformation however was cut short by the death of the king. Queen Mary I, who succeeded him, returned England again to the authority of the papacy, thereby ending the first attempt at an independent Church of England. During her co-reign with her husband, King Philip, many leaders and common people were burnt for their refusal to recant of their reformed faith. These are known as the Marian martyrs and the persecution led to her nickname of "Bloody Mary ''.
Mary also died childless and so it was left to the new regime of her half - sister Elizabeth to resolve the direction of the church. The settlement under Queen Elizabeth I (from 1558), known as the Elizabethan Settlement, tried to stir a middle way between radical Protestantism and Roman Catholicism, the via media, (a term that actually only became current in the 1620s), as the character of the Church of England, a church moderately Reformed in doctrine, as expressed in the Thirty - Nine Articles, but also emphasising continuity with the Catholic and Apostolic traditions of the Church Fathers. The three-fold ministry in the Apostolic Succession was maintained; the institutional continuity of the Church was preserved without break (at her accession almost all clergy had been ordained in Catholic Orders using the Roman Pontifical), although the character of the organization was changed by the adoption of some reformed doctrines and the simplification of the outwards forms of worship and the abandonment of traditional vestments and art work; the retention of medieval Canon Law, a much shortened Calendar of Saints and liturgical music. It was also an established church (constitutionally established by the state with the Head of State as its supreme governor). The exact nature of the relationship between church and state would be a source of continued friction into the next century.
For the next century, through the reigns of James I, who ordered the translation of the Bible known as the King James Version (Authorized to be used in parishes which does not mean it was the official version), and Charles I, culminating in the English Civil War and the Protectorate of Oliver Cromwell, there were significant swings back and forth between two factions: the Puritans (and other radicals) who sought more far - reaching Protestant reforms, and the more conservative churchmen who aimed to keep closer to traditional beliefs and Catholic practices. The failure of political and ecclesiastical authorities to submit to Puritan demands for more extensive reform was one of the causes of open warfare. By Continental standards the level of violence over religion was not high, since the Civil was mainly about politics, but the casualties included King Charles I and the Archbishop of Canterbury, William Laud and tens of thousands of civilians who died from the unsettled conditions. Under the Commonwealth and the Protectorate of England from 1649 to 1660, the bishops were dethroned and former practices were outlawed, and Presbyterian ecclesiology was introduced in place of the episcopate. The 39 Articles were replaced by the Westminster Confession, the Book of Common Prayer by the Directory of Public Worship. Despite this, about one quarter of English clergy refused to conform to this form of State Presbyterianism.
With the Restoration of Charles II, Parliament restored the Church of England to a form not far removed from the Elizabethan version. One difference was that the ideal of encompassing all the people of England in one religious organisation, taken for granted by the Tudors, had to be abandoned. The religious landscape of England assumed its present form, with the Anglican established church occupying the middle ground, and those Puritans and Protestants who dissented from the Anglican establishment, having to continue their existence outside the national church rather than trying to influence or trying to gain control of it. One result of the Restoration was the ousting of 2,000 parish ministers who had not been ordained by bishops in the Apostolic Succession or had been by presbyters (ministers in presbyter 's orders). Continuing official suspicion and legal restrictions continued well into the 19th century. Roman Catholics, perhaps 5 % of the English population (down from 20 % in 1600) were grudgingly tolerated, having had little or no official representation after the Pope 's excommunication of Queen Elizabeth in 1570, though the Stuarts were sympathetic to them. In the 18th century they dwindled to 1 % of the population mostly among eccentric gentry and their tenants and extended families.
By the Fifth Article of the Union with Ireland 1800, the Church of England and Church of Ireland were united into "one Protestant Episcopal church, to be called, the United Church of England and Ireland ''. Although this union was declared "an essential and fundamental Part of the Union '', the Irish Church Act 1869 separated the Irish part of the church again and disestablished it, the Act coming into effect on 1 January 1871.
As the British Empire expanded, British colonists and colonial administrators took the established church doctrines and practices together with ordained ministry and formed overseas branches of the Church of England. As they developed or, beginning with the United States of America, became sovereign or independent states, many of their churches became separate organisationally but remained linked to the Church of England through the Anglican Communion.
In Bermuda, the oldest remaining English colony (now designated a British Overseas Territory), the first Church of England services were performed by the Reverend Richard Buck, one of the survivors of the 1609 wreck of the Sea Venture which initiated Bermuda 's permanent settlement. The nine parishes of the Church of England in Bermuda, each with its own church and glebe land, rarely had more than a pair of ordained ministers to share between them until the Nineteenth Century. From 1825 to 1839, Bermuda 's parishes were attached to the See of Nova Scotia. Bermuda was then grouped into the new Diocese of Newfoundland and Bermuda from 1839. In 1879, the Synod of the Church of England in Bermuda was formed. At the same time, a Diocese of Bermuda became separate from the Diocese of Newfoundland, but both continued to be grouped under the Bishop of Newfoundland and Bermuda until 1919, when Newfoundland and Bermuda each received its own Bishop.
The Church of England in Bermuda was renamed in 1978 as the Anglican Church of Bermuda, which is an extra-provincial diocese, with both metropolitan and primatial authority coming directly from the Archbishop of Canterbury. Among its parish churches is St Peter 's Church in the UNESCO World Heritage Site of St George 's Town, which is both the oldest Anglican and the oldest non-Roman Catholic church in the New World.
Under the guidance of Rowan Williams and with significant pressure from clergy union representatives, the ecclesiastical penalty for convicted felons to be defrocked was set aside from the Clergy Discipline Measure 2003. The clergy union argued that the penalty was unfair to victims of hypothetical miscarriages of criminal justice, because the ecclesiastical penalty is considered irreversible. Although clerics can still be banned for life from ministry, they remain ordained as priests.
The archbishops of Canterbury and York warned in January 2015 that the Church of England will no longer be able to carry on in its current form unless the downward spiral in membership is somehow reversed as typical Sunday attendances had halved to 800,000 in the previous 40 years:
The urgency of the challenge facing us is not in doubt. Attendance at Church of England services has declined at an average of one per cent per annum over recent decades and, in addition, the age profile of our membership has become significantly older than that of the population... Renewing and reforming aspects of our institutional life is a necessary but far from sufficient response to the challenges facing the Church of England... The age profile of our clergy has also been increasing. Around 40 per cent of parish clergy are due to retire over the next decade or so.
However, Sarah Mullally, the fourth woman chosen to become a bishop in the Church of England, insisted in June 2015 that declining numbers at services should not necessarily be a cause of despair for churches because people will still "encounter God '' without ever taking their place in a pew, saying that people might hear the Christian message through social media sites such as Facebook or in a café run as a community project. Additionally, the church 's own statistics reveal that 9.7 million people visit an Anglican church every year and 1 million students are educated at Anglican schools (which number 4,700).
Approximately 30 Church of England parish churches are declared "closed for regular public worship '' (previously termed "redundant '') each year. Between 1969 and 2010, a full 1795 closures were achieved, equalling roughly 11 % of the stock, with just over a third being Listed buildings, either Grade I or II. Of these, closures, only 514 were made since 1990. Some active use is made of about half of the closed churches.
In 2015 the Church of England admitted that it was embarrassed to be paying staff under the living wage. The Church of England had previously campaigned for all employers to pay this minimum amount. The archbishop of Canterbury acknowledged it was not the only area where the church "fell short of its standards ''.
The canon law of the Church of England identifies the Christian scriptures as the source of its doctrine. In addition, doctrine is also derived from the teachings of the Church Fathers and ecumenical councils (as well as the ecumenical creeds) in so far as these agree with scripture. This doctrine is expressed in the Thirty - Nine Articles of Religion, the Book of Common Prayer, and the Ordinal containing the rites for the ordination of deacons, priests, and the consecration of bishops. Unlike other traditions, the Church of England has no single theologian that it can look to as a founder. However, Richard Hooker 's appeal to scripture, church tradition, and reason as sources of authority continue to inform Anglican identity.
The Church of England 's doctrinal character today is largely the result of the Elizabethan Settlement, which sought to establish a comprehensive middle way between Roman Catholicism and Protestantism. The Church of England affirms the Protestant Reformation principle that scripture contains all things necessary to salvation and is the final arbiter in doctrinal matters. The Thirty - nine Articles are the church 's only official confessional statement. Though not a complete system of doctrine, the articles highlight areas of agreement with Lutheran and Reformed positions, while differentiating Anglicanism from Roman Catholicism and Anabaptism.
While embracing some themes of the Protestant Reformation, the Church of England also maintains Catholic traditions of the ancient church and teachings of the Church Fathers, unless these are considered contrary to scripture. It accepts the decisions of the first four ecumenical councils concerning the Trinity and the Incarnation. The Church of England also preserves Catholic Order by adhering to episcopal polity, with ordained orders of bishops, priests and deacons. There are differences of opinion within the Church of England over the necessity of episcopacy. Some consider it essential, while others feel it is needed for the proper ordering of the church. In sum these express the ' Via Media ' viewpoint that the first five centuries of doctrinal development and church order as approved as acceptable be a kind of yardstick by which to gauge authentic catholicity, as minimum and sufficient; Anglicanism did not emerge as the result of charismatic leaders with particular doctrines. It is light on details compared to Roman Catholic, Reformed and Lutheran teachings. The Bible, the Creeds, Apostolic Order, and the administration of the Sacraments are sufficient to establish Catholicity. Indeed, not one major doctrinal development emerged from the English reformation, Diarmid MacCulloch, The Later Reformation in England, 1990, p. 55. The Reformation in England was initially much concerned about doctrine but the Elizabethan Settlement tried to put a stop to doctrinal contentions. The proponents of further changes, nonetheless, tried to get their way by making changes in Church Order (abolition of bishops), governance (Canon Law) and liturgy (' too Catholic '). They did not succeed because the Monarchy, the Church and resisted and the majority of the population were indifferent. Moreover "despite all the assumptions of the Reformation founders of that Church, it had retained a catholic character. '' The Elizabethan Settlement had created a cuckoo in a nest... '' a Protestant theology and program within a largely pre-Reformation Catholic structure whose continuing life would arouse a theological interest in the Catholicism that had created it; and would result in the rejection of predestinarian theology in favor of sacraments, especially the eucharist, ceremonial, and anti-Calvinist doctrine '' (ibid pp. 78 -- 86). The existence of cathedrals "without substantial alteration '' and "where the "old devotional world cast its longest shadow for the future of the ethos that would become Anglicanism, '' p. 79. This is "One of the great mysteries of the English Reformation, '' ibid that there was no complete break with the past but a muddle that was per force turned into a virtue. The story of the English Reformation is the tale of retreat from the Protestant advance of 1550 which could not proceed further in the face of the opposition of the institution which was rooted in the medieval past, ibid. p. 142 and the adamant opposition of Queen Elizabeth I.
The Church of England has, as one of its distinguishing marks, a breadth and "open - mindedness ''. This tolerance has allowed Anglicans who emphasise the Catholic tradition and others who emphasise the Reformed tradition to coexist. The three "parties '' (see Churchmanship) in the Church of England are sometimes called high church (or Anglo - Catholic), low church (or evangelical Anglican) and broad church (or liberal). The high church party places importance on the Church of England 's continuity with the pre-Reformation Catholic Church, adherence to ancient liturgical usages and the sacerdotal nature of the priesthood. As their name suggests, Anglo - Catholics maintain many traditional Catholic practices and liturgical forms. The low church party is more Protestant in both ceremony and theology. Historically, broad church has been used to describe those of middle - of - the - road ceremonial preferences who lean theologically towards liberal Protestantism. The balance between these strands of churchmanship is not static: in 2013, 40 % of Church of England worshippers attended evangelical churches (compared with 26 % in 1989), and 83 % of very large congregations were evangelical. Such churches were also reported to attract higher numbers of men and young adults than others.
The Church of England 's official book of liturgy as established in English Law is the Book of Common Prayer. In addition to this book the General Synod has also legislated for a modern liturgical book, Common Worship, dating from 2000, which can be used as an alternative to the BCP. Like its predecessor, the 1980 Alternative Service Book, it differs from the Book of Common Prayer in providing a range of alternative services, mostly in modern language, although it does include some BCP - based forms as well, for example Order Two for Holy Communion. (This is a revision of the BCP service, altering some words and allowing the insertion of some other liturgical texts such as the Agnus Dei before communion.) The Order One rite follows the pattern of more modern liturgical scholarship.
The liturgies are organised according to the traditional liturgical year and the calendar of saints. The sacraments of baptism and the Eucharist are generally thought necessary to salvation. Infant baptism is practised. At a later age, individuals baptised as infants receive confirmation by a bishop, at which time they reaffirm the baptismal promises made by their parents or sponsors. The Eucharist, consecrated by a thanksgiving prayer including Christ 's Words of Institution, is believed to be "a memorial of Christ 's once - for - all redemptive acts in which Christ is objectively present and effectually received in faith ''.
The use of hymns and music in the Church of England has changed dramatically over the centuries. Traditional Choral evensong is a staple of most cathedrals. The style of psalm chanting harks back to the Church of England 's pre-reformation roots. During the 18th century, clergy such as Charles Wesley introduced their own styles of worship with poetic hymns.
In the latter half of the 20th century, the influence of the Charismatic Movement significantly altered the worship traditions of numerous Church of England parishes, primarily affecting those of evangelical persuasion. These churches now adopt a contemporary worship form of service, with minimal liturgical or ritual elements, and incorporating contemporary worship music.
Women were appointed as deaconesses from 1861 but they could not function fully as deacons and were not considered ordained clergy. Women have been lay readers for a long time. During the First World War, some women were appointed as lay readers, known as "bishop 's messengers '', who also led missions and ran churches in the absence of men. After that no more lay readers were appointed until 1969.
Legislation authorising the ordination of women as deacons was passed in 1986 and they were first ordained in 1987. The ordination of women as priests was passed by the General Synod in 1992 and began in 1994. In 2010, for the first time in the history of the Church of England, more women than men were ordained as priests (290 women and 273 men).
In July 2005, the synod voted to "set in train '' the process of allowing the consecration of women as bishops. In February 2006, the synod voted overwhelmingly for the "further exploration '' of possible arrangements for parishes that did not want to be directly under the authority of a bishop who is a woman. On 7 July 2008, the synod voted to approve the ordination of women as bishops and rejected moves for alternative episcopal oversight for those who do not accept the ministry of bishops who are women. Actual ordinations of women to the episcopate required further legislation, which was narrowly rejected in a vote at General Synod in November 2012.
On 20 November 2013, the General Synod voted overwhelmingly in support of a plan to allow the ordination of women as bishops, with 378 in favour, 8 against and 25 abstentions.
On 14 July 2014, the General Synod approved the ordination of women as bishops. The House of Bishops recorded 37 votes in favour, two against with one abstention. The House of Clergy had 162 in favour, 25 against and four abstentions. The House of Laity voted 152 for, 45 against with five abstentions. This legislation had to be approved by the Ecclesiastical Committee of the Parliament before it could be finally implemented at the November 2014 synod.
In December 2014, Libby Lane was announced as the first woman to become a bishop in the Church of England. She was consecrated as a bishop in January 2015.
In July 2015, Rachel Treweek was the first woman to become a diocesan bishop in the Church of England when she became the Bishop of Gloucester. She and Sarah Mullally, Bishop of Crediton, were the first women to be ordained as bishops at Canterbury Cathedral. Treweek later made headlines by calling for gender - inclusive language, saying that "God is not to be seen as male. God is God. ''
In May 2018, the Diocese of London consecrated Dame Sarah Mullally as the first woman to serve as the Bishop of London. Bishop Sarah Mullally occupies the third most senior position in the Anglican church. Mullally has described herself as a feminist and will ordain both men and women to the priesthood. She is also considered by some to be a theological liberal. On women 's reproductive rights, Mullally describes herself as pro-choice while also being personally pro-life. On marriage, she supports the current stance of the Church of England that marriage is between a man and a woman, but also said that "It is a time for us to reflect on our tradition and scripture, and together say how we can offer a response that is about it being inclusive love. ''
After the consecration of the first women as bishops, Women and the Church (WATCH), a group supporting the ministries of women in the Church of England, called for language referring to God as "Mother ''. This call for more gender inclusive language has receive the outspoken support of the Rt Rev Alan Wilson, the Bishop of Buckingham. In 2015, the Rev Jody Stowell, from WATCH, expressed her support for female images saying "we 're not restricted to understanding God with one gender. I would encourage people to explore those kinds of images. They 're wholly Biblical. ''
The Church of England has been discussing same - sex marriages and LGBT clergy. "The Church of England does not allow gay weddings, but its priests are allowed to be in a civil partnership. '' The church holds that marriage is a union of one man with one woman. However, the church teaches "Same - sex relationships often embody genuine mutuality and fidelity. '' The church also officially supports civil partnerships; "We believe that Civil Partnerships still have a place, including for some Christian LGBTI couples who see them as a way of gaining legal recognition of their relationship. '' The "Church of England does not conduct Civil Partnership Ceremonies or Same Sex Marriages but individual churches can conduct a service of thanksgiving after a ceremony. '' The church says "clergy in the Church of England are permitted to offer prayers of support on a pastoral basis for people in same - sex relationships; '' As such, many Anglican churches, with clergy open to it, "already bless same - sex couples on an unofficial basis. ''
Civil Partnerships for clergy have been allowed since 2005. The church extends pensions to clergy in civil unions. In a missive to clergy, the church communicated that "there was a need for committed same - sex couples to be given recognition and ' compassionate attention ' from the Church, including special prayers. '' "There is no prohibition on prayers ' being said in church or there being a ' service ' '' after a civil union. After same - sex marriage was legalised, the church asked for the government to continue to offer civil unions saying "The Church of England recognises that same - sex relationships often embody fidelity and mutuality. Civil partnerships enable these Christian virtues to be recognised socially and legally in a proper framework. ''
In 2014, the Bishops released guidelines that permit "more informal kind of prayer '' for couples. In the guidelines, "gay couples who get married will be able to ask for special prayers in the Church of England after their wedding, the bishops have agreed. '' In 2016, The Bishop of Grantham, the Rt Rev Nicholas Chamberlain, announced he is gay, in a same - sex relationship and celibate; becoming the first bishop to do so in the church. The church had decided in 2013 that gay clergy in civil partnerships could become bishops. "The House (of Bishops) has confirmed that clergy in civil partnerships, and living in accordance with the teaching of the church on human sexuality, can be considered as candidates for the episcopate. ''
In 2017, the House of Clergy voted against the motion to ' take note ' of the Bishops ' report defining marriage as between a man and a woman. Due to passage in all three houses being required, the motion was rejected. After General Synod rejected the motion, the Archbishops of Canterbury and York called for "radical new Christian inclusion '' that is "based on good, healthy, flourishing relationships, and in a proper 21st century understanding of being human and of being sexual. '' The church officially opposes ' conversion ' therapy, a practice which attempts to change a gay or lesbian person 's sexual orientation, calling it unethical and supports the banning of ' conversion ' therapy in the UK. The Diocese of Hereford approved a motion calling for the church "to create a set of formal services and prayers to bless those who have had a same - sex marriage or civil partnership. ''
Regarding transgender issues, the 2017 General Synod voted in favour of a motion saying that transgender people should be "welcomed and affirmed in their parish church... '' The motion also asked the Bishops "to look into special services for transgender people. '' The House of Bishops declined to create a new liturgy, but advised that clergy adapt the service for an affirmation of baptism to mark a gender transition. "The House notes that the Affirmation of Baptismal Faith, found in Common Worship, is an ideal liturgical rite which trans people can use to mark this moment of personal renewal. '' Transgender people may marry in the Church of England after legally making a transition. "Since the Gender Recognition Act (2004), trans people legally confirmed in their gender identity under its provisions are able to marry someone of the opposite sex in their parish church. '' Since 2000, the church has allowed priests to undergo gender transition and remain in office. The church has ordained openly transgender clergy since 2005.
Just as the Church of England has a large conservative or "traditionalist '' wing, it also has many liberal members and clergy. Approximately one third of clergy "doubt or disbelieve in the physical resurrection ''. Others, such as the Revd Giles Fraser, a contributor to The Guardian, have argued for an allegorical interpretation of the virgin birth of Jesus. The Independent reported in 2014 that, according to a YouGov survey of Church of England clergy, "as many as 16 per cent are unclear about God and two per cent think it is no more than a human construct. '' Moreover, many congregations are seeker - friendly environments. For example, one report from the Church Mission Society suggested that the church open up "a pagan church where Christianity (is) very much in the centre '' to reach out to spiritual people.
The Church of England is generally opposed to abortion but recognises that "there can be - strictly limited - conditions under which it may be morally preferable to any available alternative ''. The church also opposes euthanasia. Its official stance is that "While acknowledging the complexity of the issues involved in assisted dying / suicide and voluntary euthanasia, the Church of England is opposed to any change in the law or in medical practice that would make assisted dying / suicide or voluntary euthanasia permissible in law or acceptable in practice. '' It also states that "Equally, the Church shares the desire to alleviate physical and psychological suffering, but believes that assisted dying / suicide and voluntary euthanasia are not acceptable means of achieving these laudable goals. '' However, George Carey, a former Archbishop of Canterbury, announced that he had changed his stance on euthanasia in 2014 and now advocated legalising "assisted dying ''. On embryonic stem - cell research, the church has announced "cautious acceptance to the proposal to produce cytoplasmic hybrid embryos for research ''.
The Church of England set up the Church Urban Fund in the 1980s to tackle poverty and deprivation. They see poverty as trapping individuals and communities with some people in urgent need. This leads to dependency, homelessness, hunger, isolation, low income, mental health problems, social exclusion and violence. They feel that poverty reduces confidence and life expectancy and that people born in poor conditions have difficulty escaping their disadvantaged circumstances.
In parts of Liverpool, Manchester and Newcastle two - thirds of babies are born to poverty and have poorer life chances, also life expectancy 15 years lower than babies born in most fortunate communities. South Shore, Blackpool, has lowest life expectancy at 66 years for men.
The deep - rooted unfairness in our society is highlighted by these stark statistics. Children being born in this country, just a few miles apart, could n't witness a more wildly differing start to life. In child poverty terms, we live in one of the most unequal countries in the western world. We want people to understand where their own community sits alongside neighbouring communities. The disparity is often shocking but it 's crucial that, through greater awareness, people from all backgrounds come together to think about what could be done to support those born into poverty. (Paul Hackwood, the Chair of Trustees at Church Urban Fund)
Many prominent people in the Church of England have spoken out against poverty and welfare cuts in the United Kingdom. Twenty - seven bishops are among 43 Christian leaders who signed a letter which urged David Cameron to make sure people have enough to eat.
We often hear talk of hard choices. Surely few can be harder than that faced by the tens of thousands of older people who must ' heat or eat ' each winter, harder than those faced by families whose wages have stayed flat while food prices have gone up 30 % in just five years. Yet beyond even this we must, as a society, face up to the fact that over half of people using food banks have been put in that situation by cutbacks to and failures in the benefit system, whether it be payment delays or punitive sanctions.
Benefit cuts, failures and "punitive sanctions '' force thousands of UK citizens to use food banks. The campaign to end hunger considers this "truly shocking '' and called for a national day of fasting on 4 April 2014.
Official figures from 2005 showed there were 25 million baptised Anglicans in England and Wales. Due to its status as the established church, in general, anyone may be married, have their children baptised or their funeral in their local parish church, regardless of whether they are baptised or regular churchgoers.
Between 1890 and 2001, churchgoing in the United Kingdom declined steadily. In the years 1968 to 1999, Anglican Sunday church attendances almost halved, from 3.5 per cent of the population to 1.9 per cent. By the year 2014, Sunday church attendances had declined further to 1.4 per cent of the population. One study published in 2008 suggested that if current trends were to continue, Sunday attendances could fall to 350,000 in 2030 and just 87,800 in 2050.
In 2011, the Church of England published statistics showing 1.7 million people attending at least one of its services each month, a level maintained since the turn of the millennium; approximately one million participating each Sunday and three million taking part in a Church of England service on Christmas Day or Christmas Eve. The church also claimed that 30 % attend Sunday worship at least once a year; more than 40 % attend a wedding in their local church and still more attend a funeral there. Nationally the Church of England baptises one child in ten (2011). In 2015, the church 's statistics showed that 2.6 million people attended a special Advent service, 2.4 million attended a Christmas service, 1.3 million attended an Easter service, and 980,000 attended service during an average week. In 2016, 2.6 million people attended a Christmas service, 1.2 million attended an Easter service, 1.1 million people attended a service in the Church of England each month, an average of 930,000 people attended a weekly service, an additional 180,000 attended a service for school each week, and an average of 740,000 people attended Sunday service.
The Church of England has 18,000 active ordained clergy and 10,000 licensed lay ministers. In 2009, 491 people were recommended for ordination training, maintaining the level at the turn of the millennium, and 564 new clergy (266 women and 298 men) were ordained. More than half of those ordained (193 men and 116 women) were appointed to full - time paid ministry. In 2011, 504 new clergy were ordained, including 264 to paid ministry, and 349 lay readers were admitted to ministry; and the mode age - range of those recommended for ordination training had remained 40 -- 49 since 1999.
Article XIX (' Of the Church ') of the 39 Articles defines the church as follows:
The visible Church of Christ is a congregation of faithful men, in which the pure Word of God is preached, and the sacraments be duly ministered according to Christ 's ordinance in all those things that of necessity are requisite to the same.
The British monarch has the constitutional title of Supreme Governor of the Church of England. The canon law of the Church of England states, "We acknowledge that the Queen 's most excellent Majesty, acting according to the laws of the realm, is the highest power under God in this kingdom, and has supreme authority over all persons in all causes, as well ecclesiastical as civil. '' In practice this power is often exercised through Parliament and the Prime Minister.
The Church of Ireland and the Church in Wales separated from the Church of England in 1869 and 1920 respectively and are autonomous churches in the Anglican Communion; Scotland 's national church, the Church of Scotland, is Presbyterian but the Scottish Episcopal Church is in the Anglican Communion.
In addition to England, the jurisdiction of the Church of England extends to the Isle of Man, the Channel Islands and a few parishes in Flintshire, Monmouthshire, Powys and Radnorshire in Wales which voted to remain with the Church of England rather than joining the Church in Wales. Expatriate congregations on the continent of Europe have become the Diocese of Gibraltar in Europe.
The church is structured as follows (from the lowest level upwards):
All rectors and vicars are appointed by patrons, who may be private individuals, corporate bodies such as cathedrals, colleges or trusts, or by the bishop or directly by the Crown. No clergy can be instituted and inducted into a parish without swearing the Oath of Allegiance to Her Majesty, and taking the Oath of Canonical Obedience "in all things lawful and honest '' to the bishop. Usually they are instituted to the benefice by the bishop and then inducted by the archdeacon into the possession of the benefice property -- church and parsonage. Curates (assistant clergy) are appointed by rectors and vicars, or if priests - in - charge by the bishop after consultation with the patron. Cathedral clergy (normally a dean and a varying number of residentiary canons who constitute the cathedral chapter) are appointed either by the Crown, the bishop, or by the dean and chapter themselves. Clergy officiate in a diocese either because they hold office as beneficed clergy or are licensed by the bishop when appointed, or simply with permission.
The most senior bishop of the Church of England is the Archbishop of Canterbury, who is the metropolitan of the southern province of England, the Province of Canterbury. He has the status of Primate of All England. He is the focus of unity for the worldwide Anglican Communion of independent national or regional churches. Justin Welby has been Archbishop of Canterbury since the confirmation of his election on 4 February 2013.
The second most senior bishop is the Archbishop of York, who is the metropolitan of the northern province of England, the Province of York. For historical reasons (relating to the time of York 's control by the Danes) he is referred to as the Primate of England. John Sentamu became Archbishop of York in 2005. The Bishop of London, the Bishop of Durham and the Bishop of Winchester are ranked in the next three positions.
The process of appointing diocesan bishops is complex, due to historical reasons balancing hierarchy against democracy, and is handled by the Crown Nominations Committee which submits names to the Prime Minister (acting on behalf of the Crown) for consideration.
The Church of England has a legislative body, the General Synod. Synod can create two types of legislation, measures and canons. Measures have to be approved but can not be amended by the British Parliament before receiving the Royal Assent and becoming part of the law of England. Although it is the established church in England only, its measures must be approved by both Houses of Parliament including the non-English members. Canons require Royal Licence and Royal Assent, but form the law of the church, rather than the law of the land.
Another assembly is the Convocation of the English Clergy, which is older than the General Synod and its predecessor the Church Assembly. By the 1969 Synodical Government Measure almost all of the Convocations ' functions were transferred to the General Synod. Additionally, there are Diocesan Synods and deanery synods, which are the governing bodies of the divisions of the Church.
Of the 42 diocesan archbishops and bishops in the Church of England, 26 are permitted to sit in the House of Lords. The Archbishops of Canterbury and York automatically have seats, as do the Bishops of London, Durham and Winchester. The remaining 21 seats are filled in order of seniority by consecration. It may take a diocesan bishop a number of years to reach the House of Lords, at which point he becomes a Lord Spiritual. The Bishop of Sodor and Man and the Bishop of Gibraltar in Europe are not eligible to sit in the House of Lords as their dioceses lie outside the United Kingdom.
Although they are not part of England or the United Kingdom, the Church of England is also the Established Church in the Crown dependencies of the Isle of Man, the Bailiwick of Jersey and the Bailiwick of Guernsey. The Isle of Man has its own diocese of Sodor and Man, and the Bishop of Sodor and Man is an ex officio member of the Legislative Council of the Tynwald on the island. The Channel Islands are part of the Diocese of Winchester, and in Jersey the Dean of Jersey is a non-voting member of the States of Jersey. In Guernsey the Church of England is the Established Church, although the Dean of Guernsey is not a member of the States of Guernsey.
The Archbishop of Canterbury, Justin Welby, has made some effort to prevent complaints of sex abuse cases being covered up. Independent investigators are examining files as far back as the 1950s and Welby hopes this independence will prevent any possibility of a cover - up.
We will systematically bring those transparently and openly first of all working with the survivors where they are still alive and then seeing what they want. The rule is survivors come first, not our own interests, and however important the person was, however distinguished, however well - known, survivors come first. (Justin Welby)
The personal files of all Anglican clergy since the 1950s are being audited in an effort to ensure no cover - up. Welby emphasised repeatedly that no cover - up would be acceptable.
Despite such assurances there is concern that not enough may be done and historic abuse may still sometimes be covered up. Keith Porteous Wood of the National Secular Society stated:
The problem was n't that bishops were n't trained in such matters, it is the institutional culture of denial and the bullying of the abused and whistleblowers into silence. One report suggests that 13 bishops ignored letters written in the 1990s warning of abuse by Ball on behalf of a victim who later committed suicide. I have seen evidence that such bullying persists to this day. I hope that the Archbishop 's review into the case of Peter Ball will deal with such bullying and what appears to be the undue influence exerted on the police and CPS by the Church in dealing with this case. The total failure of procedures, outlined by Ian Elliott, echoes that revealed in the totally damning Cahill Report about the conduct of the Archbishop Hope of York in respect of Robert Waddington. The current Archbishop of York has decided that this report should remain in printed form rather than be more widely available on the web.
Bishop Peter Ball was convicted in October 2015 on several charges of indecent assault against young adult men. There are allegations of large - scale earlier cover - ups involving many British establishment figures which prevented Ball 's earlier prosecution. There have also been allegations of child sex abuse, for example Robert Waddington. A complainant, known only as "Joe '', tried for decades to have action taken over sadistic sex abuse which Garth Moore perpetrated against him in 1976 when "Joe '' was 15 years old. None of the high ranking clergy who "Joe '' spoke to recall being told about the abuse, which "Joe '' considers incredible. A representative of the solicitors firm representing "Joe '' said:
The Church of England wants to bury and discourage allegations of non-recent abuse. They know how difficult it is for survivors to come forward, and it appears from this case that the Church has a plan of making it hard for these vulnerable people to come forward. This survivor has had the courage to press his case. Most do not. Most harbour the psychological fallout in silence. We need to find a way to make the system more approachable for survivors.
Although an established church, the Church of England does not receive any direct government support. Donations comprise its largest source of income, and it also relies heavily on the income from its various historic endowments. In 2005, the Church of England had estimated total outgoings of around £ 900 million.
The Church of England manages an investment portfolio which is worth more than £ 8 billion.
The Church of England supports A Church Near You, an online directory of churches. A user - edited resource, it currently lists 16,400 churches and has 7,000 editors in 42 dioceses. The directory enables parishes to maintain accurate location, contact and event information which is shared with other websites and mobile apps. In 2012, the directory formed the data backbone of Christmas Near You and in 2014 was used to promote the church 's Harvest Near You initiative.
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when do they find out katherine is in elenas body | No Exit (the Vampire Diaries) - wikipedia
"No Exit '' is the 14th episode of the fifth season of the American series The Vampire Diaries and the series ' 103rd episode overall. "No Exit '' was originally aired on February 27, 2014, on The CW. The episode was written by Brian Young and directed by Michael Allowitz.
Enzo (Michael Malarkey) and Damon (Ian Somerhalder) turn people to vampires so that Damon can feed on them since now, after Wes ' (Rick Cosnett) injection, he craves vampire blood and not human. The two of them try to leave the last victim 's house when Wes appears with travelers who spell the house so vampires will not be able to get out. Wes informs them that he wants to make one last test; how long can Damon last before he attacks his friends to feed on.
Katherine (Nina Dobrev), still pretending to be Elena, tries to get closer to Stefan (Paul Wesley) so they can be back together. When Caroline (Candice Accola) arrives and tells them about Damon, Stefan wants to find him and Katherine offers to go with him. Caroline warns him that it is weird for him to be so close to "Elena '' after everything that happened but he reassures her that they are just friends. Before Stefan and Katherine go, Caroline gets a phone call from Tyler (Michael Trevino) who tells her that he worries about Matt (Zach Roerig), who has vanished for two days, and that Nadia (Olga Fonda) was compelling him. Katherine hears Caroline 's conversation with Tyler and she calls Nadia to ask if everything is fine. When Nadia tells her that Matt found out that she is not Elena, Katherine asks her to kill him. Caroline leaves to go to Tyler 's while Katherine and Stefan leave to find Damon.
Caroline gets to Tyler 's and they try to find out why Nadia would compel Matt and what she wants from him. The two of them feel awkward because of what happened between Caroline and Klaus (Joseph Morgan). At the same time, Matt tries to convince Nadia that she does not have to kill him and all he has to do is convince his friends that he is fine. Matt returns home with Nadia and acts like everything is fine. He tells Tyler and Caroline that Nadia is not compelling him and that they just have fun together but Caroline is not really supportive of that. They both depart, leaving Matt and Nadia alone.
Katherine and Stefan are on the road in search of Damon and Katherine tries to seduce Stefan. She breaks the car so they can stay at a hotel she had seen till the car is ready. While there, Enzo calls Stefan to inform him about the situation he and Damon are in but Katherine answers who asks him to text her the address. Stefan goes to get the car and Katherine calls Nadia to tell her that she plans to lead Stefan on killing Damon to save her. Stefan gets back and before they leave the hotel, Katherine gets closer to him and kisses him. He kisses her back but he stops because "Elena '' has just broken up with Damon and it is not right.
Enzo chains Damon on a chair in an attempt to prevent him of attacking him. Wes shoots Enzo to make him bleed, so Damon will not be able to resist. Damon breaks the chains and attacks Enzo who tries to tell him to stop. Damon chokes at Enzo 's blood and Wes appears to tell him that it is because he had travelers put a spell on it. He offers for Enzo to go with him so he will not be killed by Damon since the spell will not last forever. Enzo does not want to go but Damon convinces him to do it because if he stays he will kill him. Enzo leaves with Wes and Damon stays alone, trapped in the house.
Nadia checks that finally the vervain is out of Matt 's system so she can compel him again but before she makes him forget, Matt tries to warn Caroline about Katherine taking over Elena 's body. He kisses Nadia who kisses him back and while they are kissing, he tries to text Caroline. He manages to write "Help K '' and send it to Caroline before Nadia sees him and stops him. She is hurt by his behavior and trying to fool her, so she compels him and starts to exit the house. Caroline, who got the text, meets Nadia at the door and asks her what is she planning and they start fighting. Tyler gets there in time to stop Nadia from killing Caroline and he fights Nadia who runs away.
Katherine and Stefan arrive at the house where Damon is but Damon warns them to not get into the house because they will not be able to get out and he will attack them. They tell him that they are not afraid of him and they both enter the house. Katherine, to help Damon fight his urge, cuts her hand with a glass and provokes him with her blood telling him that he can fight it. Damon starts feeding on her, Stefan tells him to stop and Katherine kicks a stake towards Stefan telling him that Damon is going to kill her. Stefan, instead of taking the stake, he takes a piece of glass and cuts himself to distract Damon. Damon leaves Katherine and Stefan snaps his neck.
Katherine and Stefan bring Damon back to Mystic Falls and Katherine arranges immediately to meet Nadia. Katherine is happy because, despite her plan to kill Damon not working, she had a moment with Stefan. She stops smiling when Nadia tells her that she was bitten by Tyler Lockwood.
Damon wakes up chained on the Salvatore house 's basement. Stefan is there and Damon tries to warn him that because of his cravings, one day he will kill him but Stefan tells him that they will find a solution. Damon points to Stefan that "Elena '' provoked him to feed on her and then she kicked a stake towards him so he will kill him. Stefan does not believe that Elena would want that, he locks Damon up and gets upstairs where Caroline is. The two of them discuss what happened between Stefan and "Elena '' and Caroline also tells him about Nadia and Matt and the text he sent to her. From Matt 's text, who used "K '' and not "E '', they put the pieces together and they realize that Katherine is in Elena 's body.
In the "No Exit '' episode we can hear the songs:
In its original American broadcast, "No Exit '' was watched by 2.03 million; down by 0.13 from the previous episode.
"No Exit '' received mixed to negative reviews with many hoping that now that Katherine 's secret was revealed, the show will "kick in ''.
Carrie Raisler from The A.V. Club gave a B rate to the episode saying that it was a filler episode: "this path to realization (finding out that Katherine is in Elena 's body) basically creates a filler episode, a way to move the story to the place it needs to be for the inevitable big confrontation in the future (...) Katherine taking over Elena 's life was an incredibly inspired storyline, and watching it unfold has been delightful, but sooner or later, someone had to figure out what was going on. To spend an episode almost solely focused on making that happen is a good thing. ''
Alyse Wax of Fearnet writes: "I miss the bad - assery this show used to have. Julie Plec took it all with her and stuffed it into The Originals. (...) All of the awesome, violent, supernatural drama has been replaced with standard who 's - sleeping - with - who nonsense, ever since the original vampires got their own show. I guess Klaus really took the bad - assery with him. Well, now everyone knows that "Elena '' is really Katherine, so hopefully the crazy shit will kick in. ''
Caroline Preece from Den of Geek gave a negative review saying that season five of the show has been the worst by far. "(The show) stopped being a fast - paced, well - written vampire show and became a long - running soap that happened to have mythical creatures in it. That 's not what any of us signed up for but, with the Katherine storyline presumably on its way out now that Stefan and Caroline have figured out the deceit and Nadia has a dreaded werewolf bite to contend with, maybe the next half - arsed arc will be better? Let 's hope so because, since we all know how fantastically entertaining this show can be at its best, there is always a glimmer of hope that it can return to form. ''
Stephanie Hall from K Site TV said that overall the episode left her a feeling that this was an off week of the show. "'' No Exit '' was an uncharacteristically odd episode of The Vampire Diaries that primarily served to stall the impending solutions of this run of episodes ' two most pressing issues: Katherine and Damon. While it did bring our heroes a step closer to solving both of these problems, the ways in which it did so were not delivered with as much metaphoric bang as could be hoped. ''
Matt Richenthal of TV Fanatic rated the episode with only 1.3 / 5 saying that it was one boring hour of television and that the writers recycles scenes and stories from previous episodes / seasons. "We knew from the moment Katherine inhabited Elena 's body that she would eventually be found out. What other alternative possibly existed? So we 've been waiting and waiting and waiting for that moment for weeks and that 's exactly what tonight 's episode felt like. ''
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how do you address the lord mayor of sydney | List of mayors, Lord mayors and administrators of Sydney - Wikipedia
The Right Honourable Lord Mayor of Sydney is the honorific title of the head of Sydney City Council which is the local government body for the City of Sydney, the local government area covering the central business district of Sydney in the state of New South Wales, Australia. The Lord Mayor has been directly elected since 2004, replacing the previous system of being internally elected by the Councillors, and served a four - year term. The most recent election was held on 10 September 2016, at which the incumbent Lord Mayor, Clover Moore, Independent, was re-elected.
The office of Mayor of Sydney along with the Sydney municipality was created 20 July 1842 pursuant to the Sydney City Incorporation Act 1842 by Governor Sir George Gipps, of the New South Wales Legislative Council. This replaced the previous system under an Act of 1833, whereby three police commissioners were responsible for local conditions. The office of Mayor was elevated to Lord Mayor in 1902 by King Edward VII, and as part of this process received the honorific The Right Honourable (The Rt Hon.).
As head of the council, the Lord Mayor is entitled to wear the chains and robes of office, as befitting the ancient status of lord mayor of a large city. In 1902 the Sydney Chamber of Commerce commissioned the first link of a mayoral chain. In 1903, the Governor of New South Wales, Sir Harry Rawson presented the first Lord Mayor, Thomas Hughes, with the chain of office. It features the coat of arms of the Sydney Chamber of Commerce and the Stock Exchange and a pendant depicting the coat of arms of Sydney. Successive mayors each added a medallion, on which was embossed their term of office. By 1945, this practice had ended because of the size and weight of the chain. Today, the chain is worn with the robes of office only for rare civic ceremonies; a smaller collar being worn for most civic duties.
The original civic robe for the Mayor of Sydney in 1842 was purple, trimmed with ermine and worn with a court dress hat. The current robes worn by the Lord Mayor and Deputy Lord Mayor are black, trimmed with ermine, and worn with bicorne hat, lace jabot and white gloves. They are worn rarely and only at major civic functions. Recently, it has become the custom not to wear the robes.
The following individuals have been elected as Deputy Lord Mayor of the City of Sydney, or any predecessor titles.
The first Town Clerk of Sydney was appointed on 3 September 1842 on a provisional basis by the Governor, pending the election of aldermen. When the council was dismissed in December 1853 and replaced by a board of three commissioners, the post of town clerk was left vacant. The Local Government Act, 1993 removed the requirement that the administrative head of a council be a "Town or Shire Clerk '' and specified that the head was to be known as the General Manager. The Sydney City Council had previously recognised the changing nature of role in appointing their first General Manager in December 1992. In May 2005, the title of General Manager was changed to Chief Executive Officer (CEO).
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what is the theme of brics summit 2018 | 10th BRICS summit - wikipedia
The 2018 BRICS summit is the tenth annual BRICS summit, an international relations conference attended by the heads of state or heads of government of the five member states Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa. The summit was held in Johannesburg, South Africa, the second time the South Africa has hosted the summit after the 2013 summit. This years theme ' BRICS in Africa '.
Brazil Michel Temer, President
Russia Vladimir Putin, President
India Narendra Modi, Prime Minister
China Xi Jinping, President
South Africa Cyril Ramaphosa, President (Host)
Argentina Mauricio Macri, President
Turkey Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, President
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who is gold and who is gold plated | Gold plating - wikipedia
Gold plating is a method of depositing a thin layer of gold onto the surface of another metal, most often copper or silver (to make silver - gilt), by chemical or electrochemical plating. This article covers plating methods used in the modern electronics industry; for more traditional methods, often used for much larger objects, see gilding.
There are several types of gold plating used in the electronics industry:
Pre-Columbian smiths working in northern Peru gilded and silvered copper objects by electrochemical replacement techniques.
During the excavations in 1987 -- 1990 at Sipan, a spectacular treasure of gold and silver ornamental and ceremonial artifacts was recovered, dating to AD 50 -- 300. These objects demonstrate the outstanding craftsmanship of the Moche metalsmiths. Alloys of copper with gold and some silver were employed, known as tumbaga.
There are five recognized classes of gold plating chemistry:
Gold plating of silver is used in the manufacture of jewelry. Silver atoms diffuse into the gold layer, causing slow gradual fading of its color and eventually causing tarnishing of the surface. This process may take months and even years, depending on the thickness of the gold layer. A barrier metal layer is used to counter this effect. Copper, which also migrates into gold, does so more slowly than silver. The copper is usually further plated with nickel. A gold - plated silver article is usually a silver substrate with layers of copper, nickel, and gold deposited on top of it.
Gold, applied by evaporated methods or electroplating, has been specified by NASA to thermally control spacecraft instruments, due to its 99 % reflectivity in infrared wavelengths.
Gold plating is often used in electronics, to provide a corrosion - resistant electrically conductive layer on copper, typically in electrical connectors and printed circuit boards.
With direct gold - on - copper plating, the copper atoms tend to diffuse through the gold layer, causing tarnishing of its surface and formation of an oxide and / or sulphide layer.
A layer of a suitable barrier metal, usually nickel, is often deposited on the copper substrate before the gold plating. The layer of nickel provides mechanical backing for the gold layer, improving its wear resistance. It also reduces the impact of pores present in the gold layer.
Both the nickel and gold layers can be plated by electrolytic or electroless processes. There are many factors to consider in selection of either electrolytic or electroless plating methods. These include what the deposit will be used for, configuration of the part, materials compatibility and cost of processing. In different applications, electrolytic or electroless plating can have cost advantages.
At higher frequencies, the skin effect may cause higher losses due to higher electrical resistance of nickel; a nickel - plated trace can have its useful length shortened three times in the 1 GHz band in comparison with the non-plated one. Selective plating is used, depositing the nickel and gold layers only on areas where it is required and does not cause the detrimental side effects.
Gold plating may lead to formation of gold whiskers.
Wire bonding between gold plated contacts and aluminium wires or between aluminium contacts and gold wires under certain conditions develops a brittle layer of gold - aluminium intermetallics, known as purple plague.
Soldering gold - plated parts can be problematic as gold is soluble in solder. Solder which contains more than 4 - 5 % gold can become brittle. The joint surface is dull - looking.
Gold reacts with both tin and lead in their liquid state, forming brittle intermetallics. When eutectic 63 % tin -- 37 % lead solder is used, no lead - gold compounds are formed, because gold preferentially reacts with tin, forming the AuSn compound. Particles of AuSn disperse in the solder matrix, forming preferential cleavage planes, significantly lowering the mechanical strength and therefore reliability of the resulting solder joints.
If the gold layer does not completely dissolve into the solder, then slow intermetallic reactions can proceed in the solid state as the tin and gold atoms cross-migrate. Intermetallics have poor electrical conductivity and low strength. The ongoing intermetallic reactions also cause Kirkendall effect, leading to mechanical failure of the joint, similar to the degradation of gold - aluminium bonds known as purple plague.
A 2 - 3 μm layer of gold dissolves completely within one second during typical wave soldering conditions. Layers of gold thinner than 0.5 μm (0.02 thou) also dissolve completely into the solder, exposing the underlying metal (usually nickel) to the solder. Impurities in the nickel layer can prevent the solder from bonding to it. Electroless nickel plating contains phosphorus. Nickel with more than 8 % phosphorus is not solderable. Electrodeposited nickel may contain nickel hydroxide. An acid bath is required to remove the passivation layer before applying the gold layer; improper cleaning leads to a nickel surface difficult to solder. A stronger flux can help, as it aids dissolving the oxide deposits. Carbon is another nickel contaminant that hinders solderability.
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little witch academia chamber of time limited edition | Little Witch Academia: Chamber of Time - Wikipedia
Little Witch Academia: Chamber of Time is an action role - playing video game developed by A+ Games and published by Bandai Namco Entertainment. Based on the anime franchise Little Witch Academia, the game was first released on the PlayStation 4 in Japan November 30, 2017. As of February 20 the game is up for preorder worldwide on the PlayStation 4 with an exclusive preorder mini-game and theme, the game will be released worldwide on PlayStation 4 and Microsoft Windows February 20th, 2018.
The side - scrolling action game lets players control the anime 's protagonist, witch - in - training Akko, accompanied by her friends Sucy and Lotte, as she explores her magical academy. A limited edition with additional material, including an audio drama and an artbook, will be released in Japan. The game will also feature animated cutscenes by Studio Trigger, the creators of the anime.
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what types of designs were painted on early greek vases | Pottery of ancient Greece - wikipedia
Ancient Greek pottery, due to its relative durability, comprises a large part of the archaeological record of ancient Greece, and since there is so much of it (over 100,000 painted vases are recorded in the Corpus vasorum antiquorum), it has exerted a disproportionately large influence on our understanding of Greek society. The shards of pots discarded or buried in the 1st millennium BC are still the best guide available to understand the customary life and mind of the ancient Greeks. There were several vessels produced locally for everyday and kitchen use, yet finer pottery from regions such as Attica was imported by other civilizations throughout the Mediterranean, such as the Etruscans in Italy. There were various specific regional varieties, such as the South Italian ancient Greek pottery.
Throughout these places, various types and shapes of vases were used. Not all were purely utilitarian; large Geometric amphorae were used as grave markers, kraters in Apulia served as tomb offerings and Panathenaic Amphorae seem to have been looked on partly as objets d'art, as were later terracotta figurines. Some were highly decorative and meant for elite consumption and domestic beautification as much as serving a storage or other function, such as the krater with its usual use in diluting wine.
Earlier Greek styles of pottery, called "Aegean '' rather than "Ancient Greek '', include Minoan pottery, very sophisticated by its final stages, Cycladic pottery, Minyan ware and then Mycenaean pottery in the Bronze Age, followed by the cultural disruption of the Greek Dark Age. As the culture recovered Sub-Mycenaean pottery finally blended into the Protogeometric style, which begins Ancient Greek pottery proper.
The rise of vase painting saw increasing decoration. Geometric art in Greek pottery was contiguous with the late Dark Age and early Archaic Greece, which saw the rise of the Orientalizing period. The pottery produced in Archaic and Classical Greece included at first black - figure pottery, yet other styles emerged such as red - figure pottery and the white ground technique. Styles such as West Slope Ware were characteristic of the subsequent Hellenistic period, which saw vase painting 's decline.
Interest in Greek art lagged behind the revival of classical scholarship during the Renaissance and revived in the academic circle round Nicholas Poussin in Rome in the 1630s. Though modest collections of vases recovered from ancient tombs in Italy were made in the 15th and 16th centuries these were regarded as Etruscan. It is possible that Lorenzo de Medici bought several Attic vases directly from Greece; however the connection between them and the examples excavated in central Italy was not made until much later. Winckelmann 's Geschichte der Kunst des Alterthums of 1764 first refuted the Etruscan origin of what we now know to be Greek pottery yet Sir William Hamilton 's two collections, one lost at sea the other now in the British Museum, were still published as "Etruscan vases ''; it would take until 1837 with Stackelberg 's Gräber der Hellenen to conclusively end the controversy.
Much of the early study of Greek vases took the form of production of albums of the images they depict, however neither D'Hancarville's nor Tischbein 's folios record the shapes or attempt to supply a date and are therefore unreliable as an archaeological record. Serious attempts at scholary study made steady progress over the 19th century starting with the founding of the Instituto di Corrispondenza in Rome in 1828 (later the German Archaeological Institute), followed by Eduard Gerhard 's pioneering study Auserlesene Griechische Vasenbilder (1840 to 1858), the establishment of the journal Archaeologische Zeitung in 1843 and the Ecole d'Athens 1846. It was Gerhard who first outlined the chronology we now use, namely: Orientalizing (Geometric, Archaic), Black Figure, Red Figure, Polychromatic (Hellenistic).
Finally it was Otto Jahn 's 1854 catalogue Vasensammlung of the Pinakothek, Munich, that set the standard for the scientific description of Greek pottery, recording the shapes and inscriptions with a previously unseen fastidousness. Jahn 's study was the standard textbook on the history and chronology of Greek pottery for many years, yet in common with Gerhard he dated the introduction of the red figure technique to a century later than was in fact the case. This error was corrected when the Aρχαιολογικη ' Εταιρεια undertook the excavation of the Acropolis in 1885 and discovered the so - called "Persian debris '' of red figure pots destroyed by Persian invaders in 480 BC. With a more soundly established chronology it was possible for Adolf Furtwängler and his students in the 1880s and 90s to date the strata of his archaeological digs by the nature of the pottery found within them, a method of seriation Flinders Petrie was later to apply to unpainted Egyptian pottery.
Where the 19th century was a period of discovery and the laying out of first principles, the 20th century has been one of consolidation and intellectual industry. Efforts to record and publish the totality of public collections of vases began with the creation of the Corpus vasorum antiquorum under Edmond Pottier and the Beazley archive of John Beazley.
Beazley and others following him have also studied fragments of Greek pottery in institutional collections, and have attributed many painted pieces to individual artists. Scholars have called these fragments disjecta membra (Latin for "scattered parts '') and in a number of instances have been able to identify fragments now in different collections that belong to the same vase.
The names we use for Greek vase shapes are often a matter of convention rather than historical fact, a few do illustrate their own use or are labeled with their original names, others are the result of early archaeologists attempt to reconcile the physical object with a known name from Greek literature -- not always successfully. To understand the relationship between form and function Greek pottery may be divided in four broad categories, given here with common types:
Some vase shapes were especially associated with rituals, others with athletics and the gymnasium. Within each category the forms are roughly the same in scale and whether open or closed, where there is uncertainty we can make good proximate guesses of what use a piece would have served. Some have a purely ritual function, for example white ground lekythoi contained the oil used as funerary offerings and appear to have been made solely with that object in mind. Many examples have a concealed second cup inside them to give the impression of being full of oil, as such they would have served no other useful gain.
There was an international market for Greek pottery since the 8th century BC, which Athens and Corinth dominated down to the end of the 4th century BC. An idea of the extent of this trade can be gleaned from plotting the find maps of these vases outside of Greece, though this could not account for gifts or immigration. Only the existence of a second hand market could account for the number of panathenaics found in Etruscan tombs. South Italian wares came to dominate the export trade in the Western Mediterranean as Athens declined in political importance during the Hellenistic period.
The process of making a pot and firing it is fairly simple. The first thing a potter needs is clay. Attica 's high - iron clay gave its pots an orange color.
When clay is first dug out of the ground it is full of rocks and shells and other useless items that need to be removed. To do this the potter mixes the clay with water and lets all the impurities sink to the bottom. This is called levigation or elutriation. This process can be done many times. The more times this is done, the smoother clay becomes.
The clay is then kneaded by the potter and placed on a wheel. Once the clay is on the wheel the potter can shape it into any of the many shapes shown below, or anything else he desires. Wheel made pottery dates back to roughly 2500 BC where before the coil method of building the walls of the pot was employed. Most Greek vases were wheel - made, though as with the Rhyton mould - made pieces (so - called "plastic '' pieces) are also found and decorative elements either hand formed or by mould were added to thrown pots. More complex pieces were made in parts then assembled when it was leather hard by means of joining with a slip, where the potter returned to the wheel for the final shaping, or turning. Sometimes, a young man helped turn the wheel.
The pots were usually made in sections such as the body and feet and spout. Even the body, if it were larger than 20 centimeters, might be made in separate sections and glued together later with a thin watery clay called slip. After the pot is made then the potter paints it with a very pure black slip made from a specially prepared clay using brushes made from a single hair. It was thus slipped and then incised ready for the kiln.
Previously it was believed that Greek pottery, unlike today 's pottery, was only fired once, but that firing had three stages. New studies instead provide material evidence that the pottery was made with two or more separate firings in which the pottery is subjected to multiple firing stages. The most commonly described sequence of firing stages is one in which the pottery is stacked inside the kiln the potter heats the kiln up to around 800 ° C with all the vents on the sides open to let air in. This turns the pottery and the paint red all over. Once the kiln reaches 800 ° C the vents are closed and the temperature is raised to 950 ° C and then allowed to drop back to 900 ° C. This turns the pottery and the paint all black. The potter then starts the third and final phase by opening the vents and allowing the kiln to cool all the way down. This last phase leaves the slip black but turns the pottery back to red. This happens because when the clay is given air it turns red, but when the black slip is heated to 950 ° C it no longer allows air in. Thus, the slipped area stays black while the bare areas stay red. While the description of a single firing with three stages may seem economical and efficient, it is equally possible that each of these stages was confined to separate firings.
The striking black slip with a metallic sheen, so characteristic of Greek pottery, was a fine suspension (colloidal fraction) of an illitic clay with very low calcium oxide content which was rich in iron oxides and hydroxides, differentiating from that used for the body of the vase in terms of the calcium content, the exact mineral composition and the particle size. This clay suspension was most probably collected in situ from illitic clay beds and was then processed through levigation. To aid in the levigation step, it is likely that the Attic black slip was treated with deflocculants as indicated by trace levels of contaminants to the clay, such as Zn associated with vitriol. This clay suspension was thickened by concentration to a paste and was used for the decoration of the surface of the vase. The paint was applied on the areas intended to become black after firing.
The black color effect was achieved by means of changing the amount of oxygen present during firing. This was done in a process known as three - phase firing and was likely accomplished with multiple firings of the pottery. First, the kiln was heated to around 920 -- 950 ° C, with all vents open bringing oxygen into the firing chamber and turning both pot and slip a reddish - brown (oxidising conditions) due to the formation of hematite (Fe O) in both the paint and the clay body. Then the vent was closed and green wood introduced, creating carbon monoxide which turns the red hematite to black magnetite (Fe O); at this stage the temperature decreases due to incomplete combustion. In a final reoxidizing phase (at about 800 -- 850 ° C) the kiln was opened and oxygen reintroduced causing the unslipped reserved clay to go back to orange - red. In the previous phase, chemical composition of the slipped surface had been altered, so it could no longer be oxidized and remained black. The technique which is mostly known as the "iron reduction technique '' was decoded with the contribution of scholars, ceramists and scientists since the mid 18th century onwards to the end of 20th century, i.e. Comte de Caylus (1752), Durand - Greville (1891), Binns and Fraser (1925), Schumann (1942), Winter (1959), Bimson (1956), Noble (1960, 1965), Hofmann (1962), Oberlies (1968), Pavicevic (1974), Aloupi (1993), Walton (2009), Walton (2014).
The most familiar aspect of ancient Greek pottery is painted vessels of fine quality. These were not the everyday pottery used by most people but were sufficiently cheap to be accessible to a wide range of the population.
Few examples of ancient Greek painting have survived so modern scholars have to trace the development of ancient Greek art partly through ancient Greek vase - painting, which survives in large quantities and is also, with Ancient Greek literature, the best guide we have to the customary life and mind of the ancient Greeks.
Fine painting on Greek pottery goes back to the Minoan pottery and Mycenaean pottery of the Bronze Age, some later examples of which show the ambitious figurative painting that was to become highly developed and typical. After many centuries dominated by styles of geometric decoration, becoming increasingly complex, figurative elements returned in force in the 8th century. From the late 7th century to about 300 BC evolving styles of figure - led painting were at their peak of production and quality and were widely exported.
During the Greek Dark Age, spanning the 11th to 8th centuries BC, the prevalent early style was that of the protogeometric art, predominantly utilizing circular and wavy decorative patterns. This was succeeded in mainland Greece, the Aegean, Anatolia, and Italy by the style of pottery known as geometric art, which employed neat rows of geometric shapes.
The period of Archaic Greece, beginning in the 8th century BC and lasting until the late 5th century BC, saw the birth of Orientalizing period, led largely by ancient Corinth, where the previous stick - figures of the geometric pottery become fleshed out amid motifs that replaced the geometric patterns.
Vases of the protogeometrical period (c. 1050 -- 900 BC) represent the return of craft production after the collapse of the Mycenaean Palace culture and the ensuing Greek dark ages. It is one of the few modes of artistic expression besides jewelry in this period since the sculpture, monumental architecture and mural painting of this era are unknown to us. By 1050 BC life in the Greek peninsula seems to have become sufficiently settled to allow a marked improvement in the production of earthenware. The style is confined to the rendering of circles, triangles, wavy lines and arcs, but placed with evident consideration and notable dexterity, probably aided by compass ' and multiple brushes. The site of Lefkandi is one of our most important sources of ceramics from this period where a cache of grave goods has been found giving evidence of a distinctive Euboian protogeometric style which lasted into the early 8th century.
Geometric art flourished in the 9th and 8th centuries BC. It was characterized by new motifs, breaking with the representation of the Minoan and Mycenaean periods: meanders, triangles and other geometrical decoration (hence the name of the style) as distinct from the predominantly circular figures of the previous style. However, our chronology for this new art form comes from exported wares found in datable contexts overseas.
With the early geometrical style (approximately 900 -- 850 BC) one finds only abstract motifs, in what is called the "Black Dipylon '' style, which is characterized by an extensive use of black varnish, with the Middle Geometrical (approx. 850 -- 770 BC), figurative decoration makes its appearance: they are initially identical bands of animals such as horses, stags, goats, geese, etc. which alternate with the geometrical bands. In parallel, the decoration becomes complicated and becomes increasingly ornate; the painter feels reluctant to leave empty spaces and fills them with meanders or swastikas. This phase is named horror vacui (fear of the empty) and will not cease until the end of geometrical period.
In the middle of the century there begin to appear human figures, the best known representations of which are those of the vases found in Dipylon, one of the cemeteries of Athens. The fragments of these large funerary vases show mainly processions of chariots or warriors or of the funerary scenes: πρόθεσις / prothesis (exposure and lamentation of dead) or ἐκφορά / ekphora (transport of the coffin to the cemetery). The bodies are represented in a geometrical way except for the calves, which are rather protuberant. In the case of soldiers, a shield in form of a diabolo, called "dipylon shield '' because of its characteristic drawing, covers the central part of the body. The legs and the necks of the horses, the wheels of the chariots are represented one beside the other without perspective. The hand of this painter, so called in the absence of signature, is the Dipylon Master, could be identified on several pieces, in particular monumental amphorae.
At the end of the period there appear representations of mythology, probably at the moment when Homer codifies the traditions of Trojan cycle in the Iliad and the Odyssey. Here however the interpretation constitutes a risk for the modern observer: a confrontation between two warriors can be a Homeric duel or simple combat; a failed boat can represent the shipwreck of Odysseus or any hapless sailor.
Lastly, are the local schools that appear in Greece. Production of vases was largely the prerogative of Athens -- it is well attested that as in the proto - geometrical period, in Corinth, Boeotia, Argos, Crete and Cyclades, the painters and potters were satisfied to follow the Attic style. From about the 8th century BC on, they created their own styles, Argos specializing in the figurative scenes, Crete remaining attached to a more strict abstraction.
The orientalizing style was the product of cultural ferment in the Aegean and Eastern Mediterranean of the 8th and 7th centuries BC. Fostered by trade links with the city - states of Asia Minor, the artifacts of the East influenced a highly stylized yet recognizable representational art. Ivories, pottery and metalwork from the Neo-Hittite principalities of northern Syria and Phoenicia found their way to Greece, as did goods from Anatolian Urartu and Phrygia, yet there was little contact with the cultural centers of Egypt or Assyria. The new idiom developed initially in Corinth (as Proto - Corinthian) and later in Athens between 725 BC and 625 BC (as Proto - Attic).
It was characterized by an expanded vocabulary of motifs: sphinx, griffin, lions, etc., as well as a repertory of non-mythological animals arranged in friezes across the belly of the vase. In these friezes, painters also began to apply lotuses or palmettes. Depictions of humans were relatively rare. Those that have been found are figures in silhouette with some incised detail, perhaps the origin of the incised silhouette figures of the black - figure period. There is sufficient detail on these figures to allow scholars to discern a number of different artists ' hands. Geometrical features remained in the style called proto - Corinthian that embraced these orientalizing experiments, yet which coexisted with a conservative sub-geometric style.
The ceramics of Corinth were exported all over Greece, and their technique arrived in Athens, prompting the development of a less markedly Eastern idiom there. During this time described as Proto - Attic, the orientalizing motifs appear but the features remain not very realistic. The painters show a preference for the typical scenes of the Geometrical Period, like processions of chariots. However, they adopt the principle of line drawing to replace the silhouette. In the middle of 7th century BC, there appears the black and white style: black figures on a white zone, accompanied by polychromy to render the color of the flesh or clothing. Clay used in Athens was much more orange than that of Corinth, and so did not lend itself as easily to the representation of flesh. Attic Orientalising Painters include the Analatos Painter, the Mesogeia Painter and the Polyphemos Painter.
Crete, and especially the islands of the Cyclades, are characterized by their attraction to the vases known as "plastic '', i.e. those whose paunch or collar is moulded in the shape of head of an animal or a man. At Aegina, the most popular form of the plastic vase is the head of the griffin. The Melanesian amphoras, manufactured at Paros, exhibit little knowledge of Corinthian developments. They present a marked taste for the epic composition and a horror vacui, which is expressed in an abundance of swastikas and meanders.
Finally one can identify the last major style of the period, that of Wild Goat Style, allotted traditionally to Rhodes because of an important discovery within the necropolis of Kameiros. In fact, it is widespread over all of Asia Minor, with centers of production at Miletos and Chios. Two forms prevail oenochoes, which copied bronze models, and dishes, with or without feet. The decoration is organized in superimposed registers in which stylized animals, in particular of feral goats (from whence the name) pursue each other in friezes. Many decorative motifs (floral triangles, swastikas, etc.) fill the empty spaces.
The subject is dominated mostly by Attic vase painting. Attic production was the first to resume after the Greek Dark Age and influenced the rest of Greece, especially Boeotia, Corinth, the Cyclades (in particular Naxos) and the Ionian colonies in the east Aegean. Production of vases was largely the prerogative of Athens -- it is well attested that in Corinth, Boeotia, Argos, Crete and Cyclades, the painters and potters were satisfied to follow the Attic style.
By the end of the Archaic period the styles of black - figure pottery, red - figure pottery and the white ground technique had become fully established and would continue in use during the era of Classical Greece, from the early 5th to late 4th centuries BC. Corinth was eclipsed by Athenian trends since Athens was the progenitor of both the red - figure and white ground styles.
Black - figure is the most commonly imagined when one thinks about Greek pottery. It was a popular style in ancient Greece for many years. The black - figure period coincides approximately with the era designated by Winckelmann as the middle to late Archaic, from c. 620 to 480 BC. The technique of incising silhouetted figures with enlivening detail which we now call the black - figure method was, as we saw, a Corinthian invention of the 7th century and spread from there to other city states and regions including Sparta, Boeotia, Euboea, the east Greek islands and Athens.
The Corinthian fabric, extensively studied by Humfry Payne and Darrell Amyx, can be traced though the parallel treatment of animal and human figures. The animal motifs have greater prominence on the vase and show the greatest experimentation in the early phase of Corinthian black - figure. As Corinthian artists gained in confidence in their rendering of the human figure the animal frieze declined in size relative to the human scene during the middle to late phase. By the mid-6th century BC, the quality of Corinthian ware had fallen away significantly to the extent that some Corinthian potters would disguise their pots with a red slip in imitation of superior Athenian ware.
At Athens researchers have found the earliest known examples of vase painters signing their work, the first being a dinos by Sophilos (illus. below, BM c. 580), this perhaps indicative of their increasing ambition as artists in producing the monumental work demanded as grave markers, as for example with Kleitias 's François Vase. Many scholars consider the finest work in the style to belong Exekias and the Amasis Painter, who are noted for their feeling for composition and narrative.
Circa 520 BC the red - figure technique was developed and was gradually introduced in the form of the bilingual vase by the Andokides Painter, Oltos and Psiax. Red - figure quickly eclipsed black - figure, yet in the unique form of the Panathanaic Amphora, black - figure continued to be utilised well into the 4th century BC.
The innovation of the red - figure technique was an Athenian invention of the late 6th century. It was quite the opposite of black - figure which had a red background. The ability to render detail by direct painting rather than incision offered new expressive possibilities to artists such as three - quarter profiles, greater anatomical detail and the representation of perspective.
The first generation of red - figure painters worked in both red - and black - figure as well as other methods including Six 's technique and white - ground; the latter was developed at the same time as red - figure. However, within twenty years, experimentation had given way to specialization as seen in the vases of the Pioneer Group, whose figural work was exclusively in red - figure, though they retained the use of black - figure for some early floral ornamentation. The shared values and goals of The Pioneers such as Euphronios and Euthymides signal that they were something approaching a self - conscious movement, though they left behind no testament other than their own work. John Boardman said of the research on their work that "the reconstruction of their careers, common purpose, even rivalries, can be taken as an archaeological triumph ''
The next generation of late Archaic vase painters (c. 500 to 480 BC) brought an increasing naturalism to the style as seen in the gradual change of the profile eye. This phase also sees the specialization of painters into pot and cup painters, with the Berlin and Kleophrades Painters notable in the former category and Douris and Onesimos in the latter.
By the early to high classical era of red - figure painting (c. 480 -- 425 BC), a number of distinct schools had evolved. The mannerists associated with the workshop of Myson and exemplified by the Pan Painter hold to the archaic features of stiff drapery and awkward poses and combine that with exaggerated gestures. By contrast, the school of the Berlin Painter in the form of the Achilles Painter and his peers (who may have been the Berlin Painter 's pupils) favoured a naturalistic pose usually of a single figure against a solid black background or of restrained white - ground lekythoi. Polygnotos and the Kleophon Painter can be included in the school of the Niobid Painter, as their work indicates something of the influence of the Parthenon sculptures both in theme (e.g., Polygnotos 's centauromachy, Brussels, Musées Royaux A. & Hist., A 134) and in feeling for composition.
Toward the end of the century, the "Rich '' style of Attic sculpture as seen in the Nike Balustrade is reflected in contemporary vase painting with an ever - greater attention to incidental detail, such as hair and jewellery. The Meidias Painter is usually most closely identified with this style.
Vase production in Athens stopped around 330 -- 320 BC possibly due to Alexander the Great 's control of the city, and had been in slow decline over the 4th century along with the political fortunes of Athens itself. However, vase production continued in the 4th and 3rd centuries in the Greek colonies of southern Italy where five regional styles may be distinguished. These are the Apulian, Lucanian, Sicilian, Campanian and Paestan. Red - figure work flourished there with the distinctive addition of polychromatic painting and in the case of the Black Sea colony of Panticapeum the gilded work of the Kerch Style. Several noteworthy artists ' work comes down to us including the Darius Painter and the Underworld Painter, both active in the late 4th century, whose crowded polychromatic scenes often essay a complexity of emotion not attempted by earlier painters. Their work represents a late mannerist phase to the achievement of Greek vase painting.
The white - ground technique was developed at the end of the 6th century BC. Unlike the better - known black - figure and red - figure techniques, its coloration was not achieved through the application and firing of slips but through the use of paints and gilding on a surface of white clay. It allowed for a higher level of polychromy than the other techniques, although the vases end up less visually striking. The technique gained great importance during the 5th and 4th centuries, especially in the form of small lekythoi that became typical grave offerings. Important representatives include its inventor, the Achilles Painter, as well as Psiax, the Pistoxenos Painter, and the Thanatos Painter.
Relief and plastic vases became particularly popular in the 4th century BC and continued being manufactured in the Hellenistic period. They were inspired by the so - called "rich style '' developed mainly in Attica after 420 BC. The main features were the multi-figured compositions with use of added colours (pink / reddish, blue, green, gold) and an emphasis on female mythological figures. Theatre and performing constituted yet one more source of inspiration.
Delphi Archaeological Museum has some particularly good examples of this style, including a vase with Aphrodite and Eros. The base is round, cylindrical, and its handle vertical, with bands, covered with black colour. The female figure (Aphrodite) is depicted seated, wearing an himation. Next to her stands a male figure, naked and winged. Both figures wear wreaths made of leaves and their hair preserve traces of golden paint. The features of their faces are stylized. The vase has a white ground and maintains in several parts the traces of bluish, greenish and reddish paint. It dates to the 4th century BC.
In the same room is kept a small lekythos with a plastic decoration, depicting a winged dancer. The figure wears a Persian head cover and an oriental dress, indicating that already in that period oriental dancers, possibly slaves, had become quite fashionable. The figure is also covered with a white colour. The total height of the vase is 18 centimeters and it dates to the 4th century BC.
The Hellenistic period, ushered in by the conquests of Alexander the Great, saw the virtual disappearance of black and red - figure pottery yet also the emergence of new styles such as West Slope Ware in the east, the Centuripe Ware in Sicily, and the Gnathia vases to the west. Outside of mainland Greece other regional Greek traditions developed, such as those in Magna Graecia with the various styles in South Italy, including Apulian, Lucanian, Paestan, Campanian, and Sicilian.
Inscriptions on Greek pottery are of two kinds; the incised (the earliest of which are contemporary with the beginnings of the Greek alphabet in the 8th century BC), and the painted, which only begin to appear a century later. Both forms are relatively common on painted vases until the Hellenistic period when the practice of inscribing pots seems to die out. They are by far most frequently found on Attic pottery.
A number of sub-classes of inscription can be distinguished. Potters and painters occasionally signed their works with epoiesen and egraphsen respectively. Trademarks are found from the start of the 6th century on Corinthian pieces; these may have belonged to an exporting merchant rather than the pottery workfield and this remains a matter of conjecture.) Patrons ' names are also sometimes recorded, as are the names of characters and objects depicted. At times we may find a snatch of dialogue to accompany a scene, as in ' Dysniketos 's horse has won ', announces a herald on a Panathenaic amphora (BM, B 144). More puzzling, however, are the kalos and kalee inscriptions, which might have formed part of courtship ritual in Athenian high society, yet are found on a wide variety of vases not necessarily associated with a social setting. Finally there are abecedaria and nonsense inscriptions, though these are largely confined to black - figure pots.
Greek terracotta figurines were another important type of pottery, initially mostly religious, but increasingly representing purely decorative subjects. Earlier figurines were usually votive offerings at temples.
Several clay vases owed their inspiration to metal forms, which have not survived as much as clay due to being melted down. The alabastron 's name suggests alabaster, stone. The Derveni Krater, from near Thessaloniki, is a large bronze volute krater from about 320 BC, weighing 40 kilograms, and finely decorated with a 32 - centimetre - tall frieze of figures in relief representing Dionysus surrounded by Ariadne and her procession of satyrs and maenads.
Glass was also used, such as in Hellenistic glass.
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when did sputnik 2 come back to earth | Sputnik 2 - wikipedia
Sputnik 2 (Russian pronunciation: (ˈsputjnjɪk), Russian: Спутник - 2, Satellite 2), or Prosteyshiy Sputnik 2 (PS - 2, Russian: Простейший Спутник 2, Elementary Satellite 2) was the second spacecraft launched into Earth orbit, on 3 November 1957, and the first to carry a living animal, a Soviet space dog named Laika, who died a few hours after the launch.
Launched by the U.S.S.R., Sputnik 2 was a 4 - meter (13 foot) high cone - shaped capsule with a base diameter of 2 meters (6.6 feet) that weighed around 500 kg, though it was not designed to separate from the rocket core that brought it to orbit, bringing the total mass in orbit to 7.79 tons. It contained several compartments for radio transmitters, a telemetry system, a programming unit, a regeneration and temperature - control system for the cabin, and scientific instruments. A separate sealed cabin contained the dog Laika.
Engineering and biological data were transmitted using the Tral D telemetry system, transmitting data to Earth for a 15 - minute period during each orbit. Two photometers were on board for measuring solar radiation (ultraviolet and x-ray emissions) and cosmic rays. A 100 line television camera provided images of Laika. Sputnik 2 was launched into space only 32 days after its predecessor Sputnik 1. Due to the huge success of Sputnik 1, Nikita Khrushchev ordered Sergey Korolev back to work creating a Sputnik 2 that needed to be ready for space for the 40th anniversary of the Bolshevik revolution. Many people believed that Khrushchev pushed Korolev into creating Sputnik 2 against his will and advice that it would end in failure, but actually Korolev was more than happy to comply, and he used the excitement from Sputnik 1 to help "accelerate his own plans for exploring space, particularly putting man into orbit ''
Sputnik 2 was part of an idea that included Sputnik 1 that came from Korolev that was approved in January 1957. At that time, it was not clear that the Soviets ' main satellite plan (which would eventually become Sputnik 3) would be able to get to space because of the ongoing issues with the R - 7 ICBM, which would be needed to launch a satellite of that size. "Korolev proposed substituting two ' simple satellites ' for the IGY satellite ''. The choice to launch these two instead of waiting for the more advanced Sputnik 3 to be finished was largely motivated by the desire to launch a satellite to orbit before the US.
Sputnik 2, known to Korolev 's design bureau as "Prosteyshiy Sputnik - 2 '', meaning "Simple Satellite 2 '', was launched into a 212 × 1660 km (132 × 1031 mi) orbit with a period of 103.7 minutes on a modified ICBM R - 7, similar to the one used to launch Sputnik 1.
Sputnik 2 's launch vehicle had several modifications for the mission. These included modifying the launch trajectory to utilize propellant more efficiently and removing some flight control components to reduce weight. In addition, the core stage would be burned to propellant depletion instead of cutting off at a preset time. The telemetry system at engine cutoff would be switched from monitoring the booster 's parameters to those of the capsule. It was also designed to only transmit data for ten minutes at a time every 90 minutes, so as to prevent battery power from being used up sending data while the spacecraft was out of range of Soviet tracking stations. The interstage section between the booster and capsule was highly polished and equipped with thermal blankets so as to reflect off sunlight and keep the latter cool, also several deployable reflectors were mounted on the core stage. A braking nozzle was added to the core stage to prevent it from tumbling in orbit; this would work by venting excess helium gas from the propellant tank pressurization system. Several RD - 107 engines were test - fired, with the best - performing units being selected for use on Sputnik 2 's booster. The launch vehicle arrived at Baikonur on October 22, along with various parts of the capsule. On November 1, the booster was erected on LC - 1.
Ten dogs were considered for the mission, with the final selection being narrowed down to three, Laika being the flight animal, Albina the backup, and Muhka, used to test equipment.
Liftoff took place at about 5: 30 PM Moscow time on November 3. Booster performance was nominal and the command to terminate core stage thrust was issued at T + 297 seconds, just as onboard sensors detected LOX depletion. The booster and capsule entered a 225 km × 1,671 km (140 mi × 1,038 mi) orbit at a 65 degree inclination.
During the first two orbits, it proved difficult to reliably track Sputnik 2 's flight path, but ground controllers were able to intercept theodolite data from an American tracking station in Perth, Australia. Data showed that Laika 's heart rate and breathing spiked rapidly during ascent, but she otherwise reached orbit largely unscathed. Official Soviet press releases stated that Laika survived a week in orbit, but information released in the post-Soviet era indicated that she died only a few hours into the mission. Other sources suggested it had been four days before the dog succumbed to overheating and carbon dioxide buildup.
Telemetry data indicated that Laika 's vital signs were normal for the first three orbits, but during the fourth orbit, the cabin temperature rose to 43 ° C (109 ° F) followed by movements of the dog. Data received on the second day showed no signs of breathing, heart rate, or blood pressure, but the cardio sensor was still registering a heart beat. By the morning of November 6, there were no signs of life in the capsule. On November 10, the batteries in the spacecraft ran out and all data transmission ceased, after 150 separate telemetry sessions. Sputnik 2 reentered the atmosphere on April 14, 1958 after 162 days in space and about 2500 orbits. Reentry was sighted from the east coast of the United States and surviving debris impacted in the Amazon region of South America.
The flight sparked considerable ethical debate about cruelty to animals, as Laika had been launched with the full knowledge that she could not be recovered and may have suffered a quite unpleasant death from panic and overheating, and even some Soviet space program officials reportedly felt sorry about it. An anonymously - written poem criticizing the mission and the Soviet state was circulated in Moscow.
The R - 7 was also known by its GURVO designation 8K71, as well as the T - 3, M - 104, and Type A. The R - 7 modified for the PS - 2 satellite launch was designated 8k71PS. Unlike Sputnik 1, Sputnik 2 was not designed to detach from the R - 7 sustainer core, since Sputnik 1 's core stage had demonstrated an acceptable orbital lifespan. This allowed the core 's Tral D telemetry system to be used to transmit data, but would lead to speculation that Sputnik 2 had failed to separate. After Sputnik 2 reached orbit, the interior temperature rapidly climbed to over 40 ° C (100 ° F), and Laika survived for only a few hours instead of the planned ten days.
The first living creature (larger than a microbe) to enter orbit was a female mongrel originally named Kudryavka (Little Curly), but later renamed Laika ("Barker ''). Her true pedigree is unknown, although it is generally accepted that she was part husky or other Nordic breed, and possibly part terrier. NASA refers to Laika as a "part - Samoyed terrier ''. Laika was selected from ten candidates at the Air Force Institute of Aviation Medicine, because of her even temperament. She weighed about 6 kg (13 lbs).
The pressurized cabin on Sputnik 2 was padded and allowed enough room for Laika to lie down or stand. An air regeneration system provided oxygen; food and water were dispensed in a gelatinized form. Laika was chained in place and fitted with a harness, a bag to collect waste, and electrodes to monitor vital signs.
Early telemetry indicated Laika was agitated but alive and well, although the cabin temperature had already reached 43 ° C (109 ° F) by the third orbit. Biometric telemetry failed sometime after the fourth orbit. It was initially claimed that Laika had survived in orbit for a week; decades later, Russian sources revealed that Laika likely had survived only a few hours in orbit before dying from overheating.
The mission provided scientists with the first data on the behavior of a living organism in the space environment. Although the time between Sputniks 1 and 2 was only 32 days, the plan to launch a dog was in the works more than a year in advance. The Soviets already had significant experience launching dogs in high altitude rockets, and they used that experience when ordered to quickly get Sputnik 2 into space.
The time after Sputnik 2 was tense for the Americans and exciting for the Soviets. The day after Sputnik 2 went into orbit the Gaither committee met with President Eisenhower to brief him on the current situation. The committee, like much of the U.S., seemed to be in a panic, afraid that they were falling so far behind the Soviets technologically that it would put them in danger of a strike using nuclear weapons.
Unlike most of the U.S., President Eisenhower kept calm through the time afterward just as he did after Sputnik 1 was launched. According to one of the president 's aides, "The president 's burning concern was to keep the country from going hog - wild and from embarking on foolish, costly schemes. '' And by this he was referring to the push from the Gaither committee and others to invest in creating nuclear fallout shelters.
In the U.S.S.R., just six days after the launch of Sputnik 2, on the 40th anniversary of the October revolution, Khrushchev boasted in a speech "Now our first Sputnik is not lonely in its space travels. ''
The Van Allen radiation belt could have received the name "Vernov Belt '' after S.N. Vernov (ru) from Moscow State University. Sputnik 2 detected the Earth 's outer radiation belt in the far northern latitudes, but researchers did not immediately realize the significance of the elevated radiation because Sputnik 2 passed through the Van Allen belt too far out of range of the Soviet tracking stations.
In Australia, Professor Harry Messel intercepted the signals. Other stations in Australia and South America had also been in range and intercepted the signals. However, the Soviets would not release the code that would allow the stations in Australia and South America to read the signals, and without the code, the stations would not cooperate and send the data to the Soviets.
The disagreement cost the Soviets the opportunity to claim one of the most significant findings of the space race at that time, and only after the launch (31 January 1958) of the U.S. satellite Explorer 1 did James Van Allen demonstrate the existence of the radiation belts. In 1958, with Sputnik 3, they began to cooperate, and they confirmed the findings of the U.S. satellites Explorer 1, 3, and 4.
Sputnik 2 reentered the Earth 's atmosphere 14 April 1958, at approximately 0200 hrs, on a line that stretched from New York to the Amazon. Its track was plotted by British ships and 3 "Moon Watch Observations '', from New York. It was said to be glowing and did not develop a tail until it was at latitudes south of 20 degrees North. Estimates put the average length of the tail at about 50 nautical miles. The satellite burned up in the atmosphere.
A copy of Sputnik 2 that was used in testing before the launch is located at the Kansas Cosmosphere and Space Center in Hutchinson, Kansas, USA.
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where was in a big country video filmed | In a Big Country - wikipedia
"In a Big Country '' is a song by Scottish rock band Big Country. It was released in May 1983 as the third single from their debut studio album The Crossing. The song reached No. 17 on the UK Singles Chart in June 1983. It was released in the US in the fall of 1983 and peaked at No. 3 on the Hot Mainstream Rock Tracks and No. 17 on the Billboard Hot 100 in December of that year. It reached its highest overall national position in Canada, hitting number 3 on the RPM Top Singles Chart on 26 November 1983.
The music video for the song received heavy airplay on MTV. It follows the four band members as they track down an unspecified treasure, while constantly being pursued and bested by a woman who appears to be a rival treasure - hunter.
The first half of the video follows the band as they ride through lush green fields on sports three - wheelers and a motorbike while the woman watches them through binoculars. The group soon locates a black box emblazoned with the band 's logo and a map. What is inside the box is never shown. The opening scenes are filmed at the then - derelict Corfe Castle railway station including the ' down ' platform shelter and show the ruins of Corfe Castle in the background. The station is now part of the restored Swanage Railway.
The woman lures them to her by starting a fire in a barn, the smoke drawing the band members ' attention. She (unintentionally and comically) defeats all four with a single punch. They then consult their map and head off again.
The second half of the video takes place at sea in Swanage Bay. The band head towards Swanage Pier where they don wet suits and scuba gear and set out on a motorized inflatable raft. The woman, who has followed them, overtakes them on a jet ski. The band reach their destination at sea, but have apparently no luck in locating the treasure after attempting some underwater diving (however, since nobody in the band was actually scuba certified, this meant having to stay on the surface).
The video concludes with the woman trapped on a small island surrounded by a cliff with a rescue fire burning. The band appears overhead and lead singer Stuart Adamson tosses a rope down the cliff edge. He and drummer Mark descend. Stuart and the woman embrace (perhaps revealing they knew each other and had an ongoing relationship / rivalry) while Mark discovers the black box floating amongst the seaweed in the inlet.
Interspersed throughout the video, in between the action, the band is shown in flannel shirts and blazers performing the song onstage. The video ends on this note, with Stuart dancing and the rest of the band playing.
"In a Big Country '' was covered by American alternative rock band American Authors. The song was recorded by the band for the 2014 single "In a Big Country / You Make My Dreams Come True '', with American alternative rock band The Mowgli 's. The single was released by Island Def Jam on Vinyl on 19 April 2014 as a Record Store Day release. The track appeared as the A-side of the single. It was charted on Billboard in 2014 - 2015.
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who sings the song please don't go | Please Do n't Go - wikipedia
Please Do n't Go may refer to:
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who wrote we are standing on holy ground | Geron Davis - Wikipedia
Geron Davis (1964) is a musician best known as a composer. He was first signed by Meadowgreen Music and best known for penning the song "Holy Ground ''. Davis married partner Becky Davis and have collectively written several songs which include, "In the Presence of Jehovah '', "Mercy Saw Me '', "Send It On Down '', "Holy Of Holies '', "Gentle Hands '', "Peace Speaker '', and "Something About My Praise ''. Davis, also a vocalist, asked his sister Alyson Lovern and her husband Shelton to join him and Becky in forming the group, "Kindred Souls '' and have been performing together for more than ten years. They released their debut album, "Let It Rain, '' in 2002 which gained considerable attention on AC charts.
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how much above sea level is houston texas | Houston - Wikipedia
Houston (/ ˈhjuːstən / (listen) HYOO - stən) is the most populous city in the U.S. state of Texas and the fourth-most populous city in the United States, with a census - estimated 2016 population of 2.303 million within a land area of 599.59 square miles (1,552.9 km). It is also the largest city in the Southern United States, and the seat of Harris County. Located in Southeast Texas near the Gulf of Mexico, it is the principal city of the Greater Houston metro area, which is the fifth-most populated MSA in the United States.
Houston was founded on August 30, 1836, near the banks of Buffalo Bayou (now known as Allen 's Landing) and incorporated as a city on June 5, 1837. The city was named after former General Sam Houston, who was president of the Republic of Texas and had commanded and won at the Battle of San Jacinto 25 miles (40 km) east of where the city was established. The burgeoning port and railroad industry, combined with oil discovery in 1901, has induced continual surges in the city 's population. In the mid-20th century, Houston became the home of the Texas Medical Center -- the world 's largest concentration of healthcare and research institutions -- and NASA 's Johnson Space Center, where the Mission Control Center is located.
Houston 's economy has a broad industrial base in energy, manufacturing, aeronautics, and transportation. Leading in health care sectors and building oilfield equipment, Houston has the second most Fortune 500 headquarters of any U.S. municipality within its city limits (after New York City). The Port of Houston ranks first in the United States in international waterborne tonnage handled and second in total cargo tonnage handled. Nicknamed the "Space City '', Houston is a global city, with strengths in business, international trade, entertainment, culture, media, fashion, science, sports, technology, education, medicine, and research. The city has a population from various ethnic and religious backgrounds and a large and growing international community. Houston is the most diverse city in Texas and has been described as the most racially and ethnically diverse major metropolis in the U.S. It is home to many cultural institutions and exhibits, which attract more than 7 million visitors a year to the Museum District. Houston has an active visual and performing arts scene in the Theater District and offers year - round resident companies in all major performing arts. Houston is home to the Tier 1 research institutions of Rice University and the University of Houston.
On August 26, 1836, two real estate entrepreneurs from New York, Augustus Chapman Allen and John Kirby Allen, purchased 6,642 acres (26.88 km) of land along Buffalo Bayou with the intent of founding a city. According to historian, David McComb, "(T) he brothers, on August 26, 1836, bought from Elizabeth E. Parrott, wife of T.F.L. Parrott and widow of John Austin, the south half of the lower league (2,214 acres of land) granted to her by her late husband. They paid $5,000 total, but only $1,000 of this in cash; notes made up the remainder. '' The Allen brothers decided to name the city after Sam Houston, the popular general at the Battle of San Jacinto, who was elected President of Texas in September 1836. The great majority of slaves in Texas came with their owners from the older slave states. Sizable numbers, however, came through the domestic slave trade. New Orleans was the center of this trade in the Deep South, but slave dealers were in Houston. Thousands of enslaved African Americans lived near the city before the Civil War. Many of them near the city worked on sugar and cotton plantations, while most of those in the city limits had domestic and artisan jobs. Houston was granted incorporation on June 5, 1837, with James S. Holman becoming its first mayor. In the same year, Houston became the county seat of Harrisburg County (now Harris County) and the temporary capital of the Republic of Texas. In 1840, the community established a chamber of commerce in part to promote shipping and waterborne business at the newly created port on Buffalo Bayou.
By 1860, Houston had emerged as a commercial and railroad hub for the export of cotton. Railroad spurs from the Texas inland converged in Houston, where they met rail lines to the ports of Galveston and Beaumont. During the American Civil War, Houston served as a headquarters for General John Bankhead Magruder, who used the city as an organization point for the Battle of Galveston. After the Civil War, Houston businessmen initiated efforts to widen the city 's extensive system of bayous so the city could accept more commerce between downtown and the nearby port of Galveston. By 1890, Houston was the railroad center of Texas.
In 1900, after Galveston was struck by a devastating hurricane, efforts to make Houston into a viable deep - water port were accelerated. The following year, the discovery of oil at the Spindletop oil field near Beaumont prompted the development of the Texas petroleum industry. In 1902, President Theodore Roosevelt approved a $1 - million improvement project for the Houston Ship Channel. By 1910, the city 's population had reached 78,800, almost doubling from a decade before. African Americans formed a large part of the city 's population, numbering 23,929 people, which was nearly one - third of the residents.
President Woodrow Wilson opened the deep - water Port of Houston in 1914, seven years after digging began. By 1930, Houston had become Texas ' most populous city and Harris County the most populous county. In 1940, the Census Bureau reported Houston 's population as 77.5 % white and 22.4 % black.
When World War II started, tonnage levels at the port decreased and shipping activities were suspended; however, the war did provide economic benefits for the city. Petrochemical refineries and manufacturing plants were constructed along the ship channel because of the demand for petroleum and synthetic rubber products by the defense industry during the war. Ellington Field, initially built during World War I, was revitalized as an advanced training center for bombardiers and navigators. The Brown Shipbuilding Company was founded in 1942 to build ships for the U.S. Navy during World War II. Due to the boom in defense jobs, thousands of new workers migrated to the city, both blacks and whites competing for the higher - paying jobs. President Roosevelt had established a policy of nondiscrimination for defense contractors, and blacks gained some opportunities, especially in shipbuilding, although not without resistance from whites and increasing social tensions that erupted into occasional violence. Economic gains of blacks who entered defense industries continued in the postwar years.
In 1945, the M.D. Anderson Foundation formed the Texas Medical Center. After the war, Houston 's economy reverted to being primarily port - driven. In 1948, the city annexed several unincorporated areas, more than doubling its size. Houston proper began to spread across the region.
In 1950, the availability of air conditioning provided impetus for many companies to relocate to Houston, where wages were lower than those in the North; this resulted in an economic boom and produced a key shift in the city 's economy toward the energy sector.
The increased production of the expanded shipbuilding industry during World War II spurred Houston 's growth, as did the establishment in 1961 of NASA 's "Manned Spacecraft Center '' (renamed the Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center in 1973). This was the stimulus for the development of the city 's aerospace industry. The Astrodome, nicknamed the "Eighth Wonder of the World '', opened in 1965 as the world 's first indoor domed sports stadium.
During the late 1970s, Houston had a population boom as people from the Rust Belt states moved to Texas in large numbers. The new residents came for numerous employment opportunities in the petroleum industry, created as a result of the Arab oil embargo. With the increase in professional jobs, Houston has become a destination for many college - educated persons, including African Americans in a reverse Great Migration from northern areas.
In 1997, Houstonians elected Lee P. Brown as the city 's first African American mayor.
In June 2001, Tropical Storm Allison dumped up to 40 inches (1,000 mm) of rain on parts of Houston, causing what was then the worst flooding in the city 's history. The storm cost billions of dollars in damage and killed 20 people in Texas. By December of that same year, Houston - based energy company Enron collapsed into the third - largest ever U.S. bankruptcy during an investigation surrounding fabricated partnerships that were allegedly used to hide debt and inflate profits.
In August 2005, Houston became a shelter to more than 150,000 people from New Orleans, who evacuated from Hurricane Katrina. One month later, about 2.5 million Houston - area residents evacuated when Hurricane Rita approached the Gulf Coast, leaving little damage to the Houston area. This was the largest urban evacuation in the history of the United States. In September 2008, Houston was hit by Hurricane Ike. As many as 40 % of residents refused to leave Galveston Island because they feared the type of traffic problems that had happened after Hurricane Rita.
During the floods in 2015 and 2016, parts of the city were covered in several inches of water.
In 2017, Houston hosted Super Bowl LI. This is the third Super Bowl for the city, with the previous games being held in 1974 and 2004.
In late August 2017, Hurricane Harvey caused severe flooding in the Houston area, with some areas receiving over 50 inches (1,300 mm) of rain. Winds reached up to 145 miles per hour, and rainfall exceeded 50 inches in several areas locally, breaking the national record for rainfall. The total estimated damage from the flash floods is estimated at up to $75 billion U.S. dollars, and it is considered to be one of the worst natural disasters in the history of the United States, with the death toll exceeding 70 people.
Houston is located 165 miles (266 km) east of Austin, 112 miles (180 km) west of the Louisiana border, and 250 miles (400 km) south of Dallas. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 656.3 square miles (1,700 km); this comprises 634.0 square miles (1,642 km) of land and 22.3 square miles (58 km) covered by water. The Piney Woods are north of Houston. Most of Houston is located on the gulf coastal plain, and its vegetation is classified as temperate grassland and forest. Much of the city was built on forested land, marshes, swamp, or prairie which resembles the Deep South, and are all still visible in surrounding areas. The flatness of the local terrain, when combined with urban sprawl, has made flooding a recurring problem for the city. Downtown stands about 50 feet (15 m) above sea level, and the highest point in far northwest Houston is about 125 feet (38 m) in elevation. The city once relied on groundwater for its needs, but land subsidence forced the city to turn to ground - level water sources such as Lake Houston, Lake Conroe, and Lake Livingston. The city owns surface water rights for 1.20 billion gallons of water a day in addition to 150 million gallons a day of groundwater.
Houston has four major bayous passing through the city that accept water from the extensive drainage system. Buffalo Bayou runs through downtown and the Houston Ship Channel, and has three tributaries: White Oak Bayou, which runs through the Houston Heights community northwest of Downtown and then towards Downtown; Brays Bayou, which runs along the Texas Medical Center; and Sims Bayou, which runs through the south of Houston and downtown Houston. The ship channel continues past Galveston and then into the Gulf of Mexico.
Houston is flat marshy area where an extensive drainage system has been built. The adjoining prairie land drains into the city which is prone to flooding. Underpinning Houston 's land surface are unconsolidated clays, clay shales, and poorly cemented sands up to several miles deep. The region 's geology developed from river deposits formed from the erosion of the Rocky Mountains. These sediments consist of a series of sands and clays deposited on decaying organic marine matter, that over time, transformed into oil and natural gas. Beneath the layers of sediment is a water - deposited layer of halite, a rock salt. The porous layers were compressed over time and forced upward. As it pushed upward, the salt dragged surrounding sediments into salt dome formations, often trapping oil and gas that seeped from the surrounding porous sands. The thick, rich, sometimes black, surface soil is suitable for rice farming in suburban outskirts where the city continues to grow.
The Houston area has over 150 active faults (estimated to be 300 active faults) with an aggregate length of up to 310 miles (500 km), including the Long Point -- Eureka Heights fault system which runs through the center of the city. No significant historically recorded earthquakes have occurred in Houston, but researchers do not discount the possibility of such quakes having occurred in the deeper past, nor occurring in the future. Land in some areas southeast of Houston is sinking because water has been pumped out of the ground for many years. It may be associated with slip along the faults; however, the slippage is slow and not considered an earthquake, where stationary faults must slip suddenly enough to create seismic waves. These faults also tend to move at a smooth rate in what is termed "fault creep '', which further reduces the risk of an earthquake.
Houston 's climate is classified as humid subtropical (Cfa in the Köppen climate classification system), typical of the South. While not located in "Tornado Alley '', like much of the rest of Texas, spring supercell thunderstorms sometimes bring tornadoes to the area. Prevailing winds are from the south and southeast during most of the year, which bring heat and moisture from the nearby Gulf of Mexico.
During the summer, temperatures commonly reach over 90 ° F (32 ° C), with an average of 106.5 days per year, including a majority from June to September, with a high of 90 ° F (32 ° C) or above and 4.6 days at or over 100 ° F (38 ° C). However, humidity usually yields a higher heat index. Summer mornings average over 90 % relative humidity. Although sea breezes are present, they do n't offer substantial relief, except in the southeastern areas of the city closer to the Gulf. To cope with the strong humidity and heat, people use air conditioning in nearly every vehicle and building. In 1980, Houston was described as the "most air - conditioned place on earth ''. Officially, the hottest temperature ever recorded in Houston is 109 ° F (43 ° C), which was reached both on September 4, 2000, and August 28, 2011.
Houston has mild winters. In January, the normal mean temperature at Intercontinental Airport is 53.1 ° F (12 ° C), while that station has an average of 13 days with a low at or below freezing. Snowfall is rare. Recent snow events in Houston include a storm on December 24, 2004 when ((convert 1 in cm)) of snow accumulated in parts of the metro area. There was also snowfall on December 8, 2017, when Houston received 0.7 inches (2 cm) of snowfall. Snowfalls of at least 1.0 inch (2.5 cm) on both December 10, 2008, and December 4, 2009, marked the first time measurable snowfall had occurred in two consecutive years in the city 's recorded history. Houston has seen snowfall 35 times between 1985 and 2017. On February 14 and February 15, 1895, Houston received 20 inches (51 cm) of snow, its largest snowfall from one storm on record. The coldest temperature officially recorded in Houston was 5 ° F (− 15 ° C) on January 18, 1930.
Houston has historically received an ample amount of rainfall, averaging about 49.8 in (1,260 mm) annually based on records between 1981 and 2010. Localized flooding often occurs, owing to the extremely flat topography and widespread typical clay - silt prairie soils, which do not drain quickly.
Houston has excessive ozone levels and is routinely ranked among the most ozone - polluted cities in the United States. Ground - level ozone, or smog, is Houston 's predominant air pollution problem, with the American Lung Association rating the metropolitan area 's ozone level twelfth on the "Most Polluted Cities by Ozone '' in 2017, after major cities such as Los Angeles, Phoenix, New York City and Denver. The industries located along the ship channel are a major cause of the city 's air pollution. However, it should be noted that the rankings are in terms of peak - based standards, focusing strictly on the worst days of the year; the average ozone levels in Houston are lower than what is seen in most other areas of the country, as dominant winds ensure clean, marine air from the Gulf.
As of August 27, 2017, Houston and its surrounding areas received intense flash flooding due to Hurricane Harvey.
Houston was incorporated in 1837 under the ward system of representation. The ward designation is the progenitor of the 11 current - day geographically oriented Houston City Council districts. Locations in Houston are generally classified as either being inside or outside the Interstate 610 Loop. The inside encompasses the central business district and many pre-World - War - II residential neighborhoods. More recently, high - density residential areas have been developed within the loop. The city 's outlying areas, suburbs, and enclaves are located outside the loop. Beltway 8 encircles the city another 5 miles (8.0 km) farther out.
Though Houston is the largest city in the United States without formal zoning regulations, it has developed similarly to other Sun Belt cities because the city 's land use regulations and legal covenants have played a similar role. Regulations include mandatory lot size for single - family houses and requirements that parking be available to tenants and customers. Such restrictions have had mixed results. Though some have blamed the city 's low density, urban sprawl, and lack of pedestrian - friendliness on these policies, the city 's land use has also been credited with having significant affordable housing, sparing Houston the worst effects of the 2008 real estate crisis. The city issued 42,697 building permits in 2008 and was ranked first in the list of healthiest housing markets for 2009.
Voters rejected efforts to have separate residential and commercial land - use districts in 1948, 1962, and 1993. Consequently, rather than a single central business district as the center of the city 's employment, multiple districts have grown throughout the city in addition to downtown which include Uptown, Texas Medical Center, Midtown, Greenway Plaza, Memorial City, Energy Corridor, Westchase, and Greenspoint.
Houston has the fourth - tallest skyline in North America (after New York City, Chicago, and Toronto) and 12th - tallest in the world, as of 2014. A seven - mile (11 km) system of tunnels and skywalks links downtown buildings containing shops and restaurants, enabling pedestrians to avoid summer heat and rain while walking between buildings.
In the 1960s, Downtown Houston consisted of a collection of midrise office structures. Downtown was on the threshold of an energy industry -- led boom in 1970. A succession of skyscrapers was built throughout the 1970s -- many by real estate developer Gerald D. Hines -- culminating with Houston 's tallest skyscraper, the 75 - floor, 1,002 - foot (305 m) - tall JPMorgan Chase Tower (formerly the Texas Commerce Tower), completed in 1982. It is the tallest structure in Texas, 15th tallest building in the United States, and the 85th - tallest skyscraper in the world, based on highest architectural feature. In 1983, the 71 - floor, 992 - foot (302 m) - tall Wells Fargo Plaza (formerly Allied Bank Plaza) was completed, becoming the second - tallest building in Houston and Texas. Based on highest architectural feature, it is the 17th - tallest in the United States and the 95th - tallest in the world. In 2007, downtown Houston had over 43 million square feet (4,000,000 m2) of office space.
Centered on Post Oak Boulevard and Westheimer Road, the Uptown District boomed during the 1970s and early 1980s when a collection of midrise office buildings, hotels, and retail developments appeared along Interstate 610 West. Uptown became one of the most prominent instances of an edge city. The tallest building in Uptown is the 64 - floor, 901 - foot (275 m) - tall, Philip Johnson and John Burgee designed landmark Williams Tower (known as the Transco Tower until 1999). At the time of construction, it was believed to be the world 's tallest skyscraper outside a central business district. The new 20 - story Skanska building and BBVA Compass Plaza are the newest office buildings built in Uptown after 30 years. The Uptown District is also home to buildings designed by noted architects I.M. Pei, César Pelli, and Philip Johnson. In the late 1990s and early 2000s, a mini-boom of midrise and highrise residential tower construction occurred, with several over 30 stories tall. Since 2000 more than 30 high - rise buildings have gone up in Houston; all told, 72 high - rises tower over the city, which adds up to about 8,300 units. In 2002, Uptown had more than 23 million square feet (2,100,000 m2) of office space with 16 million square feet (1,500,000 m2) of class A office space.
The Niels Esperson Building stood as the tallest building in Houston from 1927 to 1929.
The JPMorgan Chase Tower is the tallest building in Texas and the tallest 5 - sided building in the world.
The Williams Tower is the tallest building in the US outside a central business district.
The Bank of America Center by Philip Johnson is an example of postmodern architecture.
JPMorgan Chase Tower in Houston, Texas is the tallest composite building in the world.
Greater Houston is the most ethnically diverse metropolitan area in the country. In the Houston region, non-Hispanic whites make up 38 percent of the population, Hispanics 36 percent, African - Americans 17 percent and Asians 9 percent.
Houston is multicultural, in part because of its many academic institutions and strong industries, as well as being a major port city. Over 90 languages are spoken in the city. It has among the youngest populations in the nation, partly due to an influx of immigrants into Texas. An estimated 400,000 undocumented immigrants reside in the Houston area.
According to the 2010 U.S. Census, whites made up 51 % of Houston 's population; 26 % of the total population was non-Hispanic Whites. Blacks or African Americans made up 25 % of Houston 's population. American Indians made up 0.7 % of the population. Asians made up 6 % (1.7 % Vietnamese, 1.3 % Chinese, 1.3 % Indian, 0.9 % Pakistani, 0.4 % Filipino, 0.3 % Korean, 0.1 % Japanese), while Pacific Islanders made up 0.1 %. Individuals from some other race made up 15.2 % of the city 's population, of which 0.2 % were non-Hispanic. Individuals from two or more races made up 3.3 % of the city. At the 2000 Census, 1,953,631 people inhabited the city, and the population density was 3,371.7 people per square mile (1,301.8 / km2). The racial makeup of the city was 49.3 % White, 25.3 % African American, 6.3 % Asian, 0.7 % American Indian, 0.1 % Pacific Islander, 16.5 % from some other race, and 3.1 % from two or more races. In addition, Hispanics made up 37.4 % of Houston 's population, while non-Hispanic Whites made up 30.8 %, down from 62.4 % in 1970.
The median income for a household in the city was $37,000, and for a family was $40,000. Males had a median income of $32,000 versus $27,000 for females. The per capita income was $20,000. About 19 % of the population and 16 % of families were below the poverty line. Of the total population, 26 % of those under the age of 18 and 14 % of those 65 and older were living below the poverty line.
According to a 2014 study by the Pew Research Center, 73 % of the population of the city identified themselves as Christians, with 50 % professing attendance at a variety of churches that could be considered Protestant, and 19 % professing Roman Catholic beliefs. while 20 % claim no religious affiliation. The same study says that other religions (including Judaism, Buddhism, Islam, and Hinduism) collectively make up about 7 % of the population
Houston is recognized worldwide for its energy industry -- particularly for oil and natural gas -- as well as for biomedical research and aeronautics. Renewable energy sources -- wind and solar -- are also growing economic bases in the city. The Houston Ship Channel is also a large part of Houston 's economic base. Because of these strengths, Houston is designated as a global city by the Globalization and World Cities Study Group and Network and global management consulting firm A.T. Kearney. The Houston area is the top U.S. market for exports, surpassing New York City in 2013, according to data released by the U.S. Department of Commerce 's International Trade Administration. In 2012, the Houston -- The Woodlands -- Sugar Land area recorded $110.3 billion in merchandise exports. Petroleum products, chemicals, and oil and gas extraction equipment accounted for roughly two - thirds of the metropolitan area 's exports last year. The top three destinations for exports were Mexico, Canada, and Brazil.
The Houston area is a leading center for building oilfield equipment. Much of its success as a petrochemical complex is due to its busy ship channel, the Port of Houston. In the United States, the port ranks first in international commerce and 10th among the largest ports in the world. Unlike most places, high oil and gasoline prices are beneficial for Houston 's economy, as many of its residents are employed in the energy industry. Houston is the beginning or end point of numerous oil, gas, and products pipelines:
The Houston -- The Woodlands -- Sugar Land MSA 's gross domestic product (GDP) in 2012 was $489 billion, making it the fourth - largest of any metropolitan area in the United States and larger than Austria 's, Venezuela 's, or South Africa 's GDP. Only 26 countries other than the United States have a gross domestic product exceeding Houston 's regional gross area product (GAP). In 2010, mining (which consists almost entirely of exploration and production of oil and gas in Houston) accounted for 26.3 % of Houston 's GAP up sharply in response to high energy prices and a decreased worldwide surplus of oil production capacity, followed by engineering services, health services, and manufacturing.
The University of Houston System 's annual impact on the Houston area 's economy equates to that of a major corporation: $1.1 billion in new funds attracted annually to the Houston area, $3.13 billion in total economic benefit, and 24,000 local jobs generated. This is in addition to the 12,500 new graduates the U.H. System produces every year who enter the workforce in Houston and throughout the state of Texas. These degree - holders tend to stay in Houston. After five years, 80.5 % of graduates are still living and working in the region.
In 2006, the Houston metropolitan area ranked first in Texas and third in the U.S. within the category of "Best Places for Business and Careers '' by Forbes magazine. Foreign governments have established 92 consular offices in Houston 's metropolitan area, the third - highest in the nation. Forty foreign governments maintain trade and commercial offices here with 23 active foreign chambers of commerce and trade associations. Twenty - five foreign banks representing 13 nations operate in Houston, providing financial assistance to the international community.
In 2008, Houston received top ranking on Kiplinger 's Personal Finance Best Cities of 2008 list, which ranks cities on their local economy, employment opportunities, reasonable living costs, and quality of life. The city ranked fourth for highest increase in the local technological innovation over the preceding 15 years, according to Forbes magazine. In the same year, the city ranked second on the annual Fortune 500 list of company headquarters, first for Forbes magazine 's Best Cities for College Graduates, and first on their list of Best Cities to Buy a Home. In 2010, the city was rated the best city for shopping, according to Forbes.
In 2012, the city was ranked number one for paycheck worth by Forbes and in late May 2013, Houston was identified as America 's top city for employment creation.
In 2013, Houston was identified as the number one U.S. city for job creation by the U.S. Bureau of Statistics after it was not only the first major city to regain all the jobs lost in the preceding economic downturn, but also after the crash, more than two jobs were added for every one lost. Economist and vice president of research at the Greater Houston Partnership Patrick Jankowski attributed Houston 's success to the ability of the region 's real estate and energy industries to learn from historical mistakes. Furthermore, Jankowski stated that "more than 100 foreign - owned companies relocated, expanded or started new businesses in Houston '' between 2008 and 2010, and this openness to external business boosted job creation during a period when domestic demand was problematically low. Also in 2013, Houston again appeared on Forbes ' list of Best Places for Business and Careers.
Located in the American South, Houston is a diverse city with a large and growing international community. The Houston Metropolitan area is home to an estimated 1.1 million (21.4 percent) residents who were born outside the United States, with nearly two - thirds of the area 's foreign - born population from south of the United States -- Mexico border. Additionally, more than one in five foreign - born residents are from Asia. The city is home to the nation 's third - largest concentration of consular offices, representing 86 countries.
Many annual events celebrate the diverse cultures of Houston. The largest and longest - running is the annual Houston Livestock Show and Rodeo, held over 20 days from early to late March, and is the largest annual livestock show and rodeo in the world. Another large celebration is the annual night - time Houston Pride Parade, held at the end of June. Other annual events include the Houston Greek Festival, Art Car Parade, the Houston Auto Show, the Houston International Festival, and the Bayou City Art Festival, which is considered to be one of the top five art festivals in the United States.
Houston received the official nickname of "Space City '' in 1967 because it is the location of NASA 's Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center. Other nicknames often used by locals include "Bayou City '', "Clutch City '', "Magnolia City '', and "H - Town ''.
The Houston Theater District, located downtown, is home to nine major performing arts organizations and six performance halls. It is the second - largest concentration of theater seats in a downtown area in the United States. Houston is one of few United States cities with permanent, professional, resident companies in all major performing arts disciplines: opera (Houston Grand Opera), ballet (Houston Ballet), music (Houston Symphony Orchestra), and theater (The Alley Theatre, Theatre Under the Stars). Houston is also home to folk artists, art groups and various small progressive arts organizations. Houston attracts many touring Broadway acts, concerts, shows, and exhibitions for a variety of interests. Facilities in the Theater District include the Jones Hall -- home of the Houston Symphony Orchestra and Society for the Performing Arts -- and the Hobby Center for the Performing Arts.
The Museum District 's cultural institutions and exhibits attract more than 7 million visitors a year. Notable facilities include The Museum of Fine Arts, Houston Museum of Natural Science, the Contemporary Arts Museum Houston, the Station Museum of Contemporary Art, Holocaust Museum Houston, and the Houston Zoo. Located near the Museum District are The Menil Collection, Rothko Chapel, and the Byzantine Fresco Chapel Museum.
Bayou Bend is a 14 - acre (5.7 ha) facility of the Museum of Fine Arts that houses one of America 's most prominent collections of decorative art, paintings, and furniture. Bayou Bend is the former home of Houston philanthropist Ima Hogg.
The National Museum of Funeral History is located in Houston near the George Bush Intercontinental Airport. The museum houses the original Popemobile used by Pope John Paul II in the 1980s along with numerous hearses, embalming displays, and information on famous funerals.
Venues across Houston regularly host local and touring rock, blues, country, dubstep, and Tejano musical acts. While Houston has never been widely known for its music scene, Houston hip - hop has become a significant, independent music scene that is influential nationwide.
The Theater District is a 17 - block area in the center of downtown Houston that is home to the Bayou Place entertainment complex, restaurants, movies, plazas, and parks. Bayou Place is a large multilevel building containing full - service restaurants, bars, live music, billiards, and Sundance Cinema. The Bayou Music Center stages live concerts, stage plays, and stand - up comedy. Space Center Houston is the official visitors ' center of NASA 's Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center. The Space Center has many interactive exhibits including moon rocks, a shuttle simulator, and presentations about the history of NASA 's manned space flight program. Other tourist attractions include the Galleria (Texas 's largest shopping mall, located in the Uptown District), Old Market Square, the Downtown Aquarium, and Sam Houston Race Park.
Of worthy mention are Houston 's current Chinatown and the Mahatma Gandhi District. Both areas offer a picturesque view of Houston 's multicultural makeup. Restaurants, bakeries, traditional - clothing boutiques, and specialty shops can be found in both areas.
Houston is home to 337 parks, including Hermann Park, Terry Hershey Park, Lake Houston Park, Memorial Park, Tranquility Park, Sesquicentennial Park, Discovery Green, and Sam Houston Park. Within Hermann Park are the Houston Zoo and the Houston Museum of Natural Science. Sam Houston Park contains restored and reconstructed homes which were originally built between 1823 and 1905. A proposal has been made to open the city 's first botanic garden at Herman Brown Park.
Of the 10 most populous U.S. cities, Houston has the most total area of parks and green space, 56,405 acres (228 km). The city also has over 200 additional green spaces -- totaling over 19,600 acres (79 km) that are managed by the city -- including the Houston Arboretum and Nature Center. The Lee and Joe Jamail Skatepark is a public skatepark owned and operated by the city of Houston, and is one of the largest skateparks in Texas consisting of a 30,000 - ft (2,800 m) in - ground facility. The Gerald D. Hines Waterwall Park -- located in the Uptown District of the city -- serves as a popular tourist attraction and for weddings and various celebrations. A 2011 study by Walk Score ranked Houston the 23rd most walkable of the 50 largest cities in the United States. Wet'n'Wild SplashTown is a water park located north of Houston.
The Bayport Cruise Terminal on the Houston Ship Channel is port of call for both Princess Cruises and Norwegian Cruise Line.
Houston has sports teams for every major professional league except the National Hockey League. The Houston Astros are a Major League Baseball expansion team formed in 1962 (known as the "Colt. 45s '' until 1965) that won the World Series in 2017 and previously appeared in 2005. It is the only MLB team to have won pennants in both modern leagues. The Houston Rockets are a National Basketball Association franchise based in the city since 1971. They have won two NBA Championships: in 1994 and 1995 under star players Hakeem Olajuwon, Otis Thorpe, Clyde Drexler, Vernon Maxwell, and Kenny Smith. The Houston Texans are a National Football League expansion team formed in 2002. The Houston Dynamo is a Major League Soccer franchise that has been based in Houston since 2006, winning two MLS Cup titles in 2006 and 2007. The Houston Dash team plays in the National Women 's Soccer League. The Scrap Yard Dawgs, a women 's professional softball team, are expected to play in the National Pro Fastpitch from 2016. They 're the 2017 NPF champions.
Minute Maid Park (home of the Astros) and Toyota Center (home of the Rockets), are located in downtown Houston. Houston has the NFL 's first retractable - roof stadium with natural grass, NRG Stadium (home of the Texans). Minute Maid Park is also a retractable - roof stadium. Toyota Center also has the largest screen for an indoor arena in the United States built to coincide with the arena 's hosting of the 2013 NBA All - Star Game. BBVA Compass Stadium is a soccer - specific stadium for the Houston Dynamo, the Texas Southern Tigers football team, and Houston Dash, located in East Downtown. In addition, NRG Astrodome was the first indoor stadium in the world, built in 1965. Other sports facilities include Hofheinz Pavilion (Houston Cougars basketball), Rice Stadium (Rice Owls football), and Reliant Arena. TDECU Stadium is where the University of Houston Houston Cougars football team plays. Houston has hosted several major sports events: the 1968, 1986 and 2004 Major League Baseball All - Star Games; the 1989, 2006 and 2013 NBA All - Star Games; Super Bowl VIII and Super Bowl XXXVIII, as well as hosting the 2005 World Series and 1981, 1986, 1994 and 1995 NBA Finals, winning the latter two. NRG Stadium hosted Super Bowl LI on February 5, 2017.
The city has hosted several major professional and college sporting events, including the annual Houston Open golf tournament. Houston hosts the annual Houston College Classic baseball tournament every February and the Texas Bowl in December.
The Grand Prix of Houston, an annual auto race on the IndyCar Series circuit is held on a 1.7 - mile temporary street circuit in Reliant Park. The October 2013 event was held using a tweaked version of the 2006 -- 2007 course. The event has a 5 - year race contract through 2017 with IndyCar. In motorcycling, the Astrodome hosted an AMA Supercross Championship round from 1974 to 2003 and the NRG Stadium since 2003.
The city of Houston has a strong mayoral form of municipal government. Houston is a home rule city and all municipal elections in the state of Texas are nonpartisan. The city 's elected officials are the mayor, city controller and 16 members of the Houston City Council. The current mayor of Houston is Sylvester Turner, a Democrat elected on a nonpartisan ballot. Houston 's mayor serves as the city 's chief administrator, executive officer, and official representative, and is responsible for the general management of the city and for seeing that all laws and ordinances are enforced.
The original city council line - up of 14 members (nine district - based and five at - large positions) was based on a U.S. Justice Department mandate which took effect in 1979. At - large council members represent the entire city. Under the city charter, once the population in the city limits exceeded 2.1 million residents, two additional districts were to be added. The city of Houston 's official 2010 census count was 600 shy of the required number; however, as the city was expected to grow beyond 2.1 million shortly thereafter, the two additional districts were added for, and the positions filled during, the August 2011 elections.
The city controller is elected independently of the mayor and council. The controller 's duties are to certify available funds prior to committing such funds and processing disbursements. The city 's fiscal year begins on July 1 and ends on June 30. Chris Brown is the city controller, serving his first term as of January 2016.
As the result of a 2015 referendum in Houston, a mayor is elected for a four - year term, and can be elected to as many as two consecutive terms. The term limits were spearheaded in 1991 by conservative political activist Clymer Wright. During 1991 -- 2015, the city controller and city council members were subjected to a two - year, three - term limitation -- the 2015 referendum amended term limits to two four - year terms. As of 2017 some councilmembers who served two terms and won a final term will have served eight years in office, whereas a freshman councilmember who won a position in 2013 can serve up to two additional terms under the previous term limit law -- a select few will have at least 10 years of incumbency once their term expires.
Houston is considered to be a politically divided city whose balance of power often sways between Republicans and Democrats. Much of the city 's wealthier areas vote Republican while the city 's working class and minority areas vote Democratic. According to the 2005 Houston Area Survey, 68 percent of non-Hispanic whites in Harris County are declared or favor Republicans while 89 percent of non-Hispanic blacks in the area are declared or favor Democrats. About 62 percent of Hispanics (of any race) in the area are declared or favor Democrats. The city has often been known to be the most politically diverse city in Texas, a state known for being generally conservative. As a result, the city is often a contested area in statewide elections. In 2009, Houston became the first US city with a population over 1 million citizens to elect a gay mayor, by electing Annise Parker.
Houston had 303 homicides in 2015 and 302 homicides in 2016. Officials predicted there would be 323 homicides in 2016. Instead, there was no increase in Houston 's homicide rate between 2015 and 2016.
Houston 's murder rate ranked 46th of U.S. cities with a population over 250,000 in 2005 (per capita rate of 16.3 murders per 100,000 population). In 2010, the city 's murder rate (per capita rate of 11.8 murders per 100,000 population) was ranked sixth among U.S. cities with a population of over 750,000 (behind New York City, Chicago, Detroit, Dallas, and Philadelphia) according to the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). Murders fell by 37 percent from January to June 2011, compared with the same period in 2010. Houston 's total crime rate including violent and nonviolent crimes decreased by 11 percent. The FBI 's Uniform Crime Report (UCR) indicates a downward trend of violent crime in Houston over the ten - and twenty - year periods ending in 2016, which is consistent with national trends. This trend toward lower rates of violent crime in Houston includes the murder rate, though it had seen a four - year uptick that lasted through 2015. Houston 's violent crime rate is 8.6 % percent higher in 2016 from the previous year. However, from 2006 to 2016, violent crime is still down 12 percent in Houston.
Houston is a significant hub for trafficking of cocaine, cannabis, heroin, MDMA, and methamphetamine due to its size and proximity to major illegal drug exporting nations. Houston is one of the country 's largest hubs for human trafficking.
In the early 1970s, Houston, Pasadena and several coastal towns were the site of the Houston mass murders, which at the time were the deadliest case of serial killing in American history.
Seventeen school districts exist within the city of Houston. The Houston independent School District (HISD) is the seventh - largest school district in the United States and the largest in Texas. HISD has 112 campuses that serve as magnet or vanguard schools -- specializing in such disciplines as health professions, visual and performing arts, and the sciences. There are also many charter schools that are run separately from school districts. In addition, some public school districts also have their own charter schools.
The Houston area encompasses more than 300 private schools, many of which are accredited by Texas Private School Accreditation Commission recognized agencies. The Houston Area independent schools offer education from a variety of different religious as well as secular viewpoints. The Houston area Catholic schools are operated by the Archdiocese of Galveston - Houston.
Four distinct state universities are located in Houston. The University of Houston is a nationally recognized Tier One research university, and is the flagship institution of the University of Houston System. The third - largest university in Texas, the University of Houston has nearly 44,000 students on its 667 - acre campus in southeast Houston. The University of Houston -- Clear Lake and the University of Houston -- Downtown are stand - alone universities; they are not branch campuses of the University of Houston. Located in the historic community of Third Ward is Texas Southern University, one of the largest and most comprehensive historically black universities in the United States. Texas Southern University is also the first state university in Houston.
Several private institutions of higher learning -- ranging from liberal arts colleges, such as the University of St. Thomas, Houston 's only Catholic university, to Rice University, with an enrollment of over 3,000 undergraduates -- are located within the city. Houston Baptist University, affiliated with the Baptist General Convention of Texas, offers bachelor 's and graduate degrees. It was founded in 1960 and is located in the Sharpstown area in Southwest Houston.
Three community college districts exist with campuses in and around Houston. The Houston Community College System serves most of Houston. The northwestern through northeastern parts of the city are served by various campuses of the Lone Star College System, while the southeastern portion of Houston is served by San Jacinto College, and a northeastern portion is served by Lee College. The Houston Community College and Lone Star College systems are within the 10 largest institutions of higher learning in the United States.
The primary network - affiliated television stations are KPRC - TV (NBC), KHOU - TV (CBS), KTRK - TV (ABC), KRIV (Fox), KIAH (The CW), and KTXH (MyNetworkTV). KTRK - TV, KRIV and KTXH operate as owned - and - operated stations of their networks.
The Houston -- The Woodlands -- Sugar Land metropolitan area is served by one public television station and one public radio station. KUHT (HoustonPBS) is a PBS member station and is the first public television station in the United States. Houston Public Radio is listener - funded and comprises one NPR member station, KUHF (KUHF News). The University of Houston System owns and holds broadcasting licenses to KUHT and KUHF. The stations broadcast from the Melcher Center for Public Broadcasting, located on the campus of the University of Houston.
Houston is served by the Houston Chronicle, its only major daily newspaper with wide distribution. The Hearst Corporation, which owns and operates the Houston Chronicle, bought the assets of the Houston Post -- its long - time rival and main competition -- when Houston Post ceased operations in 1995. The Houston Post was owned by the family of former Lieutenant Governor Bill Hobby of Houston. The only other major publication to serve the city is the Houston Press -- a free alternative weekly with a weekly readership of more than 300,000.
Houston is the seat of the internationally renowned Texas Medical Center, which contains the world 's largest concentration of research and healthcare institutions. All 49 member institutions of the Texas Medical Center are non-profit organizations. They provide patient and preventive care, research, education, and local, national, and international community well - being. Employing more than 73,600 people, institutions at the medical center include 13 hospitals and two specialty institutions, two medical schools, four nursing schools, and schools of dentistry, public health, pharmacy, and virtually all health - related careers. It is where one of the first -- and still the largest -- air emergency service, Life Flight, was created, and a very successful inter-institutional transplant program was developed. More heart surgeries are performed at the Texas Medical Center than anywhere else in the world.
Some of the academic and research health institutions at the center include MD Anderson Cancer Center, Baylor College of Medicine, UT Health Science Center, Memorial Hermann Hospital, Houston Methodist Hospital, Texas Children 's Hospital, and University of Houston College of Pharmacy.
The Baylor College of Medicine has annually been considered within the top ten medical schools in the nation; likewise, the MD Anderson Cancer Center has consistently ranked as one of the top two U.S. hospitals specializing in cancer care by U.S. News & World Report since 1990. The Menninger Clinic, a renowned psychiatric treatment center, is affiliated with Baylor College of Medicine and the Houston Methodist Hospital System. With hospital locations nationwide and headquarters in Houston, the Triumph Healthcare hospital system is the third largest long term acute care provider nationally.
According to the 1990 U.S. Census, 71.7 % of Houston (city) commuters drove alone to work. By 2009, the percentage of Houston (city) workers who drove to work alone rose to 75.6 %. In 2016, the American Community Survey estimated modal shares for Houston (city) commuters of 77.2 % for driving alone, 11.4 % for carpooling, 3.6 % for riding transit, 2.1 % for walking, and. 5 % for cycling.
Houston 's freeway system comprises 739.3 miles (1,189.8 km) of freeways and expressways in a ten - county metropolitan area. However, the Texas Transportation Institute 's annual Urban Mobility Report found that Houston had the fourth - worst congestion in the country with commuters spending an average of 58 hours in traffic in 2009.
Houston 's highway system has a hub - and - spoke freeway structure serviced by multiple loops. The innermost loop is Interstate 610, which encircles downtown, the medical center, and many core neighborhoods with around a 8 - mile (13 km) diameter. Beltway 8 and its freeway core, the Sam Houston Tollway, form the middle loop at a diameter of roughly 23 miles (37 km). A proposed highway project, State Highway 99 (Grand Parkway), will form a third loop outside Houston, totaling 180 miles in length and making an almost - complete circumference, with the exception of crossing the ship channel. As of June 2014, two of eleven segments of State Highway 99 have been completed to the west of Houston, and three northern segments totaling 38 miles. In addition to the Sam Houston Tollway loop mentioned above, the Harris County Toll Road Authority currently operates four spoke tollways: The Katy Managed Lanes of Interstate 10, the Hardy Toll Road, the Westpark Tollway, and the Fort Bend Parkway Extension. Other spoke roads either planned or under construction include Crosby Freeway, and the future Alvin Freeway.
Houston 's freeway system is monitored by Houston TranStar -- a partnership of four government agencies that are responsible for providing transportation and emergency management services to the region.
The Metropolitan Transit Authority of Harris County (METRO) provides public transportation in the form of buses, light rail, and lift vans.
METRO began light rail service on January 1, 2004, with the inaugural track ("Red Line '') running about 8 miles (13 km) from the University of Houston -- Downtown (UHD), which traverses through the Texas Medical Center and terminates at NRG Park. METRO is currently in the design phase of a 10 - year expansion plan that will add five more lines. and expand the current Red Line. Amtrak, the national passenger rail system, provides service three times a week to Houston via the Sunset Limited (Los Angeles -- New Orleans), which stops at the Houston Amtrak Station on the north side of the downtown area. The station saw 14,891 boardings and alightings in fiscal year 2008. In 2012, there was a 25 percent increase in ridership to 20,327 passengers embarking from the Houston Amtrak Station.
Houston has the largest number of bike commuters in Texas with over 160 miles of dedicated bikeways. The city is currently in the process of expanding its on and off street bikeway network. A bicycle sharing system known as Houston B - Cycle currently operates 29 different stations in downtown and neighboring areas.
Houston is served by three airports, two of which are commercial that served 52 million passengers in 2007 and managed by the Houston Airport System. The Federal Aviation Administration and the state of Texas selected the "Houston Airport System as Airport of the Year '' for 2005, largely because of its multi-year, $3.1 billion airport improvement program for both major airports in Houston.
The primary city airport is George Bush Intercontinental Airport (IAH), the tenth - busiest in the United States for total passengers, and twenty eighth - busiest worldwide. Bush Intercontinental currently ranks fourth in the United States for non-stop domestic and international service with 182 destinations. In 2006, the United States Department of Transportation named IAH the fastest - growing of the top ten airports in the United States. The Houston Air Route Traffic Control Center stands on the George Bush Intercontinental Airport grounds.
Houston was the headquarters of Continental Airlines until its 2010 merger with United Airlines with headquarters in Chicago; regulatory approval for the merger was granted in October of that year. Bush Intercontinental became United Airlines ' largest airline hub. The airline retained a significant operational presence in Houston while offering more than 700 daily departures from the city. In early 2007, Bush Intercontinental Airport was named a model "port of entry '' for international travelers by U.S. Customs and Border Protection.
The second - largest commercial airport is William P. Hobby Airport (named Houston International Airport until 1967) which operates primarily short - to medium - haul domestic flights. However, in 2015 Southwest Airlines launched service from a new international terminal at Hobby airport to several destinations in Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean. These were the first international flights flown from Hobby since 1969. Houston 's aviation history is showcased in the 1940 Air Terminal Museum located in the old terminal building on the west side of the airport. Hobby Airport has been recognized with two awards for being one of the top five performing airports in the world and for customer service by Airports Council International.
Houston 's third municipal airport is Ellington Airport (a former U.S. Air Force base) used by military, government, NASA, and general aviation sectors.
The Houston Office of Protocol and International Affairs is the city 's liaison to Houston 's sister cities and to the national governing organization, Sister Cities International. Through their official city - to - city relationships, these volunteer associations promote people - to - people diplomacy and encourage citizens to develop mutual trust and understanding through commercial, cultural, educational, and humanitarian exchanges.
See also: List of companies in Houston
See: List of colleges and universities in Houston
For a complete listing, see list of cities and towns in Houston -- The Woodlands -- Sugar Land MSA
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when did cassie me and you come out | Me & U - wikipedia
"Me & U '' is the debut single by American singer Cassie. It was released on April 25, 2006, as the lead single from her eponymous debut album, Cassie (2006). It was written and produced by Ryan Leslie. The song reached number three on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 in 2006. It remained in the top forty for nearly five months.
The song 's "Bad Boy '' remix features Diddy and Yung Joc and the song 's "The Inc '' remix features Ja Rule and Harry - O. The single has been a successful debut as a top three single in the U.S., a top five single in New Zealand, a top ten hit in the United Kingdom, Ireland, and France, and a top twenty song in Australia. The song is featured on DANCE! Online, a multiplayer online casual video game, Saints Row 2 (2008), and in the PlayStation 4, Microsoft Windows and Xbox One versions of Grand Theft Auto V (2014). It was meant to be featured in Grand Theft Auto IV (2008) and the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 versions of Grand Theft Auto V (2013), but was removed for unknown reasons. "Me & U '' is also heavily sampled in the 2013 song "Cool '' by Le Youth.
The song was considered "a slinky, vintage - sounding track with a hypnotic, snake - charming whistle, '' and likened to imitating Janet Jackson. The single was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America on December 14, 2006. It was also certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry.
According to Billboard, the song is about sex. The song is performed in the key of G ♯ minor with a tempo of 100 beats per minute.
In the music video, Cassie comes in with her phone which is playing part of the chorus to "Me & U '' while improvising some lyrics that were not in the original song. She puts the song on and begins to dance and sing along, hurting herself while doing a spinning move, changing her outfit, and then being able to successfully complete the spinning move later on. The video is directed by Norwegian - born director Ray Kay.
The video was inspired by Janet Jackson 's "The Pleasure Principle '' video, described as evoking Jackson 's "impromptu solo dance rehearsal '' during the video 's mirror scenes. Cassie stated "I 'm a diehard Janet Jackson fan. A lot of people compare my video for "Me & U '' to hers for "Pleasure Principle. '' "I was just rehearsing in the studio, they filmed me and the record label thought it would be great for the video. I 'd love to emulate her career. She 's incredible, from her moves to her voice. ''
In July 2006 an unreleased, low - budget and suggestive video for "Me & U '' appeared on YouTube. This video was in stark contrast to the more polished video that was shown on mainstream media outlets. Initially, it was removed from most websites but continued to appear on file sharing networks and eventually appeared again on the internet. Cassie has gone on record to denounce the original video (directed by Little X), which depicts her singing to an unidentified male at a night club before taking him to a hotel room where Cassie is depicted kneeling below him while caressing his genital region and then unbuckling his pants in night vision. Cassie 's management maintains that the low - budget, risqué version was released only for European audiences.
The single became Cassie 's most popular single to date, peaking at number three on the Billboard Hot 100 a short while after the song was released. It stayed atop the Billboard Hot 100 Airplay for 7 weeks. Following that chart 's domination by Yung Joc 's "It 's Goin ' Down '', Bad Boy Records once again dominated a chart for much of a summer as it had done on the Hot 100 in 1997. "Me & U '' also reached the top of the Hot R&B / Hip - Hop Songs chart. In the UK, the song entered the UK Singles Chart at number twenty - three and, within a week 's time, rose to a number six, remaining there for a week before dropping down to number nine. The song also did well around the rest of Europe, including France, Germany, and Ireland.
shipments figures based on certification alone
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what is the monkeys name in planet of the apes | List of Planet of the apes characters - wikipedia
The Planet of the Apes franchise contains many characters that appear in one or more works.
Walker Edmiston (voice in Escape)
Caesar is a fictional character in the Planet of the Apes franchise. He is the leader and later ruler of the apes in both the original and the 2011 reboot series. He does not appear in the 2001 film.
Born Milo, named after his parents ' friend Dr. Milo, Caesar first appeared in Escape from the Planet of the Apes as the son of talking chimpanzees Cornelius and Zira after they travelled back in time the Earth of Taylor 's era. As the infant was feared to be the cause of the future where his parents originated, Milo was raised by circus owner Armando after Zira switched him with a young chimpanzee recently born to Armando 's primitive chimpanzee, Heloise, prior to his parents ' death by the action of the human Dr. Otto Hasslein. As Hasslein killed the infant with Zira deposing of the body, Milo was assumed dead and was raised by Armando as a mute acrobat while renamed "Caesar ''.
Two decades later, during the events of Conquest of the Planet of the Apes, led by Armando on a chain to maintain the charade while being educated on the events that learn to the apes ' state of slavery, Caesar is taken to a large city for the first time and learns and tries to take what he sees (groups of apes being dispersed, chimps and orangutans being scolded or punished for honest mistakes or for exhibiting apelike behavior) in stride. But upon seeing the barbaric treatments of his fellow apes, he impulsively cries out "Lousy human bastards! '' Armando attempts to convince the police that he was the one who spoke, but Caesar panics and runs away in the commotion with Armando deciding to have him join an arrival shipment of apes while he attempts to bluff his way out of trouble.
Passing his conditioning with flying colors, Caesar is next sold to Governor Breck and supervised by his African - American assistant Mr. MacDonald. When Breck brings out a reference book as a means to formally name him, Caesar chooses his adopted name under the guise of a random picking and assigned to the city 's "command post '' -- the communications center for Ape Management, and its lockup for disobedient apes. He is also selected to mate with Lisa at that time. When Caesar learns that Armando died while in custody, he plots an ape revolt and convinces the other apes in joining him. But Caesar is belatedly traced, interrogated by Breck 's men through electroshock torture into exposing his identity as the talking offspring of two talking apes. MacDonald excuses himself from the scene and turned off the breaker settings for the electroshock table, Caesar pretending to have been executed before he kills the handler assigned to dispose of him and begin the revolt. Within hours, the city is in flames, the police and military have been beaten down, and the apes are in control, as Caesar predicts will follow around the world when word spreads. Despite MacDonald 's pleas to prevent further violence, Caesar only ceases when Lisa mustered the ability to speak to convince Caesar not to condemns all humanity.
In the Battle for the Planet of the Apes, told as a story to human and ape children by Lawgiver 600 years after his death, Caesar took the remaining apes and humans they held captive out of the ruined city to start a new civilization. But Caesar 's desire to better his people lead to him learning the reasons why his parents were murdered and he was hunted as he fought a battle that both solidified his position as ape leader and convinced him to give a joint ape - human society a chance rather than having one species dominating the other. Screenwriter Paul Dehn stated that the tear on Caesar 's statue at the end of the film was to tell the audience that Caesar 's efforts ultimately failed.
Caesar (Andy Serkis) is the main protagonist of the reboot Planet of the Apes trilogy, sharing the previous version 's compassionate nature while forbidding his followers from killing innocent humans and those who do n't seek to harm them.
First appearing in Rise of the Planet of the Apes, Caesar was born the son of female Chimpanzee who was taken from the wild to the Gene Sys pharmaceutical company in the San Francisco Bay Area to be subjected to an experimental viral - based cure of Alzheimer 's known as ALZ - 112. Developed by Will Rodman, ALZ - 112 genetically increases Bright Eyes ' intelligence along with Caesar 's as he was still in his mother 's womb. When born, Caesar ends up orphaned after his mother got killed trying to protect her newborn child, an action mistaken by lab security as her having run amok with the experiment labeled a failure and the other test apes destroyed. Caesar was saved by the sympathetic ape handler Franklin, with Will smuggling the baby chimp out of the lab and takes him to his home. Caesar spends years living with Rodman, displaying his enhanced intelligence and convincing his foster father that the ALZ - 112 works. Following an incident where he attacks their aggressive neighbor who threatened Will 's dementia - suffering father, Caesar is forced into an ape "sanctuary '' where he is often tormented by one of the caretakers while gradually taking command of the apes there. Caesar eventually proves smart enough to break free from his cage, stealing Will 's new, stronger version of the intelligence - enhancing formula, ALZ - 113, and releases it among the other captive apes. After saying his first word "No! '' in a confrontation with one of the caretakers, Caesar leads the apes out of sanctuary as they recruit other captive apes from the zoo and the lab, rallying to escape San Francisco for the Muir Woods while violently clashing with police. Once in the Muir Woods, Caesar shares an emotional farewell with Rodman as he decides to live free among his own kind.
During the events of Dawn of the Planet of the Apes, 10 years after the ALZ - 113 virus decimated a majority of the human population, Caesar is now middle - aged with two sons by his wife Cornelia: His eldest Blue Eyes and the newborn Cornelius. While assuming the humans to have died out, Caesar learns of a group from the remnants of San Francisco entering their territory and personally warns them not to stay out. When the group 's leader Malcolm explains they are trying to repair a dam to return power to the city, Caesar allows them free rein. This did not bide well with his human - hating subordinate Koba, who attempted to kill Caesar and make it look like the humans are responsible to lead the apes to war. Caesar survives the gunshot and is nursed back to health by Malcolm and Ellie, Blue Eyes helping free Caesar 's loyal allies before Caesar confronts Koba and ultimately kills him. But Caesar considers the damage already done as he and his clan face a new opposition in a paramilitary group known as Alpha - Omega.
In the events of War for the Planet of the Apes two years later, prior to Bright Eyes and Rocket returning after finding a place where they can thrive without fear, Caesar attempts to convince Alpha - Omega 's leader that he wants peace by sparing captured four soldiers led by Preacher. But Alpha - Omega launches an assault on the ape home with Cornelia and Blue Eyes slaughtered by the Colonel, leaving only Cornelius alive. Leaving Cornelius in the care of Blue Eyes 's mate Lake, Caesar departs to confront the Colonel with accompanied only by Maurice, Luca and Rocket, while the other apes head for the desert. During the journey, fearing that he may end up like Koba as he unintentionally killed a traitor named Winter, Caesar and group are joined by a mute girl named Nova and an ape hermit named Bad Ape. Once reaching Alpha - Omega 's base, a former weapons depot that was turned into a containment facility when the virus began to spread, Caesar is captured while learning his clan were long caught by the Colonel. Witnessing his fellow apes being forced to build a wall, Caesar learned that Colonel is fending off rival military forces who seek to execute him for slaughtering people infected with a new mutated strain of ALZ - 113 is rendering them into mute primitives.
While Caesar is tortured with starvation, the mute girl, whom Maurice named Nova, sneaks into the facility to give him food and water, although Rocket is forced to allow himself to be captured to create a distraction so that Nova can escape. Together, Caesar and Rocket are able to work out a means of accessing the ape cage via an underground tunnel that leads out of the facility, with Bad Ape and Maurice digging their way into the cage. After rescuing the children, Caesar sends his followers away while he confronts the Colonel, but the facility is subsequently attacked by the external military forces. When Caesar reaches the Colonel, sparing his life upon realizing he has succumbed to the infection and watching the human take his own life rather than become a primitive. In a massive battle among Caesar 's apes, Alpha - Omega and the military, wounded by Preacher in the process, Caesar blows up the facility 's fuel supplies before joining the others in taking refuge when an oncoming avalanche arrives that wipes out the remaining soldiers. Departing the facility, the remaining apes cross the desert and find a park that is rich in natural resources. With Caesar dying from the wound Preacher inflicted on him, he accepts his end with grace and quietly dies while Maurice promises Caesar that Cornelius will know who his father was, what he stood for and what he did to protect the apes.
Aldo (portrayed by Claude Akins) emerges as the villain in Battle for the Planet of the Apes. He is the general of the Gorilla militia, which mostly guards the outskirts of Ape City, and practices with mock weapons. He is both jealous of his human advisors and of Caesar (and his son, Cornelius, who bests him in the school that all apes must attend) and would like to take his place as leader. Humans live alongside apes in the city, but as second class citizens.
Discovering a large number of (irradiated) humans still alive underground in the bomb - destroyed city they escaped, as he is discovered during a trip to the ruins, Caesar implores the apes to prepare themselves, in case those humans emerge to attack. Aldo uses the alarm as an excuse to corral all the humans of Ape City, break into the armory to seize guns and other weapons, and declare martial law. Meanwhile, Cornelius has been injured falling from a tree branch (purposely cut by Aldo), and Caesar does n't want to leave his son 's side, therefore Aldo can do as he pleases. Caesar only remembers his duty toward the other apes when an attack comes.
Caesar and Aldo fight together, but with the enemy driven back, Aldo ignores Caesar 's order to stand down, and leads his forces to catch and massacre the retreating mutant humans. Caesar discovers Aldo 's usurpation of power, his treatment of the humans, and Aldo 's role in his son 's death. Upon Aldo 's return from the slaughter, the two battle it out, from the ground to the trees, and for ultimate control of the ape / human society. According to ape lore, an ape had never killed another; the population, aghast at Aldo 's sin, mournfully chant "ape has killed ape '' while Aldo and Caesar fight in the tree. Caesar avenges Cornelius, knocking Aldo from the tree to his death.
Aldo is first referenced in the third Apes movie, Escape from the Planet of the Apes, when the chimpanzee Cornelius describes him as the first ape to acquire the power of speech -- and the first to say "No! '' to his human captors. Portrayed by David Chow, he appears in the next film, Conquest of the Planet of the Apes, as a Chimpanzee whose beating at the hands of human guards is witnessed by Armando and Caesar, the son of Cornelius and Zira, who later leads the ape revolt.
Armando is a circus owner, a human friend of Cornelius and Zira, and foster - father of Caesar in the Planet of the Apes movie series. He was portrayed by Ricardo Montalbán.
A believer in Saint Francis of Assisi, "who loved all animals '', the jovial, warm - hearted Armando readily comes to the aid of Cornelius and his pregnant wife Zira during Escape from the Planet of the Apes, when most of humanity has rejected them, and even the United States Government plans to prevent their ever having children, since they someday "may constitute a threat to the human race. '' Armando states that if the human race is ever dominated by another species, he 'd like most of all for it to be the chimpanzee. While Armando does his best to help the pair, and conceal their newly born son Milo (later called Caesar), he ca n't prevent their murder at the hands of Dr. Otto Hasslein. He takes responsibility for Caesar, raising him publicly as a circus chimpanzee, while privately teaching him human knowledge and introducing him to human habits.
In the fourth Apes movie, Conquest of the Planet of the Apes, Armando brings Caesar to a large city for the first time, after raising him mostly in "the provinces '' and remote areas, where Caesar has been unaware of apes ' adoption as pets (to replace the dogs and cats lost to a spaceborn plague), which has led gradually to their present enslavement. Armando keeps Caesar on a short leash in public, while coaching him on apelike mannerisms when nobody 's looking. All the same, fate gets the better of them; when Caesar sees an ape (a chimpanzee named Aldo) mistreated, he swears his frustration -- bringing himself and Armando to the attention of the police.
Slipping away, Armando and Caesar try to formulate a plan to prevent further trouble. Armando already claimed to be the one who cried out, and plans to tell the authorities that Caesar is frightened of cities, and ran away because of the public commotion. He tells Caesar to wait for him near the docks where shipments of apes arrive nightly for "conditioning '' and training as servants, and to infiltrate a shipment if Armando fails to return. Caesar does so, finding himself by degrees sold to Governor Breck, and assigned to Ape Management 's command post.
Armando undergoes a lengthy, tense interrogation at the hands of the state 's authorities, who ultimately believe his alibi, and that Caesar is mute and not the son of "the talking apes ''. They insist, though, that he pass a screening by the "Authenticator '' -- a hypnotic device which compels its subjects to tell the complete truth -- before he is released. Armando first refuses to submit on gentlemanly grounds, then when he sees no other way out, he throws himself through a window (falling to his death) rather than reveal what he knows about Caesar.
When Caesar learns of Armando 's death, it becomes the last straw for him. Wanting revenge he begins to perpetrate an Ape revolt, executed over the rest of Conquest.
Governor Breck is the main antagonist in the fourth film Conquest of the Planet of the Apes. He was portrayed by Academy Award - nominated actor Don Murray.
In 1991, the United States has gone from its original form of government to a system of provinces headed by governors, who rule in an authoritarian manner, with many curfews and restrictions imposed, and surveillance an everyday event. Protests and demonstrations are discouraged, or given time limits.
After the death of Earth 's dogs and cats (caused by a plague brought back by a space probe), apes took their place as pets -- and were genetically engineered to increase their intelligence. Progressing from performing tricks to doing household chores, apes have now become humanity 's slaves. The government supports this occurrence, since ape servants seem to lessen public discontent. Nobody considers the apes ' feelings or best interests, though, and tension is brewing. Governor Breck is n't fond of apes, but he does enjoy bossing them around, even more than the humans in his charge.
Breck witnesses an ape auction one day, and on a whim bids on a young chimpanzee (through his assistant Mr. MacDonald). His bid wins, and he shows the chimp how to choose a name from a book. The name he chooses is "Caesar '', pretending to just point randomly. While he is bright, and everyone suspects he was previously "conditioned '' and not a wild ape, he makes a mistake in the chore given him (mixing a cocktail for the governor). Breck decides to assign Caesar to his command post, as a messenger.
What Breck does not know, but comes to suspect, is that Caesar is actually an evolved ape, whose parents Cornelius and Zira came from Earth 's future, when apes are the dominant species. Caesar was brought up by Armando, a human circus owner, who taught him about humanity, and how to be a leader.
Armando dies in police custody, to protect Caesar 's secret. Angry and mournful, Caesar begins to set up an ape revolt, using his job at the command post to stay one step ahead of Breck, and his attempts to control the apes. Another assistant, Kolp, double - checks on recent ape shipments to Ape Management, and discovers that Caesar was the lone chimpanzee in a shipment from Borneo -- where chimps are not native. He reports this to Breck, who now wants to know exactly what Caesar knows. He also wonders if Caesar can tell him by speaking.
Breck orders MacDonald to turn Caesar over the minute he returns from an errand, but instead MacDonald, who learns Caesar can indeed speak, gives him the chance to escape. Caesar is captured by police, taken to Ape Management, and brought to an interrogation room resembling a torture chamber. Strapped to an electroshock table, Caesar is jolted with higher and higher amounts of electricity, while Breck commands him again and again, "Talk! '' In agony, Caesar gasps "Have pity! '' and slumps back on the table, exhausted. MacDonald leaves, showing no stomach for what Breck is doing.
Satisfied, Breck departs, and Kolp orders Caesar to be electrocuted immediately. MacDonald finds the room 's breaker box, and cuts off the electrical flow to the table. Caesar pretends to die, and everyone else leaves. Killing the handler sent to dispose of his body, Caesar decides the time has come to begin the revolt.
Caesar sets the Ape Management building on fire, then seizes the intercom system and pretends to be the governor 's spokesman, ordering the guards to release all the apes in custody -- even the dangerous ones. With the apes loose, panic begins to spread, and apes around the Ape Management complex begin to riot. More and more fires begin to break out, all over the city.
From his command post, Breck declares martial law, and issues one simple order concerning the rioting apes: "Shoot to kill! '' His troops are overwhelmed by the hundreds of apes they find in the streets, though, and nobody can believe the apes have acquired weapons -- and the skills to use them, or at least try them out. The apes smash the command post as they take control of Ape Management, seizing Breck, MacDonald and others.
Several Gorillas handle Breck as Caesar was once handled by Breck 's policemen; Caesar asks him the final question: Why was Breck so hateful toward apes, and toward himself most of all? With nothing left to lose, Breck admits to Caesar that enslaving wild apes was a way of dealing with his own human impulses, and so with other humans. Breck is taken away, presumably to be imprisoned by the apes. In the fifth film, it is revealed that Breck died in the nuclear war.
Brent is an American astronaut and a main protagonist in the second film Beneath the Planet of the Apes. He was portrayed by James Franciscus.
Brent is the copilot of a rescue mission, sent after George Taylor 's ship was determined to have gone awry, in its flight to another star. Brent 's ship follows the same trajectory, and runs into the same problems, crash - landing in the Forbidden Zone, only this time on land. His pilot, Maddox, is blinded, and suffers fatal injuries, dying soon after the crash.
Once Brent has finished burying Maddox near their crash site, he is wondering if Taylor underwent a similar fate. It turns out he 's closer to meeting Taylor than he could have imagined, as he comes across a woman on horseback -- Taylor 's companion Nova, alone since Taylor disappeared. Discovering Nova is mute, but wearing Taylor 's dog tags, he climbs onto the horse also, demanding she take him to Taylor.
Not knowing what else to do, and unable to explain Taylor 's absence, Nova takes Brent to Ape City, to look for Zira. Brent overhears an anti-human speech by General Ursus, and his mind reels with mounting horror at the place he 's come to: "If this place has a name, it 's the Planet Nightmare! '' Wounded by a gorilla soldier, Brent takes refuge with Nova at the home of Zira and Cornelius.
Cornelius and Zira (who tends to Brent 's wound) help Brent and Nova get out of Ape City, but gorilla soldiers follow them into the Forbidden Zone. Hiding in a cave, they discover an old subway tunnel, and follow it deep underground to the ruins of New York City, and its mutant inhabitants. Brent is tested by the mutants, through their psychic abilities, forcing him to try to kill Nova, and to go where they want him. They interrogate him telepathically.
After Brent and Nova witness a mutant religious service (where mutants both worship an unexploded doomsday bomb, and reveal themselves to be hideously disfigured, from lingering radiation inside the zone), Brent is reunited with Taylor, who was taken prisoner. Their pleasure at meeting each other is broken by the sudden realisation of the mutants ' final plans for them both; as their jailer explains: "We do n't kill our enemies. We get our enemies to kill each other. '' Taylor and Brent are then forced by the jailer 's mental powers to fight one another.
Nova, who was separated from Brent after the worship service, gets loose from her guard, and finds Taylor and Brent fighting to the death. She is so stirred by the sight that she speaks for the first time in her life, crying "Taylor! '' and bringing the fight to a sudden stop. The jailer 's concentration broken, Brent and Taylor act, killing him but inadvertently locking themselves in the cell with Nova.
The three break the cell 's lock just as the gorilla army invades the underground city. A random shot kills Nova, demoralising Taylor, but Brent urges him to join the oncoming fight. Hurrying to the cathedral, Brent and Taylor take rifles and try to stop the apes from setting off the bomb and destroying everything. After killing General Ursus and several of his soldiers, Brent runs out of ammunition, and he is killed by the gorilla troops. A moment later the bomb detonates, triggered by Taylor as he falls in death, and Earth is destroyed.
In early versions of the script the character is given the first and middle names ' John Christopher ', but the names are not in the final film or in the film 's credits.
Dr. Cornelius is a chimpanzee archaeologist and historian who appears in the original novel of Planet of the Apes (La Planète des singes), and also the first three installments of the classic movie series of the same name, from the 1960s and 1970s. He was portrayed by Roddy McDowall and, in the second movie, by David Watson.
In 1968 's Planet of the Apes, Cornelius is introduced as the fiancé of Dr. Zira, an animal psychologist and veterinarian (who specializes in working with humans), both of whom are on the scientific staff of Dr. Zaius. While supporting the status quo, Cornelius has begun to question the infallibility of the Sacred Scrolls, which give the religious and mythological history of the ape society, and is considering the validity of evolution (specifically, from human to ape) to explain the scientific gaps in the scrolls.
When Zira brings Taylor, an injured astronaut who is mistaken for a primitive human, home from the zoo for Cornelius to see, Taylor begins to communicate with them, first through gestures and then through writing on paper. While Cornelius dismisses Taylor 's story that he flew through the stars to their world (since he has no proof), he agrees that Taylor is worthy of consideration as an intelligent being. When Taylor recovers his voice, he tries to plead his own case before a council session called to arrange his "disposition ''. When the ape leaders wo n't allow Taylor to speak, Cornelius defends him.
With Taylor marked for elimination, and at risk of their own careers, Cornelius and Zira escape with Taylor to the Forbidden Zone -- the wasteland where humans are said to come from, to a site where Cornelius had been digging the year before. When Dr. Zaius pursues them, Taylor turns the tables, first capturing Dr. Zaius, and then forcing him to examine Cornelius 's evidence for a human society predating their own. Cornelius marvels at Taylor 's explanations of the artifacts found, accepts that apes did n't evolve from humans, and those humans invented the technology that apes were rediscovering. Taylor departs from the apes (after kissing Zira goodbye, to Cornelius 's consternation), who return to their city.
Between the first movie and its follow up, Beneath the Planet of the Apes, Cornelius and Zira first undergo a show trial for heresy at Zaius 's instigation (who then pleads for clemency on their behalf), then are married and continue their careers. Another astronaut, Brent, appears at their doorstep in the second movie. Zira tends to a gunshot wound he suffered at a gorilla 's hands, and Cornelius first shows Brent a map leading to where they left Taylor, then gives him the best possible advice: Never speak if he 's captured, or "they will dissect you, and they will kill you -- in that order. '' Zaius also visits to announce that he 's accompanying an expedition to the Forbidden Zone, and asks for Cornelius and Zira 's promise not to cause trouble in his absence, which they give him. (In the novelization of the movie, though, they lead a chimpanzee revolt after he departs.)
In the third movie, Escape from the Planet of the Apes, Cornelius and Zira themselves become astronauts, escaping their world in Taylor 's spacecraft that was found and restored by their friend Dr. Milo, and traveling back in time to a few months after Taylor 's departure. They discover a world run by humans, and deduce (correctly) that this is not only where Taylor came from, but is their own planet from the apes ' prehistory. Cornelius has learned the truth about how the apes rose, from reading secret scrolls Dr. Zaius had kept under lock and key, and is able to answer questions put to him by the human leaders -- and offer tantalizing clues to both Taylor 's fate, and the planet 's.
Discovering Zira is pregnant by Cornelius, and fearing a possible ape takeover, scientist Dr. Otto Hasslein takes it upon himself to make sure the baby is never born, and the pair 's arrival will not spark a human downfall -- inadvertently setting that downfall in motion. Milo, the son of Cornelius and Zira, is born and taken into hiding, while the two try to escape with another ape baby as a decoy. They and the baby are murdered, but their own son (played in the next two movies, again by McDowall) grows up, given the name Caesar by his human foster - father, and leads the apes as the human society destroys itself.
Cornelius and Zira have no roles in Conquest of the Planet of the Apes, except in references to Caesar 's "real parents '' and their prophecies of the origins of the ape takeover coming true, but appear in video stills examined by Caesar and two companions in the final film, Battle for the Planet of the Apes, as Caesar tries to learn what they knew about Earth 's future. Caesar also gives his son -- by wife Lisa -- the name Cornelius, after his father. This Cornelius was killed by Aldo when he cut the branch on which Cornelius was.
In War for the Planet of the Apes, the third film in the 2011 reboot series, Cornelius is the name of Caesar 's youngest child.
In the Planet of the Apes movie series, Dr. Otto Hasslein is a physicist attached to the space flight project that sends astronauts Taylor, Dodge, Landon, and Brent to the world of the apes. He was portrayed by German American actor Eric Braeden. He serves as the main antagonist of the third Apes film Escape from the Planet of the Apes. In the novelization of the film, his first name is Victor.
Even before appearing onscreen, Hasslein 's name is part of the series storyline, as the scientist who proposed the "Hasslein curve '' -- a form of time dilation possible with the craft used in the movies.
When he does appear in Escape, he explains to a television news presenter his theories of time, and his belief that changing the future may be possible. He analogizes time to be a highway with an infinite number of lanes, all going from the past to the future; by changing lanes, one can change destiny. The theory, known as "many - worlds interpretation, '' was first advanced in 1957 as "relative state formation '' by Hugh Everett, and was popularised in the 1960s and 70s by Bryce Seligman DeWitt who applied its lasting name. Hasslein mentions neither real - life scientist in the film.
Hasslein learns that talking chimpanzees, Doctors Cornelius, Zira and Milo (who was killed by a primitive gorilla shortly after arriving), have actually arrived in the present day (1973 in the movie) from Earth 's own future, where humanity has fallen to the level of beasts while apes rose to power and intellect. While the other members of the Presidential Commission appointed to deal with "alien visitors '' are initially skeptical of the time - travel story, Hasslein sees confirmation of his theories -- and becomes afraid that the pair 's presence may somehow set humanity 's downfall in motion. As the President 's science advisor, he expresses his concerns, resulting in Cornelius and Zira first being taken into custody, then interrogated at length.
Provoked by Zira 's drugged admissions of her experimentation on humans, and Cornelius giving details of his historical research into humanity 's decline, the Presidential Commission concludes (in a reflection of Taylor 's fate before the Ape council in the first movie, with Hasslein in the place of Dr. Zaius) that the couple 's unborn child should be "prevented '' from birth, and that Zira and Cornelius should be "humanely rendered incapable '' of conceiving again, with their ultimate fate to be decided later -- at Hasslein 's determination, though it appears likely they will be handed over either to scientists or the military for study.
When Cornelius and Zira escape military custody (at the beginnings of Zira 's labor pains), Hasslein mounts a full - scale hunt, including searches of all local circuses and zoos. Days later, a carpet bag abandoned by Zira turns up, near the derelict shipyard where they have been hiding, and the pair are spotted soon afterward, with Zira carrying a baby chimp, so Hasslein knows she has given birth.
Boarding their ship, Hasslein approaches Zira, pistol in hand, and demands she give him the baby, as the authorities approach. Before they arrive, he shoots Zira, and fires several shots into the swaddling blankets.
Cornelius had earlier asked Dr. Lewis Dixon, who had told the couple about the shipyard as a hiding place, for the means "to kill ourselves '' to avoid being captured, and was given a pistol. Heretofore a pacifist, Cornelius now uses the pistol to avenge his wife, shooting at Hasslein from a crow 's nest on the ship. As the authorities arrive, Hasslein and Cornelius trade gunfire. Cornelius kills Hasslein, but is himself killed by sharpshooters, falling to the deck.
Despite Hasslein 's intentions, the baby he killed was not the offspring of Zira and Cornelius -- and his treatment of their arrival may have just set in motion everything Hasslein hoped to prevent.
Kolp is a government official and later Governor of a band of mutants, in the Planet of the Apes movie series, and the main antagonist of the fifth film Battle for the Planet of the Apes. He was played onscreen by Severn Darden. An early draft script of Conquest gives Kolp the first name of Arthur, but the comic book miniseries Revolution on the Planet of the Apes, from Mr. Comics, calls him Vernon. However, the Revolution comic is not considered canon.
Kolp was a ruling secret police official on Governor Breck 's staff in Conquest of the Planet of the Apes, displaying himself as sinister, but in a detached, matter - of - fact manner. Kolp supervised the interrogation of Armando, which Armando ended by throwing himself through a high window, rather than confess what he knew about Caesar under hypnosis. Later Kolp tracked down the originating shipment that had carried Caesar to Ape Management; he deduced that Caesar had sneaked himself into the shipment, to appear to have wild origins. Kolp was also present when Breck interrogated Caesar, strapped to an electroshock table, and he gave the order for Caesar to be electrocuted, once it was proven that Caesar could speak and reason.
Kolp survived the Night of the Fires, when the apes revolted and took over, and also the nuclear war humanity then unleashed, all but destroying themselves in doing so, while the apes escaped to the wilderness. Much of the city 's governing staff were relatively safe in underground fallout shelters and bunkers; nonetheless, lingering background radiation began to cause physical mutations in the survivors. After Breck 's death, Kolp took the few remaining reins of leadership himself.
Several years after the end of the war (in Battle for the Planet of the Apes), Caesar, Virgil and Mr. MacDonald revisit Ape Management (now called the Forbidden City by the apes), in hopes of finding old video recordings of Caesar 's parents. Kolp 's agents discover their presence, and Kolp assumes they have come scouting for things to loot or reconquer. Shots are exchanged as Caesar, MacDonald and Virgil flee, and more scouts track them back to Ape City. With the city 's location known, and jealous of the relative health and prosperity of the apes and the humans living with them, Kolp decides to marshal his forces and conquer Ape City. At this point, Kolp is not only mad, but also vengeful. When his second - in - command Méndez points out to him that attacking the Ape city would constitute a direct violation of years of ceasefire peace, Kolp answer is one of a deranged state - of - mind: "Yes, well things have gotten rather boring around here now, has n't it. ''
Kolp supervises the attack, telling his troops to leave Ape City looking "like the city we came from '' and to do their worst. When it appears Caesar is defeated, Kolp personally taunts him with a revolver, until a cry from Caesar 's wife Lisa distracts him, allowing Caesar to launch a counterattack. Kolp is killed while retreating by Aldo and his Gorilla troops.
Kolp is the only villain other than Dr. Zaius to appear in more than one film in the series.
John Landon, more commonly known as Landon, was a human astronaut, who joined the NASA program some time in the 1960s. According to his colleague, George Taylor, Landon was an ambitious scientist who "wanted to live forever ''. Along with Taylor and fellow astronaut Dodge, Landon participated in a mission to journey to another star.
The crew launched out of Cape Kennedy in 1972 and spent over six months in outer space. Taylor, commander of the mission, placed the crew into a state of suspended animation, in preparation for the second leg of their journey. While they slept, the vessel was propelled two - thousand years into the future, confirming Dr. Hasslein 's theory of time in a vehicle travelling near the speed of light. The ship crash - landed back on Earth in the year 3978. Splashing down into a stagnant salt lake, the crew revived and scurried to freedom.
After crash landing on the planet, Landon and his fellow astronaut Taylor bicker as they explore the planet. Landon was an adventurer and a patriot. As such, he found it hardest of the three to come to terms with their fate and argued strongly with Taylor after their crash - landing. Taylor maintained a rigid attitude, while Dodge committed himself towards finding a means to survive on this new world. Landon meanwhile, found himself the target of Taylor 's acerbic wit. Taylor laughs as Landon plants a tiny U.S. flag on the surface of the planet near the lake where they crashed.
Later, Landon and Taylor (along with another astronaut named Dodge) are captured by a group of apes and taken to a city populated by apes. During Taylor 's subsequent trial, he discovers that Landon has been lobotomized by an ape scientist (which Dr. Zaius ordered) and left a mere shell of his former self. Landon is taken back to his cage, while Zaius later admits he knew Landon could talk, and had him operated on.
When Brent visited Zira and Cornelius in Beneath the Planet of the Apes, Cornelius told him that Taylor nearly ended up a museum specimen "like his two friends '', which suggests that Landon is also dead and displayed alongside Dodge by that point. It 's possible that during a skirmish involving gorilla soldiers, Landon was shot and killed.
John Landon is a different version of the character from the original film; now Landon runs the San Bruno Primate Shelter where Caesar was incarcerated following his attack on Hunsiker. The apes inside the facility were treated cruelly by his son, Dodge, who worked as a guard there. Landon was handed an envelope full of cash in perhaps hundreds or thousands of dollars by Will Rodman and he permitted Will to take Caesar home. However, Caesar realized that if he left the facility the other apes would continue to be abused by Dodge, so he shut the cage door and refused to come home with Will. This prompted Landon to say that Caesar perhaps preferred to stay with the other apes at the facility rather than go home. Caesar later led an escape from the shelter which resulted in Dodge 's death. Landon watched the video from a CCTV camera that recorded the death of his son.
The Lawgiver is an orangutan character in the science fiction movie series Planet of the Apes. While mentioned and quoted in the first two installments of the series, the Lawgiver only appears in the final Apes film, 1973 's Battle for the Planet of the Apes, played by actor - director John Huston.
The Lawgiver is to the ape society in Planet of the Apes and Beneath the Planet of the Apes a figure much like Moses or Confucius -- his writings and quotes form the basis of the apes ' system of laws and customs, particularly with regard to humans, whom the Lawgiver declared "the devil 's pawn '', to be shunned and driven out, if not destroyed outright. Statues of the Lawgiver are common around Ape City; when the gorilla army sees a vision of such a statue bleeding, they panic, showing their regard for this icon.
While the Lawgiver 's works were used and quoted daily by the apes, they were n't the only ape writings; secret scrolls told the details of the apes ' rise to dominance, but were kept from the masses. Dr. Zaius, the Chief Defender of the Faith in the ape world some 1200 years after the Lawgiver, kept a copy of the Lawgiver 's essential decrees in his coat pocket, but kept the secret scrolls under lock and key.
Through the course of the series, the chimpanzee Caesar becomes leader of the apes, and attempts to change the timeline that led to the world abandoned by his parents, Zira and Cornelius, who travelled to Earth 's past. By the time the Lawgiver appears in Battle, the children he addresses (as he tells them about Caesar) are a mix of both humans and apes. However, in the book Planet of the Apes Revisited, the original screenwriter, Paul Dehn, stated that the tear on the statue of Caesar at the end of the film is meant as an indication to the audience that Caesar 's efforts ultimately failed. Roddy McDowall conversely asserts (in Behind the Planet of the Apes, a 1998 documentary made for the thirtieth anniversary of the original film), that the tear was meant to be totally ambiguous, leaving it up to audience members to decide for themselves whether or not Caesar had succeeded in altering the future.
Lisa is a chimpanzee character, and the wife of Caesar, from the later installments of the Planet of the Apes movie series. She was played by actress Natalie Trundy, then - wife of Planet of the Apes original film series producer Arthur P. Jacobs.
In Conquest of the Planet of the Apes, Lisa and Caesar meet first in a bookstore, where she is collecting a book for her owner, and then in the City 's Command Center where both serve as slaves. Later, when Caesar launches an ape revolt, he makes a speech to the gathered apes (and a few captured humans, including Governor Breck and Mr. MacDonald), and condemns humanity. Lisa, heretofore mute, speaks for the first time, telling Caesar "No! '' Listening to her, Caesar modifies his stand, telling the apes to leave their onetime human captors to their fate, and begin a world of their own.
In Battle for the Planet of the Apes, Caesar and Lisa are married, and have a son, named Cornelius after Caesar 's own father Cornelius. Lisa is Caesar 's counsel, who reminds him of his duties toward the other apes, and also of the humans now in his charge. She also discourages her son Cornelius from playing "war '' with his friends.
After winning the battle when human mutants attack, Lisa supports Caesar 's decision to free the humans who live with the apes, and try to live together with them as equals.
Mr. MacDonald is the character name of two African - American brothers who appear in later installments of the Planet of the Apes movie series, as companions of Caesar. While their first names are never given in the Apes movies, they are called Malcolm and Bruce in the Marvel Comics adaptations. Both men are of similar character.
The first, played by Hari Rhodes, appears in the fourth movie, Conquest of the Planet of the Apes as the personal assistant to Governor Breck, and a descendant of slaves who ironically commands slave apes, including Caesar, who later leads an ape revolt. MacDonald does not believe Caesar is the descendant of talking apes Cornelius and Zira, or that Caesar is capable of speech -- until Caesar admits otherwise.
First giving Caesar the chance to escape when the authorities are onto him, then sabotaging the electroshock table Caesar is placed on to force him to speak, MacDonald helps Caesar to launch his revolt -- which turns into a night of fires and carnage, as apes around the city turn on their masters. He then takes Caesar on verbally at the movie 's end, when Caesar wants to fully punish humanity for its treatment of apes.
In the novelization of the fifth film, Battle for the Planet of the Apes, set several years after the events of Conquest, MacDonald appears as Caesar 's human liaison and advisor. However, as Rhodes was unable to take part in the filming due to a prior commitment, his role was rewritten into MacDonald 's younger brother, played by Austin Stoker. The younger MacDonald speaks with his authority around Ape City, though he and the other humans otherwise have little authority over themselves, and mostly serve the apes. When Caesar wonders after his parents, and what they knew about right and wrong and the future, MacDonald suggests that old video recordings of Cornelius and Zira might have survived, under the wreckage of Central City (now called the Forbidden City, after it was destroyed in a nuclear war), with answers to some of his questions.
MacDonald and the orangutan Virgil journey with Caesar back to the Forbidden City, carrying a Geiger counter and small arms for protection. Discovering the intact (though dilapidated) archives, they scarcely have time to play back a short passage of the "Alien Visitors '' (namely, Zira and Cornelius) tape before realising that they have also been discovered -- by mutant human survivors of the war. The three barely escape with their lives, but Caesar now has some insight into who his parents were, and what they knew about future events.
Knowing that there are survivors under the city, who might someday want to wage war against them, Caesar prepares the apes to defend their city, but the head of the ape militia, General Aldo, does n't allow the humans of Ape City to help or to defend themselves. When an attack does come, Aldo corrals the humans to keep them from getting involved. The mutants are beaten back, and MacDonald and the other humans are released -- but they refuse to leave the corral, until their role in the city is redefined. Caesar then decrees that all apes must stop treating humans as second - class citizens, and they then work towards peaceful coexistence among the apes and the humans.
Maddox is an American astronaut in the second film Beneath the Planet of the Apes. He was portrayed by Tod Andrews.
Maddox commanded the rescue mission sent to find astronauts Taylor, Dodge, Landon and Stewart, who went missing in the events of the previous film, Planet of the Apes. Maddox was accompanied on this mission by John Brent.
Following a tradition practiced in both the navy and the air force, Brent sometimes addressed the commander of the craft as "Skipper '', just as Landon had sometimes addressed Taylor in the previous film.
Maddox and Brent 's spaceship passed through a "Hasslein Curve '', sending them two - thousand years into the future. The ship made a crash - landing, badly injuring and blinding Maddox in the process. Brent helped Maddox out of the ship, provided him with medical attention and made him as comfortable as possible.
Brent reported the current year to him (the year 3955 A.D., according to their clocks). Maddox was horrified to hear that they had traveled two - thousand years forward in time. He spoke of his wife and two daughters being long since dead. Maddox himself died shortly afterwards and was buried by Brent.
Although only referred to as "Skipper '' in the film and the credits, the name Maddox appears on the character 's uniform.
Mandemus is an evolved orangutan character in Battle for the Planet of the Apes, the final original Apes movie, from 1973. He was portrayed by Lew Ayres.
Elderly and an avowed pacifist, Mandemus appears to bear no grudges toward his former human captors, and wants everyone to simply live in peace. The nuclear war that destroyed much of the planet (including the city which the apes narrowly escaped) proved the futility of weapons and fighting to Mandemus. With such an attitude, the ape leader Caesar appointed him keeper of Ape City 's small armory, "and of Caesar 's conscience '', reasoning that Mandemus would talk him out of anything impulsive or unwise.
Besides his other duties, Mandemus also became a teacher in Ape City 's first school. One of his students was the genius orangutan Virgil, who also became a teacher, and an advisor of Caesar.
While Mandemus 's appearance in Battle is brief, the Marvel Comics graphic novel adaptation of the Apes storyline provided a longer backstory to the relationship between Mandemus and Caesar.
Dr. Maximus was a character in the original Planet of the Apes film. An orangutan, the highest caste of apes portrayed in the movie, Dr. Maximus is the Commissioner for Animal Affairs ("Animal '' meaning "Human '' in the apes ' lexicon).
Dr. Zaius brings Dr. Maximus to the laboratory where the scientists Cornelius and Zira have given safe haven to human astronaut Taylor. As Commissioner of Animal Affairs, Dr. Maximus notes that the chimpanzees are breaking the leash law and orders that Taylor be removed from the area, which is restricted to apes.
Dr. Maximus appears as part of the National Academy tribunal that presides over the hearing that accuses the two scientists of surgically enabling Taylor to speak. As Dr. Maximus explains, the purpose of the hearing is "to settle custodial and jurisdictional questions concerning this beast, and determine what 's to be done with him. '' As the first seated judge, Dr. Maximus covers his eyes when the three orangutans mime the "See No Evil, Hear No Evil, Speak No Evil '' adage in one of the film 's many satirical flourishes. (According to the film 's star, Charlton Heston, director Franklin Schaffner conceived the idea but was reluctant to film it, fearing it would be perceived as lowbrow and incongruous with the seriousness of the scene.)
Dr. Maximus is played by Woodrow Parfrey, who also appeared in the first episode of the TV series based on the film. Appearing in the first installments of both the film and TV series is a distinction he shares with Roddy McDowall.
Méndez is the name of a successive dynasty of mutant, human leaders in the Planet of the Apes movie universe. Paul Richards played Méndez XXVI in 1970 's Beneath the Planet of the Apes, while Paul Stevens played his predecessor in 1973 's Battle for the Planet of the Apes, the final original movie.
In the second movie, Méndez XXVI is a figure much like a Pope or other lineal authority, with his leadership basically spiritual in nature. His people are the descendants of survivors of a nuclear war, which destroyed most of humanity and allowed the apes to rise to power. Living underground for centuries among irradiated ruins has transformed them physically; their psychic powers increased, as their appearance became disfigured through severe genetic mutation. The underground mutant people wear masks and wigs to resemble their ancestors more closely, and speak through telepathy, saving their voices for worship. They also regard their severe physical mutation as a true blessing of "the divine bomb ''. During their worship ceremonies, the mutants put down their contrived masks, revealing their "inmost selves '' unto their god, and much of their speech and daily rituals are stylized around terms used within the nuclear industry.
Their object of worship is an ancient Alpha - Omega nuclear missile left over from the 20th century and still operational, though its original controls have long been replaced by carefully crafted jewel and crystal workings. They have installed the bomb in the former St. Patrick 's Cathedral before the organ pipes, in place of the crucifix. They see their life 's purpose as to guard the Divine Bomb, and to keep watch on the apes; should the apes become a threat to their underground life, the Bomb will be used to destroy them. However, what is little understood is that the Alpha - Omega Device, which possesses a cobalt casing around its warhead, was designed to ignite the Earth 's atmosphere, and extinguish all life on the planet, not just the apes. Méndez XXVI wears a large gold rendering of the bomb as a pendant, much like a crucifix.
When Taylor and Brent are captured, Méndez XXVI oversees their interrogations, and decides what is to be done with them, and about the apes, who are planning to invade the underground city to seize its food sources. When the apes arrive, Méndez XXVI tries to reason with their leader General Ursus, but is shot down after arming the missile. Taylor later detonates the missile 's warhead, ending the battle between human and ape once and for all by destroying the entire planet.
In Battle for the Planet of the Apes, set almost 2,000 years earlier, Méndez is the first of the underground humans to bear the name, and is a subordinate to Kolp, who became governor after Governor Breck 's death, following the nuclear war. When Kolp goes to battle with Ape City with his mutant army, Méndez remains behind, supervising the team who safeguard their "secret weapon '', the Alpha - Omega bomb.
When Kolp loses the battle, the default order is to fire the missile at Ape City. Méndez instead rejects the order, reminding everyone that using the missile will not just destroy the apes. If they instead revere its power and preserve the missile through time, they will never lose hope or a sense of purpose. He becomes the new human leader, and his attitude toward the missile becomes the code of the underground humans, who build their society to reflect that code. His successors in turn carry his name, as a reminder of their purpose.
In the Planet of the Apes movie series, Dr. Milo is a genius chimpanzee scientist who spurns the intellectual and technological limits placed on the ape society. He was portrayed in Escape from the Planet of the Apes by Sal Mineo, in one of his last roles.
Dr. Milo was added to the storyline developed in Beneath the Planet of the Apes, in the interstitial period between Beneath and Escape. Whether Milo was an outcast from Ape City, or self - exiled from it, is not known. Unafraid of "the beast Man '' and of human technology (forbidden under Ape law) as he is of reading banned books or visiting the Forbidden Zone, he is a friend of Cornelius and Zira, who also hold liberal views.
In the Forbidden Zone, Dr. Milo is able to raise the spacecraft that carried the astronaut Taylor and is able to repair it well enough to relaunch. (It is never revealed how he learned of the ship -- possibly in a conversation with Zira and Cornelius -- or of electronics or any other technique used in space flight; his advanced intelligence would have provided some insight, possibly augmented by caches of old human books, or technological data found aboard the craft.)
While Milo never completely fathoms the technology or the purpose of Taylor 's ship (and of course its crew are unavailable), he does come far enough to be able to attempt a flight. Cornelius and Zira join him, the three donning spacesuits and climbing aboard, after they become convinced the latest anti-human campaign will spell disaster. Once in space, they learn how true this becomes, as the Earth is destroyed.
Whether Taylor 's ship followed a preprogrammed flight path, was affected by shock waves from the blast that destroyed Earth, or was flown by Dr. Milo is never revealed. (From the attitudes shown in Escape, it is probable the apes knew very little about flying the ship, and simply let it follow its programming.) In any case, their trip takes the apes back in time to the year 1973, nearly two years after Taylor 's ship originally departed, and makes another water landing, this time floating off the California coast.
Startling their human finders, Dr. Milo, Zira and Cornelius are taken to the local zoo while the US Government ponders what to do with them. Finding themselves in the reverse situation of what astronauts Taylor and Brent went through coming to their world, the three chimpanzees agree to make no sounds around humans, but talk furtively in private, and try to decide how to handle what has happened. (Zira spoils this by openly declaring her dislike of bananas when the apes are fed, heightening the tension.)
As Dr. Milo paces, he draws the attention of a primitive gorilla from the next cage over, who grabs Dr. Milo at a vulnerable moment and strangles him to death. Mournful over the loss, Cornelius and Zira name their son (born toward the end of Escape) Milo, after their friend. To hide his identity, Milo 's foster father Armando gives him the name Caesar. Caesar becomes the main character in the next two Apes movies, and the leader of a new ape society.
Nova is a fictional character in the novel Planet of the Apes by Pierre Boulle. In the first two Planet of the Apes films, she is played by Linda Harrison.
In Planet of the Apes (1968), Nova is a primitive girl who is captured by the intelligent and warlike apes during one of their hunting expeditions. American astronaut George Taylor is also captured. They are taken to Ape City where they are paired up in a cell. Taylor, having been shot through the throat by a gorilla, is unable to speak, but when his speech returns he befriends the chimpanzees Zira and Cornelius. They eventually help Taylor and Nova escape to the Forbidden Zone where Taylor learns the truth about the planet.
In the sequel Beneath the Planet of the Apes (1970), she and Taylor journey through the Forbidden Zone where Taylor mysteriously disappears. Meanwhile, a second astronaut, Brent, has arrived on the planet in search of Taylor. Brent is brought by Nova to Zira and Cornelius, but they are captured and held prisoner. Escaping, they head for the Forbidden Zone where they discover that beneath the surface of the planet is a forgotten city, peopled by mutants who worship a massive nuclear bomb. Under the mutants ' mind control, Brent attempts to drown Nova. Later, as Brent and Taylor stand in a cell, she watches in horror as the two men, under the control of mutant Ongaro, try to kill each other. Fearing for the lives of her friend and the man she loves, she speaks for the first time, crying out Taylor 's name. The sound of her voice breaks the mutant 's mind control and frees Brent and Taylor, who kill Ongaro and then leave the cell with Nova. As the three navigate around the corridors, General Ursus ' army invades the cathedral, killing any mutant they encounter; the trio are ambushed by an armed gorilla soldier, who fatally shoots Nova, before Brent and Taylor manage to kill him. A devastated Taylor holds Nova in his hands and declares that it is time for all the apes and mutants to be "finished '', before Brent convinces him that they must continue. The film ends with a mortally wounded Taylor detonating the bomb, destroying the planet.
Variations on the character appeared in other interpretations of the Planet of the Apes mythos. Daena, from Tim Burton 's 2001 remake, was based on Harrison 's character from the earlier film series. Harrison also appeared in the film, seen as an unnamed woman in a cart. The name Nova was used for a chimp character, played by Lisa Marie.
In the film War for the Planet of the Apes, Nova is a young girl, portrayed by Amiah Miller.
George Taylor, more commonly known as Taylor, is the main protagonist of the original Planet of the Apes film and a supporting character of Beneath the Planet of the Apes. Taylor is an American astronaut and the leader of a space expedition. He is played by Charlton Heston. Taylor 's first name is never spoken in dialog; the sources for it are the closing credits of the film and the 1998 documentary Behind the Planet of the Apes. While the character is never given a first name during the film, the end credits of Planet of the Apes identify him as George Taylor. Although no rank other than "Skipper '' is given to the character in the two films in which he appears, the character is referred to as Colonel Taylor in Escape from the Planet of the Apes the third film in the series.
In the opening minutes of the movie, Taylor is watching his crewmates enter a state of hibernation aboard their ship (known noncanonically as the Icarus or the Liberty 1), which is accelerating to nearly the speed of light, as he records his final report before joining them. Taylor muses about the fact that hundreds of years have already passed on Earth, in the six months the ship 's clock has recorded, and hopes that whoever is receiving his report on Earth belongs to a better breed than they left behind, when their ship launched in 1972. He then climbs into his bunk, passing into hibernation, as the ship continues on auto - pilot to a faraway star.
When Taylor and two of his crewmates awake (discovering that a fourth, a woman named Stewart, died from an air leak while they were hibernating) the ship has crash - landed in a lake, on what they take to be an Earth - like, but largely barren, planet orbiting a Sun - like star in the constellation Orion. The ship begins to take on water, then sinks rapidly, barely leaving the three astronauts time to break out survival kits and a life raft, and take an Earth - time reading; the year is 3978, leaving them just over two thousand years away from their starting point.
Rowing the raft to dry land, Taylor assumes command of what they now know will be a no - return mission, but it pulls him and his companions, Dodge and Landon, together and they begin a search for life on this new planet. They also discuss their motivations for joining the mission; Taylor 's is his quest to find someone or something wiser than humanity. As they leave their crash site behind, the astronauts first find a flowering plant, then a row of what appear to be scarecrows or a boundary line, then finally a lush valley with a waterfall and pool, where they peel off their uniforms and go swimming.
Their equipment and clothing vanishes. The astronauts follow footprints leading away from the pool and discover primitive mute humans destroying everything the astronauts brought with them. The astronauts assess the possibility of taking command of these humans, but they are interrupted by the sound of gunfire. This planet has another dominant species: evolved apes. The apes hunt the humans, capturing many in nets. Dodge is killed outright, Landon suffers a head wound, and Taylor receives a bullet wound in his throat, preventing him from speaking.
Taken to Ape City and caged, Taylor and a mute female (whom he later calls Nova) share a laboratory cell, and chimpanzee psychologist Dr. Zira hopes the two will mate. When Zira discovers that Taylor has intelligence beyond any human she has ever seen, she takes him out of the laboratory to meet her fiancé Dr. Cornelius. Both disbelieve Taylor 's assertion that he 's actually a visitor from a faraway planet, but they think he might be living proof of human intelligence -- if not a missing link between humans and their "evolved superiors '', the apes.
Learning also of Taylor 's intelligence, and of his ability to speak as his throat recovers, Dr. Zaius wants Taylor first gelded, then put to death -- but first he wants to know where Taylor "really comes from '' in the Forbidden Zone, and information about his "tribe ''. Taylor of course ca n't tell Zaius anything he wants to know, and states that he learned how to read and write in Fort Wayne, Indiana. Taylor also blames Zaius for what happened to Landon -- who is brought to Taylor in a lobotomised, animal - like state. When Zira 's nephew Lucius breaks Taylor out of the laboratory, and he joins Cornelius and Zira as they flee to the Forbidden Zone (under charges of heresy brought by Zaius), Taylor deliberately takes a rifle for himself, and declares nobody else is in charge of him, from here on. He also brings Nova, despite the apes ' objections.
Dr. Zaius tracks the fleeing party down, but Taylor captures him, forcing Zaius to promise both to let him and Nova escape, and to drop the charges he 's made against Zira and Cornelius. Zaius agrees, but nonetheless condemns Taylor and all humans as doomed to folly. After Taylor and Nova depart, Zaius destroys the cave holding the evidence that would exonerate Cornelius and Zira, and takes them back to Ape City under escort.
Finally free of the apes, Taylor discovers that he has n't been on a faraway planet at all, but has returned to Earth in its distant future, as he and Nova encounter the ruins of the Statue of Liberty along the shoreline. He was devastated to learn that humanity indeed had destroyed themselves, as Zaius asserted.
Heston returned as Taylor for a brief appearance in the second Apes movie, Beneath the Planet of the Apes, as he and Nova encounter strange sights and sounds in what should be an empty landscape. When Taylor discovers a wall where there was none before, he tries to tear into it - and disappears, leaving the horrified Nova alone on their horse.
Later in the movie, another astronaut named Brent, sent on a doomed mission to rescue Taylor and his companions, is fleeing with Nova from a squad of gorilla soldiers into the Forbidden Zone, when they come upon an entryway to the underground remains of New York City, and its mutant human inhabitants, whom as it turns out led them in deliberately -- as they earlier had Taylor, through the illusory wall. After probing both Taylor and Brent for what they know about the apes and their intentions, they force the two men to fight to the death, but Nova 's sudden reappearance breaks their jailer 's control. All three nearly escape, when Nova is shot and dies as the apes attack the underground city. Taylor loses hope, but he and Brent each grab weapons and fight against the apes.
Taylor is shot trying to reach the console that controls the Alpha - Omega (ΑΩ) missile the mutants worship. Rising, he attempts to dismantle its nuclear warhead before either the mutants can trigger it, and destroy the whole planet, or the apes can set it off by their carelessness. Desperate, he calls out to Dr. Zaius for help, who flatly refuses him on the grounds that humans are "capable of nothing but destruction ''. Taylor falls for the last time, his hand plunging the trigger mechanism with his last breath, and the Earth is destroyed.
Taylor appears in references during the third Apes movie, Escape from the Planet of the Apes, (where he is given the rank of Colonel which was never mentioned in the two previous films) and a few times in flashbacks, but his (and Heston 's) role in the series was complete after the first two installments. Heston had n't wanted to come back, but the studio held him to his contract; he agreed to appear if his salary were donated to charity, and if the original storyline (which had Taylor and Nova surviving, to found a new human breed) were changed to keep him from having to return for another sequel.
General Ursus is a gorilla character in the second film, Beneath the Planet of the Apes, serving as the main antagonist of the film. He was portrayed by veteran actor James Gregory.
General Ursus is interested mainly in his own dreams of conquest, glory and power. At a meeting of the ape council, Ursus uses the recent crop failures, drought, and raids by wild humans as the basis for a call to invade the Forbidden Zone, where few apes have ventured since the beginning of their world. Suggesting that another tribe of humans lives there (a belief based on Dr. Zaius ' encounter with Taylor in the previous film), and the disappearances of gorilla scouts sent into the zone to investigate, Ursus stirs the apes up to invade, and claim their food source for themselves.
Successful in persuading the apes to declare "a holy war '' against the unknown, General Ursus assembles a gorilla army, and marches toward the Forbidden Zone, accompanied by Minister of Science Dr. Zaius -- who has his misgivings about the whole adventure, but goes along for the sake of science, and "the faith '' of the apes.
Indeed, a small group of intelligent mutant humans do dwell in the Forbidden Zone, underground among the ruins of New York City. While their physical features have been mutated by generations living in the irradiated area, they have advanced psychic powers, which are their only line of defense against "enemies '', i.e. any outsiders. Learning that the gorilla army is on its way, the mutants plant terrifying visions in their minds, of crucified and tortured apes surrounded by fire, and finally the familiar statue of the Lawgiver, prophet of the apes, beginning to crack and bleed. Ursus is frightened as are his soldiers. Having gone too far with their exposition, the mutants ' vision backfires by instilling rage in Dr. Zaius, and he rides into the heart of the vision, remaining unharmed. It grates Ursus that Zaius has shown him up, but he orders the army to advance, and they soon find the entrance to the mutant city.
With their mental powers useless against the "thick - skulled '' apes, the mutants have only one other weapon available -- their "god '' or idol, a 20th - century nuclear missile with a cobalt casing capable of igniting the atmosphere and extinguishing all life on Earth. While the weapon has been passed down through generations, and forms the basis of the mutant culture, left unsaid (but implied by the mutants calling it the "Divine Bomb '') is whether the mutants know of its true destructive power.
Leading the gorilla army into the heart of the mutant world (the former cathedral which now houses the Divine Bomb), Ursus and the other apes are taken back momentarily when first a mutant (their leader Méndez) speaks, declaring "This is the instrument of my god! '' then the bomb rises into launch position. Recovering quickly, Ursus orders his sergeant to take Méndez into custody, but the sergeant shoots Méndez instead. Ursus taunts "Your god did n't save you, did he?! '' as he falls. Thinking the missile is little more than a worshiped idol, Ursus orders a block and tackle be set up, to pull it down.
Zaius pleads with General Ursus not to touch the missile, knowing only "That weapon was built by Man! '' and "It 'll kill us all! '', but Ursus ignores him, even when the missile shell cracks open and propellant escapes, waylaying the nearby gorillas. Ursus is finally killed by a rifle shot, as humans Taylor and Brent vainly try to stop the gorilla army, only moments before Brent is killed by Ursus ' army and a mortally wounded Taylor detonates the bomb, putting an end to the gorilla 's ambitions -- along with everything else on the planet.
Virgil is a genius orangutan character from Battle for the Planet of the Apes, the final original Apes movie from 1973. He was played onscreen by actor / musician Paul Williams.
A former student of orangutan pacifist Mandemus, Virgil went on to become Ape City 's resident scientist and theoretical thinker, and an advisor and friend of Caesar. Apes and humans are both among his students, and he feels sorry for the humans ' second - class status in Ape City.
Caesar calls Virgil away from his teaching work, to accompany him and Mr. MacDonald on a trip back to the Forbidden City, to search for recordings of his parents Cornelius and Zira, and information about Earth 's future. Carrying a Geiger counter into the Forbidden City, Virgil warns Caesar plainly about the radioactivity and accompanying dangers. (He also authorizes MacDonald to bring a pistol, in case he may "wish to shoot, cook, and eat a rabbit '' during the trip; something humans were normally not allowed to do.)
Returning from the Forbidden City (after barely escaping with their lives, from mutated human survivors who stayed underground), Caesar and Virgil reluctantly prepare Ape City for a possible attack. General Aldo, called to action, sees the chance to take power instead. When Caesar 's son Cornelius is gravely injured in a fall from a tree, MacDonald discovers the ends of the broken branch, determining they were cut, and he and Virgil deduce Aldo was the culprit.
Virgil fights and leads apes when the mutant humans do attack, calling Caesar out to take charge. After the battle, he is the one who must tell Caesar that Cornelius was murdered by Aldo. Later, he helps to rebuild Ape City, with its new status of apes and humans as equals.
Dr. Zaius is a fictional character in the Pierre Boulle novel Planet of the Apes, and the film series and television series based upon it. (In Boulle 's novel, his honorific was "Mi '', a term in the Ape language.) He is an orangutan and although given a minor role devoid of dialogue in the novel, he becomes the main antagonist of the story in the subsequent film adaptation. Zaius was portrayed in the first and second films of the series by Maurice Evans, in the later television series by Booth Colman, and voiced in the animated series by Richard Blackburn. Prior to that, acting legend Edward G. Robinson also gave life to the character in a short film used to pitch the story _́ s concept to executives at 20th Century Fox.
Zaius serves a dual role in Ape society, as Minister of Science in charge of advancing ape knowledge, and also as Chief Defender of the Faith. In the latter role, he has access to ancient scrolls and other information not given to the ape masses. Zaius knows the true origins of the ape society, how humanity fell as the dominant species, and the reasons why the Forbidden Zone is so regarded, and he blames human nature for it all. Zaius seems to prefer an imperfect, ignorant ape culture that keeps humans in check, to the open, scientific, human - curious one posed by Cornelius and Zira 's generation (this is due to his fear of a war of self - destruction). The idea of an intelligent human (such as Taylor) threatening the balance of things frightens him deeply. Knowing the destruction that humanity (with the aid of technology) caused in its downfall, he does n't want even the possibility of a human resurgence. At the end of Planet of the Apes, Zaius has Cornelius 's archaeological findings (human artifacts, predating the Ape society) destroyed, and Cornelius and Zira arrested on heresy charges.
Although cast as the antagonist in the film, Zaius 's actions are nonetheless driven by his deep belief that he is protecting the world (at whatever cost) from the "walking pestilence '' of humanity, even if his actions cause undue harm to his ape brethren. And despite his animosity towards Taylor, Zaius nevertheless demonstrates a grudging respect for his adversary, calling him by his proper name, and even advising Taylor near the end of the film against delving into the mystery as to how the apes evolved from humans because as he cryptically warns the marooned astronaut: "Do n't look for it, Taylor. You may not like what you find. '' The film 's final startling image of the corroded head of the Statue of Liberty by the sea shore can be seen as a vindication of Zaius 's views as to the destructive, genocidal nature of humanity and the means which Zaius is compelled to employ, even against his own colleagues, from the existential threat of a resurgent human race.
Only once near the end does Zaius truly make what he knows and thinks known:
"I have always known about man. From the evidence, I believe his wisdom must walk hand and hand with his idiocy. His emotions must rule his brain. He must be a warlike creature who gives battle to everything around him, even himself... The Forbidden Zone was once a paradise. (Man) made a desert of it ''
By the second movie Beneath the Planet of the Apes, Cornelius recalls how Zaius brought them to trial, but then acted on their behalf. When Zaius leaves on a military expedition with General Ursus to invade the Forbidden Zone, Zaius trusts them both to continue his work. (In the novelization of Beneath, they instead begin a revolt, once the gorilla army is gone.) Zaius meets Taylor once more, in a showdown between the gorillas and a mutant human race living underground in the Zone. Taylor was trying to keep the mutant humans from activating a doomsday bomb, and was shot several times in the process by gorilla troops. Wounded and dying, Taylor begs Zaius to help him stop the bomb; when Zaius refuses (declaring "Man is evil -- capable of nothing but destruction! ''), Taylor deliberately activates the bomb in his last moments, ironically realizing Zaius 's worst fears, as the Earth is destroyed.
During the third movie (Escape from the Planet of the Apes) Cornelius relates how he learned the truth about humans and apes from reading secret scrolls. Cornelius presumably had access to these while working for Dr. Zaius (or after his departure), or perhaps was granted access by Zaius as a consolation for the loss of his archaeological work.
In the television series, Councillor Zaius serves as a government official, with authority over all the humans in his district. The young chimpanzee Galen becomes his new assistant, but becomes a fugitive with two human astronauts Virdon and Burke, fleeing from Zaius and his enforcer, General Urko.
In the animated series, Zaius again serves as a government official, who holds influence within the Ape Senate, and has authority over both Cornelius and Zira, and their scientific enterprises, as well as General Urko and his military.
Dr. Zira is a chimpanzee psychologist and veterinarian, who specializes in the study of humans, in the novel and subsequent movie series Planet of the Apes. Zira was played in the first three Apes movies by actress Kim Hunter. Unique among the Apes characters, Zira has blue eyes.
Zira is the fiancée (later wife) of Cornelius, and both are ultimately responsible to the Minister of Science, Dr. Zaius. Zira 's character and role are essentially the same in both the novel and the movies, though some story details differ. Her work in each involves both working with humans under laboratory conditions (e.g. learning and behavioural experiments), and working on them physically (lobotomy and other brain surgeries, vivisection, physical endurance and tolerance experiments, and subsequent autopsies). Zira is an outspoken liberal by nature, deploring war and militancy (and despising the gorillas, who seem to make both a way of life), and eager to seek and develop intelligence anywhere it can be found. Zira literally stands for her principles -- or refuses to stand, as the case may be.
In the original novel, Zira discovers that her charge Ulysse Mérou (caged in the laboratory where she works) is n't a native - born, mute human of her planet, but a space traveller capable of speech, and she secretly teaches him the language of the apes, in hopes of eventually making a public demonstration, with Mérou 's consent. Cornelius also becomes involved, helping prepare Mérou to meet ape society, and vice versa.
In the first movie, Zira meets American astronaut George Taylor, who was shot in the throat when he was captured by gorillas, and can not speak, as the native humans of her world can not. She tends to his throat wound, discovers Taylor has intelligence beyond any human she 's seen, and pairs him with Nova, also intelligent, hoping the two will breed. When Taylor steals Zira 's notepad and writes his own name on it, Zira abruptly drops the nickname "Bright Eyes '' she 'd given him, and takes Taylor to meet Cornelius. Both disbelieve Taylor 's story that he 's from another planet, but suppose that he might be a missing link, to explain the similarities between ape and human behaviour and anatomy... and the strange artifacts Cornelius found at an archaeological dig the year before. She seems to be fond of the humans that she works with and gives them nicknames, such as an old one she named "Old Timer ''.
In both novel and movie, Zira ultimately helps Mérou / Taylor and Nova to escape the world of the apes, coming to appreciate each as thinking creatures like herself, as well as having a plain fondness for them. In the movie, she and Taylor kiss goodbye -- even though, as she tells him, "You 're so damned ugly. ''
Beneath the Planet of the Apes shows Zira and Cornelius married and at home (after Zira makes a political spectacle of herself at an ape gathering), when another human enters their lives; the astronaut Brent, sent to rescue Taylor but now needing help himself. Zira treats a bullet wound Brent sustained, and she and Cornelius send him and Nova (who met Brent when she sought Zira, after Taylor vanished) back out of the city, to spare them from the latest human roundup. When Dr. Zaius visits, he tells Cornelius and Zira he plans to appoint them as his proxies, while he is away on a military campaign with General Ursus (Zira left her medical gear in sight; covering part of her face, she pretends to Zaius that Cornelius hit her for upsetting the ape council). Zaius admonishes them both to maintain the status quo, and keep their more liberal values in check. Zira and Cornelius promise to do so, and Zaius departs. In the novel adaptation of the movie, they subsequently begin a chimpanzee revolt, with Zaius and the gorilla army gone.
Escape from the Planet of the Apes has the pregnant Zira (with Cornelius and their friend Dr. Milo) making a different kind of experiment -- this time space flight, in Taylor 's restored craft, the Icarus, when they realize their world is doomed. In a reverse of Taylor 's experience, the spaceship travels back in time to a few months after his mission began, splashing down off the California coast. The movie follows Zira and Cornelius (after the accidental death of Dr. Milo) through their discovery, and eventual rejection, by and of human society. A large portion of the rejection comes from Zira 's drugged confessions of the details of her human experiments, to the shock of the reactionary Presidential Commission, who declare them atrocities since they were done to humans. Zira was glad she told the truth and understands why Taylor called them savages when Taylor was treated badly. Zira 's and Cornelius 's account of their origins, and of humanity 's coming downfall, further stigmatises the couple. Their baby is born (named Milo after their friend, but later called Caesar), but Zira and Cornelius are murdered a few days afterward. Circus owner Armando took them in when the baby came; Zira switched her newborn baby with a circus chimp when she and Cornelius had to go into hiding, leaving Armando a clue in case they did n't return.
Zira makes no further appearances in the Apes movies, although she is mentioned by name in the following sequels, Conquest of the Planet of the Apes and Battle for the Planet of the Apes and appears in video stills (while her recorded voice tells the story of their space flight, and of the Earth 's destruction) the adult Caesar plays back, to learn more about his parents, in Battle for the Planet of the Apes.
Veska is a character in the first episode of the TV series Planet of the Apes. He is a pragmatic chimpanzee and prefect of the ape village known as Chalo.
In the episode, titled "Escape From Tomorrow, '' in 3085, his inquisitive young son Arno discovers the downed spacecraft called Probe Six some distance away from the prefecture that has delivered the human protagonists to their planet. Veska is shaken by the realization that humans have constructed and flown the ship, which is considerably more advanced than the primitive level of invention on his own planet. Veska 's fierce reaction to his son 's declaration that the humans must have come from a superior culture introduces a core theme present throughout the franchise, that the apes fear the human astronauts will threaten their dominion over the species. "If humans could build and fly a (spaceship) like this, '' he tells Arno, "they 'd begin to think they 're as good as we are! '' Veska alerts the other ape leaders to the two surviving humans ' escape from the vehicle, which starts the hunt that drives almost all episodes of the short - lived series.
Veska is played by Woodrow Parfrey, who along with appearing in this first series episode also appeared in the first Apes movie, a distinction he shares only with Roddy McDowall. (Their two characters in the series pilot are cousins.) Veska 's eyepatch was a last - minute wardrobe solution to mask a visible eye infection Parfrey contracted after falling asleep while wearing the dark contact lenses that all blue - eyed actors wore to help the ape makeup appear more natural. The large patch, apparently shorn from the same material used to make his costume, enhances Veska 's frightening countenance.
General Thade is the main antagonist of Tim Burton 's 2001 remake of Planet of the Apes. He was portrayed by Tim Roth.
Thade is an ambitious and brutal leader (along with his gorilla friend Attar) of the Ape armies, who passionately hated all things human and wanted them exterminated. His father Zaius, who had instilled this hatred in him, knew that humans were once in charge, and Thade vowed to wipe out any resistance to ape rule and being direct descendants of the ape god Semos. He schemed to be given absolute power by the Ape Senate. General Thade pursued Ari romantically but never seemed to progress. Thade branded Ari with the mark of human slaves after she was found gathering with human rebels in the forbidden area of Calima. Thade ruled with cruelty and lived by a Machiavellian outlook on life. Any means justified the ends to Thade. When news of a crashed spacecraft reached him he personally killed those who told him, to ensure the information remained a secret. While willing to get a pet human child for his niece, Thade himself believed the world would be a better place if all humans were killed. When the ape army was halted by the appearance of a spacepod piloted by a chimp, Thade alone rejected the idea of the second coming of Semos. He chased the chimp and was eventually locked into the control room of the deserted space station.
He was shown again in the closing scene, where Leo had returned to Earth in his own time only to find technologically advanced apes in charge and a large statue of Thade in place of Abraham Lincoln on the Lincoln Memorial.
Thade is the only villain in the series to survive the events of his film, unlike previous and later ape and human villains.
Capt. Leo Davidson is the protagonist of Tim Burton 's 2001 remake Planet of the Apes. He is portrayed by Mark Wahlberg.
Leo Davidson is a United States Air Force astronaut who accidentally opens a portal to another world inhabited by talking human - like apes and is captured by them. After he escapes from slavery and freeing some humans, he plans to go back to his space station Oberon through Calima (the temple of "Semos ''), a forbidden, but holy, site for the apes. Along the way, he develops romantic feelings to Ari, a female chimpanzee who senses that there is cruelty with humans, and Daena, a female human slave. According to the computer logs, the station has been there for thousands of years. Leo deduces that when he entered the vortex, he was pushed forward in time while the Oberon, searching after him, was not, crashing on the planet long before he did. The Oberon 's log reveals that the apes on board, led by Semos, the first ape, organized a mutiny and took control of the vessel after it crashed.
The human and ape survivors of the struggle left the ship and their descendants are the people Leo has encountered since landing. Realizing that General Thade will be coming after him with an army, he leads a human rebellion against the apes. As the battle between humans and apes goes on, a familiar vehicle descends from the sky and is identified immediately by Leo as the pod piloted by Pericles, the chimp astronaut who was pushed in time as Leo does. When Pericles lands, the apes interpret his landing as the return arrival of Semos, who is their god. They bow, and hostilities between humans and apes disappear. Pericles then runs into the Oberon and Leo runs after him, while being followed by General Thade. Inside, Thade and Leo wrestle, with Pericles trying to help Leo, only to be thrown hard against a wall. Seeing that Thade is in the pilot 's deck, Leo closes the automatic door of the entrance, trapping Thade as he shoots the gun, the bullets ricocheting off the door harmlessly.
After the battle was finished, Leo decides that it is time for him to leave the Planet of the Apes, so he gives Pericles to Ari, with her promising to look after him, also saying farewell to Daena. Leo climbs aboard Pericles 's undamaged pod and uses it to travel back in time through the same electromagnetic storm. Leo ends up crashing in front of the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D.C. on Earth in his own time. He looks up at the Memorial, and in shock, sees it is now a monument in honor of General Thade. A swarm of police officers, firefighters, and news reporters descend on Leo, but on closer inspection, they are all apes.
Ari was the daughter of Senator Sandar, a high - ranking member of the Ape Senate. She was portrayed by Helena Bonham Carter
She had a passion for life and thrived for a world where apes and humans lived as equals. She was idealistic and despised the way the humans were treated. Ari spoke publicly about her outrageous beliefs, and used her father as a shield from the authorities. When Ari spotted astronaut Leo Davidson in a cage, she just had to have him. She bought him and the female Daena, whom he particularly liked, because she saw their rebelliousness. From there she became captivated by Leo whom she viewed as unique. Ari helped Leo and a band of others escape Ape City and followed them into the Forbidden Zone. General Thade, a suitor for her affections, explained this escape as a kidnapping of Ari and used this to justify his absolute power under martial law. Thade 's army marched on humanity, and Ari and her human friends waited in Calima for their arrival. She may have struggled to live up to her ideals but was the vital link between the human rebels and the more sympathetic members of ape society.
Attar was the commander of the Ape Armies. He was the loyal lieutenant of General Thade and enjoyed the thrill of hunting humans. He was portrayed by Michael Clarke Duncan.
Attar demanded that everyone bow their heads before dinner so a prayer to Semos could be delivered. He even went into a rage after Leo deliberately set the tent where Attar kept his personal shrine of Semos on fire. Attar learned the art of fighting under his teacher Krull, whom he had to fight and kill in the ultimate battle. When the spacepod piloted by Pericles landed on the battle field, he and the other ape soldiers dropped their weapons believing it was the return of their god. He realized that Thade, Thade 's father, and the elders of ape society had been misleading the population for centuries and he took the side of Leo, Ari and the humans.
Dreyfus is a fictional character in the 2014 sequel Dawn of the Planet of the Apes as the secondary antagonist. He is portrayed by Gary Oldman.
He is a former Army soldier and police officer who is appointed as the leader of the human resistance. Having experienced personal loss, Dreyfus sees Caesar and his colony as a threat after discovering an ape encampment at a local power station. Seeing no other solution, Dreyfus has one goal; wipe them out. Dreyfus sacrifices himself to blow up the skyscraper to kill the apes; his plan fails, though it does kill Koba.
Steven Jacobs is a fictional character and the main antagonist in the 2011 series reboot Rise of the Planet of the Apes. He was portrayed by David Oyelowo. His last name is a reference to Arthur P. Jacobs, the producer of the original Planet of the Apes series.
He ran the Gen - Sys Laboratories where Dr. Will Rodman was researching a cure to Alzheimer 's disease. After two years in charge of the lab, Jacobs shut down research on the ' ALZ - 112 ' drug after one of Rodman 's chimps went berserk. It was only eight years later, when Rodman revealed he had used the drug on his own father with limited results, that Jacobs approved development of a refined version.
However, Jacobs ordered further testing of the "ALZ - 113 '' virus despite Rodman 's warnings, caring only for the profits to be made on the success of the virus. Later on, Caesar escaped the San Bruno Primate Shelter along with all the other apes housed there, having first infected them with the ALZ - 113. Caesar then went on to stage an attack on Gen - Sys and rescue the apes being held captive there by Jacobs and his staff. After the attack, Jacobs flagged down a San Francisco Police helicopter being commanded by Police Chief John Hamil, and directed them to attack and attempt to destroy the ape rebellion now taking place on the Golden Gate Bridge, in hopes of avoiding bad publicity for Gen - Sys and himself. Once the helicopter arrived at the bridge, Caesar and the other apes were already in the process of defeating the police force opposing them. The helicopter began firing on the apes, killing several, until Jacobs spotted Caesar and attempted to have the chopper pilot gun him down. Buck, a silverback gorilla, tossed Caesar aside and caused the helicopter to crash on to the very edge of the bridge by jumping on it and attacking Hamil and the pilot, which resulted in Buck 's death. Jacobs was the only survivor from the crash and pleaded for Caesar to help him out of the helicopter before it tipped over the side of the bridge. However, Caesar turned his back on Jacobs because of all the pain and suffering he 'd caused the apes for his own greed, as well as for Buck 's death. Just as Caesar turned away, Koba, an ape that Jacobs ordered testing on earlier, walked up to the crashed helicopter and, despite Jacobs asking for help, callously pushed it -- and a screaming Jacobs -- over the side of the bridge and into the water far below, presumably killing him.
Koba is a scar - faced bonobo who has spent most of his life in laboratories and holds a grudge against humans in Rise of the Planet of the Apes. Koba is portrayed by Christopher Gordon in Rise and Toby Kebbell in Dawn.
Koba was tested with the ALZ - 113 drug by Will Rodman. Koba has a strong hatred of humans because of his past as a test subject. When Caesar freed all of the apes at the lab including Koba, Koba respected Caesar for freeing him. When Buck died at the Golden Gate Bridge, Caesar allowed Koba to kill Steven Jacobs. Koba killed Steven Jacobs by pushing him off the bridge into the water. While Will was looking for Caesar in the Muir Woods, Koba attacked him and was about to kill him. Instead, Caesar stopped Koba from killing Will, which left Koba very angry.
Koba returns in the Dawn of the Planet of the Apes as the main antagonist. He is now a lieutenant and close friend of Caesar, who treats him like a brother. However, when surviving humans appear, Koba 's darker nature reemerges and he begins pushing for open war against the humans, considering them a threat and remembering all the torture he suffered at their hands. Caesar wants peace with the humans, putting him and Koba at odds, and eventually leading to a brutal brawl between the two which nearly kills Koba. Despite being spared and forgiven for his insolence, Koba decides to overthrow Caesar and shoots him with a human rifle under cover of darkness, causing him to fall off a cliff. Framing the humans for Caesar 's "death '', Koba leads the ape colony in a vicious attack against the humans. Despite heavy casualties, Koba and the apes win, killing many humans and imprisoning the rest to show them what it feels like to be in a cage. However, Caesar is revealed to have survived Koba 's assassination attempt, and the two fight for leadership of the tribe. Caesar eventually manages to overpower Koba and tackles him, leaving him clinging for dear life on the ledge of a shaft in the centre of a partially finished skyscraper. Koba begs for mercy, but Caesar disowns him as an ape and lets him fall to his death.
In War for the Planet of the Apes, Koba appears twice as a hallucination to Caesar, who was mentally scarred by his decision to kill him.
Dodge Landon is the secondary antagonist of Rise of the Planet of the Apes. He worked as a guard at the primate detention facility where he abused the apes. He was portrayed by Tom Felton. His first and last name are references to two of the astronauts Dodge and Landon in the original Planet of the Apes.
Dodge made Caesar 's life miserable at the facility, including hosing him down in his cage to "show him who 's the boss ''. When Dodge finds Caesar in the facility 's common area alone a struggle ensues and Caesar speaks for the first time - yelling "No! '' and then cages him. Dodge escapes - and wielding his cattle - prod - threatens to "skin each and every one of you apes ''. Caesar uses the water hose on Dodge in defense, electrocuting him.
Malcolm is a fictional character in the 2014 sequel Dawn of the Planet of the Apes. He is portrayed by Jason Clarke.
He is a leader of a small group that forms a strong bond with Caesar - to the extent that Caesar compares him to Will - and is also the father of Alexander.
Nova, portrayed by Amiah Miller, is a bold and kind war orphan whom Maurice adopts as his daughter.
Nova is a victim of a mutated version of the Simian Flu virus that killed most of the human population while making the apes intelligent; this new strain of the virus robs humans of the ability to speak, and causes them to regress to a more primitive mentality. The initially unnamed Nova is discovered living in an isolated house, with only a man presumed to be her father for company; when her house is discovered by a small ape patrol consisting of Caesar, Maurice, Rocket and Luca, her father is killed when he attempts to shoot the apes, and Maurice encourages Caesar to take the girl with them as she will die on her own. The girl accompanies the apes as they travel, winning them over with her simple compassion, as well as demonstrating the ability to learn some elements of sign language. When the apes discover the facility where the ruthless Colonel is keeping the rest of their pack prisoner, Caesar is captured during an attempted raid, and learns about the Colonel 's plans to wipe out any humans infected with the new virus. While Caesar is held in a cage, deprived of food and water, the girl sneaks into the camp to give him water from a bucket and grain provided by the other apes, as well as her old doll for comfort. Rocket subsequently allows himself to be captured to give the girl a chance to escape. While helping Maurice dig a tunnel into the apes ' cage from an existing underground path, the girl asks if she can be an ape, but Maurice tells her instead that she is "Nova '', after a novelty item she received from a gift shop. After the apes escape and the Colonel 's facility is destroyed in an avalanche, Nova accompanies the apes to their new home, and is last shown playing with Caesar 's son Cornelius.
Charles Rodman is a fictional character in the 2011 series reboot Rise of the Planet of the Apes. He was portrayed by John Lithgow.
He was the father of scientist Dr. Will Rodman and the adoptive grandfather of Caesar. Once a talented pianist and professional music teacher who earned an honorary certificate, Charles began to suffer from Alzheimer 's disease, which his son (either through coincidence or design) researched a cure for at the Gen - Sys Laboratories. He had been cared for during his illness by a nurse named Irena, who could n't stand Charles ' behavior due to Alzheimer 's disease and wished that he would leave the house to stay at a shelter. Although trials of the ' ALZ - 112 ' were called off, Will adopted the baby chimp Caesar, who had been exposed to the drug. Three years later, noticing its effects on Caesar, he administered the drug to Charles, who immediately recovered his mental abilities and was once again able to play the piano. For five years they lived a happy life, with Charles taking care of Caesar when the chimpanzee was a newborn.
Charles was on bad terms with his hot - headed neighbor Douglas Hunsiker on two occasions. The first time was when Hunsiker used a baseball bat in an attempt to strike Caesar when he entered his garage to ride a bicycle, with Charles stating, "He just wanted to play ''. The second and worst time was when Charles, having become immune to the drug and suffering once again from Alzheimer 's, got into Hunsiker 's car and tried to drive it, damaging the front and back of the car by bumping into the cars it was parked between. Hunsiker grabbed Charles out of his car and decided to get out his phone to call the police. Charles tried to grab the cell phone away from Hunsiker. Caesar saw the situation through a window and although not aware of why Hunsiker was angry at Charles, was aware that his grandfather figure was being threatened. To save him, Caesar attacked Hunsiker, refusing to let him run off to his house. After Caesar bit Hunsiker 's finger, Charles yelled at Caesar to stop. Their last moment together was when Caesar and Charles hugged each other, fearing what consequences awaited Caesar with Charles trying to comfort him.
Dr. Will Rodman is a fictional character in the 2011 series reboot Rise of the Planet of the Apes. He was portrayed by James Franco.
Dr. Will Rodman is a young scientist working at Gen - Sys Industries, a pharmaceutical company in San Francisco. He has been working over five years on a cure for Alzheimer 's disease, which his father Charles Rodman (played by John Lithgow), a former music teacher, is suffering from. An ape from Africa is captured and taken to the company, and is given the drug codenamed ALZ - 112; which experiments have shown allows the brain to repair itself by recreating its cells, with the only known side - effect being a change in the eyes iris to green. He and Steven Jacobs (played by David Oyelowo), the executive overseeing the progress, decides to present it to the Board to move the testing to the next phase of clinical trials on humans. The captured ape that was given the drug, Chimp 9 a.k.a. "Bright Eyes '' is seen attacking the handlers and goes on a rampage which ends with her getting shot. Too late, Franklin the ape handler, and Will realized that it was n't the drug that made her attack, but her newborn baby chimp whom her maternal primal instincts felt she needed to protect against the humans. The project is scrapped and all the other apes tested with the drug are ordered to be put down. However, Franklin can not bring himself to kill the baby chimp and pleas with Will to take the baby chimp home instead.
Will adopts the baby chimp and names him "Caesar ''. 3 years later, Will is witnessing the severe side effects of his father 's disease, while Caesar grows more intelligent -- this convinces him to steal some of the drugs from the lab and use it on his father. His father is shown to have made an instant recovery; moving five more years forward Charles has been receiving routine doses via injection of ALZ - 112. In the five years past, Caesar is also displaying great intellectual prowess and is now an adult chimp, who yearns to explore beyond his surrounding and starts questioning his identity after he sees a German Shepherd on a collared leash like the one he has on. He signs to Will if he 's a pet, which Will adamantly states no. He then signs to Will what he is, and Will says, "I 'm your father '', which he follows with a sign, "What is Caesar? '' Will decides to tell Caesar the truth and takes him to Gen - Sys and tells him that he works there, and that Caesar was born there, and his mother was given medicine along with other chimps. He explains to him that the medicine that was given to his mother passed through to him in - vitro, and that 's why his intelligence is so high. He also tells Caesar that his mother is dead.
Will 's father (whose body is fighting the artificial virus with antibodies being naturally created by the immune system), attempts to drive the neighbor 's car in one of his states of dementia; the angered neighbor is being confrontational to Charles, and Caesar attacks the neighbor, biting off the finger that he was poking Charles repeatedly with. Caesar is taken to the San Bruno primate facility by animal control, and is kept there, when a concerned Will says that "he has n't spent any time with other chimps ''. Heartbroken, Caesar is treated violently by the staff and other ape inmates. Will has been working on a stronger viral strain since he realizes that the immune system will eventually built an immunity to ALZ - 112 (just like when someone is injected with a vaccination). After meeting with Jacobs and revealing he 's given his father the drug (there - by already having a human trial phase), Jacobs gives him the okay to test the new strain, named ALZ - 113.
The new drug is given on an ape named Koba, who in a moment of fit during the administering knocks a gas mask off of Franklin. The ALZ - 113, unlike the 112, is not injected but inhaled instead (which also means that the virus is airborne). The new drug seems to work on Koba, but Will quits after he realizes that he 's unable to change the mind of the greedy Jacobs. Will tried to test the ALZ - 113 on Charles, but he refused and died the next morning from Alzheimer 's. Franklin is later approaching the Rodman house for help realizing that he 's been infected by the virus, but sneezes blood on the neighbor.
Will tries to take Caesar home by bribing the owner of the primate facility, who takes the bribe, but is refused by Caesar himself to go, believing he belongs there more so than with Will. Caesar realizes after befriending another ape, who also knows how to sign from being in the circus, that he needs to make the apes more intelligent if they are to break from their bondage. Caesar manages to escape and return to his former home, where he knows that Will use to keep stolen tubes of the original ALZ - 112 in the refrigerator. However, he finds the new 113 instead, and upon accidentally pressing the cap, a little bit of the virus is released on to the window pane and absorbed, letting the intelligent Caesar realize that the virus can be absorbed as it 's a gas. He releases the 113 down the corridor of where the apes are held in cages, and the virus fills the air with its gas. The next day, Caesar inspects every ape passing through to see if its eyes are green, thereby knowing if that ape has the virus or not. He leads a revolution against their captors and heads towards Gen - Sys, and proceeds to break out all the lab chimps and all the apes at the zoo. After fighting their way towards the Golden Gate and towards the Redwood Grove, Will calls for Caesar, but is attacked by Koba, but stopped by Caesar. Will tries to reason with him by trying to take him home. Caesar speaks to him, "Caesar is home '', and they part as the apes are overlooking San Francisco. Caesar appears to take on more human characteristic, like walking upright, riding a horse, and now speaking.
In a post credits scene, Will 's neighbor, Douglas Hunsiker (David Hewlett) who has been unknowingly infected with the virus, later boards a plane to Paris, spreading the humanity - killing virus to France and then around the globe via airline flight routes.
Will reappears in a cameo during Dawn of the Planet of the Apes, which takes place ten years later with the virus having become a global disaster, which Will is believed to have succumbed. A wounded Caesar and the group retreat to the Rodman house, which has fallen into disarray and neglect. Caesar and the group see a framed photo of Will interacting with Caesar, who also finds a video camera showing Will teaching Caesar sign language. When asked by human ally Malcolm as to who Will was, an emotional Caesar says that Will was a good man like Malcolm.
Werner is a fictional character in the 2014 sequel Dawn of the Planet of the Apes. He is portrayed by Jocko Sims. He is an ally of Dreyfus.
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amazon provides its services through which of the following famous architecture | Microservices - wikipedia
Microservices is a software development technique -- a variant of the service - oriented architecture (SOA) architectural style that structures an application as a collection of loosely coupled services. In a microservices architecture, services are fine - grained and the protocols are lightweight. The benefit of decomposing an application into different smaller services is that it improves modularity and makes the application easier to understand, develop, test, and more resilient to architecture erosion. It also parallelizes development by enabling small autonomous teams to develop, deploy and scale their respective services independently. It also allows the architecture of an individual service to emerge through continuous refactoring. Microservices - based architectures enable continuous delivery and deployment.
There is no industry consensus yet regarding the properties of microservices, and an official definition is missing as well. Some of the defining characteristics that are frequently cited include:
A microservices - based architecture:
A workshop of software architects held near Venice in May 2011 used the term "microservice '' to describe what the participants saw as a common architectural style that many of them had been recently exploring. In May 2012, the same group decided on "microservices '' as the most appropriate name. James Lewis presented some of those ideas as a case study in March 2012 at 33rd Degree in Kraków in Microservices - Java, the Unix Way, as did Fred George about the same time. Adrian Cockcroft at Netflix, describing this approach as "fine grained SOA '', pioneered the style at web scale, as did many of the others mentioned in this article - Joe Walnes, Dan North, Evan Bottcher and Graham Tackley.
Dr. Peter Rodgers introduced the term "Micro-Web - Services '' during a presentation at the Web Services Edge conference in 2005. On slide # 4 of the conference presentation, he states that "Software components are Micro-Web - Services ''. Juval Löwy had similar precursor ideas about classes being granular services, as the next evolution of Microsoft architecture. "Services are composed using Unix - like pipelines (the Web meets Unix = true loose - coupling). Services can call services (+ multiple language run - times). Complex service - assemblies are abstracted behind simple URI interfaces. Any service, at any granularity, can be exposed. '' He described how a well - designed service platform "applies the underlying architectural principles of the Web and Web services together with Unix - like scheduling and pipelines to provide radical flexibility and improved simplicity by providing a platform to apply service - oriented architecture throughout your application environment ''. The design, which originated in a research project at Hewlett Packard Labs, aims to make code less brittle and to make large - scale, complex software systems robust to change. To make "Micro-Web - Services '' work, one has to question and analyze the foundations of architectural styles (such as SOA) and the role of messaging between software components in order to arrive at a new general computing abstraction. In this case, one can think of resource - oriented computing (ROC) as a generalized form of the Web abstraction. If in the Unix abstraction "everything is a file '', in ROC, everything is a "Micro-Web - Service ''. It can contain information, code or the results of computations so that a service can be either a consumer or producer in a symmetrical and evolving architecture.
Microservices is a specialization of an implementation approach for service - oriented architectures (SOA) used to build flexible, independently deployable software systems. The microservices approach is a first realisation of SOA that followed the introduction of DevOps and is becoming more popular for building continuously deployed systems.
The philosophy of the microservices architecture essentially equates to the Unix philosophy of "Do one thing and do it well ''. It is described as follows:
A linguistic approach to the development of microservices focuses on selecting a programming language that can easily represent a microservice as a single software artifact. A language well suited to microservices encourages the developer to think and program in terms of microservices from the start, instead of starting with a different programming paradigm only to refactor or retrofit a finished project so it can be deployed as a microservice. When effective, the gap between architecting a project and deploying it can be minimized.
One language intended to fill this role is Jolie. The simplicity of the Jolie programming language and its easy deployability also found applications in the area of Internet of Things and Smart Buildings where microservices are a suitable architectural choice.
The microservices approach is subject to criticism for a number of issues:
The architecture introduces additional complexity and new problems to deal with, such as network latency, message formats, load balancing and fault tolerance.
The complexity of a monolithic application is only shifted into the network, but persists:
You can move it about but it 's still there!
Also, an application made up of any number of microservices has to access its respective ecosystem, which may have unnecessary complexity. This kind of complexity can be reduced by standardizing the access mechanism. The Web as a system standardized the access mechanism by retaining the same access mechanism between browser and application resource over the last 20 years. Using the number of Web pages indexed by Google it grew from 26 million pages in 1998 to around 60 trillion individual pages by 2015 without the need to change its access mechanism. The Web itself is an example that the complexity inherent in traditional monolithic software systems can be overcome.
Too - fine - grained microservices have been criticized as an anti-pattern, dubbed a nanoservice by Arnon Rotem - Gal - Oz:
(A) nanoservice is an anti-pattern where a service is too fine grained. (A) nanoservice is a service whose overhead (communications, maintenance etc.) outweighs its utility.
Problems include the code overhead (interface definition, retries), runtime overhead (serialization / deserialization, network traffic), and fragmented logic (useful functionality not implemented in one place, instead requiring combining many services).
Proposed alternatives to nanoservices include:
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how old is pip at the start of great expectations | Pip (Great Expectations) - wikipedia
Philip Pirrip, called Pip, is the protagonist and narrator in Charles Dickens 's novel Great Expectations (1861). He is amongst the most popular characters in English literature, widely portrayed all over the world on stage and screen.
Pip narrates his story many years after the events of the novel take place. The novel follows Pip 's process from childhood innocence to experience. The financial and social rise of the protagonist is accompanied by an emotional and moral deterioration, which finally forces Pip to recognize his negative expectations in a new self - awareness.
When the novel begins in the early 1800s, Philip is a seven - year - old orphan raised by his cruel sister, Mrs. Joe, who beats him regularly, and her husband Joe Gargery, a blacksmith and Pip 's best friend. He lives in the marsh area of Kent, England, twenty miles from the sea.
Pip never saw either of his parents; he is more than twenty years younger than his sister. Five brothers died in infancy between them: Alexander, Bartholomew, Abraham, Tobias and Roger. He says he was short for his age when he encountered the convicts at age seven, but when he is apprentice to Joe, he is taller and becomes very strong to master the work of a blacksmith. He is known to himself and to the world as Pip because his "infant tongue could make of both names nothing longer or more explicit than Pip ''.
He is destined for, and wants, a career as a blacksmith like his brother - in - law, until an unexpected chain of events thrusts him into a different social class. During the novel Pip goes through many changes in his personality, as he is influenced by various people. As a very young child he is a innocent young boy who does not mind the fact he is relatively low ranking in society. At around the age of eight, he meets a beautiful girl named Estella who is of the upper class, Pip falls in love with her, and becomes ashamed of his background and his relatives because he has such a different life to her. When he is old enough he is bound apprentice to Joe. But he longs to be a gentleman, in a social class very different from a village blacksmith. He suffers guilt for his ungrateful feelings toward Joe, who is a kind friend to him throughout his life.
When four years into his apprenticeship mysterious benefactor enables him to escape the working class, Pip moves to London as a teenager to become a gentleman. In his youth, he believes that his patron is Miss Havisham, Estella 's adopted mother, who wants to make him desirable for her daughter. Once he moves to London, though his benefactor is not named, Pip is persuaded it is Miss Havisham, who means him to marry Estella. He is not wise in spending the money he gets before he comes of age at 21, running up debts. His legal guardian is Mr. Jaggers, a lawyer, who points out the difficulties Pip creates, but leaves it to Pip to guide his own life. He does not entirely lose his good character, which is expressed mainly in his relationship with his friend Herbert Pocket.
Two years after Pip comes of age his benefactor appears in person, and it is the convict he met as a boy. Whose name he learns is Abel Magwitch. This deflates his hope that he is meant for Estella and at first disgusts him, as he knows nothing about what sort of criminal the man is. Despite his disgust and disappointment, the sense of duty that compels Pip to help the convict is a mark of his inner goodness, just as it was when Pip first met him at age seven. After Abel Magwitch, the convict, dies and the Crown confiscates his fortune, Pip, aged 23, understands that good clothes, well - spoken English and a generous allowance do not make one a gentleman. Pip falls ill for several weeks; Joe learns of this and comes to care for him until he can walk on his own. A few days after Joe leaves, Pip goes home, to find Biddy has married Joe that very day. Without income or training for any profession, he is at loose ends. Herbert Pocket suggests Pip join the firm where he works, in an office in Cairo. Pip starts as a clerk. Herbert marries his fiancee Clara, and Pip lives with them. There is irony in this, as Pip used his gift at age 21 of 500 pounds to engage Herbert with the new firm. When Pip lost his funds, he asked Miss Havisham to complete the money owed, and she does. Joe ends up paying the rest of the debt that Pip is unable to pay.
Eleven years later, Pip returns to England to see Joe, Biddy and their children. He walks to the land where Satis House once stood and meets Estella there. Both have changed much from their experience of life. After they reconcile, they hold hands, and Pip sees no shadow to part them again.
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the forced vital capacity maneuver is performed as a means to | Spirometry - wikipedia
Spirometry (meaning the measuring of breath) is the most common of the pulmonary function tests (PFTs). It measures lung function, specifically the amount (volume) and / or speed (flow) of air that can be inhaled and exhaled. Spirometry is helpful in assessing breathing patterns that identify conditions such as asthma, pulmonary fibrosis, cystic fibrosis, and COPD. It is also helpful as part of a system of health surveillance, in which breathing patterns are measured over time.
Spirometry generates pneumotachographs, which are charts that plot the volume and flow of air coming in and out of the lungs from one inhalation and one exhalation.
Spirometry is indicated for the following reasons:
Forced expiratory maneuvers may aggravate some medical conditions. Spirometry should not be performed when the individual presents with:
The spirometry test is performed using a device called a spirometer, which comes in several different varieties. Most spirometers display the following graphs, called spirograms:
The basic forced volume vital capacity (FVC) test varies slightly depending on the equipment used.
Generally, the patient is asked to take the deepest breath they can, and then exhale into the sensor as hard as possible, for as long as possible, preferably at least 6 seconds. It is sometimes directly followed by a rapid inhalation (inspiration), in particular when assessing possible upper airway obstruction. Sometimes, the test will be preceded by a period of quiet breathing in and out from the sensor (tidal volume), or the rapid breath in (forced inspiratory part) will come before the forced exhalation.
During the test, soft nose clips may be used to prevent air escaping through the nose. Filter mouthpieces may be used to prevent the spread of microorganisms.
The maneuver is highly dependent on patient cooperation and effort, and is normally repeated at least three times to ensure reproducibility. Since results are dependent on patient cooperation, FVC can only be underestimated, never overestimated.
Due to the patient cooperation required, spirometry can only be used on children old enough to comprehend and follow the instructions given (6 years old or more), and only on patients who are able to understand and follow instructions -- thus, this test is not suitable for patients who are unconscious, heavily sedated, or have limitations that would interfere with vigorous respiratory efforts. Other types of lung function tests are available for infants and unconscious persons.
Another major limitation is the fact that many intermittent or mild asthmatics have normal spirometry between acute exacerbation, limiting spirometry 's usefulness as a diagnostic. It is more useful as a monitoring tool: a sudden decrease in FEV1 or other spirometric measure in the same patient can signal worsening control, even if the raw value is still normal. Patients are encouraged to record their personal best measures.
Spirometry can also be part of a bronchial challenge test, used to determine bronchial hyperresponsiveness to either rigorous exercise, inhalation of cold / dry air, or with a pharmaceutical agent such as methacholine or histamine.
Sometimes, to assess the reversibility of a particular condition, a bronchodilator is administered before performing another round of tests for comparison. This is commonly referred to as a reversibility test, or a post bronchodilator test (Post BD), and is an important part in diagnosing asthma versus COPD.
Other complementary lung functions tests include plethysmography and nitrogen washout.
The most common parameters measured in spirometry are Vital capacity (VC), Forced vital capacity (FVC), Forced expiratory volume (FEV) at timed intervals of 0.5, 1.0 (FEV1), 2.0, and 3.0 seconds, forced expiratory flow 25 -- 75 % (FEF 25 -- 75) and maximal voluntary ventilation (MVV), also known as Maximum breathing capacity. Other tests may be performed in certain situations.
Results are usually given in both raw data (litres, litres per second) and percent predicted -- the test result as a percent of the "predicted values '' for the patients of similar characteristics (height, age, sex, and sometimes race and weight). The interpretation of the results can vary depending on the physician and the source of the predicted values. Generally speaking, results nearest to 100 % predicted are the most normal, and results over 80 % are often considered normal. Multiple publications of predicted values have been published and may be calculated online based on age, sex, weight and ethnicity. However, review by a doctor is necessary for accurate diagnosis of any individual situation.
A bronchodilator is also given in certain circumstances and a pre / post graph comparison is done to assess the effectiveness of the bronchodilator. See the example printout.
Functional residual capacity (FRC) can not be measured via spirometry, but it can be measured with a plethysmograph or dilution tests (for example, helium dilution test).
Forced vital capacity (FVC) is the volume of air that can forcibly be blown out after full inspiration, measured in liters. FVC is the most basic maneuver in spirometry tests.
FEV1 is the volume of air that can forcibly be blown out in one second, after full inspiration. Average values for FEV1 in healthy people depend mainly on sex and age, according to the diagram at left. Values of between 80 % and 120 % of the average value are considered normal. Predicted normal values for FEV1 can be calculated online and depend on age, sex, height, mass and ethnicity as well as the research study that they are based on.
FEV / FVC (FEV1 %) is the ratio of FEV to FVC. In healthy adults this should be approximately 70 -- 85 % (declining with age). In obstructive diseases (asthma, COPD, chronic bronchitis, emphysema) FEV is diminished because of increased airway resistance to expiratory flow; the FVC may be decreased as well, due to the premature closure of airway in expiration, just not in the same proportion as FEV (for instance, both FEV and FVC are reduced, but the former is more affected because of the increased airway resistance). This generates a reduced value (< 80 %, often ~ 45 %). In restrictive diseases (such as pulmonary fibrosis) the FEV and FVC are both reduced proportionally and the value may be normal or even increased as a result of decreased lung compliance.
A derived value of FEV1 % is FEV1 % predicted, which is defined as FEV1 % of the patient divided by the average FEV1 % in the population for any person of similar age, sex and body composition.
Forced expiratory flow (FEF) is the flow (or speed) of air coming out of the lung during the middle portion of a forced expiration. It can be given at discrete times, generally defined by what fraction remains of the forced vital capacity (FVC). The usual intervals are 25 %, 50 % and 75 % (FEF25, FEF50 and FEF75), or 25 % and 50 % of FVC. It can also be given as a mean of the flow during an interval, also generally delimited by when specific fractions remain of FVC, usually 25 -- 75 % (FEF25 -- 75 %). Average ranges in the healthy population depend mainly on sex and age, with FEF25 -- 75 % shown in diagram at left. Values ranging from 50 - 60 % and up to 130 % of the average are considered normal. Predicted normal values for FEF can be calculated online and depend on age, sex, height, mass and ethnicity as well as the research study that they are based on.
MMEF or MEF stands for maximal (mid -) expiratory flow and is the peak of expiratory flow as taken from the flow - volume curve and measured in liters per second. It should theoretically be identical to peak expiratory flow (PEF), which is, however, generally measured by a peak flow meter and given in liters per minute.
Recent research suggests that FEF25 - 75 % or FEF25 - 50 % may be a more sensitive parameter than FEV1 in the detection of obstructive small airway disease. However, in the absence of concomitant changes in the standard markers, discrepancies in mid-range expiratory flow may not be specific enough to be useful, and current practice guidelines recommend continuing to use FEV1, VC, and FEV1 / VC as indicators of obstructive disease.
More rarely, forced expiratory flow may be given at intervals defined by how much remains of total lung capacity. In such cases, it is usually designated as e.g. FEF70 % TLC, FEF60 % TLC and FEF50 % TLC.
Forced inspiratory flow 25 -- 75 % or 25 -- 50 % (FIF 25 -- 75 % or 25 -- 50 %) is similar to FEF 25 -- 75 % or 25 -- 50 % except the measurement is taken during inspiration.
Peak expiratory flow (PEF) is the maximal flow (or speed) achieved during the maximally forced expiration initiated at full inspiration, measured in liters per minute or in liters per second.
Tidal volume is the amount of air inhaled or exhaled normally at rest.
Total lung capacity (TLC) is the maximum volume of air present in the lungs
Diffusing capacity (or DLCO) is the carbon monoxide uptake from a single inspiration in a standard time (usually 10 seconds). Since air consists of very minute or trace of CO, 10 seconds is considered to be the standard time for inhalation, then rapidly blow it out (exhale). The exhaled gas is tested to determine how much of the tracer gas was absorbed during the breath. This will pick up diffusion impairments, for instance in pulmonary fibrosis. This must be corrected for anemia; a low hemoglobin concentration, anemia, will reduce DLCO) and pulmonary hemorrhage (excess RBC 's in the interstitium or alveoli can absorb CO and artificially increase the DLCO capacity). Atmospheric pressure and / or altitude will also affect measured DLCO, and so a correction factor is needed to adjust for standard pressure. Online calculators are available to correct for hemoglobin levels and altitude and / or pressure where the measurement was taken.
Maximum voluntary ventilation (MVV) is a measure of the maximum amount of air that can be inhaled and exhaled within one minute. For the comfort of the patient this is done over a 15 - second time period before being extrapolated to a value for one minute expressed as liters / minute. Average values for males and females are 140 -- 180 and 80 -- 120 liters per minute respectively.
When estimating static lung compliance, volume measurements by the spirometer needs to be complemented by pressure transducers in order to simultaneously measure the transpulmonary pressure. When having drawn a curve with the relations between changes in volume to changes in transpulmonary pressure, C is the slope of the curve during any given volume, or, mathematically, ΔV / ΔP. Static lung compliance is perhaps the most sensitive parameter for the detection of abnormal pulmonary mechanics. It is considered normal if it is 60 % to 140 % of the average value in the population for any person of similar age, sex and body composition.
In those with acute respiratory failure on mechanical ventilation, "the static compliance of the total respiratory system is conventionally obtained by dividing the tidal volume by the difference between the "plateau '' pressure measured at the airway opening (PaO) during an occlusion at end - inspiration and positive end - expiratory pressure (PEEP) set by the ventilator ".
Forced Expiratory Time (FET) Forced Expiratory Time (FET) measures the length of the expiration in seconds.
Slow vital capacity (SVC) Slow vital capacity (SVC) is the maximum volume of air that can be exhaled slowly after slow maximum inhalation.
Maximal pressure (P and P)
P is the asymptotically maximal pressure that can be developed by the respiratory muscles at any lung volume and P is the maximum inspiratory pressure that can be developed at specific lung volumes. This measurement also requires pressure transducers in addition. It is considered normal if it is 60 % to 140 % of the average value in the population for any person of similar age, sex and body composition. A derived parameter is the coefficient of retraction (CR) which is P / TLC.
Mean transit time (MTT) Mean transit time is the area under the flow - volume curve divided by the forced vital capacity.
Maximal inspiratory pressure (MIP) MIP, also known as negative inspiratory force (NIF), is the maximum pressure that can be generated against an occluded airway beginning at functional residual capacity (FRC). It is a marker of respiratory muscle function and strength. Represented by centimeters of water pressure (cmH2O) and measured with a manometer. Maximum inspiratory pressure is an important and noninvasive index of diaphragm strength and an independent tool for diagnosing many illnesses. Typical maximum inspiratory pressures in adult males can be estimated from the equation, M = 142 - (1.03 x Age) cmH O, where age is in years.
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space age love song a flock of seagulls official video | Space Age Love Song - wikipedia
"Space Age Love Song '' is a 1982 single released by the British band, A Flock of Seagulls. It was their fourth single. Lead guitarist Paul Reynolds remarked on their 1984 video album "Through the Looking Glass '' that he thought of the song 's title. He said that the band wrote and recorded it, but could n't come up with the title. He suggested "Space Age Love Song '' because he thought it sounded like a space age love song. His idea stuck as the song 's permanent title.
"Space Age Love Song '' peaked at No. 30 in the US Billboard Chart, No. 31 in New Zealand, No. 34 in the UK Singles Chart and No. 68 in Australia.
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what happened to ferdinand's dad in the movie | Ferdinand (film) - wikipedia
Ferdinand is a 2017 American 3D computer - animated comedy - drama adventure film produced by Blue Sky Studios and distributed by 20th Century Fox. The film was based on Munro Leaf and Robert Lawson 's children 's book The Story of Ferdinand, written by Robert L. Baird, Tim Federle and Brad Copeland and directed by Carlos Saldanha. The film features the voice of John Cena as the titular role, along with Kate McKinnon, Anthony Anderson, Bobby Cannavale, Peyton Manning, Gina Rodriguez, Daveed Diggs, Gabriel Iglesias, Miguel Ángel Silvestre and David Tennant. The story, written by Ron Burch, David Kidd and Don Rhymer, follows a gentle pacifist bull named Ferdinand who refuses to participate in bullfighting but is forced back into the arena where his beliefs are challenged by being faced off against the world 's greatest bullfighter.
Ferdinand premiered on December 8, 2017 at the Dubai International Film Festival and was theatrically released in the United States on December 15, 2017, in 3D and 2D... It has grossed $296 million worldwide against a production budget of $111 million. Ferdinand received a nomination for Best Animated Feature at the 90th Academy Awards but lost to Coco. It received nominations for Best Animated Feature Film and Best Original Song ("Home '') at the 75th Golden Globe Awards.
In Spain, a ranch owned by Moreno (Raúl Esparza) that trains bulls for bullfighting called Casa del Toro harbours a bull calf named Ferdinand (Colin H. Murphy). He is ridiculed by his fellow calves Bones (Nile Diaz), Guapo (Jet Jurgensmeyer), and Valiente (Jack Gore) for being non-confrontational and his tendency to smell and protect flowers. A saddened Ferdinand runs away from Casa del Toro after his father Raf (Jeremy Sisto) does not return from the bull fight he was picked for and a flower he was fond of was flattened by Valiente after his own father was defeated by Raf. He eventually winds up at a florist 's farm in Seville and is adopted by the owner Juan (Juanes), his dog Paco (Jerrod Carmichael), and his daughter Nina (Julia Saldanha) with whom he shares a bond, much to Paco 's jealousy.
When Ferdinand (John Cena) eventually grows up into an enormous bull, he still retains his non-violent, flower - loving nature. Due to his size, he is left alone when Juan, Nina (Lily Day), and Paco go to Ronda for an annual flower festival. Ferdinand decides to go anyway, resulting in him getting stung by a bee and unintentionally causing chaos around town and is taken away back to Casa del Toro, much to his and the family 's sadness.
Once back there, he finds that Bones (Anthony Anderson), Guapo (Peyton Manning), and Valiente (Bobby Cannavale) have also grown up and have been joined by a Scottish bull named Angus (David Tennant) and a silent but intimidating bull named Maquina (Tim Nordquist). Ferdinand is still disrespected by the bulls, but manages to befriend a crazy goat named Lupe (Kate McKinnon) who wants to be his coach in bullfighting despite his lack of interest and three hedgehogs named Una (Gina Rodriguez), Dos (Daveed Diggs), and Cuatro (Gabriel Iglesias) who frequently invade Casa del Toro to steal food. They used to have another brother named Tres, but they claim he is dead.
One day, a legendary but egotistical bullfighter named El Primero (Miguel Ángel Silvestre) arrives at Casa del Toro to choose the biggest, strongest, and most aggressive bull to fight against before he retires. When the bulls fail to impress him on their first try, Guapo is taken to a nearby slaughterhouse and the other bulls tell Ferdinand that it will eventually be their fate if they are not chosen for a bullfight. Although Ferdinand manages to earn the respect of the other bulls, except Valiente, after a dance - off with three Austrian Lipzzans (Sally Phillips, Flula Borg and Boris Kodjoe), they still hold on to the belief that fighting is the only way for them to live. Ferdinand manages to convince Lupe to come back with him to Nina 's farm and the hedgehogs help them escape, but when Ferdinand is close to freedom, he sees his father 's picture on a wall with his horns mounted, along with dozens of other horns, making him realize that every bull who is chosen to fight gets slain by the matador.
Ferdinand explains to the other bulls that they will all eventually be killed even if they are chosen to fight. Valiente is the only one unconvinced and charges Ferdinand outside where Ferdinand inadvertently beats him in a fight and knocks off his right horn, much to the other animals ' shock. Primero witnesses the scuffle, and chooses Ferdinand to fight him after seeing him defeat Valiente. When Valiente is taken to the slaughterhouse, Ferdinand rallies up the remaining bulls to escape but first goes to the slaughterhouse to break out Valiente. He at first refuses as he believes that the slaughterhouse is his fate now, but they discover that Guapo is still alive, and Ferdinand questions Valiente 's courage after Valiente refuses to help him rescue Guapo. When Ferdinand tries to save Guapo, he accidentally activates a series of deadly contraptions, but with the help of a now - friendlier Valiente, they escape the slaughterhouse. The bulls, Lupe, the hedgehogs and a red bunny rabbit steal the training area 's company truck to escape, with Moreno and his employees giving chase.
The animals try desperately to lose the humans and wind up at Atocha train station in Madrid that Ferdinand sees as his ticket back to Nina. When the bulls push a small railroad cart to catch the train back to Nina 's home, Ferdinand sacrifices himself so the other bulls can escape (except for Lupe, who stays behind in shock after Ferdinand 's act) and is captured by Moreno and his employees. When Nina learns of Ferdinand 's upcoming fight with El Primero, she and Juan set out to Madrid to find and rescue Ferdinand.
At Las Ventas bullfight arena, Lupe tries to convince Ferdinand that he must fight in order to survive, but Ferdinand is silently unsure. When Ferdinand is released into the bullfight ring, he refuses to fight at first but is urged into fighting by El Primero. While being forced to run into Primero 's cape, Ferdinand is able to grab the cape from Primero with his horn and is temporarily blinded by it. Primero attempts to grab his cape back from Ferdinand, but is accidentally tossed out of the ring by Ferdinand. Primero re-enters the ring angrily and attacks Ferdinand using banderillas, striking him in the shoulder. Ferdinand almost retaliates against him, but sees a carnation underneath his hoof and realizes he is becoming the fighter he was determined not to be. As Primero draws his sword in order to finish Ferdinand, the crowd begins to cheer for Ferdinand, convincing Primero to spare him. Ferdinand is then reunited with Nina, who embraces him as the crowd throws carnations to the ring to praise the bull. The other bulls arrive, thinking they are too late to save Ferdinand, but instead witness Ferdinand making history as the first bull to ever make it out of a bullfight alive by being himself. Impressed, they sit to praise him for his efforts.
In the end, Ferdinand returns home with Nina, Juan, and Paco. They are joined by the other bulls, the hedgehogs, the bunny, and Lupe, who all move into the farm. The film ends with Ferdinand, his bull friends, and Lupe watching the sunset over Ronda from a field of flowers.
In a brief mid-credits scene, the hedgehogs are confronted by Tres who is revealed to have been alive the whole time.
In 2011, it was reported that 20th Century Fox Animation had acquired the rights to the children 's book The Story of Ferdinand by Munro Leaf to adapt it into a computer - animated feature film with Carlos Saldanha attached to direct it. In May 2013, Fox titled the film simply Ferdinand, which would be produced by Blue Sky Studios. John Powell, a frequent collaborator with Saldanha, would be composing the film 's score. In November 2016, it was reported that Gabriel Iglesias would voice a character named Cuatro, a hedgehog, Una, Dos and Tres ' brother.
Original Motion Picture Score is composed and conducted by John Powell, with additional music by Batu Sener, Anthony Willis and Paul Mounsey. The album was released on December 15, 2017.
On September 19, 2017, it was announced that singer Nick Jonas wrote and recorded a song called "Home '' for the movie. It was featured in the third trailer released in the next day and will also appear in the movie and end credits. It was released as the first promotional single of the soundtrack on October 20, 2017. A Second song by Nick Jonas named "Watch Me '' was released alongside the film 's EP on December 1.
The soundtrack features three original tracks: "Home '' and "Watch Me '' by Nick Jonas, and "Lay Your Head On Me '' by Juanes.
In May 2013, Fox scheduled the film for April 7, 2017 release. In February 2016, the release date was pushed back from its original release date of April 7, 2017 to July 21, 2017. In August 2016, the release date was again pushed back, this time from July 21, 2017 to December 22, 2017, taking over the release date of DreamWorks Animation 's The Croods 2, before that film was temporarily cancelled. In February 2017, the film was moved up by one week from December 22, 2017 to December 15, 2017. The first trailer premiered on March 28, 2017, followed by the second trailer on June 14, 2017.
Ferdinand was released on digital on February 27, 2018, and was released on Ultra HD Blu - ray, DVD and Blu - ray on March 13, 2018.
Ferdinand has grossed $84.4 million in the United States and Canada, and $210.9 million in other countries, for a worldwide total of $296 million, against a production budget of $111 million.
In the United States and Canada, Ferdinand was released alongside Star Wars: The Last Jedi, and was projected to gross $15 -- 20 million from 3,621 theaters in its opening weekend. It made $350,000 from Thursday night previews at 2,385 theaters, which began at 5 P.M. and $3.6 million on its first day. It went on to open to $13.3 million, finishing second behind The Last Jedi.
On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 71 % based on 105 reviews and an average rating of 6.2 / 10. The website 's critical consensus reads, "Ferdinand 's colorful update on a classic tale does n't go anywhere unexpected, but its timeless themes -- and John Cena 's engaging voice work in the title role -- make for family - friendly fun. '' On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating to reviews, the film has a weighted average score of 58 out of 100, based on 20 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''. Audience polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A '' on an A+ to F scale.
Spanish bullfighting critic of El País, Antonio Lorca, in a critique of the film said that the film 's message is "profoundly unnatural '', and that the "renunciation '' of the lead character to its "animal nature '' is a lie that manipulates children, who will become "tomorrow 's anti-bullfighters ''. El Diario.es commented on this article by Lorca, saying that it had been widely commented on social networks and that the anti-bullfighting narrative of the film "raised hackles '' for its message against animal abuse, which can also be interpreted as "fight against school bullying '' and "implicit defense of sexual and gender diversity ''.
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what is the origin of the name andre | André - wikipedia
André -- sometimes transliterated as Andre -- is the French and Portuguese form of the name Andrew, and is now also used in the English - speaking world. It is a variation of the Greek name Andreas, a short form of any of various compound names derived from andr - ' man, warrior '. The female form in French is Andrée whereas the female form in Portuguese is Andreia.
Cognate names are:
The name is popular in Norway and Sweden.
Notable people with this first name include:
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who were the convention delegates and what did they have in common | Constitutional Convention (United states) - wikipedia
The Constitutional Convention (also known as the Philadelphia Convention, the Federal Convention, or the Grand Convention at Philadelphia) took place from May 25 to September 17, 1787, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Although the Convention was intended to revise the Articles of Confederation, the intention from the outset of many of its proponents, chief among them James Madison and Alexander Hamilton, was to create a new government rather than fix the existing one. The delegates elected George Washington to preside over the Convention. The result of the Convention was the creation of the United States Constitution, placing the Convention among the most significant events in the history of the United States.
The most contentious disputes revolved around composition and election of the Senate, how "proportional representation '' was to be defined (whether to include slaves or other property), whether to divide the executive power between three persons or invest the power into a single president, how to elect the president, how long his term was to be and whether he could run for reelection, what offenses should be impeachable, the nature of a fugitive slave clause, whether to allow the abolition of the slave trade, and whether judges should be chosen by the legislature or executive. Most of the time during the Convention was spent on deciding these issues, while the powers of legislature, executive, and judiciary were not heavily disputed. Once the Convention began, the delegates first agreed on the principles of the Convention, then they agreed on Madison 's Virginia Plan and began to modify it. A Committee of Detail, assembled during the July 4 recess, eventually produced a rough draft of the constitution. Most of the rough draft remained in place, and can be found in the final version of the constitution. After the final issues were resolved, the Committee on Style produced the final version, and it was voted on and sent to the states.
Before the Constitution was drafted, the nearly 4 million inhabitants of the 13 newly independent states were governed under the Articles of Confederation, created by the Second Continental Congress. It soon became evident to nearly all that the chronically underfunded Confederation government, as originally organized, was inadequate for managing the various conflicts that arose among the states. As the Articles of Confederation could only be amended by unanimous vote of the states, any state had effective veto power over any proposed change. In addition, the Articles gave the weak federal government no taxing power: it was wholly dependent on the states for its money, and had no power to force delinquent states to pay.
Once the immediate task of winning the American Revolutionary War had passed, the states began to look to their own interests, and disputes arose. These included a dispute between Maryland and Virginia over the Potomac River and opposition to Rhode Island 's imposing taxes on all traffic passing through it on the post road that linked all the states. James Madison suggested that state governments should appoint commissioners "to take into consideration the trade of the United States; to examine the relative situation and trade of said states; to consider how far a uniform system in their commercial regulations may be necessary to their common interests and permanent harmony ''.
Another impetus for the convention was Shays ' Rebellion. A political conflict between Boston merchants and rural farmers over issues such as property seizures for tax debts had broken out into an open rebellion. This rebellion was led by a former Revolutionary War captain, Daniel Shays, himself a small farmer with tax debts, who had never received payment for his service in the Continental Army. The rebellion took months for Massachusetts to put down completely, and some desired a federal army that would be able to put down such insurrections.
In September 1786, at the Annapolis Convention, delegates from five states called for a Constitutional Convention in order to discuss possible improvements to the Articles of Confederation. The Constitutional Convention took place in Philadelphia on May 14, 1787. Rhode Island, fearing that the Convention would work to its disadvantage, boycotted the Convention and, when the Constitution was put to the states, initially refused to ratify it.
Due to the difficulty of travel in the late 18th century, very few of the selected delegates were present on the designated day of May 14, 1787, and it was not until May 25 that a quorum of seven states was secured. (New Hampshire delegates would not join the Convention until more than halfway through the proceedings, on July 23.) James Madison arrived first, and soon most of the Virginia delegation arrived. While waiting for the other delegates, the Virginia delegation produced the Virginia Plan, which was designed and written by James Madison. On May 25, the delegations convened in the Pennsylvania State House.
George Washington was unanimously elected president of the Convention, and it was agreed that the discussions and votes would be kept secret until the conclusion of the meeting. Although William Jackson was elected as secretary, his records were brief and included very little detail. Madison 's Notes of Debates in the Federal Convention of 1787, supplemented by the notes of Robert Yates, remain the most complete record of the Convention. Throughout the debate, delegates constantly referred to precedents from history in support of their position. Most commonly, they referred to the history of England, in particular the Glorious Revolution (often simply called "The Revolution ''), classical history (mainly the Roman Republic and the leagues of Greek city - states), and recent precedents from Holland and Germany.
Outside the Convention in Philadelphia, there was a national convening of the Society of the Cincinnati. Washington was said to be embarrassed. The 1776 "old republican '' delegates like Elbridge Gerry (MA) found anything military or hereditary anathema. The Presbyterian Synod of Philadelphia and New York convention was meeting to redefine its Confession, dropping the faith requirement for civil authority to prohibit false worship. Protestant Episcopalian Washington attended a Roman Catholic Mass and dinner. Revolution veteran Jonas Phillips, of the Mikveh Israel Synagogue, petitioned the Convention to avoid a national oath including belief in both Old and New Testaments. Merchants of Providence, Rhode Island, petitioned for consideration, though their Assembly had not sent a delegation.
Manasseh Cutler came directly from the capital in New York and found himself a frequent dinner guest among the delegates. He carried grants of five million acres to parcel out among The Ohio Company and "speculators '', including some who were attending the Convention. A Philadelphia guest of Robert Morris, Noah Webster would write a pamphlet immediately after the signing. "Leading Principles of the Federal Convention '' advocated adoption of the Constitution. It was published much earlier and more widely circulated than today 's better known Federalist Papers.
While waiting for the Convention to formally begin, James Madison sketched out his initial draft, which became known as the Virginia Plan and reflected his views as a strong nationalist. By the time the rest of the Virginia delegation arrived, most of the Pennsylvania delegation had arrived as well. They agreed on Madison 's plan, and formed what came to be the predominant coalition. By the time the Convention started, the only blueprints that had been assembled were Madison 's Virginia Plan, and Charles Pinckney 's plan. As Pinckney did n't have a coalition behind his plan, Madison 's plan was the starting point for deliberations.
The Convention agreed on several principles. Most importantly, they agreed that the Convention should go beyond its mandate merely to amend the Articles of Confederation, and instead should produce a new constitution outright. While some delegates thought this illegal, the Articles of Confederation were closer to a treaty between sovereign states than they were to a national constitution, so the genuine legal problems were limited. Another principle they agreed on was that the new government would have all the powers of the Confederation Congress, plus additional powers over the states. Once agreeing on these principles, the Convention voted on the Virginia plan and signaled their approval for it. Once this was done, they began modifying it.
Madison 's plan operated on several assumptions that were not seriously challenged. During the deliberations, few raised serious objections to the planned bicameral congress, nor the separate executive function, nor the separate judicial function. As English law had typically recognized government as having two separate functions, law making embodied in the legislature, and law executing embodied in the king and his courts, the division of the legislature from the executive and judiciary was a natural and uncontested point.
The division of the legislature into an upper and lower house was n't questioned either, despite the obscure origins of the English House of Lords and its role as the representative of the hereditary nobility. Americans had seldom known any but bicameral legislatures, both in Britain and in most state governments. The main exceptions to this were the dysfunctional Confederation Congress and the unicameral Pennsylvania legislature, which was seen as quickly vacillating between partisan extremes after each election. Experience had convinced the delegates that an upper house was necessary to tame the passions of the lower classes against the interests of wealthy merchants and landowners. Since America had no native hereditary aristocracy, the character of this upper house was designed to protect the interests of this wealthy elite, the "minority of the opulent, '' against the interests of the lower classes, who constituted the majority of the population.
On Thursday, June 7, it was proposed that senators should be chosen directly by the state legislatures, instead of by popular vote, as this method was more likely to preserve the power of the upper classes. Convention delegate Elbridge Gerry of Massachusetts observed that "the great mercantile interest and of stockholders, is not provided for in any mode of election - they will however be better represented if the State legislatures choose the second branch. '' The proposal was carried unanimously.
The delegates also agreed with Madison that the executive function had to be independent of the legislature. In their aversion to kingly power, American legislatures had created state governments where the executive was beholden to the legislature, and by the late 1780s this was widely seen as being a source of paralysis. The Confederation government was the ultimate example of this.
Furthermore, in the English tradition, judges were seen as being agents of the King and his court, who represented him throughout his realm. Madison believed that in the American states, this direct link between state executives and judges was a source of corruption through patronage, and thought the link had to be severed between the two, thus creating the "third branch '' of the judiciary which had been without any direct precedent before this point. Madison, however, did not believe that the judiciary should be truly independent, but rather beholden to the legislature rather than the executive. At the Convention, some sided with Madison that the legislature should choose judges, while others believed the president should choose judges. A compromise was eventually reached that the president should choose judges and the Senate confirm them.
In a few areas, Madison 's plan included provisions that had little support among the delegates. Few agreed with Madison that the legislature should be able to invalidate state laws, so the idea was dropped. While most thought there should be some mechanism to invalidate bad laws by congress, few agreed with Madison that a board of the executive and judges should decide on this. Instead, the power was given solely to the executive in the form of the veto. Many also thought this would be useful to protect the executive, whom many worried might become beholden to an imperial legislature. Also, during the deliberations, the New Jersey Plan was introduced, although it was more of a protest to the excessive national character of the Virginia plan, and was not seriously considered. The office of Vice President was also included later in the deliberations, mainly to provide the president a successor if he was unable to complete his term but also to provide presidential electors with an incentive to vote for at least one out of state candidate in addition to a "favorite son '' from their own state or region.
Each state was allowed to cast a single vote either for or against a proposal during the debates in accordance with the majority opinion of the state 's delegates. Throughout the Convention, delegates would regularly come and go, with only 30 -- 40 being present on a typical day. Consequently, if a state 's delegates were equally divided in their views on a given proposal, or if too few of the state 's delegates were in attendance to establish a quorum for the delegation when votes were being cast on a particular proposal, that state 's delegation had essentially no effect on the outcome of the vote on the proposal. Thus, for example, after two of New York 's three delegates abandoned the Convention in mid July with no intention of returning, New York was left unable to vote on any further proposals at the Convention, although Hamilton would continue to periodically attend and occasionally to speak during the debates.
The first area of major dispute was the manner by which the lower house would be apportioned. A minority wanted it to be apportioned so that all states would have equal weight, though this was never seriously considered. Most wanted it apportioned in accordance with some mixture of property and population. Though there was discussion on how to calculate property for this purpose, the issue of property was later dropped because of its difficulty, and an assumption that property would closely correlate to population.
Most accepted the desire among the slave states to count slaves as part of the population, although their servile status was raised as a major objection against this. The Three - Fifths Compromise assessing population by adding the number of free persons to three - fifths of "all other persons '' (slaves) was agreed to without serious dispute. In 1783, when attempting to assess a national taxation system, the Confederation Congress had considered a three fifths ratio, which did not achieve unanimity. This compromise resulted in a large coalition of states, including the small slave states of South Carolina and Georgia, backing the Virginia plan and thus expanding the power of the primary coalition. That the lower house was to be elected directly by the voters was also accepted without major dispute.
More contentious than the lower house was the question of the upper house. Few agreed with Madison that its members should be elected by the lower house. James Wilson suggested election by popular vote versus election by state legislature, but his proposal was shot down 10 -- 1 by the delegates. Most delegates did n't question the intelligence of the voters, rather what concerned them was the slowness by which information spread in the late 18th century.
At the time of the Convention, they noted that local newspapers said little of current events, and what little they had was sketchy and dated. Local papers even said little about the meeting of the Convention. Alexander Hamilton proposed extending the term in office for senators to life, considering earlier proposals of four and seven years inefficient to enable the "rich and well born '' to have a "distinct, permanent share in the government, '' which could "check the imprudence of democracy. '' Moreover, Hamilton proposed that senators not be elected directly by the general public, but by "electors '' chosen for that purpose.
Besides the problems of direct election, the new Constitution was seen as such a radical break with the old system, by which delegates were elected to the Confederation Congress by state legislatures, that the Convention agreed to retain this method of electing senators to make the constitutional change less radical. The more difficult problem was the issue of apportionment. The Connecticut delegation offered a compromise, whereby the number of representatives for each state in the lower house would be apportioned based on the relative size of the state 's population, while the number of representatives in the upper house would be the same for all of the states, irrespective of size. The large states, fearing a diminution of their influence in the legislature under this plan, opposed this proposal. Unable to reach agreement, the delegates decided to leave this issue for further consideration later during the meeting.
The delegates could n't agree on whether the executive should be a single person, or a board of three. Many wished to limit the power of the executive and thus supported the proposal to divide the executive power between three persons. The possible problems of this system, in addition to the knowledge that George Washington would probably be the first president, calmed the fears enough so that the proponents of a singular executive could accumulate a large coalition. This issue came up occasionally after the matter was settled, but was never again seriously doubted.
Another issue concerned the election of the president. Few agreed with Madison that the executive should be elected by the legislature. There was widespread concern with direct election, because information diffused so slowly in the late 18th century, and because of concerns that people would only vote for candidates from their state or region. A vocal minority wanted the national executive to be chosen by the governors of the states.
The issue was one of the last major issues to be resolved, and was done so in the electoral college. At the time, before the formation of modern political parties, there was widespread concern that candidates would routinely fail to secure a majority of electors in the electoral college. The method of resolving this problem therefore was a contested issue. Most thought that the house should then choose the president, since it most closely reflected the will of the people. This caused dissension among delegates from smaller states, who realized that this would put their states at a disadvantage. To resolve this dispute, the Convention agreed that the house would elect the president if no candidate had an electoral college majority, but that each state delegation would vote as a bloc, rather than individually.
As the Convention was entering its second full month of deliberations, it was decided that further consideration of the prickly question of how to apportion representatives in the national legislature should be referred to a committee composed of one delegate from each of the eleven states that were present at that time at the Convention. The members of this "Grand Committee, '' as it has come to be known, included Elbridge Gerry, Oliver Ellsworth, Robert Yates, William Paterson, Gunning Bedford, Jr., George Mason, William Davie, John Rutledge, Abraham Baldwin, and Benjamin Franklin. In its report to the Convention on July 5, the committee offered a compromise. The large states had opposed the Connecticut Compromise, because they felt it gave too much power to the smaller states. The Grand Committee 's proposal added the requirement that revenue bills originate in the lower house and not be subject to modification by the upper house (although this Origination Clause would later be modified so that revenue bills could be amended in the upper house, or Senate). With this modification, the Convention in a close vote adopted the compromise on July 16. Nationalist delegates remained bitterly opposed, however, until on July 23 they succeeded in further modifying the compromise to give members of the Senate individual voting power, rather than having votes taken by each state 's representatives en bloc, as had occurred in Congress under the Articles of Confederation. This accomplished the nationalist goal of preventing state governments from having a direct say in Congress 's choice to make national laws. The final document was thus a mixture of Madison 's original "national '' constitution and the desired "federal '' Constitution that many of the delegates sought.
The Convention adjourned from July 26 to August 6 to await the report of the Committee of Detail, which was to produce a first draft of the Constitution. It was chaired by John Rutledge, with the other members including Edmund Randolph, Oliver Ellsworth, James Wilson, and Nathaniel Gorham.
Though the committee did not record minutes of its proceedings, three key surviving documents offer clues to the committee 's handiwork: an outline by Randolph with edits by Rutledge, extensive notes and a second draft by Wilson, also with Rutledge 's edits, and the committee 's final report to the Convention. From this evidence it is thought that the committee used the original Virginia Plan, the decisions of the Convention on modifications to that plan, and other sources, such as the Articles of Confederation, provisions of the state constitutions, and even Charles Pinckney 's plan, to produce the first full draft, which author David O. Stewart has called a "remarkable copy - and - paste job. ''
Randolph adopted two rules in preparing his initial outline: that the Constitution should only include essential principles, avoiding minor provisions that would change over time, and that it should be stated in simple and precise language.
Much of what was included in the committee 's report consisted of numerous details that the Convention had never discussed but which the committee correctly viewed as uncontroversial and unlikely to be challenged; and as such, much of the committee 's proposal would ultimately be incorporated into the final version of the Constitution without debate. Examples of these details included the Speech and Debate Clause, which grants members of Congress immunity for comments made in their jobs, and the rules for organizing the House of Representatives and the Senate.
However, Rutledge, himself a former state governor, was determined that while the new national government should be stronger than the Confederation government had been, the national government 's power over the states should not be limitless; and at Rutledge 's urging, the committee went beyond what the Convention had proposed. As Stewart describes it, the committee "hijacked '' and remade the Constitution, altering critical agreements the Convention delegates had already made, enhancing the powers of the states at the expense of the national government, and adding several far - reaching provisions that the Convention had never discussed.
The first major change, insisted on by Rutledge, was meant to sharply curtail the essentially unlimited powers to legislate "in all cases for the general interests of the Union '' that the Convention only two weeks earlier had agreed to grant the Congress. Rutledge and Randolph worried that the broad powers implied in the language agreed on by the Convention would have given the national government too much power at the expense of the states. In Randolph 's outline the committee replaced that language with a list of 18 specific "enumerated '' powers, many adopted from the Articles of Confederation, that would strictly limit the Congress ' authority to measures such as imposing taxes, making treaties, going to war, and establishing post offices. Rutledge, however, was not able to completely convince all of the members of the committee to accept the change. Over the course of a series of drafts, a catchall provision (the "Necessary and Proper Clause '') was eventually added, most likely by Wilson, a nationalist little concerned with the sovereignty of individual states, giving the Congress the broad power "to make all Laws that shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this Constitution in the government of the United States, or in any department or officer thereof. '' Another revision of Wilson 's draft also placed eight specific limits on the states, such as barring them from independently entering into treaties and from printing their own money, providing a certain degree of balance to the limits on the national government intended by Rutledge 's list of enumerated powers. In addition, Wilson 's draft modified the language of the Supremacy Clause adopted by the Convention, to ensure that national law would take precedence over inconsistent state laws.
These changes set the final balance between the national and state governments that would be entered into the final document, as the Convention never challenged this dual - sovereignty between nation and state that had been fashioned by Rutledge and Wilson.
Another set of radical changes introduced by the Committee of Detail proved far more contentious when the committee 's report was presented to the Convention. On the day the Convention had agreed to appoint the committee, Southerner Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, of South Carolina, had warned of dire consequences should the committee fail to include protections for slavery in the Southern states, or allow for taxing of Southern agricultural exports. Pinckney and his fellow Southern delegates must have been delighted to see that the committee had included three provisions that explicitly restricted the Congress ' authority in ways favorable to Southern interests. The proposed language would bar the Congress from ever interfering with the slave trade. It would also prohibit taxation of exports, and would require that any legislation concerning regulation of foreign commerce through tariffs or quotas (that is, any laws akin to England 's "Navigation Acts '') pass only with two - thirds majorities of both houses of Congress. While much of the rest of the committee 's report would be accepted without serious challenge on the Convention floor, these last three proposals would provoke outrage from Northern delegates and slavery opponents.
The final report of the committee, which became the first draft of the Constitution, was the first workable constitutional plan, as Madison 's Virginia Plan had simply been an outline of goals and a broad structure. Even after it issued this report, the committee continued to meet off and on until early September.
Another month of discussion and relatively minor refinement followed, during which several attempts were made to alter the Rutledge draft, though few were successful. Some wanted to add property qualifications for people to hold office, while others wanted to prevent the national government from issuing paper money. Madison in particular wanted to push the Constitution back in the direction of his Virginia plan.
One important change that did make it into the final version included the agreement between northern and southern delegates to empower Congress to end the slave trade starting in 1808. Southern and northern delegates also agreed to strengthen the Fugitive Slave Clause in exchange for removing a requirement that two - thirds of Congress agree on "navigation acts '' (regulations of commerce between states and foreign governments). The two - thirds requirement was favored by southern delegates, who thought Congress might pass navigation acts that would be economically harmful to slaveholders.
Once the Convention had finished amending the first draft from the Committee of Detail, a new set of unresolved questions were sent to several different committees for resolution. The Committee of Detail was considering several questions related to habeas corpus, freedom of the press, and an executive council to advise the president. Two committees addressed questions related to the slave trade and the assumption of war debts.
A new committee was created, the Committee on Postponed Parts, to address other questions that had been postponed. Its members, such as Madison, were delegates who had shown a greater desire for compromise and were chosen for this reason as most in the Convention wanted to finish their work and go home. The committee dealt with questions related to the taxes, war making, patents and copyrights, relations with Indian tribes, and Franklin 's compromise to require money bills to originate in the House. The biggest issue they addressed was the presidency, and the final compromise was written by Madison with the committee 's input. They adopted Wilson 's earlier plan for choosing the president by an electoral college, and settled on the method of choosing the president if no candidate had an electoral college majority, which many such as Madison thought would be "nineteen times out of twenty ''.
The committee also shortened the president 's term from seven years to four years, freed the president to seek re-election after an initial term, and moved impeachment trials from the courts to the Senate. They also created the office of the vice president, whose only roles were to succeed a president unable to complete a term of office, to preside over the Senate, and to cast tie - breaking votes in the Senate. The committee transferred important powers from the Senate to the president, for example the power to make treaties and appoint ambassadors. One controversial issue throughout much of the Convention had been the length of the president 's term, and whether the president was to be term limited. The problem had resulted from the understanding that the president would be chosen by Congress; the decision to have the president be chosen instead by an electoral college reduced the chance of the president becoming beholden to Congress, so a shorter term with eligibility for re-election became a viable option.
Near the end of the Convention, Gerry, Randolph, and Mason emerged as the main force of opposition. Their fears were increased as the Convention moved from Madison 's vague Virginia Plan to the concrete plan of Rutledge 's Committee of Detail. Some have argued that Randolph 's attacks on the Constitution were motivated by political ambition, in particular his anticipation of possibly facing rival Patrick Henry in a future election. The main objection of the three was the compromise that would allow Congress to pass "navigation acts '' with a simple majority in exchange for strengthened slave provisions. Among their other objections was an opposition to the office of vice president.
Though most of their complaints did not result in changes, a couple did. Mason succeeded in adding "high crimes and misdemeanors '' to the impeachment clause. Gerry also convinced the Convention to include a second method for ratification of amendments. The report out of the Committee of Detail had included only one mechanism for constitutional amendment, in which two - thirds of the states had to ask Congress to convene a convention for consideration of amendments. Upon Gerry 's urging, the Convention added back the Virginia Plan 's original method whereby Congress would propose amendments that the states would then ratify. All amendments to the Constitution, save the 21st amendment, have been made through this latter method.
Despite their successes, these three dissenters grew increasingly unpopular as most other delegates wanted to bring the Convention 's business to an end and return home. As the Convention was drawing to a conclusion, and delegates prepared to refer the Constitution to the Committee on Style to pen the final version, one delegate raised an objection over civil trials. He wanted to guarantee the right to a jury trial in civil matters, and Mason saw in this a larger opportunity. Mason told the Convention that the constitution should include a bill of rights, which he thought could be prepared in a few hours. Gerry agreed, though the rest of the committee overruled them. They wanted to go home, and thought this was nothing more than another delaying tactic.
Few at the time realized how important the issue would become, with the absence of a bill of rights becoming the main argument of the anti-Federalists against ratification. Most of the Convention 's delegates thought that states already protected individual rights, and that the Constitution did not authorize the national government to take away rights, so there was no need to include protections of rights. Once the Convention moved beyond this point, the delegates addressed a couple of last - minute issues. Importantly, they modified the language that required spending bills to originate in the House of Representatives and be flatly accepted or rejected, unmodified, by the Senate. The new language empowered the Senate to modify spending bills proposed by the House.
Once the final modifications had been made, the Committee of Style and Arrangement was appointed "to revise the style of and arrange the articles which had been agreed to by the house. '' Unlike other committees, whose members were named so the committees included members from different regions, this final committee included no champions of the small states. Its members were mostly in favor of a strong national government and unsympathetic to calls for states ' rights. They were William Samuel Johnson (Connecticut), Alexander Hamilton (New York), Gouverneur Morris (Pennsylvania), James Madison (Virginia), and Rufus King (Massachusetts). On Wednesday, September 12, the report of the "committee of style '' was ordered printed for the convenience of the delegates. For three days, the Convention compared this final version with the proceedings of the Convention. The Constitution was then ordered engrossed on Saturday, September 15 by Jacob Shallus, and was submitted for signing on September 17. It made at least one important change to what the Convention had agreed to; King wanted to prevent states from interfering in contracts. Although the Convention never took up the matter, his language was now inserted, creating the contract clause.
Gouverneur Morris is credited, both now and then, as the chief draftsman of the final document, including the stirring preamble. Not all the delegates were pleased with the results; thirteen left before the ceremony, and three of those remaining refused to sign: Edmund Randolph of Virginia, George Mason of Virginia, and Elbridge Gerry of Massachusetts. George Mason demanded a Bill of Rights if he was to support the Constitution. The Bill of Rights was not included in the Constitution submitted to the states for ratification, but many states ratified the Constitution with the understanding that a bill of rights would soon follow. Shortly before the document was to be signed, Gorham proposed to lower the size of congressional districts from 40,000 to 30,000 citizens. A similar measure had been proposed earlier, and failed by one vote. George Washington spoke up here, making his only substantive contribution to the text of the Constitution in supporting this move. The Convention adopted it without further debate. Gorham would sign the document, although he had openly doubted whether the United States would remain a single, unified nation for more than 150 years. Ultimately, 39 of the original 55 delegates ended up signing, but it is likely that none were completely satisfied. Their views were summed up by Benjamin Franklin, who said,
I confess that There are several parts of this Constitution which I do not at present approve, but I am not sure I shall never approve them... I doubt too whether any other Convention we can obtain, may be able to make a better Constitution... It therefore astonishes me, Sir, to find this system approaching so near to perfection as it does; and I think it will astonish our enemies...
Rhode Island never sent delegates, and two of New York 's three delegates did not stay at the Convention for long. Therefore, as George Washington stated, the document was executed by "eleven states, and Colonel Hamilton. '' Washington signed the document first, and then moving by state delegation from north to south, as had been the custom throughout the Convention, the delegates filed to the front of the room to sign their names.
At the time the document was signed, Franklin gave a persuasive speech involving an anecdote on a sun that was painted on the back of Washington 's Chippendale chair. As recounted in Madison 's notes:
Whilst the last members were signing it Doctor. Franklin looking towards the Presidents Chair, at the back of which a rising sun happened to be painted, observed to a few members near him, that Painters had found it difficult to distinguish in their art a rising from a setting sun. I have said he, often and often in the course of the Session, and the vicissitudes of my hopes and fears as to its issue, looked at that behind the President without being able to tell whether it was rising or setting: But now at length I have the happiness to know that it is a rising and not a setting Sun.
The Constitution was then submitted to the states for ratification, pursuant to its own Article VII.
Several plans were introduced, with the most important plan being that of James Madison (the Virginia Plan). The Convention 's work was mostly a matter of modifying this plan. Charles Pinckney also introduced a plan, although this was n't considered and its exact character has been lost to history. After the Convention was well under way, the New Jersey Plan was introduced though never seriously considered. It was mainly a protest to what some delegates thought was the excessively radical change from the Articles of Confederation. Alexander Hamilton also offered a plan after the Convention was well under way, though it included an executive serving for life and therefore the delegates felt it too closely resembled a monarchy. Historians are unsure how serious he was about this, and some have speculated that he may have done it to make Madison 's plan look moderate by comparison. The Connecticut Compromise was n't a plan but one of several compromises offered by the Connecticut delegation. It was key to the ultimate ratification of the constitution, but was only included after being modified by Benjamin Franklin in order to make it more appealing to larger states.
Prior to the start of the Convention, the Virginian delegates met and, drawing largely from Madison 's suggestions, came up with what came to be known as the Virginia Plan, also known as the Large State Plan. For this reason, James Madison is sometimes called the Father of the Constitution. Presented by Virginia governor Edmund Randolph on May 29, 1787, the Virginia Plan proposed a very powerful bicameral legislature. Both houses of the legislature would be determined proportionately. The lower house would be elected by the people, and the upper house would be elected by the lower house. The executive would exist solely to ensure that the will of the legislature was carried out and would therefore be selected by the legislature. The Virginia Plan also created a judiciary, and gave both the executive and some of the judiciary the power to veto, subject to override.
After the Virginia Plan was introduced, New Jersey delegate William Paterson asked for an adjournment to contemplate the Plan. Under the Articles of Confederation, each state had equal representation in Congress, exercising one vote each. The Virginia Plan threatened to limit the smaller states ' power by making both houses of the legislature proportionate to population. On June 14 and 15, 1787, a small - state caucus met to create a response to the Virginia Plan. The result was the New Jersey Plan, otherwise known as the Small State Plan.
Paterson 's New Jersey Plan was ultimately a rebuttal to the Virginia Plan, and was much closer to the initial call for the Convention: drafting amendments to the Articles of Confederation to fix the problems in it. Under the New Jersey Plan, the existing Continental Congress would remain, but it would be granted new powers, such as the power to levy taxes and force their collection. An executive branch was created, to be elected by Congress (the plan allowed for a multi-person executive). The executives would serve a single term and were subject to recall on the request of state governors. The plan also created a judiciary that would serve for life, to be appointed by the executives. Lastly, any laws set by Congress would take precedence over state laws. When Paterson reported the plan to the Convention on June 15, 1787, it was ultimately rejected, but it gave the smaller states a rallying point for their interests.
Unsatisfied with the New Jersey Plan and the Virginia Plan, Alexander Hamilton proposed his own plan. It also was known as the British Plan, because of its resemblance to the British system of strong centralized government. In his plan, Hamilton advocated virtually doing away with state sovereignty and consolidating the states into a single nation. The plan featured a bicameral legislature, the lower house elected by the people for three years. The upper house would be elected by electors chosen by the people and would serve for life. The plan also gave the Governor, an executive elected by electors for a life - term of service, an absolute veto over bills. State governors would be appointed by the national legislature, and the national legislature had veto power over any state legislation.
Hamilton presented his plan to the Convention on June 18, 1787. The plan was perceived as a well - thought - out plan, but it was not considered, because it resembled the British system too closely. It also contemplated the loss of most state authority, which the states were unwilling to allow.
Immediately after Randolph finished laying out the Virginia Plan, Charles Pinckney of South Carolina presented his own plan to the Convention. As Pinckney did not write it down, the only evidence of the plan are Madison 's notes, so the details are somewhat vague. It was a confederation, or treaty, among the thirteen states. There was to be a bicameral legislature made up of a Senate and a House of Delegates. The House would have one member for every one thousand inhabitants. The House would elect Senators who would serve by rotation for four years and represent one of four regions. Congress would meet in a joint session to elect a President, and would also appoint members of the cabinet. Congress, in joint session, would serve as the court of appeal of last resort in disputes between states. Pinckney did also provide for a supreme Federal Judicial Court. The Pinckney plan was not debated, but it may have been referred to by the Committee of Detail.
The Connecticut Compromise, forged by Roger Sherman from Connecticut, was proposed on June 11. In a sense it blended the Virginia (large - state) and New Jersey (small - state) proposals. Ultimately, however, its main contribution was in determining the apportionment of the Senate, and thus retaining a federal character in the constitution. Sherman sided with the two - house national legislature of the Virginia Plan, but proposed "That the proportion of suffrage in the 1st. branch (house) should be according to the respective numbers of free inhabitants; and that in the second branch or Senate, each State should have one vote and no more. '' This plan failed at first, but on July 23 the question was finally settled.
What was ultimately included in the constitution was a modified form of this plan. In the Grand Committee, Benjamin Franklin successfully proposed the requirement that revenue bills originate in the house. But the final July 16 vote on the compromise still left the Senate looking like the Confederation Congress. In the preceding weeks of debate, Madison, King, and Gouverneur Morris each vigorously opposed the compromise for this reason. Then on July 23, just before most of the convention 's work was referred to the Committee of Detail, Morris and King moved that state representatives in the Senate be given individual votes, rather than voting en bloc, as they had in the Confederation Congress. Oliver Ellsworth of Connecticut, a leading proponent of the compromise, supported their motion, and the Convention adopted it. As the personally powerful senators were to receive terms much longer than the state legislators who appointed them, they became substantially independent. The compromise nonetheless continued to serve the self - interest of small - state political leaders, who were assured of access to more seats in the Senate than they might otherwise have obtained.
Among the most controversial issues confronting the delegates was that of slavery. Slavery was widespread in the states at the time of the Convention. At least a third of the Convention 's 55 delegates owned slaves, including all of the delegates from Virginia and South Carolina. Slaves comprised approximately one - fifth of the population of the states; and apart from northernmost New England, where slavery had largely been eliminated, slaves lived throughout all regions of the country. The majority of the slaves (more than 90 %), however, lived in the South, where approximately 1 in 3 families owned slaves (in the largest and wealthiest state, Virginia, that figure was nearly 1 in 2 families). The entire agrarian economy of the South was based on slave labor, and the Southern delegates to the Convention were unwilling to accept any proposals that they believed would threaten the institution.
Whether slavery was to be regulated under the new Constitution was a matter of such intense conflict between the North and South that several Southern states refused to join the Union if slavery were not to be allowed. Delegates opposed to slavery were forced to yield in their demands that slavery practiced within the confines of the new nation be completely outlawed. However, they continued to argue that the Constitution should prohibit the states from participating in the international slave trade, including in the importation of new slaves from Africa and the export of slaves to other countries. The Convention postponed making a final decision on the international slave trade until late in the deliberations because of the contentious nature of the issue. During the Convention 's late July recess, the Committee of Detail had inserted language that would prohibit the federal government from attempting to ban international slave trading and from imposing taxes on the purchase or sale of slaves. The Convention could not agree on these provisions when the subject came up again in late August, so they referred the matter to an eleven - member committee for further discussion. This committee helped work out a compromise: Congress would have the power to ban the international slave trade, but not for another twenty years (that is, not until 1808). In exchange for this concession, the federal government 's power to regulate foreign commerce would be strengthened by provisions that allowed for taxation of slave trades in the international market and that reduced the requirement for passage of navigation acts from two - thirds majorities of both houses of Congress to simple majorities.
Another contentious slavery - related question was whether slaves would be counted as part of the population in determining representation of the states in the Congress, or would instead be considered property and as such not be considered for purposes of representation. Delegates from states with a large population of slaves argued that slaves should be considered persons in determining representation, but as property if the new government were to levy taxes on the states on the basis of population. Delegates from states where slavery had become rare argued that slaves should be included in taxation, but not in determining representation. Finally, delegate James Wilson proposed the Three - Fifths Compromise. This was eventually adopted by the Convention.
The states had originally appointed seventy representatives to the Convention, but a number of the appointees did not accept or could not attend, leaving fifty - five delegates who would ultimately craft the Constitution.
Almost all of the fifty - five delegates had taken part in the Revolution, with at least twenty - nine having served in the Continental forces, most in positions of command. All but two or three had served in colonial or state government during their careers. The vast majority (about 75 %) of the delegates were or had been members of the Confederation Congress, and many had been members of the Continental Congress during the Revolution. Several had been state governors. Just two delegates, Roger Sherman and Robert Morris, would be signatories to all three of the nation 's founding documents: the Declaration of Independence, the Articles of Confederation, and the Constitution.
More than half of the delegates had trained as lawyers (several had even been judges), although only about a quarter had practiced law as their principal means of business. There were also merchants, manufacturers, shippers, land speculators, bankers or financiers, two or three physicians, a minister, and several small farmers. Of the twenty - five who owned slaves, sixteen depended on slave labor to run the plantations or other businesses that formed the mainstay of their income. Most of the delegates were landowners with substantial holdings, and most, with the possible exception of Roger Sherman and William Few, were very comfortably wealthy. George Washington and Robert Morris were among the wealthiest men in the entire country.
Connecticut
Delaware
Georgia
Maryland
Massachusetts
New Hampshire
New Jersey
New York
North Carolina
Pennsylvania
South Carolina
Virginia
Rhode Island Rhode Island did not send delegates to the Convention.
(*) Did not sign the final draft of the U.S. Constitution. Randolph, Mason, and Gerry were the only three present in Philadelphia at the time who refused to sign.
Several prominent Founders are notable for not participating in the Constitutional Convention. Thomas Jefferson was abroad, serving as the minister to France (nonetheless, Jefferson, in a letter to John Adams, would describe the delegates approvingly as a gathering of "demi - gods ''). John Adams was in Britain, serving as minister to that country, but he wrote home to encourage the delegates. Patrick Henry refused to participate because he "smelt a rat in Philadelphia, tending toward the monarchy. '' Also absent were John Hancock and Samuel Adams. Many of the states ' older and more experienced leaders may have simply been too busy with the local affairs of their states to attend the Convention, which had originally been planned to strengthen the existing Articles of Confederation, not to write a constitution for a completely new national government.
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what was the purpose of the underground rail road | London Underground - wikipedia
The London Underground (also known simply as the Underground, or by its nickname the Tube) is a public rapid transit system serving London and some parts of the adjacent counties of Buckinghamshire, Essex and Hertfordshire in the United Kingdom.
The Underground has its origins in the Metropolitan Railway, the world 's first underground railway. Opened in 1863, it is now part of the Circle, Hammersmith & City and Metropolitan lines; the first line to operate underground electric traction trains, the City & South London Railway in 1890, is now part of the Northern line. The network has expanded to 11 lines, and in 2016 -- 17 carried 1.379 billion passengers, making it the world 's 11th busiest metro system. The 11 lines collectively handle approximately 4.8 million passengers a day.
The system 's first tunnels were built just below the surface, using the cut - and - cover method; later, smaller, roughly circular tunnels -- which gave rise to its nickname, the Tube -- were dug through at a deeper level. The system has 270 stations and 250 miles (400 km) of track. Despite its name, only 45 % of the system is actually underground in tunnels, with much of the network in the outer environs of London being on the surface. In addition, the Underground does not cover most southern parts of Greater London, with less than 10 % of the stations located south of the River Thames.
The early tube lines, originally owned by several private companies, were brought together under the "UndergrounD '' brand in the early 20th century and eventually merged along with the sub-surface lines and bus services in 1933 to form London Transport under the control of the London Passenger Transport Board (LPTB). The current operator, London Underground Limited (LUL), is a wholly owned subsidiary of Transport for London (TfL), the statutory corporation responsible for the transport network in Greater London. As of 2015, 92 % of operational expenditure is covered by passenger fares. The Travelcard ticket was introduced in 1983 and Oyster, a contactless ticketing system, in 2003. Contactless card payments were introduced in 2014, the first public transport system in the world to do so.
The LPTB was a prominent patron of art and design, commissioning many new station buildings, posters and public artworks in a modernist style. The schematic Tube map, designed by Harry Beck in 1931, was voted a national design icon in 2006 and now includes other TfL transport systems such as the Docklands Light Railway, London Overground and TfL Rail. Other famous London Underground branding includes the roundel and Johnston typeface, created by Edward Johnston in 1916.
The idea of an underground railway linking the City of London with some of the railway termini in its urban centre was proposed in the 1830s, and the Metropolitan Railway was granted permission to build such a line in 1854. To prepare construction, a short test tunnel was built in 1855 in Kibblesworth, a small town with geological properties similar to London. This test tunnel was used for two years in the development of the first underground train, and was later, in 1861, filled up. The world 's first underground railway, it opened in January 1863 between Paddington and Farringdon using gas - lit wooden carriages hauled by steam locomotives. It was hailed as a success, carrying 38,000 passengers on the opening day, and borrowing trains from other railways to supplement the service. The Metropolitan District Railway (commonly known as the District Railway) opened in December 1868 from South Kensington to Westminster as part of a plan for an underground "inner circle '' connecting London 's main - line termini. The Metropolitan and District railways completed the Circle line in 1884, built using the cut and cover method. Both railways expanded, the District building five branches to the west reaching Ealing, Hounslow, Uxbridge, Richmond and Wimbledon and the Metropolitan eventually extended as far as Verney Junction in Buckinghamshire, more than 50 miles (80 km) from Baker Street and the centre of London.
For the first deep - level tube line, the City and South London Railway, two 10 feet 2 inches (3.10 m) diameter circular tunnels were dug between King William Street (close to today 's Monument station) and Stockwell, under the roads to avoid the need for agreement with owners of property on the surface. This opened in 1890 with electric locomotives that hauled carriages with small opaque windows, nicknamed padded cells. The Waterloo and City Railway opened in 1898, followed by the Central London Railway in 1900, known as the "twopenny tube ''. These two ran electric trains in circular tunnels having diameters between 11 feet 8 inches (3.56 m) and 12 feet 2.5 inches (3.721 m), whereas the Great Northern and City Railway, which opened in 1904, was built to take main line trains from Finsbury Park to a Moorgate terminus in the City and had 16 - foot (4.9 m) diameter tunnels.
In the early 20th century, the District and Metropolitan railways needed to electrify and a joint committee recommended an AC system, the two companies co-operating because of the shared ownership of the inner circle. The District, needing to raise the finance necessary, found an investor in the American Charles Yerkes who favoured a DC system similar to that in use on the City & South London and Central London railways. The Metropolitan Railway protested about the change of plan, but after arbitration by the Board of Trade, the DC system was adopted.
Yerkes soon had control of the District Railway and established the Underground Electric Railways Company of London (UERL) in 1902 to finance and operate three tube lines, the Baker Street and Waterloo Railway (Bakerloo), the Charing Cross, Euston and Hampstead Railway (Hampstead) and the Great Northern, Piccadilly and Brompton Railway, (Piccadilly), which all opened between 1906 and 1907. When the "Bakerloo '' was so named in July 1906, The Railway Magazine called it an undignified "gutter title ''. By 1907 the District and Metropolitan Railways had electrified the underground sections of their lines.
In January 1913, the UERL acquired the Central London Railway and the City & South London Railway, as well as many of London 's bus and tram operators. Only the Metropolitan Railway, along with its subsidiaries the Great Northern & City Railway and the East London Railway, and the Waterloo & City Railway, by then owned by the main line London and South Western Railway, remained outside of the Underground Group 's control.
A joint marketing agreement between most of the companies in the early years of the 20th century included maps, joint publicity, through ticketing and UNDERGROUND signs outside stations in Central London. The Bakerloo line was extended north to Queen 's Park to join a new electric line from Euston to Watford, but World War I delayed construction and trains reached Watford Junction in 1917. During air raids in 1915 people used the tube stations as shelters. An extension of the Central line west to Ealing was also delayed by the war and completed in 1920. After the war government - backed financial guarantees were used to expand the network and the tunnels of the City and South London and Hampstead railways were linked at Euston and Kennington, although the combined service was not named the Northern line until later. The Metropolitan promoted housing estates near the railway with the "Metro - land '' brand and nine housing estates were built near stations on the line. Electrification was extended north from Harrow to Rickmansworth, and branches opened from Rickmansworth to Watford in 1925 and from Wembley Park to Stanmore in 1932. The Piccadilly line was extended north to Cockfosters and took over District line branches to Harrow (later Uxbridge) and Hounslow.
In 1933, most of London 's underground railways, tramway and bus services were merged to form the London Passenger Transport Board, which used the London Transport brand. The Waterloo & City Railway, which was by then in the ownership of the main line Southern Railway, remained with its existing owners. In the same year that the London Passenger Transport Board was formed, Harry Beck 's diagrammatic tube map appeared for the first time.
In the following years, the outlying lines of the former Metropolitan Railway closed, the Brill Tramway in 1935, and the line from Quainton Road to Verney Junction in 1936. The 1935 -- 40 New Works Programme included the extension of the Central and Northern lines and the Bakerloo line to take over the Metropolitan 's Stanmore branch. World War II suspended these plans after the Bakerloo line had reached Stanmore and the Northern line High Barnet and Mill Hill East in 1941. Following bombing in 1940 passenger services over the West London Line were suspended, leaving Olympia exhibition centre without a railway service until a District line shuttle from Earl 's Court began after the war. After work restarted on the Central line extensions in east and west London, these were complete in 1949.
During the war many tube stations were used as air - raid shelters. On 3 March 1943, a test of the air - raid warning sirens, together with the firing of a new type of anti-aircraft rocket, resulted in a crush of people attempting to take shelter in Bethnal Green Underground station. A total of 173 people, including 62 children, died, making this both the worst civilian disaster of World War II, and the largest loss of life in a single incident on the London Underground network.
On 1 January 1948, under the provisions of the Transport Act 1947, the London Passenger Transport Board was nationalised and renamed the London Transport Executive, becoming a subsidiary organisation of the British Transport Commission, which was formed on the same day. Under the same act, the country 's main line railways were also nationalised, and their reconstruction was given priority over the maintenance of the Underground and most of the unfinished plans of the pre-war New Works Programme were shelved or postponed.
However, the District line needed new trains and an unpainted aluminium train entered service in 1953, this becoming the standard for new trains. In the early 1960s the Metropolitan line was electrified as far as Amersham, British Railways providing services for the former Metropolitan line stations between Amersham and Aylesbury. In 1962, the British Transport Commission was abolished, and the London Transport Executive was renamed the London Transport Board, reporting directly to the Minister of Transport. Also during the 1960s, the Victoria line was dug under central London and, unlike the earlier tubes, the tunnels did not follow the roads above. The line opened in 1968 -- 71 with the trains being driven automatically and magnetically encoded tickets collected by automatic gates gave access to the platforms.
On 1 January 1970 responsibility for public transport within Greater London passed from central government to local government, in the form of the Greater London Council (GLC), and the London Transport Board was abolished. The London Transport brand continued to be used by the GLC.
On 28 February 1975, a southbound train on the Northern City Line failed to stop at its Moorgate terminus and ploughed into the wall at the end of the tunnel. In the resulting tube crash, 43 people died and a further 74 were injured, this being the greatest loss of life during peacetime on the London Underground. In 1976 the Northern City Line was taken over by British Rail and linked up with the main line railway at Finsbury Park, a transfer that had already been planned prior to the accident.
In 1979 another new tube, the Jubilee line, named in honour of Queen Elizabeth 's Silver Jubilee, took over the Stanmore branch from the Bakerloo line, linking it to a newly constructed tube between Baker Street and Charing Cross stations. Under the control of the Greater London Council, London Transport introduced a system of fare zones for buses and underground trains that cut the average fare in 1981. Fares increased following a legal challenge but the fare zones were retained, and in the mid-1980s the Travelcard and the Capitalcard were introduced.
In 1984 control of London Buses and the London Underground passed back to central government with the creation of London Regional Transport (LRT), which reported directly to the Secretary of State for Transport, whilst still retaining the London Transport brand. One person operation had been planned in 1968, but conflict with the trade unions delayed introduction until the 1980s.
On 18 November 1987, fire broke out in an escalator at King 's Cross St. Pancras tube station. The resulting fire cost the lives of 31 people and injured a further 100. London Underground were strongly criticised in the aftermath for their attitude to fires underground, and publication of the report into the fire led to the resignation of senior management of both London Underground and London Regional Transport. To comply with new safety regulations issued as a result of the fire, and to combat graffiti, a train refurbishment project was launched in July 1991.
In April 1994, the Waterloo & City Railway, by then owned by British Rail and known as the Waterloo & City line, was transferred to the London Underground. In 1999, the Jubilee line was extended from Green Park station through Docklands to Stratford station, resulting in the closure of the short section of tunnel between Green Park and Charing Cross stations, and including the first stations on the London Underground to have platform edge doors.
Transport for London (TfL) was created in 2000 as the integrated body responsible for London 's transport system. TfL is part of the Greater London Authority and is constituted as a statutory corporation regulated under local government finance rules. The TfL Board is appointed by the Mayor of London, who also sets the structure and level of public transport fares in London. However the day - to - day running of the corporation is left to the Commissioner of Transport for London.
TfL eventually replaced London Regional Transport, and discontinued the use of the London Transport brand in favour of its own brand. The transfer of responsibility was staged, with transfer of control of the London Underground delayed until July 2003, when London Underground Limited became an indirect subsidiary of TfL. Between 2000 and 2003, London Underground was reorganised in a Public - Private Partnership where private infrastructure companies (infracos) upgraded and maintained the railway. This was undertaken before control passed to TfL, who were opposed to the arrangement. One infraco went into administration in 2007 and TfL took over the responsibilities, TfL taking over the other in 2010.
Electronic ticketing in the form of the contactless Oyster card was introduced in 2003. London Underground services on the East London line ceased in 2007 so that it could be extended and converted to London Overground operation, and in December 2009 the Circle line changed from serving a closed loop around the centre of London to a spiral also serving Hammersmith. From September 2014, passengers have been able to use contactless cards on the Tube, the use of which has grown very quickly and now over a million contactless transactions are made on the Underground every day.
The Underground serves 270 stations. Fourteen Underground stations are outside Greater London, of which five (Amersham, Chalfont & Latimer, Chesham, and Chorleywood on the Metropolitan line, and Epping on the Central line), are beyond the M25 London Orbital motorway. Of the 32 London boroughs, six (Bexley, Bromley, Croydon, Kingston, Lewisham and Sutton) are not served by the Underground network, while Hackney has Old Street and Manor House only just inside its boundaries. Lewisham used to be served by the East London Line (stations at New Cross and New Cross Gate). The line and the stations were transferred to the London Overground network in 2010.
London Underground 's eleven lines total 402 kilometres (250 mi) in length, making it the third longest metro system in the world. These are made up of the sub-surface network and the deep - tube lines. The Circle, District, Hammersmith & City, and Metropolitan lines form the sub-surface network, with railway tunnels just below the surface and of a similar size to those on British main lines. The Hammersmith & City and Circle lines share stations and most of their track with each other, as well as with the Metropolitan and District lines. The Bakerloo, Central, Jubilee, Northern, Piccadilly, Victoria and Waterloo & City lines are deep - level tubes, with smaller trains that run in two circular tunnels (tubes) with a diameter about 11 feet 8 inches (3.56 m). These lines have the exclusive use of a pair of tracks, except for the Piccadilly line, which shares track with the District line between Acton Town and Hanger Lane Junction and with the Metropolitan line between Rayners Lane and Uxbridge; and the Bakerloo line, which shares track with London Overground services north of Queen 's Park.
Fifty - five per cent of the system runs on the surface. There are 20 miles (32 km) of cut - and - cover tunnel and 93 miles (150 km) of tube tunnel. Many of the central London underground stations on deep - level tube lines are higher than the running lines to assist deceleration when arriving and acceleration when departing. Trains generally run on the left - hand track. However, in some places, the tunnels are above each other (for example, the Central line east of St Paul 's station), or the running tunnels are on the right (for example on the Victoria line between Warren Street and King 's Cross St. Pancras, to allow cross-platform interchange with the Northern line at Euston).
The lines are electrified with a four - rail DC system: a conductor rail between the rails is energised at − 210 V and a rail outside the running rails at + 420 V, giving a potential difference of 630 V. On the sections of line shared with mainline trains, such as the District line from East Putney to Wimbledon and Gunnersbury to Richmond, and the Bakerloo line north of Queen 's Park, the centre rail is bonded to the running rails.
The London Underground was used by 1.379 billion passengers in 2016 / 2017.
The Underground uses a number of railways and alignments that were built by main - line railway companies.
Some tracks now in LU ownership remain in use by main line services.
London Underground trains come in two sizes, larger sub-surface trains and smaller deep - tube trains. Since the early 1960s all passenger trains have been electric multiple units with sliding doors and a train last ran with a guard in 2000. All lines use fixed length trains with between six and eight cars, except for the Waterloo & City line that uses four cars. New trains are designed for maximum number of standing passengers and for speed of access to the cars and have regenerative braking and public address systems. Since 1999 all new stock has had to comply with accessibility regulations that require such things as access and room for wheelchairs, and the size and location of door controls. All underground trains are required to comply with The Rail Vehicle Accessibility (Non Interoperable Rail System) Regulations 2010 (RVAR 2010) by 2020.
Stock on sub-surface lines is identified by a letter (such as S Stock, used on the Metropolitan line), while tube stock is identified by the year of intended introduction (for example, 1996 Stock, used on the Jubilee line).
The Underground is served by the following depots:
When the Bakerloo line opened in 1906 it was advertised with a maximum temperature of 60 ° F (16 ° C), but over time the tube tunnels have warmed up. In 1938 approval was given for a ventilation improvement programme, and a refrigeration unit was installed in a lift shaft at Tottenham Court Road. Temperatures of 47 ° C (117 ° F) were reported in the 2006 European heat wave. It was claimed in 2002 that, if animals were being transported, temperatures on the Tube would break European Commission animal welfare laws. A 2000 study reported that air quality was seventy - three times worse than at street level, with a passenger breathing the same mass of particulates during a twenty - minute journey on the Northern line as when smoking a cigarette. The main purpose of the London Underground 's ventilation fans is to extract hot air from the tunnels, and fans across the network are being refurbished, although complaints of noise from local residents preclude their use at full power at night.
In June 2006 a groundwater cooling system was installed at Victoria station. In 2012, air - cooling units were installed on platforms at Green Park station using cool deep groundwater and at Oxford Circus using chiller units at the top of an adjacent building. New air - conditioned trains are being introduced on the sub-surface lines, but space is limited on tube trains for air - conditioning units and these would heat the tunnels even more. The Deep Tube Programme, investigating replacing the trains for the Bakerloo and Piccadilly lines, is looking for trains with better energy conservation and regenerative braking, on which it might be possible to install a form of air conditioning.
In the original Tube design, trains passing through close fitting tunnels act as pistons to create air pressure gradients between stations. This pressure difference drives ventilation between platforms and the surface exits through the passenger foot network. This system depends on adequate cross sectional area of the airspace above the passengers ' heads in the foot tunnels and escalators, where laminar airflow is proportional to the fourth power of the radius, the Hagen -- Poiseuille equation. It also depends on an absence of turbulence in the tunnel headspace. In many stations the ventilation system is now ineffective because of alterations that reduce tunnel diameters and increase turbulence. An example is Green Park tube station, where false ceiling panels attached to metal frames have been installed that reduce the above - head airspace diameter by more than half in many parts. This has the effect of reducing laminar airflow by some 94 %.
Originally air turbulence was kept to a minimum by keeping all signage flat to the tunnel walls. Now the ventilation space above head height is crowded with ducting, conduits, cameras, speakers and equipment acting as a baffle plates with predictable reductions in flow. Often electronic signs have their flat surface at right angles to the main air flow, causing choked flow. Temporary sign boards that stand at the top of escalators also maximise turbulence. The alterations to the ventilation system are important, not only to heat exchange, but also the quality of the air at platform level, particularly given its asbestos content.
Originally access to the deep - tube platforms was by a lift. Each lift was staffed, and at some quiet stations in the 1920s the ticket office was moved into the lift, or it was arranged that the lift could be controlled from the ticket office. The first escalator on the London Underground was installed in 1911 between the District and Piccadilly platforms at Earl 's Court and from the following year new deep - level stations were provided with escalators instead of lifts. The escalators had a diagonal shunt at the top landing. In 1921 a recorded voice instructed passengers to stand on the right and signs followed in World War II. Travellers were asked to stand on the right so that anyone wishing to overtake them would have a clear passage on the left side of the escalator. The first ' comb ' type escalator was installed in 1924 at Clapham Common. In the 1920s and 1930s many lifts were replaced by escalators. After the fatal 1987 King 's Cross fire, all wooden escalators were replaced with metal ones and the mechanisms are regularly degreased to lower the potential for fires. The only wooden escalator not to be replaced was at Greenford station, which remained until October 2015 when TfL replaced it with the first incline lift on the UK transport network.
There are 426 escalators on the London Underground system and the longest, at 60 metres (200 ft), is at Angel. The shortest, at Stratford, gives a vertical rise of 4.1 metres (13 ft). There are 184 lifts, and numbers have increased in recent years because of investment making tube stations accessible. Over 28 stations will have lifts installed over the next 10 years, bring the total of step - free stations to over 100.
In summer 2012 London Underground, in partnership with Virgin Media, tried out Wi - Fi hot spots in many stations, but not in the tunnels, that allowed passengers free internet access. The free trial proved successful and was extended to the end of 2012 whereupon it switched to a service freely available to subscribers to Virgin Media and others, or as a paid - for service. It is not currently possible to use mobile phones underground using native 2G, 3G or 4G networks, and a project to extend coverage before the 2012 Olympics was abandoned because of commercial and technical difficulties. UK subscribers to the O2 or Three mobile networks can use the Tu Go or InTouch apps respectively to route their voice calls and texts messages via the Virgin Media Wifi network at 138 London Transport stations. The EE network also has recently released a WiFi calling feature available on the iPhone.
The Elizabeth line, under the project name Crossrail, is under construction and expected to open in stages until 2018, providing a new underground route across central London integrated with, but not part of the London Underground system. A part of National Rail which will become part of Crossrail, and which has already been completed, is currently running under the name "TfL Rail ''. The new line will use Class 345 trains, currently built and tested by Bombardier in Derby, UK, and serve 40 stations. Two options are being considered for the route of Crossrail 2 on a north - south alignment across London, with hopes that it could be open by 2033.
It is planned that the Northern line be extended to Battersea (Battersea Power Station) with an intermediate station at Nine Elms, branching off from the existing line at Kennington. In December 2012, the Treasury confirmed that it will provide a guarantee that allows the Greater London Authority to borrow up to £ 1 billion from the Public Works Loan Board, at a preferential rate, to finance the construction of the line. In April 2013, Transport for London applied for the legal powers of a Transport and Works Act Order to proceed with the extension. Preparation works started in Spring 2015. The main tunnelling started in 2017 and the extension is due to open in 2020.
Provision will be made for a possible future extension to Clapham Junction by notifying the London Borough of Wandsworth of a reserved course under Battersea Park and subsequent streets.
The Croxley Rail Link involves re-routing the Metropolitan line 's Watford branch from the current terminus at Watford over part of the disused Croxley Green branch line to Watford Junction with stations at Cassiobridge, Watford Vicarage Road and Watford High Street (which is currently only a part of London Overground). Funding was agreed in December 2011, and the final approval for the extension was given on 24 July 2013, with the aim of completion by 2020.
However, in 2015 TfL took over responsibility for designing and building the extension from Hertfordshire County Council, and after further detailed design work concluded that an additional £ 50m would be needed on top of that. As of November 2017, the project is on hold awaiting additional funding.
In 1931 the extension of the Bakerloo line from Elephant & Castle to Camberwell was approved, with stations at Albany Road and an interchange at Denmark Hill. However, with post-war austerity, the plan was abandoned. In 2006 Ken Livingstone, the then Mayor of London, announced that within twenty years Camberwell would have a tube station. Transport for London has indicated that extensions, possibly to Camberwell, could play a part in the future transport strategy for South London over the coming years. However, no such planning of an extension has been revealed. There have also been many other proposals to extend the line to Streatham, Lewisham, and even beyond Lewisham, taking over the suburban Hayes line via Catford Bridge to relieve some capacity on the suburban rail network.
In 2006, as part of the planning for the transfer of the North London Line to what became London Overground, TfL proposed re-extending the Bakerloo line to Watford Junction.
The London Borough of Hillingdon has proposed that the Central line be extended from West Ruislip to Uxbridge via Ickenham, claiming this would cut traffic on the A40 in the area.
In Summer 2014 Transport for London issued a tender for up to 18 trains for the Jubilee line and up to 50 trains for the Northern line. These would be used to increase frequencies and cover the Battersea extension on the Northern line.
In early 2014 the Bakerloo, Piccadilly, Central and Waterloo & City line rolling - stock replacement project was renamed New Tube for London (NTfL) and moved from the feasibility stage to the design and specification stage. The study had showed that, with new generation trains and re-signalling:
The project is estimated to cost £ 16.42 billon (£ 9.86 bn at 2013 prices). A notice was published on 28 February 2014 in the Official Journal of the European Union asking for expressions of interest in building the trains. On 9 October 2014 TFL published a shortlist of those (Alstom, Siemens, Hitachi, CAF and Bombardier) who had expressed an interest in supplying 250 trains for between £ 1.0 billion and £ 2.5 billion, and on the same day opened an exhibition with a design by PriestmanGoode. The fully automated trains may be able to run without drivers, but the ASLEF and RMT trade unions that represent the drivers strongly oppose this, saying it would affect safety. The Invitation to Tender for the trains was issued in January 2016; the specifications for the Piccadilly line infrastructure are expected in 2016, and the first train is due to run on the Piccadilly line in 2023.
The Underground received £ 2.669 billion in fares in 2016 / 17 and uses Transport for London 's zonal fare system to calculate fares. There are nine zones, zone 1 being the central zone, which includes the loop of the Circle line with a few stations to the south of River Thames. The only London Underground stations in Zones 7 to 9 are on the Metropolitan line beyond Moor Park, outside Greater London. Some stations are in two zones, and the cheapest fare applies. Paper tickets, the contactless Oyster cards, contactless debit or credit cards and Apple Pay and Android Pay smartphones and watches can be used for travel. Single and return tickets are available in either format, but Travelcards (season tickets) for longer than a day are available only on Oyster cards.
TfL introduced the Oyster card in 2003; this is a pre-payment smartcard with an embedded contactless RFID chip. It can be loaded with Travelcards and used on the Underground, the Overground, buses, trams, the Docklands Light Railway, and National Rail services within London. Fares for single journeys are cheaper than paper tickets, and a daily cap limits the total cost in a day to the price of a Day Travelcard. The Oyster card must be ' touched in ' at the start and end of a journey, otherwise it is regarded as ' incomplete ' and the maximum fare is charged. In March 2012 the cost of this in the previous year to travellers was £ 66.5 million.
In 2014, TfL became the first public transport provider in the world to accept payment from contactless bank cards. The Underground first started accepting contactless debit and credit cards in September 2014. This was followed by the adoption of Apple Pay in 2015 and Android Pay in 2016, allowing payment using a contactless - enabled phone or smartwatch. Over 500 million journeys have taken place using contactless, and TfL has become one of Europe 's largest contactless merchants., with around 1 in 10 contactless transactions in the UK taking place on across the TfL network. This contactless technology, developed in - house by TfL, has been licensed to other major cities like New York City and Boston.
A concessionary fare scheme is operated by London Councils for residents who are disabled or meet certain age criteria. Residents born before 1951 were eligible after their 60th birthday, whereas those born in 1955 will need to wait until they are 66. Called a "Freedom Pass '' it allows free travel on TfL - operated routes at all times and is valid on some National Rail services within London at weekends and after 09: 30 on Monday to Fridays. Since 2010, the Freedom Pass has included an embedded holder 's photograph; it lasts five years between renewals.
In addition to automatic and staffed faregates at stations, the Underground also operates on a proof - of - payment system. The system is patrolled by both uniformed and plain - clothes fare inspectors with hand - held Oyster - card readers. Passengers travelling without a valid ticket must pay a penalty fare of £ 80 (or £ 40 if paid within 21 days) and can be prosecuted for fare evasion under the Regulation of Railways Act 1889 and Transport for London Byelaws.
The tube closes overnight during the week, but since 2016, some lines have operated all night on Friday and Saturday nights. The first trains run from about 05: 00 and the last trains until just after 01: 00, with later starting times on Sunday mornings. The nightly closures are used for maintenance, but some lines stay open on New Year 's Eve and run for longer hours during major public events such as the 2012 London Olympics. Some lines are occasionally closed for scheduled engineering work at weekends.
The Underground runs a limited service on Christmas Eve with some lines closing early, and does not operate on Christmas Day. Since 2010 a dispute between London Underground and trade unions over holiday pay has resulted in a limited service on Boxing Day.
On 19 August 2016, London Underground launched a 24 - hour service on the Victoria and Central lines with plans in place to extend this to the Piccadilly, Northern and Jubilee lines in the autumn starting on Friday morning and continuing right through until Sunday evening. The Night Tube proposal was originally scheduled to start on 12 September 2015, following completion of upgrades, but in August 2015 it was announced that the start date for the Night Tube had been pushed back because of ongoing talks about contract terms between trade unions and London Underground. On 23 May 2016 it was announced that the night service would launch on 19 August 2016 for the Central and Victoria lines. The service operates on the:
The Jubilee, Piccadilly and Victoria lines operate at 10 - minute intervals, and the Central line between White City and Leytonstone, but operates at 20 - minute intervals from Leytonstone to Hainault / Loughton, and 20 minutes between White City and Ealing Broadway. The Northern line operates at roughly 8 - minute intervals between Morden and Camden Town via Charing Cross, and 15 - minute intervals from Camden Town to Edgware / High Barnet.
No services will operate on the other lines for the time being. When the upgrade of the Circle, Hammersmith & City, District and Metropolitan lines is complete and the new signalling system has been fully introduced, along with new trains already in operation, the Night Tube service will be extended to these lines.
Accessibility for people with limited mobility was not considered when most of the system was built, and before 1993 fire regulations prohibited wheelchairs on the Underground. The stations on the Jubilee Line Extension, opened in 1999, were designed for accessibility, but retrofitting accessibility features to the older stations is a major investment that is planned to take over twenty years. A 2010 London Assembly Report concluded that over 10 % of people in London had reduced mobility and, with an aging population, numbers will increase in the future.
The standard issue tube map indicates stations that are step - free from street to platforms. There can also be a step from platform to train as large as 12 inches (300 mm) and a gap between the train and curved platforms, and these distances are marked on the map. Access from platform to train at some stations can be assisted using a boarding ramp operated by staff, and a section has been raised on some platforms to reduce the step.
As of November 2017, there are 72 stations with step - free access from platform to train, and there are plans to provide step - free access at another 28 in ten years. By 2016 a third of stations are to have platform humps that reduce the step from platform to train. New trains, such as those being introduced on the sub-surface network, have access and room for wheelchairs, improved audio and visual information systems and accessible door controls.
During peak hours, stations can get so crowded that they need to be closed. Passengers may not get on the first train and the majority of passengers do not find a seat on their trains, some trains having more than four passengers every square metre. When asked, passengers report overcrowding as the aspect of the network that they are least satisfied with, and overcrowding has been linked to poor productivity and potential poor heart health. Capacity increases have been overtaken by increased demand, and peak overcrowding has increased by 16 percent since 2004 / 5.
Compared with 2003 / 4, the reliability of the network had increased in 2010 / 11, with Lost Customer Hours reduced from 54 million to 40 million. Passengers are entitled to a refund if their journey is delayed by 15 minutes or more due to circumstances within the control of TfL, and in 2010, 330,000 passengers of a potential 11 million Tube passengers claimed compensation for delays. A number of mobile phone apps and services have been developed to help passengers claim their refund more efficiently.
London Underground is authorised to operate trains by the Office of Rail Regulation, and the latest Safety Certification and Safety Authorisation is valid until 2017. As at 19 March 2013 there had been 310 days since the last major incident, when a passenger had died after falling on the track. As of 2015 there have been nine consecutive years in which no employee fatalities have occurred. A special staff training facility was opened at West Ashfield tube station in TFL 's Ashfield House, West Kensington in 2010 at a cost of £ 800,000. Meanwhile, London Mayor, Boris Johnson, decided it should be demolished along with the Earls Court Exhibition Centre as part of Europe 's biggest regeneration scheme.
In November 2011 it was reported that 80 people had committed suicide in the previous year on the London Underground, up from 46 in 2000. Most platforms at deep tube stations have pits, often referred to as ' suicide pits ', beneath the track. These were constructed in 1926 to aid drainage of water from the platforms, but also halve the likelihood of a fatality when a passenger falls or jumps in front of a train.
Early maps of the Metropolitan and District railways were city maps with the lines superimposed, and the District published a pocket map in 1897. A Central London Railway route diagram appears on a 1904 postcard and 1905 poster, similar maps appearing in District Railway cars in 1908. In the same year, following a marketing agreement between the operators, a joint central area map that included all the lines was published. A new map was published in 1921 without any background details, but the central area was squashed, requiring smaller letters and arrows. Harry Beck had the idea of expanding this central area, distorting geography, and simplifying the map so that the railways appeared as straight lines with equally spaced stations. He presented his original draft in 1931, and after initial rejection it was first printed in 1933. Today 's tube map is an evolution of that original design, and the ideas are used by many metro systems around the world.
The current standard tube map shows the Docklands Light Railway, London Overground, Emirates Air Line, London Tramlink and the London Underground; a more detailed map covering a larger area, published by National Rail and Transport for London, includes suburban railway services. The tube map came second in a BBC and London Transport Museum poll asking for a favourite UK design icon of the 20th century and the underground 's 150th anniversary was celebrated by a Google Doodle on the search engine.
While the first use of a roundel in a London transport context was the trademark of the London General Omnibus Company registered in 1905, it was first used on the Underground in 1908 when the UERL placed a solid red circle behind station nameboards on platforms to highlight the name. The word "UNDERGROUND '' was placed in a roundel instead of a station name on posters in 1912 by Charles Sharland and Alfred France, as well as on undated and possibly earlier posters from the same period. Frank Pick thought the solid red disc cumbersome and took a version where the disc became a ring from a 1915 Sharland poster and gave it to Edward Johnston to develop, and registered the symbol as a trademark in 1917. The roundel was first printed on a map cover using the Johnston typeface in June 1919, and printed in colour the following October.
After the UERL was absorbed into the London Passenger Transport Board in 1933, it used forms of the roundel for buses, trams and coaches, as well as the Underground. The words "London Transport '' were added inside the ring, above and below the bar. The Carr - Edwards report, published in 1938 as possibly the first attempt at a graphics standards manual, introduced stricter guidelines. Between 1948 and 1957 the word "Underground '' in the bar was replaced by "London Transport ''. As of 2013, forms of the roundel, with differing colours for the ring and bar, is used for other TfL services, such as London Buses, Tramlink, London Overground, London River Services and Docklands Light Railway. Crossrail, due to open in 2018, is to be identified with a roundel. The 100th anniversary of the roundel was celebrated in 2008 by TfL commissioning 100 artists to produce works that celebrate the design.
Seventy of the 270 London Underground stations use buildings that are on the Statutory List of Buildings of Special Architectural or Historic Interest, and five have entrances in listed buildings. The Metropolitan Railway 's original seven stations were inspired by Italianate designs, with the platforms lit by daylight from above and by gas lights in large glass globes. Early District Railway stations were similar and on both railways the further from central London the station the simpler the construction. The City & South London Railway opened with red - brick buildings, designed by Thomas Phillips Figgis, topped with a lead - covered dome that contained the lift mechanism. The Central London Railway appointed Harry Bell Measures as architect, who designed its pinkish - brown steel - framed buildings with larger entrances.
In the first decade of the 20th century Leslie Green established a house style for the tube stations built by the UERL, which were clad in ox - blood faience blocks. Green pioneered using building design to guide passengers with direction signs on tiled walls, with the stations given a unique identity with patterns on the platform walls. Many of these tile patterns survive, though a significant number of these are now replicas. Harry W. Ford was responsible for the design of at least 17 UERL and District Railway stations, including Barons Court and Embankment, and claimed to have first thought of enlarging the U and D in the UNDERGROUND wordmark. The Met 's architect Charles Walter Clark had used a neo-classical design for rebuilding Baker Street and Paddington Praed Street stations before World War I and, although the fashion had changed, continued with Farringdon in 1923. The buildings had metal lettering attached to pale walls. Clark would later design "Chiltern Court '', the large, luxurious block of apartments at Baker Street, that opened in 1929. In the 1920s and 1930s, Charles Holden designed a series of modernist and art - deco stations some of which he described as his ' brick boxes with concrete lids '. Holden 's design for the Underground 's headquarters building at 55 Broadway included avant - garde sculptures by Jacob Epstein, Eric Gill and Henry Moore.
When the Central line was extended east, the stations were simplified Holden proto - Brutalist designs, and a cavernous concourse built at Gants Hill in honour of early Moscow Metro stations. Few new stations were built in the 50 years after 1948, but Misha Black was appointed design consultant for the 1960s Victoria line, contributing to the line 's uniform look, with each station having an individual tile motif. Notable stations from this period include Moor Park, the stations of the Piccadilly line extension to Heathrow and Hillingdon. The stations of the 1990s extension of the Jubilee line were much larger than before and designed in a high - tech style by architects such as Norman Foster and Michael Hopkins, making extensive use of exposed metal plating. West Ham station was built as a homage to the red brick tube stations of the 1930s, using brick, concrete and glass.
Many platforms have unique interior designs to help passenger identification. The tiling at Baker Street incorporates repetitions of Sherlock Holmes 's silhouette and at Tottenham Court Road semi-abstract mosaics by Eduardo Paolozzi feature musical instruments, tape machines and butterflies. Robyn Denny designed the murals on the Northern line platforms at Embankment.
The first posters used a number of type fonts, as was contemporary practice, and station signs used sans serif block capitals. The Johnston typeface was developed in upper and lower case in 1916, and a complete set of blocks, marked Johnston Sans, was made by the printers the following year. A bold version of the capitals was developed by Johnston in 1929. The Met changed to a serif letterform for its signs in the 1920s, used on the stations rebuilt by Clark. However, Johnston was adopted systemwide after the formation of the LPTB in 1933 and the LT wordmark was applied to locomotives and carriages. Johnston was redesigned, becoming New Johnston, for photo - typesetting in the early 1980s when Elichi Kono designed a range that included Light, Medium and Bold, each with its italic version. The typesetters P22 developed today 's electronic version, sometimes called TfL Johnston, in 1997.
Early advertising posters proclaimed the advantages of travelling using various letter forms. Graphic posters first appeared in the 1890s, and it became possible to print colour images economically in the early 20th century. The Central London Railway used colour illustrations in their 1905 poster, and from 1908 the underground group, under Pick 's direction, used images of country scenes, shopping and major events on posters to encourage use of the tube. Pick found he was limited by the commercial artists the printers used, and so commissioned work from artists and designers such as Dora Batty, Edward McKnight Kauffer, the cartoonist George Morrow, Herry (Heather) Perry, Graham Sutherland, Charles Sharland and the sisters Anna and Doris Zinkeisen. According to Ruth Artmonsky, over 150 women artists were commissioned by Pick and latterly Christian Barman to design posters for London Underground, London Transport and London County Council Tramways.
The Johnston Sans letter form began appearing on posters from 1917. The Met, strongly independent, used images on timetables and on the cover of its Metro - land guide that promoted the country it served for the walker, visitor and later the house - hunter. By the time London Transport was formed in 1933 the UERL was considered a patron of the arts and over 1000 works were commissioned in the 1930s, such as the cartoon images of Charles Burton and Kauffer 's later abstract cubist and surrealist images. Harold Hutchison became London Transport publicity officer in 1947, after World War II and nationalisation, and introduced the "pair poster '', where an image on a poster was paired with text on another. Numbers of commissions dropped, to eight a year in the 1950s and just four a year in the 1970s, with images from artists such Harry Stevens and Tom Eckersley.
Art on the Underground was introduced in 1986 by Henry Fitzhugh to revive London Transport as a patron of the arts with the Underground commissioning six works a year, judged first on artistic merit. In that year Peter Lee, Celia Lyttleton and a poster by David Booth, Malcolm Fowler and Nancy Fowler were commissioned. Today commissions range from the pocket tube map cover to installations in a station.
Similarly, Poems on the Underground has commissioned poetry since 1986 that are displayed in carriages.
The Underground (including several fictitious stations) has been featured in many movies and television shows, including Skyfall, Die Another Day, Sliding Doors, An American Werewolf in London, Creep, Tube Tales, Sherlock and Neverwhere. The London Underground Film Office received over 200 requests to film in 2000. The Underground has also featured in music such as The Jam 's "Down in the Tube Station at Midnight '' and in literature such as the graphic novel V for Vendetta. Popular legends about the Underground being haunted persist to this day.
Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 3 has a single - player level named Mind The Gap where most of the level takes place between the dockyards and Westminster while the player and a team of SAS attempt to take down terrorists attempting to escape using the London Underground via a hijacked train. The game also features the multiplayer map "Underground '', in which players are combating in a fictitious Underground station. The London Underground map serves as a playing field for the conceptual game of Mornington Crescent (which is named after a station on the Northern line) and the board game The London Game.
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what is wattmeter list some function of it | Wattmeter - wikipedia
The wattmeter is an instrument for measuring the electric power (or the supply rate of electrical energy) in watts of any given circuit. Electromagnetic wattmeters are used for measurement of utility frequency and audio frequency power; other types are required for radio frequency measurements.
The traditional analog wattmeter is an electrodynamic instrument. The device consists of a pair of fixed coils, known as current coils, and a movable coil known as the potential coil.
The current coils are connected in series with the circuit, while the potential coil is connected in parallel. Also, on analog wattmeters, the potential coil carries a needle that moves over a scale to indicate the measurement. A current flowing through the current coil generates an electromagnetic field around the coil. The strength of this field is proportional to the line current and in phase with it. The potential coil has, as a general rule, a high - value resistor connected in series with it to reduce the current that flows through it.
The result of this arrangement is that on a DC circuit, the deflection of the needle is proportional to both the current (I) and the voltage (V), thus conforming to the equation P = VI.
For AC power, current and voltage may not be in phase, owing to the delaying effects of circuit inductance or capacitance. On an AC circuit the deflection is proportional to the average instantaneous product of voltage and current, thus measuring true power, P = VI cos φ. Here, cosφ represents the power factor which shows that the power transmitted may be less than the apparent power obtained by multiplying the readings of a voltmeter and ammeter in the same circuit.
The two circuits of a wattmeter can be damaged by excessive current. The ammeter and voltmeter are both vulnerable to overheating -- in case of an overload, their pointers will be driven off scale -- but in the wattmeter, either or even both the current and potential circuits can overheat without the pointer approaching the end of the scale. This is because the position of the pointer depends on the power factor, voltage and current. Thus, a circuit with a low power factor will give a low reading on the wattmeter, even when both of its circuits are loaded to the maximum safety limit. Therefore, a wattmeter is rated not only in watts, but also in volts and amperes.
A typical wattmeter in educational labs has two voltage coils (pressure coils) and a current coil. We can connect the two pressure coils in series or parallel to each other to change the ranges of the wattmeter. Another feature is that the pressure coil can also be tapped to change the meter 's range. If the pressure coil has range of 300 volts, the half of it can be used so that the range becomes 150 volts.
Electronic wattmeters are used for direct, small power measurements or for power measurements at frequencies beyond the range of electrodynamometer - type instruments.
A modern digital electronic wattmeter / energy meter samples the voltage and current thousands of times a second. For each sample, the voltage is multiplied by the current at the same instant; the average over at least one cycle is the real power. The real power divided by the apparent volt - amperes (VA) is the power factor. A computer circuit uses the sampled values to calculate RMS voltage, RMS current, VA, power (watts), power factor, and kilowatt - hours. The readings may be displayed on the device, retained to provide a log and calculate averages, or transmitted to other equipment for further use. Wattmeters vary considerably in correctly calculating energy consumption, especially when real power is much lower than VA (highly reactive loads, e.g. electric motors). Simple meters may be calibrated to meet specified accuracy only for sinusoidal waveforms. Waveforms for switched - mode power supplies as used for much electronic equipment may be very far from sinusoidal, leading to unknown and possibly large errors at any power. This may not be specified in the meter 's manual.
There are limitations to measuring power with inexpensive wattmeters, or indeed with any meters not designed for low - power measurements. This particularly affects low power (e.g. under 10 watts), as used in standby; readings may be so inaccurate as to be useless (although they do confirm that standby power is low, rather than high). The difficulty is largely due to difficulty in accurate measurement of the alternating current, rather than voltage, and the relatively little need for low - power measurements. The specification for the meter should specify the reading error for different situations. For a typical plug - in meter the error in wattage is stated as ± 5 % of measured value ± 10 W (e.g., a measured value of 100W may be wrong by 5 % of 100 W plus 10 W, i.e., ± 15 W, or 85 -- 115 W); and the error in kW h is stated as ± 5 % of measured value ± 0.1 kW h. If a laptop computer in sleep mode consumes 5 W, the meter may read anything from 0 to 15.25 W, without taking into account errors due to non-sinusoidal waveform. In practice accuracy can be improved by connecting a fixed load such as an incandescent light bulb, adding the device in standby, and using the difference in power consumption. This moves the measurement out of the problematic low - power zone.
Instruments with moving coils can be calibrated for direct current or power frequency currents up to a few hundred hertz. At radio frequencies a common method is a rectifier circuit arranged to respond to current in a transmission line; the system is calibrated for the known circuit impedance. Diode detectors are either directly connected to the source, or used with a sampling system that diverts only a portion of the RF power through the detector. Thermistors and thermocouples are used to measure heat produced by RF power and can be calibrated either directly or by comparison with a known reference source of power. A bolometer power sensor converts incident radio frequency power to heat. The sensor element is maintained at a constant temperature by a small direct current. The reduction in current required to maintain temperature is related to the incident RF power. Instruments of this type are used throughout the RF spectrum and can even measure visible light power. For high - power measurements, a calorimeter directly measures heat produced by RF power.
An instrument which measures electrical energy in watt hours (electricity meter or energy analyser) is essentially a wattmeter which accumulates or averages readings. Digital electronic instruments measure many parameters and can be used where a wattmeter is needed: volts, current, in amperes, apparent instantaneous power, actual power, power factor, energy in (k) W h over a period of time, and cost of electricity consumed.
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Wattmeter ''. Encyclopædia Britannica. 28 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
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where is the last name evans come from | Evans (surname) - wikipedia
Evans is a surname of Welsh, and possibly Cornish, origin. Within Wales it is the fifth most common surname and is the tenth most common in England. Within the United States, it is ranked as the 48th-most common surname.
Evans is of Welsh origin. In its anglicised form the name means "son of Evan ''. Regarding its Welsh roots, it is a derivative of the name Ifan, a cognate of John. In the Welsh language, the f produces the v sound; Ifan (Ivan) became Evan.
The similarity to the Slavic name Ivan is not accidental, as the latter is a cognate of John too.
In the Welsh language the patronymic "ab Evan '' resulted in the anglicized surname "Bevan '', which is also common in Wales.
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who did vocals for mcdonalds im loving it | I 'm Lovin ' It (song) - wikipedia
"I 'm Lovin ' It '' is a song recorded by American singer - songwriter Justin Timberlake. It was written by Pusha T and produced by The Neptunes.
The song was written as a jingle for McDonald 's commercials, based on a pre-existing German campaign originally developed as "Ich Liebe Es. '' Timberlake was paid $6 million to sing the jingle. Soon thereafter, the Neptunes produced a song based on the jingle and released it (along with an instrumental version) as part of a three - track EP in November 2003. A digital download EP with the same name was also released through the iTunes Store on December 16, 2003. The extended play included the title - track and a remix for all of the singles from Timberlake 's first solo studio album, Justified. The song was also included on the bonus audio CD of Timberlake 's first live DVD, Live From London.
A music video to promote the single was released in late 2003 and was directed by Paul Hunter.
Rapper Pusha T revealed his involvement with the song in June 2016 and claimed that he had created the "I 'm Lovin ' It '' jingle. However, co-writers Batoy and Tortora, as well as several others involved with the jingle 's creation, have disputed his claim.
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the last of us american daughters release date | The Last of Us: American Dreams - wikipedia
The Last of Us: American Dreams is a four - issue comic book series based on the video game The Last of Us. The series was written by Neil Druckmann and Faith Erin Hicks, with illustrations by Hicks and coloring by Rachelle Rosenberg. The series was published by Dark Horse Comics between April and July 2013, and a collected edition was published in October 2013.
Like the game, the comic is set in a post-apocalyptic world, overrun by zombie - like creatures infected by a mutated strain of the Cordyceps fungus. The comics serve as a prequel to the game, chronicling the journey of the young Ellie and her meeting with another young survivor, Riley Abel. Druckmann chose Ellie as the focus of the comic due to the uniqueness of her birth and upbringing in the post-apocalyptic world. Hicks joined the project after discovering Ellie 's role in the game, considering her an unusual character to include in a survival horror game. The comic 's art style is different than the game art -- a choice from Hicks to give the comic a unique feel and identity.
The series received generally positive reviews. Critics particularly praised Druckmann 's writing and character development, as well as the simplicity of Hicks ' illustrations. The series was also a commercial success, with some issues requiring reprinting due to high demand.
Dark Horse Comics approached creative director Neil Druckmann, who was working on The Last of Us, to produce a tie - in comic book series for the game. Druckmann was initially wary of the idea, but eventually agreed when he realized Dark Horse "did n't want to do something tangential '' with the opportunity of expanding their characters and universe beyond the game. Work on the comic began during the game 's development, which allowed the stories of the two projects to integrate, and influence each other. Druckmann requested webcomic artist Faith Erin Hicks as a collaborator on the project, after reading her comic Friends with Boys (2012) and appreciating "how personal it felt ''. He also felt that Hicks could capture the "gritty '' feel of the game. Hicks then sent some concept art to Dark Horse as a pitch for the job; they accepted, and she became officially involved with the project. Hicks was drawn to the project after reading about the character of Ellie in the game 's script; she considered Ellie an unusual character to include in a survival horror game, calling her a "tough teenage girl who was n't sexualized, and who seemed very much the equal of her male counterpart ''. Hicks was given access to various gameplay sequences and the game 's script during development, to allow her to better understand the story. She was also given videos of the actors performing on set, which was helpful when illustrating the characters. "I get a look at these characters and I see them interacting as human beings, not just as concept art, '' said Hicks.
Ellie 's back story was originally intended to fit as a gameplay sequence within The Last of Us, but this was ultimately scrapped. When Dark Horse approached Naughty Dog with the idea of a comic book, Druckmann had the opportunity to tell the story. Druckmann found that Ellie was the ideal main character for the comic due to her birth and upbringing; while characters like Joel mostly lived in the world before the outbreak, Ellie is unaware of life prior to the outbreak. This created an interesting idea for Druckmann, who became intrigued with discovering the effects of everyday actions in a post-apocalyptic world. Hicks enjoyed writing American Dreams, particularly due to the humor featured in the comic. Druckmann allowed Hicks to design the character of Riley, including her physical appearance, characteristics, and most of her dialogue. "It felt like a good way to split it, where (Hicks) would own Riley and I would own Ellie, '' said Druckmann. When creating the comic 's art style, Hicks avoided replicating the game art, instead opting to "draw it in (her) own style and to the best of (her) ability ''. She felt that the art style is slightly "cartoony '', which is partially due to Ellie 's young age. "If (the comic) was hyper - realistic and super-rendered, I think it would undermine the story we 're trying to tell '', said Hicks. When designing the character Angel Knives for the comic 's second issue, Hicks was inspired by the style of the characters from the Mortal Kombat series.
The first issue of the comic was published on April 3, 2013, and a reprint became available on May 29; the second issue was also published on May 29, followed by the third issue on June 26, and the fourth issue on July 31. All four issues were republished in a collected edition as a single package on October 30, 2013.
At the Boston quarantine zone, Ellie becomes caught in a fight with a group of boys who attempt to steal her belongings. Riley Abel steps in to break up the fight, beating one of the boys and making the others flee. Ellie becomes angered by this, claiming that she can take care of herself. Riley then advises Ellie to flee, but the latter is caught and assigned to cleaning duty. While she is completing the chore, she realizes that Riley stole her Walkman, and later demands that she return it, which Riley reluctantly does.
At night, Ellie catches Riley attempting to sneak out of the school, and demands to accompany her. Riley reluctantly agrees, and the two make their way to the mall, where they meet Riley 's friend Winston. As Winston teaches Ellie how to ride a horse, Riley steals his radio, and discovers that an attack by the Fireflies -- a rebel group opposing the quarantine zone authorities -- has occurred nearby. Ellie and Riley make their way to the attack, and find that the Fireflies are wounded and outnumbered. To help, Ellie and Riley throw smoke grenades at the military, allowing the Fireflies to retreat safely. They are spotted by the military, and escape into a nearby alley, where they narrowly avoid being bitten by an Infected -- zombie - like creatures infected by a mutated strain of the Cordyceps fungus.
The girls are soon captured by Fireflies, who restrain them; Marlene, the leader of the Fireflies, recognizes Ellie, and demands that she remains safe. When Riley claims she would like to join their group, Marlene refuses, and the two argue, resulting in Marlene threatening to shoot Riley. Ellie intervenes, demanding at gunpoint that Marlene explain how she knows information about Ellie. When Ellie finally lowers the gun, Marlene informs her that she knew Ellie 's mother, and had promised her that she would take care of Ellie. Ellie hands the gun to Marlene, who says that she would tell her more about her mother in the future, before telling the girls to leave. When Ellie and Riley reenter the quarantine zone, Riley says that there is no escape. Ellie suggests running away, but Riley informs her that this will just result in death. The two then walk back into the school.
The Last of Us: American Dreams received generally positive reviews. Praise was particularly directed at the story and artwork of the comic, which were said to compliment each other. The comic was also a commercial success; the first issue sold out, and the resulting high demand led to Dark Horse reissuing the installment.
The comic 's story received positive reactions. Lonnie Nadler of Bloody Disgusting felt unsure about the story in the first two issues due to their dedication to character development, but praised the final issue for delivering "authentic drama and raw intensity '' which was missing from previous issues. IGN 's Jesse Schedeen felt that the story served to enhance the world and characters, and later praised the comic 's availability to readers who had not played the game. Conversely, Nathan Butler of Invisible Gamer felt that the introduction and development of the first two issues could have been shortened, and that the final issue attempted to include too much content, ultimately calling the comic a "sub-par attempt at a video game tie - in series ''.
Reviewers also praised the comic 's artwork. Alasdair Stuart of SciFiNow wrote that the art was "so expressive and relaxed '', naming Hicks "one of the best artists of her generation ''. Jen Bosier of Forbes felt that the art style worked well within the context of the story, and IGN 's Schedeen felt that the comic heavily relied on the artwork, and that its art style gave it a unique "style and identity ''. Nadler of Bloody Disgusting called it "quite simplistic, but very clean '', and "visually expressive when it matters '', comparing it to Scott Pilgrim. Nadler also praised the choice of color, stating that it contained "the right palette of dark and murkey hues '', as well as the cover artwork, calling it "consistently stunning ''. Jennifer Cheng of Comic Book Resources also wrote that the colors fit with the setting of the comic. Peter Jubinsky of Geeks of Doom particularly praised Hicks ' depiction of the Infected as "in pain and desperate '', calling this "especially harrowing ''.
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when was the last time the detroit lions won the superbowl | Detroit Lions - wikipedia
National Football League (1930 -- present)
League championships (4)
Conference championships (4)
Division championships (4)
The Detroit Lions are a professional American football team based in Detroit, Michigan. The Lions compete in the National Football League (NFL) as a member club of the league 's National Football Conference (NFC) North division. The team plays its home games at Ford Field in Downtown Detroit.
Originally based in Portsmouth, Ohio and called the Portsmouth Spartans, the team formally joined the NFL on July 12, 1930 and began play in the 1930 season. Despite success within the NFL, they could not survive in Portsmouth, then the NFL 's smallest city. The team was purchased and relocated to Detroit for the 1934 season.
The Lions have won four NFL championships, tied for 9th overall in total championships amongst all 32 NFL franchises; however, their last was in 1957, which gives the club the second - longest NFL championship drought behind the Arizona Cardinals. They are one of four current teams and the only NFC team to have not yet played in the Super Bowl.
Aside from a brief change to maroon in 1948 instituted by then head coach Bo McMillin (influenced by his years as coach at Indiana), the Lions uniforms have basically remained the same since the team debuted in 1930. The design consists of silver helmets, silver pants, and either blue or white jerseys.
The shade of blue used for Lions uniforms and logos is officially known as "Honolulu blue '', which is supposedly inspired by the color of the waves off the coast of Hawaii. The shade was chosen by Cy Huston in 1935. Houston, the Lions ' first vice president and general manager, said of the choice: "They had me looking at so many blues I am blue in the face '', Houston said about the selection. "But anyway, it 's the kind of blue, I am told, that will match with silver. ''
There have been minor changes to the uniform design throughout the years, such as changing the silver stripe patterns on the jersey sleeves, and changing the colors of the jersey numbers. White trim was added to the logo in 1970. In 1998, the team wore blue pants with their white jerseys along with grey socks but dropped that combination after the season. In 1999, the "TV numbers '' on the sleeves were moved to the shoulders.
In 1994, every NFL team wore throwback jerseys, and the Lions ' were similar to the jerseys used during their 1935 championship season. The helmets and pants were solid silver, the jerseys Honolulu blue with silver numbers and the jersey did not have "TV numbers '' on the sleeves. The team wore solid blue socks along with black shoes. The helmets also did not have a logo, as helmets were simple leather back then. The Lions also wore ' 50s - style jerseys during their traditional Thanksgiving Day games from 2001 to 2004 as the NFL encouraged teams to wear throwback jerseys on Thanksgiving Day.
In 2003, the team added black trim to their logo and the jerseys. The face masks on the helmet changed from blue to black with the introduction of the new color. Additionally, an alternate home field jersey which makes black the dominant color (in place of Honolulu Blue) was introduced in 2005.
For 2008, the team dropped the black alternate jerseys in favor of a throwback uniform to commemorate the franchise 's 75th anniversary. The throwback uniform became the team 's permanent alternate jersey in 2009, replacing the former black alternate. The Lions officially unveiled new logo designs and uniforms on April 20, 2009. The lion on the helmet now has a flowing mane and fangs, and the typeface of "Lions '' is more modern.
On February 1, 2017, the Lions announced a new typeface, logo, and the complete removal of the color black from the team identity. Uniforms were to follow on April 13. The team "made it a priority to emphasize our classic color combination of Honolulu blue and silver, which has been synonymous with the Detroit Lions since 1934. '' The new logo is identical to the old, except with a silver border instead of a black one. The Lions unveiled the club 's new uniforms on April 13, 2017.
Running backs
Wide receivers
Tight ends
Defensive linemen
Defensive backs
Special teams
Practice squad
Roster updated September 14, 2017 Depth chart Transactions 53 Active, 12 Inactive, 11 Practice squad
Notes:
Special cases:
→ Coaching Staff → Management → More NFL staffs
The Lions have been a part of multiple divisions and have had several division rivals in their existence. Their oldest rivals are the Chicago Bears and the Green Bay Packers, whom they have been paired with in a division since 1933. The Minnesota Vikings have been in a division with Detroit ever since their inaugural season in 1961. Other notable longtime division opponents were the Cleveland / Los Angeles Rams (29 seasons from 1937 -- 1966, except for 1943), the Tampa Bay Buccaneers (25 seasons from 1977 -- 2001), the San Francisco 49ers (17 seasons from 1950 -- 1966), the Chicago Cardinals (16 seasons from 1933 -- 1949, except for 1944), and the Baltimore Colts (14 seasons from 1953 -- 1966).
The Lions also have a preseason rivalry with the Cleveland Browns, dubbed the Great Lakes Classic. The two teams have been playing for The Barge Trophy since 2002. The Lions and Browns had a solid rivalry in the 1950s, when they met four times for the NFL championship (Detroit won three of the matchups).
The Lions ' flagship radio station is WJR 760 AM. Dan Miller does play - by - play, Jim Brandstatter does color commentary, and Tony Ortiz provides sideline reports.
The team moved to WJR for the 2016 NFL season, ending a 20 - year relationship with CBS Radio - owned WXYT - FM. The decision to part with WXYT was reportedly instigated by a demand by the team for the station to fire on - air personality Mike Valenti -- who has had a history of making comments critical of the Lions during his drive - time show -- as a condition of any future renewal. A CBS Radio spokesperson stated that their refusal was meant to maintain the station 's integrity.
In 2015, WJBK took over from WXYZ - TV as the flagship station for Lions preseason games. The announcers are Matt Shepard with play - by - play, Rob Rubick and Nate Burleson with color commentary, and FOX2 's Jennifer Hammond with sideline reports. Wraparound shows and preseason games are produced by Fox Sports Detroit which also airs replays of the broadcasts.
Regular season games are broadcast regionally on Fox, except when the Lions play an AFC team in Detroit, in which case the game airs regionally on CBS. The Thanksgiving Day game in Detroit is always televised nationally on either Fox (odd - numbered years) or CBS (even - numbered years). The Detroit Lions were the last NFC team to play on NBC, since they got football back in 2006 (the Lions at Saints game on December 4, 2011 marked their 1st appearance). The Lions ' official regular season pregame show is The Ford Lions Report.
The Lions ' winless performance in 2008 and 2 -- 14 season in 2009, coupled with the effects of the Great Recession in Michigan, led to several local broadcast blackouts, as local fans did not purchase enough tickets by the 72 - hour blackout deadline. In 2008, five of the Lions ' final six home games of the season did not sell out, with the Thanksgiving game being the exception. The first blackout in the seven - year history of Ford Field was on October 26, 2008, against the Washington Redskins. The previous 50 regular season home games had been sellouts. The second home game of the 2009 season in which the Lions broke the losing streak (also against the Washington Redskins) was blacked out locally, as well as the comeback victory over the Cleveland Browns. The Lions had only one blackout in 2010, yet another Washington Redskins game, which the Lions won 37 -- 25.
Games were also often blacked out at the Lions ' previous home, the (perhaps oversized) 80,000 - seat Pontiac Silverdome, despite winning seasons and the success and popularity of star players such as Barry Sanders.
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when do you get a trial by jury | Jury trial - wikipedia
A jury trial, or trial by jury, is a lawful proceeding in which a jury makes a decision or findings of fact. It is distinguished from a bench trial in which a judge or panel of judges makes all decisions.
Jury trials are used in a significant share of serious criminal cases in almost all common law lawful systems (Singapore, for example, is an exception), and juries or lay judges have been incorporated into the legal systems of many civil law countries for criminal cases. Only the United States makes routine use of jury trials in a wide variety of non-criminal cases. Other common law legal jurisdictions use jury trials only in a very select class of cases that make up a tiny share of the overall civil docket (like defamation suits in England and Wales), but true civil jury trials are almost entirely absent elsewhere in the world. Some civil law jurisdictions, however, have arbitration panels where non-legally trained members decide cases in select subject - matter areas relevant to the arbitration panel members ' areas of expertise.
The availability of a trial by jury in American jurisdictions varies. Because the United States legal system separated from that of the English one at American Revolution, the types of proceedings that use juries depends on whether such cases were tried by jury under English common law at that time rather than the methods used in English courts now. For example, at the time, English "courts of law '' tried cases of torts or private law for monetary damages using juries, but "courts of equity '' that tried civil cases seeking an injunction or another form of non-monetary relief did not. As a result, this practice continues in American civil laws, but in modern English law, only criminal proceedings and some inquests are likely to be heard by a jury.
The use of jury trials, which evolved within common law systems rather than civil law systems, has had a profound impact on the nature of American civil procedure and criminal procedure rules, even if a bench trial is actually contemplated in a particular case. In general, the availability of a jury trial if properly demanded has given rise to a system in which fact finding is concentrated in a single trial rather than multiple hearings, and appellate review of trial court decisions is greatly limited. Jury trials are of far less importance (or of no importance) in countries that do not have a common law system.
Ancient Athens had a mechanism, called dikastaí, to assure that no one could select jurors for their own trial. For normal cases, the courts were made up of dikastai of up to 500 citizens. For capital cases -- those that involved death, loss of liberty, exile, loss of civil rights, or seizure of property -- the trial was before a jury of 1,001 to 1,501 dikastai. In such large juries, the unanimity rule would be unrealistic, and verdicts were reached by majority. Juries were appointed by lot. Jurists cast a ceramic disk with an axle in its middle: the axle was either hollow or solid. Thus the way they voted was kept secret because the jurists would hold their disk by the axle by thumb and forefinger, thus hiding whether its axle was hollow or solid. Since Periclean times, jurists were compensated for their sitting in court, with the amount of one day 's wages.
The institution of trial by jury was ritually depicted by Aeschylus in the Eumenides, the third and final play of his Oresteia trilogy. In the play, the innovation is brought about by the goddess Athena, who summons twelve citizens to sit as jury. The god Apollo takes part in the trial as the advocate for the defendant Orestes and the Furies as prosecutors for the slain Clytaemnestra. In the event the jury is split six to six, and Athena dictates that in such a case, the verdict should henceforth be for acquittal.
From the beginning of the republic and in the majority of civil cases towards the end of the empire, there were tribunals with the characteristics of the jury, the Roman judges being civilian, lay and not professional. Capital trials were held in front of juries composed of hundreds or thousands of people in the commitias or centuries, the same as in Roman trials. Roman law provided for the yearly selection of judices, who would be responsible for resolving disputes by acting as jurors, with a praetor performing many of the duties of a judge. High government officials and their relatives were barred from acting as judices, due to conflicts of interest. Those previously found guilty of serious crimes (felonies) were also barred as were gladiators for hire, who likely were hired to resolve disputes through trial by combat. The law was as follows:
"The peregrine praetor (literally, traveling judge) within the next ten days after this law is passed by the people or plebs shall provide for the selection of 450 persons in this State who have or have had a knight 's census... provided that he does not select a person who is or has been plebeian tribune, quaestor, triumvir capitalis, military tribune in any of the first four legions, or triumvir for granting and assigning lands, or who is or has been in the Senate, or who has fought or shall fight as a gladiator for hire... or who has been condemned by the judicial process and a public trial whereby he can not be enrolled in the Senate, or who is less than thirty or more than sixty years of age, or who does not have his residence in the city of Rome or within one mile of it, or who is the father, brother, or son of any above - described magistrate, or who is the father, brother, or son of a person who is or has been a member of the Senate, or who is overseas. ''
A Swabian ordinance of 1562 called for the summons of jurymen (urtheiler), and various methods were in use in Emmendingen, Oppenau, and Oberkirch. Hauenstein 's charter of 1442 secured the right to be tried in all cases by 24 fellow equals, and in Friburg the jury was composed of 30 citizens and councilors. The modern jury trial was first introduced in the Rhenish provinces in 1798, with a court consisting most commonly of 12 citizens (Bürger).
The system whereby citizens were tried by their peers chosen from the entire community in open court was gradually superseded by an "engine of tyranny and oppression '' in Germany, in which the process of investigation was secret and life and liberty depended upon judges appointed by the state. In Constance the jury trial was suppressed by decree of the Habsburg Monarchy in 1786. The Frankfurt Constitution of the failed Revolutions of 1848 called for jury trials for "the more serious crimes and all political offenses '', but was never implemented after the Frankfurt Parliament was dissolved by Württemberg dragoons. An 1873 draft on criminal procedure produced by the Prussian Ministry of Justice proposed to abolish the jury and replace it with the mixed system, causing a significant political debate. In the Weimar Republic the jury was abolished by the Emminger Reform of 4 January 1924.
Between 1948 and 1950 in American - occupied Germany and the Federal Republic of Germany, Bavaria returned to the jury trial as it had existed before the emergency decrees, but they were again abolished by the 1950 Unification Act (Vereinheitlichungsgesetz) for the Federal Republic. In 1979, the United States tried the East German LOT Flight 165 hijacking suspects in the United States Court for Berlin in West Berlin, which declared the defendants had the right to a jury trial under the United States Constitution, and hence were tried by a West German jury.
According to George Macaulay Trevelyan in A Shortened History of England, during the Viking occupation: "The Scandinavians, when not on the Viking warpath, were a litigious people and loved to get together in the ' thing ' to hear legal argument. They had no professional lawyers, but many of their farmer - warriors, like Njal, the truth - teller, were learned in folk custom and in its intricate judicial procedure. A Danish town in England often had, as its main officers, twelve hereditary ' law men. ' The Danes introduced the habit of making committees among the free men in court, which perhaps made England favorable ground for the future growth of the jury system out of a Frankish custom later introduced by the Normans. '' The English king Æthelred the Unready set up an early legal system through the Wantage Code of Ethelred, one provision of which stated that the twelve leading thegns (minor nobles) of each wapentake (a small district) were required to swear that they would investigate crimes without a bias. These juries differed from the modern sort by being self - informing; instead of getting information through a trial, the jurors were required to investigate the case themselves.
In the 12th century, Henry II took a major step in developing the jury system. Henry II set up a system to resolve land disputes using juries. A jury of twelve free men were assigned to arbitrate in these disputes. As with the Saxon system, these men were charged with uncovering the facts of the case on their own rather than listening to arguments in court. Henry II also introduced what is now known as the "grand jury '' through his Assize of Clarendon. Under the assize, a jury of free men was charged with reporting any crimes that they knew of in their hundred to a "justice in eyre '', a judge who moved between hundreds on a circuit. A criminal accused by this jury was given a trial by ordeal.
The Church banned participation of clergy in trial by ordeal in 1215. Without the legitimacy of religion, trial by ordeal collapsed. The juries under the assizes began deciding guilt as well as providing accusations. The same year, trial by jury became an explicit right in one of the most influential clauses of Magna Carta. Article 39 of the Magna Carta read:
Nullus liber homo capiatur, vel imprisonetur, aut desseisetur de libero tenemento, vel libertatibus, vel liberis consuetudinibus suis, sut utlagetur, aut exuletur, aut aliquo modo destruatur, nec super eum ibimus, nec super eum mittemus, nisi per legale judicium parium suorum, vel per legem terrae. It is translated thus by Lysander Spooner in his Essay on the Trial by Jury: "No free man shall be captured, and or imprisoned, or disseised of his freehold, and or of his liberties, or of his free customs, or be outlawed, or exiled, or in any way destroyed, nor will we proceed against him by force or proceed against him by arms, but by the lawful judgment of his peers, and or by the law of the land. '' Although it says and or by the law of the land, this in no manner can be interpreted as if it were enough to have a positive law, made by the king, to be able to proceed legally against a citizen. The law of the land was the consuetudinary law, based on the customs and consent of John 's subjects, and since they did not have Parliament in those times, this meant that neither the king nor the barons could make a law without the consent of the people. According to some sources, in the time of Edward III, by the law of the land had been substituted by due process of law, which in those times was a trial by twelve peers.
The Magna Carta of 1215 further secured trial by jury by stating that
For a trivial offence, a free man shall be fined only in proportion to the degree of his offence, and for a serious offence correspondingly, but not so heavily as to deprive him of his livelihood. In the same way, a merchant shall be spared his merchandise, and a husbandman the implements of his husbandry, if they fall upon the mercy of a royal court. None of these fines shall be imposed except by the assessment on oath of reputable men of the neighbourhood.
Earls and barons shall be fined only by their equals, and in proportion to the gravity of their offence.
To any man whom we have deprived or dispossessed of lands, castles, liberties, or rights, without the lawful judgement of his equals, we will at once restore these.
If we have deprived or dispossessed any Welshmen of lands, liberties, or anything else in England or in Wales, without the lawful judgement of their equals, these are at once to be returned to them. A dispute on this point shall be determined in the Marches by the judgement of equals. English law shall apply to holdings of land in England, Welsh law to those in Wales, and the law of the Marches to those in the Marches. The Welsh shall treat us and ours in the same way.
During the mid-14th Century, persons who had sat on the Presenting Jury (i.e., in modern parlance, the Grand Jury) were forbidden to sit on the trial jury for that crime. 25 Edward III stat 5., c3 (1353). Medieval juries were self - informing, in that individuals were chosen as jurors because they either knew the parties and the facts, or they had the duty to discover them. This spared the government the cost of fact - finding. Over time, English juries became less self - informing and relied more on the trial itself for information on the case. Jurors remained free to investigate cases on their own until the 17th century. The Magna Carta being forgotten after a succession of benevolent reigns (or, more probably, reigns limited by the jury and the barons, and only under the rule of laws that the juries and barons found acceptable), the kings, through the royal judges, began to extend their control over the jury and the kingdom. In David Hume 's History of England, he tells something of the powers that the kings had accumulated in the times after the Magna Carta, the prerogatives of the crown and the sources of great power with which these monarchs counted:
One of the most ancient and most established instruments of power was the court of Star Chamber, which possessed an unlimited discretionary authority of fining, imprisoning, and inflicting corporal punishment, and whose jurisdiction extended to all sorts of offenses, contempts, and disorders, that lay not within reach of the common law. The members of this court consisted of the privy council and the judges; men who all of them enjoyed their offices during pleasure: And when the prince himself was present, he was the sole judge, and all the others could only interpose with their advice. There needed but this one court in any government, to put an end to all regular, legal, and exact plans of liberty. For who durst set himself in opposition to the crown and ministry, or aspire to the character of being a patron of freedom, while exposed to so arbitrary a jurisdiction? I much question, whether any of the absolute monarchies in Europe contain, at present, so illegal and despotic a tribunal. While so many terrors hung over the people, no jury durst have acquitted a man, when the court was resolved to have him condemned. The practice also, of not confronting witnesses to the prisoner, gave the crown lawyers all imaginable advantage against him. And, indeed, there scarcely occurs an instance, during all these reigns, that the sovereign, or the ministers, were ever disappointed in the issue of a prosecution. Timid juries, and judges who held their offices during pleasure, never failed to second all the views of the crown. And as the practice was anciently common of fining, imprisoning, or otherwise punishing the jurors, merely at the discretion of the court, for finding a verdict contrary to the direction of these dependent judges; it is obvious, that juries were then no manner of security to the liberty of the subject.
The first paragraph of the Act that abolished the Star Chamber repeats the clause on the right of a citizen to be judged by his peers:
Abolition of the Star Chamber
July 5, 1641 An act for the regulating of the privy council, and for taking away the court commonly called the star - chamber.
In 1670 two Quakers charged with unlawful assembly, William Penn and William Mead, were found not guilty by a jury. The judge then fined the jury for contempt of court for returning a verdict contrary to their own findings of fact and removed them to prison until the fine was paid. Edward Bushel, a member of the jury, nonetheless refused to pay the fine.
Bushel petitioned the Court of Common Pleas for a writ of habeas corpus. The ruling in the Bushel 's Case was that a jury could not be punished simply on account of the verdict it returned.
Many British colonies, including the United States, adopted the English common law system in which trial by jury is an important part. Jury trials in criminal cases were a protected right in the original United States Constitution and the Fifth, Sixth, and Seventh Amendments of the U.S. Constitution extend the rights to trial by jury to include the right to jury trial for both criminal and civil matters and a grand jury for serious cases.
Some jurisdictions with jury trials allow the defendant to waive their right to a jury trial, thus leading to a bench trial. Jury trials tend to occur only when a crime is considered serious. In some jurisdictions, such as France and Brazil, jury trials are reserved, and compulsory, for the most severe crimes and are not available for civil cases. In Brazil, for example, trials by jury are applied in cases of voluntary crimes against life, such as first and second degree murder, forced abortion and instigation of suicide, even if only attempted. In others, such as the United Kingdom, jury trials are only available for criminal cases and very specific civil cases (defamation, malicious prosecution, civil fraud and false imprisonment). In the United States, jury trials are available in both civil and criminal cases. In Canada, an individual charged with an indictable offence may elect to be tried by a judge alone in a provincial court, by judge alone in a superior court, or by judge and jury in a superior court; summary offences can not be tried by jury.
In the United States, because jury trials tend to be high profile, the general public tends to overestimate the frequency of jury trials. Approximately 150,000 jury trials are conducted in state courts annually, and an additional 5,000 jury trials are conducted in federal courts. Two - thirds of jury trials are criminal trials, while one - third are civil and "other '' (e.g., family, municipal ordinance, traffic). Nevertheless, the vast majority of criminal cases are settled by plea bargain, which removes the need for a jury trial.
Some commentators contend that the guilty - plea system unfairly coerces defendants into relinquishing their right to a jury trial. Others contend that there never was a golden age of jury trials, but rather that juries in the early nineteenth century (before the rise of plea bargaining) were "unwitting and reflexive, generally wasteful of public resources and, because of the absence of trained professionals, little more than slow guilty pleas themselves '', and that the guilty - plea system that emerged in the latter half of the nineteenth century was a superior, more cost - effective method of achieving fair outcomes.
In countries where jury trials are common, juries are often seen as an important check against state power. Other common assertions about the benefits of trial by jury is that it provides a means of interjecting community norms and values into judicial proceedings and that it legitimizes the law by providing opportunities for citizens to validate criminal statutes in their application to specific trials. Alexis de Tocqueville also claimed that jury trials educate citizens about self - government. Many also believe that a jury is likely to provide a more sympathetic hearing, or a fairer one, to a party who is not part of the government -- or other establishment interest -- than would representatives of the state.
This last point may be disputed. For example, in highly emotional cases, such as child rape, the jury may be tempted to convict based on personal feelings rather than on conviction beyond reasonable doubt. In France, former attorney, then later minister of Justice Robert Badinter, remarked about jury trials in France that they were like "riding a ship into a storm '', because they are much less predictable than bench trials.
Another issue with jury trials is the potential for jurors to be swayed by prejudice, including racial considerations. Infamous cases include the Scottsboro Boys, a group of nine African American teenagers accused of raping two White American women on a train in 1931, for which they were indicted by an all - white jury, the acquittal of two white men Roy Bryant and J.W. Milan by an all - white jury for the murder of 14 year old Emmett Till in 1955 (they admitted killing him in a magazine interview a year later), and the 1992 trial in the Rodney King case in California, in which white police officers were acquitted of excessive force in the violent beating of a black man by a jury consisting mostly of whites without any black jurors.
The positive belief about jury trials in the U.K. and the U.S. contrasts with popular belief in many other nations, in which it is considered bizarre and risky for a person 's fate to be put into the hands of untrained laymen. Consider Japan, for instance, which used to have optional jury trials for capital or other serious crimes between 1928 and 1943. The defendant could freely choose whether to have a jury or trial by judges, and the decisions of the jury were non-binding. During the Tōjō - regime this was suspended, arguably stemming from the popular belief that any defendant who risks his fate on the opinions of untrained laymen is almost certainly guilty.
Jury trials in multi-cultural countries with a history of ethnic tensions may be problematic, and lead to juries being unduly biased and partial.
A major issue in jury trials is the secretive nature of the process. While proponents may say that secrecy allows the jury to remain impartial by protecting it from undue pressure or attention, opponents contend that this prevents there from being a transparent trial. The fact that juries do not often have to give a reason for their verdict is also criticized, since opponents argue it is unfair for a person to be deprived of life, liberty or property without being told why it is being done so. In contrast where there is a decision by a judge or judges, they are required to provide often detailed reasons of both fact and law as to why their decision was made.
One issue that has been raised is the ability of a jury to fully understand statistical or scientific evidence. It has been said that the expectation of jury members as to the explanatory power of scientific evidence has been raised by television in what is known as the CSI effect. In at least one English trial the misuse or misunderstanding or misrepresentation by the prosecution of statistics has led to wrongful conviction.
The Australian Constitution provides that: "80. The trial on indictment of any offence against any law of the Commonwealth shall be by jury, and every such trial shall be held in the State where the offence was committed, and if the offence was not committed within any State the trial shall be held at such place or places as the Parliament prescribes. ''
The first trials by civilian juries of 12 in the colony of New South Wales were held in 1824, following a decision of the NSW Supreme Court on 14 October 1824. The NSW Constitution Act of 1828 effectively terminated trial by jury for criminal matters. Jury trials for criminal matters revived with the passing of the Jury Trials Amending Act of 1833 (NSW) (2 William IV No 12).
The voir dire system of examining the jury pool before selection is not permitted in Australia as it violates the privacy of jurors. Therefore, though it exists, the right to challenge for cause during jury selection can not be employed much. Peremptory challenges are usually based on the hunches of counsel and no reason is needed to use them. All Australian states allow for peremptory challenges in jury selection, however, the number of challenges granted to the counsels in each state are not all the same. Until 1987 New South Wales had twenty peremptory challenges for each side where the offence was murder, and eight for all other cases. In 1987 this was lowered to three peremptory challenges per side, the same amount allowed in South Australia. Eight peremptory challenges are allowed for both counsels for all offences in Queensland. Victoria, Tasmania and the Northern Territory allow for six. Western Australia allows five peremptory challenges per side.
In Australia majority verdicts are allowed in South Australia, Victoria, Western Australia, Tasmania, the Northern Territory, New South Wales and Queensland, while the ACT require unanimous verdicts. Since 1927 South Australia has permitted majority verdicts of 11: 1, and 10: 1 or 9: 1 where the jury has been reduced, in criminal trials if a unanimous verdict can not be reached in four hours. They are accepted in all cases except for "guilty '' verdicts where the defendant is on trial for murder or treason. Victoria has accepted majority verdicts with the same conditions since 1994, though deliberations must go on for six hours before a majority verdict can be made. Western Australia accepted majority verdicts in 1957 for all trials except where the crime is murder or has a life sentence. A 10: 2 verdict is accepted. Majority verdicts of 10: 2 have been allowed in Tasmania since 1936 for all cases except murder and treason if a unanimous decision has not been made within two hours. Since 1943 verdicts of "not guilty '' for murder and treason have also been included, but must be discussed for six hours. The Northern Territory has allowed majority verdicts of 10: 2, 10: 1 and 9: 1 since 1963 and does not discriminate between cases whether the charge is murder or not. Deliberation must go for at least six hours before delivering a majority verdict. The Queensland Jury Act 1995 (s 59F) allows majority verdicts for all crimes except for murder and other offences that carry a life sentence, although only 11: 1 or 10: 1 majorities are allowed. Majority verdicts were introduced in New South Wales in 2006. In New South Wales, a majority verdict can only be returned if the jury consists of at least 11 jurors and the deliberation has occurred for at least 8 hours or for a period that the court considers reasonable having regard to the nature and complexity of the case. Additionally, the court must be satisfied through examination of one or more of the jurors on oath, that a unanimous verdict will not be reached if further deliberation were to occur.
Austria, in common with a number of European civil law jurisdictions, retains elements of trial by jury in serious criminal cases.
Belgium, in common with a number of European civil law jurisdictions, retains the trial by jury through the Court of Assize for serious criminal cases and for political crimes and for press delicts (except those based on racism or xenophobia), and for crimes of international law, such as genocide and crime against humanity.
Under Canadian law, a person has the constitutional right to a jury trial for all crimes punishable by five years of imprisonment or more. The Criminal Code also provides for the right to a jury trial for most indictable offences, including those punishable by less than five years imprisonment, though the right is only constitutionally enshrined for those offences punishable by five years imprisonment or more. Generally, it is the accused person who is entitled to elect whether their trial will proceed by judge alone or by judge and jury; however, for the most severe criminal offences -- murder, treason, alarming Her Majesty, intimidating Parliament, inciting to mutiny, sedition, and piracy -- trial by jury is mandatory unless the prosecution consents to trial by judge alone.
Jury panel exhaustion Criminal Code Section 642 (1): If a full jury and alternate jurors can not be provided, the court may order the sheriff or other proper officer, at the request of the prosecutor, to summon without delay as many people as the court directs for the purpose of providing a full jury and alternate jurors. Section 642 (2): Jurors may be summoned under subsection (1) by word of mouth, if necessary. Section 642 (3): The names of the people who are summoned under this Section shall be added to the general panel for the purposes of the trial, and the same proceedings with respect to calling, challenging, excusing and directing them shall apply to them.
According to the case of R v Mid-Valley Tractor Sales Limited (1995 CarswellNB 313), there are limitations on the powers granted by Section 642. These powers are conferred specifically upon the judge, and the section does not confer a further discretion to delegate that power to others, such as the sheriff 's officer, even with the consent of counsel. The Court said that to hold otherwise would nullify the rights of the accused and the prosecution to object to a person being excused inappropriately, and may also interfere with the rights of the parties to challenge for cause. The selection of an impartial jury is the basis of a fair trial. The Supreme Court of Canada also held in Basarabas and Spek v The Queen (1982 SCR 730) that the right of an accused to be present in court during the whole of his trial includes the jury selection process. In Tran v The Queen (1994 2 SCR 951), it was held that an accused only has to show that they were excluded from a part of the trial that affected their vital interests, they do not have to demonstrate actual prejudice, just the potential for prejudice. As well, a valid waiver of such a right must be clear, unequivocal and done with full knowledge of the rights that the procedure was enacted to protect, as well as the effect that the waiver will have on those rights.
In France, a defendant is entitled to a jury trial only when prosecuted for a felony (crime in French). Crimes encompass all offenses that carry a penalty of at least 10 years ' imprisonment (for natural persons) or a fine of € 75,000 (for legal persons). The only court that tries by jury is the cour d'assises, in which three professional judges sit together with six or nine jurors (on appeal). Conviction requires a two - third majority (four or six votes).
The country that originated the concept of the jury trial retains it in an unusual form. Serious crimes in Greece are tried by a panel of three professional judges and four lay jurors who decide the facts, and the appropriate penalty if they convict.
Being a Common Law jurisdiction, Gibraltar retains jury trial in a similar manner to that found in England and Wales, the exception being that juries consist of nine lay people, rather than twelve.
Hong Kong, as a former British colony has a common law legal system. Article 86 of Hong Kong 's Basic Law, which came into force on 1 July 1997 following the handover of Hong Kong from Britain to China provides: "The principle of trial by jury previously practised in Hong Kong shall be maintained. ''
Criminal trials in the High Court are by jury. The juries are generally made of seven members, who can return a verdict based on a majority of five.
There are no jury trials in the District Court, which can impose a sentence of up to seven years imprisonment. This is despite the fact that all court rooms in the District Court have jury boxes. The lack of juries in the District Court has been severely criticized. Clive Grossman SC in a commentary in 2009 said conviction rates were "approaching those of North Korea ''.
Many complex commercial cases are prosecuted in the District Court rather than before a jury in the High Court. In 2009, Lily Chiang, former chairwoman of the Hong Kong General Chamber of Commerce, lost an application to have her case transferred from the District Court to the High Court for a jury trial. Justice Wright in the Court of First Instance held that there was no absolute right to a trial by jury and that the "decision as to whether an indictable offence be tried in the Court of First Instance by a judge and jury or in the District Court by a judge alone is the prerogative of the Secretary for Justice. '' Chiang issued a statement at the time saying "she was disappointed with the judgment because she has been deprived of a jury trial, an opportunity to be judged by her fellow citizens and the constitutional benefit protected by the Basic Law ''.
In civil cases in the Court of First Instance jury trials are available for defamation, false imprisonment, malicious prosecution or seduction unless the court orders otherwise. A jury can return a majority verdict in a civil case.
The first case decided by an English jury in India happened in Madras in 1665, for which Ascentia Dawes (probably a British woman) was charged by a grand jury with the murder of her slave girl, and a petty jury, with six Englishmen and six Portuguese, found her not guilty. With the development of the East India Company empire in India, the jury system was implemented inside a dual system of courts: In Presidency Towns (Calcutta, Madras, Bombay), there were Crown Courts and in criminal cases juries had to judge British and European people (as a privilege) and in some cases Indian people; and in the territories outside the Presidency Towns (called "moffussil ''), there were Company Courts (composed with Company officials) without jury to judge most of the cases implying indigenous people.
After the Crown Government of India (Raj) adopted the Indian Penal Code (1860) and the Indian Code of Criminal Procedure (1861, amended in 1872, 1882, 1898), the criminal jury was obligatory only in the High Courts of the Presidency Towns; elsewhere, it was optional and rarely used. According sections 274 and 275 of the Code of Criminal Procedure, the jury was composed from 3 (for smaller offences judged in session courts) to 9 (for severe offences judges in High Courts) men; and when the accused were European or American, at least half of the jurors had to be European or American men.
The jury found no place in the 1950 Indian Constitution, and it was ignored in many Indian states. The Law Commission recommended its abolition in 1958 in its 14th Report. Jury trials were abolished in India in most courts except for Matrimonial Disputes of Parsis by a very discrete process during the 1960s, finishing with the 1973 Code of Criminal Procedure, which is still in force today.
Parsis in India can LEGALLY use Jury System to decide divorces wherein randomly selected members called ` delegates ` from the community decide the fact of the matrimonial disputes of Parsis. Jury system for Parsi Matrimonial dispute cases is a mix of Panchayat system and Jury system found in US etc. countries. The law which governs this is ` The Parsi Marriage and Divorce Act, 1936 ` as amended in 1988.
Without any proper study comparing existing judicial systems and without any effort to improve the system, it was claimed that the 8: 1 acquittal of Kawas Nanavati in K.M. Nanavati vs. State of Maharashtra, which was overturned by higher courts on the grounds that the jury was misled by the presiding judge and were susceptible to media and public influence, was the reason. A study by Elisabeth Kolsky argues that many "perverse verdicts '' were delivered by white juries in trial of "European British subjects '' charged with murder, assault, confinement of Indians.
In the Republic of Ireland, a common law jurisdiction, jury trials are available for criminal cases before the Circuit Court, Central Criminal Court and defamation cases, consisting of twelve jurors.
Juries only decide questions of fact; they have no role in criminal sentencing in criminal cases or awarding damages in libel cases. It is not necessary that a jury be unanimous in its verdict. In civil cases, a verdict may be reached by a majority of nine of the twelve members. In a criminal case, a verdict need not be unanimous where there are not fewer than eleven jurors if ten of them agree on a verdict after considering the case for a reasonable time.
Juries are selected from a jury panel, which is picked at random by the county registrar from the electoral register. The principal statute regulating the selection, obligations and conduct of juries is the Juries Act 1976 as amended by the Civil Law (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act 2008, which scrapped the upper age limit of 70. Juries are not paid, nor do they receive travel expenses. They do receive lunch for the days that they are serving; however, for jurors in employment, their employer is required to pay them as if they were present at work.
For certain terrorist and organised crime offences the Director of Public Prosecutions may issue a certificate that the accused be tried by the Special Criminal Court composed of three judges instead of a jury, one from the District Court, Circuit Court and High Court.
The Corte d'Assise is composed of 2 judges and 6 laypersons chosen at random among Italian citizens 30 to 65 years old. Only serious crimes like murder can be tried by the Corte d'Assise.
On May 28, 2004, the Diet of Japan enacted a law requiring selected citizens to take part in criminal court trials of certain severe crimes to make decisions together with professional judges, both on guilt and on the sentence. These citizens are called saiban - in (裁判 員 "lay judge ''). The saiban - in system was implemented in May 2009.
New Zealand previously required jury verdicts to be passed unanimously, but since the passing of the Criminal Procedure Bill in 2009 the Juries Act 1981 has permitted verdicts to be passed by a majority of one less than the full jury (that is an 11 - 1 or a 10 - 1 majority) under certain circumstances.
Norway has a system where the lower courts (tingrett) is set with a judge and two lay - judges, or in bigger cases two judges and three lay - judges. All of these judges convict or acquit, and set sentences. Simple majority is required in all cases, which means that the lay - judges are always in control.
In the higher court / appellate court (lagmannsrett) there is a jury (lagrette) of 10 members, which need a minimum of seven votes to be able to convict. The judges have no say in the jury deliberations, but jury - instructions are given by the chief - judge (lagmann) in each case to the jury before deliberations. The voir - dire is usually set with 16 prospective jurors, which the prosecution and defense may dismiss the 6 persons they do not desire to serve on the jury.
This court (lagmannsretten) is administered by a three - judge panel (usually 1 lagmann and 2 lagdommere), and if 7 or more jury members want to convict, the sentence is set in a separate proceeding, consisting of the three judges and the jury foreman (lagrettens ordfører) and three other members of the jury chosen by ballot. This way the laymen are in control of both the conviction and sentencing, as simple majority is required in sentencing.
The three - judge panel can set aside a jury conviction or acquittal if there has been an obvious miscarriage of justice. In that event, the case is settled by three judges and four lay - judges.
In May 2015, the Norwegian Parliament asked the government to bring an end to jury trials, replacing them with a bench trial (meddomsrett) consisting of two law - trained judges and three lay judges (lekdommere). This has not been fully implemented yet as of February 2016, but is expected soon.
In the judiciary of Russia, for serious crimes the accused has the option of a jury trial consisting of 12 jurors. The number of jury trials remains small, at about 600 per year, out of about 1 million trials. A juror must be 25 years old, legally competent, and without a criminal record. The 12 jurors are selected by the prosecution and defense from a list of 30 -- 40 eligible candidates. The Constitution of Russia stipulates that, until the abolition of the death penalty, all defendants in a case that may result in a death sentence are entitled to a jury trial. Lawmakers are continuously chipping away at what types of criminal offenses merit a jury trial.
They are similar to common law juries, and unlike lay judges, in that they sit separately from the judges and decide questions of fact alone while the judge determines questions of law. They must return unanimous verdicts during the first 3 hours of deliberation, but may return majority verdicts after that, with 6 jurors being enough to acquit. They may also request that the judge show leniency in sentencing.
Juries have granted acquittals in 15 -- 20 % of cases, compared with less than 1 % in cases decided by judges. Juries may be dismissed and skeptical juries have been dismissed on the verge of verdicts, and acquittals are frequently overturned by higher courts.
Trial by jury was first introduced in the Russian Empire as a result of the Judicial reform of Alexander II in 1864, and abolished after the October Revolution in 1917. They were reintroduced in the Russian Federation in 1993, and extended to another 69 regions in 2003. Its reintroduction was opposed by the Prosecutor General.
In Singapore, the jury system was abolished in 1969. Jury trials for all had been earlier abolished in 1959, except for capital offenses with the death penalty. As Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew described to the BBC and in his memoirs, due to his experiences as a trial lawyer, "I had no faith in a system that allowed the superstition, ignorance, biases, and prejudices of seven jurymen to determine guilt or innocence. ''
The jury system was abolished in South Africa in 1969 by the Abolition of Juries Act, 1969. The last jury trial to be heard was in the District of Kimberley. Some judicial experts had argued that a system of whites - only juries (as was the system at that time) was inherently prejudicial to ' non-white ' defendants (the introduction of nonracial juries would have been a political impossibility at that time). More recently it has been argued that, apart from being a racially divided country, South African society was, and still is, characterized by significant class differences and disparities of income and wealth that could make re-introducing the jury system problematic. Arguments for and against the re-introduction of a jury system have been discussed by South African constitutional expert Professor Pierre de Vos in the article "Do we need a jury system? '' On 28 March 2014, the Oscar Pistorius trial was adjourned due to the illness of one of the two assessors that assist the judge on questions of fact (rather than law), in place of the jury, to reach a verdict. The legal system in the UK sees no reason to block extradition on this, as witnessed in the Shrien Dewani case.
In Sweden, juries are uncommon; the public is represented in the courts by means of lay judges (nämndemän). However, the defendant has the right to a jury trial in the lower court (tingsrätt) when accused of an offense against the fundamental laws on freedom of expression and freedom of the press. If a person is accused of e.g. libel or incitement to ethnic or racial hatred, in a medium covered by the fundamental laws (e.g. a printed paper or a radio programme), she has the right to have the accusation tried by a jury of nine jurors. This applies also in civil (tort) cases under the fundamental laws. A majority of at least six jurors must find that the defendant has committed the alleged crime. If it does not, the defendant is acquitted or, in a civil case, held not liable. If such a majority of the jurors hold that said crime has in fact been committed, this finding is not legally binding for the court; thus, the court (three judges) can still acquit the defendant or find him / her not liable. A jury acquittal may not be overruled after appeal. In Swedish civil process, the "English rule '' applies to court costs. Earlier, a court disagreeing with a jury acquittal could, when deciding on the matter of such costs, set aside the English rule, and instead use the American rule, that each party bears its own expense of litigation. This practice was declared to violate the rule of presumption of innocence according to article 6.2. of the European Convention on Human Rights, by the Supreme Court of Sweden, in 2012.
As of 2008, only the code of criminal procedure of the Canton of Geneva provides for genuine jury trials. Several other cantons -- Vaud, Neuchâtel, Zürich and Ticino -- provide for courts composed of both professional judges and laymen (Schöffengerichte / tribunaux d'échevins). Because the unified Swiss Code of Criminal Procedure (set to enter into force in 2011) does not provide for jury trials or lay judges, however, they are likely to be abolished in the near future.
The United Kingdom consists of three separate legal jurisdictions, but there are some features common to all of them. In particular there is seldom anything like the U.S. voir dire system; jurors are usually just accepted without question. Controversially, in England there has been some screening in sensitive security cases, but the Scottish courts have firmly set themselves against any form of jury vetting.
In England and Wales (which have the same legal system), everyone accused of an offence which carries more than six months imprisonment has a right to trial by jury. Minor ("Summary only '') criminal cases are heard without a jury in the Magistrates ' Courts. Middle - ranking ("triable either way '') offences may be tried by magistrates or the defendant may elect trial by jury in the Crown Court. Serious ("indictable '') offences, however, must be tried before a jury in the Crown Court. Juries sit in a few civil cases, in particular, defamation and cases involving the state. Juries also sit in coroner 's courts for more contentious inquests. All criminal juries consist of 12 jurors, those in a County Court having 8 jurors and Coroner 's Court juries having between 7 and 11 members. Jurors must be between 18 -- 75 years of age, and are selected at random from the register of voters. In the past a unanimous verdict was required. This has been changed so that, if the jury fails to agree after a given period, at the discretion of the judge they may reach a verdict by a 10 - 2 majority. This was designed to make it more difficult for jury tampering to succeed.
In 1999 the then Home Secretary Jack Straw introduced a controversial bill to limit the right to trial by jury. This became the Criminal Justice Act 2003, which sought to remove the right to trial by jury for cases involving jury tampering or complex fraud. The provision for trial without jury to circumvent jury tampering succeeded and came into force in 2007, the provision for complex fraud cases was defeated. Lord Goldsmith, the then Attorney General, then pressed forward with the Fraud (Trials Without a Jury) Bill in Parliament, which sought to abolish jury trials in major criminal fraud trials. The Bill was subject to sharp criticism from both sides of the House of Commons before passing its second Commons reading in November 2006, but was defeated in the Lords in March 2007.
The trial for the first serious offence to be tried without a jury for 350 years was allowed to go ahead in 2009. Three previous trials of the defendants had been halted because of jury tampering, and the Lord Chief Justice, Lord Judge, cited cost and the additional burden on the jurors as reasons to proceed without a jury. Previously in cases where jury tampering was a concern the jurors were sometimes closeted in a hotel for the duration of the trial. However, Liberty director of policy Isabella Sankey said that "This is a dangerous precedent. The right to jury trial is n't just a hallowed principle but a practice that ensures that one class of people do n't sit in judgement over another and the public have confidence in an open and representative justice system.
The trial started in 2010, with the four defendants convicted on the 31st of March 2010 by Mr Justice Treacy at the Old Bailey.
In Scots law the jury system has some similarities with England but some important differences, in particular there are juries of 15 in criminal trials, with verdicts by simple majority.
In Northern Ireland, the role of the jury trial is roughly similar to England and Wales, except that jury trials have been replaced in cases of alleged terrorist offences by courts where the judge sits alone, known as Diplock courts. Diplock courts are common in Northern Ireland for crimes connected to terrorism.
Diplock courts were created in the 1970s during The Troubles, to phase out Operation Demetrius internments, and because of the argument that juries were intimidated, though this is disputed. The Diplock courts were shut in 2007, but between 1 August 2008 and 31 July 2009, 13 non-jury trials were held, down from 29 in the previous year, and 300 trials per year at their peak.
The most outstanding feature in the United States is that verdicts in criminal cases must be unanimous.
Every person accused of a crime punishable by incarceration for more than six months has a constitutionally protected right to a trial by jury, which arises in federal court from Article Three of the United States Constitution, which states in part, "The Trial of all Crimes... shall be by Jury; and such Trial shall be held in the State where the said Crimes shall have been committed. '' The right was expanded with the Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which states in part, "In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the state and district wherein the crime shall have been committed. '' Both provisions were made applicable to the states through the Fourteenth Amendment. Most states ' constitutions also grant the right of trial by jury in lesser criminal matters, though most have abrogated that right in offenses punishable by fine only. The Supreme Court has ruled that if imprisonment is for six months or less, trial by jury is not required, meaning a state may choose whether or not to permit trial by jury in such cases. Under the Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure, if the defendant is entitled to a jury trial, he may waive his right to have a jury, but both the government (prosecution) and court must consent to the waiver. Several states require jury trials for all crimes, "petty '' or not.
In the cases Apprendi v. New Jersey, 530 U.S. 466 (2000), and Blakely v. Washington, 542 U.S. 296 (2004), the Supreme Court of the United States held that a criminal defendant has a right to a jury trial not only on the question of guilt or innocence, but any fact used to increase the defendant 's sentence beyond the maximum otherwise allowed by statutes or sentencing guidelines. This invalidated the procedure in many states and the federal courts that allowed sentencing enhancement based on "a preponderance of evidence '', where enhancement could be based on the judge 's findings alone. Depending upon the state, a jury must be unanimous for either a guilty or not guilty decision. A hung jury results in the defendants release, however charges against the defendant are not dropped and can be reinstated if the state so chooses.
Jurors in some states are selected through voter registration and drivers ' license lists. A form is sent to prospective jurors to pre-qualify them by asking the recipient to answer questions about citizenship, disabilities, ability to understand the English language, and whether they have any conditions that would excuse them from being a juror. If they are deemed qualified, a summons is issued.
English common law and the United States Constitution recognize the right to a jury trial to be a fundamental civil liberty or civil right that allows the accused to choose whether to be judged by judges or a jury.
In the United States, it is understood that juries usually weigh the evidence and testimony to determine questions of fact, while judges usually rule on questions of law, although the dissenting justices in the Supreme Court case Sparf et al. v. U.S. 156 U.S. 51 (1895), generally considered the pivotal case concerning the rights and powers of the jury, declared: "It is our deep and settled conviction, confirmed by a re-examination of the authorities that the jury, upon the general issue of guilty or not guilty in a criminal case, have the right, as well as the power, to decide, according to their own judgment and consciences, all questions, whether of law or of fact, involved in that issue. '' Jury determination of questions of law, sometimes called jury nullification, can not be overturned by a judge if doing so would violate legal protections against double jeopardy. Although a judge can throw out a guilty verdict if it was not supported by the evidence, a jurist has no authority to override a verdict that favors a defendant.
It was established in Bushel 's Case that a judge can not order the jury to convict, no matter how strong the evidence is. In civil cases a special verdict can be given, but in criminal cases a general verdict is rendered, because requiring a special verdict could apply pressure to the jury, and because of the jury 's historic function of tempering rules of law by common sense brought to bear upon the facts of a specific case. For this reason, Justice Black and Justice Douglas indicated their disapproval of special interrogatories even in civil cases.
There has been much debate about the advantages and disadvantages of the jury system, the competence or lack thereof of jurors as fact - finders, and the uniformity or capriciousness of the justice they administer. The jury has been described by one author as "an exciting and gallant experiment in the conduct of serious human affairs ''. Because they are fact - finders, juries are sometimes expected to perform a role similar to a lie detector, especially when presented with testimony from witnesses.
A civil jury is typically made up of 6 to 12 persons. In a civil case, the role of the jury is to listen to the evidence presented at a trial, to decide whether the defendant injured the plaintiff or otherwise failed to fulfill a legal duty to the plaintiff, and to determine what the compensation or penalty should be.
A criminal jury is usually made up of 12 members, though fewer may sit on cases involving lesser offenses. Criminal juries decide whether the defendant committed the crime as charged. The sentence may be set by either the jury or the judge; generally, in felony cases the jury sets punishment while in lesser offenses it may be set by the judge.
Verdicts in criminal cases must be unanimous, with the following exceptions: Currently, two states, Oregon and Louisiana, do not require unanimous verdicts in criminal cases. Each requires a 10 -- 2 majority for conviction, except for capital crimes: Oregon requires unanimous verdicts for guilty to any murder case and Louisiana requires all 12. But in Oregon, unlike any other state, a Not Guilty verdict may be reached in any case (murder included) by a vote of 10 to 2 or 11 to 1.
In civil cases, the law (or the agreement of the parties) may permit a non-unanimous verdict.
A jury 's deliberations are conducted in private, out of sight and hearing of the judge, litigants, witnesses, and others in the courtroom.
Not every case is eligible for a jury trial. In the majority of U.S. states, there is no right to a jury trial in family law actions not involving a termination of parental rights, such as divorce and custody modifications. Only eleven states allow juries in any aspect of divorce litigation (Colorado, Georgia, Illinois, Louisiana, Maine, Nevada, New York, North Carolina, Tennessee, Texas and Wisconsin). Most of these limit the right to a jury to try issues regarding grounds or entitlement for divorce only. Texas provides jury trial rights most broadly, including even the right to a jury trial on questions regarding child custody. However, anyone who is charged with a criminal offense, breach of contract or federal offence has a Constitutional right to a trial by jury.
In the United States, a civil action is a lawsuit; civil law is the branch of common law dealing with non-criminal actions. It should not be confused with legal system of civil law.
The right to trial by jury in a civil case in federal court is addressed by the Seventh Amendment. Importantly, however, the Seventh Amendment does not guarantee a right to a civil jury trial in state courts (although most state constitutions guarantee such a right). The Seventh Amendment provides: "In Suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise re-examined in any Court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law. '' In Joseph Story 's 1833 treatise Commentaries on the Constitution of the United States, he wrote, "(I) t is a most important and valuable amendment; and places upon the high ground of constitutional right the inestimable privilege of a trial by jury in civil cases, a privilege scarcely inferior to that in criminal cases, which is conceded by all to be essential to political and civil liberty. ''
The Seventh Amendment does not guarantee or create any right to a jury trial; rather, it preserves the right to jury trial in the federal courts that existed in 1791 at common law. In this context, common law means the legal environment the United States inherited from England. In England in 1791, civil actions were divided into actions at law and actions in equity. Actions at law had a right to a jury, actions in equity did not. Federal Rules of Civil Procedure Rule 2 says "(t) here is one form of action -- the civil action '', which abolishes the legal / equity distinction. Today, in actions that would have been "at law '' in 1791, there is a right to a jury; in actions that would have been "in equity '' in 1791, there is no right to a jury. However, Federal Rule of Civil Procedure 39 (c) allows a court to use one at its discretion. To determine whether the action would have been legal or equitable in 1791, one must first look at the type of action and whether such an action was considered "legal '' or "equitable '' at that time. Next, the relief being sought must be examined. Monetary damages alone were purely a legal remedy, and thus entitled to a jury. Non-monetary remedies such as injunctions, rescission, and specific performance were all equitable remedies, and thus up to the judge 's discretion, not a jury. In Beacon Theaters v. Westover, 359 U.S. 500 (1959), the US Supreme Court discussed the right to a jury, holding that when both equitable and legal claims are brought, the right to a jury trial still exists for the legal claim, which would be decided by a jury before the judge ruled on the equitable claim.
There is not a United States constitutional right under the Seventh Amendment to a jury trial in state courts, but in practice, almost every state except Louisiana, which has a civil law legal tradition, permits jury trials in civil cases in state courts on substantially the same basis that they are allowed under the Seventh Amendment in federal court. The right to a jury trial in civil cases does not extend to the states, except when a state court is enforcing a federally created right, of which the right to trial by jury is a substantial part.
The court determines the right to jury based on all claims by all parties involved. If the plaintiff brings only equitable claims but the defendant asserts counterclaims of law, the court grants a jury trial. In accordance with Beacon Theaters, the jury first determines the facts, then the judge enter judgment on the equitable claims.
Following the English tradition, U.S. juries have usually been composed of 12 jurors, and the jury 's verdict has usually been required to be unanimous. However, in many jurisdictions, the number of jurors is often reduced to a lesser number (such as five or six) by legislative enactment, or by agreement of both sides. Some jurisdictions also permit a verdict to be returned despite the dissent of one, two, or three jurors.
The vast majority of U.S. criminal cases are not concluded with a jury verdict, but rather by plea bargain. Both prosecutors and defendants often have a strong interest in resolving the criminal case by negotiation resulting in a plea bargain. If the defendant waives a jury trial, a bench trial is held.
For civil cases, a jury trial must be demanded within a certain period of time per Federal Rules of Civil Procedure 38.
In United States Federal courts, there is no absolute right to waive a jury trial. Per Federal Rule of Criminal Procedure 23 (a), only if the prosecution and the court consent may a defendant waive a jury trial for criminal cases. However, most states give the defendant the absolute right to waive a jury trial, and it has become commonplace to find such a waiver in routine contracts as a 2004 Wall Street Journal Article states:
' For years, in an effort to avoid the slow - moving wheels of the U.S. judicial system, many American companies have forced their customers and employees to agree to settle disputes outside of the courts, through private arbitration... but the rising cost of arbitration proceedings has led some companies to decide they might be better off in the court system after all (so long as) they do n't have to tangle with juries. The new tactic (is to) let disputes go to court, but on the condition that they be heard only by a judge. ' The article goes on to claim ' The list includes residential leases, checking - account agreements, auto loans and mortgage contracts. Companies that believe juries are biased toward plaintiffs hope this approach will boost their chances of winning in court. Critics say that unfairly denies citizens ' access to the full range of legal options guaranteed by the Constitution. '
In the years since this 2004 article, this practice has become pervasive in the US and, especially in online agreements, it has become commonplace to include such waivers to trial by jury in everything from user agreements attached to software downloads to merely browsing a website. This practice, however, means that while such waivers may have legal force in one jurisdiction -- in this case the United States -- in the jurisdiction where a verdict is sought in the absence of jury trial (or indeed the presence of a defendant, or any legal representation in absentia) may well run directly counter to law in the jurisdiction -- such as the United Kingdom -- where the defendant resides, thus:
The Judgment on Regina v Jones issued by the United Kingdom 's Court of Appeal 's (Criminal Division) states, (in part, in Item 55) '... the issue has to be determined by looking at the way in which the courts handled the problem under English criminal procedure and by deciding whether, in the result, the appellant can be said to have had a fair hearing. '
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who plays sheldon cooper's mother on the big bang theory | Laurie Metcalf - Wikipedia
Laura Elizabeth Metcalf (born June 16, 1955) is an American actress. The recipient of numerous acting awards and nominations, she has won three Primetime Emmy Awards, two Tony Awards, and has been nominated at the Golden Globe Awards and Academy Awards in her 30 + year career.
Metcalf began her career with the Steppenwolf Theater Company and frequently works in Chicago theater, including the 1983 revival of Balm in Gilead. From 1988 to 1997 and in 2018, Metcalf played the role of Jackie Harris on the ABC sitcom Roseanne, for which she won three Primetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series (1992 -- 1994). She also was nominated for two Golden Globe Awards. A ten - time Emmy Award nominee, Metcalf 's television credits include 3rd Rock from the Sun, The Norm Show, Frasier, Desperate Housewives, and The Big Bang Theory. From 2013 to 2015, she played a leading role of Dr. Jenna James in the HBO comedy series Getting On, for which she received critical acclaim and a nomination for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series.
For her stage performances and work on Broadway, Metcalf has received five Tony Award nominations, winning Best Actress in a Play in 2017 for her performance in A Doll 's House, Part 2 and Best Featured Actress in a Play for the 2018 revival of Edward Albee 's Three Tall Women. She starred as Mary Tyrone in a London production of Eugene O'Neill 's Long Day 's Journey into Night at the Apollo Theatre in 2012. She has also received a Theatre World Award and two Obie Awards for her Off - Broadway work.
Metcalf has starred in numerous films, including Desperately Seeking Susan (1985), Uncle Buck (1989), Internal Affairs (1990), Pacific Heights (1990), JFK (1991), A Dangerous Woman (1993), Leaving Las Vegas (1995), Dear God (1996), Scream 2 (1997), and Meet the Robinsons (2007). She also voiced the role of Mrs. Davis in the acclaimed Toy Story film series. In 2017, Metcalf received critical acclaim for her performance in Greta Gerwig 's comedy - drama film Lady Bird, for which she was nominated for an Academy Award, a Golden Globe Award, a SAG Award, and a BAFTA Award.
Metcalf was born in Carbondale, Illinois, the eldest of three children. She, her brother James and her sister Linda were raised in Edwardsville, Illinois, which she has said "is n't anywhere near a theatre. '' Her father, James, was the budget director at Southern Illinois University - Edwardsville at the time of his sudden death in 1984. Her mother, Libby, was a librarian. Her great - aunt was the Pulitzer Prize - winning playwright Zoë Akins. She is an alumna of Illinois State University, class of 1976.
Metcalf, who worked as a secretary while in college, said she thoroughly enjoyed seeing a pile of paper in the to - do box on one side of her desk move over to the completed side by the end of the day. She often zoned in on the task at hand and worked through lunch. She originally majored in German, thinking she could work as an interpreter, and then in Anthropology before accepting that majoring in Theatre was her true passion. She has said that theatre work also involves interpreting and studying human behavior. She has described herself as hideously shy, and yet she found the courage to audition for a few plays in high school and was "hooked. '' She initially did not choose acting as a career because it was unlikely to lead to regular work.
Metcalf attended Illinois State University and earned her Bachelor of Arts in Theater in 1976. While at ISU, she met fellow theater students, among them John Malkovich, Glenne Headly, Joan Allen, Terry Kinney, and Jeff Perry, the latter two of whom, along with Perry 's high school classmate Gary Sinise, went on to establish Chicago 's famed Steppenwolf Theatre Company. Metcalf began her professional career at Steppenwolf, of which she was a charter member. Metcalf went to New York to appear in an Off - Broadway Steppenwolf production of Balm in Gilead at Circle Repertory in 1984 for which she received the 1984 Obie Award for Best Actress and a 1984 -- 85 Theatre World Award (for best debut in a Broadway or Off - Broadway performance). Metcalf was praised for her performance as Darlene, and was specifically singled out for her twenty - minute act two monologue. Chicago critic Richard Christiansen said of her performance:
There 's a moment when Laurie Metcalf -- who plays this poor young thing that comes to the big city and hangs out at this greasy spoon diner where the play is set -- is talking about her once boyfriend who is an albino; I think it 's a monologue of about five, six, seven minutes. Just to sit there and watch and hear Laurie unspool that story, it just brought tears coming down your eyes -- oh, boy, it was something.
Metcalf relocated to New York City and began to work in both film and theater, including such productions as David Mamet 's November on Broadway in 2008.
Through June 2009, Metcalf starred with French Stewart in Justin Tanner 's play, Voice Lessons, in Hollywood before beginning rehearsals to play Kate Jerome in the Broadway revival of Neil Simon 's semi-autobiographical plays Brighton Beach Memoirs and Broadway Bound, directed by David Cromer. The former production 's run, however, lasted for 9 performances in October 2009, while the latter was canceled prior to opening.
Voice Lessons, however, with its original cast intact, went on to three more runs -- one Off - Broadway in May 2010, another in Hollywood in May 2011, and another in Chicago in May 2016.
In September 2010, Metcalf returned to Steppenwolf and starred in Lisa D'Amour 's play, Detroit.
In March 2011, she appeared Off - Broadway in The Other Place by Sharr White. She won the 2011 Lucille Lortel Award, Outstanding Lead Actress, and the 2011 Obie Award, Performance for The Other Place.
In 2012, Metcalf joined David Suchet in a West End production of Eugene O'Neill 's Long Day 's Journey into Night, for which she was nominated for the Evening Standard Theatre Award for Best Actress.
The Other Place transferred to Broadway in 2013, with Metcalf reprising her role and earning Tony and Drama League nominations. She starred with her real - life daughter, Zoe Perry.
In October 2013, Metcalf performed with Jeff Goldblum in Domesticated, by Bruce Norris at the Off - Broadway Mitzi Newhouse Theater of Lincoln Center. She was nominated for the 2014 Lucille Lortel Award, Outstanding Lead Actress in a Play; the 2014 Drama League Award, Distinguished Performance; and the 2014 Drama Desk Award, Outstanding Actress in a Play for Domesticated.
She was then cast in the role of Annie Wilkes in the Broadway production of Stephen King 's Misery, opposite Bruce Willis. The play premiered on November 15, 2015. It received mixed reviews from critics, however Metcalf 's performance was widely acclaimed. She was nominated for the Tony Award for Best Actress in a Play, her third Tony nomination overall.
Metcalf returned to Broadway in A Doll 's House, Part 2 by Lucas Hnath, which opened in April 2017. She received critical acclaim for her performance and earned nominations for the Tony Award for Best Actress in a Play, the Drama Desk Award, the Drama League Award for Distinguished Performance, and the Outer Critics Circle Award, winning the Tony Award.
Metcalf returned to Broadway in the 2018 revival of Three Tall Women. She won her second consecutive Tony Award, this time for Best Featured Actress in a Play.
Metcalf has performed in roles that range from very large to very small in many films, including Desperately Seeking Susan (1985), Making Mr. Right, Miles from Home, Internal Affairs, Stars and Bars, Beer League, Mistress, A Dangerous Woman, Uncle Buck, Blink, The Secret Life of Houses, Treasure Planet, Toy Story, Runaway Bride, Bulworth, Meet the Robinsons, Georgia Rule, Fun with Dick and Jane, Leaving Las Vegas, Scream 2, Stop Loss, and Hop.
Metcalf has often appeared against type in both film and television; in JFK (1991), she played a dramatic role as one of Jim Garrison 's chief investigators. She appeared as the murderous mother of Billy Loomis in the horror film Scream 2 (1997); and portrayed real - life Carolyn McCarthy in the television movie The Long Island Incident (1998).
Metcalf has appeared in several television series, including being a cast member for a single episode of Saturday Night Live -- the final episode of the show 's tumultuous 1980 -- 1981 season. In 1981, she appeared as a feature player on the first Dick Ebersol - produced episode of Saturday Night Live following the firing of Jean Doumanian. She appeared in a Weekend Update segment about taking a bullet for the President of the United States. Because of the sketch show 's severe decline in quality at the time and the 1981 Writers Guild of America strike, the show was put on hiatus for retooling. Metcalf was never asked back to be a cast member.
Metcalf is perhaps best known for her role as Jackie Harris, the multiple - careered, low self - esteemed, amiable sister of the title character, in the hit series Roseanne. Her performance garnered three consecutive Emmy Awards. Roseanne originally ran from 1988 to 1997. On April 28, 2017, it was announced that a revival of Roseanne was in the works and that Metcalf along with most of the original cast and some of the producers would return for the limited series that was being shopped around with ABC and Netflix the frontrunners to land the show. On May 16, 2017 it was confirmed that eight episodes would air mid-season in 2018 on ABC. On May 29, 2018, in the wake of racist remarks made by Barr on Twitter regarding Valerie Jarrett (an advisor of former president Barack Obama), ABC cancelled the revival after a single season. Metcalf appeared as Jackie over the show 's entire run.
She subsequently appeared with Norm Macdonald on The Norm Show (or Norm), which ran for three seasons (1999 -- 2001), and was also a regular character on the 2003 Nathan Lane series Charlie Lawrence, which was cancelled after the airing of two episodes. Metcalf has made guest appearances on Absolutely Fabulous, Malcolm in the Middle, My Boys, Dharma & Greg, Frasier, The Big Bang Theory, Without a Trace, 3rd Rock from the Sun, and Monk. She was nominated for the Emmy Award as Outstanding Guest Actress In A Comedy Series for both of the latter two listed roles.
Metcalf took a recurring role on Desperate Housewives -- for which she received Emmy (also in the category Outstanding Guest Actress In A Comedy Series) and Satellite Award nominations -- and also appeared alongside her ex-husband Jeff Perry in an episode of Grey 's Anatomy. In fall 2008, Metcalf starred in the CW dramedy Easy Money, as the matriarch of a family of loan sharks. The series was canceled after three episodes.
Metcalf starred in HBO comedy series Getting On during its run from 2013 -- 15. Alongside this role, she was the lead actress in the short - lived CBS sitcom The McCarthys (2014 -- 15).
In 2017, Metcalf received critical acclaim for her performance in Lady Bird, a comedy - drama film directed by Greta Gerwig. For her performance, she was nominated for numerous awards, including the Golden Globe Award, the SAG Award, and the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress.
In 1983, Metcalf married Jeff Perry, co-founding member of Steppenwolf Theatre Company. They had a daughter, Zoe Perry, in 1984, and later divorced, in 1992.
Metcalf later began a relationship with Matt Roth, the Roseanne co-star who played her abusive boyfriend, Fisher. By November 1993 they had a son, Will, and eventually married. They also worked together on occasion, as in the 1994 feature film thriller Blink and the 1998 drama Chicago Cab; they also appeared together in an episode of Desperate Housewives. Their daughter, Mae Akins, was born in 2005 via surrogate. They had a second son, Donovan, whom they fostered at six years old in 2006 and permanently adopted. On November 26, 2008, Metcalf and Roth separated. In September 2011, Roth filed for divorce, citing irreconcilable differences. In May 2014, the divorce was finalized.
Metcalf has self - disclosed as a workaholic and that she is hard on herself during rehearsals. She has often said that she prefers theatre to any acting medium as it is where she feels most comfortable.
She has also appeared in commercials for Plan USA, a humanitarian organization which helps children in need around the world.
Sources: TCM; Film Reference; Rotten Tomatoes; AllMovie
Sources: Film Reference; Rotten Tomatoes; AllMovie
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who is the only sportsperson to have been awarded india's highest civilian award bharat ratna | Bharat Ratna - wikipedia
1954
2015
The Bharat Ratna (Hindi pronunciation: (bhaːrət̪ rət̪nə); Jewel of India) is the highest civilian award of the Republic of India. Instituted in 1954, the award is conferred "in recognition of exceptional service / performance of the highest order '', without distinction of race, occupation, position, or sex. The award was originally limited to achievements in the arts, literature, science, and public services, but the government expanded the criteria to include "any field of human endeavour '' in December 2011. The recommendations for the Bharat Ratna are made by the Prime Minister to the President, with a maximum of three nominees being awarded per year. Recipients receive a Sanad (certificate) signed by the President and a peepal - leaf -- shaped medallion; there is no monetary grant associated with the award. Bharat Ratna recipients rank seventh in the Indian order of precedence.
The first recipients of the Bharat Ratna were politician C. Rajagopalachari, philosopher Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, and scientist C.V. Raman, who were honoured in 1954. Since then, the award has been bestowed upon 45 individuals, including 12 who were awarded posthumously. The original statutes did not provide for posthumous awards but were amended in January 1955 to permit them. Former Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri became the first individual to be honoured posthumously. In 2014, cricketer Sachin Tendulkar, then aged 40, became the youngest recipient; while social reformer Dhondo Keshav Karve was awarded on his 100th birthday. Though usually conferred on India - born citizens, the Bharat Ratna has been awarded to one naturalised citizen, Mother Teresa, and to two non-Indians, Pakistan national Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan and former South African President Nelson Mandela. On 24 December 2014, the Indian government announced the award to independence activist Madan Mohan Malaviya (posthumously) and former Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee.
The Bharat Ratna, along with other personal civil honours, was briefly suspended from July 1977 to January 1980, during the change in the national government; and for a second time from August 1992 to December 1995, when several public - interest litigations challenged the constitutional validity of the awards. In 1992, the government 's decision to confer the award posthumously on Subhash Chandra Bose was opposed by those who had refused to accept the fact of his death, including some members of his extended family. Following a 1997 Supreme Court decision, the press communiqué announcing Bose 's award was cancelled; it is the only time when the award was announced but not conferred.
Several bestowals of the award have met with criticism. The posthumous award for M.G. Ramachandran (1988) was considered to have been aimed at placating the voters for the upcoming assembly election and posthumous awards of Madan Mohan Malaviya (2015) and Vallabhbhai Patel (1991) drew criticism for they died before the award was instituted.
On 2 January 1954, a press communiqué was released from the office of the secretary to the President announcing the creation of two civilian awards -- Bharat Ratna, the highest civilian award, and the three - tier Padma Vibhushan, classified into "Pahela Warg '' (Class I), "Dusra Warg '' (Class II), and "Tisra Warg '' (Class III), which rank below the Bharat Ratna. On 15 January 1955, the Padma Vibhushan was reclassified into three different awards; the Padma Vibhushan, the highest of the three, followed by the Padma Bhushan and the Padma Shri.
There is no formal provision that recipients of the Bharat Ratna should be Indian citizens. It has been awarded to a naturalised Indian citizen, Mother Teresa in 1980, and to two non-Indians, Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan of Pakistan in 1987 and the former South African president Nelson Mandela in 1990. Sachin Tendulkar, at the age of 40, became the youngest person and first athlete to receive the honour. In a special ceremony on 18 April 1958, Dhondo Keshav Karve was awarded on his 100th birthday. As of 2015, the award has been conferred upon 45 people with 12 posthumous declarations.
The award was briefly suspended twice in its history. The first suspension occurred after Morarji Desai was sworn in as the fourth Prime Minister in 1977. His government withdrew all personal civil honours on 13 July 1977. The suspension was rescinded on 25 January 1980, after Indira Gandhi became the Prime Minister. The civilian awards were suspended again in mid-1992, when two Public - Interest Litigations were filed, one in the Kerala High Court and another in the Madhya Pradesh High Court, challenging the "constitutional validity '' of the awards. The awards were reintroduced by the Supreme Court in December 1995, following the conclusion of the litigation.
The Bharat Ratna is conferred "in recognition of exceptional service / performance of the highest order '', without distinction of race, occupation, position, or sex. The award was originally confined to the arts, literature, science, and public services, as per the 1954 regulations. In December 2011, the rules were changed to include "any field of human endeavour ''. The 1954 statutes did not allow posthumous awards, but this was subsequently modified in the January 1955 statute, and Lal Bahadur Shastri became the first recipient to be honoured posthumously in 1966.
Although there is no formal nomination process, recommendations for the award can only be made by the Prime Minister to the President with a maximum number of three nominees being awarded per year. However, in 1999, four individuals were awarded the honour. The recipient receives a Sanad (certificate) signed by the President and a medallion without any monetary grant. Under the terms of Article 18 (1) of the Constitution, the recipients can not use the award as a prefix or suffix to their name, although recipients may use either the expressions "Awarded Bharat Ratna by the President '' or "Recipient of Bharat Ratna Award '' to indicate that they have been honoured with the award. The holders of the Bharat Ratna rank seventh in the Indian order of precedence.
As with many official announcements, recipients are announced and registered in The Gazette of India, a publication released by the Department of Publication, Ministry of Urban Development used for official government notices; without publication in the Gazette, conferral of the award is not considered official. Recipients whose awards have been revoked or restored, both of which require the authority of the President, are registered in the Gazette. Recipients whose awards have been revoked are required to surrender their medals, and their names are struck from the register.
The original 1954 specifications of the award was a circle made of gold 1 ⁄ inches (35 mm) in diameter with a centred sun burst design on the obverse side. The text "Bharat Ratna '', in Devanagari Script, is inscribed on the upper edge in silver gilt with a wreath set along on the lower edge. A platinum State Emblem of India was placed in the centre of the reverse side with the national motto, "Satyameva Jayate '' (Truth alone triumphs) in Devanagari Script, inscribed in silver - gilt on the lower edge.
A year later, the design was modified. The current medal is in the shape of a peepal leaf, approximately 2 ⁄ inches (59 mm) long, 1 ⁄ inches (48 mm) wide and ⁄ inch (3.2 mm) thick and rimmed in platinum. The embossed sun burst design, made of platinum, on the obverse side of the medal has a diameter of ⁄ inch (16 mm) with rays spreading out from ⁄ inch (21 mm) to ⁄ inch (13 mm) from the center of the Sun. The words "Bharat Ratna '' on the obverse side remained the same as the 1954 design as did the emblem of India and "Satyameva Jayate '' on the reverse side. A 2 - inch - wide (51 mm) white ribbon is attached to the medal so it can be worn around the neck. In 1957, the silver - gilt decoration was changed to burnished bronze. The Bharat Ratna medals are produced at Alipore Mint, Kolkata along with the other civilian and military awards like Padma Vibushan, Padma Bhushan, Padma Shri, and Param Veer Chakra.
The Bharat Ratna has been surrounded by several controversies and multiple Public - Interest Litigations (PIL) had been filed against the conferral of the award.
On 23 January 1992, a press release was published by the President 's Secretariat to confer the award posthumously on Subhash Chandra Bose. The decision triggered much criticism and a PIL was filed in the Calcutta High Court to revoke the award. The petitioner took objection to the conferral of the award and its posthumous mention of Bose, saying that honouring a personality higher than the award is "ridiculous '', and it was an act of "carelessness '' to classify such a person with past and future recipients. It said that the award can not be conferred to Bose posthumously as the Government had not officially accepted his death on 18 August 1945. The petitioner requested the whereabouts of Bose from 18 August 1945 till date, based on the information collected by the 1956 Shah Nawaz Committee and the 1970 Khosla Commission. Bose 's family members expressed their unwillingness to accept the award.
To deliver the judgement, the Supreme Court formed a Special Division Bench with Judge Sujata V. Manohar and G.B. Pattanaik. The Solicitor General noted that to confer the award per the appropriate regulations pertaining to the Bharat Ratna, Padma Vibhushan, Padma Bhushan, and Padma Shri, the name of the recipient must be published in The Gazette of India and entered in the recipients register maintained under the direction of the President. It was noted that only an announcement had been made by press communiqué, but the government had not proceeded to confer the award by publishing the name in the Gazette and entering the name in the register. Furthermore, the then presidents, R. Venkataraman (1987 -- 92) and Shankar Dayal Sharma (1992 -- 97), had not conferred a Sanad (certificate) with their signature and seal.
On 4 August 1997, the Supreme Court delivered an order that since the award had not been officially conferred, it can not be revoked and declared that the press communiqué be treated as cancelled. The court declined to pass any judgement on the posthumous mention of Bose and his death.
In 1992, two PILs were filed in the High Courts; one in the Kerala High Court on 13 February 1992 by Balaji Raghavan and another in the Madhya Pradesh High Court (Indore Bench) on 24 August 1992 by Satya Pal Anand. Both petitioners questioned the civilian awards being "Titles '' per an interpretation of Article 18 (1) of the Constitution. On 25 August 1992, the Madhya Pradesh High Court issued a notice temporarily suspending all civilian awards. A Special Division Bench of the Supreme Court was formed comprising five judges; A.M. Ahmadi C.J., Kuldip Singh, B.P. Jeevan Reddy, N.P. Singh, and S. Saghir Ahmad. On 15 December 1995, the Special Division Bench restored the awards and delivered a judgement that the "Bharat Ratna and Padma awards are not titles under Article 18 of the Constitution ''.
Following the announcement, in November 2013, that C.N.R. Rao and Sachin Tendulkar were to be awarded the Bharat Ratna, multiple PILs were filed challenging the conferring of the award. The PIL filed against Rao declared that other Indian scientists, such as Homi Bhabha and Vikram Sarabhai, had contributed more than Rao and his claim of publishing 1400 research papers was "physically impossible ''. The suit stated that as Rao had proven cases of plagiarism, he should not be presented with the award but rather should be annulled. The PIL filed against Tendulkar to the Election Commission under the Right to Information Act indicated that the awarding him the Bharat Ratna was a violation of the model code of conduct. The petitioner noted that as Tendulkar was an Indian National Congress nominated Member of Rajya Sabha, the decision to award him the Bharat Ratna would influence the voters of Delhi, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, and Mizoram where the election process was underway at the time. Another PIL was filed against Tendulkar and a few ministers, "alleging a conspiracy to ignore '' an Indian field hockey player Dhyan Chand. ''
On 4 December 2013, the Election Commission rejected the petition stating that conferring the award on people from non-polling states did not amount to a violation of the code. Other High Courts as well rejected the petitions raised against Rao and Tendulkar.
In 1988, then Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi (1984 -- 89) conferred the Bharat Ratna posthumously on film actor and former Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu, M.G. Ramachandran, in a bid to influence voters prior to the Tamil Nadu assembly elections in 1989. The decision was criticised for awarding Ramachandran before independence activist B.R. Ambedkar and Vallabhbhai Patel, who were bestowed the honour in 1990 and 1991 respectively. While Ravi Shankar was accused of lobbying for the award, the decision by Indira Gandhi to posthumously honour K. Kamaraj was considered to have been aimed at placating Tamil voters for the Tamil Nadu assembly elections in 1977. The seventh Prime Minister V.P. Singh was criticised for posthumously honouring B.R. Ambedkar to please Dalits.
The posthumous conferments of the award on the recipients who died before the Indian independence in 1947 or the award was instituted in 1954 have been criticised by historians. It was noted that such conferments could lead to more demands to honour people like Maurya Emperor Ashoka, Mughal Emperor Akbar, Maratha Emperor Shivaji, Nobel Laureate Rabindranath Tagore, Hindu spiritualist Swami Vivekananda, and independence activist Bal Gangadhar Tilak. The then Prime Minister P.V. Narasimha Rao (1991 -- 96) was criticised for bestowing the award upon Vallabhbhai Patel in 1991, 41 years after his death in 1950; and upon Subhas Chandra Bose in 1992, who went missing since 18 August 1945. Similarly in 2015, the incumbent Prime Minister Narendra Modi 's decision to award Madan Mohan Malaviya, who died in 1946, met with criticism. Janardan Dwivedi, politician of the Indian National Congress, said that Malaviya, who worked predominantly in Varanasi, was "deliberately chosen '' by the Prime Minister Modi, who is the incumbent Member of Parliament from Varanasi.
A few of the conferments have been criticised for honouring personalities only after they received global recognition. The award for Mother Teresa was announced in 1980, a year after she was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. Satyajit Ray received an Academy Honorary Award in 1992 followed by the Bharat Ratna the same year. In 1999, Amartya Sen was awarded the Bharat Ratna, a year after his 1998 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences. The award was proposed by President K.R. Narayanan to Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee who agreed to the proposal.
Though, as per the statutes for the Bharat Ratna, the recommendations for the award can only be made by the Prime Minister to the President, there have been several demands from various political parties to honour their leaders. In January 2008, Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) leader L.K. Advani wrote to the then Prime Minister Manmohan Singh recommending Singh 's predecessor Atal Bihari Vajpayee for the award. This was immediately followed by the Communist Party of India (Marxist) lobbying for their leader, Jyoti Basu, former Chief Minister of West Bengal. Basu, India 's longest - serving chief minister, said that he would decline the honour, even if awarded. Similar demands were made by Telugu Desam Party, Bahujan Samaj Party, and Shiromani Akali Dal for their respective leaders N.T. Rama Rao, Kanshi Ram, and Parkash Singh Badal. In September 2015, regional political party Shiv Sena demanded the award for the independence activist Vinayak Damodar Savarkar stating that he had been "deliberately neglected by previous governments '' but his family clarified that they are not making such demand and that the freedom fighter is known for his contribution towards independence movement and did not need an award for recognition.
Per the original statutes, sportspersons were not eligible for the Bharat Ratna; however, a revision of the rules in December 2011 made eligible "any field of human endeavour ''. Subsequently, several sportspersons ' names were discussed; among the most talked - about of these was field - hockey player Dhyan Chand, who was recommended multiple times for the posthumous honour. In 2011, 82 members of parliament recommended Chand 's name for the award to the Prime Minister 's Office. In January 2012, the Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports forwarded his name again, this time along with 2008 Summer Olympics gold medallist shooter Abhinav Bindra and mountaineer Tenzing Norgay. Bindra had earlier been recommended for the award in May 2013 by the National Rifle Association of India. In July 2013, the ministry again recommended Dhyan Chand. However, in November 2013, cricketer Sachin Tendulkar became the first sports - person to receive the honour and this garnered much criticism for the government.
A PIL was filed in the Karnataka High Court where in the petitioner requested the court to issue a direction to the Ministry of Home Affairs to consider their representation dated 26 October 2012 and confer the Bharat Ratna upon Mahatma Gandhi. On 27 January 2014, a counsel appearing for the petitioner noted that after multiple representations from the petitioner, they were provided with the information under RTI that the recommendations to confer the award on Gandhi have been received multiple times in the past and were forwarded to the Prime Minister 's Office. A Division bench comprising Chief Justice D.H. Waghela and Justice B.V. Nagarathna dismissed the petition stating that the subject is not amenable to any adjudication process and the nominations and conferment process is stated to be informal and in the discretion of the highest authority in the Government.
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what is the point of xavier renegade angel | Xavier: Renegade Angel - wikipedia
Xavier: Renegade Angel is an American CGI surrealist dark comedy - fantasy television series created by PFFR. Vernon Chatman and John Lee are also the creators of Wonder Showzen. The show was produced by PFFR, with animation by Cinematico. It premiered at midnight on November 4, 2007 on Adult Swim, and November 1, 2007 on the Adult Swim website.
Xavier features a style characterized by a nonlinear, incoherent plot following the humorous musings of an itinerant humanoid pseudo-shaman and spiritual seeker named Xavier. The show is known for its ubiquitous use of ideologically critical black comedy, surrealist and absurdist humor presented through a psychedelic and satirically New Age lens.
Xavier: Renegade Angel premiered on November 4, 2007 and ended on April 16, 2009, with a total of 20 episodes.
The computer - generated animation of Xavier: Renegade Angel resembles that of video games such as Second Life and The Sims. The show features ribald wordplay, nonchalant violence and transgressive sexuality, in deeply nested, often recursive plots. These plots are often very nonlinear in their chronology; however, each episode seems to contain similar themes and motifs, as well as a single opening scene that has recurred in every episode of Xavier: a depiction of the titular character wandering through a desert (possibly a reference to the 1970s television program Kung Fu) as he narrates a semi-spontaneous, often nonsensical philosophical thought that many times connects with the episode at hand, whilst the title card of the show itself flies overhead, usually varying in action or position. An opening theme presumed to be played by Xavier on his "shakashuri '' is present during these.
Co-creator Vernon Chatman called the show "a warning to children and adults about the dangers of spirituality ''. The show has been known to mock Christianity, Islam, Middle America, redneck stereotypes, and anarcho - punk subcultures.
Xavier often incorporates underlying themes and concepts based outside of, though interconnected with, the plot of each episode. Philosophical or political concepts are often juxtaposed with the surrealistic and aleatory nature of the show. Society and cultural psychology and phenomena, the meaning of life, the existence of sentience and the nature of reality have been examined in one form or another throughout the program 's 2 seasons.
Jokes and humor tend to be oriented towards Xavier 's own philosophical inquiry and the "deep, '' "zen - like '' diction of wisdom quotes from various spiritual systems (particularly Native American and Hindu or Eastern spirituality) that Xavier seemingly attempts to mimic. These are many times lightly mocked with Xavier 's misuse of the phrases, reflecting on contemporary humor and taking the often circular logic of such statements far out of context.
"Taboo '' topics such as necrophilia, bestiality, homophobia, abortion, pedophilia, Incest, self - injury, and racism may be hinted at, with Xavier ignorantly making light of such situations when trying to carry on conversation or simply speak to others. As well, racial and other epithets are frequently used by Xavier in a spontaneous and often non-meaningful way. In these aspects of Xavier: Renegade Angel, the program could be seen as containing a substantial amount of black comedy.
Adult Swim released the series on DVD in America on November 10, 2009. Madman Entertainment released the series on DVD on Region 4 in Australia on February 10, 2010. It is rated MA15+ for strong themes, violence and sexual references. In addition to being available on DVD, the entire series is also available on iTunes.
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who plays blake on orange is the new black | Brad William Henke - wikipedia
Brad William Henke (born April 10, 1966) is an American actor and former National Football League and Arena Football League player. He is best known for his role as prison guard Desi Piscatella on Orange Is The New Black, for which he won the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series in 2016.
Henke was born in Columbus, Nebraska. He attended the University of Arizona and played football as a defensive lineman.
Henke was drafted by the New York Giants in the 1989 NFL Draft but got cut. He was picked up by the Denver Broncos, and he played in Super Bowl XXIV against the San Francisco 49ers. Repeated injuries, which required six ankle surgeries, led to his retirement from professional football in 1994.
Henke began acting in 1994, starting with commercials. He appeared in October Road, Around June, The Amateurs, World Trade Center, In the Valley of Elah, Choke, Sherrybaby, Must Love Dogs and Fury.
His television career includes roles in ARLI $ $, ER, Dexter, Lost, Justified, The Office (American version), Orange Is The New Black, Sneaky Pete & MacGyver (2016)..
Henke 's breakout role has been on Orange Is The New Black as Desi Piscatella, a gay corrections officer at Litchfield Federal Penitentiary. He joined OITNB in the fourth season. He was part of the cast that won the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series for 2016.
Henke was married to actress Katelin Chesna from 2001 to 2008.
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who votes players into the baseball hall of fame | National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum - wikipedia
The National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum is an American history museum and hall of fame, located in Cooperstown, New York, and operated by private interests. It serves as the central point for the study of the history of baseball in the United States and beyond, displays baseball - related artifacts and exhibits, and honors those who have excelled in playing, managing, and serving the sport. The Hall 's motto is "Preserving History, Honoring Excellence, Connecting Generations. ''
The word Cooperstown is often used as shorthand (or a metonym) for the National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum.
The Hall of Fame was established in 1939 by Stephen Carlton Clark, the owner of a local hotel. Clark had sought to bring tourists to a city hurt by the Great Depression, which reduced the local tourist trade, and Prohibition, which devastated the local hops industry. A new building was constructed, and the Hall of Fame was dedicated on June 12, 1939. (Clark 's granddaughter, Jane Forbes Clark, is the current chairman of the Board of Directors.)
The erroneous claim that Civil War hero Abner Doubleday invented baseball in Cooperstown was instrumental in the early marketing of the Hall.
An expanded library and research facility opened in 1994. Dale Petroskey became the organization 's president in 1999.
In 2002, the Hall launched Baseball As America, a traveling exhibit that toured ten American museums over six years. The Hall of Fame has since also sponsored educational programming on the Internet to bring the Hall of Fame to schoolchildren who might not visit. The Hall and Museum completed a series of renovations in spring 2005. The Hall of Fame also presents an annual exhibit at FanFest at the Major League Baseball All - Star Game.
Jeff Idelson replaced Petroskey as president on April 16, 2008. He had been acting as president since March 25, 2008, when Petroskey was forced to resign for having "failed to exercise proper fiduciary responsibility '' and making "judgments that were not in the best interest of the National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum. ''
Among baseball fans, "Hall of Fame '' means not only the museum and facility in Cooperstown, New York, but the pantheon of players, managers, umpires, executives, and pioneers who have been enshrined in the Hall. The first five men elected were Ty Cobb, Babe Ruth, Honus Wagner, Christy Mathewson and Walter Johnson, chosen in 1936; roughly 20 more were selected before the entire group was inducted at the Hall 's 1939 opening. As of January 2018, 323 people had been elected to the Hall of Fame, including 226 former Major League Baseball players, 35 Negro league baseball players and executives, 22 managers, 10 umpires, and 30 pioneers, executives, and organizers. 114 members of the Hall of Fame have been inducted posthumously, including four who died after their selection was announced. Of the 35 Negro league members, 29 were inducted posthumously, including all 24 selected since the 1990s. The Hall of Fame includes one female member, Effa Manley.
The newest members elected on January 24, 2018, are players Chipper Jones, Jim Thome, Vladimir Guerrero, and Trevor Hoffman. They will be officially inducted on July 29, 2018, alongside players Jack Morris and Alan Trammell.
Players are currently inducted into the Hall of Fame through election by either the Baseball Writers ' Association of America (or BBWAA), or the Veterans Committee, which now consists of four subcommittees, each of which considers and votes for candidates from a separate era of baseball. Five years after retirement, any player with 10 years of major league experience who passes a screening committee (which removes from consideration players of clearly lesser qualification) is eligible to be elected by BBWAA members with 10 years ' membership or more who also have been actively covering MLB at any time in the 10 years preceding the election (the latter requirement was added for the 2016 election). From a final ballot typically including 25 -- 40 candidates, each writer may vote for up to 10 players; until the late 1950s, voters were advised to cast votes for the maximum 10 candidates. Any player named on 75 % or more of all ballots cast is elected. A player who is named on fewer than 5 % of ballots is dropped from future elections. In some instances, the screening committee had restored their names to later ballots, but in the mid-1990s, dropped players were made permanently ineligible for Hall of Fame consideration, even by the Veterans Committee. A 2001 change in the election procedures restored the eligibility of these dropped players; while their names will not appear on future BBWAA ballots, they may be considered by the Veterans Committee. Players receiving 5 % or more of the votes but fewer than 75 % are reconsidered annually until a maximum of ten years of eligibility (lowered from fifteen years for the 2015 election).
Under special circumstances, certain players may be deemed eligible for induction even though they have not met all requirements. Addie Joss was elected in 1978, despite only playing nine seasons before he died of meningitis. Additionally, if an otherwise eligible player dies before his fifth year of retirement, then that player may be placed on the ballot at the first election at least six months after his death. Roberto Clemente 's induction in 1973 set the precedent when the writers chose to put him up for consideration after his death on New Year 's Eve, 1972.
-- Ogden Nash, Sport magazine (January 1949)
The five - year waiting period was established in 1954 after an evolutionary process. In 1936 all players were eligible, including active ones. From the 1937 election until the 1945 election, there was no waiting period, so any retired player was eligible, but writers were discouraged from voting for current major leaguers. Since there was no formal rule preventing a writer from casting a ballot for an active player, the scribes did not always comply with the informal guideline; Joe DiMaggio received a vote in 1945, for example. From the 1946 election until the 1954 election, an official one - year waiting period was in effect. (DiMaggio, for example, retired after the 1951 season and was first eligible in the 1953 election.) The modern rule establishing a wait of five years was passed in 1954, although an exception was made for Joe DiMaggio because of his high level of previous support, thus permitting him to be elected within four years of his retirement.
Contrary to popular belief, no formal exception was made for Lou Gehrig (other than to hold a special one - man election for him): there was no waiting period at that time, and Gehrig met all other qualifications, so he would have been eligible for the next regular election after he retired during the 1939 season. However, the BBWAA decided to hold a special election at the 1939 Winter Meetings in Cincinnati, specifically to elect Gehrig (most likely because it was known that he was terminally ill, making it uncertain that he would live long enough to see another election). Nobody else was on that ballot, and the numerical results have never been made public. Since no elections were held in 1940 or 1941, the special election permitted Gehrig to enter the Hall while still alive.
If a player fails to be elected by the BBWAA within 10 years of his retirement from active play, he may be selected by the Veterans Committee. Following changes to the election process for that body made in 2010 and 2016, it is now responsible for electing all otherwise eligible candidates who are not eligible for the BBWAA ballot -- both long - retired players and non-playing personnel (managers, umpires, and executives). From 2011 through 2016, each candidate could be considered once every three years; now, the frequency depends on the era in which an individual made his greatest contributions. A more complete discussion of the new process is available below.
From 2008 to 2010, following changes made by the Hall in July 2007, the main Veterans Committee, then made up of living Hall of Famers, voted only on players whose careers began in 1943 or later. These changes also established three separate committees to select other figures:
Players of the Negro Leagues have also been considered at various times, beginning in 1971. In 2005 the Hall completed a study on African American players between the late 19th century and the integration of the major leagues in 1947, and conducted a special election for such players in February 2006; seventeen figures from the Negro Leagues were chosen in that election, in addition to the eighteen previously selected. Following the 2010 changes, Negro Leagues figures were primarily considered for induction alongside other figures from the 1871 -- 1946 era, called the "Pre-Integration Era '' by the Hall; since 2016, Negro Leagues figures are primarily considered alongside other figures from what the Hall calls the "Early Baseball '' era (1871 -- 1949).
Predictably, the selection process catalyzes endless debate among baseball fans over the merits of various candidates. Even players elected years ago remain the subjects of discussions as to whether they deserved election. For example, Bill James ' book Whatever Happened to the Hall of Fame? goes into detail about who he believes does and does not belong in the Hall of Fame.
The actions and composition of the Veterans Committee have been at times controversial, with occasional selections of contemporaries and teammates of the committee members over seemingly more worthy candidates.
In 2001, the Veterans Committee was reformed to comprise the living Hall of Fame members and other honorees. The revamped Committee held three elections, in 2003 and 2007, for both players and non-players, and in 2005 for players only. No individual was elected in that time, sparking criticism among some observers who expressed doubt whether the new Veterans Committee would ever elect a player. The Committee members, most of whom were Hall members, were accused of being reluctant to elect new candidates in the hope of heightening the value of their own selection. After no one was selected for the third consecutive election in 2007, Hall of Famer Mike Schmidt noted, "The same thing happens every year. The current members want to preserve the prestige as much as possible, and are unwilling to open the doors. '' In 2007, the committee and its selection processes were again reorganized; the main committee then included all living members of the Hall, and voted on a reduced number of candidates from among players whose careers began in 1943 or later. Separate committees, including sportswriters and broadcasters, would select umpires, managers and executives, as well as players from earlier eras.
In the first election to be held under the 2007 revisions, two managers and three executives were elected in December 2007 as part of the 2008 election process. The next Veterans Committee elections for players were held in December 2008 as part of the 2009 election process; the main committee did not select a player, while the panel for pre -- World War II players elected Joe Gordon in its first and ultimately only vote. The main committee voted as part of the election process for inductions in odd - numbered years, while the pre-World War II panel would vote every five years, and the panel for umpires, managers, and executives voted as part of the election process for inductions in even - numbered years.
Further changes to the Veterans Committee process were announced by the Hall on July 26, 2010, effective with the 2011 election.
All individuals eligible for induction but not eligible for BBWAA consideration were considered on a single ballot, grouped by the following eras in which they made their greatest contributions:
The Hall used the BBWAA 's Historical Overview Committee to formulate the ballots for each era, consisting of 12 individuals for the Expansion Era and 10 for the other eras. The Hall 's board of directors selected a committee of 16 voters for each era, made up of Hall of Famers, executives, baseball historians, and media members. Each committee met and voted at the Baseball Winter Meetings once every three years. The Expansion Era committee held its first vote in 2010 for 2011 induction, with longtime general manager Pat Gillick becoming the first individual elected under the new procedure. The Golden Era committee voted in 2011 for the induction class of 2012, with Ron Santo becoming the first player elected under the new procedure. The Pre-Integration Era committee voted in 2012 for the induction class of 2013, electing three figures. Subsequent elections rotated among the three committees in that order through the 2016 election.
In July 2016, however, the Hall of Fame announced a restructuring of the timeframes to be considered, with a much greater emphasis on modern eras. Four new committees were established:
All committees ' ballots now include 10 candidates. While there was previously a one - year waiting period after elimination from annual BBWAA consideration, there is now no waiting period. At least one committee convenes each December as part of the election process for the following calendar year 's induction ceremony. The Early Baseball committee convenes only in years ending in 0 (2020, 2030). The Golden Days committee convenes only in years ending in 0 and 5 (2020, 2025). The remaining two committees convene twice every 5 years. More specifically, the Today 's Game and Modern Baseball committees alternate their meetings in that order, skipping years in which either the Early Baseball or Golden Days committee meets. This means that in the next two 5 - year cycles, the Today 's Game committee (having met in 2016) will meet in 2018, 2021, and 2023, while the Modern Baseball committee (which met in 2017) will meet in 2019, 2022 and 2024. Additionally, the Hall of Fame has modified the criteria under which active executives can be considered for induction. All active executives age 70 or older may now have their careers reviewed as part of the Era Committee balloting process, regardless of the position they hold in an organization, and regardless of whether their body of work has been completed. Previously, active executives 65 years or older were eligible for consideration.
While the text on a player 's or manager 's plaque lists all teams for which the inductee was a member in that specific role, inductees are usually depicted wearing the cap of a specific team, though in a few cases, like umpires, they wear caps without logos. (Executives are not depicted wearing caps.) Additionally, as of 2015, inductee biographies on the Hall 's website for all players and managers, and executives who were associated with specific teams, list a "primary team '', which does not necessarily match the cap logo. The Hall selects the logo "based on where that player makes his most indelible mark. ''
Although the Hall always made the final decision on which logo was shown, until 2001 the Hall deferred to the wishes of players or managers whose careers were linked with multiple teams. Some examples of inductees associated with multiple teams are the following:
In all of the above cases, the "primary team '' is the team for which the inductee spent the largest portion of his career except for Ryan, whose primary team is listed as the Angels despite playing one fewer season for that team than for the Astros.
In 2001, the Hall of Fame decided to change the policy on cap logo selection, as a result of rumors that some teams were offering compensation, such as number retirement, money, or organizational jobs, in exchange for the cap designation. (For example, though Wade Boggs denied the claims, some media reports had said that his contract with the Tampa Bay Devil Rays required him to request depiction in the Hall of Fame as a Devil Ray.) The Hall decided that it would no longer defer to the inductee, though the player 's wishes would be considered, when deciding on the logo to appear on the plaque. Newly elected members affected by the change include the following:
According to the Hall of Fame, approximately 300,000 visitors enter the museum each year, and the running total has surpassed 14 million. These visitors see only a fraction of its 40,000 artifacts, 3 million library items (such as newspaper clippings and photos) and 140,000 baseball cards.
The Hall has seen a noticeable decrease in attendance in recent years. A 2013 story on ESPN.com about the village of Cooperstown and its relation to the game partially linked the reduced attendance with Cooperstown Dreams Park, a youth baseball complex about 5 miles (8.0 km) away in the town of Hartwick. The 22 fields at Dreams Park currently draw 17,000 players each summer for a week of intensive play; while the complex includes housing for the players, their parents and grandparents must stay elsewhere. According to the story,
Prior to Dreams Park, a room might be filled for a week by several sets of tourists. Now, that room will be taken by just one family for the week, and that family may only go into Cooperstown and the Hall of Fame once. While there are other contributing factors (the recession and high gas prices among them), the Hall 's attendance has tumbled since Dreams Park opened. The Hall drew 383,000 visitors in 1999. It drew 262,000 last year.
A controversy erupted in 1982, when it emerged that some historic items given to the Hall had been sold on the collectibles market. The items had been lent to the Baseball Commissioner 's office, gotten mixed up with other property owned by the Commissioner 's office and employees of the office, and moved to the garage of Joe Reichler, an assistant to Commissioner Bowie Kuhn, who sold the items to resolve his personal financial difficulties. Under pressure from the New York Attorney General, the Commissioner 's Office made reparations, but the negative publicity damaged the Hall of Fame 's reputation, and made it more difficult for it to solicit donations.
Following the banning of Pete Rose from MLB, the selection rules for the Baseball Hall of Fame were modified to prevent the induction of anyone on Baseball 's permanent suspension list, such as Rose or Shoeless Joe Jackson. Many others have been barred from participation in MLB, but none have Hall of Fame qualifications on the level of Jackson or Rose.
Jackson and Rose were both banned from MLB for life for actions related to gambling on their own teams -- Jackson was determined to have cooperated with those who conspired to lose the 1919 World Series intentionally, and Rose voluntarily accepted a permanent spot on the ineligible list in return for MLB 's promise to make no official finding in relation to alleged betting on the Cincinnati Reds when he was their manager in the 1980s. (Baseball 's Rule 21, prominently posted in every clubhouse locker room, mandates permanent banishment from the MLB for having a gambling interest of any sort on a game in which a player or manager is directly involved.) Rose later admitted that he bet on the Reds in his 2004 autobiography. Baseball fans are deeply split on the issue of whether these two should remain banned or have their punishment revoked. Writer Bill James, though he advocates Rose eventually making it into the Hall of Fame, compared the people who want to put Jackson in the Hall of Fame to "those women who show up at murder trials wanting to marry the cute murderer ''.
In 2012, Congress passed and President Barack Obama signed a law ordering the United States Mint to produce and sell commemorative, non-circulating coins to benefit the private, non-profit Hall. The bill, H.R. 2527, was introduced in the United States House of Representatives by Rep. Richard Hanna, a Republican from New York, and passed the House on October 26, 2011. The coins, which depict baseball gloves and balls, are the first concave designs produced by the Mint. The mintage included 50,000 gold coins, 400,000 silver coins, and 750,000 clad (Nickel - Copper) coins. The Mint released them on March 27, 2014, and the gold and silver editions quickly sold out. The Hall receives money from surcharges included in the sale price: a total of $9.5 million if all the coins are sold.
Notes
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where does the united states stand in the winter olympics | United States at the Olympics - wikipedia
The United States of America has sent athletes to every celebration of the modern Olympic Games except the 1980 Summer Olympics, during which it led a boycott. The United States Olympic Committee (USOC) is the National Olympic Committee for the United States.
U.S. athletes have won a total of 2,522 medals (1,022 of them gold) at the Summer Olympic Games, the most of any nation, and another 305 at the Winter Olympic Games, the second most behind Norway. The U.S. has topped the gold medal count (as the medals are listed on the IOC website, and internationally by tradition) at seventeen Summer Olympics, the most of any nation, and one Winter Olympics. The U.S. holds the record both for the most gold and overall medals won in a single Summer Olympics.
The United States has hosted the Games on eight occasions, more than any other nation, and is planning to host the ninth:
Updated on October 1, 2017
* This table does not include two medals -- one silver awarded in the ice hockey and one bronze awarded in the figure skating events at the 1920 Summer Olympics.
Updated on March 10, 2018
* This table includes two medals -- one silver awarded in the ice hockey and one bronze awarded in the figure skating events at the 1920 Summer Olympics.
The exclusion of professionals caused several controversies throughout the history of the modern Olympics. The 1912 Olympic pentathlon and decathlon champion Jim Thorpe was stripped of his medals when it was discovered that he had played semi-professional baseball before the Olympics. His medals were posthumously restored by the IOC in 1983 on compassionate grounds.
The advent of the state - sponsored "full - time amateur athlete '' of the Eastern Bloc countries eroded the ideology of the pure amateur, as it put the self - financed amateurs of the Western countries at a disadvantage. The Soviet Union entered teams of athletes who were all nominally students, soldiers, or working in a profession, but all of whom were in reality paid by the state to train on a full - time basis. As a result, the Olympics has shifted away from pure amateurism, as envisioned by Pierre de Coubertin, to allowing participation of professional athletes.
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who said tune in turn on drop out | Turn on, Tune in, Drop out - wikipedia
"Turn on, tune in, drop out '' is a counterculture - era phrase popularized by Timothy Leary in 1966. In 1967 Leary spoke at the Human Be-In, a gathering of 30,000 hippies in Golden Gate Park in San Francisco and phrased the famous words, "Turn on, tune in, drop out ''. It was also the title of his spoken word album Turn On, Tune In, Drop Out recorded in 1966. On this lengthy album one can hear Leary speaking in a monotone, soft - spoken voice on his views about the world and humanity and describing nature, Indian symbols, "the meaning of inner life '', the LSD experience, peace and many other issues.
In a 1988 interview with Neil Strauss, Leary stated that slogan was "given to him '' by Marshall McLuhan during a lunch in New York City. Leary added that McLuhan "was very much interested in ideas and marketing, and he started singing something like, ' Psychedelics hit the spot / Five hundred micrograms, that 's a lot, ' to the tune of a Pepsi commercial of the time. Then he started going, ' Tune in, turn on, and drop out. ' '' The phrase was used by Leary in a speech he delivered at the opening of a press conference in New York City on September 19, 1966. It urged people to embrace cultural changes through the use of psychedelics by detaching themselves from the existing conventions and hierarchies in society. It was also the motto of his League for Spiritual Discovery. The phrase was derided by more conservative critics.
In his speech, Leary stated:
Like every great religion of the past we seek to find the divinity within and to express this revelation in a life of glorification and the worship of God. These ancient goals we define in the metaphor of the present -- turn on, tune in, drop out.
Leary later explained in his 1983 autobiography Flashbacks:
"Turn on '' meant go within to activate your neural and genetic equipment. Become sensitive to the many and various levels of consciousness and the specific triggers that engage them. Drugs were one way to accomplish this end. "Tune in '' meant interact harmoniously with the world around you -- externalize, materialize, express your new internal perspectives. "Drop out '' suggested an active, selective, graceful process of detachment from involuntary or unconscious commitments. "Drop Out '' meant self - reliance, a discovery of one 's singularity, a commitment to mobility, choice, and change. Unhappily my explanations of this sequence of personal development were often misinterpreted to mean "Get stoned and abandon all constructive activity ''.
Turn on, tune in, drop out is also the title of a book (ISBN 1 - 57951 - 009 - 4) of essays by Timothy Leary, covering topics ranging from religion, education, and politics to Aldous Huxley, neurology, and psychedelic drugs.
Leary later (during the February 1967 salon known as the Houseboat Summit) announced his agreement with a new ordering of the phrase as he said, "I would agree to change the slogan to ' Drop out. Turn on. Drop in. ' ''
During his last decade, Leary proclaimed that the "PC is the LSD of the 1990s '' -- "turn on, boot up, jack in '' reworked the existing phrase to suggest joining the cyberdelic counterculture.
The phrase was referenced in several songs of the time. Psychedelic rock band Strawberry Alarm Clock parodies the quote in their 1967 song "Incense and Peppermints '', singing "Turn on, tune in, turn your eyes around '' in one of the lines. Gil Scott - Heron criticised the concept in his 1970 poem and song The Revolution Will Not Be Televised, with the line "You will not be able to plug in, turn on and cop - out ''.
The lyrics, "Turn on, tune in, drop out '' are included verbatim in several songs:
The CSI episode title "Turn On, Tune In, Drop Dead '' also parodies the quote, with the episode focusing on how two victims who are supposedly dead get up and walk away.
A variation of the quote ("Tune in, Turn on, Talknet '') was used in the 1980s and early 1990s for NBC Radio 's Talknet nighttime programming block of call - in advice shows.
Another variation, "Turn On, Tune In, Cop Out '', was the title of a 1993 single by the band ' Freak Power ' - the name itself being a reference to the hippie culture.
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where is the gods must be crazy filmed | The Gods Must Be Crazy - Wikipedia
The Gods Must Be Crazy is a 1980 South African comedy film written and directed by Jamie Uys. Financed only from local sources, it is the most commercially successful release in the history of South Africa 's film industry. Originally released in 1980, the film is the first in The Gods Must Be Crazy series. It is followed by one official sequel released by Columbia Pictures.
Set in Botswana, it follows the story of Xi, a San of the Kalahari Desert (played by Namibian San farmer Nǃxau ǂToma) whose tribe has no knowledge of the world beyond, Andrew Steyn (Marius Weyers), a biologist who analyzes manure samples for his PhD dissertation, and Kate Thompson (Sandra Prinsloo), a newly hired village school teacher.
Xi and his San tribe of Ju ' / Hoansi bushmen are living happily in the Kalahari Desert. One day, a glass Coca - Cola bottle is carelessly thrown out of an airplane and falls to Earth unbroken. Initially, Xi 's people assume this strange artifact is another "present '' from the gods and find many uses for it. But unlike anything that they have had before, there is only one glass bottle to share. Because of the conflict it causes, Xi confers with elders and agrees to make a pilgrimage to the edge of the world and dispose of the supposedly cursed thing.
Along the way, he encounters a diverse assortment of people, such as: biologist Andrew Steyn, who is studying the local animals; Kate Thompson, the newly hired village school teacher; a band of guerrillas led by Sam Boga, who are being pursued by government troops after a failed coup attempt; a safari tour guide named Jack Hind; and Steyn 's assistant and mechanic, M'pudi.
When Xi, hungry, happens upon a corral, he shoots a goat with a tranquilizer arrow, but is caught and jailed. M'pudi, who once lived with the San and still speaks Xi 's language, concludes that Xi will die if kept incarcerated. He and Steyn apply to employ Xi as a tracker for the remainder of his sentence in lieu of prison. Meanwhile, the guerrillas invade Kate 's school and take her and the students as human shields for their escape to a neighboring country.
Steyn, M'pudi, and Xi soon discover their fieldwork (observing the local wildlife) is along the terrorists ' chosen path. They manage to immobilize the guerrillas using makeshift tranquilizer darts launched by Xi with a tiny, silent, and concealable bow that M'pudi and Xi fabricate, and save Kate and the children. However, Jack Hind arrives and takes away Kate, taking credit for the rescue that Steyn, M'pudi and Xi had actually planned and executed. With Xi 's term over, Steyn pays his wages and sends him on his way.
When Steyn tells Kate about his shy and awkward nature, Kate finds it endearing and they begin a relationship.
Xi eventually arrives at God 's Window, the top of a cliff with a solid layer of low - lying clouds obscuring the landscape below. Convinced that he has reached the edge of the world, he throws the bottle off the cliff, and returns to his tribe.
The Gods Must Be Crazy was released in South Africa in 1980 by Ster Kinekor Pictures; it became a box - office record breaker in that country. For the film 's overseas release, the original Afrikaans dialogue was dubbed into English, and voiceover work was provided for! Kung and Tswana lines. At the time, it broke all box office records in Japan and it broke all box office records for a foreign film in the United States.
In mid-November 1986, The Gods Must Be Crazy was released on videocassette in the U.S. by CBS / Fox on its Playhouse Video label.
Later, the movie was released on DVD by Sony Pictures Entertainment.
Based on 19 reviews, The Gods Must Be Crazy has carried a 95 % "Fresh '' score on Rotten Tomatoes. Film critic Roger Ebert gave the film three stars out of four, and said in his conclusion: "It might be easy to make a farce about screwball happenings in the desert, but it 's a lot harder to create a funny interaction between nature and human nature. This movie 's a nice little treasure ''.
Despite the film 's having grossed over $100 million worldwide, Nǃxau reportedly earned less than $2,000 for his starring role. Before his death, Uys supplemented this with an additional $20,000 as well as a monthly stipend.
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this is the renewable resource most commonly associated with western central europe | North Sea - wikipedia
The North Sea is a marginal sea of the Atlantic Ocean located between Great Britain, Scandinavia, Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium, and France. An epeiric (or "shelf '') sea on the European continental shelf, it connects to the ocean through the English Channel in the south and the Norwegian Sea in the north. It is more than 970 kilometres (600 mi) long and 580 kilometres (360 mi) wide, with an area of around 570,000 square kilometres (220,000 sq mi).
The North Sea has long been the site of important European shipping lanes as well as a major fishery. The sea is a popular destination for recreation and tourism in bordering countries and more recently has developed into a rich source of energy resources including fossil fuels, wind, and early efforts in wave power.
Historically, the North Sea has featured prominently in geopolitical and military affairs, particularly in Northern Europe. It was also important globally through the power northern Europeans projected worldwide during much of the Middle Ages and into the modern era. The North Sea was the centre of the Vikings ' rise. Subsequently, the Hanseatic League, the Netherlands, and the British each sought to dominate the North Sea and thus the access to the markets and resources of the world. As Germany 's only outlet to the ocean, the North Sea continued to be strategically important through both World Wars.
The coast of the North Sea presents a diversity of geological and geographical features. In the north, deep fjords and sheer cliffs mark the Norwegian and Scottish coastlines, whereas in the south the coast consists primarily of sandy beaches and wide mudflats. Due to the dense population, heavy industrialization, and intense use of the sea and area surrounding it, there have been a number of environmental issues affecting the sea 's ecosystems. Adverse environmental issues -- commonly including overfishing, industrial and agricultural runoff, dredging, and dumping among others -- have led to a number of efforts to prevent degradation of the sea while still making use of its economic potential.
The North Sea is bounded by the Orkney Islands and east coast of Great Britain to the west and the northern and central European mainland to the east and south, including Norway, Denmark, Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium, and France. In the southwest, beyond the Straits of Dover, the North Sea becomes the English Channel connecting to the Atlantic Ocean. In the east, it connects to the Baltic Sea via the Skagerrak and Kattegat, narrow straits that separate Denmark from Norway and Sweden respectively. In the north it is bordered by the Shetland Islands, and connects with the Norwegian Sea, which lies in the very north - eastern part of the Atlantic.
The North Sea is more than 970 kilometres (600 mi) long and 580 kilometres (360 mi) wide, with an area of 570,000 square kilometres (220,000 sq mi) and a volume of 54,000 cubic kilometres (13,000 cu mi). Around the edges of the North Sea are sizeable islands and archipelagos, including Shetland, Orkney, and the Frisian Islands. The North Sea receives freshwater from a number of European continental watersheds, as well as the British Isles. A large part of the European drainage basin empties into the North Sea, including water from the Baltic Sea. The largest and most important rivers flowing into the North Sea are the Elbe and the Rhine -- Meuse watershed. Around 185 million people live in the catchment area of the rivers discharging into the North Sea encompassing some highly industrialized areas.
For the most part, the sea lies on the European continental shelf with a mean depth of 90 metres (300 ft). The only exception is the Norwegian trench, which extends parallel to the Norwegian shoreline from Oslo to an area north of Bergen. It is between 20 and 30 kilometres (12 and 19 mi) wide and has a maximum depth of 725 metres (2,379 ft).
The Dogger Bank, a vast moraine, or accumulation of unconsolidated glacial debris, rises to a mere 15 to 30 metres (50 -- 100 ft) below the surface. This feature has produced the finest fishing location of the North Sea. The Long Forties and the Broad Fourteens are large areas with roughly uniform depth in fathoms, (forty fathoms and fourteen fathoms or 73 and 26 m deep respectively). These great banks and others make the North Sea particularly hazardous to navigate, which has been alleviated by the implementation of satellite navigation systems. The Devil 's Hole lies 200 miles (320 km) east of Dundee, Scotland. The feature is a series of asymmetrical trenches between 20 and 30 kilometres (12 and 19 mi) long, 1 and 2 kilometres (0.62 and 1.24 mi) wide and up to 230 metres (750 ft) deep.
Other areas which are less deep are Cleaver Bank, Fisher Bank and Noordhinder Bank.
The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the North Sea as follows:
On the Southwest. A line joining the Walde Lighthouse (France, 1 ° 55'E) and Leathercoat Point (England, 51 ° 10'N).
On the Northwest. From Dunnet Head (3 ° 22'W) in Scotland to Tor Ness (58 ° 47'N) in the Island of Hoy, thence through this island to the Kame of Hoy (58 ° 55'N) on to Breck Ness on Mainland (58 ° 58'N) through this island to Costa Head (3 ° 14'W) and to Inga Ness (59'17'N) in Westray through Westray, to Bow Head, across to Mull Head (North point of Papa Westray) and on to Seal Skerry (North point of North Ronaldsay) and thence to Horse Island (South point of the Shetland Islands).
On the North. From the North point (Fethaland Point) of the Mainland of the Shetland Islands, across to Graveland Ness (60 ° 39'N) in the Island of Yell, through Yell to Gloup Ness (1 ° 04'W) and across to Spoo Ness (60 ° 45'N) in Unst island, through Unst to Herma Ness (60 ° 51'N), on to the SW point of the Rumblings and to Muckle Flugga (60 ° 51 ′ N 0 ° 53 ′ W / 60.850 ° N 0.883 ° W / 60.850; - 0.883) all these being included in the North Sea area; thence up the meridian of 0 ° 53 ' West to the parallel of 61 ° 00 ' North and eastward along this parallel to the coast of Norway, the whole of Viking Bank being thus included in the North Sea.
The average temperature in summer is 17 ° C (63 ° F) and 6 ° C (43 ° F) in the winter. The average temperatures have been trending higher since 1988, which has been attributed to climate change. Air temperatures in January range on average between 0 to 4 ° C (32 to 39 ° F) and in July between 13 to 18 ° C (55 to 64 ° F). The winter months see frequent gales and storms.
The salinity averages between 34 to 35 grams of salt per litre of water. The salinity has the highest variability where there is fresh water inflow, such as at the Rhine and Elbe estuaries, the Baltic Sea exit and along the coast of Norway.
The main pattern to the flow of water in the North Sea is an anti-clockwise rotation along the edges.
The North Sea is an arm of the Atlantic Ocean receiving the majority of ocean current from the northwest opening, and a lesser portion of warm current from the smaller opening at the English Channel. These tidal currents leave along the Norwegian coast. Surface and deep water currents may move in different directions. Low salinity surface coastal waters move offshore, and deeper, denser high salinity waters move in shore.
The North Sea located on the continental shelf has different waves from those in deep ocean water. The wave speeds are diminished and the wave amplitudes are increased. In the North Sea there are two amphidromic systems and a third incomplete amphidromic system. In the North Sea the average tide difference in wave amplitude is between 0 to 8 metres (0 to 26 ft).
The Kelvin tide of the Atlantic ocean is a semidiurnal wave that travels northward. Some of the energy from this wave travels through the English Channel into the North Sea. The wave still travels northward in the Atlantic Ocean, and once past the northern tip of Great Britain, the Kelvin wave turns east and south and once again enters into the North Sea.
The eastern and western coasts of the North Sea are jagged, formed by glaciers during the ice ages. The coastlines along the southernmost part are covered with the remains of deposited glacial sediment. The Norwegian mountains plunge into the sea creating deep fjords and archipelagos. South of Stavanger, the coast softens, the islands become fewer. The eastern Scottish coast is similar, though less severe than Norway. From north east of England, the cliffs become lower and are composed of less resistant moraine, which erodes more easily, so that the coasts have more rounded contours. In the Netherlands, Belgium and in East Anglia the littoral is low and marshy. The east coast and south - east of the North Sea (Wadden Sea) have coastlines that are mainly sandy and straight owing to longshore drift, particularly along Belgium and Denmark.
The southern coastal areas were originally amphibious flood plains and swampy land. In areas especially vulnerable to storm surges, people settled behind elevated levees and on natural areas of high ground such as spits and geestland. As early as 500 BC, people were constructing artificial dwelling hills higher than the prevailing flood levels. It was only around the beginning of the High Middle Ages, in 1200 AD, that inhabitants began to connect single ring dikes into a dike line along the entire coast, thereby turning amphibious regions between the land and the sea into permanent solid ground.
The modern form of the dikes supplemented by overflow and lateral diversion channels, began to appear in the 17th and 18th centuries, built in the Netherlands. The North Sea Floods of 1953 and 1962 were impetus for further raising of the dikes as well as the shortening of the coast line so as to present as little surface area as possible to the punishment of the sea and the storms. Currently, 27 % of the Netherlands is below sea level protected by dikes, dunes, and beach flats.
Coastal management today consists of several levels. The dike slope reduces the energy of the incoming sea, so that the dike itself does not receive the full impact. Dikes that lie directly on the sea are especially reinforced. The dikes have, over the years, been repeatedly raised, sometimes up to 9 metres (30 ft) and have been made flatter to better reduce wave erosion. Where the dunes are sufficient to protect the land behind them from the sea, these dunes are planted with beach grass (Ammophila arenaria) to protect them from erosion by wind, water, and foot traffic.
Storm surges threaten, in particular, the coasts of the Netherlands, Belgium, Germany, and Denmark and low lying areas of eastern England particularly around The Wash and Fens. Storm surges are caused by changes in barometric pressure combined with strong wind created wave action.
The first recorded storm tide flood was the Julianenflut, on 17 February 1164. In its wake the Jadebusen, (a bay on the coast of Germany), began to form. A storm tide in 1228 is recorded to have killed more than 100,000 people. In 1362, the Second Marcellus Flood, also known as the Grote Manndrenke, hit the entire southern coast of the North Sea. Chronicles of the time again record more than 100,000 deaths as large parts of the coast were lost permanently to the sea, including the now legendary lost city of Rungholt. In the 20th century, the North Sea flood of 1953 flooded several nations ' coasts and cost more than 2,000 lives. 315 citizens of Hamburg died in the North Sea flood of 1962.
Though rare, the North Sea has been the site of a number of historically documented tsunamis. The Storegga Slides were a series of underwater landslides, in which a piece of the Norwegian continental shelf slid into the Norwegian Sea. The immense landslips occurred between 8150 BCE and 6000 BCE, and caused a tsunami up to 20 metres (66 ft) high that swept through the North Sea, having the greatest effect on Scotland and the Faeroe Islands. The Dover Straits earthquake of 1580 is among the first recorded earthquakes in the North Sea measuring between 5.6 and 5.9 on the Richter scale. This event caused extensive damage in Calais both through its tremors and possibly triggered a tsunami, though this has never been confirmed. The theory is a vast underwater landslide in the English Channel was triggered by the earthquake, which in turn caused a tsunami. The tsunami triggered by the 1755 Lisbon earthquake reached Holland, although the waves had lost their destructive power. The largest earthquake ever recorded in the United Kingdom was the 1931 Dogger Bank earthquake, which measured 6.1 on the Richter magnitude scale and caused a small tsunami that flooded parts of the British coast.
Shallow epicontinental seas like the current North Sea have since long existed on the European continental shelf. The rifting that formed the northern part of the Atlantic Ocean during the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods, from about 150 million years ago, caused tectonic uplift in the British Isles. Since then, a shallow sea has almost continuously existed between the uplands of the Fennoscandian Shield and the British Isles. This precursor of the current North Sea has grown and shrunk with the rise and fall of the eustatic sea level during geologic time. Sometimes it was connected with other shallow seas, such as the sea above the Paris Basin to the south - west, the Paratethys Sea to the south - east, or the Tethys Ocean to the south.
During the Late Cretaceous, about 85 million years ago, all of modern mainland Europe except for Scandinavia was a scattering of islands. By the Early Oligocene, 34 to 28 million years ago, the emergence of Western and Central Europe had almost completely separated the North Sea from the Tethys Ocean, which gradually shrank to become the Mediterranean as Southern Europe and South West Asia became dry land. The North Sea was cut off from the English Channel by a narrow land bridge until that was breached by at least two catastrophic floods between 450,000 and 180,000 years ago. Since the start of the Quaternary period about 2.6 million years ago, the eustatic sea level has fallen during each glacial period and then risen again. Every time the ice sheet reached its greatest extent, the North Sea became almost completely dry. The present - day coastline formed after the Last Glacial Maximum when the sea began to flood the European continental shelf.
In 2006 a bone fragment was found while drilling for oil in the north sea. Analysis indicated that it was a Plateosaurus from 199 to 216 million years ago. This was the deepest dinosaur fossil ever found and the first find for Norway.
Copepods and other zooplankton are plentiful in the North Sea. These tiny organisms are crucial elements of the food chain supporting many species of fish. Over 230 species of fish live in the North Sea. Cod, haddock, whiting, saithe, plaice, sole, mackerel, herring, pouting, sprat, and sandeel are all very common and are fished commercially. Due to the various depths of the North Sea trenches and differences in salinity, temperature, and water movement, some fish such as blue - mouth redfish and rabbitfish reside only in small areas of the North Sea.
Crustaceans are also commonly found throughout the sea. Norway lobster, deep - water prawns, and brown shrimp are all commercially fished, but other species of lobster, shrimp, oyster, mussels and clams all live in the North Sea. Recently non-indigenous species have become established including the Pacific oyster and Atlantic jackknife clam.
The coasts of the North Sea are home to nature reserves including the Ythan Estuary, Fowlsheugh Nature Preserve, and Farne Islands in the UK and the Wadden Sea National Parks in Denmark, Germany and the Netherlands. These locations provide breeding habitat for dozens of bird species. Tens of millions of birds make use of the North Sea for breeding, feeding, or migratory stopovers every year. Populations of black legged kittiwakes, Atlantic puffins, northern fulmars, and species of petrels, gannets, seaducks, loons (divers), cormorants, gulls, auks, and terns, and many other seabirds make these coasts popular for birdwatching.
The North Sea is also home to marine mammals. Common seals, and harbour porpoises can be found along the coasts, at marine installations, and on islands. The very northern North Sea islands such as the Shetland Islands are occasionally home to a larger variety of pinnipeds including bearded, harp, hooded and ringed seals, and even walrus. North Sea cetaceans include various porpoise, dolphin and whale species.
Plant species in the North Sea include species of wrack, among them bladder wrack, knotted wrack, and serrated wrack. Algae, macroalgal, and kelp, such as oarweed and laminaria hyperboria, and species of maerl are found as well. Eelgrass, formerly common in the entirety of the Wadden Sea, was nearly wiped out in the 20th century by a disease. Similarly, sea grass used to coat huge tracts of ocean floor, but have been damaged by trawling and dredging have diminished its habitat and prevented its return. Invasive Japanese seaweed has spread along the shores of the sea clogging harbours and inlets and has become a nuisance.
Due to the heavy human populations and high level of industrialization along its shores, the wildlife of the North Sea has suffered from pollution, overhunting, and overfishing. Flamingos and pelicans were once found along the southern shores of the North Sea, but became extinct over the 2nd millennium. Walruses frequented the Orkney Islands through the mid-16th century, as both Sable Island and Orkney Islands lay within its normal range. Gray whales also resided in the North Sea but were driven to extinction in the Atlantic in the 17th century Other species have dramatically declined in population, though they are still found. North Atlantic right whales, sturgeon, shad, rays, skates, salmon, and other species were common in the North Sea until the 20th century, when numbers declined due to overfishing. Other factors like the introduction of non-indigenous species, industrial and agricultural pollution, trawling and dredging, human - induced eutrophication, construction on coastal breeding and feeding grounds, sand and gravel extraction, offshore construction, and heavy shipping traffic have also contributed to the decline.
The OSPAR commission manages the OSPAR convention to counteract the harmful effects of human activity on wildlife in the North Sea, preserve endangered species, and provide environmental protection. All North Sea border states are signatories of the MARPOL 73 / 78 Accords, which preserve the marine environment by preventing pollution from ships. Germany, Denmark, and the Netherlands also have a trilateral agreement for the protection of the Wadden Sea, or mudflats, which run along the coasts of the three countries on the southern edge of the North Sea.
Whaling was an important economic activity from the 9th until the 13th century for Flemish whalers. The medieval Flemish, Basque and Norwegian whalers who were replaced in the 16th century by Dutch, English, Danes and Germans, took massive numbers of whales and dolphins and nearly depleted the right whales. This activity likely led to the extinction of the Atlantic population of the once common gray whale. By 1902 the whaling had ended. After being absent for 300 years a single gray whale returned, it probably was the first of many more to find its way through the now ice - free Northwest Passage. Once 16 - metre (50 ft) "fish '' were taken in large quantities at the mouth of the River Seine. Perhaps the gray whale will someday return to its former Seine estuary breeding grounds and to the feeding grounds of the Wadden Sea where it will again roil the sediments and release its benthic nutrients that will benefit the ecosystem.
Through history various names have been used for the North Sea. One of the earliest recorded names was Septentrionalis Oceanus, or "Northern Ocean, '' which was cited by Pliny. The name "North Sea '' probably came into English, however, via the Dutch "Noordzee '', who named it thus either in contrast with the Zuiderzee ("South Sea ''), located south of Frisia, or because the sea is generally to the north of the Netherlands. Before the adoption of "North Sea, '' the names used in English were "German Sea '' or "German Ocean '', referred to the Latin names "Mare Gemanicum '' and "Oceanus Germanicus '', and these persisted in use until the First World War.
Other common names in use for long periods were the Latin terms "Mare Frisicum '', as well as their English equivalents, "Frisian Sea ''.
The modern names of the sea in local languages are: Danish: Nordsøen, Dutch: Noordzee, Dutch Low Saxon: (Noordzee) error: ((lang)): text has italic markup (help), French: Mer du Nord, West Frisian: Noardsee, German: Nordsee, Low German: Noordsee, Northern Frisian: Weestsiie (literally meaning "West Sea ''), Norwegian: Nordsjøen, Nynorsk: Nordsjøen, Scots: German Ocean, Swedish: Nordsjön, Scottish Gaelic: An Cuan a Tuath, West Flemish: Nôordzêe and Zeeuws: Noôrdzeê.
The North Sea has provided waterway access for commerce and conquest. Many areas have access to the North Sea because of its long coastline and the European rivers that empty into it. The British Isles had been protected from invasion by the North Sea waters until the Roman conquest of Britain in 43 CE. The Romans established organised ports, which increased shipping, and began sustained trade. When the Romans abandoned Britain in 410, the Germanic Angles, Saxons, and Jutes began the next great migration across the North Sea during the Migration Period. They made successive invasions of the island.
The Viking Age began in 793 with the attack on Lindisfarne; for the next quarter - millennium the Vikings ruled the North Sea. In their superior longships, they raided, traded, and established colonies and outposts along the coasts of the sea. From the Middle Ages through the 15th century, the northern European coastal ports exported domestic goods, dyes, linen, salt, metal goods and wine. The Scandinavian and Baltic areas shipped grain, fish, naval necessities, and timber. In turn the North Sea countries imported high - grade cloths, spices, and fruits from the Mediterranean region. Commerce during this era was mainly conducted by maritime trade due to underdeveloped roadways.
In the 13th century the Hanseatic League, though centred on the Baltic Sea, started to control most of the trade through important members and outposts on the North Sea. The League lost its dominance in the 16th century, as neighbouring states took control of former Hanseatic cities and outposts. Their internal conflict prevented effective cooperation and defence. As the League lost control of its maritime cities, new trade routes emerged that provided Europe with Asian, American, and African goods.
The 17th century Dutch Golden Age during which Dutch herring, cod and whale fisheries reached an all time high saw Dutch power at its zenith. Important overseas colonies, a vast merchant marine, powerful navy and large profits made the Dutch the main challengers to an ambitious England. This rivalry led to the first three Anglo - Dutch Wars between 1652 and 1673, which ended with Dutch victories. After the Glorious Revolution the Dutch prince William ascended to the English throne. With both countries united, commercial, military, and political power shifted from Amsterdam to London. The British did not face a challenge to their dominance of the North Sea until the 20th century.
Tensions in the North Sea were again heightened in 1904 by the Dogger Bank incident. During the Russo - Japanese War, several ships of the Russian Baltic Fleet, which was on its way to the Far East, mistook British fishing boats for Japanese ships and fired on them, and then upon each other, near the Dogger Bank, nearly causing Britain to enter the war on the side of Japan.
During the First World War, Great Britain 's Grand Fleet and Germany 's Kaiserliche Marine faced each other in the North Sea, which became the main theatre of the war for surface action. Britain 's larger fleet and North Sea Mine Barrage were able to establish an effective blockade for most of the war, which restricted the Central Powers ' access to many crucial resources. Major battles included the Battle of Heligoland Bight, the Battle of the Dogger Bank, and the Battle of Jutland. World War I also brought the first extensive use of submarine warfare, and a number of submarine actions occurred in the North Sea.
The Second World War also saw action in the North Sea, though it was restricted more to aircraft reconnaissance, and action by fighter / bomber aircraft, submarines, and smaller vessels such as minesweepers and torpedo boats.
In the aftermath of the war, hundreds of thousands of tons of chemical weapons were disposed of by being dumped in the North Sea.
After the war, the North Sea lost much of its military significance because it is bordered only by NATO member - states. However, it gained significant economic importance in the 1960s as the states around the North Sea began full - scale exploitation of its oil and gas resources. The North Sea continues to be an active trade route.
Countries that border the North Sea all claim the 12 nautical miles (22 km; 14 mi) of territorial waters, within which they have exclusive fishing rights. The Common Fisheries Policy of the European Union (EU) exists to coordinate fishing rights and assist with disputes between EU states and the EU border state of Norway.
After the discovery of mineral resources in the North Sea, the Convention on the Continental Shelf established country rights largely divided along the median line. The median line is defined as the line "every point of which is equidistant from the nearest points of the baselines from which the breadth of the territorial sea of each State is measured. '' The ocean floor border between Germany, the Netherlands, and Denmark was only reapportioned after protracted negotiations and a judgement of the International Court of Justice.
As early as 1859, oil was discovered in onshore areas around the North Sea and natural gas as early as 1910.
Test drilling began in 1966 and then, in 1969, Phillips Petroleum Company discovered the Ekofisk oil field distinguished by valuable, low - sulphur oil. Commercial exploitation began in 1971 with tankers and, after 1975, by a pipeline, first to Teesside, England and then, after 1977, also to Emden, Germany.
The exploitation of the North Sea oil reserves began just before the 1973 oil crisis, and the climb of international oil prices made the large investments needed for extraction much more attractive.
Although the production costs are relatively high, the quality of the oil, the political stability of the region, and the proximity of important markets in western Europe has made the North Sea an important oil producing region. The largest single humanitarian catastrophe in the North Sea oil industry was the destruction of the offshore oil platform Piper Alpha in 1988 in which 167 people lost their lives.
Besides the Ekofisk oil field, the Statfjord oil field is also notable as it was the cause of the first pipeline to span the Norwegian trench. The largest natural gas field in the North Sea, Troll gas field, lies in the Norwegian trench dropping over 300 metres (980 ft) requiring the construction of the enormous Troll A platform to access it.
The price of Brent Crude, one of the first types of oil extracted from the North Sea, is used today as a standard price for comparison for crude oil from the rest of the world. The North Sea contains western Europe 's largest oil and natural gas reserves and is one of the world 's key non-OPEC producing regions.
In the UK sector of the North Sea, the oil industry invested £ 14.4 billion in 2013, and was on track to spend £ 13 billion in 2014. Industry body Oil & Gas UK put the decline down to rising costs, lower production, high tax rates, and less exploration.
The North Sea is Europe 's main fishery accounting for over 5 % of international commercial fish caught. Fishing in the North Sea is concentrated in the southern part of the coastal waters. The main method of fishing is trawling. In 1995, the total volume of fish and shellfish caught in the North Sea was approximately 3.5 million tonnes. Besides fish, it is estimated that one million tonnes of unmarketable by - catch is caught and discarded each year.
In recent decades, overfishing has left many fisheries unproductive, disturbing marine food chain dynamics and costing jobs in the fishing industry. Herring, cod and plaice fisheries may soon face the same plight as mackerel fishing, which ceased in the 1970s due to overfishing. The objective of the European Union Common Fisheries Policy is to minimize the environmental impact associated with resource use by reducing fish discards, increasing productivity of fisheries, stabilising markets of fisheries and fish processing, and supplying fish at reasonable prices for the consumer.
In addition to oil, gas, and fish, the states along the North Sea also take millions of cubic metres per year of sand and gravel from the ocean floor. These are used for beach nourishment, land reclamation and construction. Rolled pieces of amber may be picked up on the east coast of England.
Due to the strong prevailing winds, and shallow water, countries on the North Sea, particularly Germany and Denmark, have used the shore for wind power since the 1990s. The North Sea is the home of one of the first large - scale offshore wind farms in the world, Horns Rev 1, completed in 2002. Since then many other wind farms have been commissioned in the North Sea (and elsewhere). As of 2013 the 630 megawatt (MW) London Array is the largest offshore wind farm in the world, with the 504 (MW) Greater Gabbard wind farm the second largest, followed by the 367 MW Walney Wind Farm. All are off the coast of the UK. These projects will be dwarfed by subsequent wind farms that are in the pipeline, including Dogger Bank at 4,800 MW, Norfolk Bank (7,200 MW), and Irish Sea (4,200 MW). At the end of June 2013 total European combined offshore wind energy capacity was 6,040 MW. UK installed 513.5 MW offshore windpower in the first half year of 2013.
The expansion of offshore wind farms has met with some resistance. Concerns have included shipping collisions and environmental effects on ocean ecology and wildlife such as fish and migratory birds, however, these concerns were found to be negligible in a long - term study in Denmark released in 2006 and again in a UK government study in 2009. There are also concerns about reliability, and the rising costs of constructing and maintaining offshore wind farms. Despite these, development of North Sea wind power is continuing, with plans for additional wind farms off the coasts of Germany, the Netherlands, and the UK. There have also been proposals for a transnational power grid in the North Sea to connect new offshore wind farms.
Energy production from tidal power is still in a pre-commercial stage. The European Marine Energy Centre has installed a wave testing system at Billia Croo on the Orkney mainland and a tidal power testing station on the nearby island of Eday. Since 2003, a prototype Wave Dragon energy converter has been in operation at Nissum Bredning fjord of northern Denmark.
The beaches and coastal waters of the North Sea are destinations for tourists. The Belgian, Dutch, German and Danish coasts are developed for tourism. The North Sea coast of the United Kingdom has tourist destinations with beach resorts and golf courses. Fife in Scotland is famous for its links golf courses. The coastal City of St. Andrews being renowned as the "Home of Golf ''. The coast of North East England has several tourist towns such as Scarborough, Bridlington, Seahouses, Whitby, Robin Hood 's Bay and Seaton Carew. The coast of North East England has long sandy beaches and links golfing locations such as Seaton Carew Golf Club and Goswick Golf Club. The North Sea Trail is a long - distance trail linking seven countries around the North Sea. Windsurfing and sailing are popular sports because of the strong winds. Mudflat hiking, recreational fishing and birdwatching are among other activities.
The climatic conditions on the North Sea coast have been claimed to be healthful. As early as the 19th century, travellers used their stays on the North Sea coast as curative and restorative vacations. The sea air, temperature, wind, water, and sunshine are counted among the beneficial conditions that are said to activate the body 's defences, improve circulation, strengthen the immune system, and have healing effects on the skin and the respiratory system.
The North Sea is important for marine transport and its shipping lanes are among the busiest in the world. Major ports are located along its coasts: Rotterdam, the busiest port in Europe and the fourth busiest port in the world by tonnage as of 2013, Antwerp (was 16th) and Hamburg (was 27th), Bremen / Bremerhaven and Felixstowe, both in the top 30 busiest container seaports, as well as the Port of Bruges - Zeebrugge, Europe 's leading ro - ro port.
Fishing boats, service boats for offshore industries, sport and pleasure craft, and merchant ships to and from North Sea ports and Baltic ports must share routes on the North Sea. The Dover Strait alone sees more than 400 commercial vessels a day. Because of this volume, navigation in the North Sea can be difficult in high traffic zones, so ports have established elaborate vessel traffic services to monitor and direct ships into and out of port.
The North Sea coasts are home to numerous canals and canal systems to facilitate traffic between and among rivers, artificial harbours, and the sea. The Kiel Canal, connecting the North Sea with the Baltic Sea, is the most heavily used artificial seaway in the world reporting an average of 89 ships per day not including sporting boats and other small watercraft in 2009. It saves an average of 250 nautical miles (460 km; 290 mi), instead of the voyage around the Jutland peninsula. The North Sea Canal connects Amsterdam with the North Sea.
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who plays bailey's husband in grey's | Miranda Bailey - Wikipedia
Miranda Bailey, is a fictional character from the medical drama television series Grey 's Anatomy. The character was created by series creator and producer Shonda Rhimes, and has been portrayed by actress Chandra Wilson since the show 's inception in 2005. Wilson has reprised her role in the spin - off series Private Practice and Station 19.
Introduced as a resident in general surgery at Seattle Grace Hospital, Bailey works her way up to the attending physician level, and is eventually named Chief of Surgery. Her relationship with the five surgical interns she is in charge of - Meredith Grey (Ellen Pompeo), Cristina Yang (Sandra Oh), Izzie Stevens (Katherine Heigl), George O'Malley (T.R. Knight) and Alex Karev (Justin Chambers) - is a focal point at the beginning of the series.
Miranda Bailey married Tucker Jones in 1995 and is a Wellesley College graduate.
She is introduced to the interns as "The Nazi '' in the first season premiere because of her tough personality and blunt attitude. When she was still a resident, Webber once pointed out that she disliked nearly every attending she worked under; the attendings take her seriously due to her formidable reputation as an excellent surgeon. Off the bat she tells her interns to "not bother sucking up cause I already hate you and that 's not going to change ''; however, Miranda 's more motherly and protective side is exhibited, as she is shown to care about not only her patients, but also her colleagues. She is protective of her interns, as shown when she warns Derek to stay away from Meredith. Miranda stays beside Cristina 's side as she recovers from surgery. It is later revealed that she has been married to her husband Tucker Jones (Cress Williams) for ten years and that she is pregnant. Her son is born during a bomb scare at Seattle Grace while her husband is being treated in surgery for injuries from a car crash. George O'Malley helped her through labor, and she thanked him by naming her son William George Bailey Jones (though he is nicknamed "Tuck '').
Bailey adjusts to becoming a parent and reconciling this with her desire to continue her career as a surgeon. Her professional confidence was shaken and questioned by other surgeons when Izzie Stevens cut Denny Duquette 's LVAD wire and Denny subsequently died. Christina kept Burke 's secret about his disabled hand, and Bailey felt that she was n't in control of her interns, and that she was ultimately responsible for these incidents. Dr. Richard Webber, Chief of Surgery, comforts her saying "You raised them like babies, and some of them turn out just like you ''. Disillusioned by how little she can help patients as a surgeon, Bailey pushes to open a free clinic at Seattle Grace. Izzie helps pay for it from a multi-million dollar bequest from Denny Duquette, whom she had loved. Bailey loses the post of Chief Resident to Callie Torres.
Bailey decides to back up Torres, which the Chief observes. He says that he made a mistake in not choosing Bailey in the first place. Miranda helped save the life of a white supremacist paramedic despite his racist treatment of her. When closing his stomach after the surgery, she comments to George that the incision will need to be aligned better, thus ruining the patient 's large swastika tattoo on his stomach. Following severe injuries to her son and several arguments over the state of their marriage, Dr. Bailey and her husband separated. Realizing that she can not perform surgery and direct the clinic, Bailey chooses Izzie Stevens for the position. She has shown both commitment and talent for it.
After watching the residents fight after the chance to do a solo surgery, Bailey realizes that she has become somewhat bored with General Surgery and may need a change of specialty. She became drawn to Pediatric surgery after working on a number of pediatric case and working closely with, (and having many arguments with), Arizona Robbins, a pediatric surgeon. Chief Webber is unhappy with Bailey 's decision to leave General Surgery, and discouraged her at every opportunity, giving her an uninspiring letter of recommendation and purchasing a surgical robot to lure her back to General Surgery. Ultimately, Bailey decided to continue to pursue her career in General Surgery because she had a fight with her husband who said that if she accepted a position as a Peds fellow, he would divorce her. She decides to go through with the divorce and states there will be no time to start a new specialty as a single - mom. Additionally, Bailey supports Stevens through her rounds of chemo and cancer treatments.
After declining a fellowship in Pediatrics, Bailey starts as an Attending in General Surgery. Bailey is so deeply saddened by the news of George 's death and Izzie 's near - death that she realizes that she is caring about them like her own children. She begins a relationship with the anesthesiologist from Mercy West, Ben Warren. A gunman enters the hospital, believing that the staff had failed his wife. He shoots several people, including resident Charles Percy, whom Bailey is unable to save because the elevators are shut down during the crisis and she ca n't get him to an OR. She grows close with a patient, Mary Portman, when she fights to save Charles ' life. Charles dies in Miranda 's lap. As Miranda comforts him, Charles says, "You (Bailey) were always my favorite, I thought you should know ''.
Distraught by these experiences, Bailey takes time off to visit her parents with her son. On her return, she breaks up with Ben. Mary Portman returns for her surgery, which appears to go well, but she does not wake up. They can not discover what caused her death. Miranda starts on a quest to cure fistulas and encounters a nurse, Eli, whom she starts dating.
Bailey is offended when Meredith violates the rules of the Alzheimer 's clinical trial in order to help the Chief 's wife. She berates Meredith; the Chief resigns as head of surgery because of Meredith 's action. Bailey resumes control of Ellis Grey 's Diabetes trial, and Webber pushes her to forgive Meredith and choose her as staff for the trial. Bailey forgives Meredith. She breaks off her relationship with Eli, not wanting to pursue it further, and renews her relationships with Ben the anesthesiologist. She eventually moves in with him, but he gains a surgical internship in California.
They become engaged nonetheless, and new interns at SGMW refer to her as BCB ("Booty Call Bailey ''): whenever Ben is in town she is giddy and has sex with him as much as possible. On the way to her wedding, Bailey is pulled in to perform surgery on Richard 's wife, Adele. After saving Adele, she returns to the venue and marries Ben. She launches a genome mapping program, and Meredith is the first one to test it. An investigation of Bailey takes place after three of her patients contracted an infection and died. It concludes that Bailey transmitted the infection via permeable gloves, a new brand that the hospital started using.
Following that incident, Bailey shuts everyone out for some time, because she feels that she is dirty and contaminated. She blamed Dr. Webber the most for abandoning her and avoids him altogether. Eventually, her husband, Ben, flies to Seattle to get her out of the genome lab. In the first part of the season finale, Bailey returns to work but does not go into the surgical OR. Eventually, with Dr. Webber 's stern push, she decides to be on the OR rotation for the upcoming storm along with her intern, Shane Ross.
Webber suffers electrical injuries and Bailey takes him as a patient. Bailey 's husband Ben returns for Halloween and says that he has dropped out of residency to spend more time with her and Tuck. Bailey is not impressed by this decision, and starts exhibiting some odd behaviors. Ben suggests that Bailey might have developed OCD after what happened with the CDC investigation.
Dr Bailey gets very upset when Ben shows interest as a Fire Fighter, after the Fire Incident when Dr Edwards sets fire in Grey Sloan Memorial to defend her from the Rapist (Rings of Fire). He claims to give him "The Rush ''.
Later that season, Miranda Bailey gets hospitalized due to a heart attack.
Shonda Rhimes intended the character of Bailey to be a tiny blonde with curls as "it would be unexpected to have this sweet - looking person open her mouth and say tough things. '' However, Wilson 's audition went so well that she was offered the part, and the character was rewritten. Sandra Oh was initially looking to audition for the part of Dr. Bailey. Of her role, Wilson said: "I thought it was endearing; endearing as the word ' Nazi ' can be. '' Wilson explained how she plays Bailey:
Bailey has been characterized as "straightforward '', "tough '', and "quick - witted '' by Grey 's Anatomy executives. Reflecting on her character, Chandra Wilson said: "I think a strength and a weakness for her is her ego. The strength part is great because it really does make her a really good physician. She 's really good at her job and she continues to evolve and she continues to look at ways to be ' value added ' at the hospital and is incredibly independent. That independence has certainly gotten in the way of her personal relationships. It 's gotten in the way of her being a team player on many occasions. ''
USA Today TV critic wrote in 2006 that Emmy voters could consider Chandra Wilson because she adds "warmth and humor to Bailey without making her go all squishy. '' Reviewing the show 's fourth season, Patrick Luce of Monsters and Critics found Bailey "one of the most interesting characters to watch '' as "she had to deal with losing a promotion to Sara Ramírez 's Dr. Torres; her own marriage trouble; and the continued stress of balancing being a mom and being a doctor. '' He also appreciated the fact that people got to see "a softer side '' of her while she kept "all the biting satire and sarcasm that made the character great. '' Shawna Malcom of the Los Angeles Times deemed Bailey and Sam her favorite pairing of the Grey 's Anatomy and Private Practice crossover, praising: "The grief he gave her about becoming a pediatric surgeon... the grief she gave him for letting ex-wife Naomi go and wind up in the arms of Archer... the fist bump. I say again, the fist bump! Together, Chandra Wilson and Taye Diggs are hilarious and touching and all sorts of fabulous. Here 's hoping this is n't the last we ever see of this unexpectedly dynamic duo. '' Fellow Los Angeles Times critic, Carina MacKenzie, welcomed Bailey 's "flirtation '' with Ben (Jason George) because it was "nice to see her fun, flirty side '' presented with a bit of humor after the deterioration of her relationship with Tucker. Margaret Lyons of New York Magazine was happy with the evolution of Bailey and Torres ' friendship in the first half of the ninth season, calling it "the one bright spot '': "They joke, they tease each other, they offer sage love advice to one another, now that they 're both on their second marriages. '' Entertainment Weekly included Bailey in its list of the "30 Great TV Doctors and Nurses ''. AOL TV named her one of the 100 Most Memorable Female TV Characters.
Chandra Wilson has received multiple nominations for her portrayal of Dr. Miranda Bailey. She won a 2007 Screen Actors Guild Award for her performance in the show 's third season. She has been nominated each year from 2006 to 2009 at the Emmy Awards for "Supporting Actress in a Drama Series '', losing in 2007 to co-star Katherine Heigl in the role of Izzie Stevens for the performance in the episode "Oh, the Guilt ''. She has also been praised for her performance in Grey 's Anatomy at the Screen Actors Guild Awards, receiving three nominations along with the other cast members for "Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Drama Series '' each year from 2006 to 2008, with the 2007 Awards marking a victory.
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chicago i love you more today than yesterday | More Today Than Yesterday - Wikipedia
"More Today Than Yesterday '' is a song written by Pat Upton and performed by Spiral Starecase. It reached number 6 in Canada, number 7 on the Cashbox Top 100, and number 12 on the Billboard Hot 100 in 1969. The song was also released in the United Kingdom as a single, but it did not chart. The song was featured on their 1969 album, More Today Than Yesterday.
The song was produced by Sonny Knight and arranged by Al Capps.
The song was ranked number 50 on Billboard magazine 's Top Hot 100 songs of 1969.
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what kind of animals live in a nest known as dre's | Nest - wikipedia
A nest is a structure built by certain animals to hold eggs, offspring, and, occasionally, the animal itself. Although nests are most closely associated with birds, members of all classes of vertebrates and some invertebrates construct nests. They may be composed of organic material such as twigs, grass, and leaves, or may be a simple depression in the ground, or a hole in a rock, tree, or building. Human - made materials, such as string, plastic, cloth, or paper, may also be used. Nests can be found in all types of habitat.
Nest building is driven by a biological urge known as the nesting instinct in birds and mammals. Generally each species has a distinctive style of nest. Nest complexity is roughly correlated with the level of parental care by adults. Nest building is considered a key adaptive advantage among birds, and they exhibit the most variation in their nests ranging from simple holes in the ground to elaborate communal nests hosting hundreds of individuals. Nests of prairie dogs and several social insects can host millions of individuals.
Nest building is often driven by a biological urge in pregnant animals to protect one 's offspring known as the nesting instinct. Animals build nests to protect their eggs, their offspring, or themselves from danger. The simplest nests are designed to hide eggs from predators, shield them from the sun or other environmental factors, or simply keep them from being scattered in ocean currents. In some cases, nests also help provide safety in numbers for egg - laying animals.
Many nest builders provide parental care to their young, while others simply lay their eggs and leave. Brooding (incubating eggs by sitting on them) is common among birds. In general, nest complexity increases in relation to the level of parental care provided. Nest building reinforces social behavior, allowing for larger populations in small spaces to the point of increasing the carrying capacity of an environment. Insects that exhibit the most complex nest building also exhibit the greatest social structure. Among mammals, the naked mole - rat displays a caste structure similar to the social insects while building extensive burrows that house hundreds of individuals.
At the most basic level, there are only two types of nest building: sculpting and assembly. Sculpting is the process of removing material to achieve a desired outcome. Most commonly this entails burrowing into the ground or plant matter to create a nesting site. Assembly entails gathering, transporting, and arranging materials to create a novel structure. Transportation has the greatest time and energy cost so animals are usually adapted to build with materials available in their immediate environment. Versatility in use of construction material may be an adaptive advantage (less energy used to gather materials) or a disadvantage (less ability to specialize construction). The available evidence suggests that natural selection more often favors specialization over flexibility in nest construction.
Plant matter is the most common construction material for nests. Other common materials include fur or feathers, perhaps from the animal itself, mud or dirt, fecal matter, and specialized secretions from the animal 's body. Nest building can have a substantial impact on the environment in which animals live. The combined digging activity of termites and mole - rats in South Africa has created a "mima prairie '' landscape marked by huge areas of flat land punctuated by mounds 30 metres (98 ft) wide and 2 metres (6.6 ft) high. Similar structures exist in the United States (created by pocket gophers) and Argentina (rodents of the Ctenomys genus). Nests constructed by megapode birds have been mistaken for anthropological features by professionals, due to their exceptional height (10 metres (33 ft)) and abundance (hundreds in a single location).
Nest architecture may be as useful for distinguishing species as the animals ' physical appearance. Species identified through such means are called ethospecies. This is especially common in wasps and termites, but also can apply to birds. In most animals, there is some variation in nest construction between individuals. Whether these differences are driven by genetics or learned behavior is unknown.
With the exception of a few tunneling mammals, nest builders exhibit no specialized anatomy, instead making use of body parts primarily used for other purposes. This is possibly due to the sporadic nature of nest building, minimizing the selective pressures of anatomy used for nest building.
In general, birds are the most skilled nest builders, although not all species of birds build nests, some laying their eggs directly onto rock ledges or bare soil without first modifying the area. Complex nest building is considered to be one of the key adaptive advantages of birds. Nests help regulate temperature and reduce predation risks, thus increasing the chance that offspring live to adulthood.
Bird nests vary from simple depressions in the ground known as scrapes to largely unstructured collections of branches to elaborately woven pendants or spheres. The megapodes, one of the few groups who do not directly brood their young, incubate their young in a mound of decomposing vegetation. One species, Macrocephalon maleo, uses volcanic sand warmed by geothermal heat to keep its eggs warm. Among the simple nest builders are falcons, owls, and many shorebirds. The weavers exhibit perhaps the most elaborate nests, complete with strands of grass tied into knots. Most bird nests lie somewhere in the middle, with the majority building cup - shaped nests using some combination of mud, twigs and leaves, and feathers. Some birds, such flamingos and swifts, use saliva to help hold their nest together. The edible - nest swiftlet uses saliva alone to construct their nests. The rufous hornero nest is composed entirely of mud and feces, which is placed on tree branches to allow the sun to harden it into a usable structure. The tailorbirds stitch together leaves to provide cover for their nest sites.
The sociable weaver builds large communal nests in which many individual nests reside. They divide the nest using walls of grass placed atop a base of large sticks. At the entrances to the nest, sharp sticks are placed to ward off intruders. A single communal site can measure 2 metres (6.6 ft) in height and 8 metres (26 ft) in width. As many as 300 mating pairs may reside in the structure. Other birds often built their own nests on top of Weaver nest sites.
Some birds build nests in trees, some (such as vultures, eagles, and many seabirds) will build them on rocky ledges, and others nest on the ground or in burrows. Each species has a characteristic nest style, but few are particular about where they build their nests. Most species will choose whatever site in their environment best protects their nest, taking into account the nest 's style. Several species will build on a cactus whenever possible. The bushtit and Bullock 's oriole will suspend their nests from the tips of slender branches. The oropendolas take hanging nests to the extreme, constructing pouches up to 1.8 metres (5.9 ft) tall using hanging vines as their base. The hanging nest is attached to thin tree branches, discouraging predation. Other species seek out crevices, using buildings or birdhouses when tree holes are not available.
Typical bird nests range from 2 centimetres (0.79 in) in size (hummingbirds) to 2 metres (6.6 ft) (eagles) in diameter. The largest nest on record was made by a pair of bald eagles. It was 2.9 metres (9.5 ft) in diameter, 6 metres (20 ft) deep and was estimated to weigh more than 2 tonnes (4,400 lb). The lightest bird nests may weigh only a few grams. Incubation mounds of the mallee fowl can reach heights of 4.57 metres (15.0 ft) and widths of 10.6 metres (35 ft). It is estimated the animal uses as much as 300 tonnes (660,000 lb) of material in its construction. The extinct Sylviornis neocaledoniae may have constructed nesting mounds 50 metres (160 ft) in diameter.
Many species of small mammals such as rodents, rabbits, and ground squirrels dig burrows into the ground to protect themselves and their young. Prairie dogs build an elaborate system of tunnels which can span large stretches of land. One such structure, called a town, spanned 25,000 square miles (65,000 km) and held an estimate 400 million individuals. Their homes are designed to withstand large (above - ground) temperature variation, floods, and fire. Their young are raised in the deepest chambers where the temperature is the most stable.
Many mammals, including raccoons and skunks, seek natural cavities in the ground or in trees to build their nests. Tree squirrels build their nests (dreys) in trees, while voles nest in tall grass. In some species, the nest serve as homes for adults while in others they are used to raise young. The duck - billed platypus and the echidna lay eggs in nests.
Gorillas build fresh nests daily out of leaves and other vegetation in which they sleep at night. They sometimes also build nests during the day for resting in. The smaller species of gorilla build their nests in trees, while the larger are confined to the ground. Nests of the western gorilla, the largest species, measure about 1 metre (3.3 ft) in diameter.
Some species of frog build nests ranging from simple to modest complexity. Many stream - dwelling frogs lay their eggs in a gelatinous mass which they attach to underwater vegetation. The jelly structure prevents the eggs from washing away.
Fish engage in nest building activities ranging from simply scooping out sediment to building enclosed structures out of plant matter. Male sticklebacks produce a special enzyme in their kidneys that they use to bind plants together.
The American Alligator is known for its parenting skills. They build large nests of mud and vegetation on river banks or vegetation mats. The female digs a hole in the center to lay her eggs, covers them, and then guards them for two months until they hatch. When eggs start to hatch, she breaks open the nest which has hardened over time and leads the young to the water where she continues to care for them for another year. Alligators are very particular about their nesting sites and will abandon a site if things go wrong.
Cobras use leaves and other debris to build nests in which they lay eggs that both sexes guard. They carry the vegetation to the nest site by kinking their necks. Sea turtles dig a hole in the sand above the high tide line in which they lay their eggs. They then cover the soft eggs to protect them from the sun and predators and leave.
From the fossil record, it is known that many, or perhaps all, dinosaurs laid eggs. Paleontologists have identified a number of features that allow them to distinguish a nesting site from a random clustering of eggs. Those include regular clustering patterns, the co-occurrence of whole eggs with broken eggs and / or hatchlings, and the occurrence of physical features such as evidence of excavation.
The Oviraptor nests of Mongolia are perhaps the most famous case of dinosaur nesting. One specimen was found fossilized atop a nest in a brooding posture, proving the animal had been poorly named (Oviraptor means "egg taker '').
A site known as Egg Mountain in Montana provides exceptional evidence of dinosaur nesting behavior. The site features dozens of nests each with 20 or more eggs belonging to the Maiasaura. Juvenile teeth at the site exhibit signs of wear, while the leg bones are not developed enough to walk. This allowed scientists to conclude that the species provided extensive parental care for its young. It is likely the species covered its nests with sand and vegetation to keep them warm and nested in colonies for increased protection.
Social insects, including most species of ants, bees, termites, and wasps, are nest builders. Their often elaborate nests may be found above or below ground. Features often include ventilation systems and separate chambers for the queen, her eggs, and developing individuals.
Bees and hornets often seek out natural cavities in which to construct their nests, also known as hives, in which they store food and raise their young. Other species of bee and some wasps dig holes in the ground or chew through wood. In the species Megachile rotundata, for example, females construct tubular - shaped nests in rotting wood as well as small holes in the ground, creating, each cell made from circular disks cut from plant leaves using the bee 's mandibles. Bee nests are founded upon the wax the secrete from their bodies, while those of wasps are dependent on their ability to turn plant water into paper using their saliva. Nests often exhibit divided living, with eggs and food stores kept in distinct parts of the hive. Vespid wasps build complex nests from paper - like material where they lay eggs in individual cells. When the young hatch, their parents feed them chewed up larvae. Different species exhibit different nest structures. Paper wasp nesting consist of a single tier of cells, while yellow jacket nests can be many layers thick, reaching up to 30 centimetres (0.98 ft) in diameter. Nesting strategies can be plastic, for instance the wasp Parischnogaster mellyi will significant vary its nest construction based on environmental conditions, and the wasp Mischocyttarus mexicanus is known to nest in groups or alone depending on the distribution of potential nest sites in the area. Nest sizes vary dramatically and the largest wasp nest on record measured 1.75 metres (5.7 ft) in diameter and was 3.7 metres (12 ft) tall. Found in New Zealand, it was likely built by the German wasp.
Termites build elaborate nests that span multiple generations and may last decades. Using chewed wood, mud, and feces they build large mounds which may extend well into the air. The largest nests, built by members of Amitermes genus, stand nearly 7 metres (23 ft) tall with a similar circumference at the base, and host millions of individuals. Termite mounds are constructed to allow for excellent air flow, regulating the mound temperature. The mounds protect against drying and predation allowing many species to lose ancestral traits such as hard bodies, skin pigmentation, and good eyesight. Magnetic termites construct their nests with flattened sides along the North - South axis to ensure maximum warming during the winter, while exposing minimal surface area to the harshest mid-day sunshine. Other termite species use their nests to farm fungi.
Ant nests feature an elaborate colony structure that may extend 2 metres (6.6 ft) or more underground. As the structure gets further underground, individual chambers become farther and farther apart indicating that the ant is aware of its depth. It is hypothesized that they accomplish this by sensing the level of carbon dioxide in the soil. The leaf cutter ant builds a complex nest which can house 8 million individuals. Its nests feature numerous chambers, most notably garden chambers where they farm fungus on leaves they harvest from the forest.
Species such as the carpenter ant and the wasp Polistes exclamans build "satellite nests '' - smaller nests near, but separate from, the main nest. These satellite nests are used as an insurance against predators and parasites; if the original nest is attacked, surviving members can move the satellite nest. Other species such as the Black hover wasp, Parischnogaster alternata, construct nests in clusters with the central core composed of older colonies surrounded by younger colonies.
The Eastern carpenter bee, Xylocopa virginica, is unique in that individuals of that species build their nests in wood, bamboo culms, agave stalks, and other similar materials, although their preferred nesting material is pine or cedar lumber. When digging the nests, they use the wood shavings scraped from the wall to create partitions within the tunnels. The nests are usually round and have about 1 - 4 tunnels, each with multiple branches. Because these materials are often useful for humans in construction, X. virgininica 's nesting behavior presents the disadvantage of weakening wood in manmade structures.
The abundance of biological resources within the nest has led to a number of specialized predators. The aardvark and the ant eater use long tongues to prey upon termite and ant nests. Birds such as the honey buzzard specialize on wasp and bee nests, a resource also targeted by the tropical hornet. Symbiosis, ranging from feeding on waste to obligate parasitism, is common within the nest. Ant nests alone support symbiotes spanning six classes of arthropods which includes 35 families just from the beetles.
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