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Surgery_Schwartz_13002 | Surgery_Schwartz | play an important role in current as well as future reconstructive, regen-erative, and restorative measures for tissue and skin replace-ment. Essentially, they act similarly to grafts as they rely on revascularization and autologous cell repopulation of the con-struct in order to “take” and become part of the lost anatomic structure they are acting to restore.Graft Take. Skin graft healing, or “take,” occurs in three phases: imbibition, inosculation, and revascularization. Plas-matic imbibition takes place during the first 24 to 48 hours after placement of the graft onto the defect. During this time, the graft is held in place by a thin film of fibrin, and the cellular elements survive by diffusion of oxygen and substrate from plasma pres-ent in the open wound. After 48 hours, a fine vascular network forms from capillaries and small blood vessels in the wound bed and advances through the fibrin layer toward the graft. These new vascular buds encounter open, cut end vessels on the deep | Surgery_Schwartz. play an important role in current as well as future reconstructive, regen-erative, and restorative measures for tissue and skin replace-ment. Essentially, they act similarly to grafts as they rely on revascularization and autologous cell repopulation of the con-struct in order to “take” and become part of the lost anatomic structure they are acting to restore.Graft Take. Skin graft healing, or “take,” occurs in three phases: imbibition, inosculation, and revascularization. Plas-matic imbibition takes place during the first 24 to 48 hours after placement of the graft onto the defect. During this time, the graft is held in place by a thin film of fibrin, and the cellular elements survive by diffusion of oxygen and substrate from plasma pres-ent in the open wound. After 48 hours, a fine vascular network forms from capillaries and small blood vessels in the wound bed and advances through the fibrin layer toward the graft. These new vascular buds encounter open, cut end vessels on the deep |
Surgery_Schwartz_13003 | Surgery_Schwartz | network forms from capillaries and small blood vessels in the wound bed and advances through the fibrin layer toward the graft. These new vascular buds encounter open, cut end vessels on the deep surface of the dermis of the graft and line up, forming loose anastomoses that begin to allow blood flow and the transfer of some nutrients and oxygen. This phase is called inosculation and is the period during which the graft is most at risk for fail-ure. If the tenuous alignment of vessels between the wound bed and the graft are disrupted, then the final phase of healing will not occur. Events that can cause graft failure at this time include mechanical shear, formation of a seroma or hematoma, or bac-terial contamination. The final phase of engraftment is called revascularization. During this phase, firmer vascular anastomo-ses are formed as the vessels heal, and the graft becomes per-fused from the wound bed. Signs of perfusion, such as improved coloration and evidence of capillary | Surgery_Schwartz. network forms from capillaries and small blood vessels in the wound bed and advances through the fibrin layer toward the graft. These new vascular buds encounter open, cut end vessels on the deep surface of the dermis of the graft and line up, forming loose anastomoses that begin to allow blood flow and the transfer of some nutrients and oxygen. This phase is called inosculation and is the period during which the graft is most at risk for fail-ure. If the tenuous alignment of vessels between the wound bed and the graft are disrupted, then the final phase of healing will not occur. Events that can cause graft failure at this time include mechanical shear, formation of a seroma or hematoma, or bac-terial contamination. The final phase of engraftment is called revascularization. During this phase, firmer vascular anastomo-ses are formed as the vessels heal, and the graft becomes per-fused from the wound bed. Signs of perfusion, such as improved coloration and evidence of capillary |
Surgery_Schwartz_13004 | Surgery_Schwartz | this phase, firmer vascular anastomo-ses are formed as the vessels heal, and the graft becomes per-fused from the wound bed. Signs of perfusion, such as improved coloration and evidence of capillary refill, confirm engraftment and graft take. In most circumstances, these phases are complete by 4 to 5 days after graft placement. The dressing used after placing the skin graft is a critical part of success. It must prevent desiccation and shear stress from disrupting the graft, especially during the critical period of inosculation. Tie-over bolster dress-ings are a traditional method. Topical negative pressure wound dressings have been demonstrated to increase quantity and qual-ity of split-thickness skin graft take compared to traditional bol-ster dressings. The benefits are particularly evident in wounds with irregular surface contours in areas that might be difficult to avoid motion.8After skin graft take, the graft remains subject to late fail-ure due to mechanical shear, | Surgery_Schwartz. this phase, firmer vascular anastomo-ses are formed as the vessels heal, and the graft becomes per-fused from the wound bed. Signs of perfusion, such as improved coloration and evidence of capillary refill, confirm engraftment and graft take. In most circumstances, these phases are complete by 4 to 5 days after graft placement. The dressing used after placing the skin graft is a critical part of success. It must prevent desiccation and shear stress from disrupting the graft, especially during the critical period of inosculation. Tie-over bolster dress-ings are a traditional method. Topical negative pressure wound dressings have been demonstrated to increase quantity and qual-ity of split-thickness skin graft take compared to traditional bol-ster dressings. The benefits are particularly evident in wounds with irregular surface contours in areas that might be difficult to avoid motion.8After skin graft take, the graft remains subject to late fail-ure due to mechanical shear, |
Surgery_Schwartz_13005 | Surgery_Schwartz | evident in wounds with irregular surface contours in areas that might be difficult to avoid motion.8After skin graft take, the graft remains subject to late fail-ure due to mechanical shear, desiccation, or bacterial infection. Depending on the location and clinical setting, the graft should continue to be protected using dressings, topical moisturizing creams, or antibacterial medications as indicated until stable healing obtains in up to 2 weeks.Composite Grafts. Composite grafts contain other types of tissue besides skin. Additional elements must have low met-abolic requirements in order to survive the time required for revascularization. Composite grafts might include subcutane-ous fat, cartilage, perichondrium, and small amounts of muscle. Indications for composite grafts are limited to small areas with specialized tissue requirements such as nasal reconstruction. For example, excision of a skin cancer involving the nasal lobule may create a composite defect that involves | Surgery_Schwartz. evident in wounds with irregular surface contours in areas that might be difficult to avoid motion.8After skin graft take, the graft remains subject to late fail-ure due to mechanical shear, desiccation, or bacterial infection. Depending on the location and clinical setting, the graft should continue to be protected using dressings, topical moisturizing creams, or antibacterial medications as indicated until stable healing obtains in up to 2 weeks.Composite Grafts. Composite grafts contain other types of tissue besides skin. Additional elements must have low met-abolic requirements in order to survive the time required for revascularization. Composite grafts might include subcutane-ous fat, cartilage, perichondrium, and small amounts of muscle. Indications for composite grafts are limited to small areas with specialized tissue requirements such as nasal reconstruction. For example, excision of a skin cancer involving the nasal lobule may create a composite defect that involves |
Surgery_Schwartz_13006 | Surgery_Schwartz | limited to small areas with specialized tissue requirements such as nasal reconstruction. For example, excision of a skin cancer involving the nasal lobule may create a composite defect that involves internal nasal lin-ing, supporting nasal cartilage, and external skin. The ear is a good donor site for a composite graft of tissue with a good color match for the face and small amounts of tissue configured natu-rally to simulate the contours of the nose. For example, harvest of tissue from the root of the helix of the ear causes a relatively inconspicuous donor site. The donor site for composite tissue grafts must be repaired with primary closure.Surgical Flaps. A surgical flap is a unit of tissue harvested from a donor site and transferred to another location for Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 197601/03/19 6:26 PM 1977PLASTIC AND RECONSTRUCTIVE SURGERYCHAPTER 45reconstructive purposes. The term “flap” is derived from tech-niques of adjacent skin tissue transfers fashioned as | Surgery_Schwartz. limited to small areas with specialized tissue requirements such as nasal reconstruction. For example, excision of a skin cancer involving the nasal lobule may create a composite defect that involves internal nasal lin-ing, supporting nasal cartilage, and external skin. The ear is a good donor site for a composite graft of tissue with a good color match for the face and small amounts of tissue configured natu-rally to simulate the contours of the nose. For example, harvest of tissue from the root of the helix of the ear causes a relatively inconspicuous donor site. The donor site for composite tissue grafts must be repaired with primary closure.Surgical Flaps. A surgical flap is a unit of tissue harvested from a donor site and transferred to another location for Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 197601/03/19 6:26 PM 1977PLASTIC AND RECONSTRUCTIVE SURGERYCHAPTER 45reconstructive purposes. The term “flap” is derived from tech-niques of adjacent skin tissue transfers fashioned as |
Surgery_Schwartz_13007 | Surgery_Schwartz | 197601/03/19 6:26 PM 1977PLASTIC AND RECONSTRUCTIVE SURGERYCHAPTER 45reconstructive purposes. The term “flap” is derived from tech-niques of adjacent skin tissue transfers fashioned as flaps of skin that were elevated and folded into the defect. The distinguishing feature of a surgical flap is having a blood supply independent of the injured area. A graft must go through the phases of heal-ing described previously as it derives a new blood supply from the wound bed. A flap is brought to the wound with its own blood supply. This allows restoring tissue in areas of poor blood supply or with tissue requirements greater than what can be sup-ported through a period of diffusion only.There are a tremendous variety of surgical flaps that can be created depending on the individual patient’s reconstructive needs and available tissues. The challenge of reconstructive sur-gery is to design an appropriate flap to restore the defect with a minimal amount of morbidity related to the flap donor | Surgery_Schwartz. 197601/03/19 6:26 PM 1977PLASTIC AND RECONSTRUCTIVE SURGERYCHAPTER 45reconstructive purposes. The term “flap” is derived from tech-niques of adjacent skin tissue transfers fashioned as flaps of skin that were elevated and folded into the defect. The distinguishing feature of a surgical flap is having a blood supply independent of the injured area. A graft must go through the phases of heal-ing described previously as it derives a new blood supply from the wound bed. A flap is brought to the wound with its own blood supply. This allows restoring tissue in areas of poor blood supply or with tissue requirements greater than what can be sup-ported through a period of diffusion only.There are a tremendous variety of surgical flaps that can be created depending on the individual patient’s reconstructive needs and available tissues. The challenge of reconstructive sur-gery is to design an appropriate flap to restore the defect with a minimal amount of morbidity related to the flap donor |
Surgery_Schwartz_13008 | Surgery_Schwartz | needs and available tissues. The challenge of reconstructive sur-gery is to design an appropriate flap to restore the defect with a minimal amount of morbidity related to the flap donor site. The different kinds of flaps can be broadly classified by three distinct characteristics: (a) the types of tissue contained, (b) the proximity to the defect, and (c) the pattern of blood supply.The first way to classify different types of surgical flaps is by what tissue they contain. Nearly any type of vascularized tissue can be transferred as a surgical flap. One of the most com-mon is a cutaneous flap, which contains skin and subcutaneous tissue. Another versatile type is a muscle flap, which contains only muscle. Musculocutaneous flaps contain a portion of mus-cle along with the overlying skin and all the intervening tissues. An osseous flap contains a segment of bone, and an osteocuta-neous flap includes skin as well as the bone. Flaps can also be designed to include fascia and peripheral | Surgery_Schwartz. needs and available tissues. The challenge of reconstructive sur-gery is to design an appropriate flap to restore the defect with a minimal amount of morbidity related to the flap donor site. The different kinds of flaps can be broadly classified by three distinct characteristics: (a) the types of tissue contained, (b) the proximity to the defect, and (c) the pattern of blood supply.The first way to classify different types of surgical flaps is by what tissue they contain. Nearly any type of vascularized tissue can be transferred as a surgical flap. One of the most com-mon is a cutaneous flap, which contains skin and subcutaneous tissue. Another versatile type is a muscle flap, which contains only muscle. Musculocutaneous flaps contain a portion of mus-cle along with the overlying skin and all the intervening tissues. An osseous flap contains a segment of bone, and an osteocuta-neous flap includes skin as well as the bone. Flaps can also be designed to include fascia and peripheral |
Surgery_Schwartz_13009 | Surgery_Schwartz | and all the intervening tissues. An osseous flap contains a segment of bone, and an osteocuta-neous flap includes skin as well as the bone. Flaps can also be designed to include fascia and peripheral nerves. Visceral flaps contain segments of jejunum, stomach, colon, or the greater omentum. The choice of flap depends upon the reconstructive needs and availability of tissue.The second way to classify surgical flaps is by their prox-imity to the defect. The location and distance between the flap donor site and the defect usually dictate the method required to transfer the tissue with preservation of the blood supply. Local flaps have a donor site located immediately adjacent to the defect.9 Regional flaps are harvested from the same anatomic region as the defect. Distant flaps are harvested and trans-ferred from outside the anatomic region of the defect. Dur-ing the transfer of all of these flaps, the blood supply remains attached to the source anatomic region. The tissue transmitting | Surgery_Schwartz. and all the intervening tissues. An osseous flap contains a segment of bone, and an osteocuta-neous flap includes skin as well as the bone. Flaps can also be designed to include fascia and peripheral nerves. Visceral flaps contain segments of jejunum, stomach, colon, or the greater omentum. The choice of flap depends upon the reconstructive needs and availability of tissue.The second way to classify surgical flaps is by their prox-imity to the defect. The location and distance between the flap donor site and the defect usually dictate the method required to transfer the tissue with preservation of the blood supply. Local flaps have a donor site located immediately adjacent to the defect.9 Regional flaps are harvested from the same anatomic region as the defect. Distant flaps are harvested and trans-ferred from outside the anatomic region of the defect. Dur-ing the transfer of all of these flaps, the blood supply remains attached to the source anatomic region. The tissue transmitting |
Surgery_Schwartz_13010 | Surgery_Schwartz | and trans-ferred from outside the anatomic region of the defect. Dur-ing the transfer of all of these flaps, the blood supply remains attached to the source anatomic region. The tissue transmitting the blood supply is called the flap pedicle. When the blood supply is not divided during the transfer, it is referred to as a pedicled flap. If the distance between the donor site and the defect exceeds the length of the pedicle, the vessels can Figure 45-14. Limberg flap.be divided and then reattached to uninjured vessels within or adjacent to the defect after the tissue is placed there. This technique is called a free tissue transfer, and flaps transferred in this fashion are called free flaps because for some period of time during the procedure the tissue of the flap is completely separated, or free, of the patient. The diameter of the blood vessels that supply common surgical flaps is usually less than 5 mm. Repairing blood vessels of this caliber is considered microvascular surgery, | Surgery_Schwartz. and trans-ferred from outside the anatomic region of the defect. Dur-ing the transfer of all of these flaps, the blood supply remains attached to the source anatomic region. The tissue transmitting the blood supply is called the flap pedicle. When the blood supply is not divided during the transfer, it is referred to as a pedicled flap. If the distance between the donor site and the defect exceeds the length of the pedicle, the vessels can Figure 45-14. Limberg flap.be divided and then reattached to uninjured vessels within or adjacent to the defect after the tissue is placed there. This technique is called a free tissue transfer, and flaps transferred in this fashion are called free flaps because for some period of time during the procedure the tissue of the flap is completely separated, or free, of the patient. The diameter of the blood vessels that supply common surgical flaps is usually less than 5 mm. Repairing blood vessels of this caliber is considered microvascular surgery, |
Surgery_Schwartz_13011 | Surgery_Schwartz | or free, of the patient. The diameter of the blood vessels that supply common surgical flaps is usually less than 5 mm. Repairing blood vessels of this caliber is considered microvascular surgery, and techniques for doing this are part of reconstructive microsurgery.The third and perhaps most important way to classify dif-ferent surgical flaps is by the pattern of their blood supply.10 Using this criterion, flaps are traditionally divided into random pattern flaps, axial pattern flaps, musculocutaneous flaps, fas-ciocutaneous flaps, direct cutaneous flaps, perforator flaps, and free flaps. These designations are based on how vessels reach from the deeper, usually named, arteries and veins to the super-ficial tissues and skin. These are described in greater detail in the following section.Random Pattern Flaps. The simplest flap designs are random pattern flaps, so named because the blood supply is based on unnamed vessels in the attached base of the flap that perfuse through the | Surgery_Schwartz. or free, of the patient. The diameter of the blood vessels that supply common surgical flaps is usually less than 5 mm. Repairing blood vessels of this caliber is considered microvascular surgery, and techniques for doing this are part of reconstructive microsurgery.The third and perhaps most important way to classify dif-ferent surgical flaps is by the pattern of their blood supply.10 Using this criterion, flaps are traditionally divided into random pattern flaps, axial pattern flaps, musculocutaneous flaps, fas-ciocutaneous flaps, direct cutaneous flaps, perforator flaps, and free flaps. These designations are based on how vessels reach from the deeper, usually named, arteries and veins to the super-ficial tissues and skin. These are described in greater detail in the following section.Random Pattern Flaps. The simplest flap designs are random pattern flaps, so named because the blood supply is based on unnamed vessels in the attached base of the flap that perfuse through the |
Surgery_Schwartz_13012 | Surgery_Schwartz | Pattern Flaps. The simplest flap designs are random pattern flaps, so named because the blood supply is based on unnamed vessels in the attached base of the flap that perfuse through the subdermal plexus.11 Random flaps are typically used to reconstruct relatively small, full-thickness defects, and they are designed following geometric principles of skin rearrange-ment with a traditional length-to-width ratio of 3:1. Exceptions to this principle regarding reliable dimensions abound, however, because of the variability in the patterns of perfusion and the density of the subdermal plexus in different regions of the body.Random pattern flaps can be further subdivided based on the geometry of the transfer. Examples of this are transposition flaps, advancement flaps, and interpolated flaps. A transposition flap is fashioned adjacent to an area needing reconstruction and rotated into the defect. Large transposition flaps can require a skin graft to close the donor site. To avoid this | Surgery_Schwartz. Pattern Flaps. The simplest flap designs are random pattern flaps, so named because the blood supply is based on unnamed vessels in the attached base of the flap that perfuse through the subdermal plexus.11 Random flaps are typically used to reconstruct relatively small, full-thickness defects, and they are designed following geometric principles of skin rearrange-ment with a traditional length-to-width ratio of 3:1. Exceptions to this principle regarding reliable dimensions abound, however, because of the variability in the patterns of perfusion and the density of the subdermal plexus in different regions of the body.Random pattern flaps can be further subdivided based on the geometry of the transfer. Examples of this are transposition flaps, advancement flaps, and interpolated flaps. A transposition flap is fashioned adjacent to an area needing reconstruction and rotated into the defect. Large transposition flaps can require a skin graft to close the donor site. To avoid this |
Surgery_Schwartz_13013 | Surgery_Schwartz | A transposition flap is fashioned adjacent to an area needing reconstruction and rotated into the defect. Large transposition flaps can require a skin graft to close the donor site. To avoid this problem, spe-cialized types of transposition flaps have been devised. One that is particularly useful is called a Z-plasty. In this technique, two flaps are rotated, each into the donor site of the other, to rearrange the tissues in a way that redirects the lines of tension and lengthens the central limb. Another is the rhomboid (Lim-berg) flap (Fig. 45-14). In this technique, a skin flap is precisely designed with opposing 60° and 120° angles at the corners of a rhomboid designed immediately adjacent to the defect. This design can be modified to allow the flap to rotate into the defect Area withmaximum laxityABCD120°60°Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 197701/03/19 6:26 PM 1978SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIwith primary closure of the donor site with minimal distortion of the surrounding | Surgery_Schwartz. A transposition flap is fashioned adjacent to an area needing reconstruction and rotated into the defect. Large transposition flaps can require a skin graft to close the donor site. To avoid this problem, spe-cialized types of transposition flaps have been devised. One that is particularly useful is called a Z-plasty. In this technique, two flaps are rotated, each into the donor site of the other, to rearrange the tissues in a way that redirects the lines of tension and lengthens the central limb. Another is the rhomboid (Lim-berg) flap (Fig. 45-14). In this technique, a skin flap is precisely designed with opposing 60° and 120° angles at the corners of a rhomboid designed immediately adjacent to the defect. This design can be modified to allow the flap to rotate into the defect Area withmaximum laxityABCD120°60°Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 197701/03/19 6:26 PM 1978SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIwith primary closure of the donor site with minimal distortion of the surrounding |
Surgery_Schwartz_13014 | Surgery_Schwartz | laxityABCD120°60°Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 197701/03/19 6:26 PM 1978SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIwith primary closure of the donor site with minimal distortion of the surrounding tissues as shown in the case of a gluteal repair (Fig. 45-15A–B, by complex closure; Fig. 45-15C–E, by modi-fied Limberg flap). Modifications on the angle, including the Dufourmental modification, cause the parametric configuration to be optimized based on the defect12 (Fig. 45-16). Rotational flaps are a type of transposition that is semicircular in design, allowing the tissue to be rotated and permitting primary closure. Advancement flaps differ from transposition flaps because the tissue is moved forward from the donor site along the flap’s long axis rather than being rotated about a point. Two common vari-ants include the rectangular advancement flap (Fig. 45-17) and the V-Y advancement flap (Fig. 45-18). Finally, interpolation flaps rotate about a pivot point but are used to transfer tissue | Surgery_Schwartz. laxityABCD120°60°Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 197701/03/19 6:26 PM 1978SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIwith primary closure of the donor site with minimal distortion of the surrounding tissues as shown in the case of a gluteal repair (Fig. 45-15A–B, by complex closure; Fig. 45-15C–E, by modi-fied Limberg flap). Modifications on the angle, including the Dufourmental modification, cause the parametric configuration to be optimized based on the defect12 (Fig. 45-16). Rotational flaps are a type of transposition that is semicircular in design, allowing the tissue to be rotated and permitting primary closure. Advancement flaps differ from transposition flaps because the tissue is moved forward from the donor site along the flap’s long axis rather than being rotated about a point. Two common vari-ants include the rectangular advancement flap (Fig. 45-17) and the V-Y advancement flap (Fig. 45-18). Finally, interpolation flaps rotate about a pivot point but are used to transfer tissue |
Surgery_Schwartz_13015 | Surgery_Schwartz | vari-ants include the rectangular advancement flap (Fig. 45-17) and the V-Y advancement flap (Fig. 45-18). Finally, interpolation flaps rotate about a pivot point but are used to transfer tissue ABCDEFigure 45-15. Reconstruction of a gluteal defect using complex closure and reconstruction of a gluteal defect using a modified Limberg flap.Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 197801/03/19 6:26 PM 1979PLASTIC AND RECONSTRUCTIVE SURGERYCHAPTER 45Figure 45-16. Dufourmental modification.Figure 45-17. Rectangular advancement flap.Figure 45-18. V-Y flap closure.BABYXZCADEF˜1˜2°Advancement flapABCDinto a nonadjacent area with an intervening portion of undam-aged tissue between the donor site and the defect (Fig. 45-19).Axial Pattern Flaps. Historically, surgeons made an increas-ing variety of surgical flaps to address a greater assortment of reconstructive problems. In the process, they noticed that some of these flaps routinely violated the strict limitations of accepted length-to-width | Surgery_Schwartz. vari-ants include the rectangular advancement flap (Fig. 45-17) and the V-Y advancement flap (Fig. 45-18). Finally, interpolation flaps rotate about a pivot point but are used to transfer tissue ABCDEFigure 45-15. Reconstruction of a gluteal defect using complex closure and reconstruction of a gluteal defect using a modified Limberg flap.Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 197801/03/19 6:26 PM 1979PLASTIC AND RECONSTRUCTIVE SURGERYCHAPTER 45Figure 45-16. Dufourmental modification.Figure 45-17. Rectangular advancement flap.Figure 45-18. V-Y flap closure.BABYXZCADEF˜1˜2°Advancement flapABCDinto a nonadjacent area with an intervening portion of undam-aged tissue between the donor site and the defect (Fig. 45-19).Axial Pattern Flaps. Historically, surgeons made an increas-ing variety of surgical flaps to address a greater assortment of reconstructive problems. In the process, they noticed that some of these flaps routinely violated the strict limitations of accepted length-to-width |
Surgery_Schwartz_13016 | Surgery_Schwartz | surgical flaps to address a greater assortment of reconstructive problems. In the process, they noticed that some of these flaps routinely violated the strict limitations of accepted length-to-width ratio. Further investigation demon-strated that these flaps had significant arteries running parallel to the long axis of the flap. These flaps became known as axial pattern flaps.12 The earliest example of this type of flap is the deltopectoral flap, originally described in 1971 by Bakamjian (Fig. 45-20A,B). This flap is based on cutaneous vessels perfo-rating from inside the chest from the internal mammary artery and vein. After entering the subcutaneous tissues, they travel obliquely from the sternal border toward the deltoid area of the arm. Long flaps can be designed based on these vessels, which can reach into the head and neck to provide thin tissue from the upper chest to restore defects, especially after tumor ablation. Other important and useful axial pattern flaps are the groin | Surgery_Schwartz. surgical flaps to address a greater assortment of reconstructive problems. In the process, they noticed that some of these flaps routinely violated the strict limitations of accepted length-to-width ratio. Further investigation demon-strated that these flaps had significant arteries running parallel to the long axis of the flap. These flaps became known as axial pattern flaps.12 The earliest example of this type of flap is the deltopectoral flap, originally described in 1971 by Bakamjian (Fig. 45-20A,B). This flap is based on cutaneous vessels perfo-rating from inside the chest from the internal mammary artery and vein. After entering the subcutaneous tissues, they travel obliquely from the sternal border toward the deltoid area of the arm. Long flaps can be designed based on these vessels, which can reach into the head and neck to provide thin tissue from the upper chest to restore defects, especially after tumor ablation. Other important and useful axial pattern flaps are the groin |
Surgery_Schwartz_13017 | Surgery_Schwartz | which can reach into the head and neck to provide thin tissue from the upper chest to restore defects, especially after tumor ablation. Other important and useful axial pattern flaps are the groin flap and the posterior thigh flap.Musculocutaneous Flaps. The vascular pattern of musculo-cutaneous flaps arises from major vessels that primarily supply a muscle and then secondarily supply the skin through multiple small vessels traversing between the superficial surface of the muscle and the subdermal plexus. The discovery of this pat-tern of cutaneous blood supply was a major breakthrough in reconstructive surgery because it made it possible to transfer units of tissue much larger than was possible with random or axial pattern flaps, enabling plastic surgeons to restore a greater range of deformities. Mathes and Nahai classified individual muscles into five types (I–V) according to the number and dom-inance of the vascular pedicles supplying each13 (Table 45-1). There may be advantages | Surgery_Schwartz. which can reach into the head and neck to provide thin tissue from the upper chest to restore defects, especially after tumor ablation. Other important and useful axial pattern flaps are the groin flap and the posterior thigh flap.Musculocutaneous Flaps. The vascular pattern of musculo-cutaneous flaps arises from major vessels that primarily supply a muscle and then secondarily supply the skin through multiple small vessels traversing between the superficial surface of the muscle and the subdermal plexus. The discovery of this pat-tern of cutaneous blood supply was a major breakthrough in reconstructive surgery because it made it possible to transfer units of tissue much larger than was possible with random or axial pattern flaps, enabling plastic surgeons to restore a greater range of deformities. Mathes and Nahai classified individual muscles into five types (I–V) according to the number and dom-inance of the vascular pedicles supplying each13 (Table 45-1). There may be advantages |
Surgery_Schwartz_13018 | Surgery_Schwartz | Mathes and Nahai classified individual muscles into five types (I–V) according to the number and dom-inance of the vascular pedicles supplying each13 (Table 45-1). There may be advantages to including muscle in a surgical flap besides ensuring adequate blood supply to the overlying skin. The classic example is breast reconstruction using a latissimus dorsi myocutaneous flap (Fig. 45-21A–C). Here, the latissimus muscle is harvested pedicled on the thoracodorsal vessels and transposed anteriorly onto the chest wall. Muscle is a highly vascularized tissue that is bulky and deformable. It can help to repair visible surface contour deformities by increasing the pro-jection of tissue in the defect to reach the level of the surround-ing undamaged tissues. It can also easily contour to fill spaces in a complicated wound surface, thus helping to prevent small fluid collections in recesses, which can be a harbor bacteria and become a nidus of infection. It is also possible to provide | Surgery_Schwartz. Mathes and Nahai classified individual muscles into five types (I–V) according to the number and dom-inance of the vascular pedicles supplying each13 (Table 45-1). There may be advantages to including muscle in a surgical flap besides ensuring adequate blood supply to the overlying skin. The classic example is breast reconstruction using a latissimus dorsi myocutaneous flap (Fig. 45-21A–C). Here, the latissimus muscle is harvested pedicled on the thoracodorsal vessels and transposed anteriorly onto the chest wall. Muscle is a highly vascularized tissue that is bulky and deformable. It can help to repair visible surface contour deformities by increasing the pro-jection of tissue in the defect to reach the level of the surround-ing undamaged tissues. It can also easily contour to fill spaces in a complicated wound surface, thus helping to prevent small fluid collections in recesses, which can be a harbor bacteria and become a nidus of infection. It is also possible to provide |
Surgery_Schwartz_13019 | Surgery_Schwartz | fill spaces in a complicated wound surface, thus helping to prevent small fluid collections in recesses, which can be a harbor bacteria and become a nidus of infection. It is also possible to provide func-tional restoration using musculocutaneous flaps by coapting the motor nerve of the muscle in the flap to a corresponding motor nerve in the defect. This method can be used to restore motor function in patients with motor loss in the extremities or face.Fasciocutaneous Flaps. Rather than having a blood supply primarily from underlying muscle, the skin and subcutaneous tissues of some anatomic regions are supplied from vessels communicating with the underlying superficial or deep fascia. Such flaps are referred to as fasciocutaneous flaps. The artery and vein of the flap pedicle passes between rather than through muscles, form a plexus of vessels within the fascia, and then send multiple small vessels to the subdermal plexus to perfuse the skin. There are clinical circumstances when a | Surgery_Schwartz. fill spaces in a complicated wound surface, thus helping to prevent small fluid collections in recesses, which can be a harbor bacteria and become a nidus of infection. It is also possible to provide func-tional restoration using musculocutaneous flaps by coapting the motor nerve of the muscle in the flap to a corresponding motor nerve in the defect. This method can be used to restore motor function in patients with motor loss in the extremities or face.Fasciocutaneous Flaps. Rather than having a blood supply primarily from underlying muscle, the skin and subcutaneous tissues of some anatomic regions are supplied from vessels communicating with the underlying superficial or deep fascia. Such flaps are referred to as fasciocutaneous flaps. The artery and vein of the flap pedicle passes between rather than through muscles, form a plexus of vessels within the fascia, and then send multiple small vessels to the subdermal plexus to perfuse the skin. There are clinical circumstances when a |
Surgery_Schwartz_13020 | Surgery_Schwartz | rather than through muscles, form a plexus of vessels within the fascia, and then send multiple small vessels to the subdermal plexus to perfuse the skin. There are clinical circumstances when a fasciocutane-ous flap might have advantages over a musculocutaneous flap. Fasciocutaneous flaps are usually thinner compared to muscu-locutaneous flaps. They also do not create a functional loss of muscle in the donor site. Mathes and Nahai classified fasciocu-taneous flaps into types A, B, and C (Table 45-2) based on how the vascular pedicle reaches the fascia from the major vessels deep to the fascia and muscles. Sural perforator fasciocutaneous flaps (Fig. 45-22A–D) are a modern example of reconstructing lower extremity defects that would be difficult to reconstruct without microvascular surgery.Direct Cutaneous Flaps. Some surgical flaps have a vascu-lar pedicle that reaches directly to the superficial tissues and subdermal plexus without passing through a muscle or fascia plexus. These | Surgery_Schwartz. rather than through muscles, form a plexus of vessels within the fascia, and then send multiple small vessels to the subdermal plexus to perfuse the skin. There are clinical circumstances when a fasciocutane-ous flap might have advantages over a musculocutaneous flap. Fasciocutaneous flaps are usually thinner compared to muscu-locutaneous flaps. They also do not create a functional loss of muscle in the donor site. Mathes and Nahai classified fasciocu-taneous flaps into types A, B, and C (Table 45-2) based on how the vascular pedicle reaches the fascia from the major vessels deep to the fascia and muscles. Sural perforator fasciocutaneous flaps (Fig. 45-22A–D) are a modern example of reconstructing lower extremity defects that would be difficult to reconstruct without microvascular surgery.Direct Cutaneous Flaps. Some surgical flaps have a vascu-lar pedicle that reaches directly to the superficial tissues and subdermal plexus without passing through a muscle or fascia plexus. These |
Surgery_Schwartz_13021 | Surgery_Schwartz | Cutaneous Flaps. Some surgical flaps have a vascu-lar pedicle that reaches directly to the superficial tissues and subdermal plexus without passing through a muscle or fascia plexus. These are called direct cutaneous flaps.Perforator Flaps. The final kind of surgical flap classified by the pattern of blood supply is the perforator propeller flap.14,15 The geometric measurements that are critical to its success are summarized in Fig. 45-23. Reconstructive procedures based Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 197901/03/19 6:27 PM 1980SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIFigure 45-19. Forehead flap for nasal reconstruction.ADBECFon these flaps are the result of complementary advances in our understanding of cutaneous blood supply and improved surgical techniques.Ian Taylor and a team of investigators from Melbourne, Australia, discovered that the blood supply to all portions of the skin was organized into discreet units, which they called angiosomes18. Analogous to dermatomes that describe the | Surgery_Schwartz. Cutaneous Flaps. Some surgical flaps have a vascu-lar pedicle that reaches directly to the superficial tissues and subdermal plexus without passing through a muscle or fascia plexus. These are called direct cutaneous flaps.Perforator Flaps. The final kind of surgical flap classified by the pattern of blood supply is the perforator propeller flap.14,15 The geometric measurements that are critical to its success are summarized in Fig. 45-23. Reconstructive procedures based Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 197901/03/19 6:27 PM 1980SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIFigure 45-19. Forehead flap for nasal reconstruction.ADBECFon these flaps are the result of complementary advances in our understanding of cutaneous blood supply and improved surgical techniques.Ian Taylor and a team of investigators from Melbourne, Australia, discovered that the blood supply to all portions of the skin was organized into discreet units, which they called angiosomes18. Analogous to dermatomes that describe the |
Surgery_Schwartz_13022 | Surgery_Schwartz | from Melbourne, Australia, discovered that the blood supply to all portions of the skin was organized into discreet units, which they called angiosomes18. Analogous to dermatomes that describe the patterns of cutaneous sensation supplied by single sensory nerves, the cutaneous perfusion is organized into angiosomes supplied by a single arteries. These arteries arise from source blood vessels located deep to other structures like muscle and fascia and penetrate through as perforating vessels. Often the artery is accompanied by two venae commitantes, but in many regions an additional venous drainage system is present in the superficial planes. The territories of adjacent angiosomes over-lap similarly to how dermatomes overlap. An angiosome is defined by the limits of an artery’s terminal branching. At the borders, these arterioles form anastomoses with the neighbor-ing angiosome. The vessels that pass between these anatomic angiosomes are called choke vessels. In life, these may open or | Surgery_Schwartz. from Melbourne, Australia, discovered that the blood supply to all portions of the skin was organized into discreet units, which they called angiosomes18. Analogous to dermatomes that describe the patterns of cutaneous sensation supplied by single sensory nerves, the cutaneous perfusion is organized into angiosomes supplied by a single arteries. These arteries arise from source blood vessels located deep to other structures like muscle and fascia and penetrate through as perforating vessels. Often the artery is accompanied by two venae commitantes, but in many regions an additional venous drainage system is present in the superficial planes. The territories of adjacent angiosomes over-lap similarly to how dermatomes overlap. An angiosome is defined by the limits of an artery’s terminal branching. At the borders, these arterioles form anastomoses with the neighbor-ing angiosome. The vessels that pass between these anatomic angiosomes are called choke vessels. In life, these may open or |
Surgery_Schwartz_13023 | Surgery_Schwartz | At the borders, these arterioles form anastomoses with the neighbor-ing angiosome. The vessels that pass between these anatomic angiosomes are called choke vessels. In life, these may open or close in response to physiologic changes in order to increase or decrease, respectively, an artery’s dynamic angiosome momen-tarily. Accordingly, at any given time point, the dynamic angio-some of an artery may be approximated by the volume of tissue stained by an intravascular administration of fluorescein into that artery (indicating the reach of blood flow from that artery into tissues). The potential angiosome of an artery is the vol-ume of tissue that can be included in a flap that has undergone conditioning (see the following section). Both the dynamic and potential angiosomes extend beyond the anatomic angiosome of an artery. Although the angiosome concept provides some guidance to the size and volume limits of a flap harvest, there remains no quantifiable method to predict safe flap | Surgery_Schwartz. At the borders, these arterioles form anastomoses with the neighbor-ing angiosome. The vessels that pass between these anatomic angiosomes are called choke vessels. In life, these may open or close in response to physiologic changes in order to increase or decrease, respectively, an artery’s dynamic angiosome momen-tarily. Accordingly, at any given time point, the dynamic angio-some of an artery may be approximated by the volume of tissue stained by an intravascular administration of fluorescein into that artery (indicating the reach of blood flow from that artery into tissues). The potential angiosome of an artery is the vol-ume of tissue that can be included in a flap that has undergone conditioning (see the following section). Both the dynamic and potential angiosomes extend beyond the anatomic angiosome of an artery. Although the angiosome concept provides some guidance to the size and volume limits of a flap harvest, there remains no quantifiable method to predict safe flap |
Surgery_Schwartz_13024 | Surgery_Schwartz | the anatomic angiosome of an artery. Although the angiosome concept provides some guidance to the size and volume limits of a flap harvest, there remains no quantifiable method to predict safe flap harvest lim-its with precision.Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 198001/03/19 6:27 PM 1981PLASTIC AND RECONSTRUCTIVE SURGERYCHAPTER 45Figure 45-20A, B. Deltopectoral flap for cheek reconstruction.Table 45-1Mathes-Nahai classification of muscular flapsCLASSIFICATIONVASCULAR SUPPLYEXAMPLEType IOne vascular pedicleGastrocnemiusType IIDominant and minor pedicles (the flap cannot survive based only on the minor pedicles)GracilisType IIITwo dominant pediclesRectus abdominisType IVSegmental pediclesSartoriusType VOne dominant pedicle with secondary segmental pedicles (the flap can survive based only on the secondary pedicles)Pectoralis majorALimit of areatubed ondeep aspectSkinGraftsBTissue Expansion. Tissue expansion is a technique that increases the amount of tissue in a surgical flap by | Surgery_Schwartz. the anatomic angiosome of an artery. Although the angiosome concept provides some guidance to the size and volume limits of a flap harvest, there remains no quantifiable method to predict safe flap harvest lim-its with precision.Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 198001/03/19 6:27 PM 1981PLASTIC AND RECONSTRUCTIVE SURGERYCHAPTER 45Figure 45-20A, B. Deltopectoral flap for cheek reconstruction.Table 45-1Mathes-Nahai classification of muscular flapsCLASSIFICATIONVASCULAR SUPPLYEXAMPLEType IOne vascular pedicleGastrocnemiusType IIDominant and minor pedicles (the flap cannot survive based only on the minor pedicles)GracilisType IIITwo dominant pediclesRectus abdominisType IVSegmental pediclesSartoriusType VOne dominant pedicle with secondary segmental pedicles (the flap can survive based only on the secondary pedicles)Pectoralis majorALimit of areatubed ondeep aspectSkinGraftsBTissue Expansion. Tissue expansion is a technique that increases the amount of tissue in a surgical flap by |
Surgery_Schwartz_13025 | Surgery_Schwartz | only on the secondary pedicles)Pectoralis majorALimit of areatubed ondeep aspectSkinGraftsBTissue Expansion. Tissue expansion is a technique that increases the amount of tissue in a surgical flap by first plac-ing an inflatable device into the tissue beneath the planned flap and gradually expanding the tissue by regular inflation. Staged reconstruction using tissue expansion can significantly increase the amount of local, well-matched tissue for transfer while decreasing donor site morbidity. The most common method of skin expansion involves the placement of an inflatable silicon elastomer similar to a balloon with a filling port that is gener-ally positioned in an easily accessible location beneath the skin. After wound healing, the device is gradually inflated by serial injections of sterile saline solution into the filling port. The process can require several weeks, depending on the amount of expansion and compliance of the tissues. When expansion is complete, the expander is | Surgery_Schwartz. only on the secondary pedicles)Pectoralis majorALimit of areatubed ondeep aspectSkinGraftsBTissue Expansion. Tissue expansion is a technique that increases the amount of tissue in a surgical flap by first plac-ing an inflatable device into the tissue beneath the planned flap and gradually expanding the tissue by regular inflation. Staged reconstruction using tissue expansion can significantly increase the amount of local, well-matched tissue for transfer while decreasing donor site morbidity. The most common method of skin expansion involves the placement of an inflatable silicon elastomer similar to a balloon with a filling port that is gener-ally positioned in an easily accessible location beneath the skin. After wound healing, the device is gradually inflated by serial injections of sterile saline solution into the filling port. The process can require several weeks, depending on the amount of expansion and compliance of the tissues. When expansion is complete, the expander is |
Surgery_Schwartz_13026 | Surgery_Schwartz | sterile saline solution into the filling port. The process can require several weeks, depending on the amount of expansion and compliance of the tissues. When expansion is complete, the expander is removed, and the resulting expanded tissue is transferred into the defect.The process of expanding flaps confers physiologic bene-fits that increase the reliability of the flap tissue. Histologically, expanded skin demonstrates thickened dermis with enhanced vasculature and diminished subcutaneous fat. Studies have shown that the increased amount of skin is the result of actual generation of new tissue. Also, the blood supply to an expanded flap is improved because of the period of delay associated with expansion process and the capsule formed around the device is highly vascular and contributes to the quality of blood supply.16The disadvantages of tissue expansion have to do with pos-sible complications, which include infection, hematoma, seroma, expander extrusion, implant failure, skin | Surgery_Schwartz. sterile saline solution into the filling port. The process can require several weeks, depending on the amount of expansion and compliance of the tissues. When expansion is complete, the expander is removed, and the resulting expanded tissue is transferred into the defect.The process of expanding flaps confers physiologic bene-fits that increase the reliability of the flap tissue. Histologically, expanded skin demonstrates thickened dermis with enhanced vasculature and diminished subcutaneous fat. Studies have shown that the increased amount of skin is the result of actual generation of new tissue. Also, the blood supply to an expanded flap is improved because of the period of delay associated with expansion process and the capsule formed around the device is highly vascular and contributes to the quality of blood supply.16The disadvantages of tissue expansion have to do with pos-sible complications, which include infection, hematoma, seroma, expander extrusion, implant failure, skin |
Surgery_Schwartz_13027 | Surgery_Schwartz | to the quality of blood supply.16The disadvantages of tissue expansion have to do with pos-sible complications, which include infection, hematoma, seroma, expander extrusion, implant failure, skin necrosis, pain, and peripheral nerve injury. Furthermore, an inflated expander is vis-ible, and the temporary deformity may cause patients distress.Tissue expansion has found particular usefulness in man-aging giant congenital nevi, secondary reconstruction of exten-sive burn scars, scalp reconstruction, and breast reconstruction. Expanders are available in a multitude of shapes and sizes, depending on the reconstructive needs. The technique permits reconstruction with tissue of similar color, texture, and thick-ness, with minimal donor site morbidity.PEDIATRIC PLASTIC SURGERYCongenital Craniofacial AnomaliesIn 1981, Whitaker et al introduced a simple classification sys-tem to help conceptualize the vast array of congenital pathology involving the craniofacial region.17 Based on anatomy, | Surgery_Schwartz. to the quality of blood supply.16The disadvantages of tissue expansion have to do with pos-sible complications, which include infection, hematoma, seroma, expander extrusion, implant failure, skin necrosis, pain, and peripheral nerve injury. Furthermore, an inflated expander is vis-ible, and the temporary deformity may cause patients distress.Tissue expansion has found particular usefulness in man-aging giant congenital nevi, secondary reconstruction of exten-sive burn scars, scalp reconstruction, and breast reconstruction. Expanders are available in a multitude of shapes and sizes, depending on the reconstructive needs. The technique permits reconstruction with tissue of similar color, texture, and thick-ness, with minimal donor site morbidity.PEDIATRIC PLASTIC SURGERYCongenital Craniofacial AnomaliesIn 1981, Whitaker et al introduced a simple classification sys-tem to help conceptualize the vast array of congenital pathology involving the craniofacial region.17 Based on anatomy, |
Surgery_Schwartz_13028 | Surgery_Schwartz | AnomaliesIn 1981, Whitaker et al introduced a simple classification sys-tem to help conceptualize the vast array of congenital pathology involving the craniofacial region.17 Based on anatomy, etiology, and current treatment principles, most cra-niofacial anomalies can be classified into one of four categories: clefts, synostoses, atrophy-hypoplasia, or hypertrophy-hyper-plasia-neoplasia (Table 45-3).Clefts. Arguably, no operation in plastic surgery is more demanding of reconstructive principle and aesthetic intuition 3Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 198101/03/19 6:27 PM 1982SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIFigure 45-21. Breast reconstruction (right side) with a latissimus flap.B Preop, right mastectomy and left previous implant reconstructionC Postoperative: bilateral latissimus flap with implantSkin usedfor flapLatissimusdorsimuscleClosedincisionImplantundermusclesLatissimusdorsi flapin placeATable 45-2Nahai-Mathes classification of fasciocutaneous flapsCLASSIFICATIONVASCULAR | Surgery_Schwartz. AnomaliesIn 1981, Whitaker et al introduced a simple classification sys-tem to help conceptualize the vast array of congenital pathology involving the craniofacial region.17 Based on anatomy, etiology, and current treatment principles, most cra-niofacial anomalies can be classified into one of four categories: clefts, synostoses, atrophy-hypoplasia, or hypertrophy-hyper-plasia-neoplasia (Table 45-3).Clefts. Arguably, no operation in plastic surgery is more demanding of reconstructive principle and aesthetic intuition 3Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 198101/03/19 6:27 PM 1982SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIFigure 45-21. Breast reconstruction (right side) with a latissimus flap.B Preop, right mastectomy and left previous implant reconstructionC Postoperative: bilateral latissimus flap with implantSkin usedfor flapLatissimusdorsimuscleClosedincisionImplantundermusclesLatissimusdorsi flapin placeATable 45-2Nahai-Mathes classification of fasciocutaneous flapsCLASSIFICATIONVASCULAR |
Surgery_Schwartz_13029 | Surgery_Schwartz | with implantSkin usedfor flapLatissimusdorsimuscleClosedincisionImplantundermusclesLatissimusdorsi flapin placeATable 45-2Nahai-Mathes classification of fasciocutaneous flapsCLASSIFICATIONVASCULAR SUPPLYEXAMPLEType ADirect cutaneous vessel that penetrates the fasciaTemporoparietal fascial flapType BSeptocutaneous vessel that penetrates the fasciaRadial artery forearm flapType CMusculocutaneous vessel that penetrates the fasciaTransverse rectus abdominis myocutaneous flapthan a cleft lip repair. Orofacial clefting is the most common birth defect in the world. Cleft lip, with or without cleft palate (CL/P), occurs spontaneously among Caucasian populations in approximately 1 out of every 1000 births. It is over twice as common (1 in 450) among Asians and Native Americans and half as common (1 in 2000) in African Americans. There is a predilection among males, who are twice as likely to be affected as females. Left-sided cleft lip is twice as common as right and nine times as common as | Surgery_Schwartz. with implantSkin usedfor flapLatissimusdorsimuscleClosedincisionImplantundermusclesLatissimusdorsi flapin placeATable 45-2Nahai-Mathes classification of fasciocutaneous flapsCLASSIFICATIONVASCULAR SUPPLYEXAMPLEType ADirect cutaneous vessel that penetrates the fasciaTemporoparietal fascial flapType BSeptocutaneous vessel that penetrates the fasciaRadial artery forearm flapType CMusculocutaneous vessel that penetrates the fasciaTransverse rectus abdominis myocutaneous flapthan a cleft lip repair. Orofacial clefting is the most common birth defect in the world. Cleft lip, with or without cleft palate (CL/P), occurs spontaneously among Caucasian populations in approximately 1 out of every 1000 births. It is over twice as common (1 in 450) among Asians and Native Americans and half as common (1 in 2000) in African Americans. There is a predilection among males, who are twice as likely to be affected as females. Left-sided cleft lip is twice as common as right and nine times as common as |
Surgery_Schwartz_13030 | Surgery_Schwartz | (1 in 2000) in African Americans. There is a predilection among males, who are twice as likely to be affected as females. Left-sided cleft lip is twice as common as right and nine times as common as bilateral. Of patients born with CL/P, 29% have associated anomalies, which can range from minor physical differences to major organ involvement. While a fam-ily history of CL/P remains the strongest known predictive factor, other extrinsic risk factors include maternal smoking or early exposure to the anticonvulsant drug phenytoin.18Epidemiologically, isolated cleft palate (CP) appears to be distinctly different from CL/P. CP occurs in 1 of every 2000 live births. It is twice as common in females, and it demonstrates no racial or ethnic preponderance. Nearly half of patients with iso-lated CP have a diagnosable syndrome and additional congeni-tal anomalies. Evaluation by a geneticist is therefore indicated in all babies born with isolated CP. Like CL/P, isolated CP is multifactorial. | Surgery_Schwartz. (1 in 2000) in African Americans. There is a predilection among males, who are twice as likely to be affected as females. Left-sided cleft lip is twice as common as right and nine times as common as bilateral. Of patients born with CL/P, 29% have associated anomalies, which can range from minor physical differences to major organ involvement. While a fam-ily history of CL/P remains the strongest known predictive factor, other extrinsic risk factors include maternal smoking or early exposure to the anticonvulsant drug phenytoin.18Epidemiologically, isolated cleft palate (CP) appears to be distinctly different from CL/P. CP occurs in 1 of every 2000 live births. It is twice as common in females, and it demonstrates no racial or ethnic preponderance. Nearly half of patients with iso-lated CP have a diagnosable syndrome and additional congeni-tal anomalies. Evaluation by a geneticist is therefore indicated in all babies born with isolated CP. Like CL/P, isolated CP is multifactorial. |
Surgery_Schwartz_13031 | Surgery_Schwartz | CP have a diagnosable syndrome and additional congeni-tal anomalies. Evaluation by a geneticist is therefore indicated in all babies born with isolated CP. Like CL/P, isolated CP is multifactorial. Known environmental risk factors include mater-nal smoking or alcohol consumption, folate deficiency, use of steroids or anticonvulsant medications, or retinoid (vitamin A) excess.Some familial patterns of orofacial clefting have been linked to specific genetic mutations. Van der Woude syndrome, an autosomal dominant form of CL/P associated with lower lip pits, is caused by an IRF6 gene mutation (Fig. 45-24).23 Stick-ler syndrome should be suspected in patients with isolated CP, Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 198201/03/19 6:27 PM 1983PLASTIC AND RECONSTRUCTIVE SURGERYCHAPTER 45Figure 45-22. Reconstruction of a lateral malleolar defect using a reverse sural perforator flap.Figure 45-23. Geometric considerations for a propeller flap.ABCDABaDefectPerforatorbc+CDwith associated eye | Surgery_Schwartz. CP have a diagnosable syndrome and additional congeni-tal anomalies. Evaluation by a geneticist is therefore indicated in all babies born with isolated CP. Like CL/P, isolated CP is multifactorial. Known environmental risk factors include mater-nal smoking or alcohol consumption, folate deficiency, use of steroids or anticonvulsant medications, or retinoid (vitamin A) excess.Some familial patterns of orofacial clefting have been linked to specific genetic mutations. Van der Woude syndrome, an autosomal dominant form of CL/P associated with lower lip pits, is caused by an IRF6 gene mutation (Fig. 45-24).23 Stick-ler syndrome should be suspected in patients with isolated CP, Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 198201/03/19 6:27 PM 1983PLASTIC AND RECONSTRUCTIVE SURGERYCHAPTER 45Figure 45-22. Reconstruction of a lateral malleolar defect using a reverse sural perforator flap.Figure 45-23. Geometric considerations for a propeller flap.ABCDABaDefectPerforatorbc+CDwith associated eye |
Surgery_Schwartz_13032 | Surgery_Schwartz | 45-22. Reconstruction of a lateral malleolar defect using a reverse sural perforator flap.Figure 45-23. Geometric considerations for a propeller flap.ABCDABaDefectPerforatorbc+CDwith associated eye defects, sensorineural hearing loss, and joint abnormalities. This constellation of findings is due to an autosomal dominant mutation in a procollagen gene. Stickler is also the most common syndrome associated with Pierre Robin sequence (micrognathia, glossoptosis, and respiratory distress).19 These examples help emphasize the importance of early genetic workup for patients in whom a syndrome is suspected.Embryology of the Lip and Palate The “primary palate,” which includes the nostril sill, upper lip, alveolus, and hard pal-ate anterior to the incisive foramen, forms from fusion between the medial nasal and maxillary prominences during weeks 4 through 7 of gestation.20,24 Development of the hard palate pos-terior to the incisive foramen and the soft palate, which are col-lectively known as | Surgery_Schwartz. 45-22. Reconstruction of a lateral malleolar defect using a reverse sural perforator flap.Figure 45-23. Geometric considerations for a propeller flap.ABCDABaDefectPerforatorbc+CDwith associated eye defects, sensorineural hearing loss, and joint abnormalities. This constellation of findings is due to an autosomal dominant mutation in a procollagen gene. Stickler is also the most common syndrome associated with Pierre Robin sequence (micrognathia, glossoptosis, and respiratory distress).19 These examples help emphasize the importance of early genetic workup for patients in whom a syndrome is suspected.Embryology of the Lip and Palate The “primary palate,” which includes the nostril sill, upper lip, alveolus, and hard pal-ate anterior to the incisive foramen, forms from fusion between the medial nasal and maxillary prominences during weeks 4 through 7 of gestation.20,24 Development of the hard palate pos-terior to the incisive foramen and the soft palate, which are col-lectively known as |
Surgery_Schwartz_13033 | Surgery_Schwartz | nasal and maxillary prominences during weeks 4 through 7 of gestation.20,24 Development of the hard palate pos-terior to the incisive foramen and the soft palate, which are col-lectively known as the “secondary palate,” occurs during weeks Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 198301/03/19 6:27 PM 1984SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIFigure 45-24. Van der Woude syndrome.Table 45-3Classification of craniofacial anomalies211. Clefts2. Synostoses3. Atrophy–hypoplasia4. Hypertrophy–hyperplasia–neoplasia6 through 12 of gestation. The lateral palatine processes initially hang vertically on either side of the developing tongue. Around week 8, these palatal shelves rotate into a horizontal orientation, bringing their free edges into close proximity with the nasal septum. Midline fusion then commences, proceeding posteriorly from the incisive foramen (Fig. 45-25).23Normal and Cleft Anatomy There are several key defining characteristics of the lip that make its surgical repair so chal-lenging. On | Surgery_Schwartz. nasal and maxillary prominences during weeks 4 through 7 of gestation.20,24 Development of the hard palate pos-terior to the incisive foramen and the soft palate, which are col-lectively known as the “secondary palate,” occurs during weeks Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 198301/03/19 6:27 PM 1984SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIFigure 45-24. Van der Woude syndrome.Table 45-3Classification of craniofacial anomalies211. Clefts2. Synostoses3. Atrophy–hypoplasia4. Hypertrophy–hyperplasia–neoplasia6 through 12 of gestation. The lateral palatine processes initially hang vertically on either side of the developing tongue. Around week 8, these palatal shelves rotate into a horizontal orientation, bringing their free edges into close proximity with the nasal septum. Midline fusion then commences, proceeding posteriorly from the incisive foramen (Fig. 45-25).23Normal and Cleft Anatomy There are several key defining characteristics of the lip that make its surgical repair so chal-lenging. On |
Surgery_Schwartz_13034 | Surgery_Schwartz | proceeding posteriorly from the incisive foramen (Fig. 45-25).23Normal and Cleft Anatomy There are several key defining characteristics of the lip that make its surgical repair so chal-lenging. On the surface, the philtrum of the upper lip is com-prised of paired philtral columns and a central philtral dimple. The white roll passes along the vermilion-cutaneous junction, peaking at the base of the philtral columns and dipping centrally to form Cupid’s bow. Deep to the surface, the paired orbicularis oris muscles originate lateral to the oral commissures and encir-cle the mouth, decussating in the midline and sending off dermal insertions to the philtrum. This intrinsic muscle of the lip pro-vides oral competence and assists with speech production and facial expression. Continuity of the orbicularis oris muscle is disrupted in babies born with a cleft lip. Aberrant muscle inser-tion into the piriform aperture laterally and the anterior nasal spine medially contributes to the hallmark | Surgery_Schwartz. proceeding posteriorly from the incisive foramen (Fig. 45-25).23Normal and Cleft Anatomy There are several key defining characteristics of the lip that make its surgical repair so chal-lenging. On the surface, the philtrum of the upper lip is com-prised of paired philtral columns and a central philtral dimple. The white roll passes along the vermilion-cutaneous junction, peaking at the base of the philtral columns and dipping centrally to form Cupid’s bow. Deep to the surface, the paired orbicularis oris muscles originate lateral to the oral commissures and encir-cle the mouth, decussating in the midline and sending off dermal insertions to the philtrum. This intrinsic muscle of the lip pro-vides oral competence and assists with speech production and facial expression. Continuity of the orbicularis oris muscle is disrupted in babies born with a cleft lip. Aberrant muscle inser-tion into the piriform aperture laterally and the anterior nasal spine medially contributes to the hallmark |
Surgery_Schwartz_13035 | Surgery_Schwartz | orbicularis oris muscle is disrupted in babies born with a cleft lip. Aberrant muscle inser-tion into the piriform aperture laterally and the anterior nasal spine medially contributes to the hallmark appearance of cleft lip and nasal deformity (Fig. 45-26).20,25Clefts of the lip can be described as unilateral or bilateral and microform, incomplete, or complete. Microform cleft lip is the most minor variant and may manifest as subtly as a small notch in the vermilion. An incomplete cleft lip, by definition, requires an intact nasal sill. The term can otherwise be applied to a wide spectrum of anomaly, ranging from a partial cleft of the lip alone (Fig. 45-27A) to a near-complete cleft of the entire primary palate. A complete cleft lip involves all structures of the primary palate in their entirety, extending through the nasal sill and opening into the anterior nasal floor (Fig. 45-27B).20,26The normal palate functions primarily as a speech organ, but it is also intimately involved in | Surgery_Schwartz. orbicularis oris muscle is disrupted in babies born with a cleft lip. Aberrant muscle inser-tion into the piriform aperture laterally and the anterior nasal spine medially contributes to the hallmark appearance of cleft lip and nasal deformity (Fig. 45-26).20,25Clefts of the lip can be described as unilateral or bilateral and microform, incomplete, or complete. Microform cleft lip is the most minor variant and may manifest as subtly as a small notch in the vermilion. An incomplete cleft lip, by definition, requires an intact nasal sill. The term can otherwise be applied to a wide spectrum of anomaly, ranging from a partial cleft of the lip alone (Fig. 45-27A) to a near-complete cleft of the entire primary palate. A complete cleft lip involves all structures of the primary palate in their entirety, extending through the nasal sill and opening into the anterior nasal floor (Fig. 45-27B).20,26The normal palate functions primarily as a speech organ, but it is also intimately involved in |
Surgery_Schwartz_13036 | Surgery_Schwartz | entirety, extending through the nasal sill and opening into the anterior nasal floor (Fig. 45-27B).20,26The normal palate functions primarily as a speech organ, but it is also intimately involved in feeding, swallowing, and breathing. The soft palate, or velum, together with lateral and posterior pharyngeal walls, can be conceptualized as a valve that regulates the passage of air through the nasopharynx. The paired levator veli palatini muscles descend from the cranial base and decussate in the midline to form a sling within the soft palate. This sling acts to elevate the velum against the posterior pharyngeal wall, effectively closing the velopharyngeal port. In patients with cleft palate, the levator muscles are unable to cross the midline. Instead, they run parallel to the cleft margin and insert aberrantly into the posterior edge of the hard palate (Fig. 45-28A,B). Air is allowed to leak through the nose dur-ing attempts to suck or speak. This inability to build negative or | Surgery_Schwartz. entirety, extending through the nasal sill and opening into the anterior nasal floor (Fig. 45-27B).20,26The normal palate functions primarily as a speech organ, but it is also intimately involved in feeding, swallowing, and breathing. The soft palate, or velum, together with lateral and posterior pharyngeal walls, can be conceptualized as a valve that regulates the passage of air through the nasopharynx. The paired levator veli palatini muscles descend from the cranial base and decussate in the midline to form a sling within the soft palate. This sling acts to elevate the velum against the posterior pharyngeal wall, effectively closing the velopharyngeal port. In patients with cleft palate, the levator muscles are unable to cross the midline. Instead, they run parallel to the cleft margin and insert aberrantly into the posterior edge of the hard palate (Fig. 45-28A,B). Air is allowed to leak through the nose dur-ing attempts to suck or speak. This inability to build negative or |
Surgery_Schwartz_13037 | Surgery_Schwartz | margin and insert aberrantly into the posterior edge of the hard palate (Fig. 45-28A,B). Air is allowed to leak through the nose dur-ing attempts to suck or speak. This inability to build negative or positive intraoral pressure makes either task difficult, if not impossible. The tensor veli palatini muscles, which normally function to vent and drain the Eustachian tubes, are also dis-rupted in cleft anatomy. Eustachian tube dysfunction predis-poses patients to frequent bouts of otitis media, which can lead to permanent hearing loss if left untreated.20The most clinically useful system to describe cleft pal-ate morphology is the Veau classification. A Veau I cleft is midline and limited to the soft palate alone, whereas a Veau II cleft may extend further anteriorly to involve the midline of the posterior hard palate (the “secondary palate”). A Veau III cleft is a complete unilateral cleft of primary and secondary pal-ates, in which the cleft extends through the lip, the alveolus, the | Surgery_Schwartz. margin and insert aberrantly into the posterior edge of the hard palate (Fig. 45-28A,B). Air is allowed to leak through the nose dur-ing attempts to suck or speak. This inability to build negative or positive intraoral pressure makes either task difficult, if not impossible. The tensor veli palatini muscles, which normally function to vent and drain the Eustachian tubes, are also dis-rupted in cleft anatomy. Eustachian tube dysfunction predis-poses patients to frequent bouts of otitis media, which can lead to permanent hearing loss if left untreated.20The most clinically useful system to describe cleft pal-ate morphology is the Veau classification. A Veau I cleft is midline and limited to the soft palate alone, whereas a Veau II cleft may extend further anteriorly to involve the midline of the posterior hard palate (the “secondary palate”). A Veau III cleft is a complete unilateral cleft of primary and secondary pal-ates, in which the cleft extends through the lip, the alveolus, the |
Surgery_Schwartz_13038 | Surgery_Schwartz | of the posterior hard palate (the “secondary palate”). A Veau III cleft is a complete unilateral cleft of primary and secondary pal-ates, in which the cleft extends through the lip, the alveolus, the entire length of the nasal floor on the cleft side, and the midline of the soft palate. Veau IV clefts are bilateral complete clefts of the primary palate that converge at the incisive foramen and continue posteriorly through the entire secondary palate (Fig. 45-29A,B). Not included in the Veau classification is the submucous cleft palate, which occurs when there is clefting of the soft palate musculature beneath intact mucosa. Submucous cleft palate classically presents as the triad of a bifid uvula, a midline translucency called the “zona Pellucida” and a palpable notch of the posterior hard palate.21Presurgical Infant Orthopedics Current literature suggests aesthetic outcomes in patients with complete unilateral or bilateral clefts may be improved by reestablishing more nor-mal | Surgery_Schwartz. of the posterior hard palate (the “secondary palate”). A Veau III cleft is a complete unilateral cleft of primary and secondary pal-ates, in which the cleft extends through the lip, the alveolus, the entire length of the nasal floor on the cleft side, and the midline of the soft palate. Veau IV clefts are bilateral complete clefts of the primary palate that converge at the incisive foramen and continue posteriorly through the entire secondary palate (Fig. 45-29A,B). Not included in the Veau classification is the submucous cleft palate, which occurs when there is clefting of the soft palate musculature beneath intact mucosa. Submucous cleft palate classically presents as the triad of a bifid uvula, a midline translucency called the “zona Pellucida” and a palpable notch of the posterior hard palate.21Presurgical Infant Orthopedics Current literature suggests aesthetic outcomes in patients with complete unilateral or bilateral clefts may be improved by reestablishing more nor-mal |
Surgery_Schwartz_13039 | Surgery_Schwartz | hard palate.21Presurgical Infant Orthopedics Current literature suggests aesthetic outcomes in patients with complete unilateral or bilateral clefts may be improved by reestablishing more nor-mal skeletal, cartilaginous, and soft tissue relationships prior to definitive lip repair. Presurgical infant orthopedics (PSIO) can help to narrow wide clefts and align dental arches in prepara-tion for surgery. Some methods of PSIO, such as nasoalveolar molding (NAM), provide the added benefits of elongating the columella and improving nasal tip asymmetry.22 The most com-mon barrier to PSIO implementation is its imposition on fami-lies, who must be willing and able to keep frequent follow-up appointments for appliance adjustment. An excellent alternative to PSIO is a lip adhesion procedure, in which a complete cleft is surgically converted to an incomplete cleft. This preliminary stage of lip repair restores soft tissue continuity at the nasal sill, which helps to realign the underlying dental | Surgery_Schwartz. hard palate.21Presurgical Infant Orthopedics Current literature suggests aesthetic outcomes in patients with complete unilateral or bilateral clefts may be improved by reestablishing more nor-mal skeletal, cartilaginous, and soft tissue relationships prior to definitive lip repair. Presurgical infant orthopedics (PSIO) can help to narrow wide clefts and align dental arches in prepara-tion for surgery. Some methods of PSIO, such as nasoalveolar molding (NAM), provide the added benefits of elongating the columella and improving nasal tip asymmetry.22 The most com-mon barrier to PSIO implementation is its imposition on fami-lies, who must be willing and able to keep frequent follow-up appointments for appliance adjustment. An excellent alternative to PSIO is a lip adhesion procedure, in which a complete cleft is surgically converted to an incomplete cleft. This preliminary stage of lip repair restores soft tissue continuity at the nasal sill, which helps to realign the underlying dental |
Surgery_Schwartz_13040 | Surgery_Schwartz | a complete cleft is surgically converted to an incomplete cleft. This preliminary stage of lip repair restores soft tissue continuity at the nasal sill, which helps to realign the underlying dental arches and reap-proximate the soft tissues. In addition, the nasal deformity can be improved, both by repositioning of the cleft side alar base and placement of nasal conformers.23Cleft Lip Repair Although cleft lip surgery can be traced to antiq-uity, it was not until the first half of the 20th century that sur-geons began to realize the inadequacy of a straight-line repair. In 1955, Ralph Millard pioneered his “rotation-advancement” tech-nique, which was the first to address upper lip length deficiency while preserving intricate philtral anatomy (Fig. 45-29C).24 The back-cut is designed high on the medial lip element just beneath the columella, enabling a downward rotation and leveling of Cupid’s bow, while the lateral lip element is advanced into the Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd | Surgery_Schwartz. a complete cleft is surgically converted to an incomplete cleft. This preliminary stage of lip repair restores soft tissue continuity at the nasal sill, which helps to realign the underlying dental arches and reap-proximate the soft tissues. In addition, the nasal deformity can be improved, both by repositioning of the cleft side alar base and placement of nasal conformers.23Cleft Lip Repair Although cleft lip surgery can be traced to antiq-uity, it was not until the first half of the 20th century that sur-geons began to realize the inadequacy of a straight-line repair. In 1955, Ralph Millard pioneered his “rotation-advancement” tech-nique, which was the first to address upper lip length deficiency while preserving intricate philtral anatomy (Fig. 45-29C).24 The back-cut is designed high on the medial lip element just beneath the columella, enabling a downward rotation and leveling of Cupid’s bow, while the lateral lip element is advanced into the Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd |
Surgery_Schwartz_13041 | Surgery_Schwartz | on the medial lip element just beneath the columella, enabling a downward rotation and leveling of Cupid’s bow, while the lateral lip element is advanced into the Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 198401/03/19 6:27 PM 1985PLASTIC AND RECONSTRUCTIVE SURGERYCHAPTER 45Figure 45-25. Facial prominences and their contributions to facial development. Cleft lip results from failure of fusion between maxillary and medial nasal (a component of frontonasal) prominences.ACDEBrotation defect. Although other techniques exist, most lip repairs performed today are minor modifications of Millard’s original rotation-advancement principle.20Bilateral cleft lip presents an even greater set of challenges to the reconstructive surgeon. With no overlying orbicularis oris muscle, an unrestrained premaxilla rotates anteriorly, com-pletely displacing the incisor-bearing portion of the alveolus from the maxillary dental arch. Orbicularis continuity must be restored over an often protuberant premaxilla. The | Surgery_Schwartz. on the medial lip element just beneath the columella, enabling a downward rotation and leveling of Cupid’s bow, while the lateral lip element is advanced into the Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 198401/03/19 6:27 PM 1985PLASTIC AND RECONSTRUCTIVE SURGERYCHAPTER 45Figure 45-25. Facial prominences and their contributions to facial development. Cleft lip results from failure of fusion between maxillary and medial nasal (a component of frontonasal) prominences.ACDEBrotation defect. Although other techniques exist, most lip repairs performed today are minor modifications of Millard’s original rotation-advancement principle.20Bilateral cleft lip presents an even greater set of challenges to the reconstructive surgeon. With no overlying orbicularis oris muscle, an unrestrained premaxilla rotates anteriorly, com-pletely displacing the incisor-bearing portion of the alveolus from the maxillary dental arch. Orbicularis continuity must be restored over an often protuberant premaxilla. The |
Surgery_Schwartz_13042 | Surgery_Schwartz | anteriorly, com-pletely displacing the incisor-bearing portion of the alveolus from the maxillary dental arch. Orbicularis continuity must be restored over an often protuberant premaxilla. The surgeon must carefully recreate the appearance of a symmetrical philtrum and median labial tubercle. Prototypical markings for bilateral cleft lip repair are demonstrated in Fig. 45-30A,B.20Any surgical approach to bilateral cleft lip repair would be incomplete without addressing the nasal stigmata, which include a short or absent columella, a poorly defined and underprojected nasal tip, and malpositioned lower lateral cartilages.25 Primary nasoplasty at the time of lip repair has become an increasingly common practice. Nasal skin and soft tissue are dissected free from the underlying cartilaginous framework, allowing for suture manipulation of lower lateral cartilages to improve tip symmetry, support, and projection.20Cleft Palate Repair The primary goal of palatoplasty is to enable normal | Surgery_Schwartz. anteriorly, com-pletely displacing the incisor-bearing portion of the alveolus from the maxillary dental arch. Orbicularis continuity must be restored over an often protuberant premaxilla. The surgeon must carefully recreate the appearance of a symmetrical philtrum and median labial tubercle. Prototypical markings for bilateral cleft lip repair are demonstrated in Fig. 45-30A,B.20Any surgical approach to bilateral cleft lip repair would be incomplete without addressing the nasal stigmata, which include a short or absent columella, a poorly defined and underprojected nasal tip, and malpositioned lower lateral cartilages.25 Primary nasoplasty at the time of lip repair has become an increasingly common practice. Nasal skin and soft tissue are dissected free from the underlying cartilaginous framework, allowing for suture manipulation of lower lateral cartilages to improve tip symmetry, support, and projection.20Cleft Palate Repair The primary goal of palatoplasty is to enable normal |
Surgery_Schwartz_13043 | Surgery_Schwartz | framework, allowing for suture manipulation of lower lateral cartilages to improve tip symmetry, support, and projection.20Cleft Palate Repair The primary goal of palatoplasty is to enable normal speech development. A successful palate repair is one that results in a robust, layered reconstruction of the cleft and restoration of functional velar anatomy. The two most com-mon techniques employed for soft palate repair are intravelar veloplasty (IVV) and Furlow double-opposing Z-plasty. Para-mount to each technique is the complete release of aberrant levator muscle insertions from the posterior edge of the hard palate. This maneuver untethers the velum anteriorly, enabling maximal levator muscle excursion in the superior and posterior directions postoperatively.21Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 198501/03/19 6:27 PM 1986SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIFigure 45-27. Variations in unilateral cleft lip morphology. Left unilateral incomplete cleft lip.Figure 45-26. Hallmarks of unilateral | Surgery_Schwartz. framework, allowing for suture manipulation of lower lateral cartilages to improve tip symmetry, support, and projection.20Cleft Palate Repair The primary goal of palatoplasty is to enable normal speech development. A successful palate repair is one that results in a robust, layered reconstruction of the cleft and restoration of functional velar anatomy. The two most com-mon techniques employed for soft palate repair are intravelar veloplasty (IVV) and Furlow double-opposing Z-plasty. Para-mount to each technique is the complete release of aberrant levator muscle insertions from the posterior edge of the hard palate. This maneuver untethers the velum anteriorly, enabling maximal levator muscle excursion in the superior and posterior directions postoperatively.21Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 198501/03/19 6:27 PM 1986SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIFigure 45-27. Variations in unilateral cleft lip morphology. Left unilateral incomplete cleft lip.Figure 45-26. Hallmarks of unilateral |
Surgery_Schwartz_13044 | Surgery_Schwartz | 198501/03/19 6:27 PM 1986SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIFigure 45-27. Variations in unilateral cleft lip morphology. Left unilateral incomplete cleft lip.Figure 45-26. Hallmarks of unilateral cleft lip deformity include depression of the nasal tip and flaring of the alar base on the cleft side, deviation of the caudal septum and columella toward the non-cleft side, and deficient lip height (short philtral column) on the cleft side with cephalad rotation of the cleft side of cupid’s bow.ABIntravelar veloplasty requires meticulous dissection of the levator muscles with retropositioning and reconstruction of the sling mechanism in the posterior aspect of the soft palate. A Furlow double-opposing Z-plasty involves cleverly designed mirror image Z-plasties on the oral and nasal sides of the soft palate where the central limb of each Z-plasty is the cleft. The posteriorly based flap of mucosa on each surface of the palate incorporates the underlying levator muscle. Transposition of these | Surgery_Schwartz. 198501/03/19 6:27 PM 1986SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIFigure 45-27. Variations in unilateral cleft lip morphology. Left unilateral incomplete cleft lip.Figure 45-26. Hallmarks of unilateral cleft lip deformity include depression of the nasal tip and flaring of the alar base on the cleft side, deviation of the caudal septum and columella toward the non-cleft side, and deficient lip height (short philtral column) on the cleft side with cephalad rotation of the cleft side of cupid’s bow.ABIntravelar veloplasty requires meticulous dissection of the levator muscles with retropositioning and reconstruction of the sling mechanism in the posterior aspect of the soft palate. A Furlow double-opposing Z-plasty involves cleverly designed mirror image Z-plasties on the oral and nasal sides of the soft palate where the central limb of each Z-plasty is the cleft. The posteriorly based flap of mucosa on each surface of the palate incorporates the underlying levator muscle. Transposition of these |
Surgery_Schwartz_13045 | Surgery_Schwartz | soft palate where the central limb of each Z-plasty is the cleft. The posteriorly based flap of mucosa on each surface of the palate incorporates the underlying levator muscle. Transposition of these flaps across the cleft lengthens the palate and, in a man-ner similar to IVV, corrects levator malposition. Lateral relax-ing incisions can be utilized to relieve tension on the closure, if necessary (Fig. 45-31A–C).21,31 In experienced hands, both techniques have demonstrated excellent speech outcomes and low fistula rates. However, direct comparison between the two methods has been difficult due to ongoing evolution of the IVV technique and wide variability in the extent of dissection between performing surgeons.26Clefts involving the hard palate (Veau II–IV) often require additional maneuvers for reconstruction. Wide undermining of the nasal floor mucosa in the subperiosteal plane facilitates the nasal-side repair. As palatal mucoperiosteum is thicker and less pliable, the oral-side | Surgery_Schwartz. soft palate where the central limb of each Z-plasty is the cleft. The posteriorly based flap of mucosa on each surface of the palate incorporates the underlying levator muscle. Transposition of these flaps across the cleft lengthens the palate and, in a man-ner similar to IVV, corrects levator malposition. Lateral relax-ing incisions can be utilized to relieve tension on the closure, if necessary (Fig. 45-31A–C).21,31 In experienced hands, both techniques have demonstrated excellent speech outcomes and low fistula rates. However, direct comparison between the two methods has been difficult due to ongoing evolution of the IVV technique and wide variability in the extent of dissection between performing surgeons.26Clefts involving the hard palate (Veau II–IV) often require additional maneuvers for reconstruction. Wide undermining of the nasal floor mucosa in the subperiosteal plane facilitates the nasal-side repair. As palatal mucoperiosteum is thicker and less pliable, the oral-side |
Surgery_Schwartz_13046 | Surgery_Schwartz | for reconstruction. Wide undermining of the nasal floor mucosa in the subperiosteal plane facilitates the nasal-side repair. As palatal mucoperiosteum is thicker and less pliable, the oral-side closure generally requires the use of relax-ing incisions along the lingual side of the alveolar ridge. Addi-tional medialization of the palatal soft tissue can be obtained by increasing isolation of the greater palatine neurovascular pedicle, which emerges from its foramen near the posterolateral aspect of the hard palate. Narrow Veau II clefts may be closed on the oral side by medialization of bilateral bipedicled muco-periosteal flaps (von Langenbeck palatoplasty), while wider clefts may require detachment of one or both flaps anteriorly for additional medialization (Bardach two-flap palatoplasty). Lateral relaxing incisions are left open, and typically heal by secondary intention within two weeks (Fig. 45-32).21,27Complications of palate repair include oronasal fistula, velopharyngeal | Surgery_Schwartz. for reconstruction. Wide undermining of the nasal floor mucosa in the subperiosteal plane facilitates the nasal-side repair. As palatal mucoperiosteum is thicker and less pliable, the oral-side closure generally requires the use of relax-ing incisions along the lingual side of the alveolar ridge. Addi-tional medialization of the palatal soft tissue can be obtained by increasing isolation of the greater palatine neurovascular pedicle, which emerges from its foramen near the posterolateral aspect of the hard palate. Narrow Veau II clefts may be closed on the oral side by medialization of bilateral bipedicled muco-periosteal flaps (von Langenbeck palatoplasty), while wider clefts may require detachment of one or both flaps anteriorly for additional medialization (Bardach two-flap palatoplasty). Lateral relaxing incisions are left open, and typically heal by secondary intention within two weeks (Fig. 45-32).21,27Complications of palate repair include oronasal fistula, velopharyngeal |
Surgery_Schwartz_13047 | Surgery_Schwartz | Lateral relaxing incisions are left open, and typically heal by secondary intention within two weeks (Fig. 45-32).21,27Complications of palate repair include oronasal fistula, velopharyngeal dysfunction, obstructive sleep apnea, and mid-face growth deficiency. Reported fistula rates vary widely in the literature, but increased incidence has been correlated with less experienced surgeons, wider clefts, and bilateral clefts.21,22 Few oronasal fistulae are amenable to closure with simple local tissue rearrangement. More commonly, a complete reelevation of palatal mucosa is required in order to obtain a tension-free layered closure. In the case of large or recurrent fistulae, there may be insufficient tissue available locally, and recruitment of regional healthy tissue from the buccal mucosa or tongue may be necessary.32Velopharyngeal dysfunction (VPD) is caused by incom-plete closure of the velopharyngeal port, which results in air leaking through the nose during speech. Approximately | Surgery_Schwartz. Lateral relaxing incisions are left open, and typically heal by secondary intention within two weeks (Fig. 45-32).21,27Complications of palate repair include oronasal fistula, velopharyngeal dysfunction, obstructive sleep apnea, and mid-face growth deficiency. Reported fistula rates vary widely in the literature, but increased incidence has been correlated with less experienced surgeons, wider clefts, and bilateral clefts.21,22 Few oronasal fistulae are amenable to closure with simple local tissue rearrangement. More commonly, a complete reelevation of palatal mucosa is required in order to obtain a tension-free layered closure. In the case of large or recurrent fistulae, there may be insufficient tissue available locally, and recruitment of regional healthy tissue from the buccal mucosa or tongue may be necessary.32Velopharyngeal dysfunction (VPD) is caused by incom-plete closure of the velopharyngeal port, which results in air leaking through the nose during speech. Approximately |
Surgery_Schwartz_13048 | Surgery_Schwartz | or tongue may be necessary.32Velopharyngeal dysfunction (VPD) is caused by incom-plete closure of the velopharyngeal port, which results in air leaking through the nose during speech. Approximately 20% of patients develop VPD after primary palatoplasty. After insuring complete release and proper orientation of levator muscles, a posterior pharyngeal flap or a sphincter pharyngoplasty may be required to decrease the size of the velopharyngeal gap, allowing Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 198601/03/19 6:27 PM 1987PLASTIC AND RECONSTRUCTIVE SURGERYCHAPTER 45Figure 45-28. Left unilateral complete cleft lip.AponeurosisAHamulusTensor muscleLevator muscleUvulus muscleAponeurosisBHamulusTensor muscleAccessory muscleLevator muscleFigure 45-29. A. Normal anatomy: the levator veli palatini muscle forms a muscular sling in the posterior aspect of the soft palate. B. Cleft anatomy: the levator veli palatini muscles turn anteriorly, run along the cleft margin, and insert aberrantly into the | Surgery_Schwartz. or tongue may be necessary.32Velopharyngeal dysfunction (VPD) is caused by incom-plete closure of the velopharyngeal port, which results in air leaking through the nose during speech. Approximately 20% of patients develop VPD after primary palatoplasty. After insuring complete release and proper orientation of levator muscles, a posterior pharyngeal flap or a sphincter pharyngoplasty may be required to decrease the size of the velopharyngeal gap, allowing Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 198601/03/19 6:27 PM 1987PLASTIC AND RECONSTRUCTIVE SURGERYCHAPTER 45Figure 45-28. Left unilateral complete cleft lip.AponeurosisAHamulusTensor muscleLevator muscleUvulus muscleAponeurosisBHamulusTensor muscleAccessory muscleLevator muscleFigure 45-29. A. Normal anatomy: the levator veli palatini muscle forms a muscular sling in the posterior aspect of the soft palate. B. Cleft anatomy: the levator veli palatini muscles turn anteriorly, run along the cleft margin, and insert aberrantly into the |
Surgery_Schwartz_13049 | Surgery_Schwartz | forms a muscular sling in the posterior aspect of the soft palate. B. Cleft anatomy: the levator veli palatini muscles turn anteriorly, run along the cleft margin, and insert aberrantly into the posterior edge of the hard palate. C. Rotation-advancement markings and repair for a unilateral complete cleft lip.ABCnasal air escape during speech.21 These operations carry a risk of obstructive sleep apnea, so preoperative polysomnography is indicated to rule out significant sleep-disordered breathing at baseline.Timeline for Repair The longstanding debate regarding opti-mal timing for lip and palate repair is ongoing. Central to this controversy is the impact of early surgical intervention on speech outcomes and midface growth. Current evidence sug-gests earlier palate repair is better for speech but more detri-mental to midface growth.21 Cleft care algorithms represent a compromise. Most experts perform lip repair between 3 and 6 months of age.33,34 Palate repair should be completed | Surgery_Schwartz. forms a muscular sling in the posterior aspect of the soft palate. B. Cleft anatomy: the levator veli palatini muscles turn anteriorly, run along the cleft margin, and insert aberrantly into the posterior edge of the hard palate. C. Rotation-advancement markings and repair for a unilateral complete cleft lip.ABCnasal air escape during speech.21 These operations carry a risk of obstructive sleep apnea, so preoperative polysomnography is indicated to rule out significant sleep-disordered breathing at baseline.Timeline for Repair The longstanding debate regarding opti-mal timing for lip and palate repair is ongoing. Central to this controversy is the impact of early surgical intervention on speech outcomes and midface growth. Current evidence sug-gests earlier palate repair is better for speech but more detri-mental to midface growth.21 Cleft care algorithms represent a compromise. Most experts perform lip repair between 3 and 6 months of age.33,34 Palate repair should be completed |
Surgery_Schwartz_13050 | Surgery_Schwartz | speech but more detri-mental to midface growth.21 Cleft care algorithms represent a compromise. Most experts perform lip repair between 3 and 6 months of age.33,34 Palate repair should be completed prior to the onset of speech development, usually around 10 to 12 months of age. The alveolar cleft is often repaired secondarily with a can-cellous bone graft from the iliac crest. This operation provides bony support for the permanent teeth that will erupt adjacent to the cleft, and it is usually performed around 7 to 9 years of age. Orthognathic surgery and secondary rhinoplasty, if necessary, are delayed until skeletal maturity. The treatment timeline used at Nationwide Children’s Hospital can be seen in Fig. 45-33.Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 198701/03/19 6:28 PM 1988SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIABFigure 45-30. A. Bilateral cleft lip repair diagram. B. Bilateral cleft lip repair.ABCFigure 45-31. Furlow double opposing Z-plasty. A. Oral side markings. B. Nasal side markings. | Surgery_Schwartz. speech but more detri-mental to midface growth.21 Cleft care algorithms represent a compromise. Most experts perform lip repair between 3 and 6 months of age.33,34 Palate repair should be completed prior to the onset of speech development, usually around 10 to 12 months of age. The alveolar cleft is often repaired secondarily with a can-cellous bone graft from the iliac crest. This operation provides bony support for the permanent teeth that will erupt adjacent to the cleft, and it is usually performed around 7 to 9 years of age. Orthognathic surgery and secondary rhinoplasty, if necessary, are delayed until skeletal maturity. The treatment timeline used at Nationwide Children’s Hospital can be seen in Fig. 45-33.Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 198701/03/19 6:28 PM 1988SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIABFigure 45-30. A. Bilateral cleft lip repair diagram. B. Bilateral cleft lip repair.ABCFigure 45-31. Furlow double opposing Z-plasty. A. Oral side markings. B. Nasal side markings. |
Surgery_Schwartz_13051 | Surgery_Schwartz | 45-30. A. Bilateral cleft lip repair diagram. B. Bilateral cleft lip repair.ABCFigure 45-31. Furlow double opposing Z-plasty. A. Oral side markings. B. Nasal side markings. Note that the levator veli pala-tini muscle remains attached to the posteriorly based flap on each surface. C. Flap transposition and closure. The levator veli pala-tini muscle bundles, being attached to the posteriorly based flaps, are reoriented transversely and retrodisplaced as a result of flap transposition.Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 198801/03/19 6:28 PM 1989PLASTIC AND RECONSTRUCTIVE SURGERYCHAPTER 45Figure 45-34. The Tessier classification of craniofacial clefts. Numbered lines designate soft tissue manifestations (above) of the underlying skeletal clefts (below).Lip adhesion(1–2 months)Lip and primarynose repair(3–6 months)Orthognathicsurgery*(skeletal maturity)Definitiverhinoplasty*(after jaw surgery)Palate repair(10–12 months)Lip or noserevision*(> 6 years)VPD surgery*(4–7 years)Alveolar | Surgery_Schwartz. 45-30. A. Bilateral cleft lip repair diagram. B. Bilateral cleft lip repair.ABCFigure 45-31. Furlow double opposing Z-plasty. A. Oral side markings. B. Nasal side markings. Note that the levator veli pala-tini muscle remains attached to the posteriorly based flap on each surface. C. Flap transposition and closure. The levator veli pala-tini muscle bundles, being attached to the posteriorly based flaps, are reoriented transversely and retrodisplaced as a result of flap transposition.Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 198801/03/19 6:28 PM 1989PLASTIC AND RECONSTRUCTIVE SURGERYCHAPTER 45Figure 45-34. The Tessier classification of craniofacial clefts. Numbered lines designate soft tissue manifestations (above) of the underlying skeletal clefts (below).Lip adhesion(1–2 months)Lip and primarynose repair(3–6 months)Orthognathicsurgery*(skeletal maturity)Definitiverhinoplasty*(after jaw surgery)Palate repair(10–12 months)Lip or noserevision*(> 6 years)VPD surgery*(4–7 years)Alveolar |
Surgery_Schwartz_13052 | Surgery_Schwartz | primarynose repair(3–6 months)Orthognathicsurgery*(skeletal maturity)Definitiverhinoplasty*(after jaw surgery)Palate repair(10–12 months)Lip or noserevision*(> 6 years)VPD surgery*(4–7 years)Alveolar bonegrafting(7–11 years)Figure 45-32. Traditional von Langenbeck palatal repair with bilateral bipedicled mucoperiosteal flap.Figure 45-33. The treatment timeline used at Nationwide Children’s Hospital.The Importance of Team in Cleft Care Children born with CL/P require expertise of medical professionals from many different disciplines. In addition to experienced craniofacial surgeons, cleft teams typically consist of otolaryngologists, pediatricians, speech pathologists, feeding specialists, pediatric dentists, orthodontists, geneticists, psychologists, nurses, and social workers. Each member is an integral part of the team and absolutely essential for the delivery of comprehensive cleft care.21Atypical Craniofacial Clefts Beyond the familiar scope of clefts confined to the lip and | Surgery_Schwartz. primarynose repair(3–6 months)Orthognathicsurgery*(skeletal maturity)Definitiverhinoplasty*(after jaw surgery)Palate repair(10–12 months)Lip or noserevision*(> 6 years)VPD surgery*(4–7 years)Alveolar bonegrafting(7–11 years)Figure 45-32. Traditional von Langenbeck palatal repair with bilateral bipedicled mucoperiosteal flap.Figure 45-33. The treatment timeline used at Nationwide Children’s Hospital.The Importance of Team in Cleft Care Children born with CL/P require expertise of medical professionals from many different disciplines. In addition to experienced craniofacial surgeons, cleft teams typically consist of otolaryngologists, pediatricians, speech pathologists, feeding specialists, pediatric dentists, orthodontists, geneticists, psychologists, nurses, and social workers. Each member is an integral part of the team and absolutely essential for the delivery of comprehensive cleft care.21Atypical Craniofacial Clefts Beyond the familiar scope of clefts confined to the lip and |
Surgery_Schwartz_13053 | Surgery_Schwartz | member is an integral part of the team and absolutely essential for the delivery of comprehensive cleft care.21Atypical Craniofacial Clefts Beyond the familiar scope of clefts confined to the lip and palate, there exist myriad forms of clefting that may affect the craniofacial skeleton. Sound epide-miologic studies of these atypical craniofacial clefts have been precluded by their extreme rarity, but rough estimates place them on the order of 100 times less common than CL/P. As a result, definitive causality has not been established. With the exception of some well-defined syndromes that include atypical craniofacial clefts, genetics does not appear to play a significant part in their pathogenesis. Some extrinsic factors that have been implicated include radiation, prenatal infections, early gesta-tional exposure to teratogenic drugs or chemicals, and amniotic bands. Metabolic derangements and vascular disturbances have also been hypothesized to play a role.27While CL/P can be | Surgery_Schwartz. member is an integral part of the team and absolutely essential for the delivery of comprehensive cleft care.21Atypical Craniofacial Clefts Beyond the familiar scope of clefts confined to the lip and palate, there exist myriad forms of clefting that may affect the craniofacial skeleton. Sound epide-miologic studies of these atypical craniofacial clefts have been precluded by their extreme rarity, but rough estimates place them on the order of 100 times less common than CL/P. As a result, definitive causality has not been established. With the exception of some well-defined syndromes that include atypical craniofacial clefts, genetics does not appear to play a significant part in their pathogenesis. Some extrinsic factors that have been implicated include radiation, prenatal infections, early gesta-tional exposure to teratogenic drugs or chemicals, and amniotic bands. Metabolic derangements and vascular disturbances have also been hypothesized to play a role.27While CL/P can be |
Surgery_Schwartz_13054 | Surgery_Schwartz | early gesta-tional exposure to teratogenic drugs or chemicals, and amniotic bands. Metabolic derangements and vascular disturbances have also been hypothesized to play a role.27While CL/P can be logically explained as an embryologic failure of fusion between facial processes, the location of the atypical craniofacial clefts is not well-accounted for by this theory. In the 1960s, Weston and Johnston used animal mod-els to demonstrate the vast contributions of neural crest cells to mesynchymal development of the face. They postulated that failure of these cells to penetrate into the developing face could lead to breakdown of the surrounding epithelia and result in atypical craniofacial clefts. The last 30 years has seen contin-ued refinement of this theory. Most recent evidence suggests that neural crest cells form developmental rests or ossification centers within the well-known facial processes. An abnormal number or impaired differentiation of these ossification centers may better | Surgery_Schwartz. early gesta-tional exposure to teratogenic drugs or chemicals, and amniotic bands. Metabolic derangements and vascular disturbances have also been hypothesized to play a role.27While CL/P can be logically explained as an embryologic failure of fusion between facial processes, the location of the atypical craniofacial clefts is not well-accounted for by this theory. In the 1960s, Weston and Johnston used animal mod-els to demonstrate the vast contributions of neural crest cells to mesynchymal development of the face. They postulated that failure of these cells to penetrate into the developing face could lead to breakdown of the surrounding epithelia and result in atypical craniofacial clefts. The last 30 years has seen contin-ued refinement of this theory. Most recent evidence suggests that neural crest cells form developmental rests or ossification centers within the well-known facial processes. An abnormal number or impaired differentiation of these ossification centers may better |
Surgery_Schwartz_13055 | Surgery_Schwartz | neural crest cells form developmental rests or ossification centers within the well-known facial processes. An abnormal number or impaired differentiation of these ossification centers may better explain the locations of clefts that seem to follow no known embryologic fusion plane.33In 1974, Paul Tessier published detailed anatomic obser-vations of a large series of children with atypical craniofacial clefts. He introduced a simple numbering system to classify these clefts based strictly on involved anatomy.28 Clefts were assigned numbers 0 to 14 as they radiate around the orbit. Num-bers 0 to 7 describe facial clefts, while 8 to 14 described cranial clefts. Fig. 45-34 illustrates the paths of soft tissue clefts (above) and their corresponding skeletal clefts (below).33,35A number 0 facial cleft and its number 14 cranial extension are midline clefts, which may be characterized by tissue defi-ciency or excess. Holoprosencephaly, a term used to describe a | Surgery_Schwartz. neural crest cells form developmental rests or ossification centers within the well-known facial processes. An abnormal number or impaired differentiation of these ossification centers may better explain the locations of clefts that seem to follow no known embryologic fusion plane.33In 1974, Paul Tessier published detailed anatomic obser-vations of a large series of children with atypical craniofacial clefts. He introduced a simple numbering system to classify these clefts based strictly on involved anatomy.28 Clefts were assigned numbers 0 to 14 as they radiate around the orbit. Num-bers 0 to 7 describe facial clefts, while 8 to 14 described cranial clefts. Fig. 45-34 illustrates the paths of soft tissue clefts (above) and their corresponding skeletal clefts (below).33,35A number 0 facial cleft and its number 14 cranial extension are midline clefts, which may be characterized by tissue defi-ciency or excess. Holoprosencephaly, a term used to describe a |
Surgery_Schwartz_13056 | Surgery_Schwartz | (below).33,35A number 0 facial cleft and its number 14 cranial extension are midline clefts, which may be characterized by tissue defi-ciency or excess. Holoprosencephaly, a term used to describe a 10234568910111213141413121110987665432130334301122347Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 198901/03/19 6:28 PM 1990SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIfailed cleavage of the prosencephalon into two separate cere-bral hemispheres, presents as a midline tissue deficiency that causes variable degrees of hypotelorism and upper lip and nasal deformity. Mildly affected patients may have near-normal intel-ligence, while severely affected cases are incompatible with life. Representing the opposite end of the spectrum, patients with median cleft face dysmorphism typically present with a median clefts of the lip and/or premaxilla midline tissue excess, hypertelorism, bifid cranium, and a normal underlying CNS (Fig. 45-35A,B).33Tessier clefts 1, 2, and 3 originate at the cupids bow. All proceed cephalad | Surgery_Schwartz. (below).33,35A number 0 facial cleft and its number 14 cranial extension are midline clefts, which may be characterized by tissue defi-ciency or excess. Holoprosencephaly, a term used to describe a 10234568910111213141413121110987665432130334301122347Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 198901/03/19 6:28 PM 1990SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIfailed cleavage of the prosencephalon into two separate cere-bral hemispheres, presents as a midline tissue deficiency that causes variable degrees of hypotelorism and upper lip and nasal deformity. Mildly affected patients may have near-normal intel-ligence, while severely affected cases are incompatible with life. Representing the opposite end of the spectrum, patients with median cleft face dysmorphism typically present with a median clefts of the lip and/or premaxilla midline tissue excess, hypertelorism, bifid cranium, and a normal underlying CNS (Fig. 45-35A,B).33Tessier clefts 1, 2, and 3 originate at the cupids bow. All proceed cephalad |
Surgery_Schwartz_13057 | Surgery_Schwartz | lip and/or premaxilla midline tissue excess, hypertelorism, bifid cranium, and a normal underlying CNS (Fig. 45-35A,B).33Tessier clefts 1, 2, and 3 originate at the cupids bow. All proceed cephalad through the piriform aperture and affect the nose. While number 1 and 2 clefts spare the orbit, number 3 clefts create continuity between the orbit, maxillary sinus, nasal and oral cavities. Clefts 4, 5, and 6 begin lateral to cupids bow, spare the nose, and pass cephalad to affect the orbit and lower eyelid. The number 7 cleft, otherwise known as craniofacial microsomia, extends transversely along a line from the oral com-missure to the auricular tragus. Underlying skeletal clefts can involve the mandible, maxilla, orbit, and cranium. Tessier clefts 8 through 10 continue to radiate laterally and superiorly around the orbit. Cranial extensions are numbered such that the sum of the facial cleft and its corresponding cranial extension is always 14. For example, the number 1 facial cleft | Surgery_Schwartz. lip and/or premaxilla midline tissue excess, hypertelorism, bifid cranium, and a normal underlying CNS (Fig. 45-35A,B).33Tessier clefts 1, 2, and 3 originate at the cupids bow. All proceed cephalad through the piriform aperture and affect the nose. While number 1 and 2 clefts spare the orbit, number 3 clefts create continuity between the orbit, maxillary sinus, nasal and oral cavities. Clefts 4, 5, and 6 begin lateral to cupids bow, spare the nose, and pass cephalad to affect the orbit and lower eyelid. The number 7 cleft, otherwise known as craniofacial microsomia, extends transversely along a line from the oral com-missure to the auricular tragus. Underlying skeletal clefts can involve the mandible, maxilla, orbit, and cranium. Tessier clefts 8 through 10 continue to radiate laterally and superiorly around the orbit. Cranial extensions are numbered such that the sum of the facial cleft and its corresponding cranial extension is always 14. For example, the number 1 facial cleft |
Surgery_Schwartz_13058 | Surgery_Schwartz | and superiorly around the orbit. Cranial extensions are numbered such that the sum of the facial cleft and its corresponding cranial extension is always 14. For example, the number 1 facial cleft continues as the number 13 cranial cleft, and the number 5 facial cleft continues as the number 9 cranial cleft.33,35 Clefts can be unilateral or bilateral and ABFigure 45-35. Tessier 0-14 clefts. A. Holoprosencephaly. Note the midline tissue deficiency, hypotelorism, and the rudimentary nose known as a “proboscis.” The degree of facial deformity in patients with holoprosencephaly typically reflects the degree to which the underlying CNS is affected. B. Median cleft face dysmorphism. Note the marked midline tissue excess and hypertelorism. Although this patient exhibits an obvious encephalocele, CNS function is usually normal.may occur in any combination. The constellation of bilateral Tes-sier clefts 6, 7, and 8 has been well-described within the context of Treacher Collins syndrome, in | Surgery_Schwartz. and superiorly around the orbit. Cranial extensions are numbered such that the sum of the facial cleft and its corresponding cranial extension is always 14. For example, the number 1 facial cleft continues as the number 13 cranial cleft, and the number 5 facial cleft continues as the number 9 cranial cleft.33,35 Clefts can be unilateral or bilateral and ABFigure 45-35. Tessier 0-14 clefts. A. Holoprosencephaly. Note the midline tissue deficiency, hypotelorism, and the rudimentary nose known as a “proboscis.” The degree of facial deformity in patients with holoprosencephaly typically reflects the degree to which the underlying CNS is affected. B. Median cleft face dysmorphism. Note the marked midline tissue excess and hypertelorism. Although this patient exhibits an obvious encephalocele, CNS function is usually normal.may occur in any combination. The constellation of bilateral Tes-sier clefts 6, 7, and 8 has been well-described within the context of Treacher Collins syndrome, in |
Surgery_Schwartz_13059 | Surgery_Schwartz | CNS function is usually normal.may occur in any combination. The constellation of bilateral Tes-sier clefts 6, 7, and 8 has been well-described within the context of Treacher Collins syndrome, in which patients exhibit malar hypoplasia, lower eyelid colobomas, and downward-slanting palpebral fissures (Fig. 45-36A–C).33Treatment of atypical craniofacial clefts varies widely with each unique patient. Classical approaches to surgical man-agement involved excision of atrophic soft tissue along cleft margins with reconstruction by local tissue rearrangement, with or without underlying bone grafting. Unfortunately, this meth-odology gives little consideration to the aesthetic units of the face, and the resulting scars often cause postoperative deformi-ties of their own. Ortiz-Monasterio and Taylor proposed a new treatment philosophy based on the following tenants:1. Restoration of the craniofacial skeleton2. Reconstruction with skin and soft tissue with like color and texture3. Generous use | Surgery_Schwartz. CNS function is usually normal.may occur in any combination. The constellation of bilateral Tes-sier clefts 6, 7, and 8 has been well-described within the context of Treacher Collins syndrome, in which patients exhibit malar hypoplasia, lower eyelid colobomas, and downward-slanting palpebral fissures (Fig. 45-36A–C).33Treatment of atypical craniofacial clefts varies widely with each unique patient. Classical approaches to surgical man-agement involved excision of atrophic soft tissue along cleft margins with reconstruction by local tissue rearrangement, with or without underlying bone grafting. Unfortunately, this meth-odology gives little consideration to the aesthetic units of the face, and the resulting scars often cause postoperative deformi-ties of their own. Ortiz-Monasterio and Taylor proposed a new treatment philosophy based on the following tenants:1. Restoration of the craniofacial skeleton2. Reconstruction with skin and soft tissue with like color and texture3. Generous use |
Surgery_Schwartz_13060 | Surgery_Schwartz | proposed a new treatment philosophy based on the following tenants:1. Restoration of the craniofacial skeleton2. Reconstruction with skin and soft tissue with like color and texture3. Generous use of tissue expanders4. Aesthetic unit and subunit reconstruction5. Scar location at limits of aesthetic subunits6. Symmetrical repositioning of key facial landmarksFig. 45-37 demonstrates the dramatic improvement in aes-thetic outcome that is attainable when abiding by this treatment philosophy.29Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 199001/03/19 6:28 PM 1991PLASTIC AND RECONSTRUCTIVE SURGERYCHAPTER 45ABCFigure 45-36. A child with Treacher Collins syndrome and the hallmark combination of Tessier clefts 6, 7, and 8. Note the downward-slanting palpebral fissures and profound malar hypoplasia due to complete absence of zygomas.Barring immediate danger to vital structures such as the eye, the timing of reconstruction can be determined on a case-by-case basis. Soft tissue clefts can be excised and | Surgery_Schwartz. proposed a new treatment philosophy based on the following tenants:1. Restoration of the craniofacial skeleton2. Reconstruction with skin and soft tissue with like color and texture3. Generous use of tissue expanders4. Aesthetic unit and subunit reconstruction5. Scar location at limits of aesthetic subunits6. Symmetrical repositioning of key facial landmarksFig. 45-37 demonstrates the dramatic improvement in aes-thetic outcome that is attainable when abiding by this treatment philosophy.29Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 199001/03/19 6:28 PM 1991PLASTIC AND RECONSTRUCTIVE SURGERYCHAPTER 45ABCFigure 45-36. A child with Treacher Collins syndrome and the hallmark combination of Tessier clefts 6, 7, and 8. Note the downward-slanting palpebral fissures and profound malar hypoplasia due to complete absence of zygomas.Barring immediate danger to vital structures such as the eye, the timing of reconstruction can be determined on a case-by-case basis. Soft tissue clefts can be excised and |
Surgery_Schwartz_13061 | Surgery_Schwartz | complete absence of zygomas.Barring immediate danger to vital structures such as the eye, the timing of reconstruction can be determined on a case-by-case basis. Soft tissue clefts can be excised and closed by classical measures within the first year of life. However, bony reconstruction should be delayed until at least 5 to 6 years of age to minimize iatrogenic impairment of facial growth. Serial tissue expansion of the cheek prior to this time may be necessary to excise unfavorable scars and reorient them along aesthetic subunit boundaries. Preoperative imaging, such as computed tomography (CT) or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), is necessary to fully characterize the defects and plan the opera-tion. Additional preoperative workup should include anesthe-sia evaluation and labs, as these operations can be lengthy and accompanied by significant blood loss. Preparedness for blood transfusion is imperative.33,34Craniofacial clefts are typically approached through a combination of | Surgery_Schwartz. complete absence of zygomas.Barring immediate danger to vital structures such as the eye, the timing of reconstruction can be determined on a case-by-case basis. Soft tissue clefts can be excised and closed by classical measures within the first year of life. However, bony reconstruction should be delayed until at least 5 to 6 years of age to minimize iatrogenic impairment of facial growth. Serial tissue expansion of the cheek prior to this time may be necessary to excise unfavorable scars and reorient them along aesthetic subunit boundaries. Preoperative imaging, such as computed tomography (CT) or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), is necessary to fully characterize the defects and plan the opera-tion. Additional preoperative workup should include anesthe-sia evaluation and labs, as these operations can be lengthy and accompanied by significant blood loss. Preparedness for blood transfusion is imperative.33,34Craniofacial clefts are typically approached through a combination of |
Surgery_Schwartz_13062 | Surgery_Schwartz | these operations can be lengthy and accompanied by significant blood loss. Preparedness for blood transfusion is imperative.33,34Craniofacial clefts are typically approached through a combination of bicoronal and oral vestibular incisions. Various osteotomies have been described to reposition components of Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 199101/03/19 6:28 PM 1992SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIFigure 45-37. (left) Eight-year-old girl with significant deformity from local tissue rearrangement to reconstruct a right Tessier no. 4 cleft. (center) Schematic depicting current scars with a solid line and proper scars with a dotted line. (right) Same patient after serial tissue expan-sion and relocation of scars along borders of aesthetic units.the craniofacial skeleton, such as the orbits, maxilla, and man-dible. These may be used in conjunction with bone grafts from the calvarium, ribs or iliac crest, and fixation can be achieved with standard techniques using bioresorbable plates or | Surgery_Schwartz. these operations can be lengthy and accompanied by significant blood loss. Preparedness for blood transfusion is imperative.33,34Craniofacial clefts are typically approached through a combination of bicoronal and oral vestibular incisions. Various osteotomies have been described to reposition components of Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 199101/03/19 6:28 PM 1992SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIFigure 45-37. (left) Eight-year-old girl with significant deformity from local tissue rearrangement to reconstruct a right Tessier no. 4 cleft. (center) Schematic depicting current scars with a solid line and proper scars with a dotted line. (right) Same patient after serial tissue expan-sion and relocation of scars along borders of aesthetic units.the craniofacial skeleton, such as the orbits, maxilla, and man-dible. These may be used in conjunction with bone grafts from the calvarium, ribs or iliac crest, and fixation can be achieved with standard techniques using bioresorbable plates or |
Surgery_Schwartz_13063 | Surgery_Schwartz | maxilla, and man-dible. These may be used in conjunction with bone grafts from the calvarium, ribs or iliac crest, and fixation can be achieved with standard techniques using bioresorbable plates or sutures.33Craniosynostosis. The term “craniosynostosis” refers to pre-mature fusion of one or more calvarial sutures. It occurs in up to 1 out of every 2000 live births, and single-suture, nonsyndromic patients account for 85% of cases. Of these, isolated sagittal cra-niosynostosis is the most common form, while lamdoidal is the least common. Normal suture maintenance is driven by underly-ing brain growth and a complex biochemical interplay between the suture and the underlying dura mater.30 Multiple genes have been implicated in the development of craniosynostosis, the most notable of which being FGFR and TWIST. Fifty percent of these present as de novo mutations, and most exhibit an autoso-mal dominant inheritance pattern. Environmental associations, such as maternal smoking, have been | Surgery_Schwartz. maxilla, and man-dible. These may be used in conjunction with bone grafts from the calvarium, ribs or iliac crest, and fixation can be achieved with standard techniques using bioresorbable plates or sutures.33Craniosynostosis. The term “craniosynostosis” refers to pre-mature fusion of one or more calvarial sutures. It occurs in up to 1 out of every 2000 live births, and single-suture, nonsyndromic patients account for 85% of cases. Of these, isolated sagittal cra-niosynostosis is the most common form, while lamdoidal is the least common. Normal suture maintenance is driven by underly-ing brain growth and a complex biochemical interplay between the suture and the underlying dura mater.30 Multiple genes have been implicated in the development of craniosynostosis, the most notable of which being FGFR and TWIST. Fifty percent of these present as de novo mutations, and most exhibit an autoso-mal dominant inheritance pattern. Environmental associations, such as maternal smoking, have been |
Surgery_Schwartz_13064 | Surgery_Schwartz | being FGFR and TWIST. Fifty percent of these present as de novo mutations, and most exhibit an autoso-mal dominant inheritance pattern. Environmental associations, such as maternal smoking, have been postulated, but definitive causality has not been proven.31According to Virchow’s law, patients with craniosynosto-sis exhibit a predictable pattern of deformity that results from an arrest of cranial growth perpendicular to the prematurely fused suture, with a compensatory increase in growth parallel to the affected suture (Fig. 45-38). Isolated sagittal craniosynostosis, Patent suturesFused midline sutureFigure 45-38. (left) Patent sutures permit normal cranial growth in all directions. (right) Craniosynostosis results in restricted cranial growth across the synostotic suture with a compensatory increased growth parallel to the synostotic suture (Virchow’s law).for example, results in restricted cranial growth in the transverse direction and a compensatory increase in the | Surgery_Schwartz. being FGFR and TWIST. Fifty percent of these present as de novo mutations, and most exhibit an autoso-mal dominant inheritance pattern. Environmental associations, such as maternal smoking, have been postulated, but definitive causality has not been proven.31According to Virchow’s law, patients with craniosynosto-sis exhibit a predictable pattern of deformity that results from an arrest of cranial growth perpendicular to the prematurely fused suture, with a compensatory increase in growth parallel to the affected suture (Fig. 45-38). Isolated sagittal craniosynostosis, Patent suturesFused midline sutureFigure 45-38. (left) Patent sutures permit normal cranial growth in all directions. (right) Craniosynostosis results in restricted cranial growth across the synostotic suture with a compensatory increased growth parallel to the synostotic suture (Virchow’s law).for example, results in restricted cranial growth in the transverse direction and a compensatory increase in the |
Surgery_Schwartz_13065 | Surgery_Schwartz | with a compensatory increased growth parallel to the synostotic suture (Virchow’s law).for example, results in restricted cranial growth in the transverse direction and a compensatory increase in the anterior-posterior diameter of the head with frontal and/or occipital bossing. This head shape is commonly referred to as “scaphocephaly.” Fig. 45-39 depicts various other isolated craniosynostoses and the patterns of deformity that ensue.36All patients with craniosynostosis should be screened for intracranial hypertension. It has been estimated that up to 17% of patients with single-suture involvement may develop elevated intracranial pressure (ICP). This risk approaches 50% in patients with multisuture craniosynostosis.36 Signs and symptoms of increased ICP may include headache, inconsolability, nausea, vomiting, lethargy, sleep apnea, developmental delay, bulging fontanelles, hydrocephalus, papilledema, or loss of vision.36,38 Facial dysmorphism and a strong family history should | Surgery_Schwartz. with a compensatory increased growth parallel to the synostotic suture (Virchow’s law).for example, results in restricted cranial growth in the transverse direction and a compensatory increase in the anterior-posterior diameter of the head with frontal and/or occipital bossing. This head shape is commonly referred to as “scaphocephaly.” Fig. 45-39 depicts various other isolated craniosynostoses and the patterns of deformity that ensue.36All patients with craniosynostosis should be screened for intracranial hypertension. It has been estimated that up to 17% of patients with single-suture involvement may develop elevated intracranial pressure (ICP). This risk approaches 50% in patients with multisuture craniosynostosis.36 Signs and symptoms of increased ICP may include headache, inconsolability, nausea, vomiting, lethargy, sleep apnea, developmental delay, bulging fontanelles, hydrocephalus, papilledema, or loss of vision.36,38 Facial dysmorphism and a strong family history should |
Surgery_Schwartz_13066 | Surgery_Schwartz | nausea, vomiting, lethargy, sleep apnea, developmental delay, bulging fontanelles, hydrocephalus, papilledema, or loss of vision.36,38 Facial dysmorphism and a strong family history should raise suspicion for syndromic etiology, as seen in Apert, Crouzon, Pfeiffer, and Saethre-Chotzen syndromes, among others.Diagnosis of craniosynostosis begins with physical exam. A recent prospective multicenter study suggests 98% accu-racy of diagnosis based upon physical exam findings alone. Palpable ridges may be present on the cranium but are not pathognomonic for craniosynostosis. The much more reliable physical exam finding involves recognition of the distinct pat-terns of cranial growth that result from premature fusion of one or more sutures. Dysmorphic facies, suspicion for multisuture involvement, or any degree of uncertainty in the diagnosis can be clarified with adjunctive imaging. While skull plain films can provide useful information, 3D computed tomography has emerged as the new gold | Surgery_Schwartz. nausea, vomiting, lethargy, sleep apnea, developmental delay, bulging fontanelles, hydrocephalus, papilledema, or loss of vision.36,38 Facial dysmorphism and a strong family history should raise suspicion for syndromic etiology, as seen in Apert, Crouzon, Pfeiffer, and Saethre-Chotzen syndromes, among others.Diagnosis of craniosynostosis begins with physical exam. A recent prospective multicenter study suggests 98% accu-racy of diagnosis based upon physical exam findings alone. Palpable ridges may be present on the cranium but are not pathognomonic for craniosynostosis. The much more reliable physical exam finding involves recognition of the distinct pat-terns of cranial growth that result from premature fusion of one or more sutures. Dysmorphic facies, suspicion for multisuture involvement, or any degree of uncertainty in the diagnosis can be clarified with adjunctive imaging. While skull plain films can provide useful information, 3D computed tomography has emerged as the new gold |
Surgery_Schwartz_13067 | Surgery_Schwartz | or any degree of uncertainty in the diagnosis can be clarified with adjunctive imaging. While skull plain films can provide useful information, 3D computed tomography has emerged as the new gold standard imaging modality for diag-nosing craniosynostosis.37The goals of treatment for craniosynostosis are to achieve a more normalized head shape and to treat or prevent nega-tive impacts on development that may result from increased ICP.37 In general, two approaches exist: (a) strip craniectomy procedures and (b) remodeling procedures. Simply put, strip craniectomy procedures remove the synostotic suture in order to disinhibit cranial growth across the affected suture. Adjunc-tive techniques, such as cranial spring or distractor placement versus postoperative helmet therapy are frequently combined with strip craniectomies to improve aesthetic outcomes. Many surgeons who perform these procedures will do so as early as Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 199201/03/19 6:28 PM 1993PLASTIC | Surgery_Schwartz. or any degree of uncertainty in the diagnosis can be clarified with adjunctive imaging. While skull plain films can provide useful information, 3D computed tomography has emerged as the new gold standard imaging modality for diag-nosing craniosynostosis.37The goals of treatment for craniosynostosis are to achieve a more normalized head shape and to treat or prevent nega-tive impacts on development that may result from increased ICP.37 In general, two approaches exist: (a) strip craniectomy procedures and (b) remodeling procedures. Simply put, strip craniectomy procedures remove the synostotic suture in order to disinhibit cranial growth across the affected suture. Adjunc-tive techniques, such as cranial spring or distractor placement versus postoperative helmet therapy are frequently combined with strip craniectomies to improve aesthetic outcomes. Many surgeons who perform these procedures will do so as early as Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 199201/03/19 6:28 PM 1993PLASTIC |
Surgery_Schwartz_13068 | Surgery_Schwartz | with strip craniectomies to improve aesthetic outcomes. Many surgeons who perform these procedures will do so as early as Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 199201/03/19 6:28 PM 1993PLASTIC AND RECONSTRUCTIVE SURGERYCHAPTER 45NormocephalyScaphocephalyTrigonocephaly AnteriorplagiocephalyBrachycephalyPosteriorplagiocephalyFigure 45-39. Patterns of single-suture cranio-synostosis. Scaphocephaly results from sagittal synostosis. Trigonocephaly results from metopic synostosis. Anterior plagiocephaly results from unilateral coronal synostosis. Brachycephaly results from bilateral coronal synostosis. Posterior plagiocephaly results from unilateral lambdoidal synostosis.6 to 12 weeks of life to take advantage of early rapid brain growth, which helps drive cranial expansion after release of the synostotic suture. In addition, younger patients have a better capacity to heal the resulting cranial defects due to the high osteogeneticity of the underlying dura, which decreases substan-tially | Surgery_Schwartz. with strip craniectomies to improve aesthetic outcomes. Many surgeons who perform these procedures will do so as early as Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 199201/03/19 6:28 PM 1993PLASTIC AND RECONSTRUCTIVE SURGERYCHAPTER 45NormocephalyScaphocephalyTrigonocephaly AnteriorplagiocephalyBrachycephalyPosteriorplagiocephalyFigure 45-39. Patterns of single-suture cranio-synostosis. Scaphocephaly results from sagittal synostosis. Trigonocephaly results from metopic synostosis. Anterior plagiocephaly results from unilateral coronal synostosis. Brachycephaly results from bilateral coronal synostosis. Posterior plagiocephaly results from unilateral lambdoidal synostosis.6 to 12 weeks of life to take advantage of early rapid brain growth, which helps drive cranial expansion after release of the synostotic suture. In addition, younger patients have a better capacity to heal the resulting cranial defects due to the high osteogeneticity of the underlying dura, which decreases substan-tially |
Surgery_Schwartz_13069 | Surgery_Schwartz | synostotic suture. In addition, younger patients have a better capacity to heal the resulting cranial defects due to the high osteogeneticity of the underlying dura, which decreases substan-tially with age.37 Remodeling procedures go further to normalize head shape by complete removal, rearrangement, and replace-ment of abnormal areas of the calvarium. Given the limited efficacy of the aforementioned strip craniectomy techniques in patients older than 6 months of age, cranial vault remodeling is generally accepted as the definitive treatment for craniosynos-tosis in this age group.36Advantages of strip craniectomy procedures include shorter operative times, less blood loss, and shorter hospital stays, while disadvantages include an inability to treat complex deformities from multisuture involvement, inability to treat areas of compensatory increased cranial growth, and the neces-sity for secondary hardware removal procedures. Remodeling procedures offer a more definitive correction of | Surgery_Schwartz. synostotic suture. In addition, younger patients have a better capacity to heal the resulting cranial defects due to the high osteogeneticity of the underlying dura, which decreases substan-tially with age.37 Remodeling procedures go further to normalize head shape by complete removal, rearrangement, and replace-ment of abnormal areas of the calvarium. Given the limited efficacy of the aforementioned strip craniectomy techniques in patients older than 6 months of age, cranial vault remodeling is generally accepted as the definitive treatment for craniosynos-tosis in this age group.36Advantages of strip craniectomy procedures include shorter operative times, less blood loss, and shorter hospital stays, while disadvantages include an inability to treat complex deformities from multisuture involvement, inability to treat areas of compensatory increased cranial growth, and the neces-sity for secondary hardware removal procedures. Remodeling procedures offer a more definitive correction of |
Surgery_Schwartz_13070 | Surgery_Schwartz | inability to treat areas of compensatory increased cranial growth, and the neces-sity for secondary hardware removal procedures. Remodeling procedures offer a more definitive correction of head shape in a single surgical procedure at the cost of increased operative times, higher rate of blood transfusions, and increased length of hospital stays.37The complexity of patients with syndromic craniosynosto-ses, such as Crouzon or Apert syndrome, mandates multidisci-plinary care from an experienced team of subspecialists. These patients may present with urgent airway obstruction, danger-ously elevated ICP, and/or vision-threatening globe protrusion (Fig. 45-40A–C).23 Early surgical interventions, such as strip craniectomy or posterior cranial vault distraction, are designed to increase cranial volume and therefore decrease ICP. Although optimal timing of definitive reconstruction is debatable, results of cranial vault remodeling and midface advancement surgeries appear more stable and | Surgery_Schwartz. inability to treat areas of compensatory increased cranial growth, and the neces-sity for secondary hardware removal procedures. Remodeling procedures offer a more definitive correction of head shape in a single surgical procedure at the cost of increased operative times, higher rate of blood transfusions, and increased length of hospital stays.37The complexity of patients with syndromic craniosynosto-ses, such as Crouzon or Apert syndrome, mandates multidisci-plinary care from an experienced team of subspecialists. These patients may present with urgent airway obstruction, danger-ously elevated ICP, and/or vision-threatening globe protrusion (Fig. 45-40A–C).23 Early surgical interventions, such as strip craniectomy or posterior cranial vault distraction, are designed to increase cranial volume and therefore decrease ICP. Although optimal timing of definitive reconstruction is debatable, results of cranial vault remodeling and midface advancement surgeries appear more stable and |
Surgery_Schwartz_13071 | Surgery_Schwartz | volume and therefore decrease ICP. Although optimal timing of definitive reconstruction is debatable, results of cranial vault remodeling and midface advancement surgeries appear more stable and demonstrate less relapse when delayed.32 Hearing, speech, and feeding difficulties are common among patients with syndromic craniosynostoses. As always, the psy-chosocial implications of such profound facial differences make social workers and psychologists indispensable members of the team.23Atrophy and Hypoplasia. Two conditions that exemplify the atrophy and hypoplasia class of craniofacial anomalies are progressive hemifacial atrophy and Robin sequence. Progres-sive hemifacial atrophy, otherwise known as Parry-Romberg syndrome, is a rare, acquired, idiopathic atrophy of the skin, subcutaneous tissue, muscle, and occasionally bone affecting one side of the face (Fig. 45-41). With a typical onset during the first or second decade of life, this self-limiting condition progresses with an | Surgery_Schwartz. volume and therefore decrease ICP. Although optimal timing of definitive reconstruction is debatable, results of cranial vault remodeling and midface advancement surgeries appear more stable and demonstrate less relapse when delayed.32 Hearing, speech, and feeding difficulties are common among patients with syndromic craniosynostoses. As always, the psy-chosocial implications of such profound facial differences make social workers and psychologists indispensable members of the team.23Atrophy and Hypoplasia. Two conditions that exemplify the atrophy and hypoplasia class of craniofacial anomalies are progressive hemifacial atrophy and Robin sequence. Progres-sive hemifacial atrophy, otherwise known as Parry-Romberg syndrome, is a rare, acquired, idiopathic atrophy of the skin, subcutaneous tissue, muscle, and occasionally bone affecting one side of the face (Fig. 45-41). With a typical onset during the first or second decade of life, this self-limiting condition progresses with an |
Surgery_Schwartz_13072 | Surgery_Schwartz | tissue, muscle, and occasionally bone affecting one side of the face (Fig. 45-41). With a typical onset during the first or second decade of life, this self-limiting condition progresses with an indolent course for 2 to 10 years before sta-bilizing, or “burning out.” The pathogenesis of Parry-Romberg syndrome is not well understood. Autoimmune processes such as scleroderma, chronic neurotropic viral infections, trigeminal neuritis, intracerebral vascular malformations, and increased sympathetic nerve activity have all been postulated to play a role. After progression of atrophy ceases, the mainstay of treat-ment is volume and contour restoration with autologous fat grafting. More severe cases may require microvascular transfer of free tissue, such as the parascapular fasciocutaneous flap.33Robin sequence is defined as the triad of micrognathia, glossoptosis, and airway obstruction (Fig. 45-42).23 Cleft palate is present in up to 90% of affected patients, though it is not an obligatory | Surgery_Schwartz. tissue, muscle, and occasionally bone affecting one side of the face (Fig. 45-41). With a typical onset during the first or second decade of life, this self-limiting condition progresses with an indolent course for 2 to 10 years before sta-bilizing, or “burning out.” The pathogenesis of Parry-Romberg syndrome is not well understood. Autoimmune processes such as scleroderma, chronic neurotropic viral infections, trigeminal neuritis, intracerebral vascular malformations, and increased sympathetic nerve activity have all been postulated to play a role. After progression of atrophy ceases, the mainstay of treat-ment is volume and contour restoration with autologous fat grafting. More severe cases may require microvascular transfer of free tissue, such as the parascapular fasciocutaneous flap.33Robin sequence is defined as the triad of micrognathia, glossoptosis, and airway obstruction (Fig. 45-42).23 Cleft palate is present in up to 90% of affected patients, though it is not an obligatory |
Surgery_Schwartz_13073 | Surgery_Schwartz | sequence is defined as the triad of micrognathia, glossoptosis, and airway obstruction (Fig. 45-42).23 Cleft palate is present in up to 90% of affected patients, though it is not an obligatory component of the diagnosis. The cause of this condi-tion is not known, but many believe mandibular hypoplasia to be the inciting event. According to this theory, micrognathia (small jaw) prevents forward migration of the tongue during gestational development. Glossoptosis results, where the tongue remains flipped dorsally into an obstructive position within the oropharyngeal airway. The first step in management is prone positioning, which utilizes gravity to bring the mandible and tongue base forward and alleviate the upper airway obstruction. More severely affected babies may require emergent endotra-cheal intubation at the time of delivery in order to secure the airway.34A diagnosable syndrome can be expected in over 50% of patients born with Robin sequence. Stickler syndrome (congeni-tal | Surgery_Schwartz. sequence is defined as the triad of micrognathia, glossoptosis, and airway obstruction (Fig. 45-42).23 Cleft palate is present in up to 90% of affected patients, though it is not an obligatory component of the diagnosis. The cause of this condi-tion is not known, but many believe mandibular hypoplasia to be the inciting event. According to this theory, micrognathia (small jaw) prevents forward migration of the tongue during gestational development. Glossoptosis results, where the tongue remains flipped dorsally into an obstructive position within the oropharyngeal airway. The first step in management is prone positioning, which utilizes gravity to bring the mandible and tongue base forward and alleviate the upper airway obstruction. More severely affected babies may require emergent endotra-cheal intubation at the time of delivery in order to secure the airway.34A diagnosable syndrome can be expected in over 50% of patients born with Robin sequence. Stickler syndrome (congeni-tal |
Surgery_Schwartz_13074 | Surgery_Schwartz | intubation at the time of delivery in order to secure the airway.34A diagnosable syndrome can be expected in over 50% of patients born with Robin sequence. Stickler syndrome (congeni-tal ocular, orofacial, auditory, and articular anomalies), which is the leading cause of childhood blindness due to retinal detach-ment, is the most commonly associated syndrome. For this reason, ophthalmology and genetics evaluations are indicated in all patients with Robin sequence. Additionally, a thorough airway evaluation by an otolaryngologist is necessary to con-firm obstruction at the level of the tongue base and to rule out intrinsic airway anomalies or obstruction at lower levels of the respiratory tract.41Babies who are mildly affected can often be managed nonsurgically with prone positioning alone. Close monitoring is required because obstructive symptoms do not always fol-low a linear course to resolution. High caloric expenditure on Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 199301/03/19 6:28 PM | Surgery_Schwartz. intubation at the time of delivery in order to secure the airway.34A diagnosable syndrome can be expected in over 50% of patients born with Robin sequence. Stickler syndrome (congeni-tal ocular, orofacial, auditory, and articular anomalies), which is the leading cause of childhood blindness due to retinal detach-ment, is the most commonly associated syndrome. For this reason, ophthalmology and genetics evaluations are indicated in all patients with Robin sequence. Additionally, a thorough airway evaluation by an otolaryngologist is necessary to con-firm obstruction at the level of the tongue base and to rule out intrinsic airway anomalies or obstruction at lower levels of the respiratory tract.41Babies who are mildly affected can often be managed nonsurgically with prone positioning alone. Close monitoring is required because obstructive symptoms do not always fol-low a linear course to resolution. High caloric expenditure on Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 199301/03/19 6:28 PM |
Surgery_Schwartz_13075 | Surgery_Schwartz | Close monitoring is required because obstructive symptoms do not always fol-low a linear course to resolution. High caloric expenditure on Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 199301/03/19 6:28 PM 1994SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIABCFigure 45-40. A and B. Frontal and lateral views of a young girl affected by Crouzon syndrome. Brachycephaly is appreciable on the lateral view, which results from bicoronal craniosynostosis. This patient also exhibits exorbitism and significant midface hyposplasia. C. A patient with Crouzon syndrome whose severe exorbitism has led to exposure keratitis.Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 199401/03/19 6:29 PM 1995PLASTIC AND RECONSTRUCTIVE SURGERYCHAPTER 45Figure 45-41. Child with progressive hemifacial atrophy, other-wise known as Parry-Romberg syndrome.Figure 45-42. An infant with Robin sequence. Marked microgna-thia and glossoptosis cause respiratory distress due to upper airway obstruction at the level of the tongue base. Note the presence of sternal | Surgery_Schwartz. Close monitoring is required because obstructive symptoms do not always fol-low a linear course to resolution. High caloric expenditure on Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 199301/03/19 6:28 PM 1994SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIABCFigure 45-40. A and B. Frontal and lateral views of a young girl affected by Crouzon syndrome. Brachycephaly is appreciable on the lateral view, which results from bicoronal craniosynostosis. This patient also exhibits exorbitism and significant midface hyposplasia. C. A patient with Crouzon syndrome whose severe exorbitism has led to exposure keratitis.Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 199401/03/19 6:29 PM 1995PLASTIC AND RECONSTRUCTIVE SURGERYCHAPTER 45Figure 45-41. Child with progressive hemifacial atrophy, other-wise known as Parry-Romberg syndrome.Figure 45-42. An infant with Robin sequence. Marked microgna-thia and glossoptosis cause respiratory distress due to upper airway obstruction at the level of the tongue base. Note the presence of sternal |
Surgery_Schwartz_13076 | Surgery_Schwartz | 45-42. An infant with Robin sequence. Marked microgna-thia and glossoptosis cause respiratory distress due to upper airway obstruction at the level of the tongue base. Note the presence of sternal retraction during inspiration.increased work of breathing, in combination with reflux and feeding difficulties that are ubiquitous in this population, may manifest as poor weight gain over time. Persistent failure to thrive indicates a failure of conservative management.41Robin sequence patients with single-level obstruction at the tongue base who have failed conservative measures should be considered for surgical airway management.41 Tongue-lip adhesion (TLA) is designed to bring the tongue base forward and out of the airway by temporarily sewing the under-surface of the tongue to the mucosal surface of the lower lip. Adhesions are typically reversed within the first year of life as significant mandibular growth and improved muscle tone of the tongue result in a stable airway.35Another | Surgery_Schwartz. 45-42. An infant with Robin sequence. Marked microgna-thia and glossoptosis cause respiratory distress due to upper airway obstruction at the level of the tongue base. Note the presence of sternal retraction during inspiration.increased work of breathing, in combination with reflux and feeding difficulties that are ubiquitous in this population, may manifest as poor weight gain over time. Persistent failure to thrive indicates a failure of conservative management.41Robin sequence patients with single-level obstruction at the tongue base who have failed conservative measures should be considered for surgical airway management.41 Tongue-lip adhesion (TLA) is designed to bring the tongue base forward and out of the airway by temporarily sewing the under-surface of the tongue to the mucosal surface of the lower lip. Adhesions are typically reversed within the first year of life as significant mandibular growth and improved muscle tone of the tongue result in a stable airway.35Another |
Surgery_Schwartz_13077 | Surgery_Schwartz | surface of the lower lip. Adhesions are typically reversed within the first year of life as significant mandibular growth and improved muscle tone of the tongue result in a stable airway.35Another option to treat upper airway obstruction in patients with Robin sequence is mandibular distraction osteogenesis (MDO). In this procedure, osteotomies are made in bilateral mandibular rami, and distractor devices are applied that enable a gradual (1–2 mm/day) lengthening of the mandible. As the mandible is brought forward, the tongue base follows, result-ing in enlargement of the oropharyngeal airway. Specific risks include injury to tooth buds, inferior alveolar or marginal man-dibular nerves, and disruption of mandibular growth potential.41In Robin sequence, patients who fail or are not candidates for less invasive surgical maneuvers, tracheostomy remains the definitive option for airway control. Figure 45-43 represents an algorithm for management of children with Robin sequence proposed on | Surgery_Schwartz. surface of the lower lip. Adhesions are typically reversed within the first year of life as significant mandibular growth and improved muscle tone of the tongue result in a stable airway.35Another option to treat upper airway obstruction in patients with Robin sequence is mandibular distraction osteogenesis (MDO). In this procedure, osteotomies are made in bilateral mandibular rami, and distractor devices are applied that enable a gradual (1–2 mm/day) lengthening of the mandible. As the mandible is brought forward, the tongue base follows, result-ing in enlargement of the oropharyngeal airway. Specific risks include injury to tooth buds, inferior alveolar or marginal man-dibular nerves, and disruption of mandibular growth potential.41In Robin sequence, patients who fail or are not candidates for less invasive surgical maneuvers, tracheostomy remains the definitive option for airway control. Figure 45-43 represents an algorithm for management of children with Robin sequence proposed on |
Surgery_Schwartz_13078 | Surgery_Schwartz | for less invasive surgical maneuvers, tracheostomy remains the definitive option for airway control. Figure 45-43 represents an algorithm for management of children with Robin sequence proposed on the basis that TLA is less invasive and does not preclude subsequent MDO in the event of failure.42 However, 4one option has not been proven to be significantly better than the other, and many surgeons prefer MDO as a first-line intervention.Hypertrophy, Hyperplasia, and Neoplasia. Numerous hypertrophic, hyperplastic, or neoplastic processes can affect the craniofacial region. The presence of certain vascular anomalies in the face can result in hypertrophy of surrounding bone or soft tissue.19 Patients with neurofibromatosis-1 may similarly present with hemifacial hypertrophy related to the presence of an underlying plexiform neurofibroma.36 Fibrous dysplasia is a focal error in osteoblast differentiation that leads to replacement of normal bone with a disorganized mass of bony trabeculae | Surgery_Schwartz. for less invasive surgical maneuvers, tracheostomy remains the definitive option for airway control. Figure 45-43 represents an algorithm for management of children with Robin sequence proposed on the basis that TLA is less invasive and does not preclude subsequent MDO in the event of failure.42 However, 4one option has not been proven to be significantly better than the other, and many surgeons prefer MDO as a first-line intervention.Hypertrophy, Hyperplasia, and Neoplasia. Numerous hypertrophic, hyperplastic, or neoplastic processes can affect the craniofacial region. The presence of certain vascular anomalies in the face can result in hypertrophy of surrounding bone or soft tissue.19 Patients with neurofibromatosis-1 may similarly present with hemifacial hypertrophy related to the presence of an underlying plexiform neurofibroma.36 Fibrous dysplasia is a focal error in osteoblast differentiation that leads to replacement of normal bone with a disorganized mass of bony trabeculae |
Surgery_Schwartz_13079 | Surgery_Schwartz | of an underlying plexiform neurofibroma.36 Fibrous dysplasia is a focal error in osteoblast differentiation that leads to replacement of normal bone with a disorganized mass of bony trabeculae and fibrous tissue. Seventy percent of lesions are monostotic, and MandibulardistractionosteogenesisLaryngotrachealanomaly?Treat anomaly +/– tracheostomyPronepositioningObservationTongue-lip adhesionObservationFigure 45-43. Algorithm for management of children with Robin sequence.Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 199501/03/19 6:29 PM 1996SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIthe remaining 30% are polyostotic. In the craniofacial region, fibrous dysplasia typically presents in childhood with pain and progressive asymmetry. Patients with McCune-Albright syn-drome have polyostotic fibrous dysplasia, café au lait spots, and hyperfunctioning endocrinopathies, which classically manifest as precocious puberty. Lesions have a distinct “ground glass” appearance on CT scan. Small, monostotic fibrous dysplasia | Surgery_Schwartz. of an underlying plexiform neurofibroma.36 Fibrous dysplasia is a focal error in osteoblast differentiation that leads to replacement of normal bone with a disorganized mass of bony trabeculae and fibrous tissue. Seventy percent of lesions are monostotic, and MandibulardistractionosteogenesisLaryngotrachealanomaly?Treat anomaly +/– tracheostomyPronepositioningObservationTongue-lip adhesionObservationFigure 45-43. Algorithm for management of children with Robin sequence.Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 199501/03/19 6:29 PM 1996SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIthe remaining 30% are polyostotic. In the craniofacial region, fibrous dysplasia typically presents in childhood with pain and progressive asymmetry. Patients with McCune-Albright syn-drome have polyostotic fibrous dysplasia, café au lait spots, and hyperfunctioning endocrinopathies, which classically manifest as precocious puberty. Lesions have a distinct “ground glass” appearance on CT scan. Small, monostotic fibrous dysplasia |
Surgery_Schwartz_13080 | Surgery_Schwartz | lait spots, and hyperfunctioning endocrinopathies, which classically manifest as precocious puberty. Lesions have a distinct “ground glass” appearance on CT scan. Small, monostotic fibrous dysplasia lesions can occasionally be resected completely and recon-structed with bone grafts. More commonly, surgical debulking and contouring is the treatment of choice.37Vascular Anomalies. Vascular anomalies affect approxi-mately 5.5% of the population. They can be broadly categorized as either tumors or malformations.38 Vascular tumors are char-acterized histologically by endothelial cell proliferation, with or without luminal structure. In contrast, vascular malformations are collections of abnormally developed vessels without signifi-cant endothelial cell turnover.39Hemangiomas Hemangiomas are the most common vascular tumor in children, presenting in up to 20% of premature infants. Females are four times as likely to be affected as males, and darker-skinned individuals are rarely affected. | Surgery_Schwartz. lait spots, and hyperfunctioning endocrinopathies, which classically manifest as precocious puberty. Lesions have a distinct “ground glass” appearance on CT scan. Small, monostotic fibrous dysplasia lesions can occasionally be resected completely and recon-structed with bone grafts. More commonly, surgical debulking and contouring is the treatment of choice.37Vascular Anomalies. Vascular anomalies affect approxi-mately 5.5% of the population. They can be broadly categorized as either tumors or malformations.38 Vascular tumors are char-acterized histologically by endothelial cell proliferation, with or without luminal structure. In contrast, vascular malformations are collections of abnormally developed vessels without signifi-cant endothelial cell turnover.39Hemangiomas Hemangiomas are the most common vascular tumor in children, presenting in up to 20% of premature infants. Females are four times as likely to be affected as males, and darker-skinned individuals are rarely affected. |
Surgery_Schwartz_13081 | Surgery_Schwartz | the most common vascular tumor in children, presenting in up to 20% of premature infants. Females are four times as likely to be affected as males, and darker-skinned individuals are rarely affected. These benign tumors are believed to be collections of primitive blood vessels formed from angioblasts. Hemangiomas can occur anywhere throughout the body, with the liver being the most common extracutaneous site.46The natural history of hemangiomas is highly predict-able depending on the timing of presentation and early clinical course. Infantile hemangiomas appear shortly after birth, usu-ally between 2 weeks and 2 months of life. Cutaneous infantile hemangiomas may initially resemble a red scratch or bruise, while subcutaneous or visceral lesions go unnoticed. Rapid growth ensues over the next 9 to 12 months (“the proliferative phase”). During this time, cutaneous lesions become bright red and tense, while subcutaneous lesions may present as deep soft tissue masses with a | Surgery_Schwartz. the most common vascular tumor in children, presenting in up to 20% of premature infants. Females are four times as likely to be affected as males, and darker-skinned individuals are rarely affected. These benign tumors are believed to be collections of primitive blood vessels formed from angioblasts. Hemangiomas can occur anywhere throughout the body, with the liver being the most common extracutaneous site.46The natural history of hemangiomas is highly predict-able depending on the timing of presentation and early clinical course. Infantile hemangiomas appear shortly after birth, usu-ally between 2 weeks and 2 months of life. Cutaneous infantile hemangiomas may initially resemble a red scratch or bruise, while subcutaneous or visceral lesions go unnoticed. Rapid growth ensues over the next 9 to 12 months (“the proliferative phase”). During this time, cutaneous lesions become bright red and tense, while subcutaneous lesions may present as deep soft tissue masses with a |
Surgery_Schwartz_13082 | Surgery_Schwartz | over the next 9 to 12 months (“the proliferative phase”). During this time, cutaneous lesions become bright red and tense, while subcutaneous lesions may present as deep soft tissue masses with a bluish/purplish hue. After plateau of the proliferative phase, infantile hemangiomas reliably undergo a slow regression (“involution”), which is usually complete by 4 years of age. History alone can help differentiate a congenital hemangioma, which is fully formed at birth, from an infantile one. Congenital hemangiomas may exhibit rapidly involuting (RICH), noninvoluting (NICH), or partially involuting (PICH) clinical courses. History and physical is often sufficient to diagnose a hemangioma. Doppler ultrasound has become the imaging modality of choice, while MRI is typically reserved to confirm the diagnosis in cases of uncertainty.40Most hemangiomas can be observed and allowed to invo-lute spontaneously. High-risk lesions that may require early intervention include ulcerated and bleeding | Surgery_Schwartz. over the next 9 to 12 months (“the proliferative phase”). During this time, cutaneous lesions become bright red and tense, while subcutaneous lesions may present as deep soft tissue masses with a bluish/purplish hue. After plateau of the proliferative phase, infantile hemangiomas reliably undergo a slow regression (“involution”), which is usually complete by 4 years of age. History alone can help differentiate a congenital hemangioma, which is fully formed at birth, from an infantile one. Congenital hemangiomas may exhibit rapidly involuting (RICH), noninvoluting (NICH), or partially involuting (PICH) clinical courses. History and physical is often sufficient to diagnose a hemangioma. Doppler ultrasound has become the imaging modality of choice, while MRI is typically reserved to confirm the diagnosis in cases of uncertainty.40Most hemangiomas can be observed and allowed to invo-lute spontaneously. High-risk lesions that may require early intervention include ulcerated and bleeding |
Surgery_Schwartz_13083 | Surgery_Schwartz | the diagnosis in cases of uncertainty.40Most hemangiomas can be observed and allowed to invo-lute spontaneously. High-risk lesions that may require early intervention include ulcerated and bleeding hemangiomas; periocular hemangiomas, which can occlude the visual axis and lead to blindness; hemangiomas in the beard distribution, which place the patient at risk for upper airway obstruction (Fig. 45-44); and posterior midline lumbosacral hemangiomas, which may indicate underlying spinal dysraphism and cause cord compression. Patients with three or more hemangiomas should be screened by ultrasound for involvement of abdomi-nal viscera, as large hepatic lesions may lead to high-output heart failure. Large segmental hemangiomas in the cranial nerve V distribution (Fig. 45-45) should raise suspicion for PHACES association (Posterior fossa malformations, Heman-giomas, Arterial anomalies, Cardiac defects, Eye anomalies, Sternal defects).46 The LUMBAR association (Lower body Figure | Surgery_Schwartz. the diagnosis in cases of uncertainty.40Most hemangiomas can be observed and allowed to invo-lute spontaneously. High-risk lesions that may require early intervention include ulcerated and bleeding hemangiomas; periocular hemangiomas, which can occlude the visual axis and lead to blindness; hemangiomas in the beard distribution, which place the patient at risk for upper airway obstruction (Fig. 45-44); and posterior midline lumbosacral hemangiomas, which may indicate underlying spinal dysraphism and cause cord compression. Patients with three or more hemangiomas should be screened by ultrasound for involvement of abdomi-nal viscera, as large hepatic lesions may lead to high-output heart failure. Large segmental hemangiomas in the cranial nerve V distribution (Fig. 45-45) should raise suspicion for PHACES association (Posterior fossa malformations, Heman-giomas, Arterial anomalies, Cardiac defects, Eye anomalies, Sternal defects).46 The LUMBAR association (Lower body Figure |
Surgery_Schwartz_13084 | Surgery_Schwartz | raise suspicion for PHACES association (Posterior fossa malformations, Heman-giomas, Arterial anomalies, Cardiac defects, Eye anomalies, Sternal defects).46 The LUMBAR association (Lower body Figure 45-44. Hemangiomas in the beard distribution.hemangiomas, Urogenital anomalies, Myelopathy, Bony defor-mities, Anorectal/Arterial malformations, Renal anomalies) should be considered in patients with large infantile hemangio-mas of the lumbosacral region or lower extremities.41Oral propranolol therapy has emerged as the first-line treatment for complicated or high-risk infantile hemangio-mas. When administered during the proliferative phase, this nonselective beta adrenergic receptor blocker causes rapid invo-lution of the hemangioma. Several randomized, controlled trials have demonstrated oral propranolol to cause a greater decrease in lesion size compared to placebo and steroid therapy.42 In addition, many clinicians believe the side effect profile of pro-pranolol (hypoglycemia, sleep | Surgery_Schwartz. raise suspicion for PHACES association (Posterior fossa malformations, Heman-giomas, Arterial anomalies, Cardiac defects, Eye anomalies, Sternal defects).46 The LUMBAR association (Lower body Figure 45-44. Hemangiomas in the beard distribution.hemangiomas, Urogenital anomalies, Myelopathy, Bony defor-mities, Anorectal/Arterial malformations, Renal anomalies) should be considered in patients with large infantile hemangio-mas of the lumbosacral region or lower extremities.41Oral propranolol therapy has emerged as the first-line treatment for complicated or high-risk infantile hemangio-mas. When administered during the proliferative phase, this nonselective beta adrenergic receptor blocker causes rapid invo-lution of the hemangioma. Several randomized, controlled trials have demonstrated oral propranolol to cause a greater decrease in lesion size compared to placebo and steroid therapy.42 In addition, many clinicians believe the side effect profile of pro-pranolol (hypoglycemia, sleep |
Surgery_Schwartz_13085 | Surgery_Schwartz | propranolol to cause a greater decrease in lesion size compared to placebo and steroid therapy.42 In addition, many clinicians believe the side effect profile of pro-pranolol (hypoglycemia, sleep disturbances, hypotension, bra-dycardia, bronchospasm) to be more favorable than that of systemic steroids.43While hemangioma involution may result in no visible sequelae, up to 50% of patients are left with a residual fibrofatty mass with atrophic, hypopigmented and/or telangiectatic over-lying skin (Fig. 45-46A,B). If the residual deformity is troubling to the patient, surgical excision may be indicated.46Vascular Malformations Vascular malformations are collec-tions of abnormally formed vessels that demonstrate minimal endothelial cell turnover. They are present at birth and grow slowly in proportion with the patient. Vascular malformations are classified on the basis of anatomic origin of the abnormal vessels: capillary malformations (CM), venous malformations (VM), lymphatic | Surgery_Schwartz. propranolol to cause a greater decrease in lesion size compared to placebo and steroid therapy.42 In addition, many clinicians believe the side effect profile of pro-pranolol (hypoglycemia, sleep disturbances, hypotension, bra-dycardia, bronchospasm) to be more favorable than that of systemic steroids.43While hemangioma involution may result in no visible sequelae, up to 50% of patients are left with a residual fibrofatty mass with atrophic, hypopigmented and/or telangiectatic over-lying skin (Fig. 45-46A,B). If the residual deformity is troubling to the patient, surgical excision may be indicated.46Vascular Malformations Vascular malformations are collec-tions of abnormally formed vessels that demonstrate minimal endothelial cell turnover. They are present at birth and grow slowly in proportion with the patient. Vascular malformations are classified on the basis of anatomic origin of the abnormal vessels: capillary malformations (CM), venous malformations (VM), lymphatic |
Surgery_Schwartz_13086 | Surgery_Schwartz | in proportion with the patient. Vascular malformations are classified on the basis of anatomic origin of the abnormal vessels: capillary malformations (CM), venous malformations (VM), lymphatic malformations (LM), and arteriovenous mal-formations (AVM). These classes can be further categorized into “slow-flow” or “fast-flow” lesions (Table 45-4).46Capillary malformations, formerly known as “port wine stains,” present at birth as flat, pink patches of skin. They typi-cally darken with age and may develop a thickened or “cob-blestoned” appearance. CMs may be found anywhere on the body, and overgrowth of underlying soft tissue or bone can occur. History and physical is sufficient to diagnose isolated CMs, but syndromic associations do exist that would warrant 5Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 199601/03/19 6:29 PM 1997PLASTIC AND RECONSTRUCTIVE SURGERYCHAPTER 45Figure 45-45. Large segmental hemangiomas in the cranial nerve V distribution.Figure 45-46. Twenty-year-old female with a | Surgery_Schwartz. in proportion with the patient. Vascular malformations are classified on the basis of anatomic origin of the abnormal vessels: capillary malformations (CM), venous malformations (VM), lymphatic malformations (LM), and arteriovenous mal-formations (AVM). These classes can be further categorized into “slow-flow” or “fast-flow” lesions (Table 45-4).46Capillary malformations, formerly known as “port wine stains,” present at birth as flat, pink patches of skin. They typi-cally darken with age and may develop a thickened or “cob-blestoned” appearance. CMs may be found anywhere on the body, and overgrowth of underlying soft tissue or bone can occur. History and physical is sufficient to diagnose isolated CMs, but syndromic associations do exist that would warrant 5Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 199601/03/19 6:29 PM 1997PLASTIC AND RECONSTRUCTIVE SURGERYCHAPTER 45Figure 45-45. Large segmental hemangiomas in the cranial nerve V distribution.Figure 45-46. Twenty-year-old female with a |
Surgery_Schwartz_13087 | Surgery_Schwartz | 199601/03/19 6:29 PM 1997PLASTIC AND RECONSTRUCTIVE SURGERYCHAPTER 45Figure 45-45. Large segmental hemangiomas in the cranial nerve V distribution.Figure 45-46. Twenty-year-old female with a capillary malformations of the right cheek. A. Before and (B) after pulsed-dye laser treatment.ABTable 45-4Classification of vascular malformationsSLOW FLOWFAST FLOWCapillary malformationsVenous malformationsLymphatic malformationsArteriovenous malformationsfurther work-up.46 Sturge-Weber syndrome often presents with CMs in the V1/V2 nerve distributions of the face and may be accompanied by vascular malformations of the underlying lep-tomeninges or globe. Patients are at high risk for seizure, stroke, and glaucoma, for which pharmacologic prophylaxis may be indicated.44 The mainstay of treatment of CMs is pulsed-dye laser therapy (Fig. 45-47A, pre procedure; Fig. 45-47B post pro-cedure). Other surgical interventions, if necessary, are aimed at addressing soft tissue or bony overgrowth.46Venous | Surgery_Schwartz. 199601/03/19 6:29 PM 1997PLASTIC AND RECONSTRUCTIVE SURGERYCHAPTER 45Figure 45-45. Large segmental hemangiomas in the cranial nerve V distribution.Figure 45-46. Twenty-year-old female with a capillary malformations of the right cheek. A. Before and (B) after pulsed-dye laser treatment.ABTable 45-4Classification of vascular malformationsSLOW FLOWFAST FLOWCapillary malformationsVenous malformationsLymphatic malformationsArteriovenous malformationsfurther work-up.46 Sturge-Weber syndrome often presents with CMs in the V1/V2 nerve distributions of the face and may be accompanied by vascular malformations of the underlying lep-tomeninges or globe. Patients are at high risk for seizure, stroke, and glaucoma, for which pharmacologic prophylaxis may be indicated.44 The mainstay of treatment of CMs is pulsed-dye laser therapy (Fig. 45-47A, pre procedure; Fig. 45-47B post pro-cedure). Other surgical interventions, if necessary, are aimed at addressing soft tissue or bony overgrowth.46Venous |
Surgery_Schwartz_13088 | Surgery_Schwartz | CMs is pulsed-dye laser therapy (Fig. 45-47A, pre procedure; Fig. 45-47B post pro-cedure). Other surgical interventions, if necessary, are aimed at addressing soft tissue or bony overgrowth.46Venous malformations are lobulated collections of dilated veins that typically involve skin, mucosa, or subcutaneous tis-sue, although 50% demonstrate deeper involvement. Lesions may or may not be noted at the time of birth. VMs generally grow in proportion to the patient but may undergo accelerated growth during puberty or pregnancy. Swelling of the mass may occur with dependent positioning or Valsalva maneuvers, such as crying. On exam, superficial VMs are soft, compressible masses with a bluish hue. Firm, tender nodules may be present, which represent calcifications known as phleboliths. Deeper, intramuscular VMs may present with pain or increased extrem-ity circumference, while lesions of the GI tract may simply pres-ent with bleeding. MRI with contrast is the imaging modality of choice, | Surgery_Schwartz. CMs is pulsed-dye laser therapy (Fig. 45-47A, pre procedure; Fig. 45-47B post pro-cedure). Other surgical interventions, if necessary, are aimed at addressing soft tissue or bony overgrowth.46Venous malformations are lobulated collections of dilated veins that typically involve skin, mucosa, or subcutaneous tis-sue, although 50% demonstrate deeper involvement. Lesions may or may not be noted at the time of birth. VMs generally grow in proportion to the patient but may undergo accelerated growth during puberty or pregnancy. Swelling of the mass may occur with dependent positioning or Valsalva maneuvers, such as crying. On exam, superficial VMs are soft, compressible masses with a bluish hue. Firm, tender nodules may be present, which represent calcifications known as phleboliths. Deeper, intramuscular VMs may present with pain or increased extrem-ity circumference, while lesions of the GI tract may simply pres-ent with bleeding. MRI with contrast is the imaging modality of choice, |
Surgery_Schwartz_13089 | Surgery_Schwartz | intramuscular VMs may present with pain or increased extrem-ity circumference, while lesions of the GI tract may simply pres-ent with bleeding. MRI with contrast is the imaging modality of choice, although ultrasound can be used in infants and young children to avoid sedation. Observation is indicated for asymp-tomatic lesions. Compression of involved extremities helps alleviate pain and swelling and prevent thrombosis and phlebo-lith formation. Due to the high risk of recurrence after surgi-cal excision, the first line of treatment for symptomatic VMs is sclerotherapy. Surgery is reserved for small, well-localized lesions amenable to complete resection; extremity lesions near major peripheral nerves; or residual deformities after sclero-therapy (Fig. 45-48A, before laser; Fig. 45-48B, after laser; and Fig. 45-48C, after limited resection).46Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 199701/03/19 6:29 PM 1998SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIABABCFigure 45-47. A. A 3-year-old patient with an | Surgery_Schwartz. intramuscular VMs may present with pain or increased extrem-ity circumference, while lesions of the GI tract may simply pres-ent with bleeding. MRI with contrast is the imaging modality of choice, although ultrasound can be used in infants and young children to avoid sedation. Observation is indicated for asymp-tomatic lesions. Compression of involved extremities helps alleviate pain and swelling and prevent thrombosis and phlebo-lith formation. Due to the high risk of recurrence after surgi-cal excision, the first line of treatment for symptomatic VMs is sclerotherapy. Surgery is reserved for small, well-localized lesions amenable to complete resection; extremity lesions near major peripheral nerves; or residual deformities after sclero-therapy (Fig. 45-48A, before laser; Fig. 45-48B, after laser; and Fig. 45-48C, after limited resection).46Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 199701/03/19 6:29 PM 1998SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIABABCFigure 45-47. A. A 3-year-old patient with an |
Surgery_Schwartz_13090 | Surgery_Schwartz | laser; and Fig. 45-48C, after limited resection).46Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 199701/03/19 6:29 PM 1998SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIABABCFigure 45-47. A. A 3-year-old patient with an involuting hem-angioma of the right cheek. B. The same patient at 8 years of age showing minimal sequelae after completion of involution.Figure 45-48. A 5-year-old boy with venous malformation of the lower lip. A. Initial presentation. B. After three sclerotherapy treat-ments. C. Six weeks after surgical debulking of residual fibrotic tissue.Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 199801/03/19 6:29 PM 1999PLASTIC AND RECONSTRUCTIVE SURGERYCHAPTER 45Figure 45-49. A. Lymphatic malformation of the neck. B. After sclerotherapy with significant skin excess. C. Seven months after resection of excess skin.Lymphatic malformations, previously referred to as “cys-tic hygromas,” are collections of abnormal lymph channels that may cross multiple tissue planes and cause swelling, pain, bleeding, or bony | Surgery_Schwartz. laser; and Fig. 45-48C, after limited resection).46Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 199701/03/19 6:29 PM 1998SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIABABCFigure 45-47. A. A 3-year-old patient with an involuting hem-angioma of the right cheek. B. The same patient at 8 years of age showing minimal sequelae after completion of involution.Figure 45-48. A 5-year-old boy with venous malformation of the lower lip. A. Initial presentation. B. After three sclerotherapy treat-ments. C. Six weeks after surgical debulking of residual fibrotic tissue.Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 199801/03/19 6:29 PM 1999PLASTIC AND RECONSTRUCTIVE SURGERYCHAPTER 45Figure 45-49. A. Lymphatic malformation of the neck. B. After sclerotherapy with significant skin excess. C. Seven months after resection of excess skin.Lymphatic malformations, previously referred to as “cys-tic hygromas,” are collections of abnormal lymph channels that may cross multiple tissue planes and cause swelling, pain, bleeding, or bony |
Surgery_Schwartz_13091 | Surgery_Schwartz | malformations, previously referred to as “cys-tic hygromas,” are collections of abnormal lymph channels that may cross multiple tissue planes and cause swelling, pain, bleeding, or bony overgrowth. LMs are classified as macrocys-tic, microcystic or combined. Large, macrocystic lesions can alter form and impair function locally through mass effect. Cuta-neous components of LMs present as vesicles that may bleed or become infected. While superficial lesions can be diagnosed by history and physical exam alone, deeper lesions require MRI ABCto confirm the diagnosis and assess the extent of the disease. Asymptomatic LMs can be observed. Sclerotherapy is the treat-ment of choice for all macrocysts. Symptomatic microcystic LMs have been treated with oral sirolimus, and draining cutane-ous vesicles have been successfully ablated with CO2 laser ther-apy. Recurrence after surgery is common; therefore, excision is reserved for severely symptomatic lesions no longer amenable to sclerotherapy or | Surgery_Schwartz. malformations, previously referred to as “cys-tic hygromas,” are collections of abnormal lymph channels that may cross multiple tissue planes and cause swelling, pain, bleeding, or bony overgrowth. LMs are classified as macrocys-tic, microcystic or combined. Large, macrocystic lesions can alter form and impair function locally through mass effect. Cuta-neous components of LMs present as vesicles that may bleed or become infected. While superficial lesions can be diagnosed by history and physical exam alone, deeper lesions require MRI ABCto confirm the diagnosis and assess the extent of the disease. Asymptomatic LMs can be observed. Sclerotherapy is the treat-ment of choice for all macrocysts. Symptomatic microcystic LMs have been treated with oral sirolimus, and draining cutane-ous vesicles have been successfully ablated with CO2 laser ther-apy. Recurrence after surgery is common; therefore, excision is reserved for severely symptomatic lesions no longer amenable to sclerotherapy or |
Surgery_Schwartz_13092 | Surgery_Schwartz | have been successfully ablated with CO2 laser ther-apy. Recurrence after surgery is common; therefore, excision is reserved for severely symptomatic lesions no longer amenable to sclerotherapy or small, well-localized lesions where excision can be curative (Fig. 45-49A–C).46Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 199901/03/19 6:30 PM 2000SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIArteriovenous malformations are abnormal vascular con-nections between arteries and veins without intervening capil-lary beds. AVMs involving the skin appear pink and are warm to the touch. A palpable pulse or thrill may be present from the fast-flow shunting of blood from arterial to venous circu-lation. Lack of local capillaries can cause a painful, ischemic ulceration of the skin. Patients with large AVMs are at risk for development of congestive heart failure. Doppler ultrasound is the imaging modality of choice, but MRI is often obtained to provide additional information on the extent of the lesion. Observation is | Surgery_Schwartz. have been successfully ablated with CO2 laser ther-apy. Recurrence after surgery is common; therefore, excision is reserved for severely symptomatic lesions no longer amenable to sclerotherapy or small, well-localized lesions where excision can be curative (Fig. 45-49A–C).46Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 199901/03/19 6:30 PM 2000SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIArteriovenous malformations are abnormal vascular con-nections between arteries and veins without intervening capil-lary beds. AVMs involving the skin appear pink and are warm to the touch. A palpable pulse or thrill may be present from the fast-flow shunting of blood from arterial to venous circu-lation. Lack of local capillaries can cause a painful, ischemic ulceration of the skin. Patients with large AVMs are at risk for development of congestive heart failure. Doppler ultrasound is the imaging modality of choice, but MRI is often obtained to provide additional information on the extent of the lesion. Observation is |
Surgery_Schwartz_13093 | Surgery_Schwartz | development of congestive heart failure. Doppler ultrasound is the imaging modality of choice, but MRI is often obtained to provide additional information on the extent of the lesion. Observation is appropriate for asymptomatic AVMs. For symp-tomatic AVMs, embolization is frequently employed 24 to 72 hours prior to excision to minimize operative blood loss. Excision or embolization alone is rarely curative and highly likely to recur. Indications for surgery include small, well-localized AVMs; focal deformities that result from an AVM; or symptomatic AVMs not amenable to embolization.46When multiple types of vascular malformations cohabi-tate, they are collectively referred to as combined malforma-tions. Patients with Klippel-Trenaunay syndrome demonstrate a combined capillary, venous, and lymphatic malformation of an extremity resulting in bony and/or soft tissue overgrowth (Fig. 45-50).45Figure 45-50. A patient with Klippel-Trenaunay syndrome involv-ing the right lower extremity. | Surgery_Schwartz. development of congestive heart failure. Doppler ultrasound is the imaging modality of choice, but MRI is often obtained to provide additional information on the extent of the lesion. Observation is appropriate for asymptomatic AVMs. For symp-tomatic AVMs, embolization is frequently employed 24 to 72 hours prior to excision to minimize operative blood loss. Excision or embolization alone is rarely curative and highly likely to recur. Indications for surgery include small, well-localized AVMs; focal deformities that result from an AVM; or symptomatic AVMs not amenable to embolization.46When multiple types of vascular malformations cohabi-tate, they are collectively referred to as combined malforma-tions. Patients with Klippel-Trenaunay syndrome demonstrate a combined capillary, venous, and lymphatic malformation of an extremity resulting in bony and/or soft tissue overgrowth (Fig. 45-50).45Figure 45-50. A patient with Klippel-Trenaunay syndrome involv-ing the right lower extremity. |
Surgery_Schwartz_13094 | Surgery_Schwartz | lymphatic malformation of an extremity resulting in bony and/or soft tissue overgrowth (Fig. 45-50).45Figure 45-50. A patient with Klippel-Trenaunay syndrome involv-ing the right lower extremity. The combined capillary, venous, and lymphatic malformations result in generalized overgrowth of the extremity.Table 45-5Classification of CMN’sPROJECTED ADULT DIAMETERCMN CLASSIFICATION<1.5 cmSmall≥1.5 cm and <11 cmMedium≥11 cm and ≤20 cmLarge>20 cmGiantCongenital Melanocytic Nevi. Congenital melanocytic nevi (CMN) are hyperpigmented lesions present at birth that result from ectopic rests of melanocytes within the skin. They can be distinguished histologically from acquired nevi by their exten-sion into the deep dermis, subcutaneous tissue, or muscle.46 Depending on their size and location, CMNs may cause severe disfigurement and accompanying psychologic distress. Classi-fication is based on projected diameter of the largest dimension on the fully-grown adult (Table 45-5)47. While CMNs are | Surgery_Schwartz. lymphatic malformation of an extremity resulting in bony and/or soft tissue overgrowth (Fig. 45-50).45Figure 45-50. A patient with Klippel-Trenaunay syndrome involv-ing the right lower extremity. The combined capillary, venous, and lymphatic malformations result in generalized overgrowth of the extremity.Table 45-5Classification of CMN’sPROJECTED ADULT DIAMETERCMN CLASSIFICATION<1.5 cmSmall≥1.5 cm and <11 cmMedium≥11 cm and ≤20 cmLarge>20 cmGiantCongenital Melanocytic Nevi. Congenital melanocytic nevi (CMN) are hyperpigmented lesions present at birth that result from ectopic rests of melanocytes within the skin. They can be distinguished histologically from acquired nevi by their exten-sion into the deep dermis, subcutaneous tissue, or muscle.46 Depending on their size and location, CMNs may cause severe disfigurement and accompanying psychologic distress. Classi-fication is based on projected diameter of the largest dimension on the fully-grown adult (Table 45-5)47. While CMNs are |
Surgery_Schwartz_13095 | Surgery_Schwartz | may cause severe disfigurement and accompanying psychologic distress. Classi-fication is based on projected diameter of the largest dimension on the fully-grown adult (Table 45-5)47. While CMNs are gener-ally common (1% incidence), only 1 in 20,000 children are born with a giant lesion. At birth, CMNs often appear flat, brown and hairless. They grow in proportion with the patient and may develop color variegation, verrucous thickening, hypertrichosis, erosions, or ulcerations over time. CMNs carry an estimated 0.7% to 2.9% lifetime risk of melanoma, with the majority of cases presenting before puberty. Patients with giant CMNs, multiple satellite lesions, or trunk lesions appear to be at higher risk for malignancy. Melanomas can develop within the CMN itself, but they may also present as primary cancers at distant, extra-cutaneous sites, such as the GI tract or the central nervous system. Patients with CMNs require regular skin surveillance by a dermatologist. A biopsy is indicated | Surgery_Schwartz. may cause severe disfigurement and accompanying psychologic distress. Classi-fication is based on projected diameter of the largest dimension on the fully-grown adult (Table 45-5)47. While CMNs are gener-ally common (1% incidence), only 1 in 20,000 children are born with a giant lesion. At birth, CMNs often appear flat, brown and hairless. They grow in proportion with the patient and may develop color variegation, verrucous thickening, hypertrichosis, erosions, or ulcerations over time. CMNs carry an estimated 0.7% to 2.9% lifetime risk of melanoma, with the majority of cases presenting before puberty. Patients with giant CMNs, multiple satellite lesions, or trunk lesions appear to be at higher risk for malignancy. Melanomas can develop within the CMN itself, but they may also present as primary cancers at distant, extra-cutaneous sites, such as the GI tract or the central nervous system. Patients with CMNs require regular skin surveillance by a dermatologist. A biopsy is indicated |
Surgery_Schwartz_13096 | Surgery_Schwartz | primary cancers at distant, extra-cutaneous sites, such as the GI tract or the central nervous system. Patients with CMNs require regular skin surveillance by a dermatologist. A biopsy is indicated for concerning changes in color or shape, nodularity, or ulceration. If melanoma is diag-nosed, management should proceed in accordance with standard melanoma treatment guidelines.55CMNs with multiple (>20) satellite lesions or midline CMNs over the trunk or calvaria should raise suspicion for neu-rocutaneous melanosis, a condition resulting from melanoblast proliferation in the central nervous system (CNS). In addition to the risk of CNS melanoma, patients with neurocutaneous melanosis may suffer from developmental delay, seizures, intracranial hemorrhages, hydrocephalus, cranial nerve palsies, or tethered spinal cord. High-risk patients should be evaluated by MRI between 4 and 6 months of age. While asymptomatic patients may be followed with serial MRI, patients with symp-tomatic | Surgery_Schwartz. primary cancers at distant, extra-cutaneous sites, such as the GI tract or the central nervous system. Patients with CMNs require regular skin surveillance by a dermatologist. A biopsy is indicated for concerning changes in color or shape, nodularity, or ulceration. If melanoma is diag-nosed, management should proceed in accordance with standard melanoma treatment guidelines.55CMNs with multiple (>20) satellite lesions or midline CMNs over the trunk or calvaria should raise suspicion for neu-rocutaneous melanosis, a condition resulting from melanoblast proliferation in the central nervous system (CNS). In addition to the risk of CNS melanoma, patients with neurocutaneous melanosis may suffer from developmental delay, seizures, intracranial hemorrhages, hydrocephalus, cranial nerve palsies, or tethered spinal cord. High-risk patients should be evaluated by MRI between 4 and 6 months of age. While asymptomatic patients may be followed with serial MRI, patients with symp-tomatic |
Surgery_Schwartz_13097 | Surgery_Schwartz | palsies, or tethered spinal cord. High-risk patients should be evaluated by MRI between 4 and 6 months of age. While asymptomatic patients may be followed with serial MRI, patients with symp-tomatic neurocutaneous melanosis often succumb to their dis-ease within 2 to 3 years of diagnosis.54The goals in surgical management of CMN are (a) to decrease cancer risk, (b) to reduce symptoms, (c) to improve appearance, (d) to improve psychosocial health, and (e) to maintain function.54 It is important to note that the risk of mela-noma is not eliminated even with complete excision of a CMN. Indeed, a definitive cancer risk reduction from surgical excision of CMNs has yet to be proven. Management paradigms have therefore shifted from complete excision and reconstruction to maximal excision and reconstruction without compromis-ing function or aesthetic outcome.55 From serial excisions or skin grafting, to tissue expansion or free tissue transfer, plastic surgeons have drawn from the entire | Surgery_Schwartz. palsies, or tethered spinal cord. High-risk patients should be evaluated by MRI between 4 and 6 months of age. While asymptomatic patients may be followed with serial MRI, patients with symp-tomatic neurocutaneous melanosis often succumb to their dis-ease within 2 to 3 years of diagnosis.54The goals in surgical management of CMN are (a) to decrease cancer risk, (b) to reduce symptoms, (c) to improve appearance, (d) to improve psychosocial health, and (e) to maintain function.54 It is important to note that the risk of mela-noma is not eliminated even with complete excision of a CMN. Indeed, a definitive cancer risk reduction from surgical excision of CMNs has yet to be proven. Management paradigms have therefore shifted from complete excision and reconstruction to maximal excision and reconstruction without compromis-ing function or aesthetic outcome.55 From serial excisions or skin grafting, to tissue expansion or free tissue transfer, plastic surgeons have drawn from the entire |
Surgery_Schwartz_13098 | Surgery_Schwartz | reconstruction without compromis-ing function or aesthetic outcome.55 From serial excisions or skin grafting, to tissue expansion or free tissue transfer, plastic surgeons have drawn from the entire armamentarium in meet-ing the substantial reconstructive challenges posed by giant CMNs. Treatment plans must be grounded in principle: “tissue Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 200001/03/19 6:30 PM 2001PLASTIC AND RECONSTRUCTIVE SURGERYCHAPTER 45losses should be replaced in kind,” and “reconstruct by units.”48 Figure 45-51A–C shows an infant with a giant CMN of the pos-terior trunk and right flank preoperatively; at end of the first round of tissue expansion; and at the culmination of three rounds of tissue expansion, excision, and closure by local tissue rearrangement.49Figure 45-51. A. An infant with a giant CMN of the posterior trunk and right flank. B. Tissues expanders were placed under adjacent normal skin in preparation for first-stage excision. C. The same patient at 11 years | Surgery_Schwartz. reconstruction without compromis-ing function or aesthetic outcome.55 From serial excisions or skin grafting, to tissue expansion or free tissue transfer, plastic surgeons have drawn from the entire armamentarium in meet-ing the substantial reconstructive challenges posed by giant CMNs. Treatment plans must be grounded in principle: “tissue Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 200001/03/19 6:30 PM 2001PLASTIC AND RECONSTRUCTIVE SURGERYCHAPTER 45losses should be replaced in kind,” and “reconstruct by units.”48 Figure 45-51A–C shows an infant with a giant CMN of the pos-terior trunk and right flank preoperatively; at end of the first round of tissue expansion; and at the culmination of three rounds of tissue expansion, excision, and closure by local tissue rearrangement.49Figure 45-51. A. An infant with a giant CMN of the posterior trunk and right flank. B. Tissues expanders were placed under adjacent normal skin in preparation for first-stage excision. C. The same patient at 11 years |
Surgery_Schwartz_13099 | Surgery_Schwartz | An infant with a giant CMN of the posterior trunk and right flank. B. Tissues expanders were placed under adjacent normal skin in preparation for first-stage excision. C. The same patient at 11 years of age after three rounds of tissue expansion and excision.ABCRECONSTRUCTIVE SURGERY IN ADULTSReconstructive surgery applies techniques that modify tissues in order to restore a normal function and appearance in a patient with congenital or acquired deformities. The most common causes of acquired deformities are traumatic injuries and cancer.Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 200101/03/19 6:30 PM 2002SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIWe will focus first on trauma. Although any anatomic region can be subjected to injuries that might require reconstruc-tive surgery, traumatic fractures, and soft tissue damage in the head and neck and extremities are most common. The manner in which these reconstructive steps are conducted is criti-cal. Reconstructive surgery involves the coordination of many | Surgery_Schwartz. An infant with a giant CMN of the posterior trunk and right flank. B. Tissues expanders were placed under adjacent normal skin in preparation for first-stage excision. C. The same patient at 11 years of age after three rounds of tissue expansion and excision.ABCRECONSTRUCTIVE SURGERY IN ADULTSReconstructive surgery applies techniques that modify tissues in order to restore a normal function and appearance in a patient with congenital or acquired deformities. The most common causes of acquired deformities are traumatic injuries and cancer.Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 200101/03/19 6:30 PM 2002SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIWe will focus first on trauma. Although any anatomic region can be subjected to injuries that might require reconstruc-tive surgery, traumatic fractures, and soft tissue damage in the head and neck and extremities are most common. The manner in which these reconstructive steps are conducted is criti-cal. Reconstructive surgery involves the coordination of many |
Surgery_Schwartz_13100 | Surgery_Schwartz | damage in the head and neck and extremities are most common. The manner in which these reconstructive steps are conducted is criti-cal. Reconstructive surgery involves the coordination of many specialties and must occur according to a particular time-line, involving complex system-based practice.Maxillofacial Injuries and FracturesManagement of maxillofacial injuries typically occurs in the context of multiple trauma. Concomitant injuries beyond the face are the rule rather than the exception. The first phase of care is activation of the advanced trauma life support proto-cols. The most common life-threatening considerations in the facial trauma patient are airway maintenance, control of bleed-ing, identification and treatment of aspiration, assessment for closed head injuries, and identification of other injuries. Once the patient’s condition has been stabilized and life-threatening injuries managed, attention is directed to diagnosis and manage-ment of craniofacial | Surgery_Schwartz. damage in the head and neck and extremities are most common. The manner in which these reconstructive steps are conducted is criti-cal. Reconstructive surgery involves the coordination of many specialties and must occur according to a particular time-line, involving complex system-based practice.Maxillofacial Injuries and FracturesManagement of maxillofacial injuries typically occurs in the context of multiple trauma. Concomitant injuries beyond the face are the rule rather than the exception. The first phase of care is activation of the advanced trauma life support proto-cols. The most common life-threatening considerations in the facial trauma patient are airway maintenance, control of bleed-ing, identification and treatment of aspiration, assessment for closed head injuries, and identification of other injuries. Once the patient’s condition has been stabilized and life-threatening injuries managed, attention is directed to diagnosis and manage-ment of craniofacial |
Surgery_Schwartz_13101 | Surgery_Schwartz | and identification of other injuries. Once the patient’s condition has been stabilized and life-threatening injuries managed, attention is directed to diagnosis and manage-ment of craniofacial injuries.Physical examination of the face focuses first on assess-ment of soft tissue injuries as manifested by surface contusions and lacerations. Part of this process is intranasal and intraoral examination. Associated injuries to the underlying facial skel-eton are determined by observation, palpation, and digital bone examination through open lacerations. Signs of a facial frac-ture include contour abnormalities, irregularities of normally smooth contours such as the orbital rims or inferior border of the mandible, instability, tenderness, ecchymosis, facial asym-metry, or displacement of facial landmarks. Traditional plain radiographs have largely been replaced by high-resolution CT, which is widely available at emergency centers that typically receive these patients. Reformatting raw scans | Surgery_Schwartz. and identification of other injuries. Once the patient’s condition has been stabilized and life-threatening injuries managed, attention is directed to diagnosis and manage-ment of craniofacial injuries.Physical examination of the face focuses first on assess-ment of soft tissue injuries as manifested by surface contusions and lacerations. Part of this process is intranasal and intraoral examination. Associated injuries to the underlying facial skel-eton are determined by observation, palpation, and digital bone examination through open lacerations. Signs of a facial frac-ture include contour abnormalities, irregularities of normally smooth contours such as the orbital rims or inferior border of the mandible, instability, tenderness, ecchymosis, facial asym-metry, or displacement of facial landmarks. Traditional plain radiographs have largely been replaced by high-resolution CT, which is widely available at emergency centers that typically receive these patients. Reformatting raw scans |
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