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Surgery_Schwartz_13102 | Surgery_Schwartz | landmarks. Traditional plain radiographs have largely been replaced by high-resolution CT, which is widely available at emergency centers that typically receive these patients. Reformatting raw scans into coronal, sag-ittal, and 3D views is a valuable method to elucidate and plan treatment for complex injuries.The facial skeleton can be divided into the upper third, middle third, and lower third. The upper third is comprised bounded inferiorly by the superior orbital rim and is formed by the frontal bone. The middle third is the most complex and is formed primarily by the maxilla, nasal bones, and zygoma. The lower third is inferior to the oral cavity and is formed by the mandible. The functional structure of the midface may be understood as a system of buttresses formed by the frontal, maxillary, zygomatic, and sphenoid bones. These buttresses are oriented vertically and horizontally and distribute forces applied to the bones in order to maintain their shape and position with-out | Surgery_Schwartz. landmarks. Traditional plain radiographs have largely been replaced by high-resolution CT, which is widely available at emergency centers that typically receive these patients. Reformatting raw scans into coronal, sag-ittal, and 3D views is a valuable method to elucidate and plan treatment for complex injuries.The facial skeleton can be divided into the upper third, middle third, and lower third. The upper third is comprised bounded inferiorly by the superior orbital rim and is formed by the frontal bone. The middle third is the most complex and is formed primarily by the maxilla, nasal bones, and zygoma. The lower third is inferior to the oral cavity and is formed by the mandible. The functional structure of the midface may be understood as a system of buttresses formed by the frontal, maxillary, zygomatic, and sphenoid bones. These buttresses are oriented vertically and horizontally and distribute forces applied to the bones in order to maintain their shape and position with-out |
Surgery_Schwartz_13103 | Surgery_Schwartz | maxillary, zygomatic, and sphenoid bones. These buttresses are oriented vertically and horizontally and distribute forces applied to the bones in order to maintain their shape and position with-out fracturing. There are three paired vertical buttresses called the nasomaxillary, zygomaticomaxillary, and pterygomaxillary buttresses. The horizontal buttresses of the midface pass through the superior and inferior orbital rims and hard palate. A guiding principle of facial facture management is to restore the integrity of these buttresses.Mandible FracturesMandibular fractures are common injuries that may lead to permanent disability if not diagnosed and properly treated. The mandibular angle, ramus, coronoid process, and condyle are points of attachment for the muscles of mastication, including the masseter, temporalis, lateral pterygoid, and medial pterygoid muscles (Fig. 45-52). Fractures are frequently multiple. Altera-tions in dental occlusion usually accompany mandible fractures. | Surgery_Schwartz. maxillary, zygomatic, and sphenoid bones. These buttresses are oriented vertically and horizontally and distribute forces applied to the bones in order to maintain their shape and position with-out fracturing. There are three paired vertical buttresses called the nasomaxillary, zygomaticomaxillary, and pterygomaxillary buttresses. The horizontal buttresses of the midface pass through the superior and inferior orbital rims and hard palate. A guiding principle of facial facture management is to restore the integrity of these buttresses.Mandible FracturesMandibular fractures are common injuries that may lead to permanent disability if not diagnosed and properly treated. The mandibular angle, ramus, coronoid process, and condyle are points of attachment for the muscles of mastication, including the masseter, temporalis, lateral pterygoid, and medial pterygoid muscles (Fig. 45-52). Fractures are frequently multiple. Altera-tions in dental occlusion usually accompany mandible fractures. |
Surgery_Schwartz_13104 | Surgery_Schwartz | the masseter, temporalis, lateral pterygoid, and medial pterygoid muscles (Fig. 45-52). Fractures are frequently multiple. Altera-tions in dental occlusion usually accompany mandible fractures. Malocclusion is caused by forces exerted on the mandible of the 6CoronoidprocessRamusAngleBodySymphysisCondyleFigure 45-52. Mandibular anatomy.many muscles of mastication on the fracture segments. Den-tal occlusion is perhaps the most important basic relationship to understand about fracture of the midface and mandible. The Angle classification system describes the relationship of the maxillary teeth to the mandibular teeth. Class I is normal occlu-sion, with the mesial buccal cusp of the first maxillary molar fitting into the intercuspal groove of the mandibular first molar. Class II malocclusion is characterized by anterior (mesial) posi-tioning, and class III malocclusion is posterior (distal) posi-tioning of the maxillary teeth with respect to the mandibular teeth (Fig. 45-53). These | Surgery_Schwartz. the masseter, temporalis, lateral pterygoid, and medial pterygoid muscles (Fig. 45-52). Fractures are frequently multiple. Altera-tions in dental occlusion usually accompany mandible fractures. Malocclusion is caused by forces exerted on the mandible of the 6CoronoidprocessRamusAngleBodySymphysisCondyleFigure 45-52. Mandibular anatomy.many muscles of mastication on the fracture segments. Den-tal occlusion is perhaps the most important basic relationship to understand about fracture of the midface and mandible. The Angle classification system describes the relationship of the maxillary teeth to the mandibular teeth. Class I is normal occlu-sion, with the mesial buccal cusp of the first maxillary molar fitting into the intercuspal groove of the mandibular first molar. Class II malocclusion is characterized by anterior (mesial) posi-tioning, and class III malocclusion is posterior (distal) posi-tioning of the maxillary teeth with respect to the mandibular teeth (Fig. 45-53). These |
Surgery_Schwartz_13105 | Surgery_Schwartz | is characterized by anterior (mesial) posi-tioning, and class III malocclusion is posterior (distal) posi-tioning of the maxillary teeth with respect to the mandibular teeth (Fig. 45-53). These occlusal relationships guide clinical management.The goals of surgical treatment include restoration of den-tal occlusion, fracture reduction and stable fixation, and soft Figure 45-53. Angle classification. Class I: The mesial buccal cusp of the maxillary first molar fits into the intercuspal groove of the mandibular first molar. Class II: The mesial buccal cusp of the maxillary first molar is mesial to the intercuspal groove of the mandibular first molar. Class III: The mesial buccal cusp of the maxillary first molar is distal to the intercuspal groove of the man-dibular first molar.IIIIIIBrunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 200201/03/19 6:30 PM 2003PLASTIC AND RECONSTRUCTIVE SURGERYCHAPTER 45tissue repair. Nonsurgical treatment may be used in situations in which there is minimal | Surgery_Schwartz. is characterized by anterior (mesial) posi-tioning, and class III malocclusion is posterior (distal) posi-tioning of the maxillary teeth with respect to the mandibular teeth (Fig. 45-53). These occlusal relationships guide clinical management.The goals of surgical treatment include restoration of den-tal occlusion, fracture reduction and stable fixation, and soft Figure 45-53. Angle classification. Class I: The mesial buccal cusp of the maxillary first molar fits into the intercuspal groove of the mandibular first molar. Class II: The mesial buccal cusp of the maxillary first molar is mesial to the intercuspal groove of the mandibular first molar. Class III: The mesial buccal cusp of the maxillary first molar is distal to the intercuspal groove of the man-dibular first molar.IIIIIIBrunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 200201/03/19 6:30 PM 2003PLASTIC AND RECONSTRUCTIVE SURGERYCHAPTER 45tissue repair. Nonsurgical treatment may be used in situations in which there is minimal |
Surgery_Schwartz_13106 | Surgery_Schwartz | 200201/03/19 6:30 PM 2003PLASTIC AND RECONSTRUCTIVE SURGERYCHAPTER 45tissue repair. Nonsurgical treatment may be used in situations in which there is minimal displacement, preservation of the pretraumatic occlusive relationship, normal range of motion, and no significant soft tissue injury. Operative repair involves first establishing and stabilizing dental occlusion and holding in place with maxillomandibular fixation to stabilize the relation-ships between the mandible and maxilla. The simplest method for this is to apply arch bars to the maxillary and mandibular teeth then use secure them together using interdental wires. Alternatives are sometimes indicated (e.g., screws placed into the bone of the maxilla and mandible that serve as posts for spanning the maxilla and mandible with wires), especially for patients with poor dentition. Once the dental relationships are established, then the fractures can then be reduced and fixed using wire or plates and screws that are specially | Surgery_Schwartz. 200201/03/19 6:30 PM 2003PLASTIC AND RECONSTRUCTIVE SURGERYCHAPTER 45tissue repair. Nonsurgical treatment may be used in situations in which there is minimal displacement, preservation of the pretraumatic occlusive relationship, normal range of motion, and no significant soft tissue injury. Operative repair involves first establishing and stabilizing dental occlusion and holding in place with maxillomandibular fixation to stabilize the relation-ships between the mandible and maxilla. The simplest method for this is to apply arch bars to the maxillary and mandibular teeth then use secure them together using interdental wires. Alternatives are sometimes indicated (e.g., screws placed into the bone of the maxilla and mandible that serve as posts for spanning the maxilla and mandible with wires), especially for patients with poor dentition. Once the dental relationships are established, then the fractures can then be reduced and fixed using wire or plates and screws that are specially |
Surgery_Schwartz_13107 | Surgery_Schwartz | wires), especially for patients with poor dentition. Once the dental relationships are established, then the fractures can then be reduced and fixed using wire or plates and screws that are specially designed for this purpose. The fracture is surgically exposed using multiple incisions, depending on the location of the fracture and condi-tion of the soft tissues. The fracture is visualized and manually reduced. Fixation may be accomplished using traditional inter-fragment wires, but plating systems are generally superior. The mandibular plating approach follows two schools of thought: rigid fixation as espoused by the Association for Osteosynthe-sis/Association for the Study of Internal Fixation and less rigid but functionally stable fixation (Champy technique). Regardless of the approach, it is important to release maxillomandibular fixation and begin range of motion as soon as possible to pre-vent temporomandibular joint ankylosis. Fractures immediately inferior to the mandibular | Surgery_Schwartz. wires), especially for patients with poor dentition. Once the dental relationships are established, then the fractures can then be reduced and fixed using wire or plates and screws that are specially designed for this purpose. The fracture is surgically exposed using multiple incisions, depending on the location of the fracture and condi-tion of the soft tissues. The fracture is visualized and manually reduced. Fixation may be accomplished using traditional inter-fragment wires, but plating systems are generally superior. The mandibular plating approach follows two schools of thought: rigid fixation as espoused by the Association for Osteosynthe-sis/Association for the Study of Internal Fixation and less rigid but functionally stable fixation (Champy technique). Regardless of the approach, it is important to release maxillomandibular fixation and begin range of motion as soon as possible to pre-vent temporomandibular joint ankylosis. Fractures immediately inferior to the mandibular |
Surgery_Schwartz_13108 | Surgery_Schwartz | it is important to release maxillomandibular fixation and begin range of motion as soon as possible to pre-vent temporomandibular joint ankylosis. Fractures immediately inferior to the mandibular condyles, called subcondylar frac-tures, are unique in that there is ordinarily minimal displace-ment because the fragments are less subject to displacement from muscle forces and there is little bone available across the ClosedOpenYesYesNoNoAnteriortable onlyAnterior andposteriortables ObservationAnterior ORIFAnterior ORIFAnterior ORIFCranialization of sinusObliteration of NF ductbone grafting orificefat/fascial grafting orificeflap coverage of cavityremoval of posterior tableburring of mucosa-----ExplorationEstablish DiagnosisPhysical examCT scanDepressed?CSF leak ordisplacedposterior wall?Figure 45-54. Algorithm for the treatment of frontal sinus fracture. CSF = cerebrospinal fluid; CT = computed tomography; NF = nasofrontal; ORIF = open reduction, internal fixation.fracture line to permit | Surgery_Schwartz. it is important to release maxillomandibular fixation and begin range of motion as soon as possible to pre-vent temporomandibular joint ankylosis. Fractures immediately inferior to the mandibular condyles, called subcondylar frac-tures, are unique in that there is ordinarily minimal displace-ment because the fragments are less subject to displacement from muscle forces and there is little bone available across the ClosedOpenYesYesNoNoAnteriortable onlyAnterior andposteriortables ObservationAnterior ORIFAnterior ORIFAnterior ORIFCranialization of sinusObliteration of NF ductbone grafting orificefat/fascial grafting orificeflap coverage of cavityremoval of posterior tableburring of mucosa-----ExplorationEstablish DiagnosisPhysical examCT scanDepressed?CSF leak ordisplacedposterior wall?Figure 45-54. Algorithm for the treatment of frontal sinus fracture. CSF = cerebrospinal fluid; CT = computed tomography; NF = nasofrontal; ORIF = open reduction, internal fixation.fracture line to permit |
Surgery_Schwartz_13109 | Surgery_Schwartz | 45-54. Algorithm for the treatment of frontal sinus fracture. CSF = cerebrospinal fluid; CT = computed tomography; NF = nasofrontal; ORIF = open reduction, internal fixation.fracture line to permit fixation. These are most often treated with maxillomandibular fixation alone.Important considerations in postoperative management are release from maxillary-mandibular fixation and resumption of range of motion as soon as possible to minimize the risk of tem-poromandibular joint ankylosis. Complications to be avoided include infection, nonunion, malunion, malocclusion, facial nerve injury, mental nerve injury, and dental fractures.Frontal Sinus FracturesThe frontal sinus is located in the upper third of the face. It is actually a paired structure ordinarily fused in the midline imme-diately superior to the orbital rims. It has an anterior bony table that defines the contour of the forehead and a posterior table that separates the sinus cavity from the underlying dura of the intra-cranial | Surgery_Schwartz. 45-54. Algorithm for the treatment of frontal sinus fracture. CSF = cerebrospinal fluid; CT = computed tomography; NF = nasofrontal; ORIF = open reduction, internal fixation.fracture line to permit fixation. These are most often treated with maxillomandibular fixation alone.Important considerations in postoperative management are release from maxillary-mandibular fixation and resumption of range of motion as soon as possible to minimize the risk of tem-poromandibular joint ankylosis. Complications to be avoided include infection, nonunion, malunion, malocclusion, facial nerve injury, mental nerve injury, and dental fractures.Frontal Sinus FracturesThe frontal sinus is located in the upper third of the face. It is actually a paired structure ordinarily fused in the midline imme-diately superior to the orbital rims. It has an anterior bony table that defines the contour of the forehead and a posterior table that separates the sinus cavity from the underlying dura of the intra-cranial |
Surgery_Schwartz_13110 | Surgery_Schwartz | to the orbital rims. It has an anterior bony table that defines the contour of the forehead and a posterior table that separates the sinus cavity from the underlying dura of the intra-cranial frontal fossa. The anterior table is a relatively weak and subject to fracture when it sustains a direct forceful blow, mak-ing frontal sinus fractures relatively common in facial trauma. Each sinus drains through the medial floor into its frontonasal duct, which empties into the middle meatus within the nose.Treatment of a frontal sinus fracture depends on the frac-ture characteristics as shown in the algorithm (Fig. 45-54). The diagnosis is established by physical examination and confirmed by CT scan. Closed fractures that are not depressed and caus-ing a visible deformity may be observed. Depressed or open fractures must be explored. Fractures that involve only the anterior table are reduced and fixed using interosseous wires or miniature plates and screws. Fractures of the posterior table | Surgery_Schwartz. to the orbital rims. It has an anterior bony table that defines the contour of the forehead and a posterior table that separates the sinus cavity from the underlying dura of the intra-cranial frontal fossa. The anterior table is a relatively weak and subject to fracture when it sustains a direct forceful blow, mak-ing frontal sinus fractures relatively common in facial trauma. Each sinus drains through the medial floor into its frontonasal duct, which empties into the middle meatus within the nose.Treatment of a frontal sinus fracture depends on the frac-ture characteristics as shown in the algorithm (Fig. 45-54). The diagnosis is established by physical examination and confirmed by CT scan. Closed fractures that are not depressed and caus-ing a visible deformity may be observed. Depressed or open fractures must be explored. Fractures that involve only the anterior table are reduced and fixed using interosseous wires or miniature plates and screws. Fractures of the posterior table |
Surgery_Schwartz_13111 | Surgery_Schwartz | or open fractures must be explored. Fractures that involve only the anterior table are reduced and fixed using interosseous wires or miniature plates and screws. Fractures of the posterior table without disruption of the dura evidenced by leaking cerebro-spinal fluid can be treated in similar fashion. When the dura is disrupted, excising the bone and mucosa or the posterior table Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 200301/03/19 6:30 PM 2004SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIand obliterating the nasofrontal duct with a local graft or flap converts with frontal sinus into the anterior frontal fossa of the cranial vault, “cranializing” it.Orbital FracturesTreatment of all orbital injuries begins with a careful examina-tion of the globe, which often is best completed by a specialist to assess visual acuity and ocular mobility and to rule out globe injury. Fractures may involve the orbital roof, the orbital floor, or the lateral or medial walls (Fig. 45-55). The most common fracture involves | Surgery_Schwartz. or open fractures must be explored. Fractures that involve only the anterior table are reduced and fixed using interosseous wires or miniature plates and screws. Fractures of the posterior table without disruption of the dura evidenced by leaking cerebro-spinal fluid can be treated in similar fashion. When the dura is disrupted, excising the bone and mucosa or the posterior table Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 200301/03/19 6:30 PM 2004SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIand obliterating the nasofrontal duct with a local graft or flap converts with frontal sinus into the anterior frontal fossa of the cranial vault, “cranializing” it.Orbital FracturesTreatment of all orbital injuries begins with a careful examina-tion of the globe, which often is best completed by a specialist to assess visual acuity and ocular mobility and to rule out globe injury. Fractures may involve the orbital roof, the orbital floor, or the lateral or medial walls (Fig. 45-55). The most common fracture involves |
Surgery_Schwartz_13112 | Surgery_Schwartz | acuity and ocular mobility and to rule out globe injury. Fractures may involve the orbital roof, the orbital floor, or the lateral or medial walls (Fig. 45-55). The most common fracture involves the floor because this is the weakest bone. This type of fracture is referred to as an orbital a “blow-out” frac-ture because the cause is usually direct impact to the globe that results in a sudden increase in intraorbital pressure with failure of the orbital floor. The typical history is either a direct blow Figure 45-55. Facial bone anatomy.FrontalTemporalSphenoidZygomaMaxillaSphenoidFrontalZygomaMaxillaTemporalABduring an altercation or a sports-related event with a small ball directly striking the orbit. Because the medial floor and inferior medial wall are made of the thinnest bone, fractures occur most frequently at these locations. These injuries may be treated with observation only if they are isolated and small without signs of displacement or limitation of mobility of the globe. | Surgery_Schwartz. acuity and ocular mobility and to rule out globe injury. Fractures may involve the orbital roof, the orbital floor, or the lateral or medial walls (Fig. 45-55). The most common fracture involves the floor because this is the weakest bone. This type of fracture is referred to as an orbital a “blow-out” frac-ture because the cause is usually direct impact to the globe that results in a sudden increase in intraorbital pressure with failure of the orbital floor. The typical history is either a direct blow Figure 45-55. Facial bone anatomy.FrontalTemporalSphenoidZygomaMaxillaSphenoidFrontalZygomaMaxillaTemporalABduring an altercation or a sports-related event with a small ball directly striking the orbit. Because the medial floor and inferior medial wall are made of the thinnest bone, fractures occur most frequently at these locations. These injuries may be treated with observation only if they are isolated and small without signs of displacement or limitation of mobility of the globe. |
Surgery_Schwartz_13113 | Surgery_Schwartz | occur most frequently at these locations. These injuries may be treated with observation only if they are isolated and small without signs of displacement or limitation of mobility of the globe. However, surgical treatment is generally indicated for large fractures or ones associated with enophthalmos (retrusion of the globe), which suggests increased intraorbital volume and restriction of upward gaze on the injured side, with entrapment of inferior orbital tissues or double vision (diplopia) persisting greater than 2 weeks.28 There are a variety of options for surgical exposure of the orbital floor, including the transconjunctival, subciliary, and lower blepharoplasty incisions. All provide good access for accurate diagnosis and treatment, which involves reducing orbital contents and repairing the floor with either autologous bone or synthetic materials. Late complications include per-sistent diplopia, enophthalmos, or displacement of the lower eyelid ciliary margin inferiorly | Surgery_Schwartz. occur most frequently at these locations. These injuries may be treated with observation only if they are isolated and small without signs of displacement or limitation of mobility of the globe. However, surgical treatment is generally indicated for large fractures or ones associated with enophthalmos (retrusion of the globe), which suggests increased intraorbital volume and restriction of upward gaze on the injured side, with entrapment of inferior orbital tissues or double vision (diplopia) persisting greater than 2 weeks.28 There are a variety of options for surgical exposure of the orbital floor, including the transconjunctival, subciliary, and lower blepharoplasty incisions. All provide good access for accurate diagnosis and treatment, which involves reducing orbital contents and repairing the floor with either autologous bone or synthetic materials. Late complications include per-sistent diplopia, enophthalmos, or displacement of the lower eyelid ciliary margin inferiorly |
Surgery_Schwartz_13114 | Surgery_Schwartz | repairing the floor with either autologous bone or synthetic materials. Late complications include per-sistent diplopia, enophthalmos, or displacement of the lower eyelid ciliary margin inferiorly (ectropion) or rolling inward (entropion). Entropion causes the eyelashes to brush constantly against the cornea and is very uncomfortable. Each of these sequelae has procedures for repair should they occur.Orbital floor fractures can be associated with fractures of the lateral or inferior orbital rim. These are typically a compo-nent of facial fractures that extend beyond the orbit involving the zygomatic and maxillary bones and are discussed in more detail in the next section.It is important to be aware of two adverse associated con-ditions seen at times in patients with orbital fractures. The first is superior orbital fissure syndrome. Cranial nerves III (oculo-motor nerve), IV (trochlear nerve), and VI (abducens nerve), and the first division of cranial nerve V (VI, trigeminal nerve) | Surgery_Schwartz. repairing the floor with either autologous bone or synthetic materials. Late complications include per-sistent diplopia, enophthalmos, or displacement of the lower eyelid ciliary margin inferiorly (ectropion) or rolling inward (entropion). Entropion causes the eyelashes to brush constantly against the cornea and is very uncomfortable. Each of these sequelae has procedures for repair should they occur.Orbital floor fractures can be associated with fractures of the lateral or inferior orbital rim. These are typically a compo-nent of facial fractures that extend beyond the orbit involving the zygomatic and maxillary bones and are discussed in more detail in the next section.It is important to be aware of two adverse associated con-ditions seen at times in patients with orbital fractures. The first is superior orbital fissure syndrome. Cranial nerves III (oculo-motor nerve), IV (trochlear nerve), and VI (abducens nerve), and the first division of cranial nerve V (VI, trigeminal nerve) |
Surgery_Schwartz_13115 | Surgery_Schwartz | The first is superior orbital fissure syndrome. Cranial nerves III (oculo-motor nerve), IV (trochlear nerve), and VI (abducens nerve), and the first division of cranial nerve V (VI, trigeminal nerve) pass into the orbit from the base of the skull and into the orbit through the superior orbital fissure. Direct fractures of the pos-terior orbit or localized swelling caused by a fracture nearby can cause compression of these nerves. Symptoms include eyelid ptosis, protrusion of the globe (proptosis), paralysis of the extra-ocular muscles, and anesthesia supraorbital and trochlear nerve distributions. The second condition to remember is orbital apex syndrome. This is the most severe circumstance in which supe-rior orbital fissure syndrome is combined with signs of optic nerve (cranial nerve II) compression manifested visual changes ranging up to complete blindness. This is a medical emergency that requires immediate treatment to prevent permanent loss of function.Zygomaticomaxillary | Surgery_Schwartz. The first is superior orbital fissure syndrome. Cranial nerves III (oculo-motor nerve), IV (trochlear nerve), and VI (abducens nerve), and the first division of cranial nerve V (VI, trigeminal nerve) pass into the orbit from the base of the skull and into the orbit through the superior orbital fissure. Direct fractures of the pos-terior orbit or localized swelling caused by a fracture nearby can cause compression of these nerves. Symptoms include eyelid ptosis, protrusion of the globe (proptosis), paralysis of the extra-ocular muscles, and anesthesia supraorbital and trochlear nerve distributions. The second condition to remember is orbital apex syndrome. This is the most severe circumstance in which supe-rior orbital fissure syndrome is combined with signs of optic nerve (cranial nerve II) compression manifested visual changes ranging up to complete blindness. This is a medical emergency that requires immediate treatment to prevent permanent loss of function.Zygomaticomaxillary |
Surgery_Schwartz_13116 | Surgery_Schwartz | II) compression manifested visual changes ranging up to complete blindness. This is a medical emergency that requires immediate treatment to prevent permanent loss of function.Zygomaticomaxillary Complex FracturesThe zygoma defines the lateral contour of the middle third of the face and forms the lateral and inferior borders of the orbit. It articulates with the sphenoid bone in the lateral orbit, the maxilla medially and inferiorly, the frontal bone superiorly, and the temporal bone laterally. It forms the anterior portion of the zygomatic arch, articulating with the zygomatic projection of the temporal bone. The temporalis muscle, a major muscle of mastication, passes beneath the zygomatic arch and inserts on the coronoid process of the mandible.Fractures of the zygomatic bone may involve the zygo-matic arch alone or any of its other portions and bony relation-ships. Isolated arch fractures manifest as a flattened, wide facial appearance with edema and ecchymosis. Typically, they | Surgery_Schwartz. II) compression manifested visual changes ranging up to complete blindness. This is a medical emergency that requires immediate treatment to prevent permanent loss of function.Zygomaticomaxillary Complex FracturesThe zygoma defines the lateral contour of the middle third of the face and forms the lateral and inferior borders of the orbit. It articulates with the sphenoid bone in the lateral orbit, the maxilla medially and inferiorly, the frontal bone superiorly, and the temporal bone laterally. It forms the anterior portion of the zygomatic arch, articulating with the zygomatic projection of the temporal bone. The temporalis muscle, a major muscle of mastication, passes beneath the zygomatic arch and inserts on the coronoid process of the mandible.Fractures of the zygomatic bone may involve the zygo-matic arch alone or any of its other portions and bony relation-ships. Isolated arch fractures manifest as a flattened, wide facial appearance with edema and ecchymosis. Typically, they |
Surgery_Schwartz_13117 | Surgery_Schwartz | the zygo-matic arch alone or any of its other portions and bony relation-ships. Isolated arch fractures manifest as a flattened, wide facial appearance with edema and ecchymosis. Typically, they are also associated with pain or limited mobility of the mandible. Nondisplaced fractures may be treated without surgery, but Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 200401/03/19 6:30 PM 2005PLASTIC AND RECONSTRUCTIVE SURGERYCHAPTER 45displaced or comminuted fractures should be reduced and stabi-lized. This can be accomplished using an indirect approach from above the hairline in the temporal scalp, the so-called “Gilles approach,” or directly through a coronal incision in severe fractures.A common fracture pattern is called the zygomaticomaxil-lary complex (ZMC) fracture. This involves the zygomatic arch, the inferior orbital rim, the zygomaticomaxillary buttress, the lateral orbital wall, and the zygomaticofrontal buttress. Muscle forces acting on the fracture segment tend to rotate it | Surgery_Schwartz. the zygo-matic arch alone or any of its other portions and bony relation-ships. Isolated arch fractures manifest as a flattened, wide facial appearance with edema and ecchymosis. Typically, they are also associated with pain or limited mobility of the mandible. Nondisplaced fractures may be treated without surgery, but Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 200401/03/19 6:30 PM 2005PLASTIC AND RECONSTRUCTIVE SURGERYCHAPTER 45displaced or comminuted fractures should be reduced and stabi-lized. This can be accomplished using an indirect approach from above the hairline in the temporal scalp, the so-called “Gilles approach,” or directly through a coronal incision in severe fractures.A common fracture pattern is called the zygomaticomaxil-lary complex (ZMC) fracture. This involves the zygomatic arch, the inferior orbital rim, the zygomaticomaxillary buttress, the lateral orbital wall, and the zygomaticofrontal buttress. Muscle forces acting on the fracture segment tend to rotate it |
Surgery_Schwartz_13118 | Surgery_Schwartz | arch, the inferior orbital rim, the zygomaticomaxillary buttress, the lateral orbital wall, and the zygomaticofrontal buttress. Muscle forces acting on the fracture segment tend to rotate it laterally and inferiorly, thereby expanding the orbital volume, limiting mandibular excursion, creating an inferior cant to the palpebral fissure, and flattening the malar eminence. ZMC fractures are almost always accompanied on physical examination by altered sensation in the infraorbital nerve distribution and a subconjunc-tival hematoma.Treatment of displaced ZMC fractures is surgical. Each fracture site is exposed through incisions strategically placed to gain access but minimize disfiguring facial scars afterwards. These include an incision in the upper eyelid, exposing the zygomaticofrontal buttress and lateral orbital wall; a subtarsal or transconjunctival incision in the lower eyelid, exposing the orbital floor and infraorbital rim; and a maxillary gingivobuc-cal sulcus incision, exposing | Surgery_Schwartz. arch, the inferior orbital rim, the zygomaticomaxillary buttress, the lateral orbital wall, and the zygomaticofrontal buttress. Muscle forces acting on the fracture segment tend to rotate it laterally and inferiorly, thereby expanding the orbital volume, limiting mandibular excursion, creating an inferior cant to the palpebral fissure, and flattening the malar eminence. ZMC fractures are almost always accompanied on physical examination by altered sensation in the infraorbital nerve distribution and a subconjunc-tival hematoma.Treatment of displaced ZMC fractures is surgical. Each fracture site is exposed through incisions strategically placed to gain access but minimize disfiguring facial scars afterwards. These include an incision in the upper eyelid, exposing the zygomaticofrontal buttress and lateral orbital wall; a subtarsal or transconjunctival incision in the lower eyelid, exposing the orbital floor and infraorbital rim; and a maxillary gingivobuc-cal sulcus incision, exposing |
Surgery_Schwartz_13119 | Surgery_Schwartz | and lateral orbital wall; a subtarsal or transconjunctival incision in the lower eyelid, exposing the orbital floor and infraorbital rim; and a maxillary gingivobuc-cal sulcus incision, exposing the zygomaticomaxillary buttress. Severe fractures involving the arch require wide exposure through a coronal incision.Nasoorbitalethmoid and Panfacial FracturesNasoorbitalethmoid (NOE) fractures are defined anatomically by a combination of injuries that involve the medial orbits, the nasal bones, the nasal processes of the frontal bone, and the frontal processes of the maxilla. If improperly treated, these injuries cause severe disfigurement and functional deficits from nasal airway collapse, medial orbital disruption, displacement of medial canthus of the eyelids, and nasolacrimal apparatus dysfunction. Telecanthus is abnormally wide separation of the medical canthus of the eyelids and is produced by a splaying apart of the nasomaxillary buttresses to which the medial can-thal ligaments are | Surgery_Schwartz. and lateral orbital wall; a subtarsal or transconjunctival incision in the lower eyelid, exposing the orbital floor and infraorbital rim; and a maxillary gingivobuc-cal sulcus incision, exposing the zygomaticomaxillary buttress. Severe fractures involving the arch require wide exposure through a coronal incision.Nasoorbitalethmoid and Panfacial FracturesNasoorbitalethmoid (NOE) fractures are defined anatomically by a combination of injuries that involve the medial orbits, the nasal bones, the nasal processes of the frontal bone, and the frontal processes of the maxilla. If improperly treated, these injuries cause severe disfigurement and functional deficits from nasal airway collapse, medial orbital disruption, displacement of medial canthus of the eyelids, and nasolacrimal apparatus dysfunction. Telecanthus is abnormally wide separation of the medical canthus of the eyelids and is produced by a splaying apart of the nasomaxillary buttresses to which the medial can-thal ligaments are |
Surgery_Schwartz_13120 | Surgery_Schwartz | Telecanthus is abnormally wide separation of the medical canthus of the eyelids and is produced by a splaying apart of the nasomaxillary buttresses to which the medial can-thal ligaments are attached. NOE fractures require surgical man-agement with open reduction and internal fixation. At times, the thin bones are so comminuted that they are not salvageable and must be replaced or augmented using autologous bone grafts or synthetic materials. Each fragment is carefully identified, returned to a normal anatomic position, and fixed in place using plates and screws or interosseous wiring all bone fragments meticulously, potentially with primary bone grafting, to restore their normal configuration. The key to the successful repair of NOE fractures is to carefully reestablish the nasomaxillary buttress and to restore the normal points of attachment of the medial canthal ligaments.NOE fractures are typically caused by such extreme forces that they are frequently associated with intracranial | Surgery_Schwartz. Telecanthus is abnormally wide separation of the medical canthus of the eyelids and is produced by a splaying apart of the nasomaxillary buttresses to which the medial can-thal ligaments are attached. NOE fractures require surgical man-agement with open reduction and internal fixation. At times, the thin bones are so comminuted that they are not salvageable and must be replaced or augmented using autologous bone grafts or synthetic materials. Each fragment is carefully identified, returned to a normal anatomic position, and fixed in place using plates and screws or interosseous wiring all bone fragments meticulously, potentially with primary bone grafting, to restore their normal configuration. The key to the successful repair of NOE fractures is to carefully reestablish the nasomaxillary buttress and to restore the normal points of attachment of the medial canthal ligaments.NOE fractures are typically caused by such extreme forces that they are frequently associated with intracranial |
Surgery_Schwartz_13121 | Surgery_Schwartz | buttress and to restore the normal points of attachment of the medial canthal ligaments.NOE fractures are typically caused by such extreme forces that they are frequently associated with intracranial injuries and multiple other facial bone fractures in a presentation referred to as a panfacial fracture. These may involve any combination of the fractures described previously. The challenge of these injuries is to reestablish normal relationships of key anatomic landmarks. A combination of salvable bone fragments, autolo-gous bone grafting, and synthetic materials accomplishes this.Posttraumatic Extremity ReconstructionThe primary goal in posttraumatic extremity reconstruction is to maximize function. When structural integrity, motor function, and sensation can be reasonably preserved, then extremity salvage may be attempted. Otherwise, severe injuries require amputation best performed following reconstructive surgery principals that set the stage for maximizing function with | Surgery_Schwartz. buttress and to restore the normal points of attachment of the medial canthal ligaments.NOE fractures are typically caused by such extreme forces that they are frequently associated with intracranial injuries and multiple other facial bone fractures in a presentation referred to as a panfacial fracture. These may involve any combination of the fractures described previously. The challenge of these injuries is to reestablish normal relationships of key anatomic landmarks. A combination of salvable bone fragments, autolo-gous bone grafting, and synthetic materials accomplishes this.Posttraumatic Extremity ReconstructionThe primary goal in posttraumatic extremity reconstruction is to maximize function. When structural integrity, motor function, and sensation can be reasonably preserved, then extremity salvage may be attempted. Otherwise, severe injuries require amputation best performed following reconstructive surgery principals that set the stage for maximizing function with |
Surgery_Schwartz_13122 | Surgery_Schwartz | then extremity salvage may be attempted. Otherwise, severe injuries require amputation best performed following reconstructive surgery principals that set the stage for maximizing function with pros-thetics and minimizing chronic pain and risk of tissue break-down. Microvascular surgical techniques are an essential part of extremity trauma surgery, allowing replantation of amputated parts or transfer of vascularized bone and soft tissue when tis-sue in zone of injury cannot be salvaged. Soft tissue techniques combined with advances in bone fixation and regeneration with distraction have proven tremendous benefit for patients with severe limb-threatening extremity trauma. Current state-of-the-art techniques require multidisciplinary cooperation between orthopedic, vascular, and plastic surgeons as presented in the algorithm (Fig. 45-56). Reconstructive techniques include the use of vascularized bone, bone distraction techniques, external fixation, nerve grafts and transfers, composite | Surgery_Schwartz. then extremity salvage may be attempted. Otherwise, severe injuries require amputation best performed following reconstructive surgery principals that set the stage for maximizing function with pros-thetics and minimizing chronic pain and risk of tissue break-down. Microvascular surgical techniques are an essential part of extremity trauma surgery, allowing replantation of amputated parts or transfer of vascularized bone and soft tissue when tis-sue in zone of injury cannot be salvaged. Soft tissue techniques combined with advances in bone fixation and regeneration with distraction have proven tremendous benefit for patients with severe limb-threatening extremity trauma. Current state-of-the-art techniques require multidisciplinary cooperation between orthopedic, vascular, and plastic surgeons as presented in the algorithm (Fig. 45-56). Reconstructive techniques include the use of vascularized bone, bone distraction techniques, external fixation, nerve grafts and transfers, composite |
Surgery_Schwartz_13123 | Surgery_Schwartz | as presented in the algorithm (Fig. 45-56). Reconstructive techniques include the use of vascularized bone, bone distraction techniques, external fixation, nerve grafts and transfers, composite tissue flaps, and functioning muscle transfers tailored to the given defect. The future promises further advances with routine application of vascularized composite allografts, engineered tissue replace-ments, and computer animated prosthetics controlled intuitively by patients via sensors that are placed on the amputation stump and able to detect impulses transmitted through undamaged peripheral nerves remaining in the extremity.Common causes of high-energy lower extremity trauma include road traffic accidents, falls from a height, direct blows, sports injuries, and gunshots. As with maxillofacial trauma, the first phase of care is activation of the advanced trauma life support protocols. The most common life-threatening consider-ations are airway maintenance, control of bleeding, and | Surgery_Schwartz. as presented in the algorithm (Fig. 45-56). Reconstructive techniques include the use of vascularized bone, bone distraction techniques, external fixation, nerve grafts and transfers, composite tissue flaps, and functioning muscle transfers tailored to the given defect. The future promises further advances with routine application of vascularized composite allografts, engineered tissue replace-ments, and computer animated prosthetics controlled intuitively by patients via sensors that are placed on the amputation stump and able to detect impulses transmitted through undamaged peripheral nerves remaining in the extremity.Common causes of high-energy lower extremity trauma include road traffic accidents, falls from a height, direct blows, sports injuries, and gunshots. As with maxillofacial trauma, the first phase of care is activation of the advanced trauma life support protocols. The most common life-threatening consider-ations are airway maintenance, control of bleeding, and |
Surgery_Schwartz_13124 | Surgery_Schwartz | trauma, the first phase of care is activation of the advanced trauma life support protocols. The most common life-threatening consider-ations are airway maintenance, control of bleeding, and identi-fication of other injuries. Once the patient’s condition has been stabilized and life-threatening injuries managed, attention is directed to diagnosis and management of the extremity. Tetanus vaccine and antibiotics should be provided as soon as possible for open wounds.Systematic evaluation of the traumatized extremity helps to ensure no important findings are missed. Physical examina-tion to assess the neurovascular status, soft tissue condi-tion, and location of bone fractures forms the foundation of ordering imaging studies to provide details of bone and vas-cular injuries. Evidence of absent pulses is an indication to con-sider Doppler ultrasound examination followed by angiography to detail the exact nature of the injury. The blood supply must be immediately restored to devascularized | Surgery_Schwartz. trauma, the first phase of care is activation of the advanced trauma life support protocols. The most common life-threatening consider-ations are airway maintenance, control of bleeding, and identi-fication of other injuries. Once the patient’s condition has been stabilized and life-threatening injuries managed, attention is directed to diagnosis and management of the extremity. Tetanus vaccine and antibiotics should be provided as soon as possible for open wounds.Systematic evaluation of the traumatized extremity helps to ensure no important findings are missed. Physical examina-tion to assess the neurovascular status, soft tissue condi-tion, and location of bone fractures forms the foundation of ordering imaging studies to provide details of bone and vas-cular injuries. Evidence of absent pulses is an indication to con-sider Doppler ultrasound examination followed by angiography to detail the exact nature of the injury. The blood supply must be immediately restored to devascularized |
Surgery_Schwartz_13125 | Surgery_Schwartz | pulses is an indication to con-sider Doppler ultrasound examination followed by angiography to detail the exact nature of the injury. The blood supply must be immediately restored to devascularized extremities. Crush injuries might be associated with compartment syndrome, in which tissue pressure due to swelling in the constricted facial compartments exceeds capillary perfusion pressure and causes nerve and muscle ischemia. In the early stages of compartment syndrome, findings include pain on passive stretch of the com-partment’s musculature in a pale, pulseless extremity without evidence of direct vascular injury. Neurologic changes consist-ing of paresthesias followed by motor paralysis are late signs. Once recognized, decompressive fasciotomies must be per-formed as soon as possible to prevent permanent tissue loss. Compartment syndrome can be a late event after fracture reduc-tion and fixation (either internal or external), so the extremity must be reevaluated regularly in the | Surgery_Schwartz. pulses is an indication to con-sider Doppler ultrasound examination followed by angiography to detail the exact nature of the injury. The blood supply must be immediately restored to devascularized extremities. Crush injuries might be associated with compartment syndrome, in which tissue pressure due to swelling in the constricted facial compartments exceeds capillary perfusion pressure and causes nerve and muscle ischemia. In the early stages of compartment syndrome, findings include pain on passive stretch of the com-partment’s musculature in a pale, pulseless extremity without evidence of direct vascular injury. Neurologic changes consist-ing of paresthesias followed by motor paralysis are late signs. Once recognized, decompressive fasciotomies must be per-formed as soon as possible to prevent permanent tissue loss. Compartment syndrome can be a late event after fracture reduc-tion and fixation (either internal or external), so the extremity must be reevaluated regularly in the |
Surgery_Schwartz_13126 | Surgery_Schwartz | to prevent permanent tissue loss. Compartment syndrome can be a late event after fracture reduc-tion and fixation (either internal or external), so the extremity must be reevaluated regularly in the early postoperative period. This is especially true in situations where there has been a period of ischemia prior to successful revascularization.Several scoring systems for extremity trauma severity have been suggested to aid in treatment planning. Open fractures can be classified according to a system devised by Gustilo and 7Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 200501/03/19 6:30 PM 2006SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIReconstructableKnee functionalAdequate soft tissueDirty woundDirty woundClean woundFoot availableFoot not availableClean woundInadequate soft tissueKnee irreparableUnreconstructableTraumaticbelow kneeinjuryAmputationLimbreconstruction/replantationDelayedclosurePrimaryclosureFoot filetfree flapParascapularfree flapImmediatefree flapDelayedfree flapPrimaryreconstructionBelow | Surgery_Schwartz. to prevent permanent tissue loss. Compartment syndrome can be a late event after fracture reduc-tion and fixation (either internal or external), so the extremity must be reevaluated regularly in the early postoperative period. This is especially true in situations where there has been a period of ischemia prior to successful revascularization.Several scoring systems for extremity trauma severity have been suggested to aid in treatment planning. Open fractures can be classified according to a system devised by Gustilo and 7Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 200501/03/19 6:30 PM 2006SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIReconstructableKnee functionalAdequate soft tissueDirty woundDirty woundClean woundFoot availableFoot not availableClean woundInadequate soft tissueKnee irreparableUnreconstructableTraumaticbelow kneeinjuryAmputationLimbreconstruction/replantationDelayedclosurePrimaryclosureFoot filetfree flapParascapularfree flapImmediatefree flapDelayedfree flapPrimaryreconstructionBelow |
Surgery_Schwartz_13127 | Surgery_Schwartz | kneeinjuryAmputationLimbreconstruction/replantationDelayedclosurePrimaryclosureFoot filetfree flapParascapularfree flapImmediatefree flapDelayedfree flapPrimaryreconstructionBelow kneesalvageBelow kneesalvageAbove kneeamputationFigure 45-56. Algorithm of posttraumatic extremity reconstruction.colleagues. Grades I and II are open fractures with minimal soft tissue disruption. Grade III injuries most often require consider-ation of soft tissue reconstruction. Grade IIIA are open fractures with severe soft tissue injury but adequate soft tissues to repair. Grade IIIB involves a loss of soft tissue that will require some technique for tissue replacement. Grade IIIC involves a vascular injury requiring reconstruction. For the most severe injuries, the most important decision is whether to attempt extremity salvage or proceed with amputation. Patients with extensive fracture comminution, bone or soft tissue loss, wound contamination, and devascularization have a poor prognosis. Extremity | Surgery_Schwartz. kneeinjuryAmputationLimbreconstruction/replantationDelayedclosurePrimaryclosureFoot filetfree flapParascapularfree flapImmediatefree flapDelayedfree flapPrimaryreconstructionBelow kneesalvageBelow kneesalvageAbove kneeamputationFigure 45-56. Algorithm of posttraumatic extremity reconstruction.colleagues. Grades I and II are open fractures with minimal soft tissue disruption. Grade III injuries most often require consider-ation of soft tissue reconstruction. Grade IIIA are open fractures with severe soft tissue injury but adequate soft tissues to repair. Grade IIIB involves a loss of soft tissue that will require some technique for tissue replacement. Grade IIIC involves a vascular injury requiring reconstruction. For the most severe injuries, the most important decision is whether to attempt extremity salvage or proceed with amputation. Patients with extensive fracture comminution, bone or soft tissue loss, wound contamination, and devascularization have a poor prognosis. Extremity |
Surgery_Schwartz_13128 | Surgery_Schwartz | extremity salvage or proceed with amputation. Patients with extensive fracture comminution, bone or soft tissue loss, wound contamination, and devascularization have a poor prognosis. Extremity salvage requires multiple operations and a prolonged period of rehabili-tation and physical therapy. The loss of plantar sensation histori-cally favored below-knee amputation, but this is no longer an absolute recommendation. A final decision to attempt salvage must be made within the context of comorbidities, socioeco-nomic considerations, patient motivation, and overall rehabilita-tive potential.The first step in surgical management is complete debride-ment of all devitalized tissue. Early one-stage wound coverage and bony reconstruction is generally advocated and should be performed jointly by extremity trauma orthopedic and plastic surgical teams.50 It is acceptable for reconstruction to be deferred briefly if the adequacy of debridement is certain. Negative pres-sure wound therapy is | Surgery_Schwartz. extremity salvage or proceed with amputation. Patients with extensive fracture comminution, bone or soft tissue loss, wound contamination, and devascularization have a poor prognosis. Extremity salvage requires multiple operations and a prolonged period of rehabili-tation and physical therapy. The loss of plantar sensation histori-cally favored below-knee amputation, but this is no longer an absolute recommendation. A final decision to attempt salvage must be made within the context of comorbidities, socioeco-nomic considerations, patient motivation, and overall rehabilita-tive potential.The first step in surgical management is complete debride-ment of all devitalized tissue. Early one-stage wound coverage and bony reconstruction is generally advocated and should be performed jointly by extremity trauma orthopedic and plastic surgical teams.50 It is acceptable for reconstruction to be deferred briefly if the adequacy of debridement is certain. Negative pres-sure wound therapy is |
Surgery_Schwartz_13129 | Surgery_Schwartz | by extremity trauma orthopedic and plastic surgical teams.50 It is acceptable for reconstruction to be deferred briefly if the adequacy of debridement is certain. Negative pres-sure wound therapy is useful between debridement and defini-tive reconstruction to control the wound drainage and prevent bacterial contamination. When there is segmental bone loss, it is advisable to achieve soft tissue closure prior to performing osse-ous reconstruction. Preparation for later restoration of the bone requires steps to prevent the soft tissue from collapsing into the space where bone is needed. A common technique for this is to fill the space with antibiotic-impregnated beads or an antibiotic spacer at the time of soft tissue restoration until definitive bony reconstruction is possible. An external fixation may be needed, if there is segmental bone loss (Fig. 45-57A,B).The sequence for reconstruction is meticulous debride-ment of nonviable tissue, fracture reduction and stabilization, vascular | Surgery_Schwartz. by extremity trauma orthopedic and plastic surgical teams.50 It is acceptable for reconstruction to be deferred briefly if the adequacy of debridement is certain. Negative pres-sure wound therapy is useful between debridement and defini-tive reconstruction to control the wound drainage and prevent bacterial contamination. When there is segmental bone loss, it is advisable to achieve soft tissue closure prior to performing osse-ous reconstruction. Preparation for later restoration of the bone requires steps to prevent the soft tissue from collapsing into the space where bone is needed. A common technique for this is to fill the space with antibiotic-impregnated beads or an antibiotic spacer at the time of soft tissue restoration until definitive bony reconstruction is possible. An external fixation may be needed, if there is segmental bone loss (Fig. 45-57A,B).The sequence for reconstruction is meticulous debride-ment of nonviable tissue, fracture reduction and stabilization, vascular |
Surgery_Schwartz_13130 | Surgery_Schwartz | fixation may be needed, if there is segmental bone loss (Fig. 45-57A,B).The sequence for reconstruction is meticulous debride-ment of nonviable tissue, fracture reduction and stabilization, vascular repair if necessary, and finally restoration of the soft tissue coverage. A multidisciplinary team of specialists works together to perform these procedures in order to obtain the best outcomes. Orthopedic and plastic surgeons perform wound debridement. Orthopedic surgeons then reduce and stabilize the fractures. Vascular surgeons reconstruct damage major vessels. Finally, plastic and reconstructive surgeons perform soft tissue coverage. Ideally, each operating team completes their part of the procedure sequentially during the same anesthetic.Choices for soft tissue coverage of open fractures include split-thickness skin grafts, temporary skin substitutes fol-lowed later by skin grafting, local rotation flaps, or free tissue transfers. Selecting the most appropriate option depends on the | Surgery_Schwartz. fixation may be needed, if there is segmental bone loss (Fig. 45-57A,B).The sequence for reconstruction is meticulous debride-ment of nonviable tissue, fracture reduction and stabilization, vascular repair if necessary, and finally restoration of the soft tissue coverage. A multidisciplinary team of specialists works together to perform these procedures in order to obtain the best outcomes. Orthopedic and plastic surgeons perform wound debridement. Orthopedic surgeons then reduce and stabilize the fractures. Vascular surgeons reconstruct damage major vessels. Finally, plastic and reconstructive surgeons perform soft tissue coverage. Ideally, each operating team completes their part of the procedure sequentially during the same anesthetic.Choices for soft tissue coverage of open fractures include split-thickness skin grafts, temporary skin substitutes fol-lowed later by skin grafting, local rotation flaps, or free tissue transfers. Selecting the most appropriate option depends on the |
Surgery_Schwartz_13131 | Surgery_Schwartz | include split-thickness skin grafts, temporary skin substitutes fol-lowed later by skin grafting, local rotation flaps, or free tissue transfers. Selecting the most appropriate option depends on the quality of the local tissues and location of the soft tissue defect relative to the underlying fracture and fixation hard-ware. The guiding principle is to be certain that the source of tissue transferred into the defect is outside of the zone of injury. When flaps are selected, either fasciocutaneous or muscular flaps may be indicated depending on tissue avail-ability, wound bed contours, and surgeon preferences. Uneven wound surface contours are more reliably obliterated with a Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 200601/03/19 6:30 PM 2007PLASTIC AND RECONSTRUCTIVE SURGERYCHAPTER 45Figure 45-57A, B. An external fixation for segmental bone loss.Figure 45-58. A. Defect ulnar side of the forearm, with an external fixator. B. Propeller flap. C. Flap is inset. D. Six weeks post | Surgery_Schwartz. include split-thickness skin grafts, temporary skin substitutes fol-lowed later by skin grafting, local rotation flaps, or free tissue transfers. Selecting the most appropriate option depends on the quality of the local tissues and location of the soft tissue defect relative to the underlying fracture and fixation hard-ware. The guiding principle is to be certain that the source of tissue transferred into the defect is outside of the zone of injury. When flaps are selected, either fasciocutaneous or muscular flaps may be indicated depending on tissue avail-ability, wound bed contours, and surgeon preferences. Uneven wound surface contours are more reliably obliterated with a Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 200601/03/19 6:30 PM 2007PLASTIC AND RECONSTRUCTIVE SURGERYCHAPTER 45Figure 45-57A, B. An external fixation for segmental bone loss.Figure 45-58. A. Defect ulnar side of the forearm, with an external fixator. B. Propeller flap. C. Flap is inset. D. Six weeks post |
Surgery_Schwartz_13132 | Surgery_Schwartz | 45Figure 45-57A, B. An external fixation for segmental bone loss.Figure 45-58. A. Defect ulnar side of the forearm, with an external fixator. B. Propeller flap. C. Flap is inset. D. Six weeks post operation.ABpliable muscle flap. Fasciocutaneous flaps may provide more durable coverage in areas subject to abrasion or pressure from footwear, for example, on the foot or around the ankle. Some defects can be covered with flaps containing both skin and muscle if indicated. Ideal coverage for weight-bearing areas should be able to resist pressure and shear and provide sensa-tion. Split-thickness skin grafts are reasonable for coverage of exposed healthy muscle or soft tissue. Local flaps may be used to cover smaller defects as long as uninjured tissue is located nearby. These may be designed as traditional random or axial ABCDflaps, but the most advanced techniques are based on under-lying perforators that allow extremely versatile flap designs customized to the defect. These flaps are | Surgery_Schwartz. 45Figure 45-57A, B. An external fixation for segmental bone loss.Figure 45-58. A. Defect ulnar side of the forearm, with an external fixator. B. Propeller flap. C. Flap is inset. D. Six weeks post operation.ABpliable muscle flap. Fasciocutaneous flaps may provide more durable coverage in areas subject to abrasion or pressure from footwear, for example, on the foot or around the ankle. Some defects can be covered with flaps containing both skin and muscle if indicated. Ideal coverage for weight-bearing areas should be able to resist pressure and shear and provide sensa-tion. Split-thickness skin grafts are reasonable for coverage of exposed healthy muscle or soft tissue. Local flaps may be used to cover smaller defects as long as uninjured tissue is located nearby. These may be designed as traditional random or axial ABCDflaps, but the most advanced techniques are based on under-lying perforators that allow extremely versatile flap designs customized to the defect. These flaps are |
Surgery_Schwartz_13133 | Surgery_Schwartz | as traditional random or axial ABCDflaps, but the most advanced techniques are based on under-lying perforators that allow extremely versatile flap designs customized to the defect. These flaps are designed with a per-forating vessel at the base near to the defect and a long axis extending an equal distance opposite. The flap is elevated and rotated into the defect in a motion reminiscent of an airplane propeller, which gives rise to the designation “propeller flap” for this kind of reconstruction (Fig. 45-58A, defect ulnar side of the forearm, with an external fixator; Fig. 45-58B, propel-ler flap; Fig. 45-58C, flap is inset; Fig. 45-58D, 6 weeks after Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 200701/03/19 6:31 PM 2008SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIthe operation). The advantages of this technique are that it does not impair muscle function and it can often complete a complex reconstruction without the need for microvascular surgery.When requirements exceed the potential for skin grafts or | Surgery_Schwartz. as traditional random or axial ABCDflaps, but the most advanced techniques are based on under-lying perforators that allow extremely versatile flap designs customized to the defect. These flaps are designed with a per-forating vessel at the base near to the defect and a long axis extending an equal distance opposite. The flap is elevated and rotated into the defect in a motion reminiscent of an airplane propeller, which gives rise to the designation “propeller flap” for this kind of reconstruction (Fig. 45-58A, defect ulnar side of the forearm, with an external fixator; Fig. 45-58B, propel-ler flap; Fig. 45-58C, flap is inset; Fig. 45-58D, 6 weeks after Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 200701/03/19 6:31 PM 2008SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIthe operation). The advantages of this technique are that it does not impair muscle function and it can often complete a complex reconstruction without the need for microvascular surgery.When requirements exceed the potential for skin grafts or |
Surgery_Schwartz_13134 | Surgery_Schwartz | are that it does not impair muscle function and it can often complete a complex reconstruction without the need for microvascular surgery.When requirements exceed the potential for skin grafts or local flaps, tissue must be transferred from distant sites. The reconstructive choices differ based on the anatomic location of the defect and the extent of damage. This is often the case for major injuries in the middle or lower third of the leg where bones are covered with thin soft tissue and less donor tissue is available. A traditional method is to obtain tissue by creating a pedicled flap from the opposite, uninjured extremity. Cross-leg flaps remain effective, but indications are limited to circum-stances where microsurgery is not possible or in young children who are less prone to risks associated with prolonged immobi-lization necessary for these flaps, such as joint stiffness or deep vein thrombosis. Free tissue transfer is the preferred alternative. The general principles of | Surgery_Schwartz. are that it does not impair muscle function and it can often complete a complex reconstruction without the need for microvascular surgery.When requirements exceed the potential for skin grafts or local flaps, tissue must be transferred from distant sites. The reconstructive choices differ based on the anatomic location of the defect and the extent of damage. This is often the case for major injuries in the middle or lower third of the leg where bones are covered with thin soft tissue and less donor tissue is available. A traditional method is to obtain tissue by creating a pedicled flap from the opposite, uninjured extremity. Cross-leg flaps remain effective, but indications are limited to circum-stances where microsurgery is not possible or in young children who are less prone to risks associated with prolonged immobi-lization necessary for these flaps, such as joint stiffness or deep vein thrombosis. Free tissue transfer is the preferred alternative. The general principles of |
Surgery_Schwartz_13135 | Surgery_Schwartz | associated with prolonged immobi-lization necessary for these flaps, such as joint stiffness or deep vein thrombosis. Free tissue transfer is the preferred alternative. The general principles of reconstructive microsurgery in lower extremity trauma are to select recipient vessels outside of the zone of injury, select donor tissue suitable for the defect with minimal risk of donor site morbidity, and ensure there is bone stability before reconstruction using either internal or external fixation. For example, a latissimus dorsi muscle flap provides a large amount of tissue for reconstruction, but loss of the latis-simus function can make it more difficult for the patient to use crutches for ambulation during rehabilitation. Muscle or fascio-cutaneous flaps each have a role in selected circumstances.51 Bone can also be added to help fracture repair.52 Free flaps can also be designed as “flow-through” flaps, which reconstruct missing segments of major vessels and provide soft tissue or | Surgery_Schwartz. associated with prolonged immobi-lization necessary for these flaps, such as joint stiffness or deep vein thrombosis. Free tissue transfer is the preferred alternative. The general principles of reconstructive microsurgery in lower extremity trauma are to select recipient vessels outside of the zone of injury, select donor tissue suitable for the defect with minimal risk of donor site morbidity, and ensure there is bone stability before reconstruction using either internal or external fixation. For example, a latissimus dorsi muscle flap provides a large amount of tissue for reconstruction, but loss of the latis-simus function can make it more difficult for the patient to use crutches for ambulation during rehabilitation. Muscle or fascio-cutaneous flaps each have a role in selected circumstances.51 Bone can also be added to help fracture repair.52 Free flaps can also be designed as “flow-through” flaps, which reconstruct missing segments of major vessels and provide soft tissue or |
Surgery_Schwartz_13136 | Surgery_Schwartz | Bone can also be added to help fracture repair.52 Free flaps can also be designed as “flow-through” flaps, which reconstruct missing segments of major vessels and provide soft tissue or bone coverage.53After wound healing, proper physical and/or occupational therapy and rehabilitation is essential for the best long-term out-comes. This often requires many months of consistent retrain-ing and conditioning in order to return to the functional status enjoyed by the patient before injury. Properly fitted orthotic appliances and footwear provide essential protection against pressure-related complications and can improve function. Late complications such as osteomyelitis may appear, evidenced by signs of infection months or even years after reconstruction. Very often this is caused by inadequate debridement at the time of initial surgery.Tumor locationPrimaryreconstructive optionSecondaryreconstructive optionLower-extremity bone sarcomacomposite resectionDistal femur/proximal tibiaPedicled | Surgery_Schwartz. Bone can also be added to help fracture repair.52 Free flaps can also be designed as “flow-through” flaps, which reconstruct missing segments of major vessels and provide soft tissue or bone coverage.53After wound healing, proper physical and/or occupational therapy and rehabilitation is essential for the best long-term out-comes. This often requires many months of consistent retrain-ing and conditioning in order to return to the functional status enjoyed by the patient before injury. Properly fitted orthotic appliances and footwear provide essential protection against pressure-related complications and can improve function. Late complications such as osteomyelitis may appear, evidenced by signs of infection months or even years after reconstruction. Very often this is caused by inadequate debridement at the time of initial surgery.Tumor locationPrimaryreconstructive optionSecondaryreconstructive optionLower-extremity bone sarcomacomposite resectionDistal femur/proximal tibiaPedicled |
Surgery_Schwartz_13137 | Surgery_Schwartz | debridement at the time of initial surgery.Tumor locationPrimaryreconstructive optionSecondaryreconstructive optionLower-extremity bone sarcomacomposite resectionDistal femur/proximal tibiaPedicled gastrocnemius ±soleusDistally-based pedicledALT; anterior bipedicledfasciocutaneous flap; pedicledsural artery flap; free flapMid/distal tibiaPrimary closurePedicled gastrocneumius± soleus; propeller,keystone flaps; free flapProximal/mid-femurPrimary closurePedicled ALT;Pedicled rectusabdominis; free flapWhen limb salvage either is not possible or is not in the best interest of the patient, amputation is indicated. Maxi-mizing limb length, providing durable soft tissue coverage, and managing peripheral nerves to avoid chronic pain help to ensure good functional recovery using extremity prosthet-ics. Ideally, local tissues are used; however, when they are unavailable or inadequate, the amputated part can be a use-ful source of skin grafts or tissues for microvascular free transfers to the | Surgery_Schwartz. debridement at the time of initial surgery.Tumor locationPrimaryreconstructive optionSecondaryreconstructive optionLower-extremity bone sarcomacomposite resectionDistal femur/proximal tibiaPedicled gastrocnemius ±soleusDistally-based pedicledALT; anterior bipedicledfasciocutaneous flap; pedicledsural artery flap; free flapMid/distal tibiaPrimary closurePedicled gastrocneumius± soleus; propeller,keystone flaps; free flapProximal/mid-femurPrimary closurePedicled ALT;Pedicled rectusabdominis; free flapWhen limb salvage either is not possible or is not in the best interest of the patient, amputation is indicated. Maxi-mizing limb length, providing durable soft tissue coverage, and managing peripheral nerves to avoid chronic pain help to ensure good functional recovery using extremity prosthet-ics. Ideally, local tissues are used; however, when they are unavailable or inadequate, the amputated part can be a use-ful source of skin grafts or tissues for microvascular free transfers to the |
Surgery_Schwartz_13138 | Surgery_Schwartz | Ideally, local tissues are used; however, when they are unavailable or inadequate, the amputated part can be a use-ful source of skin grafts or tissues for microvascular free transfers to the stump, which preserves length and avoids a more proximal amputation. Transected nerves from ampu-tation procedures can be managed using a technique called targeted muscle reinnervation (TMR). TMR surgery takes the transected peripheral nerves resulting from the amputation procedure, and a nerve transfer is then performed to freshly deinnervated motor nerves within the residual limb or stump. By performing these nerve transfers, the sensory and mixed-motor sensory nerves typically transected during amputation are given fresh motor nerves to rapidly reinnervate, which can directly aid in bioprosthetic function and improve pain control. The improvement in pain is a result of reducing phantom limb pain and symptomatic neuroma formation. This technique has shown to be a major advance over traditional | Surgery_Schwartz. Ideally, local tissues are used; however, when they are unavailable or inadequate, the amputated part can be a use-ful source of skin grafts or tissues for microvascular free transfers to the stump, which preserves length and avoids a more proximal amputation. Transected nerves from ampu-tation procedures can be managed using a technique called targeted muscle reinnervation (TMR). TMR surgery takes the transected peripheral nerves resulting from the amputation procedure, and a nerve transfer is then performed to freshly deinnervated motor nerves within the residual limb or stump. By performing these nerve transfers, the sensory and mixed-motor sensory nerves typically transected during amputation are given fresh motor nerves to rapidly reinnervate, which can directly aid in bioprosthetic function and improve pain control. The improvement in pain is a result of reducing phantom limb pain and symptomatic neuroma formation. This technique has shown to be a major advance over traditional |
Surgery_Schwartz_13139 | Surgery_Schwartz | function and improve pain control. The improvement in pain is a result of reducing phantom limb pain and symptomatic neuroma formation. This technique has shown to be a major advance over traditional traction neurec-tomy techniques, which often contribute to increased phan-tom and residual limb pain rates and a much higher chance of symptomatic neuroma formation compared to TMR.54Oncologic Reconstructive SurgeryOncology-related reconstructive surgery has broad applica-tions in specialty of plastic and reconstructive surgery. Solid tumors necessarily destroy normal tissues, and surgical treat-ment involves excising the tumor with a margin of uninvolved normal tissue, which adds to the extent of tissue loss. As is illustrated in the case of a lower extremity sarcoma, recon-structive strategies are meticulously designed as an algorithm for effective functional and cosmetic restoration (Fig. 45-59) . Chemotherapy and radiation have side effects and com-plications that can cause tissue | Surgery_Schwartz. function and improve pain control. The improvement in pain is a result of reducing phantom limb pain and symptomatic neuroma formation. This technique has shown to be a major advance over traditional traction neurec-tomy techniques, which often contribute to increased phan-tom and residual limb pain rates and a much higher chance of symptomatic neuroma formation compared to TMR.54Oncologic Reconstructive SurgeryOncology-related reconstructive surgery has broad applica-tions in specialty of plastic and reconstructive surgery. Solid tumors necessarily destroy normal tissues, and surgical treat-ment involves excising the tumor with a margin of uninvolved normal tissue, which adds to the extent of tissue loss. As is illustrated in the case of a lower extremity sarcoma, recon-structive strategies are meticulously designed as an algorithm for effective functional and cosmetic restoration (Fig. 45-59) . Chemotherapy and radiation have side effects and com-plications that can cause tissue |
Surgery_Schwartz_13140 | Surgery_Schwartz | are meticulously designed as an algorithm for effective functional and cosmetic restoration (Fig. 45-59) . Chemotherapy and radiation have side effects and com-plications that can cause tissue loss, leading to functional and cosmetic deformities that can be improved with recon-structive surgery. The goal of comprehensive cancer treatment is to restore the patient to full health, which includes normal function and appearance.8Figure 45-59. Algorithm for effective functional and cosmetic restoration after resection of a lower extremity sarcoma.Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 200801/03/19 6:31 PM 2009PLASTIC AND RECONSTRUCTIVE SURGERYCHAPTER 45Reconstructive surgery in the context of oncology has sev-eral distinctive aspects compared to the larger field of recon-structive surgery in general. The procedure must be highly reliable in order to avoid surgical complications that might interfere with adjuvant therapies.Breast ReconstructionBreast cancer is the most common malignancy | Surgery_Schwartz. are meticulously designed as an algorithm for effective functional and cosmetic restoration (Fig. 45-59) . Chemotherapy and radiation have side effects and com-plications that can cause tissue loss, leading to functional and cosmetic deformities that can be improved with recon-structive surgery. The goal of comprehensive cancer treatment is to restore the patient to full health, which includes normal function and appearance.8Figure 45-59. Algorithm for effective functional and cosmetic restoration after resection of a lower extremity sarcoma.Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 200801/03/19 6:31 PM 2009PLASTIC AND RECONSTRUCTIVE SURGERYCHAPTER 45Reconstructive surgery in the context of oncology has sev-eral distinctive aspects compared to the larger field of recon-structive surgery in general. The procedure must be highly reliable in order to avoid surgical complications that might interfere with adjuvant therapies.Breast ReconstructionBreast cancer is the most common malignancy |
Surgery_Schwartz_13141 | Surgery_Schwartz | general. The procedure must be highly reliable in order to avoid surgical complications that might interfere with adjuvant therapies.Breast ReconstructionBreast cancer is the most common malignancy besides skin can-cer in women and the second leading cause of cancer-related death for women in the United States. Breast reconstruction is an important part of comprehensive cancer treatment. A number of studies have shown that breast reconstruction, both imme-diate and delayed, does not impede standard oncologic treat-ment, does not delay detection of recurrent cancer, and does not change the overall mortality associated with the disease.46-48Preoperative counseling of the breast cancer patient regarding reconstruction options should include discussion of the timing and technique of reconstruction. It is important to ensure that the patient has realistic expectations of outcome and an understanding of the number of procedures that might be necessary to perform in order to obtain the best | Surgery_Schwartz. general. The procedure must be highly reliable in order to avoid surgical complications that might interfere with adjuvant therapies.Breast ReconstructionBreast cancer is the most common malignancy besides skin can-cer in women and the second leading cause of cancer-related death for women in the United States. Breast reconstruction is an important part of comprehensive cancer treatment. A number of studies have shown that breast reconstruction, both imme-diate and delayed, does not impede standard oncologic treat-ment, does not delay detection of recurrent cancer, and does not change the overall mortality associated with the disease.46-48Preoperative counseling of the breast cancer patient regarding reconstruction options should include discussion of the timing and technique of reconstruction. It is important to ensure that the patient has realistic expectations of outcome and an understanding of the number of procedures that might be necessary to perform in order to obtain the best |
Surgery_Schwartz_13142 | Surgery_Schwartz | It is important to ensure that the patient has realistic expectations of outcome and an understanding of the number of procedures that might be necessary to perform in order to obtain the best outcome. The plastic surgeon and surgical oncologist must maintain close communication to achieve optimal results.Delayed breast reconstruction occurs any time after the mastectomy is performed, usually 3 to 6 months after the opera-tion, depending on the patient’s circumstances and reasons for not electing immediate reconstruction. Although good out-comes can be obtained, it is more difficult to achieve a result that is similar to the preoperative breast shape and size because of established scarring of the chest wall. Nevertheless, it is a good option for patients who are undecided or not candidates for immediate reconstruction because of advanced disease or comorbidities.Immediate reconstruction is defined as initiation of the breast reconstructive process at the time of the ablative | Surgery_Schwartz. It is important to ensure that the patient has realistic expectations of outcome and an understanding of the number of procedures that might be necessary to perform in order to obtain the best outcome. The plastic surgeon and surgical oncologist must maintain close communication to achieve optimal results.Delayed breast reconstruction occurs any time after the mastectomy is performed, usually 3 to 6 months after the opera-tion, depending on the patient’s circumstances and reasons for not electing immediate reconstruction. Although good out-comes can be obtained, it is more difficult to achieve a result that is similar to the preoperative breast shape and size because of established scarring of the chest wall. Nevertheless, it is a good option for patients who are undecided or not candidates for immediate reconstruction because of advanced disease or comorbidities.Immediate reconstruction is defined as initiation of the breast reconstructive process at the time of the ablative |
Surgery_Schwartz_13143 | Surgery_Schwartz | candidates for immediate reconstruction because of advanced disease or comorbidities.Immediate reconstruction is defined as initiation of the breast reconstructive process at the time of the ablative sur-gery. Patients are considered candidates for immediate recon-struction who are in general good health and have stage I or stage II disease determined primarily by the size and location of the tumor. There are selected exceptions, such as when an extensive resection requires chest wall coverage. Breast recon-struction might be performed in these cases, but it is really incidental to achieving chest wall coverage. Disadvantages of immediate reconstruction include the potential delay of adju-vant therapy in the event of postoperative complications. Also, if there is uncertainty regarding the need to adjuvant radiation therapy, decision-making regarding immediate reconstruction is a challenge. Breast reconstructions by all techniques are adversely affected by radiation therapy, and many | Surgery_Schwartz. candidates for immediate reconstruction because of advanced disease or comorbidities.Immediate reconstruction is defined as initiation of the breast reconstructive process at the time of the ablative sur-gery. Patients are considered candidates for immediate recon-struction who are in general good health and have stage I or stage II disease determined primarily by the size and location of the tumor. There are selected exceptions, such as when an extensive resection requires chest wall coverage. Breast recon-struction might be performed in these cases, but it is really incidental to achieving chest wall coverage. Disadvantages of immediate reconstruction include the potential delay of adju-vant therapy in the event of postoperative complications. Also, if there is uncertainty regarding the need to adjuvant radiation therapy, decision-making regarding immediate reconstruction is a challenge. Breast reconstructions by all techniques are adversely affected by radiation therapy, and many |
Surgery_Schwartz_13144 | Surgery_Schwartz | need to adjuvant radiation therapy, decision-making regarding immediate reconstruction is a challenge. Breast reconstructions by all techniques are adversely affected by radiation therapy, and many surgeons feel reconstruction should be delayed until at least 6 months after treatment.Once the patient chooses to have immediate reconstruction, she must select a reconstructive technique. In patients selected for breast conservation, oncoplastic tissue rearrangement can be performed to minimize adverse effects of lumpectomy on breast appearance. For patients electing total mastectomy there are essentially three options: (a) tissue expansion followed by breast implant placement, (b) combined tissue flaps with breast implants, and (c) autologous tissue flaps only. After examining the patient, the surgeon then should describe those methods for which the patient is a satisfactory candidate. The patient should then be encouraged to choose based on her goals and an under-standing of the | Surgery_Schwartz. need to adjuvant radiation therapy, decision-making regarding immediate reconstruction is a challenge. Breast reconstructions by all techniques are adversely affected by radiation therapy, and many surgeons feel reconstruction should be delayed until at least 6 months after treatment.Once the patient chooses to have immediate reconstruction, she must select a reconstructive technique. In patients selected for breast conservation, oncoplastic tissue rearrangement can be performed to minimize adverse effects of lumpectomy on breast appearance. For patients electing total mastectomy there are essentially three options: (a) tissue expansion followed by breast implant placement, (b) combined tissue flaps with breast implants, and (c) autologous tissue flaps only. After examining the patient, the surgeon then should describe those methods for which the patient is a satisfactory candidate. The patient should then be encouraged to choose based on her goals and an under-standing of the |
Surgery_Schwartz_13145 | Surgery_Schwartz | the surgeon then should describe those methods for which the patient is a satisfactory candidate. The patient should then be encouraged to choose based on her goals and an under-standing of the advantages and disadvantages of each technique.Oncoplastic Breast ReconstructionBreast conservation therapy (BCT) consists of excision of the breast tumor with a surrounding margin of normal tissue com-bined with postoperative whole-breast irradiation. Although the overall survival for properly selected patients is shown to be comparable to total mastectomy and reconstruction, the breast can often be distorted and unnatural appearing after treatment. The area of the lumpectomy may create a depression with con-tour deformity, and contraction of the lumpectomy space over time can distract the nipple out of alignment and create an asym-metry with the contralateral breast. This is especially true for women with small breasts in whom a high percentage of breast volume is removed with the | Surgery_Schwartz. the surgeon then should describe those methods for which the patient is a satisfactory candidate. The patient should then be encouraged to choose based on her goals and an under-standing of the advantages and disadvantages of each technique.Oncoplastic Breast ReconstructionBreast conservation therapy (BCT) consists of excision of the breast tumor with a surrounding margin of normal tissue com-bined with postoperative whole-breast irradiation. Although the overall survival for properly selected patients is shown to be comparable to total mastectomy and reconstruction, the breast can often be distorted and unnatural appearing after treatment. The area of the lumpectomy may create a depression with con-tour deformity, and contraction of the lumpectomy space over time can distract the nipple out of alignment and create an asym-metry with the contralateral breast. This is especially true for women with small breasts in whom a high percentage of breast volume is removed with the |
Surgery_Schwartz_13146 | Surgery_Schwartz | the nipple out of alignment and create an asym-metry with the contralateral breast. This is especially true for women with small breasts in whom a high percentage of breast volume is removed with the lumpectomy.Oncoplastic surgery refers to the set of techniques devel-oped to lessen breast deformity from a partial mastectomy. One of the most common methods of minimizing adverse effects on breast appearance of is to rearrange the skin, parenchyma, and nipple location of the breast at the time of tumor extirpation using surgical techniques developed for breast aesthetic surgery. This procedure involves elevating the skin from the underlying glandular tissue, mobilizing the nipple on a vascular pedicle, and preserving as much of the vascularized glandular tissue as possible. After lumpectomy, the tissue is rearranged to shift glandular tissue into the defect and redrape the skin and nipple onto the new breast mound. After healing and completion of radiotherapy, a contralateral | Surgery_Schwartz. the nipple out of alignment and create an asym-metry with the contralateral breast. This is especially true for women with small breasts in whom a high percentage of breast volume is removed with the lumpectomy.Oncoplastic surgery refers to the set of techniques devel-oped to lessen breast deformity from a partial mastectomy. One of the most common methods of minimizing adverse effects on breast appearance of is to rearrange the skin, parenchyma, and nipple location of the breast at the time of tumor extirpation using surgical techniques developed for breast aesthetic surgery. This procedure involves elevating the skin from the underlying glandular tissue, mobilizing the nipple on a vascular pedicle, and preserving as much of the vascularized glandular tissue as possible. After lumpectomy, the tissue is rearranged to shift glandular tissue into the defect and redrape the skin and nipple onto the new breast mound. After healing and completion of radiotherapy, a contralateral |
Surgery_Schwartz_13147 | Surgery_Schwartz | lumpectomy, the tissue is rearranged to shift glandular tissue into the defect and redrape the skin and nipple onto the new breast mound. After healing and completion of radiotherapy, a contralateral conventional mastopexy or breast reduction can be performed on the contralateral side to achieve symmetry.Implant-Based ReconstructionImmediate breast reconstruction based entirely on the use of implanted devices is initially the most expedient technique. Sometimes it is possible to place a full-size implant at the time of mastectomy when the breasts are small (volume <400 cc) and the patient is a young nonsmoker with good chest wall muscula-ture. In most patients, however, a period of tissue expansion is required. The tissue expander is inserted beneath the pectoralis major and serratus anterior muscles at the time of the mastec-tomy and partially inflated. Alternatively, the tissue expander can be placed only under the pectoralis major muscle or even completely on top of the chest wall | Surgery_Schwartz. lumpectomy, the tissue is rearranged to shift glandular tissue into the defect and redrape the skin and nipple onto the new breast mound. After healing and completion of radiotherapy, a contralateral conventional mastopexy or breast reduction can be performed on the contralateral side to achieve symmetry.Implant-Based ReconstructionImmediate breast reconstruction based entirely on the use of implanted devices is initially the most expedient technique. Sometimes it is possible to place a full-size implant at the time of mastectomy when the breasts are small (volume <400 cc) and the patient is a young nonsmoker with good chest wall muscula-ture. In most patients, however, a period of tissue expansion is required. The tissue expander is inserted beneath the pectoralis major and serratus anterior muscles at the time of the mastec-tomy and partially inflated. Alternatively, the tissue expander can be placed only under the pectoralis major muscle or even completely on top of the chest wall |
Surgery_Schwartz_13148 | Surgery_Schwartz | muscles at the time of the mastec-tomy and partially inflated. Alternatively, the tissue expander can be placed only under the pectoralis major muscle or even completely on top of the chest wall muscles then covered with acellular dermal matrix directly beneath the mastectomy skin flaps. Total muscle coverage is the traditional approach, but these alternatives may be suitable only for well-selected patients. Expansion usually requires 6 to 8 weeks to complete, and an implant exchange is performed typically 3 months later. The advantages of this technique are that it involves minimum additional surgery at the time of the mastectomy, has a recovery period essentially the same of that of the mastectomy alone, and creates no additional scarring. The disadvantages of this technique are the length of time necessary to complete the entire reconstruction (up to 1 year), the requirement for a minimum of two operative procedures, and a less predictable cosmetic result due to complete reliance | Surgery_Schwartz. muscles at the time of the mastec-tomy and partially inflated. Alternatively, the tissue expander can be placed only under the pectoralis major muscle or even completely on top of the chest wall muscles then covered with acellular dermal matrix directly beneath the mastectomy skin flaps. Total muscle coverage is the traditional approach, but these alternatives may be suitable only for well-selected patients. Expansion usually requires 6 to 8 weeks to complete, and an implant exchange is performed typically 3 months later. The advantages of this technique are that it involves minimum additional surgery at the time of the mastectomy, has a recovery period essentially the same of that of the mastectomy alone, and creates no additional scarring. The disadvantages of this technique are the length of time necessary to complete the entire reconstruction (up to 1 year), the requirement for a minimum of two operative procedures, and a less predictable cosmetic result due to complete reliance |
Surgery_Schwartz_13149 | Surgery_Schwartz | of time necessary to complete the entire reconstruction (up to 1 year), the requirement for a minimum of two operative procedures, and a less predictable cosmetic result due to complete reliance on devices. Also, the patient awak-ens from surgery without a full-size breast and during the time of expansion must accept a breast of abnormal size and shape. Although the final shape of the breast may be satisfactory, it may lack a natural consistency due to the superficial placement of the device, especially when saline-filled implants are used. Finally, breast implants may develop late complications such as capsular contracture, infection, or extrusion. This method is ideal for a slender, small-breasted woman with minimal ptosis Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 200901/03/19 6:31 PM 2010SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIwho wish to avoid additional scarring and time for convales-cence. It may also be suitable for women undergoing bilateral reconstruction because symmetry is more easily | Surgery_Schwartz. of time necessary to complete the entire reconstruction (up to 1 year), the requirement for a minimum of two operative procedures, and a less predictable cosmetic result due to complete reliance on devices. Also, the patient awak-ens from surgery without a full-size breast and during the time of expansion must accept a breast of abnormal size and shape. Although the final shape of the breast may be satisfactory, it may lack a natural consistency due to the superficial placement of the device, especially when saline-filled implants are used. Finally, breast implants may develop late complications such as capsular contracture, infection, or extrusion. This method is ideal for a slender, small-breasted woman with minimal ptosis Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 200901/03/19 6:31 PM 2010SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIwho wish to avoid additional scarring and time for convales-cence. It may also be suitable for women undergoing bilateral reconstruction because symmetry is more easily |
Surgery_Schwartz_13150 | Surgery_Schwartz | CONSIDERATIONSPART IIwho wish to avoid additional scarring and time for convales-cence. It may also be suitable for women undergoing bilateral reconstruction because symmetry is more easily achieved if both breasts are restored using the same technique. Women who elect this type of immediate reconstruction must understand that breast implants do not have an unlimited service life and that additional surgery will be likely be required to replace the breast implant at some time in the future.Tissue Flaps and Breast ImplantsThe latissimus dorsi musculocutaneous flap is the most com-mon transfer used in combination with breast implants. Other flaps may also be used, depending on patient preference and tissue availability. The principal advantage in using a tissue flap is immediate replacement of missing skin and soft tissue. In cases where there is already adequate breast skin, then a muscle only may be transferred to provide suitable implant coverage. The implant allows the final breast | Surgery_Schwartz. CONSIDERATIONSPART IIwho wish to avoid additional scarring and time for convales-cence. It may also be suitable for women undergoing bilateral reconstruction because symmetry is more easily achieved if both breasts are restored using the same technique. Women who elect this type of immediate reconstruction must understand that breast implants do not have an unlimited service life and that additional surgery will be likely be required to replace the breast implant at some time in the future.Tissue Flaps and Breast ImplantsThe latissimus dorsi musculocutaneous flap is the most com-mon transfer used in combination with breast implants. Other flaps may also be used, depending on patient preference and tissue availability. The principal advantage in using a tissue flap is immediate replacement of missing skin and soft tissue. In cases where there is already adequate breast skin, then a muscle only may be transferred to provide suitable implant coverage. The implant allows the final breast |
Surgery_Schwartz_13151 | Surgery_Schwartz | of missing skin and soft tissue. In cases where there is already adequate breast skin, then a muscle only may be transferred to provide suitable implant coverage. The implant allows the final breast volume to be accurately reproduced to match the contralateral breast or, in bilateral reconstruction, adjust the breast size according to the patient’s desires. The advantages of this technique are that the implant is protected by abundant tissue, a period of tissue expansion is avoided, and the full benefit of preserving the breast skin is realized to achieve a natural-appearing breast. The disadvantage of this technique compared to implants alone is that it results in additional scarring and requires a longer period of recovery. For many patients, this approach represents an acceptable com-promise between implant-only reconstruction and autologous tissue reconstruction, incorporating some of the advantages and disadvantages of each.Autologous Tissue ReconstructionImmediate reconstruction | Surgery_Schwartz. of missing skin and soft tissue. In cases where there is already adequate breast skin, then a muscle only may be transferred to provide suitable implant coverage. The implant allows the final breast volume to be accurately reproduced to match the contralateral breast or, in bilateral reconstruction, adjust the breast size according to the patient’s desires. The advantages of this technique are that the implant is protected by abundant tissue, a period of tissue expansion is avoided, and the full benefit of preserving the breast skin is realized to achieve a natural-appearing breast. The disadvantage of this technique compared to implants alone is that it results in additional scarring and requires a longer period of recovery. For many patients, this approach represents an acceptable com-promise between implant-only reconstruction and autologous tissue reconstruction, incorporating some of the advantages and disadvantages of each.Autologous Tissue ReconstructionImmediate reconstruction |
Surgery_Schwartz_13152 | Surgery_Schwartz | between implant-only reconstruction and autologous tissue reconstruction, incorporating some of the advantages and disadvantages of each.Autologous Tissue ReconstructionImmediate reconstruction using only autologous tissue is the most elaborate method of breast reconstruction but consis-tently yields the most durable, natural-appearing results. Breast implants cannot match the ability of the autologous tissue to conform to the breast skin and envelop and simulate natural breast parenchyma. The most useful flap is the transverse rec-tus abdominis musculocutaneous (TRAM) flap, although other ABPreoperativePostoperativeImmediate right DIEP FlapFigure 45-60. A. Preoperation right breast cancer. B. After mastectomy and immediate reconstruction with a DIEP flap.donor areas are also possibilities in selected cases. Autologous reconstruction is usually the best option in patients who require adjuvant radiation therapy.55The TRAM flap may be transferred to the chest using a variety of methods, | Surgery_Schwartz. between implant-only reconstruction and autologous tissue reconstruction, incorporating some of the advantages and disadvantages of each.Autologous Tissue ReconstructionImmediate reconstruction using only autologous tissue is the most elaborate method of breast reconstruction but consis-tently yields the most durable, natural-appearing results. Breast implants cannot match the ability of the autologous tissue to conform to the breast skin and envelop and simulate natural breast parenchyma. The most useful flap is the transverse rec-tus abdominis musculocutaneous (TRAM) flap, although other ABPreoperativePostoperativeImmediate right DIEP FlapFigure 45-60. A. Preoperation right breast cancer. B. After mastectomy and immediate reconstruction with a DIEP flap.donor areas are also possibilities in selected cases. Autologous reconstruction is usually the best option in patients who require adjuvant radiation therapy.55The TRAM flap may be transferred to the chest using a variety of methods, |
Surgery_Schwartz_13153 | Surgery_Schwartz | in selected cases. Autologous reconstruction is usually the best option in patients who require adjuvant radiation therapy.55The TRAM flap may be transferred to the chest using a variety of methods, depending on the circumstances of the individual patient. As a pedicled flap, it is transferred based on the superior epigastric vessels and tunneled beneath the skin to reach the mastectomy defect. As a free flap, it is based on the inferior epigastric vessels that are revascularized by micro-vascular anastomosis to vessels on the chest wall nearby the mastectomy defect. Often the microvascular technique using the deep inferior epigastric perforator (DIEP) flap is preferred because there is less risk of partial flap loss or localized areas of fat necrosis due to a more reliable blood supply (Fig. 45-60A, before operation on right breast; Fig. 45-60B, after mastectomy and immediate reconstruction with a DIEP flap). In immediate reconstruction with an axillary dissection, the axillary | Surgery_Schwartz. in selected cases. Autologous reconstruction is usually the best option in patients who require adjuvant radiation therapy.55The TRAM flap may be transferred to the chest using a variety of methods, depending on the circumstances of the individual patient. As a pedicled flap, it is transferred based on the superior epigastric vessels and tunneled beneath the skin to reach the mastectomy defect. As a free flap, it is based on the inferior epigastric vessels that are revascularized by micro-vascular anastomosis to vessels on the chest wall nearby the mastectomy defect. Often the microvascular technique using the deep inferior epigastric perforator (DIEP) flap is preferred because there is less risk of partial flap loss or localized areas of fat necrosis due to a more reliable blood supply (Fig. 45-60A, before operation on right breast; Fig. 45-60B, after mastectomy and immediate reconstruction with a DIEP flap). In immediate reconstruction with an axillary dissection, the axillary |
Surgery_Schwartz_13154 | Surgery_Schwartz | (Fig. 45-60A, before operation on right breast; Fig. 45-60B, after mastectomy and immediate reconstruction with a DIEP flap). In immediate reconstruction with an axillary dissection, the axillary vessels are completely exposed and free of scar following the lymph node dissection in patients without previous surgery and radiation. In women being treated for recurrence with previous axillary sur-gery, the axillary vessels are less reliable, and plans should be made for the possibility of using the internal mammary vessels. The internal mammary vessels have become the most common recipient vessels for free tissue transfer in breast reconstruction in the contemporary era of sentinel lymph node biopsy that is used as a technique to perform axillary lymph node dissection in a more limited number of patients. Regardless of the technique used to transfer the tissue, the donor site is closed in a similar manner as an abdominoplasty, by repairing the abdominal wall and advancing the upper | Surgery_Schwartz. (Fig. 45-60A, before operation on right breast; Fig. 45-60B, after mastectomy and immediate reconstruction with a DIEP flap). In immediate reconstruction with an axillary dissection, the axillary vessels are completely exposed and free of scar following the lymph node dissection in patients without previous surgery and radiation. In women being treated for recurrence with previous axillary sur-gery, the axillary vessels are less reliable, and plans should be made for the possibility of using the internal mammary vessels. The internal mammary vessels have become the most common recipient vessels for free tissue transfer in breast reconstruction in the contemporary era of sentinel lymph node biopsy that is used as a technique to perform axillary lymph node dissection in a more limited number of patients. Regardless of the technique used to transfer the tissue, the donor site is closed in a similar manner as an abdominoplasty, by repairing the abdominal wall and advancing the upper |
Surgery_Schwartz_13155 | Surgery_Schwartz | number of patients. Regardless of the technique used to transfer the tissue, the donor site is closed in a similar manner as an abdominoplasty, by repairing the abdominal wall and advancing the upper abdominal skin downward. The umbi-licus is preserved on its vascular stalk brought to the surface through a small incision immediately above its location on the abdominal wall (Fig. 45-61A,B). Other donor sites including the buttock may be used in transferring the skin and fat supplied by the inferior gluteal artery perforator (IGAP) or the superior gluteal perforator as the main blood supply.The advantages of using this technique are complete res-toration of the breast mound in a single stage, avoidance of Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 201001/03/19 6:31 PM 2011PLASTIC AND RECONSTRUCTIVE SURGERYCHAPTER 45Figure 45-61A, B. Preand postoperative images following IGAP flap.Figure 45-62A, B. Preand postoperative images following IGAP flap, nipple reconstruction, and | Surgery_Schwartz. number of patients. Regardless of the technique used to transfer the tissue, the donor site is closed in a similar manner as an abdominoplasty, by repairing the abdominal wall and advancing the upper abdominal skin downward. The umbi-licus is preserved on its vascular stalk brought to the surface through a small incision immediately above its location on the abdominal wall (Fig. 45-61A,B). Other donor sites including the buttock may be used in transferring the skin and fat supplied by the inferior gluteal artery perforator (IGAP) or the superior gluteal perforator as the main blood supply.The advantages of using this technique are complete res-toration of the breast mound in a single stage, avoidance of Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 201001/03/19 6:31 PM 2011PLASTIC AND RECONSTRUCTIVE SURGERYCHAPTER 45Figure 45-61A, B. Preand postoperative images following IGAP flap.Figure 45-62A, B. Preand postoperative images following IGAP flap, nipple reconstruction, and |
Surgery_Schwartz_13156 | Surgery_Schwartz | AND RECONSTRUCTIVE SURGERYCHAPTER 45Figure 45-61A, B. Preand postoperative images following IGAP flap.Figure 45-62A, B. Preand postoperative images following IGAP flap, nipple reconstruction, and tattooing.ABPreoperativePostoperativeDelayed right IGAP Flappotential problems associated with breast implants, and con-sistently superior cosmetic results. The disadvantages are the magnitude of the operation, additional scarring, risks of devel-opment of abdominal bulges, and a longer period of convales-cence. Although the initial cost is greater, over the long term the total cost appears to be less because of less need for second-ary procedures to exchange implants, achieve suitable cosmetic appearance, or care for implant-related problems. This is the best operation for patients who want the most natural breast res-toration possible and who are less concerned about the amount of surgery, scarring, and recovery period.Accessory ProceduresAfter complete healing of the breast mound from the | Surgery_Schwartz. AND RECONSTRUCTIVE SURGERYCHAPTER 45Figure 45-61A, B. Preand postoperative images following IGAP flap.Figure 45-62A, B. Preand postoperative images following IGAP flap, nipple reconstruction, and tattooing.ABPreoperativePostoperativeDelayed right IGAP Flappotential problems associated with breast implants, and con-sistently superior cosmetic results. The disadvantages are the magnitude of the operation, additional scarring, risks of devel-opment of abdominal bulges, and a longer period of convales-cence. Although the initial cost is greater, over the long term the total cost appears to be less because of less need for second-ary procedures to exchange implants, achieve suitable cosmetic appearance, or care for implant-related problems. This is the best operation for patients who want the most natural breast res-toration possible and who are less concerned about the amount of surgery, scarring, and recovery period.Accessory ProceduresAfter complete healing of the breast mound from the |
Surgery_Schwartz_13157 | Surgery_Schwartz | most natural breast res-toration possible and who are less concerned about the amount of surgery, scarring, and recovery period.Accessory ProceduresAfter complete healing of the breast mound from the initial stages of reconstruction, refinements and accessory procedures may be performed at a later time to optimize the natural appear-ance of the reconstructed breast. These may include soft tissue ABBefore nipple reconstructionPostoperativeBilateral IGAP Flapmodifications of the breast mound revision, repositioning or the breast implant, scar revisions, autologous fat grafting, and nip-ple-areola complex reconstruction. A variety of methods have been described for nipple reconstruction. They are all based on local tissue rearrangements or skin grafts to create a projecting piece of skin and subcutaneous tissue that simulates the natural nipple (Fig. 45-62A,B). The pigmentation of the areola may be simulated with tattooing of colored pigments selected to match the normal coloration of | Surgery_Schwartz. most natural breast res-toration possible and who are less concerned about the amount of surgery, scarring, and recovery period.Accessory ProceduresAfter complete healing of the breast mound from the initial stages of reconstruction, refinements and accessory procedures may be performed at a later time to optimize the natural appear-ance of the reconstructed breast. These may include soft tissue ABBefore nipple reconstructionPostoperativeBilateral IGAP Flapmodifications of the breast mound revision, repositioning or the breast implant, scar revisions, autologous fat grafting, and nip-ple-areola complex reconstruction. A variety of methods have been described for nipple reconstruction. They are all based on local tissue rearrangements or skin grafts to create a projecting piece of skin and subcutaneous tissue that simulates the natural nipple (Fig. 45-62A,B). The pigmentation of the areola may be simulated with tattooing of colored pigments selected to match the normal coloration of |
Surgery_Schwartz_13158 | Surgery_Schwartz | subcutaneous tissue that simulates the natural nipple (Fig. 45-62A,B). The pigmentation of the areola may be simulated with tattooing of colored pigments selected to match the normal coloration of the patient’s original anatomy.Trunk and Abdominal ReconstructionIn the torso, as in most areas of the body, the location and size of the defect and the properties of the deficient tissue determine choice of reconstructive method. A distinction is made between partial-thickness and full-thickness defects when deciding between grafts, flaps, synthetic materials, or a combina-tion of techniques. Unlike the head and the lower leg, the trunk 9Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 201101/03/19 6:31 PM 2012SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIharbors a relative wealth of regional transposable axial pattern flaps that allow sturdy reconstruction, only rarely requiring dis-tant free tissue transfer. Indeed, the trunk serves as the body’s arsenal, providing its most robust flaps to rebuild its largest | Surgery_Schwartz. subcutaneous tissue that simulates the natural nipple (Fig. 45-62A,B). The pigmentation of the areola may be simulated with tattooing of colored pigments selected to match the normal coloration of the patient’s original anatomy.Trunk and Abdominal ReconstructionIn the torso, as in most areas of the body, the location and size of the defect and the properties of the deficient tissue determine choice of reconstructive method. A distinction is made between partial-thickness and full-thickness defects when deciding between grafts, flaps, synthetic materials, or a combina-tion of techniques. Unlike the head and the lower leg, the trunk 9Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 201101/03/19 6:31 PM 2012SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIharbors a relative wealth of regional transposable axial pattern flaps that allow sturdy reconstruction, only rarely requiring dis-tant free tissue transfer. Indeed, the trunk serves as the body’s arsenal, providing its most robust flaps to rebuild its largest |
Surgery_Schwartz_13159 | Surgery_Schwartz | flaps that allow sturdy reconstruction, only rarely requiring dis-tant free tissue transfer. Indeed, the trunk serves as the body’s arsenal, providing its most robust flaps to rebuild its largest defects.The chest wall is a rigid framework designed to resist both the negative pressure associated with respiration and the positive pressure from coughing and from transmitted intra-abdominal forces. Furthermore, it protects the heart, lungs, and great vessels from external trauma. Reconstructions of chest wall defects must restore these functions. When a full-thick-ness defect of the chest wall involves more than four, this is usually an indication for the need for rigid chest wall recon-struction usually using synthetic meshes made of polypropyl-ene, polyethylene, or polytetrafluoroethylene, which may be reinforced with polymethylmethacrylate acrylic. In contami-nated wounds, biologic materials are preferred, such as acel-lular dermal matrix allografts. For soft tissue restoration, the | Surgery_Schwartz. flaps that allow sturdy reconstruction, only rarely requiring dis-tant free tissue transfer. Indeed, the trunk serves as the body’s arsenal, providing its most robust flaps to rebuild its largest defects.The chest wall is a rigid framework designed to resist both the negative pressure associated with respiration and the positive pressure from coughing and from transmitted intra-abdominal forces. Furthermore, it protects the heart, lungs, and great vessels from external trauma. Reconstructions of chest wall defects must restore these functions. When a full-thick-ness defect of the chest wall involves more than four, this is usually an indication for the need for rigid chest wall recon-struction usually using synthetic meshes made of polypropyl-ene, polyethylene, or polytetrafluoroethylene, which may be reinforced with polymethylmethacrylate acrylic. In contami-nated wounds, biologic materials are preferred, such as acel-lular dermal matrix allografts. For soft tissue restoration, the |
Surgery_Schwartz_13160 | Surgery_Schwartz | which may be reinforced with polymethylmethacrylate acrylic. In contami-nated wounds, biologic materials are preferred, such as acel-lular dermal matrix allografts. For soft tissue restoration, the pectoralis major muscle is commonly used as a pedicled flap for coverage of the sternum, upper chest, and neck. It may be mobilized and transferred on a vascular pedicle based on the pectoral branch of the thoracoacromial artery or a vascular supply based on perforators from the internal mammary ves-sels. Either flap design is useful in covering the sternum after dehiscence or infection occurring as a complication of median sternotomy or with sternal resection for tumor extirpation. For the lower third of the sternum, a rectus abdominis muscle flap based on the superior epigastric vessels or the deep inferior epigastric vessels is useful. If based on the inferior blood sup-ply, it must be transferred as a free flap with recipient vessels outside of the zone in injury. The latissimus dorsi | Surgery_Schwartz. which may be reinforced with polymethylmethacrylate acrylic. In contami-nated wounds, biologic materials are preferred, such as acel-lular dermal matrix allografts. For soft tissue restoration, the pectoralis major muscle is commonly used as a pedicled flap for coverage of the sternum, upper chest, and neck. It may be mobilized and transferred on a vascular pedicle based on the pectoral branch of the thoracoacromial artery or a vascular supply based on perforators from the internal mammary ves-sels. Either flap design is useful in covering the sternum after dehiscence or infection occurring as a complication of median sternotomy or with sternal resection for tumor extirpation. For the lower third of the sternum, a rectus abdominis muscle flap based on the superior epigastric vessels or the deep inferior epigastric vessels is useful. If based on the inferior blood sup-ply, it must be transferred as a free flap with recipient vessels outside of the zone in injury. The latissimus dorsi |
Surgery_Schwartz_13161 | Surgery_Schwartz | deep inferior epigastric vessels is useful. If based on the inferior blood sup-ply, it must be transferred as a free flap with recipient vessels outside of the zone in injury. The latissimus dorsi musculocu-taneous flap is useful for chest wall reconstructions in places other than the anterior midline. Similar to the pectoralis major muscle, it may be transferred on either a single blood supply that is based on the thoracodorsal vessels from the subscapular system or on vessels perforating from deeper source vessels near to the posterior midline. The serratus anterior muscle can be included on the same vascular pedicle to further increase its surface area. Finally, the trapezius muscle flap, based on the transverse cervical vessels, is generally used as a pedicled flap to cover the upper midback, base of neck, and shoulder. The superior portion of the muscle along with the acromial attach-ment and spinal accessory nerve must be preserved to maintain normal shoulder elevation | Surgery_Schwartz. deep inferior epigastric vessels is useful. If based on the inferior blood sup-ply, it must be transferred as a free flap with recipient vessels outside of the zone in injury. The latissimus dorsi musculocu-taneous flap is useful for chest wall reconstructions in places other than the anterior midline. Similar to the pectoralis major muscle, it may be transferred on either a single blood supply that is based on the thoracodorsal vessels from the subscapular system or on vessels perforating from deeper source vessels near to the posterior midline. The serratus anterior muscle can be included on the same vascular pedicle to further increase its surface area. Finally, the trapezius muscle flap, based on the transverse cervical vessels, is generally used as a pedicled flap to cover the upper midback, base of neck, and shoulder. The superior portion of the muscle along with the acromial attach-ment and spinal accessory nerve must be preserved to maintain normal shoulder elevation |
Surgery_Schwartz_13162 | Surgery_Schwartz | upper midback, base of neck, and shoulder. The superior portion of the muscle along with the acromial attach-ment and spinal accessory nerve must be preserved to maintain normal shoulder elevation function.The abdominal wall also protects the internal vital organs from trauma, but with layers of strong torso-supporting mus-cles and fascia rather than with osseous structures. The goals of reconstruction are restoration of structural integrity, prevention of visceral herniation, and provision of dynamic muscular sup-port. Although abdominal wall defects may occur in association with oncologic tumor resections, the most common etiology is fascial dehiscence after laparotomy. When a reconstruction plan is being formulated, careful physical examination and review of the medical history will help prevent selection of an otherwise sound strategy that, because of previous incisions and trauma, is destined for failure.Superficial defects of the abdominal skin and subcutane-ous tissue are | Surgery_Schwartz. upper midback, base of neck, and shoulder. The superior portion of the muscle along with the acromial attach-ment and spinal accessory nerve must be preserved to maintain normal shoulder elevation function.The abdominal wall also protects the internal vital organs from trauma, but with layers of strong torso-supporting mus-cles and fascia rather than with osseous structures. The goals of reconstruction are restoration of structural integrity, prevention of visceral herniation, and provision of dynamic muscular sup-port. Although abdominal wall defects may occur in association with oncologic tumor resections, the most common etiology is fascial dehiscence after laparotomy. When a reconstruction plan is being formulated, careful physical examination and review of the medical history will help prevent selection of an otherwise sound strategy that, because of previous incisions and trauma, is destined for failure.Superficial defects of the abdominal skin and subcutane-ous tissue are |
Surgery_Schwartz_13163 | Surgery_Schwartz | help prevent selection of an otherwise sound strategy that, because of previous incisions and trauma, is destined for failure.Superficial defects of the abdominal skin and subcutane-ous tissue are usually easily controlled with skin grafts, local advancement flaps, or tissue expansion. Defects of the under-lying musculofascial structures are more difficult to manage. The abdominal wall fascia requires a minimal-tension closure to avoid dehiscence, recurrent incisional hernia formation, or abdominal compartment syndrome. Prosthetic meshes are frequently used to replace the fascia in clean wounds and in operations that create myofascial defects. When the wound is contaminated, as in infected mesh reconstructions, enterocuta-neous fistulas, or viscus perforations, prosthetic mesh is avoided because of the risk of infection. The technique of component separation procedure has proven beneficial for closing large midline defects with autologous tissue and avoiding prosthetic materials. This | Surgery_Schwartz. help prevent selection of an otherwise sound strategy that, because of previous incisions and trauma, is destined for failure.Superficial defects of the abdominal skin and subcutane-ous tissue are usually easily controlled with skin grafts, local advancement flaps, or tissue expansion. Defects of the under-lying musculofascial structures are more difficult to manage. The abdominal wall fascia requires a minimal-tension closure to avoid dehiscence, recurrent incisional hernia formation, or abdominal compartment syndrome. Prosthetic meshes are frequently used to replace the fascia in clean wounds and in operations that create myofascial defects. When the wound is contaminated, as in infected mesh reconstructions, enterocuta-neous fistulas, or viscus perforations, prosthetic mesh is avoided because of the risk of infection. The technique of component separation procedure has proven beneficial for closing large midline defects with autologous tissue and avoiding prosthetic materials. This |
Surgery_Schwartz_13164 | Surgery_Schwartz | of the risk of infection. The technique of component separation procedure has proven beneficial for closing large midline defects with autologous tissue and avoiding prosthetic materials. This procedure involves advancement of bilateral flaps composed of the anterior rectus fascia rectus and oblique muscles after lateral release. Midline defects measuring up to 10 cm superiorly, 18 cm centrally, and 8 cm inferiorly can be closed using this method.Techniques based on rearranging and reinforcing abdomi-nal wall elements might be inadequate for extremely large or full-thickness abdominal wall defects. For these defects, regional flaps or free flaps are required. Pedicled flaps from the thigh are useful, such as the tensor fasciae latae pedicled flap, based on the ascending branch of the lateral circumflex femoral vessels, or the anterolateral thigh flap, based on the descending branch of the lateral circumflex vessels. Bilateral flaps might be required.Pelvic ReconstructionAnother | Surgery_Schwartz. of the risk of infection. The technique of component separation procedure has proven beneficial for closing large midline defects with autologous tissue and avoiding prosthetic materials. This procedure involves advancement of bilateral flaps composed of the anterior rectus fascia rectus and oblique muscles after lateral release. Midline defects measuring up to 10 cm superiorly, 18 cm centrally, and 8 cm inferiorly can be closed using this method.Techniques based on rearranging and reinforcing abdomi-nal wall elements might be inadequate for extremely large or full-thickness abdominal wall defects. For these defects, regional flaps or free flaps are required. Pedicled flaps from the thigh are useful, such as the tensor fasciae latae pedicled flap, based on the ascending branch of the lateral circumflex femoral vessels, or the anterolateral thigh flap, based on the descending branch of the lateral circumflex vessels. Bilateral flaps might be required.Pelvic ReconstructionAnother |
Surgery_Schwartz_13165 | Surgery_Schwartz | lateral circumflex femoral vessels, or the anterolateral thigh flap, based on the descending branch of the lateral circumflex vessels. Bilateral flaps might be required.Pelvic ReconstructionAnother important area for consideration of reconstructive surgical procedures is in the perineum.56 The perineal region is part of the specialized part of the trunk that supports the pelvic outlet lying between the pubic symphysis, the coccyx, the inferior rami of the pubis, and the ischial tuberosities. Sup-port is provided by the urogenital diaphragm, the deep and superficial fasciae, and the skin. Specialized anatomic struc-tures pass through the perineum. Posteriorly is the anus, and anteriorly are the genitalia and urethra. Treatment of tumors involving this area often require a combination of surgery and radiation. The resulting loss of tissue and healing impairment coupled with the nonyielding nature of the bony pelvic outlet can result in unique reconstructive requirements that often are | Surgery_Schwartz. lateral circumflex femoral vessels, or the anterolateral thigh flap, based on the descending branch of the lateral circumflex vessels. Bilateral flaps might be required.Pelvic ReconstructionAnother important area for consideration of reconstructive surgical procedures is in the perineum.56 The perineal region is part of the specialized part of the trunk that supports the pelvic outlet lying between the pubic symphysis, the coccyx, the inferior rami of the pubis, and the ischial tuberosities. Sup-port is provided by the urogenital diaphragm, the deep and superficial fasciae, and the skin. Specialized anatomic struc-tures pass through the perineum. Posteriorly is the anus, and anteriorly are the genitalia and urethra. Treatment of tumors involving this area often require a combination of surgery and radiation. The resulting loss of tissue and healing impairment coupled with the nonyielding nature of the bony pelvic outlet can result in unique reconstructive requirements that often are |
Surgery_Schwartz_13166 | Surgery_Schwartz | and radiation. The resulting loss of tissue and healing impairment coupled with the nonyielding nature of the bony pelvic outlet can result in unique reconstructive requirements that often are best addressed with tissue transfer. The reconstruction must achieve wound healing and restore support to the pelvic con-tents, accommodate urinary and bowel function, and finally restore the penis in men and the vagina and vulva in women. Local flaps, regional flaps, or free tissue transfer all have pos-sible application depending on the extent of the resection and local tissue compromise.Other Clinical CircumstancesBesides trauma and cancer, other etiologies can cause functional and cosmetic deformities due to tissue impairment for which reconstructive surgery has value. These include pressure sores, diabetic foot ulcers, and lymphedema.Pressure Sores. A pressure ulcer is defined as tissue injury caused by physical pressure applied to the tissues from an exter-nal source at a magnitude that | Surgery_Schwartz. and radiation. The resulting loss of tissue and healing impairment coupled with the nonyielding nature of the bony pelvic outlet can result in unique reconstructive requirements that often are best addressed with tissue transfer. The reconstruction must achieve wound healing and restore support to the pelvic con-tents, accommodate urinary and bowel function, and finally restore the penis in men and the vagina and vulva in women. Local flaps, regional flaps, or free tissue transfer all have pos-sible application depending on the extent of the resection and local tissue compromise.Other Clinical CircumstancesBesides trauma and cancer, other etiologies can cause functional and cosmetic deformities due to tissue impairment for which reconstructive surgery has value. These include pressure sores, diabetic foot ulcers, and lymphedema.Pressure Sores. A pressure ulcer is defined as tissue injury caused by physical pressure applied to the tissues from an exter-nal source at a magnitude that |
Surgery_Schwartz_13167 | Surgery_Schwartz | diabetic foot ulcers, and lymphedema.Pressure Sores. A pressure ulcer is defined as tissue injury caused by physical pressure applied to the tissues from an exter-nal source at a magnitude that exceeds capillary perfusion pres-sure. Prolonged tissue ischemia leads to local tissue necrosis. Pressure ulcers tend to occur in people debilitated by advanced age, chronic illness, poor nutrition, prolonged immobilization, motor paralysis, or inadequate sensation. Spinal cord injury patients are especially prone to developing pressure sores. Pres-sure sores can also occur in healthy individuals who undergo prolonged surgical operations and parts of the body support-ing the weight of the patient on the operating table (e.g., the occiput, the sacral prominence, the heels of the feet) are improp-erly padded.57Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 201201/03/19 6:31 PM 2013PLASTIC AND RECONSTRUCTIVE SURGERYCHAPTER 45Pressure sores are an important contributor to morbidity in patients suffering from | Surgery_Schwartz. diabetic foot ulcers, and lymphedema.Pressure Sores. A pressure ulcer is defined as tissue injury caused by physical pressure applied to the tissues from an exter-nal source at a magnitude that exceeds capillary perfusion pres-sure. Prolonged tissue ischemia leads to local tissue necrosis. Pressure ulcers tend to occur in people debilitated by advanced age, chronic illness, poor nutrition, prolonged immobilization, motor paralysis, or inadequate sensation. Spinal cord injury patients are especially prone to developing pressure sores. Pres-sure sores can also occur in healthy individuals who undergo prolonged surgical operations and parts of the body support-ing the weight of the patient on the operating table (e.g., the occiput, the sacral prominence, the heels of the feet) are improp-erly padded.57Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 201201/03/19 6:31 PM 2013PLASTIC AND RECONSTRUCTIVE SURGERYCHAPTER 45Pressure sores are an important contributor to morbidity in patients suffering from |
Surgery_Schwartz_13168 | Surgery_Schwartz | padded.57Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 201201/03/19 6:31 PM 2013PLASTIC AND RECONSTRUCTIVE SURGERYCHAPTER 45Pressure sores are an important contributor to morbidity in patients suffering from limited mobility. Most can be prevented by diligent nursing care in an attentive, cooperative patient. Preventing pressure ulcers requires recognition of susceptible and utilizing appropriate measures to reduce pres-sure on areas of the body at risk. This involves frequent position changes while sitting or supine and the use of pressure-reducing medical equipment such as low-air-loss mattresses and seat cushions and heel protectors. Malnourishment, poor glucose control in diabetics, poor skin hygiene, urinary or bowel incon-tinence, muscle spasms, and joint contractures all increase the risk of pressure sore formation. Mitigating these factors is essential before embarking on a complex reconstructive treat-ment plan. Successful reconstruction also requires a cooperative and motivated | Surgery_Schwartz. padded.57Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 201201/03/19 6:31 PM 2013PLASTIC AND RECONSTRUCTIVE SURGERYCHAPTER 45Pressure sores are an important contributor to morbidity in patients suffering from limited mobility. Most can be prevented by diligent nursing care in an attentive, cooperative patient. Preventing pressure ulcers requires recognition of susceptible and utilizing appropriate measures to reduce pres-sure on areas of the body at risk. This involves frequent position changes while sitting or supine and the use of pressure-reducing medical equipment such as low-air-loss mattresses and seat cushions and heel protectors. Malnourishment, poor glucose control in diabetics, poor skin hygiene, urinary or bowel incon-tinence, muscle spasms, and joint contractures all increase the risk of pressure sore formation. Mitigating these factors is essential before embarking on a complex reconstructive treat-ment plan. Successful reconstruction also requires a cooperative and motivated |
Surgery_Schwartz_13169 | Surgery_Schwartz | of pressure sore formation. Mitigating these factors is essential before embarking on a complex reconstructive treat-ment plan. Successful reconstruction also requires a cooperative and motivated patient with good social support.Surgical treatment of pressure ulcers is based on wound depth. The staging system is summarized in Fig. 45-63.58 Stage I and II ulcers are treated nonsurgically with local wound care and interventions to relieve pressure on the affected area. Patients with stage III or IV ulcers should be evaluated for surgery. Important features for preoperative assessment include the extent of soft tissue infection, the presence of con-taminated fluid collection or abscess, osteomyelitis, and com-munication with deep spaces (e.g., joint space, urethra, colon, or spinal canal). Laboratory blood tests and imaging studies help establish whether soft tissue or bone infection is present. Plain radiographs are usually adequate to rule out osteomyeli-tis; CT and MRI are helpful | Surgery_Schwartz. of pressure sore formation. Mitigating these factors is essential before embarking on a complex reconstructive treat-ment plan. Successful reconstruction also requires a cooperative and motivated patient with good social support.Surgical treatment of pressure ulcers is based on wound depth. The staging system is summarized in Fig. 45-63.58 Stage I and II ulcers are treated nonsurgically with local wound care and interventions to relieve pressure on the affected area. Patients with stage III or IV ulcers should be evaluated for surgery. Important features for preoperative assessment include the extent of soft tissue infection, the presence of con-taminated fluid collection or abscess, osteomyelitis, and com-munication with deep spaces (e.g., joint space, urethra, colon, or spinal canal). Laboratory blood tests and imaging studies help establish whether soft tissue or bone infection is present. Plain radiographs are usually adequate to rule out osteomyeli-tis; CT and MRI are helpful |
Surgery_Schwartz_13170 | Surgery_Schwartz | Laboratory blood tests and imaging studies help establish whether soft tissue or bone infection is present. Plain radiographs are usually adequate to rule out osteomyeli-tis; CT and MRI are helpful when plain films are equivocal. Necrotic tissue and abscesses should be surgically debrided without delay to prevent or treat systemic sepsis. Bone must also be excised if it appears involved, as evidenced by poor bleeding, softness, or frank purulence. Patients with high spinal cord injuries at or above the level of the fifth thoracic vertebra may experience sudden extreme elevation of blood pressure, an 10Stage 1Observable pressure related alteration of intact skin whose indicators as compared to the adjacent or opposite area of the body may include changes in one or more of the following: skin temperature (warmth or coolness), tissue consistency (firm or boggy feel), and/or sensation (pain, itching). The ulcer appears as a defined area of persistent redness in lightly pigmented skin, | Surgery_Schwartz. Laboratory blood tests and imaging studies help establish whether soft tissue or bone infection is present. Plain radiographs are usually adequate to rule out osteomyeli-tis; CT and MRI are helpful when plain films are equivocal. Necrotic tissue and abscesses should be surgically debrided without delay to prevent or treat systemic sepsis. Bone must also be excised if it appears involved, as evidenced by poor bleeding, softness, or frank purulence. Patients with high spinal cord injuries at or above the level of the fifth thoracic vertebra may experience sudden extreme elevation of blood pressure, an 10Stage 1Observable pressure related alteration of intact skin whose indicators as compared to the adjacent or opposite area of the body may include changes in one or more of the following: skin temperature (warmth or coolness), tissue consistency (firm or boggy feel), and/or sensation (pain, itching). The ulcer appears as a defined area of persistent redness in lightly pigmented skin, |
Surgery_Schwartz_13171 | Surgery_Schwartz | skin temperature (warmth or coolness), tissue consistency (firm or boggy feel), and/or sensation (pain, itching). The ulcer appears as a defined area of persistent redness in lightly pigmented skin, whereas in darker skin tones the ulcer may appear with persistent red, blue of purple hues.Stage 2Partial thickness skin loss involving epidermis and/or dermis. The ulcer is superficial and presents clinically as an abrasion, blister, or shallow crater.Stage 3Full thickness skin loss involving damage or necrosis of subcutaneous tissue that may extend down to but not through underlaying fascia. The ulcer presents clinically as a deep crater with or without undermining of adjacent tissue.Stage 4Full thickness skin loss with extensive destruction, tissue necrosis or damage to muscle, bone, or supporting structures (for example, tendon or joint capsule). Undermining and sinus tracts may also be associated with Stage 4 pressure ulcers.ABCD Figure 45-63. The staging system for pressure | Surgery_Schwartz. skin temperature (warmth or coolness), tissue consistency (firm or boggy feel), and/or sensation (pain, itching). The ulcer appears as a defined area of persistent redness in lightly pigmented skin, whereas in darker skin tones the ulcer may appear with persistent red, blue of purple hues.Stage 2Partial thickness skin loss involving epidermis and/or dermis. The ulcer is superficial and presents clinically as an abrasion, blister, or shallow crater.Stage 3Full thickness skin loss involving damage or necrosis of subcutaneous tissue that may extend down to but not through underlaying fascia. The ulcer presents clinically as a deep crater with or without undermining of adjacent tissue.Stage 4Full thickness skin loss with extensive destruction, tissue necrosis or damage to muscle, bone, or supporting structures (for example, tendon or joint capsule). Undermining and sinus tracts may also be associated with Stage 4 pressure ulcers.ABCD Figure 45-63. The staging system for pressure |
Surgery_Schwartz_13172 | Surgery_Schwartz | or supporting structures (for example, tendon or joint capsule). Undermining and sinus tracts may also be associated with Stage 4 pressure ulcers.ABCD Figure 45-63. The staging system for pressure sores.autonomic-mediated event called hyperreflexia. This condition must be immediately recognized and treated to prevent intra-cranial and retinal hemorrhage, seizures, cardiac irregularities, and death.After adequate debridement, the pressure ulcer can be treated nonsurgically in patients who have shallow wounds with healthy surrounding tissues capable of healing secondarily with offloading pressure. Nonsurgical treatment is also best in patients for whom surgery is contraindicated because of previ-ous surgery or comorbidities. For surgical candidates, primary closure is rarely performed because an inadequate amount of quality surrounding tissue prevents closure without tension, making the repair predisposed to failure. Split-thickness skin grafting can be useful for shallow ulcers with | Surgery_Schwartz. or supporting structures (for example, tendon or joint capsule). Undermining and sinus tracts may also be associated with Stage 4 pressure ulcers.ABCD Figure 45-63. The staging system for pressure sores.autonomic-mediated event called hyperreflexia. This condition must be immediately recognized and treated to prevent intra-cranial and retinal hemorrhage, seizures, cardiac irregularities, and death.After adequate debridement, the pressure ulcer can be treated nonsurgically in patients who have shallow wounds with healthy surrounding tissues capable of healing secondarily with offloading pressure. Nonsurgical treatment is also best in patients for whom surgery is contraindicated because of previ-ous surgery or comorbidities. For surgical candidates, primary closure is rarely performed because an inadequate amount of quality surrounding tissue prevents closure without tension, making the repair predisposed to failure. Split-thickness skin grafting can be useful for shallow ulcers with |
Surgery_Schwartz_13173 | Surgery_Schwartz | an inadequate amount of quality surrounding tissue prevents closure without tension, making the repair predisposed to failure. Split-thickness skin grafting can be useful for shallow ulcers with well-vascularized wound beds on which shear forces and pressure can be avoided after repair, a rare circumstance in most patients with pressure ulcers.The mainstay of surgical treatment is tissue transfer fol-lowing several guiding principles. Local muscle or musculocu-taneous flaps are suitable for areas of heavy contamination and complex wound surface contours. Durability requires the ability to consistently off-load of the area of reconstruction postopera-tively. Fasciocutaneous flaps afford more durable reconstruc-tion when off-loading is not possible. The anatomic location is an important determinant of flap choice. Once a donor site is selected, a flap of adequate size is designed and transferred in a way that avoids suture lines in the area under pressure. Large flaps also permit | Surgery_Schwartz. an inadequate amount of quality surrounding tissue prevents closure without tension, making the repair predisposed to failure. Split-thickness skin grafting can be useful for shallow ulcers with well-vascularized wound beds on which shear forces and pressure can be avoided after repair, a rare circumstance in most patients with pressure ulcers.The mainstay of surgical treatment is tissue transfer fol-lowing several guiding principles. Local muscle or musculocu-taneous flaps are suitable for areas of heavy contamination and complex wound surface contours. Durability requires the ability to consistently off-load of the area of reconstruction postopera-tively. Fasciocutaneous flaps afford more durable reconstruc-tion when off-loading is not possible. The anatomic location is an important determinant of flap choice. Once a donor site is selected, a flap of adequate size is designed and transferred in a way that avoids suture lines in the area under pressure. Large flaps also permit |
Surgery_Schwartz_13174 | Surgery_Schwartz | determinant of flap choice. Once a donor site is selected, a flap of adequate size is designed and transferred in a way that avoids suture lines in the area under pressure. Large flaps also permit readvancement if the patient experiences a recurrent ulcer in the same area. Sacral pressure sores may be managed with fasciocutaneous or musculocutaneous flaps based on the gluteal vessels. Ischial pressure sores may be man-aged with gluteal flaps or flaps transferred from the posterior thigh, such as the posterior thigh flap based on the descend-ing branch of the inferior gluteal artery. Trochanteric ulcers Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 201301/03/19 6:31 PM 2014SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIFigure 45-64. Flap reconstruction of pressure ulcers. Top row: Preoperative and 1-month postoperative photos of a stage IV sacral decubitus ulcer treated with a myocutaneous gluteus maximus flap. Bottom row: Preoperative and 1-month postoperative photos of a stage IV trochan-teric ulcer treated | Surgery_Schwartz. determinant of flap choice. Once a donor site is selected, a flap of adequate size is designed and transferred in a way that avoids suture lines in the area under pressure. Large flaps also permit readvancement if the patient experiences a recurrent ulcer in the same area. Sacral pressure sores may be managed with fasciocutaneous or musculocutaneous flaps based on the gluteal vessels. Ischial pressure sores may be man-aged with gluteal flaps or flaps transferred from the posterior thigh, such as the posterior thigh flap based on the descend-ing branch of the inferior gluteal artery. Trochanteric ulcers Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 201301/03/19 6:31 PM 2014SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIFigure 45-64. Flap reconstruction of pressure ulcers. Top row: Preoperative and 1-month postoperative photos of a stage IV sacral decubitus ulcer treated with a myocutaneous gluteus maximus flap. Bottom row: Preoperative and 1-month postoperative photos of a stage IV trochan-teric ulcer treated |
Surgery_Schwartz_13175 | Surgery_Schwartz | photos of a stage IV sacral decubitus ulcer treated with a myocutaneous gluteus maximus flap. Bottom row: Preoperative and 1-month postoperative photos of a stage IV trochan-teric ulcer treated with a myocutaneous V-Y tensor fasciae latae flap.may be managed with musculocutaneous flaps based on the tensor fasciae latae, rectus femoris, or vastus lateralis muscles (Fig. 45-64). The obligatory loss of motor function associated with using these flaps adds no additional functional impairment in patients already paralyzed as a result of strokes or spinal cord injuries.Proper postoperative care after flap reconstruction of pressure ulcers is critical for success. Low-pressure, air fluid-ized beds help to off-load the affected area and prevent new areas of involvement during the first 7 to 10 days of healing. Other important measures are adequate nutritional support and medications to prevent muscle spasms. Careful coordination with patient care providers is planned preoperatively in order | Surgery_Schwartz. photos of a stage IV sacral decubitus ulcer treated with a myocutaneous gluteus maximus flap. Bottom row: Preoperative and 1-month postoperative photos of a stage IV trochan-teric ulcer treated with a myocutaneous V-Y tensor fasciae latae flap.may be managed with musculocutaneous flaps based on the tensor fasciae latae, rectus femoris, or vastus lateralis muscles (Fig. 45-64). The obligatory loss of motor function associated with using these flaps adds no additional functional impairment in patients already paralyzed as a result of strokes or spinal cord injuries.Proper postoperative care after flap reconstruction of pressure ulcers is critical for success. Low-pressure, air fluid-ized beds help to off-load the affected area and prevent new areas of involvement during the first 7 to 10 days of healing. Other important measures are adequate nutritional support and medications to prevent muscle spasms. Careful coordination with patient care providers is planned preoperatively in order |
Surgery_Schwartz_13176 | Surgery_Schwartz | of healing. Other important measures are adequate nutritional support and medications to prevent muscle spasms. Careful coordination with patient care providers is planned preoperatively in order to avoid gaps in care that can lead to early recurrent ulceration. Care of the pressure ulcer patient is a labor-intensive process that requires attention to detail by the surgeon, nurses, thera-pists, caseworkers, and family.Diabetic Foot Ulceration. The pathophysiology of primary diabetic lower limb complications has three main components: (a) peripheral neuropathy (motor, sensory, and autonomic), (b) peripheral vascular disease, and (c) immunodeficiency. Altered foot biomechanics and gait caused by painless col-lapse of ligamentous support, foot joints, and foot arches change weight-bearing patterns. Blunted pain allows cutane-ous ulceration to begin. With breakdown of the skin barrier function, polymicrobial infections become established. Bac-terial invasion is often fostered by poor | Surgery_Schwartz. of healing. Other important measures are adequate nutritional support and medications to prevent muscle spasms. Careful coordination with patient care providers is planned preoperatively in order to avoid gaps in care that can lead to early recurrent ulceration. Care of the pressure ulcer patient is a labor-intensive process that requires attention to detail by the surgeon, nurses, thera-pists, caseworkers, and family.Diabetic Foot Ulceration. The pathophysiology of primary diabetic lower limb complications has three main components: (a) peripheral neuropathy (motor, sensory, and autonomic), (b) peripheral vascular disease, and (c) immunodeficiency. Altered foot biomechanics and gait caused by painless col-lapse of ligamentous support, foot joints, and foot arches change weight-bearing patterns. Blunted pain allows cutane-ous ulceration to begin. With breakdown of the skin barrier function, polymicrobial infections become established. Bac-terial invasion is often fostered by poor |
Surgery_Schwartz_13177 | Surgery_Schwartz | patterns. Blunted pain allows cutane-ous ulceration to begin. With breakdown of the skin barrier function, polymicrobial infections become established. Bac-terial invasion is often fostered by poor blood supply due to peripheral vascular disease coupled with microangiopathy. Finally, local host defenses may be less effective in resisting bacteria because of poor blood supply and impaired cellular function. Cutaneous ulcerations may progress painlessly to involve deeper soft tissues and bone. The ultimate endpoint of this process is such severe tissue damage that extremity amputation is the only treatment remaining. More than 60% of nontraumatic lower extremity amputations occur in diabetics. The age-adjusted lower extremity amputation rate in diabet-ics (5.0 per 1000 diabetics) was approximately 28 times that of people without diabetes (0.2 per 1000 people).59 Improved patient education and medical management, early detection of foot problems, and prompt intervention play important | Surgery_Schwartz. patterns. Blunted pain allows cutane-ous ulceration to begin. With breakdown of the skin barrier function, polymicrobial infections become established. Bac-terial invasion is often fostered by poor blood supply due to peripheral vascular disease coupled with microangiopathy. Finally, local host defenses may be less effective in resisting bacteria because of poor blood supply and impaired cellular function. Cutaneous ulcerations may progress painlessly to involve deeper soft tissues and bone. The ultimate endpoint of this process is such severe tissue damage that extremity amputation is the only treatment remaining. More than 60% of nontraumatic lower extremity amputations occur in diabetics. The age-adjusted lower extremity amputation rate in diabet-ics (5.0 per 1000 diabetics) was approximately 28 times that of people without diabetes (0.2 per 1000 people).59 Improved patient education and medical management, early detection of foot problems, and prompt intervention play important |
Surgery_Schwartz_13178 | Surgery_Schwartz | 28 times that of people without diabetes (0.2 per 1000 people).59 Improved patient education and medical management, early detection of foot problems, and prompt intervention play important roles in improving the chances of limb preservation.60The best approach to managing diabetic patients with lower extremity wounds is to involve a multidisciplinary team composed of a plastic and reconstructive surgeon, a vascular surgeon, an orthopedic surgeon, a podiatrist, an endocrinolo-gist specializing in diabetes, a nutritionist, and a physical or Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 201401/03/19 6:31 PM 2015PLASTIC AND RECONSTRUCTIVE SURGERYCHAPTER 45occupational therapist. This brings together the greatest level of expertise to manage bone and soft tissue issues as well as the underlying disease and medical comorbidities. Treatment begins with rigorous control of blood glucose levels and a thor-ough assessment of comorbidities. In addition to careful detail-ing of the extent of the wound | Surgery_Schwartz. 28 times that of people without diabetes (0.2 per 1000 people).59 Improved patient education and medical management, early detection of foot problems, and prompt intervention play important roles in improving the chances of limb preservation.60The best approach to managing diabetic patients with lower extremity wounds is to involve a multidisciplinary team composed of a plastic and reconstructive surgeon, a vascular surgeon, an orthopedic surgeon, a podiatrist, an endocrinolo-gist specializing in diabetes, a nutritionist, and a physical or Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 201401/03/19 6:31 PM 2015PLASTIC AND RECONSTRUCTIVE SURGERYCHAPTER 45occupational therapist. This brings together the greatest level of expertise to manage bone and soft tissue issues as well as the underlying disease and medical comorbidities. Treatment begins with rigorous control of blood glucose levels and a thor-ough assessment of comorbidities. In addition to careful detail-ing of the extent of the wound |
Surgery_Schwartz_13179 | Surgery_Schwartz | and medical comorbidities. Treatment begins with rigorous control of blood glucose levels and a thor-ough assessment of comorbidities. In addition to careful detail-ing of the extent of the wound and the tissues involved, physical examination documents sensory deficits and vascular status. Plain radiographs, MRI, bone scintigraphy, and angiography or duplex Doppler ultrasound imaging may be indicated. A patient with significant vascular disease may be a candidate for lower extremity endovascular revascularization or open bypass.61 Nerve conduction studies may diagnose surgically reversible neuropathies at compressive sites and aid in decisions about whether to perform sensory nerve transfers to restore plantar sensibility.60 Antibiotic and fungal therapies should be guided by tissue culture results.Surgical management starts with debridement of devital-ized tissues. Methods of wound closure are dictated by the extent and location of the remaining defect. Negative pressure wound | Surgery_Schwartz. and medical comorbidities. Treatment begins with rigorous control of blood glucose levels and a thor-ough assessment of comorbidities. In addition to careful detail-ing of the extent of the wound and the tissues involved, physical examination documents sensory deficits and vascular status. Plain radiographs, MRI, bone scintigraphy, and angiography or duplex Doppler ultrasound imaging may be indicated. A patient with significant vascular disease may be a candidate for lower extremity endovascular revascularization or open bypass.61 Nerve conduction studies may diagnose surgically reversible neuropathies at compressive sites and aid in decisions about whether to perform sensory nerve transfers to restore plantar sensibility.60 Antibiotic and fungal therapies should be guided by tissue culture results.Surgical management starts with debridement of devital-ized tissues. Methods of wound closure are dictated by the extent and location of the remaining defect. Negative pressure wound |
Surgery_Schwartz_13180 | Surgery_Schwartz | culture results.Surgical management starts with debridement of devital-ized tissues. Methods of wound closure are dictated by the extent and location of the remaining defect. Negative pressure wound dressings may be appropriate for superficial defects in an effort to allow secondary healing or as a temporizing measure until definitive wound closure can be achieved. Skin grafts might be indicated at times but cannot be expected to provide durable cov-erage in weight-bearing or high-shear areas. Local and regional flaps can be considered if the extremity is free of significant occlusive peripheral vascular or combined with vascular bypass. Microvascular free tissue transfers are appropriate when defects are large or when local flaps are not available. Combination lower extremity bypass and free flap coverage has proved benefi-cial for the treatment of the diabetic foot in terms of healing and reduction of disease progression (Table 45-6). Consultation with a podiatrist or an orthopedic | Surgery_Schwartz. culture results.Surgical management starts with debridement of devital-ized tissues. Methods of wound closure are dictated by the extent and location of the remaining defect. Negative pressure wound dressings may be appropriate for superficial defects in an effort to allow secondary healing or as a temporizing measure until definitive wound closure can be achieved. Skin grafts might be indicated at times but cannot be expected to provide durable cov-erage in weight-bearing or high-shear areas. Local and regional flaps can be considered if the extremity is free of significant occlusive peripheral vascular or combined with vascular bypass. Microvascular free tissue transfers are appropriate when defects are large or when local flaps are not available. Combination lower extremity bypass and free flap coverage has proved benefi-cial for the treatment of the diabetic foot in terms of healing and reduction of disease progression (Table 45-6). Consultation with a podiatrist or an orthopedic |
Surgery_Schwartz_13181 | Surgery_Schwartz | free flap coverage has proved benefi-cial for the treatment of the diabetic foot in terms of healing and reduction of disease progression (Table 45-6). Consultation with a podiatrist or an orthopedic surgeon who specializes in foot and ankle problems can be considered to improve foot biomechanics and manage bony prominences that act as pressure points on the soft tissue to reduce the risk of recurrent ulceration. Proper foot-wear (including orthotic devices and off-loading shoe inserts), hygiene, and toenail and skin care are essential.60Lymphedema. Lymphedema is the abnormal accumulation of protein-rich fluid in the interstitial spaces of the tissues. It is a complex disorder with both congenital and acquired causes. No universally effective remedy has been devised, but a variety of treatment methods including reconstructive surgery have been effective in carefully selected patients.It is important to be familiar with the fundamentals of lymph physiology in order to understand the | Surgery_Schwartz. free flap coverage has proved benefi-cial for the treatment of the diabetic foot in terms of healing and reduction of disease progression (Table 45-6). Consultation with a podiatrist or an orthopedic surgeon who specializes in foot and ankle problems can be considered to improve foot biomechanics and manage bony prominences that act as pressure points on the soft tissue to reduce the risk of recurrent ulceration. Proper foot-wear (including orthotic devices and off-loading shoe inserts), hygiene, and toenail and skin care are essential.60Lymphedema. Lymphedema is the abnormal accumulation of protein-rich fluid in the interstitial spaces of the tissues. It is a complex disorder with both congenital and acquired causes. No universally effective remedy has been devised, but a variety of treatment methods including reconstructive surgery have been effective in carefully selected patients.It is important to be familiar with the fundamentals of lymph physiology in order to understand the |
Surgery_Schwartz_13182 | Surgery_Schwartz | methods including reconstructive surgery have been effective in carefully selected patients.It is important to be familiar with the fundamentals of lymph physiology in order to understand the rationale for the various forms of lymphedema treatment. Lymph fluid is formed at the capillary level where there is a net outflow of fluid and serum proteins from the intravascular space into the intersti-tium. In the average adult, this amounts to approximately 3 liters of fluid daily. Open-ended lymph capillaries collect this fluid where the lymphatic endothelial cells form loose intercellular connections that freely allow fluid to enter. From here, the net-work of specialized vascular structures gathers the extravasated fluid and transports it back into central circulation. The system is a high-volume transport mechanism that clears proteins and lipids from the interstitial space primarily by means of differ-ential pressure gradients. Lymph fluid enters the lymph vessels driven by colloid and | Surgery_Schwartz. methods including reconstructive surgery have been effective in carefully selected patients.It is important to be familiar with the fundamentals of lymph physiology in order to understand the rationale for the various forms of lymphedema treatment. Lymph fluid is formed at the capillary level where there is a net outflow of fluid and serum proteins from the intravascular space into the intersti-tium. In the average adult, this amounts to approximately 3 liters of fluid daily. Open-ended lymph capillaries collect this fluid where the lymphatic endothelial cells form loose intercellular connections that freely allow fluid to enter. From here, the net-work of specialized vascular structures gathers the extravasated fluid and transports it back into central circulation. The system is a high-volume transport mechanism that clears proteins and lipids from the interstitial space primarily by means of differ-ential pressure gradients. Lymph fluid enters the lymph vessels driven by colloid and |
Surgery_Schwartz_13183 | Surgery_Schwartz | transport mechanism that clears proteins and lipids from the interstitial space primarily by means of differ-ential pressure gradients. Lymph fluid enters the lymph vessels driven by colloid and solute concentration gradients at the capil-lary level. Flow is sustained in the larger vessels through direct contractility of the lymph vessel walls and by indirect compres-sion from surrounding skeletal muscle activity. Throughout the system, one-way valves prevent reverse flow. The lymphatic vessels course throughout the body alongside the venous sys-tem, into which they eventually drain via the major thoracic and cervical ducts at the base of the neck.Under normal conditions, there is a balance between fluid formation and lymph transport capacity. With congenital hypo-plasia or acquired obstruction, there is a reduction in transport capacity resulting in accumulation of fluid and protein in the interstitium. Localized fluid stagnation, hypertension, and valvu-lar incompetence further | Surgery_Schwartz. transport mechanism that clears proteins and lipids from the interstitial space primarily by means of differ-ential pressure gradients. Lymph fluid enters the lymph vessels driven by colloid and solute concentration gradients at the capil-lary level. Flow is sustained in the larger vessels through direct contractility of the lymph vessel walls and by indirect compres-sion from surrounding skeletal muscle activity. Throughout the system, one-way valves prevent reverse flow. The lymphatic vessels course throughout the body alongside the venous sys-tem, into which they eventually drain via the major thoracic and cervical ducts at the base of the neck.Under normal conditions, there is a balance between fluid formation and lymph transport capacity. With congenital hypo-plasia or acquired obstruction, there is a reduction in transport capacity resulting in accumulation of fluid and protein in the interstitium. Localized fluid stagnation, hypertension, and valvu-lar incompetence further |
Surgery_Schwartz_13184 | Surgery_Schwartz | there is a reduction in transport capacity resulting in accumulation of fluid and protein in the interstitium. Localized fluid stagnation, hypertension, and valvu-lar incompetence further degrade transport capacity and acceler-ate lymph fluid accumulation edema. Dissolved and suspended serum proteins, cellular debris, and waste products of metabolism elicit an inflammatory response with associated with fibrovas-cular proliferation and collagen deposition leading to firm, non-pitting swelling characteristic of chronic, long-standing edema. Lymphoscintigraphy can help detail the lymphatic anatomy and quantify lymphatic flow. MRI can provide additional informa-tion about the larger caliber lymphatic vessels, possibly helping to identify specific points of obstruction.Primary lymphedema is caused by congenital hypopla-sia and is classified clinically based on the age of the affected individual when swelling first appears. Lymphedema present at birth is an autosomal dominant disorder | Surgery_Schwartz. there is a reduction in transport capacity resulting in accumulation of fluid and protein in the interstitium. Localized fluid stagnation, hypertension, and valvu-lar incompetence further degrade transport capacity and acceler-ate lymph fluid accumulation edema. Dissolved and suspended serum proteins, cellular debris, and waste products of metabolism elicit an inflammatory response with associated with fibrovas-cular proliferation and collagen deposition leading to firm, non-pitting swelling characteristic of chronic, long-standing edema. Lymphoscintigraphy can help detail the lymphatic anatomy and quantify lymphatic flow. MRI can provide additional informa-tion about the larger caliber lymphatic vessels, possibly helping to identify specific points of obstruction.Primary lymphedema is caused by congenital hypopla-sia and is classified clinically based on the age of the affected individual when swelling first appears. Lymphedema present at birth is an autosomal dominant disorder |
Surgery_Schwartz_13185 | Surgery_Schwartz | is caused by congenital hypopla-sia and is classified clinically based on the age of the affected individual when swelling first appears. Lymphedema present at birth is an autosomal dominant disorder sometimes referred to as Milroy’s disease. Lymphedema praecox occurs near the time of puberty but can appear up to age 35. This form tends to occur in females and usually affects the lower extremity. It accounts for more than 90% of cases. Finally, lymphedema tarda appears after the age of 35 years and is relatively rare.Secondary lymphedema is the acquired form of the dis-order and is more common than congenital causes. Worldwide the most common etiology is parasitic infestation with filarial, a highly specialized nematode transmitted by blood-eating insects Table 45-6Some reconstructive options for the diabetic footAREA OF DEFECTRECONSTRUCTIVE OPTIONSForefootV-Y advancementToe island flapSingle toe amputationLisfranc’s amputationMidfootV-Y advancementToe island flapMedial plantar artery | Surgery_Schwartz. is caused by congenital hypopla-sia and is classified clinically based on the age of the affected individual when swelling first appears. Lymphedema present at birth is an autosomal dominant disorder sometimes referred to as Milroy’s disease. Lymphedema praecox occurs near the time of puberty but can appear up to age 35. This form tends to occur in females and usually affects the lower extremity. It accounts for more than 90% of cases. Finally, lymphedema tarda appears after the age of 35 years and is relatively rare.Secondary lymphedema is the acquired form of the dis-order and is more common than congenital causes. Worldwide the most common etiology is parasitic infestation with filarial, a highly specialized nematode transmitted by blood-eating insects Table 45-6Some reconstructive options for the diabetic footAREA OF DEFECTRECONSTRUCTIVE OPTIONSForefootV-Y advancementToe island flapSingle toe amputationLisfranc’s amputationMidfootV-Y advancementToe island flapMedial plantar artery |
Surgery_Schwartz_13186 | Surgery_Schwartz | for the diabetic footAREA OF DEFECTRECONSTRUCTIVE OPTIONSForefootV-Y advancementToe island flapSingle toe amputationLisfranc’s amputationMidfootV-Y advancementToe island flapMedial plantar artery flapFree tissue transferTransmetatarsal amputationHindfootLateral calcaneal artery flapReversed sural artery flapMedial plantar artery flap ± flexor digitorum brevisAbductor hallucis muscle flapAbductor digiti minimi muscle flapFree tissue transferSyme’s amputationFoot dorsumSupramalleolar flapReversed sural artery flapThinner free flaps (e.g., temporoparietal fascia, radial forearm, groin, thinned anterolateral thigh flaps)Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 201501/03/19 6:31 PM 2016SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIFigure 45-65. Algorithm for lymphedema management.YesNoYesNoYesNoSymptomatic LymphedemaAmenable to physiologic lymphatic procedures?Suitable lymphatic vessels on MRL or ICGL for LVA?Secondary to surgery and/or XRT?LVA ±VLNTLiposuction ±excisionLVAonlyVLNTonlyConsider furtherLVA or | Surgery_Schwartz. for the diabetic footAREA OF DEFECTRECONSTRUCTIVE OPTIONSForefootV-Y advancementToe island flapSingle toe amputationLisfranc’s amputationMidfootV-Y advancementToe island flapMedial plantar artery flapFree tissue transferTransmetatarsal amputationHindfootLateral calcaneal artery flapReversed sural artery flapMedial plantar artery flap ± flexor digitorum brevisAbductor hallucis muscle flapAbductor digiti minimi muscle flapFree tissue transferSyme’s amputationFoot dorsumSupramalleolar flapReversed sural artery flapThinner free flaps (e.g., temporoparietal fascia, radial forearm, groin, thinned anterolateral thigh flaps)Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 201501/03/19 6:31 PM 2016SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIFigure 45-65. Algorithm for lymphedema management.YesNoYesNoYesNoSymptomatic LymphedemaAmenable to physiologic lymphatic procedures?Suitable lymphatic vessels on MRL or ICGL for LVA?Secondary to surgery and/or XRT?LVA ±VLNTLiposuction ±excisionLVAonlyVLNTonlyConsider furtherLVA or |
Surgery_Schwartz_13187 | Surgery_Schwartz | to physiologic lymphatic procedures?Suitable lymphatic vessels on MRL or ICGL for LVA?Secondary to surgery and/or XRT?LVA ±VLNTLiposuction ±excisionLVAonlyVLNTonlyConsider furtherLVA or VLNTInadequate response?Secondary to surgery and/or XRT?Severe functional impairment?Excess soft tissue? Skin changes?Yes• Responsive to nonsurgical therapy, but symptoms plateaued or worsening• Significant pitting edemaNo• Minimal or no improvement with nonsurgical therapy• Minimal to absent pitting edemafound mostly in developing countries. In nonaffected areas of the world, the most common cause of secondary lymphedema is regional lymphatic vessel destruction associated with can-cer treatment. It often occurs in the upper extremity of women treated with surgery and radiation therapy for breast cancer. In the lower extremities, it is associated with neoplasms treated with inguinal or retroperitoneal lymph node dissection.The goal of lymphedema treatment is to minimize func-tional and cosmetic | Surgery_Schwartz. to physiologic lymphatic procedures?Suitable lymphatic vessels on MRL or ICGL for LVA?Secondary to surgery and/or XRT?LVA ±VLNTLiposuction ±excisionLVAonlyVLNTonlyConsider furtherLVA or VLNTInadequate response?Secondary to surgery and/or XRT?Severe functional impairment?Excess soft tissue? Skin changes?Yes• Responsive to nonsurgical therapy, but symptoms plateaued or worsening• Significant pitting edemaNo• Minimal or no improvement with nonsurgical therapy• Minimal to absent pitting edemafound mostly in developing countries. In nonaffected areas of the world, the most common cause of secondary lymphedema is regional lymphatic vessel destruction associated with can-cer treatment. It often occurs in the upper extremity of women treated with surgery and radiation therapy for breast cancer. In the lower extremities, it is associated with neoplasms treated with inguinal or retroperitoneal lymph node dissection.The goal of lymphedema treatment is to minimize func-tional and cosmetic |
Surgery_Schwartz_13188 | Surgery_Schwartz | In the lower extremities, it is associated with neoplasms treated with inguinal or retroperitoneal lymph node dissection.The goal of lymphedema treatment is to minimize func-tional and cosmetic disability caused by chronic enlargement and to prevent infection of the involved extremity. The foun-dations of management are patient education and nonsurgical interventions, which include limb elevation, external compres-sive garments and devices, and manual lymphatic massage, sometimes referred to as complex decongestive physiother-apy. The patient must use protective gloves or garments when engaged in activities that might cause minor skin injury, such as gardening, smoking cigarettes, and cooking. Interstitial lymph fluid is prone to infection. When signs of infection appear, prompt treatment that often includes hospitalization with intravenous antibiotics is essential to prevent severe infection and further destruction of remaining lymphatic sys-tem and worsening of lymphedema.When | Surgery_Schwartz. In the lower extremities, it is associated with neoplasms treated with inguinal or retroperitoneal lymph node dissection.The goal of lymphedema treatment is to minimize func-tional and cosmetic disability caused by chronic enlargement and to prevent infection of the involved extremity. The foun-dations of management are patient education and nonsurgical interventions, which include limb elevation, external compres-sive garments and devices, and manual lymphatic massage, sometimes referred to as complex decongestive physiother-apy. The patient must use protective gloves or garments when engaged in activities that might cause minor skin injury, such as gardening, smoking cigarettes, and cooking. Interstitial lymph fluid is prone to infection. When signs of infection appear, prompt treatment that often includes hospitalization with intravenous antibiotics is essential to prevent severe infection and further destruction of remaining lymphatic sys-tem and worsening of lymphedema.When |
Surgery_Schwartz_13189 | Surgery_Schwartz | that often includes hospitalization with intravenous antibiotics is essential to prevent severe infection and further destruction of remaining lymphatic sys-tem and worsening of lymphedema.When nonsurgical methods fail, surgery can be consid-ered as a treatment option. Surgical operations for lymphedema are either ablative, designed to remove excess lymphedematous tissues, or reconstructive, intended to restore lymph function and improve transport capacity. These choices are presented in Fig. 45-65. Ablative procedures range from minimally invasive measures such as suction lipectomy to complete excision of skin and subcutaneous tissue down to muscle fascia with split-thickness skin grafting. Contemporary reconstructive procedures establish new connections between the venous and lymphatic systems somewhere proximal to the point of obstruction. A variety of methods have been described, including lympholymphatic, lym-phovenous, lymph node venous anastomoses, and vascularized lymph node | Surgery_Schwartz. that often includes hospitalization with intravenous antibiotics is essential to prevent severe infection and further destruction of remaining lymphatic sys-tem and worsening of lymphedema.When nonsurgical methods fail, surgery can be consid-ered as a treatment option. Surgical operations for lymphedema are either ablative, designed to remove excess lymphedematous tissues, or reconstructive, intended to restore lymph function and improve transport capacity. These choices are presented in Fig. 45-65. Ablative procedures range from minimally invasive measures such as suction lipectomy to complete excision of skin and subcutaneous tissue down to muscle fascia with split-thickness skin grafting. Contemporary reconstructive procedures establish new connections between the venous and lymphatic systems somewhere proximal to the point of obstruction. A variety of methods have been described, including lympholymphatic, lym-phovenous, lymph node venous anastomoses, and vascularized lymph node |
Surgery_Schwartz_13190 | Surgery_Schwartz | systems somewhere proximal to the point of obstruction. A variety of methods have been described, including lympholymphatic, lym-phovenous, lymph node venous anastomoses, and vascularized lymph node transfer. Each of these procedures can yield suc-cess, and it has become clear that patient selection is perhaps the most important aspect of surgical care because the patient must be matched to the procedure most likely to yield improved con-trol of swelling and prevent infection. Reconstructive surgery is not generally a cure for the condition, but rather it is intended to ease management challenges and reduce the risks of infection. After surgery, continued use of nonsurgical techniques is still required for optimal results.AESTHETIC SURGERY AND MEDICINEAesthetic, or cosmetic, surgery is an important part of the spe-cialty of plastic surgery. The American Medical Association defines cosmetic surgery as “surgery performed to reshape normal structures of the body to improve the patient’s | Surgery_Schwartz. systems somewhere proximal to the point of obstruction. A variety of methods have been described, including lympholymphatic, lym-phovenous, lymph node venous anastomoses, and vascularized lymph node transfer. Each of these procedures can yield suc-cess, and it has become clear that patient selection is perhaps the most important aspect of surgical care because the patient must be matched to the procedure most likely to yield improved con-trol of swelling and prevent infection. Reconstructive surgery is not generally a cure for the condition, but rather it is intended to ease management challenges and reduce the risks of infection. After surgery, continued use of nonsurgical techniques is still required for optimal results.AESTHETIC SURGERY AND MEDICINEAesthetic, or cosmetic, surgery is an important part of the spe-cialty of plastic surgery. The American Medical Association defines cosmetic surgery as “surgery performed to reshape normal structures of the body to improve the patient’s |
Surgery_Schwartz_13191 | Surgery_Schwartz | important part of the spe-cialty of plastic surgery. The American Medical Association defines cosmetic surgery as “surgery performed to reshape normal structures of the body to improve the patient’s appear-ance and self-esteem.” It is a natural extension of surgical tech-niques for tissue modification traditionally developed for other reasons. Because aesthetic surgery primarily relates to personal appearance and attractiveness and not a particular disease pro-cess, there has been a tendency to dismiss the health value of Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 201601/03/19 6:31 PM 2017PLASTIC AND RECONSTRUCTIVE SURGERYCHAPTER 45aesthetic surgery. Nevertheless, personal appearance plays an important role in psychosocial health. Physical attractiveness plays a role in the marketplace with well-documented influence on employment opportunities, advancement, and earnings.62 The multibillion industry of products and services designed to opti-mize appearance, which spans a wide spectrum | Surgery_Schwartz. important part of the spe-cialty of plastic surgery. The American Medical Association defines cosmetic surgery as “surgery performed to reshape normal structures of the body to improve the patient’s appear-ance and self-esteem.” It is a natural extension of surgical tech-niques for tissue modification traditionally developed for other reasons. Because aesthetic surgery primarily relates to personal appearance and attractiveness and not a particular disease pro-cess, there has been a tendency to dismiss the health value of Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 201601/03/19 6:31 PM 2017PLASTIC AND RECONSTRUCTIVE SURGERYCHAPTER 45aesthetic surgery. Nevertheless, personal appearance plays an important role in psychosocial health. Physical attractiveness plays a role in the marketplace with well-documented influence on employment opportunities, advancement, and earnings.62 The multibillion industry of products and services designed to opti-mize appearance, which spans a wide spectrum |
Surgery_Schwartz_13192 | Surgery_Schwartz | well-documented influence on employment opportunities, advancement, and earnings.62 The multibillion industry of products and services designed to opti-mize appearance, which spans a wide spectrum between simple cosmetics to elaborate surgical procedures, bears testament to the perceived value by the general population.Important work demonstrates a link between aesthetic sur-gery and psychosocial health. Surgery performed on the face,63 nose,64 ears,65 breast,66 and body67 can positively affect quality of life on multiple scales. There is a clear association between one’s personal appearance and success in the marketplace. As the primary benefits of aesthetic surgery are related to the psy-chosocial outcomes, it is important to assess the state of psycho-logical health prior to offering aesthetic surgery. A variety of preoperative psychological comorbidities can adversely affect outcomes, most notably a syndrome known as body dysmor-phic disorder,68 present in individuals who manifest | Surgery_Schwartz. well-documented influence on employment opportunities, advancement, and earnings.62 The multibillion industry of products and services designed to opti-mize appearance, which spans a wide spectrum between simple cosmetics to elaborate surgical procedures, bears testament to the perceived value by the general population.Important work demonstrates a link between aesthetic sur-gery and psychosocial health. Surgery performed on the face,63 nose,64 ears,65 breast,66 and body67 can positively affect quality of life on multiple scales. There is a clear association between one’s personal appearance and success in the marketplace. As the primary benefits of aesthetic surgery are related to the psy-chosocial outcomes, it is important to assess the state of psycho-logical health prior to offering aesthetic surgery. A variety of preoperative psychological comorbidities can adversely affect outcomes, most notably a syndrome known as body dysmor-phic disorder,68 present in individuals who manifest |
Surgery_Schwartz_13193 | Surgery_Schwartz | surgery. A variety of preoperative psychological comorbidities can adversely affect outcomes, most notably a syndrome known as body dysmor-phic disorder,68 present in individuals who manifest a preoccu-pation with one or more perceived defects or flaws in physical appearance that are not observable or appear slight to others.69 Performing a surgical procedure to modify personal appearance in such an individual is associated with a high risk of a poor outcome.It is important for all surgeons to have an appreciation of the methods of patient evaluation, surgical techniques, and typical outcomes that might be anticipated in aesthetic sur-gery. Patients seek aesthetic surgery when they are unable to achieve a personal standard of physical appearance without sur-gical modification of various body parts that most affect their appearance. This is especially true for features that are visible in public and strong determinants of appearance, such as the face, breasts, abdomen, and buttocks. | Surgery_Schwartz. surgery. A variety of preoperative psychological comorbidities can adversely affect outcomes, most notably a syndrome known as body dysmor-phic disorder,68 present in individuals who manifest a preoccu-pation with one or more perceived defects or flaws in physical appearance that are not observable or appear slight to others.69 Performing a surgical procedure to modify personal appearance in such an individual is associated with a high risk of a poor outcome.It is important for all surgeons to have an appreciation of the methods of patient evaluation, surgical techniques, and typical outcomes that might be anticipated in aesthetic sur-gery. Patients seek aesthetic surgery when they are unable to achieve a personal standard of physical appearance without sur-gical modification of various body parts that most affect their appearance. This is especially true for features that are visible in public and strong determinants of appearance, such as the face, breasts, abdomen, and buttocks. |
Surgery_Schwartz_13194 | Surgery_Schwartz | body parts that most affect their appearance. This is especially true for features that are visible in public and strong determinants of appearance, such as the face, breasts, abdomen, and buttocks. The etiology of undesir-able characteristics of form or skin quality can be familial or acquired through natural processes of aging, injury, cancer, or degeneration. Unwanted changes in appearance that result from these processes may still fall within the range of normal appearance yet fall short of the patient’s personal aesthetic ideal. Patient assessment requires an understanding of personal and cultural ideals of appearance. The surgeon must be knowledge-able about the various surgical and nonsurgical techniques that might be considered to address the patient’s concerns.In practical terms, there are both reconstructive and cos-metic elements to almost every plastic surgery case, and the def-inition of “normal” structure is sometimes very subjective and difficult to quantify. | Surgery_Schwartz. body parts that most affect their appearance. This is especially true for features that are visible in public and strong determinants of appearance, such as the face, breasts, abdomen, and buttocks. The etiology of undesir-able characteristics of form or skin quality can be familial or acquired through natural processes of aging, injury, cancer, or degeneration. Unwanted changes in appearance that result from these processes may still fall within the range of normal appearance yet fall short of the patient’s personal aesthetic ideal. Patient assessment requires an understanding of personal and cultural ideals of appearance. The surgeon must be knowledge-able about the various surgical and nonsurgical techniques that might be considered to address the patient’s concerns.In practical terms, there are both reconstructive and cos-metic elements to almost every plastic surgery case, and the def-inition of “normal” structure is sometimes very subjective and difficult to quantify. |
Surgery_Schwartz_13195 | Surgery_Schwartz | terms, there are both reconstructive and cos-metic elements to almost every plastic surgery case, and the def-inition of “normal” structure is sometimes very subjective and difficult to quantify. Nevertheless, there are patients for whom it is a priority to make surgical changes to their bodies in the clear absence of a functional deformity. Aesthetic surgery patients present a unique challenge to the plastic surgeon because the most important outcome parameter is not truly appearance, but patient satisfaction. Optimally, a good cosmetic outcome will be associated with a high level of patient satisfaction. For this to be the case, the plastic surgeon must do a careful analysis of the patient’s motivations for wanting surgery, along with the patient’s goals and expectations. The surgeon must make a rea-sonable assessment that the improvements that can be achieved through surgery will meet the patient’s expectations. The sur-geon must appropriately counsel the patient about the | Surgery_Schwartz. terms, there are both reconstructive and cos-metic elements to almost every plastic surgery case, and the def-inition of “normal” structure is sometimes very subjective and difficult to quantify. Nevertheless, there are patients for whom it is a priority to make surgical changes to their bodies in the clear absence of a functional deformity. Aesthetic surgery patients present a unique challenge to the plastic surgeon because the most important outcome parameter is not truly appearance, but patient satisfaction. Optimally, a good cosmetic outcome will be associated with a high level of patient satisfaction. For this to be the case, the plastic surgeon must do a careful analysis of the patient’s motivations for wanting surgery, along with the patient’s goals and expectations. The surgeon must make a rea-sonable assessment that the improvements that can be achieved through surgery will meet the patient’s expectations. The sur-geon must appropriately counsel the patient about the |
Surgery_Schwartz_13196 | Surgery_Schwartz | must make a rea-sonable assessment that the improvements that can be achieved through surgery will meet the patient’s expectations. The sur-geon must appropriately counsel the patient about the magni-tude of the recovery process, the exact location of scars, and potential complications. If complications do occur, the surgeon must manage these in a manner that preserves a positive doctor-patient relationship.Figure 45-66. Incisions for cervicofacial rhytidectomy.Aesthetic Surgery of the FaceA thorough evaluation of the patient who presents for facial aes-thetic surgery begins with acquiring a clear understanding of the patient’s primary concern regarding appearance. Examination focuses on that region but takes into consideration overall facial appearance that might be contributing to the patient’s concerns but of which the patient is unaware. The skin quality is care-fully assessed as well as the location, symmetry, and position of each critical feature of facial appearance such as | Surgery_Schwartz. must make a rea-sonable assessment that the improvements that can be achieved through surgery will meet the patient’s expectations. The sur-geon must appropriately counsel the patient about the magni-tude of the recovery process, the exact location of scars, and potential complications. If complications do occur, the surgeon must manage these in a manner that preserves a positive doctor-patient relationship.Figure 45-66. Incisions for cervicofacial rhytidectomy.Aesthetic Surgery of the FaceA thorough evaluation of the patient who presents for facial aes-thetic surgery begins with acquiring a clear understanding of the patient’s primary concern regarding appearance. Examination focuses on that region but takes into consideration overall facial appearance that might be contributing to the patient’s concerns but of which the patient is unaware. The skin quality is care-fully assessed as well as the location, symmetry, and position of each critical feature of facial appearance such as |
Surgery_Schwartz_13197 | Surgery_Schwartz | patient’s concerns but of which the patient is unaware. The skin quality is care-fully assessed as well as the location, symmetry, and position of each critical feature of facial appearance such as scalp hairline, forehead length, eyebrow shape and position, eyelid configu-ration, nasal proportions, and shape of the lips. Overall facial proportions are assessed, such as the prominence of the orbital rims and malar areas, the chin projection, and contours along the margin of the mandible. An appropriately performed facelift can yield an aesthetically pleasing result (Fig. 45-66).A variety of procedures have been described for modify-ing facial appearance. Nonsurgical interventions topical treat-ments of the skin surface include chemical and laser facial peels. Injections of biocompatible materials made of processed biologic proteins (e.g., collagen, hyaluronic acid) or synthetic materials such as polymethylmethacrylate can modify the depth of facial wrinkles and fullness of facial | Surgery_Schwartz. patient’s concerns but of which the patient is unaware. The skin quality is care-fully assessed as well as the location, symmetry, and position of each critical feature of facial appearance such as scalp hairline, forehead length, eyebrow shape and position, eyelid configu-ration, nasal proportions, and shape of the lips. Overall facial proportions are assessed, such as the prominence of the orbital rims and malar areas, the chin projection, and contours along the margin of the mandible. An appropriately performed facelift can yield an aesthetically pleasing result (Fig. 45-66).A variety of procedures have been described for modify-ing facial appearance. Nonsurgical interventions topical treat-ments of the skin surface include chemical and laser facial peels. Injections of biocompatible materials made of processed biologic proteins (e.g., collagen, hyaluronic acid) or synthetic materials such as polymethylmethacrylate can modify the depth of facial wrinkles and fullness of facial |
Surgery_Schwartz_13198 | Surgery_Schwartz | materials made of processed biologic proteins (e.g., collagen, hyaluronic acid) or synthetic materials such as polymethylmethacrylate can modify the depth of facial wrinkles and fullness of facial structures such as the lips. Appearance can also be modified using neuromodulators to block facial muscle function to reduce undesirable move-ments of facial landmarks or deepening of facial wrinkles. Sur-gical interventions may be employed when the structure and position of facial features require modifications greater than what may be achieved with nonsurgical procedures. Browlift operations raise the position of the eyebrows (Fig. 45-67). Blepharoplasty is a set of procedures that modify the shape and position of the upper and lower eyelids. Facelift modifies the configuration and amount of facial skin and subcutaneous Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 201701/03/19 6:31 PM 2018SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIstructures to correct features such as deep nasolabial folds, skin redundancy | Surgery_Schwartz. materials made of processed biologic proteins (e.g., collagen, hyaluronic acid) or synthetic materials such as polymethylmethacrylate can modify the depth of facial wrinkles and fullness of facial structures such as the lips. Appearance can also be modified using neuromodulators to block facial muscle function to reduce undesirable move-ments of facial landmarks or deepening of facial wrinkles. Sur-gical interventions may be employed when the structure and position of facial features require modifications greater than what may be achieved with nonsurgical procedures. Browlift operations raise the position of the eyebrows (Fig. 45-67). Blepharoplasty is a set of procedures that modify the shape and position of the upper and lower eyelids. Facelift modifies the configuration and amount of facial skin and subcutaneous Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 201701/03/19 6:31 PM 2018SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIstructures to correct features such as deep nasolabial folds, skin redundancy |
Surgery_Schwartz_13199 | Surgery_Schwartz | facial skin and subcutaneous Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 201701/03/19 6:31 PM 2018SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIstructures to correct features such as deep nasolabial folds, skin redundancy along the inferior border of the mandible, and loss of definition of neck contours. Rhinoplasty involves a complex set of procedures to modify the size, shape, and airway function of the nose (Fig. 45-68).Aesthetic Surgery of the BreastSurgery to modify the shape, volume, and nipple position of the breast are among the most common aesthetic procedures. Figure 45-67. Facelift. A. Preoperative appearance. B. Postopera-tive appearance.ABBreast reduction surgery reduces the amount of both skin and breast tissue volume and modifies the position of the nipple on the breast mound (Fig. 45-69). The most common indication is to treat symptoms of large breasts known as macromastia, which is associated with a symptomatic triad of upper back pain, bra strap grooving, and skin rashes under the fold of | Surgery_Schwartz. facial skin and subcutaneous Brunicardi_Ch45_p1967-p2026.indd 201701/03/19 6:31 PM 2018SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONSPART IIstructures to correct features such as deep nasolabial folds, skin redundancy along the inferior border of the mandible, and loss of definition of neck contours. Rhinoplasty involves a complex set of procedures to modify the size, shape, and airway function of the nose (Fig. 45-68).Aesthetic Surgery of the BreastSurgery to modify the shape, volume, and nipple position of the breast are among the most common aesthetic procedures. Figure 45-67. Facelift. A. Preoperative appearance. B. Postopera-tive appearance.ABBreast reduction surgery reduces the amount of both skin and breast tissue volume and modifies the position of the nipple on the breast mound (Fig. 45-69). The most common indication is to treat symptoms of large breasts known as macromastia, which is associated with a symptomatic triad of upper back pain, bra strap grooving, and skin rashes under the fold of |
Surgery_Schwartz_13200 | Surgery_Schwartz | common indication is to treat symptoms of large breasts known as macromastia, which is associated with a symptomatic triad of upper back pain, bra strap grooving, and skin rashes under the fold of the breasts. Unilateral breast reduction is often performed to achieve breast symmetry after contralateral postmastectomy breast reconstruc-tion. As with all breast surgery, achieving a natural and cos-metically acceptable appearance is essential to a satisfactory outcome. Mastopexy techniques share many aspects with breast reduction except that breast volume is preserved and only the amount of skin and location of the nipple are modified. Funda-mental to the success of the procedure is the establishment of symmetric and proper nipple position. Nipple ptosis is graded by the nipple position relative to the inframammary fold.Many patients seek surgical intervention to increase breast size in a procedure known as augmentation mammoplasty (Fig. 45-70). Breast volume is increased by insertion | Surgery_Schwartz. common indication is to treat symptoms of large breasts known as macromastia, which is associated with a symptomatic triad of upper back pain, bra strap grooving, and skin rashes under the fold of the breasts. Unilateral breast reduction is often performed to achieve breast symmetry after contralateral postmastectomy breast reconstruc-tion. As with all breast surgery, achieving a natural and cos-metically acceptable appearance is essential to a satisfactory outcome. Mastopexy techniques share many aspects with breast reduction except that breast volume is preserved and only the amount of skin and location of the nipple are modified. Funda-mental to the success of the procedure is the establishment of symmetric and proper nipple position. Nipple ptosis is graded by the nipple position relative to the inframammary fold.Many patients seek surgical intervention to increase breast size in a procedure known as augmentation mammoplasty (Fig. 45-70). Breast volume is increased by insertion |
Surgery_Schwartz_13201 | Surgery_Schwartz | to the inframammary fold.Many patients seek surgical intervention to increase breast size in a procedure known as augmentation mammoplasty (Fig. 45-70). Breast volume is increased by insertion of a syn-thetic implant specifically designed for this purpose. Modern breast implants are manufactured from various formulations of silicone polymers. The implant shell, which is on contact with the tissues, is always made from silicone elastomer. The filling material can be either silicone or saline, depending on the patient and surgeon preference. As with any surgical proce-dure that involves implanting synthetic materials, the surgeon must fully understand the nature of the materials and be able to inform the patient of all known risks and benefits.The pervasive risk of breast cancer among women man-dates careful consideration of the impact of any breast surgery on cancer screening, diagnosis, and treatment. Preoperative breast cancer screening consistent with current American Can-cer | Surgery_Schwartz. to the inframammary fold.Many patients seek surgical intervention to increase breast size in a procedure known as augmentation mammoplasty (Fig. 45-70). Breast volume is increased by insertion of a syn-thetic implant specifically designed for this purpose. Modern breast implants are manufactured from various formulations of silicone polymers. The implant shell, which is on contact with the tissues, is always made from silicone elastomer. The filling material can be either silicone or saline, depending on the patient and surgeon preference. As with any surgical proce-dure that involves implanting synthetic materials, the surgeon must fully understand the nature of the materials and be able to inform the patient of all known risks and benefits.The pervasive risk of breast cancer among women man-dates careful consideration of the impact of any breast surgery on cancer screening, diagnosis, and treatment. Preoperative breast cancer screening consistent with current American Can-cer |
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