Split (1)

train · 12.8M rows

page_id int64 12 2.54M	title stringlengths 1 261	cleaned_text stringlengths 0 753k	linked_titles listlengths 0 29.9k
2,835	Afghan Hound	The Afghan Hound is a hound distinguished by its thick, fine, silky coat, and a tail with a ring curl at the end. The breed originates in the cold mountains of Afghanistan. Its local name is ( ) or ( ). Other names for this breed are Tāzī, Balkh Hound, Baluchi Hound, and Barakzai Hound. The American Kennel Club (AKC) describes the breed as among the most eye-catching of all. The Afghan Hound is an "aloof and dignified aristocrat of sublime beauty." Despite their regal appearance, the Afghan possesses an "endearing streak of silliness and a profound loyalty." Admired since ancient times for their beauty, the Afghan Hound's distinctive coat was developed as protection from the harsh mountain climate. Their huge paw-pads served as shock absorbers on the rocky terrain. Connections with other types and breeds from the same area may provide clues to the history. A name for a desert coursing Afghan Hound, Tazi (Sag-e-Tazi), suggests a shared ancestry with the very similar Tazy breed from the Caspian Sea area of Russia and Turkmenistan. Other types or breeds of similar appearance are the Taigan from the mountainous Tian Shan region on the Chinese border of Afghanistan, and the Barakzay, or Kurram Valley Hound. Once out of Afghanistan, the history of the Afghan Hound breed became entwined with that of the very earliest dog shows and the Kennel Club (UK). Various sighthounds were brought to England in the 1800s by army officers returning from British India and were exhibited at dog shows, which were then just becoming popular, under various names, such as Barukzy hounds. They were also called "Persian Greyhounds" by the English, in reference to their own indigenous sighthound. One dog in particular, Zardin, was brought in 1907 from India by Captain John Barff. Zardin became the early ideal for the breed type still referred to as the Persian Greyhound. Zardin was the basis of the writing for the first breed standard in 1912, but this breeding cycle was stopped by World War I. These dogs were of the "steppe" or “desert” type and were less heavily coated. The second strain was a group of dogs from a kennel in Kabul owned by Mrs. Mary Amps, which she shipped to England in 1925. She and her husband came to Kabul after the Afghan war in 1919, and the foundation sire of her kennel (named Ghazni) in Kabul was a dog that closely resembled Zardin. Her Ghazni strain were the more heavily coated mountain type. Most of the Afghans in the United States were developed from the Ghazni strain from England. The first Afghans in Australia were imported from the United States in 1934, also of the Ghazni strain. The mountain and steppe strains became mixed into the modern Afghan Hound breed, and a new standard was written in 1948, which is still used today. The beauty of Afghan Hound dogs caused them to become highly desirable show dogs and pets, and they are recognised by all of the major kennel clubs in the English-speaking world. One of the Amps Ghazni, Sirdar, won best in show at Crufts in 1928 and 1930. An Afghan Hound was featured on the cover of Life Magazine on November 26, 1945. Afghan Hounds were the most popular in Australia in the 1970s, and won most of the major shows. Afghan Hounds were BIS at the Westminster Kennel Club Dog Show in 1957 and again in 1983. The Afghan Hound breed is no longer used for hunting, although it can be seen in the sport of lure coursing. On August 3, 2005, Korean scientist Hwang Woo-Suk announced that his team of researchers had become the first team to successfully clone a dog, an Afghan Hound named Snuppy. In 2006 Hwang Woo-Suk was dismissed from his university position for fabricating data in his research. Snuppy, nonetheless, was a genuine clone, and thus the first cloned dog in history. ==Description== The dogs in this breed occur in many different coat colors. A study that mapped the genes of Afghan Hounds and discussed the effect of genes on coat colour in the breed was published in the Journal of Heredity in 2010. The Afghan Hound is tall, standing in height and weighing . The coat may be any colour, but white markings, particularly on the head, are discouraged; many individuals have a black facial mask. A specimen may have a beard on the lower jaw, known as a "mandarin". Some Afghan Hounds are almost white, but parti-color hounds (white with islands of red or black) are penalized in the AKC standard, but not by the FCI. Their long, fine-textured coat requires considerable care and grooming. The long topknot and the shorter-haired saddle on the back of the dog are distinctive features of the Afghan Hound coat. The high hipbones and unique small ring on the end of the tail are also characteristics of the breed. The temperament of the typical Afghan Hound can be aloof and dignified, but happy and clownish when playing. This breed, as tends to be the case with sighthounds, has a high prey drive and may kill small animals and livestock. Genomic studies have pointed to the Afghan Hound as one of the oldest of dog breeds. The breed has a reputation among dog trainers of having a relatively slow "obedience intelligence"; Stanley Coren, in his book The Intelligence of Dogs, ranked the breed last among 138 breeds mentioned in ability to understand and obey commands, requiring more than 80 repetitions to understand a new command and obeying on the first command less than 25% of the time. Coren noted that Afghan Hounds were consistently ranked among the least obedient dog breeds among all of the trainers he consulted, with a majority (121 out of 199) ranking the Afghan Hound in the lowest ten breeds out of 133 listed. ==Variants== ===Khalag Tazi=== The Khalag Tazi is a variety of the Afghan Hound introduced to Europe in 1920, when an Indian Army officer, Major G Bell-Murray, brought some animals back from Afghanistan. ===Bakhmull=== Bakhmull (also Bakhmull Tazi or Tazi Bakhmull, also called the Aboriginal Afghan Hound) is a long-haired variety of sighthound. It has been bred mostly in Russia and claimed to represent an Afghan Hound aboriginal to Afghanistan. applied in reference to the dog's silky coat, which is rather abundant and long on the whole body, except the "saddle" (middle to lower back), front parts of all four legs, and the muzzle. Its color is always fawn, ivory, or white, with a darker "saddle", thus it produces an impression of a (yellowish) dog whose coat color matches the khaki sandstone and limestone of the Hindu Kush mountain landscape and deserts. The following colors are not permissible: red, red with white spots, black, and black with white spots. Since the 1980s, the centre of Bakhmull breeding has been Russia, beginning in Moscow, then spreading to various other places in the CIS. The foundation stock was brought to Russia in the 1970s by military men returning from Afghanistan. Natalia Gherasiova (a breeder, of the Blue Dale el Bark Bakhmull kennel, and dog show judge) established the National Bakhmull Club, affiliated with the Russian Federation for Hunting Dogs (RFOS) and Russian Kynological Federation (RKF). A breed standard was first published in 1985, and a shared RFOS–RKF revision was produced in 1997. Bakhmulls hunt solo and in couples. Although its coat is long, it does not require much grooming. Paws are well protected from injuries by "feathering" (thick additional paw fur). Its long, velvety coat and its stamina makes more suitable than many breeds for harsh weather. The breed standard calls for "aristocratic gait and a beautiful head with gazelle-like ... eyes". The eyes should be large, brown, slanting upwards, and of almond shape, with rims outlined black. Black coloration is required on the nose and lips for both white and fawn bakhmulls. The dog's height should be between , for bitches. The height at the withers is higher than at the croup. ===Health concerns=== Major health issues are allergies, cancer, and hip dysplasia. Like other sighthounds, the Afghan Hound is sensitive to anesthesia, as sighthounds have relatively low levels of body fat. Afghan Hounds are also among the dog breeds most likely to develop chylothorax, a rare condition which causes the thoracic ducts to leak, allowing large quantities of chyle fluid to enter the dog's chest cavity. This condition commonly results in a lung-lobe torsion (in which the dog's lung twists within the chest cavity, requiring emergency surgery), due to the breed's typically deep, "barrel"-shaped chest. If not corrected through surgery, chylothorax can ultimately cause fibrosing pleuritis, or a hardening of the organs, due to scar tissue forming around the organs to protect them from the chyle fluid. Chylothorax is often fatal. Among other health problems are laryngeal paralysis, dilated cardiomyopathy (twice as common in males as females), and dermatological issues such as testosterone-responsive dermatosis of male dogs (often seen in castrated males), nasal depigmentation (also known as Dudley nose), and skin tumours. Afghans are also prone to Central diabetes insipidus (CDI), hypothyroidism and tricholemmoma, a rare condition which mainly affects older dogs in the Middle Ages. Ocular conditions that can occur include medial canthal pocket syndrome (breed predisposition due to shape of head), corneal dystrophy, cataract and generalized progressive retinal atrophy (GPRA). Afghan myelopathy (causing pelvic limb ataxia) is sometimes reported. The Afghan Hound has been represented in multiple animated feature films and TV shows, including Universal Pictures' Balto (Sylvie), Disney's Lady and the Tramp II: Scamp's Adventure (Ruby), Hasbro Studios's Pound Puppies (Twiggy) and ABC Kids' Bluey (Indy). An Afghan Hound also appeared in the films One Hundred and One Dalmatians, 101 Dalmatians, 102 Dalmatians, and 101 Dalmatians II: Patch's London Adventure. Other examples include Prince Amir of Kinjan from What-a-Mess, Persia from Road Rovers, Burt from Foofur, Laila from Roadside Romeo, and Brainy Barker from Krypto the Superdog. Malory Archer in the show Archer also had an Afghan Hound named Duchess at some point in her childhood. In the 1941 novel Between the Acts, Virginia Woolf uses an Afghan Hound named Sohrab to represent aspects of one of the book's human characters. The Afghan Hound features prominently in the avant-garde music video of French band M83's, "Set in Stone (M83 Remix)".	[ "Saluki", "Between the Acts", "Commonwealth of Independent States", "List of dog breeds", "M83 (band)", "sighthound", "Malory Archer", "101 Dalmatians II: Patch's London Adventure", "Mongrel", "One Hundred and One Dalmatians", "Europe", "Third Anglo-Afghan War", "Krypto the Superdog", "101 Dalmatians (1996 film)", "breed type", "Pound Puppies (2010 TV series)", "Dudley nose", "Pashto language", "Virginia Woolf", "Afghanistan", "anesthesia", "dilated cardiomyopathy", "Life Magazine", "Central diabetes insipidus", "allergy", "Caspian Sea", "hip dysplasia (canine)", "skin tumours", "Chicago Picasso", "Hwang Woo-Suk", "Chyle", "Hypothyroidism (canine)", "cancer", "Russian Federation for Hunting Dogs", "hound", "Corneal dystrophies in dogs", "The Intelligence of Dogs (book)", "music video", "Tian Shan", "breed standard", "World Dog Show", "lure coursing", "British India", "Westminster Kennel Club Dog Show", "foundation stock", "Stanley Coren", "102 Dalmatians", "Tazy", "avant-garde", "Indian Army", "withers", "Crufts", "Archer (2009 TV series)", "Taigan", "cloning", "Roadside Romeo", "Turkmenistan", "Psychology Today", "Foofur", "Kurram Valley", "Conformation show", "cataract", "Russian Kynological Federation", "Bluey (TV series)", "American Kennel Club", "Snuppy", "Kabul", "dermatosis", "Road Rovers", "Russia", "chylothorax", "What-a-Mess", "Science (journal)", "Balochistan (Afghanistan)", "Trichilemmoma", "Dog breed", "Hindu Kush", "Barakzay", "Scotland", "Rump (animal)", "sighthounds", "Daley Plaza", "the Kennel Club", "Pablo Picasso", "Balto (film)", "Barakzai", "melanistic mask", "myelopathy", "Lady and the Tramp II: Scamp's Adventure", "laryngeal paralysis", "Modern Dog (magazine)" ]
2,836	Azawakh	The Azawakh is a breed of dog from West Africa. With ancient origins, it is raised throughout the Sahelian zone of Mali, Niger, and Burkina Faso. This region includes the Azawagh Valley for which the breed is named. While commonly associated with the nomadic Tuareg people, the dogs are also bred and owned by other ethnic groups, such as the Peulh, Bella, and Hausa. The Azawakh is more related to the Sloughi than it is to the Saluki. ==Description== ===Appearance=== Slim and elegant, with bone structure and muscles showing through thin skin. Eyes are almond-shaped. The coat is very short and almost absent on the belly. Its bone structure shows clearly through the skin and musculature. Its muscles are "dry", meaning that they are quite flat, unlike the Greyhound and Whippet. In this respect it is similar in type to the Saluki. ===Colours=== Colours permitted by the Fédération Cynologique Internationale (FCI) breed standard are clear sand to dark fawn/brown, red and brindle (with or without a dark mask), with white bib, tail tip, and white on all feet (which can be tips of toes to high stockings). Since 2015 white stockings that go above the elbow joint are considered disqualifying features in the FCI member countries, as is a white collar or half collar (Irish marked). Some conservationists support the idea that in Africa, Azawakhs are still found in a variety of colours such as red, blue fawn (that is, with a lilac cast), grizzle, and, rarely, blue and black with various white markings including Irish marked (white collar) and particolour (mostly white). Because of this wide color variation in the native population, the American standard used by the AKC and UKC allows any color combination found in Africa. ===Movement=== The Azawakh's light, supple, lissome gait is a notable breed characteristic, as is an upright double suspension gallop. ==Temperament== Bred by the Tuareg, Fula and various other nomads of the Sahara and sub-Saharan Sahel in the countries of Mali, Niger, Burkina Faso, and southern Algeria, the breed known by the Tuaregs as ”Oska” was used there as a guard dog and to hunt gazelle and hare at speeds up to . The austerity of the Sahel environment has ensured that only the most fit dogs survive and has accentuated the breed's ruggedness and independence. Unlike some other sighthounds, the Azawakh is more of a pack hunter and they bump down the quarry with hindquarters when it has been tired out. In role of a guard dog, if an Azawakh senses danger it will bark to alert the other members of the pack, and they will gather together as a pack under the lead of the alpha dog, then chase off or attack the predator. Unlike other sighthounds, the primary function of the Azawakh in its native land is that of a guard dog. It develops an intense bond with its owner, and tend to be reserved with strangers. Azawakh have high energy and tremendous endurance. They are excellent training companions for runners. Many Azawakh dislike rain and cold weather. Azawakh are pack oriented and form complex social hierarchies. They have tremendous memories and are able to recognize each other after long periods of separation. They can often be found sleeping on top of each other for warmth and companionship. ==Breed history== The breed is relatively uncommon in Europe and North America but there is a growing band of devotees. Azawakh may be registered with the FCI in the USA via the Federación Canófila de Puerto Rico (FCPR). European FCI clubs and the AKC recognize the FCPR as an acceptable registry. The AKC recognized the Azawakh a member of the Hound group in 2019. The American Azawakh Association (AAA) is the AKC Parent Club for the Azawakh. Azawakh may be registered with the UKC and ARBA. The breed is not yet registered by CKC. Azawakh are eligible for ASFA and AKC lure coursing and NOFCA open field coursing events.	[ "Saluki", "American Rare Breed Association", "Canadian Kennel Club", "guard dog", "List of dog breeds", "Federation Cynologique Internationale", "hare", "Sahel", "Ikelan", "Niger", "Sloughi", "brindle", "NOFCA", "gazelle", "Tuareg people", "Algeria", "breed of dog", "Burkina Faso", "West Africa", "American Kennel Club", "Sahara", "Mali", "Hausa people", "American Sighthound Field Association", "List of ethnic groups of Africa", "Iullemmeden Basin", "United Kennel Club", "Whippet", "double suspension gallop", "Fula people", "Fédération Cynologique Internationale", "melanistic mask", "Greyhound" ]
2,838	Acrylic paint	Acrylic paint is a fast-drying paint made of pigment suspended in acrylic polymer emulsion and plasticizers, silicone oils, defoamers, stabilizers, or metal soaps. Most acrylic paints are water-based, but become water-resistant when dry. Depending on how much the paint is diluted with water, or modified with acrylic gels, mediums, or pastes, the finished acrylic painting can resemble a watercolor, a gouache, or an oil painting, or it may have its own unique characteristics not attainable with other media. Water-based acrylic paints are used as latex house paints, as latex is the technical term for a suspension of polymer microparticles in water. Interior latex house paints tend to be a combination of binder (sometimes acrylic, vinyl, PVA, and others), filler, pigment, and water. Exterior latex house paints may also be a co-polymer blend, but the best exterior water-based paints are 100% acrylic, because of its elasticity and other factors. Vinyl, however, costs half of what 100% acrylic resins cost, and polyvinyl acetate (PVA) is even cheaper, so paint companies make many different combinations of them to match the market. == History == German chemist Otto Röhm invented acrylic resin, which led to the development of acrylic paint. In 1934, the first usable acrylic resin dispersion was developed by German chemical company BASF, and patented by Rohm and Haas. The synthetic paint was first used in the 1940s, displaying some properties of both oil and watercolor. Between 1946 and 1949, Leonard Bocour and Sam Golden invented a solution acrylic paint under the brand Magna paint. These were mineral spirit-based paints. Water-based acrylic paints were subsequently sold as latex house paints. Over the 1960s Lancelot Ribeiro pioneered the use of acrylic paints for art in the UK because of his "increasing impatience" of the time it took for oil paints to dry, as also its "lack of brilliance in its colour potential." He took to the new synthetic plastic bases that commercial paints were beginning to use and soon got help from manufacturers like ICI, Courtaulds, and Geigy. The companies supplied him samples of their latest paints in quantities that he was using three decades later, according to the paper. Initially, the firms thought the PVA compounds would not be needed in commercially viable quantities. But they quickly recognised the potential demand and "so Ribeiro became the godfather of generations of artists using acrylics as an alternative to oils." In 1956, José L. Gutiérrez produced Politec Acrylic Artists' Colors in Mexico, and Henry Levison of Cincinnati-based Permanent Pigments Co. produced Liquitex colors. These two product lines were the first acrylic emulsion artists' paints, with modern high-viscosity paints becoming available in the early 1960s. == Painting with acrylics == Acrylic painters can modify the appearance, hardness, flexibility, texture, and other characteristics of the paint surface by using acrylic medium or simply by adding water. Watercolor and oil painters also use various mediums, but the range of acrylic mediums is much greater. Acrylics have the ability to bond to many different surfaces, and mediums can be used to modify their binding characteristics. Acrylics can be used on paper, canvas, and a range of other materials; however, their use on engineered woods such as medium-density fiberboard can be problematic because of the porous nature of those surfaces. In these cases, it is recommended that the surface first be sealed with an appropriate sealer. The process of sealing acrylic painting is called varnishing. Artists use removable varnishes over isolation coat to protect paintings from dust, UV, scratches, etc. This process is similar to varnishing an oil painting. Acrylics can be applied in thin layers or washes to create effects that resemble watercolors and other water-based mediums. They can also be used to build thick layers of paint — gel and molding paste are sometimes used to create paintings with relief features. Acrylic paints are also used in hobbies such as trains, cars, houses, DIY projects, and human models. People who make such models use acrylic paint to build facial features on dolls or raised details on other types of models. Wet acrylic paint is easily removed from paintbrushes and skin with water, whereas oil paints require the use of a hydrocarbon. Acrylics are the most common paints used in grattage, a surrealist technique that began to be used with the advent of this type of paint. Acrylics are used for this purpose because they easily scrape or peel from a surface. === Painting techniques === Acrylic artists' paints may be thinned with water or acrylic medium and used as washes in the manner of watercolor paints, but unlike watercolor the washes are not rehydratable once dry. For this reason, acrylics do not lend themselves to the color lifting techniques of gum arabic-based watercolor paints. Instead, the paint is applied in layers, sometimes diluting with water or acrylic medium to allow layers underneath to partially show through. Using an acrylic medium gives the paint more of a rich and glossy appearance, whereas using water makes the paint look more like watercolor and have a matte finish. Acrylic paints with gloss or matte finishes are common, although a satin (semi-matte) sheen is most common. Some brands exhibit a range of finishes (e.g. heavy-body paints from Golden, Liquitex, Winsor & Newton and Daler-Rowney); Politec acrylics are fully matte. As with oils, pigment amounts and particle size or shape can affect the paint sheen. Matting agents can also be added during manufacture to dull the finish. If desired, the artist can mix different media with their paints and use topcoats or varnishes to alter or unify sheen. When dry, acrylic paint is generally non-removable from a solid surface if it adheres to the surface. Water or mild solvents do not re-solubilize it, although isopropyl alcohol can lift some fresh paint films off. Toluene and acetone can remove paint films, but they do not lift paint stains very well and are not selective. The use of a solvent to remove paint may result in removal of all of the paint layers (acrylic gesso, et cetera). Oils and warm, soapy water can remove acrylic paint from skin. Acrylic paint can be removed from nonporous plastic surfaces such as miniatures or models using cleaning products such as Dettol (containing chloroxylenol 4.8% v/w). An acrylic sizing should be used to prime canvas in preparation for painting with acrylic paints, to prevent Support Induced Discoloration (SID). Acrylic paint contains surfactants that can pull up discoloration from a raw canvas, especially in transparent glazed or translucent gelled areas. Gesso alone will not stop SID; a sizing must be applied before using a gesso. The viscosity of acrylic can be successfully reduced by using suitable extenders that maintain the integrity of the paint film. There are retarders to slow drying and extend workability time, and flow releases to increase color-blending ability. == Properties== ===Grades=== Commercial acrylic paints come in two grades by manufacturers: Artist acrylics (professional acrylics) are created and designed to resist chemical reactions from exposure to water, ultraviolet light, and oxygen. Professional-grade acrylics have the most pigment, which allows for more medium manipulation and limits the color shift when mixed with other colors or after drying. Student acrylics have working characteristics similar to artist acrylics, but with lower pigment concentrations, less-expensive formulas, and fewer available colors. More expensive pigments are generally replicated by hues. Colors are designed to be mixed even though color strength is lower. Hues may not have exactly the same mixing characteristics as full-strength colors. Medium viscosity acrylics – Fluid acrylics, Soft body acrylics, or High Flow acrylics – have a lower viscosity but generally the same pigmentation as the Heavy Body acrylics. Available in either Artist quality or Craft quality, the cost and quality vary accordingly. These paints are good for watercolor techniques, airbrush application, or when smooth coverage is desired. Fluid acrylics can be mixed with any medium to thicken them for impasto work, or to thin them for glazing applications. Open acrylics were created to address the one major difference between oil and acrylic paints: the shortened time it takes acrylic paints to dry. Designed by Golden Artist Colors, Inc. with a hydrophilic acrylic resin, these paints can take anywhere from a few hours to a few days, or even weeks, to dry completely, depending on paint thickness, support characteristics, temperature, and humidity. Iridescent, pearl and interference acrylic colors combine conventional pigments with powdered mica (aluminium silicate) or powdered bronze to achieve complex visual effects. Colors have shimmering or reflective characteristics, depending on the coarseness or fineness of the powder. Iridescent colors are used in fine arts and crafts. Acrylic gouache is like traditional gouache because it dries to a matte, opaque finish. However, unlike traditional gouache, the acrylic binder makes it water-resistant once it dries. Like craft paint, it will adhere to a variety of surfaces, not only canvas and paper. This paint is typically used by water-colorists, cartoonists, or illustrators, and for decorative or folk art applications. Craft acrylics can be used on surfaces besides canvas, such as wood, metal, fabrics, and ceramics. They are used in decorative painting techniques and faux finishes to decorate objects of ordinary life. Although colors can be mixed, pigments are often not specified. Each color line is formulated instead to achieve a wide range of premixed colors. Craft paints usually employ vinyl or PVA resins to increase adhesion and lower cost. Interactive acrylics are all-purpose acrylic artists' colors which have the characteristic fast-drying nature of artists' acrylics, but are formulated to allow artists to delay drying when they need more working time, or re-wet their work when they want to do more wet blending. Exterior acrylics are paints that can withstand outdoor conditions. Like craft acrylics, they adhere to many surfaces. They are more resistant to both water and ultraviolet light. This makes them the acrylic of choice for architectural murals, outdoor signs, and many faux-finishing techniques. Acrylic glass paint is water-based and semi-permanent, making it a suitable paint for temporary displays on glass windows. Acrylic enamel paint creates a smooth, hard shell. It can be oven-baked or air dried. It can be permanent if kept away from harsh conditions such as dishwashing. Approximate "hue" color formulations, that do not contain the historical pigments, are typically offered as substitutes. Because of acrylic paint's more flexible nature and more consistent drying time between layers, an artist does not have to follow the same rules of oil painting, where more medium must be applied to each layer to avoid cracking. It usually takes 10–20 minutes for one to two layers of acrylic paint to dry, depending on the brand, quality, and humidity levels of the surrounding environment. Some professional grades of acrylic paint can take 20–30 minutes or even more than an hour. Another difference between oil and acrylic paints is the versatility offered by acrylic paints. Acrylics are very useful in mixed media, allowing the use of pastel (oil and chalk), charcoal and pen (among others) on top of the dried acrylic painted surface. Mixing other bodies into the acrylic is possible—sand, rice, and even pasta may be incorporated in the artwork. Mixing artist or student grade acrylic paint with household acrylic emulsions is possible, allowing the use of premixed tints straight from the tube or tin, and thereby presenting the painter with a vast color range at their disposal. This versatility is also illustrated by the variety of additional artistic uses for acrylics. Specialized acrylics have been manufactured and used for linoblock printing, face painting, airbrushing, watercolor-like techniques, and fabric screen printing. Another difference between oil and acrylic paint is the cleanup. Acrylic paint can be cleaned out of a brush with any soap, while oil paint needs a specific type to be sure to get all the oil out of the brushes. Also, it is easier to let a palette with oil paint dry and then scrape the paint off, whereas one can easily clean wet acrylic paint with water. === Difference between acrylic and watercolor paint === The biggest difference is that acrylic paint is opaque, whereas watercolor paint is translucent in nature. Watercolors take about 5 to 15 minutes to dry while acrylics take about 10 to 20 minutes. In order to change the tone or shade of a watercolor pigment, one changes the percentage of water mixed in to the color. For brighter colors, one adds more water. For darker colors, one adds less water. In order to create lighter or darker colors with acrylic paints, one adds white or black. Another difference is that watercolors must be painted onto a porous surface, primarily watercolor paper. Acrylic paints can be used on many different surfaces.	[ "mineral spirit", "latex", "acetone", "folk art", "varnish", "José Clemente Orozco", "Gloss (paint)", "pigment", "Daler-Rowney", "filler (materials)", "Toluene", "Sam Golden", "grattage", "isopropyl alcohol", "Faux finish", "Liquitex", "paint", "emulsion", "wet-in-wet", "polymer", "aluminium silicate", "Magna paint", "drying oil", "abstract expressionism", "Screen printing", "Leonard Bocour", "acrylic retarder", "Linoblock", "water", "fat over lean", "Imperial Chemical Industries", "ultraviolet light", "oil paint", "acrylic resin", "Golden Artist Colors", "medium-density fiberboard", "face painting", "BASF", "Rohm and Haas", "gouache", "Lancelot Ribeiro", "José L. Gutiérrez", "underpainting", "Winsor & Newton", "Faux painting", "Otto Röhm", "refractive index", "Binder (material)", "Geigy", "Bustle (magazine)", "polyvinyl acetate", "Wash (visual arts)", "Courtaulds", "linseed oil", "turpentine", "Vinyl group", "Diego Rivera", "water-resistant", "co-polymer", "gum arabic", "gesso", "Acrylic retarder", "David Alfaro Siqueiros", "oil painting", "watercolor", "Polyvinyl acetate", "airbrushing" ]
2,839	Angular momentum	Angular momentum (sometimes called moment of momentum or rotational momentum) is the rotational analog of linear momentum. It is an important physical quantity because it is a conserved quantity – the total angular momentum of a closed system remains constant. Angular momentum has both a direction and a magnitude, and both are conserved. Bicycles and motorcycles, flying discs, rifled bullets, and gyroscopes owe their useful properties to conservation of angular momentum. Conservation of angular momentum is also why hurricanes form spirals and neutron stars have high rotational rates. In general, conservation limits the possible motion of a system, but it does not uniquely determine it. The three-dimensional angular momentum for a point particle is classically represented as a pseudovector , the cross product of the particle's position vector (relative to some origin) and its momentum vector; the latter is in Newtonian mechanics. Unlike linear momentum, angular momentum depends on where this origin is chosen, since the particle's position is measured from it. Angular momentum is an extensive quantity; that is, the total angular momentum of any composite system is the sum of the angular momenta of its constituent parts. For a continuous rigid body or a fluid, the total angular momentum is the volume integral of angular momentum density (angular momentum per unit volume in the limit as volume shrinks to zero) over the entire body. Similar to conservation of linear momentum, where it is conserved if there is no external force, angular momentum is conserved if there is no external torque. Torque can be defined as the rate of change of angular momentum, analogous to force. The net external torque on any system is always equal to the total torque on the system; the sum of all internal torques of any system is always 0 (this is the rotational analogue of Newton's third law of motion). Therefore, for a closed system (where there is no net external torque), the total torque on the system must be 0, which means that the total angular momentum of the system is constant. The change in angular momentum for a particular interaction is called angular impulse, sometimes twirl. Angular impulse is the angular analog of (linear) impulse. == Examples == The trivial case of the angular momentum L of a body in an orbit is given by L = 2 \pi M f r^2 where M is the mass of the orbiting object, f is the orbit's frequency and r is the orbit's radius. The angular momentum L of a uniform rigid sphere rotating around its axis, instead, is given by L = \frac{4}{5} \pi M f r^2 where M is the sphere's mass, f is the frequency of rotation and r is the sphere's radius. Thus, for example, the orbital angular momentum of the Earth with respect to the Sun is about 2.66 × 1040 kg⋅m2⋅s−1, while its rotational angular momentum is about 7.05 × 1033 kg⋅m2⋅s−1. In the case of a uniform rigid sphere rotating around its axis, if, instead of its mass, its density is known, the angular momentum L is given by L = \frac{16}{15} \pi^2 \rho f r^5 where \rho is the sphere's density, f is the frequency of rotation and r is the sphere's radius. In the simplest case of a spinning disk, the angular momentum L is given by L = \pi M f r^2 where M is the disk's mass, f is the frequency of rotation and r is the disk's radius. If instead the disk rotates about its diameter (e.g. coin toss), its angular momentum L is given by Angular momentum can be considered a rotational analog of linear momentum. Thus, where linear momentum is proportional to mass and linear speed p = mv, angular momentum is proportional to moment of inertia and angular speed measured in radians per second. L = I\omega. Unlike mass, which depends only on amount of matter, moment of inertia depends also on the position of the axis of rotation and the distribution of the matter. Unlike linear velocity, which does not depend upon the choice of origin, orbital angular velocity is always measured with respect to a fixed origin. Therefore, strictly speaking, should be referred to as the angular momentum relative to that center. In the case of circular motion of a single particle, we can use I = r^2m and \omega = {v}/{r} to expand angular momentum as L = r^2 m \cdot {v}/{r}, reducing to: L = rmv, the product of the radius of rotation and the linear momentum of the particle p = mv, where v= r\omega is the linear (tangential) speed. This simple analysis can also apply to non-circular motion if one uses the component of the motion perpendicular to the radius vector: L = rmv_\perp, where v_\perp = v\sin(\theta) is the perpendicular component of the motion. Expanding, L = rmv\sin(\theta), rearranging, L = r\sin(\theta)mv, and reducing, angular momentum can also be expressed, L = r_\perp mv, where r_\perp = r\sin(\theta) is the length of the moment arm, a line dropped perpendicularly from the origin onto the path of the particle. It is this definition, , to which the term moment of momentum refers. === Scalar angular momentum from Lagrangian mechanics === Another approach is to define angular momentum as the conjugate momentum (also called canonical momentum) of the angular coordinate \phi expressed in the Lagrangian of the mechanical system. Consider a mechanical system with a mass m constrained to move in a circle of radius r in the absence of any external force field. The kinetic energy of the system is T = \tfrac{1}{2}mr^2 \omega^2 = \tfrac{1}{2}mr^2 \dot{\phi}^2. And the potential energy is U = 0. Then the Lagrangian is \mathcal{L}\left(\phi, \dot{\phi}\right) = T - U = \tfrac{1}{2}mr^2 \dot{\phi}^2. The generalized momentum "canonically conjugate to" the coordinate \phi is defined by p_\phi = \frac{\partial \mathcal{L}}{\partial \dot{\phi}} = mr^2 \dot{\phi} = I\omega = L. === Orbital angular momentum in three dimensions === To completely define orbital angular momentum in three dimensions, it is required to know the rate at which the position vector sweeps out an angle, the direction perpendicular to the instantaneous plane of angular displacement, and the mass involved, as well as how this mass is distributed in space. By retaining this vector nature of angular momentum, the general nature of the equations is also retained, and can describe any sort of three-dimensional motion about the center of rotation – circular, linear, or otherwise. In vector notation, the orbital angular momentum of a point particle in motion about the origin can be expressed as: \mathbf{L} = I\boldsymbol{\omega}, where I = r^2m is the moment of inertia for a point mass, \boldsymbol{\omega}=\frac{\mathbf{r}\times\mathbf{v}}{r^2} is the orbital angular velocity of the particle about the origin, \mathbf{r} is the position vector of the particle relative to the origin, and r=\left\vert\mathbf{r}\right\vert, \mathbf{v} is the linear velocity of the particle relative to the origin, and m is the mass of the particle. This can be expanded, reduced, and by the rules of vector algebra, rearranged: \begin{align} \mathbf{L} &= \left(r^2m\right)\left(\frac{\mathbf{r}\times\mathbf{v}}{r^2}\right) \\ &= m\left(\mathbf{r}\times\mathbf{v}\right) \\ &= \mathbf{r}\times m\mathbf{v} \\ &= \mathbf{r}\times\mathbf{p}, \end{align} which is the cross product of the position vector \mathbf{r} and the linear momentum \mathbf{p} = m\mathbf{v} of the particle. By the definition of the cross product, the \mathbf{L} vector is perpendicular to both \mathbf{r} and \mathbf{p}. It is directed perpendicular to the plane of angular displacement, as indicated by the right-hand rule – so that the angular velocity is seen as counter-clockwise from the head of the vector. Conversely, the \mathbf{L} vector defines the plane in which \mathbf{r} and \mathbf{p} lie. By defining a unit vector \mathbf{\hat{u}} perpendicular to the plane of angular displacement, a scalar angular speed \omega results, where \omega\mathbf{\hat{u}} = \boldsymbol{\omega}, and \omega = \frac{v_\perp}{r}, where v_\perp is the perpendicular component of the motion, as above. The two-dimensional scalar equations of the previous section can thus be given direction: \begin{align} \mathbf{L} &= I\boldsymbol{\omega}\\ &= I\omega\mathbf{\hat{u}}\\ &= \left(r^2m\right)\omega\mathbf{\hat{u}}\\ &= rmv_\perp \mathbf{\hat{u}}\\ &= r_\perp mv\mathbf{\hat{u}}, \end{align} and \mathbf{L} = rmv\mathbf{\hat{u}} for circular motion, where all of the motion is perpendicular to the radius r. In the spherical coordinate system the angular momentum vector expresses as \mathbf{L} = m \mathbf{r} \times \mathbf{v} = m r^2 \left(\dot\theta\,\hat{\boldsymbol\varphi} - \dot\varphi \sin\theta\,\mathbf{\hat{\boldsymbol\theta}}\right). == Analogy to linear momentum == Angular momentum can be described as the rotational analog of linear momentum. Like linear momentum it involves elements of mass and displacement. Unlike linear momentum it also involves elements of position and shape. Many problems in physics involve matter in motion about some certain point in space, be it in actual rotation about it, or simply moving past it, where it is desired to know what effect the moving matter has on the point—can it exert energy upon it or perform work about it? Energy, the ability to do work, can be stored in matter by setting it in motion—a combination of its inertia and its displacement. Inertia is measured by its mass, and displacement by its velocity. Their product, \begin{align} (\text{amount of inertia}) \times (\text{amount of displacement})&=\text{amount of (inertia⋅displacement)}\\ \text{mass} \times \text{velocity} &= \text{momentum}\\ m \times v &= p\\ \end{align} is the matter's momentum. Referring this momentum to a central point introduces a complication: the momentum is not applied to the point directly. For instance, a particle of matter at the outer edge of a wheel is, in effect, at the end of a lever of the same length as the wheel's radius, its momentum turning the lever about the center point. This imaginary lever is known as the moment arm. It has the effect of multiplying the momentum's effort in proportion to its length, an effect known as a moment. Hence, the particle's momentum referred to a particular point, \begin{align} (\text{moment arm}) \times (\text{amount of inertia}) \times (\text{amount of displacement})&=\text{moment of (inertia⋅displacement)}\\ \text{length} \times \text{mass} \times \text{velocity} &= \text{moment of momentum}\\ r \times m \times v &= L\\ \end{align} is the angular momentum, sometimes called, as here, the moment of momentum of the particle versus that particular center point. The equation L = rmv combines a moment (a mass m turning moment arm r) with a linear (straight-line equivalent) speed v. Linear speed referred to the central point is simply the product of the distance r and the angular speed \omega versus the point: v=r\omega, another moment. Hence, angular momentum contains a double moment: L = rmr \omega. Simplifying slightly, L = r^2 m\omega, the quantity r^2m is the particle's moment of inertia, sometimes called the second moment of mass. It is a measure of rotational inertia. The above analogy of the translational momentum and rotational momentum can be expressed in vector form: \mathbf p = m\mathbf v for linear motion \mathbf L = I\boldsymbol\omega for rotation The direction of momentum is related to the direction of the velocity for linear movement. The direction of angular momentum is related to the angular velocity of the rotation. Because moment of inertia is a crucial part of the spin angular momentum, the latter necessarily includes all of the complications of the former, which is calculated by multiplying elementary bits of the mass by the squares of their distances from the center of rotation. Therefore, the total moment of inertia, and the angular momentum, is a complex function of the configuration of the matter about the center of rotation and the orientation of the rotation for the various bits. For a rigid body, for instance a wheel or an asteroid, the orientation of rotation is simply the position of the rotation axis versus the matter of the body. It may or may not pass through the center of mass, or it may lie completely outside of the body. For the same body, angular momentum may take a different value for every possible axis about which rotation may take place. It reaches a minimum when the axis passes through the center of mass. For a collection of objects revolving about a center, for instance all of the bodies of the Solar System, the orientations may be somewhat organized, as is the Solar System, with most of the bodies' axes lying close to the system's axis. Their orientations may also be completely random. In brief, the more mass and the farther it is from the center of rotation (the longer the moment arm), the greater the moment of inertia, and therefore the greater the angular momentum for a given angular velocity. In many cases the moment of inertia, and hence the angular momentum, can be simplified by, I=k^2m,where k is the radius of gyration, the distance from the axis at which the entire mass m may be considered as concentrated. Similarly, for a point mass m the moment of inertia is defined as, I=r^2mwhere r is the radius of the point mass from the center of rotation, and for any collection of particles m_i as the sum, \sum_i I_i = \sum_i r_i^2m_i . Angular momentum's dependence on position and shape is reflected in its units versus linear momentum: kg⋅m2/s or N⋅m⋅s for angular momentum versus kg⋅m/s or N⋅s for linear momentum. When calculating angular momentum as the product of the moment of inertia times the angular velocity, the angular velocity must be expressed in radians per second, where the radian assumes the dimensionless value of unity. (When performing dimensional analysis, it may be productive to use orientational analysis which treats radians as a base unit, but this is not done in the International system of units). The units if angular momentum can be interpreted as torque⋅time. An object with angular momentum of can be reduced to zero angular velocity by an angular impulse of . The plane perpendicular to the axis of angular momentum and passing through the center of mass is sometimes called the invariable plane, because the direction of the axis remains fixed if only the interactions of the bodies within the system, free from outside influences, are considered. One such plane is the invariable plane of the Solar System. === Angular momentum and torque === Newton's second law of motion can be expressed mathematically, \mathbf{F} = m\mathbf{a}, or force = mass × acceleration. The rotational equivalent for point particles may be derived as follows: \mathbf{L} = I\boldsymbol{\omega} which means that the torque (i.e. the time derivative of the angular momentum) is \boldsymbol{\tau} = \frac{dI}{dt}\boldsymbol{\omega} + I\frac{d\boldsymbol{\omega}}{dt}. Because the moment of inertia is mr^2, it follows that \frac{dI}{dt} = 2mr\frac{dr}{dt} = 2rp_, and \frac{d\mathbf{L}}{dt} = I\frac{d\boldsymbol{\omega}}{dt} + 2rp_\boldsymbol{\omega}, which, reduces to \boldsymbol{\tau} = I\boldsymbol{\alpha} + 2rp_\boldsymbol{\omega}. This is the rotational analog of Newton's second law. Note that the torque is not necessarily proportional or parallel to the angular acceleration (as one might expect). The reason for this is that the moment of inertia of a particle can change with time, something that cannot occur for ordinary mass. == Conservation of angular momentum == === General considerations === A rotational analog of Newton's third law of motion might be written, "In a closed system, no torque can be exerted on any matter without the exertion on some other matter of an equal and opposite torque about the same axis." Seen another way, a rotational analogue of Newton's first law of motion might be written, "A rigid body continues in a state of uniform rotation unless acted upon by an external influence." Thus with no external influence to act upon it, the original angular momentum of the system remains constant. The conservation of angular momentum is used in analyzing central force motion. If the net force on some body is directed always toward some point, the center, then there is no torque on the body with respect to the center, as all of the force is directed along the radius vector, and none is perpendicular to the radius. Mathematically, torque \boldsymbol{\tau} = \mathbf{r} \times \mathbf{F} = \mathbf{0}, because in this case \mathbf{r} and \mathbf{F} are parallel vectors. Therefore, the angular momentum of the body about the center is constant. This is the case with gravitational attraction in the orbits of planets and satellites, where the gravitational force is always directed toward the primary body and orbiting bodies conserve angular momentum by exchanging distance and velocity as they move about the primary. Central force motion is also used in the analysis of the Bohr model of the atom. For a planet, angular momentum is distributed between the spin of the planet and its revolution in its orbit, and these are often exchanged by various mechanisms. The conservation of angular momentum in the Earth–Moon system results in the transfer of angular momentum from Earth to Moon, due to tidal torque the Moon exerts on the Earth. This in turn results in the slowing down of the rotation rate of Earth, at about 65.7 nanoseconds per day, and in gradual increase of the radius of Moon's orbit, at about 3.82 centimeters per year. The conservation of angular momentum explains the angular acceleration of an ice skater as they bring their arms and legs close to the vertical axis of rotation. By bringing part of the mass of their body closer to the axis, they decrease their body's moment of inertia. Because angular momentum is the product of moment of inertia and angular velocity, if the angular momentum remains constant (is conserved), then the angular velocity (rotational speed) of the skater must increase. The same phenomenon results in extremely fast spin of compact stars (like white dwarfs, neutron stars and black holes) when they are formed out of much larger and slower rotating stars. Conservation is not always a full explanation for the dynamics of a system but is a key constraint. For example, a spinning top is subject to gravitational torque making it lean over and change the angular momentum about the nutation axis, but neglecting friction at the point of spinning contact, it has a conserved angular momentum about its spinning axis, and another about its precession axis. Also, in any planetary system, the planets, star(s), comets, and asteroids can all move in numerous complicated ways, but only so that the angular momentum of the system is conserved. Noether's theorem states that every conservation law is associated with a symmetry (invariant) of the underlying physics. The symmetry associated with conservation of angular momentum is rotational invariance. The fact that the physics of a system is unchanged if it is rotated by any angle about an axis implies that angular momentum is conserved. === Relation to Newton's second law of motion === While angular momentum total conservation can be understood separately from Newton's laws of motion as stemming from Noether's theorem in systems symmetric under rotations, it can also be understood simply as an efficient method of calculation of results that can also be otherwise arrived at directly from Newton's second law, together with laws governing the forces of nature (such as Newton's third law, Maxwell's equations and Lorentz force). Indeed, given initial conditions of position and velocity for every point, and the forces at such a condition, one may use Newton's second law to calculate the second derivative of position, and solving for this gives full information on the development of the physical system with time. Note, however, that this is no longer true in quantum mechanics, due to the existence of particle spin, which is youssef elfarouk momentum that cannot be described by the cumulative effect of point-like motions in space. As an example, consider decreasing of the moment of inertia, e.g. when a figure skater is pulling in their hands, speeding up the circular motion. In terms of angular momentum conservation, we have, for angular momentum L, moment of inertia I and angular velocity ω: 0 = dL = d (I\cdot \omega) = dI \cdot \omega + I \cdot d\omega Using this, we see that the change requires an energy of: dE = d \left(\tfrac{1}{2} I\cdot \omega^2\right) = \tfrac{1}{2} dI \cdot \omega^2 + I \cdot \omega \cdot d\omega = -\tfrac{1}{2} dI \cdot \omega^2 so that a decrease in the moment of inertia requires investing energy. This can be compared to the work done as calculated using Newton's laws. Each point in the rotating body is accelerating, at each point of time, with radial acceleration of: -r\cdot \omega^2 Let us observe a point of mass m, whose position vector relative to the center of motion is perpendicular to the z-axis at a given point of time, and is at a distance z. The centripetal force on this point, keeping the circular motion, is: -m\cdot z\cdot \omega^2 Thus the work required for moving this point to a distance dz farther from the center of motion is: dW = -m\cdot z\cdot \omega^2\cdot dz = -m\cdot \omega^2\cdot d\left(\tfrac{1}{2} z^2\right) For a non-pointlike body one must integrate over this, with m replaced by the mass density per unit z. This gives: dW = - \tfrac{1}{2}dI \cdot \omega^2 which is exactly the energy required for keeping the angular momentum conserved. Note, that the above calculation can also be performed per mass, using kinematics only. Thus the phenomena of figure skater accelerating tangential velocity while pulling their hands in, can be understood as follows in layman's language: The skater's palms are not moving in a straight line, so they are constantly accelerating inwards, but do not gain additional speed because the accelerating is always done when their motion inwards is zero. However, this is different when pulling the palms closer to the body: The acceleration due to rotation now increases the speed; but because of the rotation, the increase in speed does not translate to a significant speed inwards, but to an increase of the rotation speed. === Stationary-action principle === In classical mechanics it can be shown that the rotational invariance of action functionals implies conservation of angular momentum. The action is defined in classical physics as a functional of positions, x_i (t) often represented by the use of square brackets, and the final and initial times. It assumes the following form in cartesian coordinates:S\left([x_{i}];t_{1},t_{2}\right)\equiv\int_{t_{1}}^{t_{2}}d t\left(\frac{1}{2}m\frac{d x_{i}}{d t}\ \frac{d x_{i}}{d t}-V(x_{i})\right)where the repeated indices indicate summation over the index. If the action is invariant of an infinitesimal transformation, it can be mathematically stated as: \delta S = S\left([x_{i}+\delta x_i];t_{1},t_{2}\right)-S\left([x_{i}];t_{1},t_{2}\right) =0. Under the transformation, x_i \rightarrow x_i + \delta x_i , the action becomes: S\left([x_{i}+\delta x_i];t_{1},t_{2}\right)=\!\int_{t_{1}}^{t_{2}}d t\left(\frac{1}{2}m\frac{d(x_{i}+\delta x_{i})}{d t}\frac{d(x_{i}+\delta x_{i})}{d t}-V(x_{i}+\delta x_{i})\right) where we can employ the expansion of the terms up-to first order in \delta x_i: \begin{align} \frac{d(x_i+\delta x_i)}{d t} \frac{d( x_{i}+\delta x_{i})}{ d t } &\simeq\frac{d x_{i}}{d t} \frac{d x_{i}}{d t}-2\frac{d^{2}x_{i}}{d t^{2}}\delta x_{i}+2\frac{d}{d t}\left(\delta x_{i}\frac{d x_{i}}{d t}\right)\\ V(x_{i}+\delta x_{i}) & \simeq V(x_{i})+\delta x_{i}\frac{\partial V}{\partial x_i}\\ \end{align}giving the following change in action: S[x_{i}+\delta x_{i}]\simeq S[x_{i}]+\int_{t_{1}}^{t_{2}}d t\,\delta x_{i}\left(- \frac{\partial V}{\partial x_i}-m{\frac{d^{2}x_{i}}{d t^{2}}}\right)+m\int_{t_{1}}^{t_{2}}d t{\frac{d}{d t}}\left(\delta x_{i}{\frac{d x_{i}}{d t}}\right). Since all rotations can be expressed as matrix exponential of skew-symmetric matrices, i.e. as R(\hat n,\theta) = e^{M \theta} where M is a skew-symmetric matrix and \theta is angle of rotation, we can express the change of coordinates due to the rotation R(\hat n,\delta \theta ), up-to first order of infinitesimal angle of rotation, \delta \theta as: \delta x_i = M_{ij} x_j \delta \theta . Combining the equation of motion and rotational invariance of action, we get from the above equations that:0=\delta S=\int_{t_{1}}^{t_{2}}d t\frac{d}{d t}\left(m\frac{d x_{i}}{d t}\delta x_{i}\right)= M_{i j}\,\delta \theta \, m \,x_{j}\frac{d x_{i}}{d t}\Bigg\vert_{t_{1}}^{t_{2}}Since this is true for any matrix M_{ij} that satisfies M_{ij} = - M_{ji} , it results in the conservation of the following quantity: \ell_{ij}(t) := m\left(x_i \frac{dx_j}{dt}-x_j \frac{dx_i}{dt}\right), as \ell_{ij}(t_1)=\ell_{ij}(t_2). This corresponds to the conservation of angular momentum throughout the motion. === Lagrangian formalism === In Lagrangian mechanics, angular momentum for rotation around a given axis, is the conjugate momentum of the generalized coordinate of the angle around the same axis. For example, L_z, the angular momentum around the z axis, is: L_z = \frac{\partial \cal{L}}{\partial \dot\theta_z} where \cal{L} is the Lagrangian and \theta_z is the angle around the z axis. Note that \dot\theta_z, the time derivative of the angle, is the angular velocity \omega_z. Ordinarily, the Lagrangian depends on the angular velocity through the kinetic energy: The latter can be written by separating the velocity to its radial and tangential part, with the tangential part at the x-y plane, around the z-axis, being equal to: \sum_i \tfrac{1}{2}m_i {v_T}_i^2 = \sum_i \tfrac{1}{2} m_i \left(x_i^2 + y_i^2\right) { {\omega_z}_i}^2 where the subscript i stands for the i-th body, and m, vT and ωz stand for mass, tangential velocity around the z-axis and angular velocity around that axis, respectively. For a body that is not point-like, with density ρ, we have instead: \frac{1}{2}\int \rho(x,y,z) \left(x_i^2 + y_i^2\right) { {\omega_z}_i}^2\,dx\,dy = \frac{1}{2} {I_z}_i { {\omega_z}_i}^2 where integration runs over the area of the body, and Iz is the moment of inertia around the z-axis. Thus, assuming the potential energy does not depend on ωz (this assumption may fail for electromagnetic systems), we have the angular momentum of the ith object: \begin{align} {L_z}_i &= \frac{\partial \cal{L} }{\partial { {\omega_z}_i} } = \frac{\partial E_k}{\partial { {\omega_z}_i} } \\ &= {I_z}_i \cdot {\omega_z}_i \end{align} We have thus far rotated each object by a separate angle; we may also define an overall angle θz by which we rotate the whole system, thus rotating also each object around the z-axis, and have the overall angular momentum: L_z = \sum_i {I_z}_i \cdot {\omega_z}_i From Euler–Lagrange equations it then follows that: 0 = \frac{\partial \cal{L} }{\partial { {\theta_z}_i} } - \frac{d}{dt}\left(\frac{\partial \cal{L} }{\partial { {\dot\theta_z}_i}}\right) = \frac{\partial \cal{L} }{\partial { {\theta_z}_i} } - \frac{d{L_z}_i}{dt} Since the lagrangian is dependent upon the angles of the object only through the potential, we have: \frac{d{L_z}_i}{dt} = \frac{\partial \cal{L}}{\partial { {\theta_z}_i} } = -\frac{\partial V}{\partial { {\theta_z}_i} } which is the torque on the ith object. Suppose the system is invariant to rotations, so that the potential is independent of an overall rotation by the angle θz (thus it may depend on the angles of objects only through their differences, in the form V({\theta_z}_i, {\theta_z}_j) = V({\theta_z}_i - {\theta_z}_j)). We therefore get for the total angular momentum: \frac{d L_z}{dt} = -\frac{\partial V}{\partial {\theta_z} } = 0 And thus the angular momentum around the z-axis is conserved. This analysis can be repeated separately for each axis, giving conversation of the angular momentum vector. However, the angles around the three axes cannot be treated simultaneously as generalized coordinates, since they are not independent; in particular, two angles per point suffice to determine its position. While it is true that in the case of a rigid body, fully describing it requires, in addition to three translational degrees of freedom, also specification of three rotational degrees of freedom; however these cannot be defined as rotations around the Cartesian axes (see Euler angles). This caveat is reflected in quantum mechanics in the non-trivial commutation relations of the different components of the angular momentum operator. === Hamiltonian formalism === Equivalently, in Hamiltonian mechanics the Hamiltonian can be described as a function of the angular momentum. As before, the part of the kinetic energy related to rotation around the z-axis for the ith object is: \frac{1}{2} {I_z}_i { {\omega_z}_i}^2 = \frac{ { {L_z}_i}^2}{2 {I_z}_i} which is analogous to the energy dependence upon momentum along the z-axis, \frac{ { {p_z}_i}^2}{ {2m}_i}. Hamilton's equations relate the angle around the z-axis to its conjugate momentum, the angular momentum around the same axis: \begin{align} \frac{d{\theta_z}_i}{dt} &= \frac{\partial \mathcal{H} }{\partial {L_z}_i} = \frac{ {L_z}_i}{ {I_z}_i} \\ \frac{d{L_z}_i}{dt} &= -\frac{\partial \mathcal{H} }{\partial {\theta_z}_i} = -\frac{\partial V}{\partial {\theta_z}_i} \end{align} The first equation gives {L_z}_i = {I_z}_i \cdot { {\dot{\theta}_z}_i} = {I_z}_i \cdot {\omega_z}_i And so we get the same results as in the Lagrangian formalism. Note, that for combining all axes together, we write the kinetic energy as: E_k = \frac{1}{2}\sum_i \frac \sum_i m_i\mathbf{r}_i = \mathbf{0} and \sum_i m_i\mathbf{v}_i = \mathbf{0}, therefore the second and third terms vanish, \mathbf{L} = \sum_i \mathbf{R} \times m_i\mathbf{V} + \sum_i \mathbf{r}_i \times m_i\mathbf{v}_i . The first term can be rearranged, \sum_i \mathbf{R} \times m_i\mathbf{V} = \mathbf{R} \times \sum_i m_i\mathbf{V} = \mathbf{R} \times M\mathbf{V}, and total angular momentum for the collection of particles is finally, The first term is the angular momentum of the center of mass relative to the origin. Similar to ', below, it is the angular momentum of one particle of mass M at the center of mass moving with velocity V. The second term is the angular momentum of the particles moving relative to the center of mass, similar to ', below. The result is general—the motion of the particles is not restricted to rotation or revolution about the origin or center of mass. The particles need not be individual masses, but can be elements of a continuous distribution, such as a solid body. Rearranging equation () by vector identities, multiplying both terms by "one", and grouping appropriately, \begin{align} \mathbf{L} &= M(\mathbf{R} \times \mathbf{V}) + \sum_i \left[m_i\left(\mathbf{r}_i \times \mathbf{v}_i\right)\right], \\ &= \frac{R^2}{R^2}M\left(\mathbf{R} \times \mathbf{V}\right) + \sum_i \left[ \frac{r_i^2}{r_i^2}m_i\left(\mathbf{r}_i \times \mathbf{v}_i\right)\right] , \\ &= R^2M \left( \frac{\mathbf{R} \times \mathbf{V} }{R^2} \right) + \sum_i \left[ r_i^2 m_i \left( \frac{\mathbf{r}_i \times \mathbf{v}_i}{r_i^2} \right) \right] , \\ \end{align} gives the total angular momentum of the system of particles in terms of moment of inertia I and angular velocity \boldsymbol{\omega}, ==== Single particle case ==== In the case of a single particle moving about the arbitrary origin, \begin{align} \mathbf{r}_i &= \mathbf{v}_i = \mathbf{0}, \\ \mathbf{r} &= \mathbf{R}, \\ \mathbf{v} &= \mathbf{V}, \\ m &= M, \end{align} \sum_i \mathbf{r}_i \times m_i\mathbf{v}_i = \mathbf{0}, \sum_i I_i\boldsymbol{\omega}_i = \mathbf{0}, and equations () and () for total angular momentum reduce to, \mathbf{L} = \mathbf{R} \times m\mathbf{V} = I_R\boldsymbol{\omega}_R. ==== Case of a fixed center of mass ==== For the case of the center of mass fixed in space with respect to the origin, \mathbf{V} = \mathbf{0}, \mathbf{R} \times M\mathbf{V} = \mathbf{0}, I_R\boldsymbol{\omega}_R = \mathbf{0}, and equations () and () for total angular momentum reduce to, \mathbf{L} = \sum_i \mathbf{r}_i \times m_i\mathbf{v}_i = \sum_i I_i\boldsymbol{\omega}_i. == Angular momentum in general relativity == In modern (20th century) theoretical physics, angular momentum (not including any intrinsic angular momentum – see below) is described using a different formalism, instead of a classical pseudovector. In this formalism, angular momentum is the 2-form Noether charge associated with rotational invariance. As a result, angular momentum is generally not conserved locally for general curved spacetimes, unless they have rotational symmetry; whereas globally the notion of angular momentum itself only makes sense if the spacetime is asymptotically flat. If the spacetime is only axially symmetric like for the Kerr metric, the total angular momentum is not conserved but p_{\phi} is conserved which is related to the invariance of rotating around the symmetry-axis, where note that p_{\phi}=g_{\mu \phi}p^{\phi}=mg_{\mu \phi} dX^{\mu}/d\tau where g_{\mu\nu} is the metric, m=\sqrt is the rest mass, dX^{\mu}/d\tau is the four-velocity, and X^{\mu}=(t,r,\theta,\phi) is the four-position in spherical coordinates. In classical mechanics, the angular momentum of a particle can be reinterpreted as a plane element: \mathbf{L} = \mathbf{r} \wedge \mathbf{p} \,, in which the exterior product (∧) replaces the cross product (×) (these products have similar characteristics but are nonequivalent). This has the advantage of a clearer geometric interpretation as a plane element, defined using the vectors x and p, and the expression is true in any number of dimensions. In Cartesian coordinates: \begin{align} \mathbf{L} &= \left(xp_y - yp_x\right)\mathbf{e}_x \wedge \mathbf{e}_y + \left(yp_z - zp_y\right)\mathbf{e}_y \wedge \mathbf{e}_z + \left(zp_x - xp_z\right)\mathbf{e}_z \wedge \mathbf{e}_x\\ &= L_{xy}\mathbf{e}_x \wedge \mathbf{e}_y + L_{yz}\mathbf{e}_y \wedge \mathbf{e}_z + L_{zx}\mathbf{e}_z \wedge \mathbf{e}_x \,, \end{align} or more compactly in index notation: L_{ij} = x_i p_j - x_j p_i\,. The angular velocity can also be defined as an anti-symmetric second order tensor, with components ωij. The relation between the two anti-symmetric tensors is given by the moment of inertia which must now be a fourth order tensor: L_{ij} = I_{ijk\ell} \omega_{k\ell} \,. Again, this equation in L and ω as tensors is true in any number of dimensions. This equation also appears in the geometric algebra formalism, in which L and ω are bivectors, and the moment of inertia is a mapping between them. In relativistic mechanics, the relativistic angular momentum of a particle is expressed as an anti-symmetric tensor of second order: M_{\alpha\beta} = X_\alpha P_\beta - X_\beta P_\alpha in terms of four-vectors, namely the four-position X and the four-momentum P, and absorbs the above L together with the moment of mass, i.e., the product of the relativistic mass of the particle and its center of mass, which can be thought of as describing the motion of its center of mass, since mass–energy is conserved. In each of the above cases, for a system of particles the total angular momentum is just the sum of the individual particle angular momenta, and the center of mass is for the system. == Angular momentum in quantum mechanics == In quantum mechanics, angular momentum (like other quantities) is expressed as an operator, and its one-dimensional projections have quantized eigenvalues. Angular momentum is subject to the Heisenberg uncertainty principle, implying that at any time, only one projection (also called "component") can be measured with definite precision; the other two then remain uncertain. Because of this, the axis of rotation of a quantum particle is undefined. Quantum particles do possess a type of non-orbital angular momentum called "spin", but this angular momentum does not correspond to a spinning motion. In relativistic quantum mechanics the above relativistic definition becomes a tensorial operator. === Spin, orbital, and total angular momentum === The classical definition of angular momentum as \mathbf{L} = \mathbf{r}\times\mathbf{p} can be carried over to quantum mechanics, by reinterpreting r as the quantum position operator and p as the quantum momentum operator. L is then an operator, specifically called the orbital angular momentum operator. The components of the angular momentum operator satisfy the commutation relations of the Lie algebra so(3). Indeed, these operators are precisely the infinitesimal action of the rotation group on the quantum Hilbert space. (See also the discussion below of the angular momentum operators as the generators of rotations.) However, in quantum physics, there is another type of angular momentum, called spin angular momentum, represented by the spin operator S. Spin is often depicted as a particle literally spinning around an axis, but this is a misleading and inaccurate picture: spin is an intrinsic property of a particle, unrelated to any sort of motion in space and fundamentally different from orbital angular momentum. All elementary particles have a characteristic spin (possibly zero), and almost all elementary particles have nonzero spin. For example electrons have "spin 1/2" (this actually means "spin ħ/2"), photons have "spin 1" (this actually means "spin ħ"), and pi-mesons have spin 0. Finally, there is total angular momentum J, which combines both the spin and orbital angular momentum of all particles and fields. (For one particle, .) Conservation of angular momentum applies to J, but not to L or S; for example, the spin–orbit interaction allows angular momentum to transfer back and forth between L and S, with the total remaining constant. Electrons and photons need not have integer-based values for total angular momentum, but can also have half-integer values. In molecules the total angular momentum F is the sum of the rovibronic (orbital) angular momentum N, the electron spin angular momentum S, and the nuclear spin angular momentum I. For electronic singlet states the rovibronic angular momentum is denoted J rather than N. As explained by Van Vleck, the components of the molecular rovibronic angular momentum referred to molecule-fixed axes have different commutation relations from those for the components about space-fixed axes. === Quantization === In quantum mechanics, angular momentum is quantized – that is, it cannot vary continuously, but only in "quantum leaps" between certain allowed values. For any system, the following restrictions on measurement results apply, where \hbar is the reduced Planck constant and \hat n is any Euclidean vector such as x, y, or z: The reduced Planck constant \hbar is tiny by everyday standards, about 10−34 J s, and therefore this quantization does not noticeably affect the angular momentum of macroscopic objects. However, it is very important in the microscopic world. For example, the structure of electron shells and subshells in chemistry is significantly affected by the quantization of angular momentum. Quantization of angular momentum was first postulated by Niels Bohr in his model of the atom and was later predicted by Erwin Schrödinger in his Schrödinger equation. === Uncertainty === In the definition \mathbf{L}=\mathbf{r}\times\mathbf{p}, six operators are involved: The position operators r_x, r_y, r_z, and the momentum operators p_x, p_y, p_z. However, the Heisenberg uncertainty principle tells us that it is not possible for all six of these quantities to be known simultaneously with arbitrary precision. Therefore, there are limits to what can be known or measured about a particle's angular momentum. It turns out that the best that one can do is to simultaneously measure both the angular momentum vector's magnitude and its component along one axis. The uncertainty is closely related to the fact that different components of an angular momentum operator do not commute, for example L_xL_y \neq L_yL_x. (For the precise commutation relations, see angular momentum operator.) === Total angular momentum as generator of rotations === As mentioned above, orbital angular momentum L is defined as in classical mechanics: \mathbf{L}=\mathbf{r}\times\mathbf{p}, but total angular momentum J is defined in a different, more basic way: J is defined as the "generator of rotations". More specifically, J is defined so that the operator R(\hat{n},\phi) \equiv \exp\left(-\frac{i}{\hbar}\phi\, \mathbf{J}\cdot \hat{\mathbf{n} }\right) is the rotation operator that takes any system and rotates it by angle \phi about the axis \hat{\mathbf{n}}. (The "exp" in the formula refers to operator exponential.) To put this the other way around, whatever our quantum Hilbert space is, we expect that the rotation group SO(3) will act on it. There is then an associated action of the Lie algebra so(3) of SO(3); the operators describing the action of so(3) on our Hilbert space are the (total) angular momentum operators. The relationship between the angular momentum operator and the rotation operators is the same as the relationship between Lie algebras and Lie groups in mathematics. The close relationship between angular momentum and rotations is reflected in Noether's theorem that proves that angular momentum is conserved whenever the laws of physics are rotationally invariant. == Angular momentum in electrodynamics == When describing the motion of a charged particle in an electromagnetic field, the canonical momentum P (derived from the Lagrangian for this system) is not gauge invariant. As a consequence, the canonical angular momentum L = r × P is not gauge invariant either. Instead, the momentum that is physical, the so-called kinetic momentum (used throughout this article), is (in SI units) \mathbf{p} = m\mathbf{v} = \mathbf{P} - e \mathbf{A} where e is the electric charge of the particle and A the magnetic vector potential of the electromagnetic field. The gauge-invariant angular momentum, that is kinetic angular momentum, is given by \mathbf{K}= \mathbf{r} \times ( \mathbf{P} - e\mathbf{A} ) The interplay with quantum mechanics is discussed further in the article on canonical commutation relations. == Angular momentum in optics == In classical Maxwell electrodynamics the Poynting vector is a linear momentum density of electromagnetic field. \mathbf{S}(\mathbf{r}, t) = \epsilon_0 c^2 \mathbf{E}(\mathbf{r}, t) \times \mathbf{B}(\mathbf{r}, t). The angular momentum density vector \mathbf{L}(\mathbf{r}, t) is given by a vector product as in classical mechanics: \mathbf{L}(\mathbf{r}, t) = \epsilon_0 \mu_0 \mathbf{r} \times \mathbf{S}(\mathbf{r}, t). The above identities are valid locally, i.e. in each space point \mathbf{r} in a given moment t. == Angular momentum in nature and the cosmos == Tropical cyclones and other related weather phenomena involve conservation of angular momentum in order to explain the dynamics. Winds revolve slowly around low pressure systems, mainly due to the coriolis effect. If the low pressure intensifies and the slowly circulating air is drawn toward the center, the molecules must speed up in order to conserve angular momentum. By the time they reach the center, the speeds become destructive.He did not further investigate angular momentum directly in the Principia, saying:From such kind of reflexions also sometimes arise the circular motions of bodies about their own centers. But these are cases which I do not consider in what follows; and it would be too tedious to demonstrate every particular that relates to this subject.However, his geometric proof of the law of areas is an outstanding example of Newton's genius, and indirectly proves angular momentum conservation in the case of a central force. === Law of Areas === ==== Newton's derivation ==== As a planet orbits the Sun, the line between the Sun and the planet sweeps out equal areas in equal intervals of time. This had been known since Kepler expounded his second law of planetary motion. Newton derived a unique geometric proof, and went on to show that the attractive force of the Sun's gravity was the cause of all of Kepler's laws. During the first interval of time, an object is in motion from point A to point B. Undisturbed, it would continue to point c during the second interval. When the object arrives at B, it receives an impulse directed toward point S. The impulse gives it a small added velocity toward S, such that if this were its only velocity, it would move from B to V during the second interval. By the rules of velocity composition, these two velocities add, and point C is found by construction of parallelogram BcCV. Thus the object's path is deflected by the impulse so that it arrives at point C at the end of the second interval. Because the triangles SBc and SBC have the same base SB and the same height Bc or VC, they have the same area. By symmetry, triangle SBc also has the same area as triangle SAB, therefore the object has swept out equal areas SAB and SBC in equal times. At point C, the object receives another impulse toward S, again deflecting its path during the third interval from d to D. Thus it continues to E and beyond, the triangles SAB, SBc, SBC, SCd, SCD, SDe, SDE all having the same area. Allowing the time intervals to become ever smaller, the path ABCDE approaches indefinitely close to a continuous curve. Note that because this derivation is geometric, and no specific force is applied, it proves a more general law than Kepler's second law of planetary motion. It shows that the Law of Areas applies to any central force, attractive or repulsive, continuous or non-continuous, or zero. ==== Conservation of angular momentum in the law of areas ==== The proportionality of angular momentum to the area swept out by a moving object can be understood by realizing that the bases of the triangles, that is, the lines from S to the object, are equivalent to the radius , and that the heights of the triangles are proportional to the perpendicular component of velocity . Hence, if the area swept per unit time is constant, then by the triangular area formula , the product and therefore the product are constant: if and the base length are decreased, and height must increase proportionally. Mass is constant, therefore angular momentum is conserved by this exchange of distance and velocity. In the case of triangle SBC, area is equal to (SB)(VC). Wherever C is eventually located due to the impulse applied at B, the product (SB)(VC), and therefore remain constant. Similarly so for each of the triangles. Another areal proof of conservation of angular momentum for any central force uses Mamikon's sweeping tangents theorem. === After Newton === Leonhard Euler, Daniel Bernoulli, and Patrick d'Arcy all understood angular momentum in terms of conservation of areal velocity, a result of their analysis of Kepler's second law of planetary motion. It is unlikely that they realized the implications for ordinary rotating matter. In 1736 Euler, like Newton, touched on some of the equations of angular momentum in his Mechanica without further developing them. Bernoulli wrote in a 1744 letter of a "moment of rotational motion", possibly the first conception of angular momentum as we now understand it. In 1799, Pierre-Simon Laplace first realized that a fixed plane was associated with rotation—his invariable plane. Louis Poinsot in 1803 began representing rotations as a line segment perpendicular to the rotation, and elaborated on the "conservation of moments". In 1852 Léon Foucault used a gyroscope in an experiment to display the Earth's rotation. William J. M. Rankine's 1858 Manual of Applied Mechanics defined angular momentum in the modern sense for the first time:... a line whose length is proportional to the magnitude of the angular momentum, and whose direction is perpendicular to the plane of motion of the body and of the fixed point, and such, that when the motion of the body is viewed from the extremity of the line, the radius-vector of the body seems to have right-handed rotation.In an 1872 edition of the same book, Rankine stated that "The term angular momentum was introduced by Mr. Hayward," probably referring to R.B. Hayward's article On a Direct Method of estimating Velocities, Accelerations, and all similar Quantities with respect to Axes moveable in any manner in Space with Applications, which was introduced in 1856, and published in 1864. Rankine was mistaken, as numerous publications feature the term starting in the late 18th to early 19th centuries. However, Hayward's article apparently was the first use of the term and the concept seen by much of the English-speaking world. Before this, angular momentum was typically referred to as "momentum of rotation" in English.	[ "planet", "physical quantity", "Metric tensor (general relativity)", "flywheel", "torque", "radius", "Spin (physics)", "neutron star", "Maxwell's equations", "inertial frame", "velocity", "planetary system", "axial vector", "Joule-second", "moment of inertia", "Plane (geometry)", "conservation law", "figure skating", "precession", "Work (physics)", "Poynting vector", "Richard Feynman", "Louis Poinsot", "internal combustion engines", "Impulse (physics)", "magnitude (vector)", "Niels Bohr", "commutation relation", "frequency", "cross product", "white dwarf", "Conservation of angular momentum", "Translational symmetry", "hydrogen atom", "SI derived unit", "rotational", "generalized coordinate", "angular frequency", "Rigid rotor", "ΔT (timekeeping)", "celestial mechanics", "Rotational energy", "Clebsch–Gordan coefficients", "spherical coordinate system", "angular momentum operator", "volume element", "magnetic vector potential", "Specific relative angular momentum", "elementary particle", "conjugate momentum", "radius vector", "atom", "force", "Torque", "Position (vector)", "center of mass", "perpendicular", "total angular momentum", "point particle", "speed", "kinematics", "Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica", "Robert B. Leighton", "rigid body", "electric charge", "quantum mechanical", "Isaac Newton", "Rifling", "angular momentum quantization", "Sun", "relativistic mechanics", "Yrast", "Momentum", "Pion", "acceleration", "Kepler's laws of planetary motion", "precess", "Pierre-Simon Laplace", "Hilbert space", "Continuum mechanics", "Absolute angular momentum", "areal velocity", "exterior product", "William John Macquorn Rankine", "Mass", "density", "Chaotic rotation", "Leonhard Euler", "four-momentum", "Moon", "Speed", "Conservation law", "momentum operator", "relativistic angular momentum", "Pauli–Lubanski pseudovector", "Angular momentum diagrams (quantum mechanics)", "Erwin Schrödinger", "Léon Foucault", "Three-dimensional space", "3D rotation group", "Moment (physics)", "Bohr model", "rest mass", "Heisenberg uncertainty principle", "Bicycle and motorcycle dynamics", "Schrödinger equation", "Intensive and extensive properties", "Units of measurement", "position vector", "Solar System", "Circular motion", "distances", "orbit", "Tidal acceleration", "Cartesian coordinate system", "particle", "radius of gyration", "point spectrum", "charged particle", "rifle", "reduced Planck constant", "gauge invariant", "vector calculus", "Euler angles", "Patrick d'Arcy", "rotational invariance", "antisymmetric tensor", "electron", "symmetry", "Euclidean vector", "photon", "central force", "momentum vector", "closed system", "Motion (physics)", "invariable plane", "operator (physics)", "shape", "mass", "vector projection", "uncertainty principle", "pseudoscalar", "electromagnetic field", "lever", "gravity", "specific angular momentum", "electron shell", "gyroscope", "matter", "Coriolis force", "first law of motion", "Lie algebra", "direction (geometry)", "hurricane", "Lagrangian mechanics", "matrix exponential", "geometric algebra", "Linear motion", "Kerr metric", "Noether's theorem", "Operator (physics)", "wavelength", "relativistic quantum mechanics", "commutator", "inertia", "differential (infinitesimal)", "perpendicular component", "angular velocity", "Hamiltonian mechanics", "rotation group SO(3)", "Mechanica", "Relativistic angular momentum", "Parallelogram of force", "clockwise", "Dimensional analysis", "Spinning top", "Point particle", "black hole", "scalar (mathematics)", "canonical commutation relation", "spin–orbit interaction", "right-hand rule", "spinning top", "Angular momentum coupling", "List of equations in classical mechanics", "flying disc", "International system of units", "nutation", "Matthew Sands", "Rotation around a fixed axis", "Lunar theory", "2-form", "vector notation", "Rotation operator (quantum mechanics)", "SI units", "derivative", "Newton's third law of motion", "canonical momentum", "plane (geometry)", "Newtonian mechanics", "moment of mass", "centripetal force", "tensor", "Energy", "position operator", "Invariable plane", "fluid", "infinitesimal", "Lie group", "Noether charge", "Tropical cyclones", "four-position", "Square (algebra)", "Inertial navigation system", "quantum mechanics", "four-vector", "Ice skating", "Quantum number", "unit vector", "Displacement (vector)", "Orders of magnitude (angular momentum)", "Johannes Kepler", "Newton's laws of motion", "Classical central-force problem", "volume integral", "Daniel Bernoulli", "Euler–Lagrange equation", "curved space", "measurement in quantum mechanics", "Earth", "Lorentz force", "satellite", "four-velocity", "linear momentum", "steam engines", "central potential", "Angular momentum of light", "pseudovector", "momentum" ]
2,840	Plum pudding model	The plum pudding model is an obsolete scientific model of the atom. It was first proposed by J. J. Thomson in 1904 following his discovery of the electron in 1897, and was rendered obsolete by Ernest Rutherford's discovery of the atomic nucleus in 1911. The model tried to account for two properties of atoms then known: that there are electrons, and that atoms have no net electric charge. Logically there had to be an equal amount of positive charge to balance out the negative charge of the electrons. As Thomson had no idea as to the source of this positive charge, he tentatively proposed that it was everywhere in the atom, and that the atom was spherical. This was the mathematically simplest hypothesis to fit the available evidence, or lack thereof. In such a sphere, the negatively charged electrons would distribute themselves in a more or less even manner throughout the volume, simultaneously repelling each other while being attracted to the positive sphere's center. Despite Thomson's efforts, his model couldn't account for emission spectra and valencies. Based on experimental studies of alpha particle scattering (in the gold foil experiment), Ernest Rutherford developed an alternative model for the atom featuring a compact nucleus where the positive charge is concentrated. Thomson's model is popularly referred to as the "plum pudding model" with the notion that the electrons are distributed uniformly like raisins in a plum pudding. Neither Thomson nor his colleagues ever used this analogy. It seems to have been coined by popular science writers to make the model easier to understand for the layman. The analogy is perhaps misleading because Thomson likened the positive sphere to a liquid rather than a solid since he thought the electrons moved around in it. ==Significance== Thomson's model was the first atomic model to describe an internal structure. Before this, atoms were simply the basic units of weight by which the chemical elements combined, and their only properties were valency and relative weight to hydrogen. The model had no properties which concerned physicists, such as electric charge, magnetic moment, volume, or absolute mass, and because of this some physicists had doubted atoms even existed. Thomson hypothesized that the quantity, arrangement, and motions of electrons in the atom could explain its physical and chemical properties, such as emission spectra, valencies, reactivity, and ionization. He was on the right track, though his approach was based on classical mechanics and he did not have the insight to incorporate quantized energy into it. == Background == Throughout the 19th century evidence from chemistry and statistical mechanics accumulated that matter was composed of atoms. The structure of the atom was discussed, and by the end of the century the leading model By 1890, J.J. Thomson had his own version called the "nebular atom" hypothesis, in which atoms were composed of immaterial vortices and suggested similarities between the arrangement of vortices and periodic regularity found among the chemical elements. Thomson's discovery of the electron in 1897 changed his views. Thomson called them "corpuscles" (particles), but they were more commonly called "electrons", the name G. J. Stoney had coined for the "fundamental unit quantity of electricity" in 1891. However even late in 1899, few scientists believed in subatomic particles. Another emerging scientific theme of the 19th century was the discovery and study of radioactivity. Thomson discovered the electron by studying cathode rays, and in 1900 Henri Becquerel determined that the radiation from uranium, now called beta particles, had the same charge/mass ratio as cathode rays. Prout's hypothesis was dismissed by chemists when by the 1830s it was found that some elements seemed to have a non-integer atomic weight—e.g. chlorine has an atomic weight of about 35.45. But the idea continued to intrigue scientists. The discrepancies were eventually explained with the discovery of isotopes in 1912. A few months after Thomson's paper appeared, George FitzGerald suggested that the corpuscle identified by Thomson from cathode rays and proposed as parts of an atom was a "free electron", as described by physicist Joseph Larmor and Hendrik Lorentz. While Thomson did not adopt the terminology, the connection convinced other scientists that cathode rays were particles, an important step in their eventual acceptance of an atomic model based on sub-atomic particles. In 1899 Thomson reiterated his atomic model in a paper that showed that negative electricity created by ultraviolet light landing on a metal (known now as the photoelectric effect) has the same mass-to-charge ratio as cathode rays; then he applied his previous method for determining the charge on ions to the negative electric particles created by ultraviolet light. He estimated that the electron's mass was 0.0014 times that of the hydrogen ion (as a fraction: ). In the conclusion of this paper he writes: He then gives a detailed mechanical analysis of such a system, distributing the electrons uniformly around a ring. The attraction of the positive electrification is balanced by the mutual repulsion of the electrons. His analysis focuses on stability, looking for cases where small changes in position are countered by restoring forces. After discussing his many formulae for stability he turned to analysing patterns in the number of electrons in various concentric rings of stable configurations. These regular patterns Thomson argued are analogous to the periodic law of chemistry behind the structure of the periodic table. This concept, that a model based on subatomic particles could account for chemical trends, encouraged interest in Thomson's model and influenced future work even if the details Thomson's electron assignments turned out to be incorrect. Thomson at this point believed that all the mass of the atom was carried by the electrons. This would mean that even a small atom would have to contain thousands of electrons, and the positive electrification that encapsulated them was without mass. ===1905 lecture on electron arrangements=== In a lecture delivered to the Royal Institution of Great Britain in 1905, Thomson explained that it was too computationally difficult for him to calculate the movements of large numbers of electrons in the positive sphere, so he proposed a practical experiment. This involved magnetised pins pushed into cork discs and set afloat in a basin of water. The pins were oriented such that they repelled each other. Above the centre of the basin was suspended an electromagnet that attracted the pins. The equilibrium arrangement the pins took informed Thomson on what arrangements the electrons in an atom might take. For instance, he observed that while five pins would arrange themselves in a stable pentagon around the centre, six pins could not form a stable hexagon. Instead, one pin would move to the centre and the other five would form a pentagon around the centre pin, and this arrangement was stable. As he added more pins, they would arrange themselves in concentric rings around the centre. The experiment functioned in two dimensions instead of three, but Thomson inferred the electrons in the atom arranged themselves in concentric shells and they could move within these shells but did not move from one shell to another them except when electrons were added or subtracted from the atom. ===1906 Estimating electrons per atom=== Before 1906 Thomson considered the atomic weight to be due to the mass of the electrons (which he continued to call "corpuscles"). Based on his own estimates of the electron mass, an atom would need tens of thousands electrons to account for the mass. In 1906 he used three different methods, X-ray scattering, beta ray absorption, or optical properties of gases, to estimate that "number of corpuscles is not greatly different from the atomic weight". This reduced the number of electrons to tens or at most a couple of hundred and that in turn meant that the positive sphere in Thomson's model contained most of the mass of the atom. This meant that Thomson's mechanical stability work from 1904 and the comparison to the periodic table were no longer valid. This meant that almost all of the atom's mass had to be carried by the positive sphere, whatever it was made of. Thomson in this book estimated that a hydrogen atom is 1,700 times heavier than an electron (the current measurement is 1,837). Thomson noted that no scientist had yet found a positively charged particle smaller than a hydrogen ion. He also wrote that the positive charge of an atom is a multiple of a basic unit of positive charge, equal to the negative charge of an electron. Thomson refused to jump to the conclusion that the basic unit of positive charge has a mass equal to that of the hydrogen ion, arguing that scientists first had to know how many electrons an atom contains. For all he could tell, a hydrogen ion might still contain a few electrons—perhaps two electrons and three units of positive charge. === 1910 Multiple scattering === Thomson's difficulty with beta scattering in 1906 lead him to renewed interest in the topic. He encouraged J. Arnold Crowther to experiment with beta scattering through thin foils and, in 1910, Thomson produced a new theory of beta scattering. The two innovations in this paper was the introduction of scattering from the positive sphere of the atom and analysis that multiple or compound scattering was critical to the final results. Thomson therefore came close to deducing the existence of the proton, which was something Rutherford eventually did. In Rutherford's model of the atom, the protons are clustered in a very small nucleus, but in Thomson's alternative model, the positive units were spread throughout the atom. == Thomson's 1910 beta scattering model== In his 1910 paper "On the Scattering of rapidly moving Electrified Particles", Thomson presented equations that modelled how beta particles scatter in a collision with an atom. Consider a beta particle passing through the positive sphere with its initial trajectory at a lateral distance b from the centre. The path is assumed to have a very small deflection and therefore is treated here as a straight line. Inside a sphere of uniformly distributed positive charge the force exerted on the beta particle at any point along its path through the sphere would be directed along the radius with magnitude: F = \frac{k q_\text{e} q_\text{g}}{r^2} \cdot \frac{r^3}{R^3} The component of force perpendicular to the trajectory and thus deflecting the path of the particle would be: F_\text{y} = \frac{k q_\text{e} q_\text{g}}{r^2} \cdot \frac{r^3}{R^3} \cdot \cos\varphi = \frac{b k q_\text{e} q_\text{g}}{R^3} The lateral change in momentum py is therefore \Delta p_\text{y} = F_\text{y} t =\frac{b k q_\text{e} q_\text{g}}{R^3} \cdot \frac{L}{v} The resulting angular deflection, \theta_2, is given by \tan\theta_2 = \frac{\Delta p_\text{y}}{p_\text{x}} = \frac{b k q_\text{e} q_\text{g}}{R^3} \cdot \frac{L}{v} \cdot \frac{1}{mv} where px is the average horizontal momentum taken to be equal to the incoming momentum. Since we already know the deflection is very small, we can treat \tan\theta_2 as being equal to \theta_2. To find the average deflection angle \bar\theta_2, the angle for each value of b and the corresponding L are added across the face sphere, then divided by the cross-section area. L=2\sqrt{R^2 -b^2} per Pythagorean theorem. This should not have been possible according to the Thomson model: the scattering into large angles should have been negligible. The odds of a beta particle being scattered by more than 90° under such circumstances is astronomically small, and since alpha particles typically have much more momentum than beta particles, their deflection should be smaller still. The Thomson models simply could not produce electrostatic forces of sufficient strength to cause such large deflection. The charges in the Thomson model were too diffuse. This led Rutherford to discard the Thomson for a new model where the positive charge of the atom is concentrated in a tiny nucleus. Rutherford went on to make more compelling discoveries. In Thomson's model, the positive charge sphere was just an abstract component, but Rutherford found something concrete to attribute the positive charge to: particles he dubbed "protons". Whereas Thomson believed that the electron count was roughly correlated to the atomic weight, Rutherford showed that (in a neutral atom) it is exactly equal to the atomic number. Thomson hypothesised that the arrangement of the electrons in the atom somehow determined the spectral lines of a chemical element. He was on the right track, but it had nothing to do with how atoms circulated in a sphere of positive charge. Scientists eventually discovered that it had to do with how electrons absorb and release energy in discrete quantities, moving through energy levels which correspond to emission and absorption spectra. Thomson had not incorporated quantum mechanics into his atomic model, which at the time was a very new field of physics. Niels Bohr and Erwin Schroedinger later incorporated quantum mechanics into the atomic model. === Rutherford's nuclear model === Rutherford's 1911 paper on alpha particle scattering showed that Thomson's scattering model could not explain the large angle scattering and it showed that multiple scattering was not necessary to explain the data. However, in the years immediately following its publication few scientists took note. ==Origin of the nickname== The first known writer to compare Thomson's model to a plum pudding was an anonymous reporter in an article for the British pharmaceutical magazine The Chemist and Druggist in August 1906. The analogy was never used by Thomson nor his colleagues. It seems to have been coined by popular science writers to make the model easier to understand for the layman.	[ "emission spectra", "electron", "Ernest Rutherford", "cathode rays", "Valence (chemistry)", "August Becker", "Philosophical Magazine", "vortex theory of the atom", "James Crowther", "spectral line", "Ernest Marsden", "Rutherford scattering experiments", "alpha particle", "atomic nucleus", "Radioactive decay", "periodic table", "Lord Kelvin", "Rutherford model", "Thomson problem", "plum pudding", "Henri Becquerel", "isotopes", "Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London", "Joseph Larmor", "Coulomb constant", "John L. Heilbron", "proton", "Erwin Schroedinger", "elementary charge", "George Johnstone Stoney", "Niels Bohr", "atomic spectra", "chlorine", "periodic law", "alpha particles", "beta decay", "photoelectric effect", "William Prout", "Hans Geiger", "magnetic moment", "Royal Institution of Great Britain", "beta particle", "atom", "J. J. Thomson", "Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh", "Hendrik Lorentz", "particle", "chord (geometry)", "James Arnold Crowther", "Pythagorean theorem", "electric charge", "George Francis FitzGerald", "Proton-to-electron mass ratio", "Princeton University Press" ]
2,844	History of atomic theory	Atomic theory is the scientific theory that matter is composed of particles called atoms. The definition of the word "atom" has changed over the years in response to scientific discoveries. Initially, it referred to a hypothetical concept of there being some fundamental particle of matter, too small to be seen by the naked eye, that could not be divided. Then the definition was refined to being the basic particles of the chemical elements, when chemists observed that elements seemed to combine with each other in ratios of small whole numbers. Then physicists discovered that these particles had an internal structure of their own and therefore perhaps did not deserve to be called "atoms", but renaming atoms would have been impractical by that point. Atomic theory is one of the most important scientific developments in history, crucial to all the physical sciences. At the start of The Feynman Lectures on Physics, physicist and Nobel laureate Richard Feynman offers the atomic hypothesis as the single most prolific scientific concept. ==Philosophical atomism== The basic idea that matter is made up of tiny indivisible particles is an old idea that appeared in many ancient cultures. The word atom is derived from the ancient Greek word atomos, which means "uncuttable". This ancient idea was based in philosophical reasoning rather than scientific reasoning. Modern atomic theory is not based on these old concepts. In the early 19th century, the scientist John Dalton noticed that chemical substances seemed to combine with each other by discrete and consistent units of weight, and he decided to use the word atom to refer to these units. ==Groundwork== Working in the late 17th century, Robert Boyle developed the concept of a chemical element as substance different from a compound. Lavoisier also defined the law of conservation of mass, which states that in a chemical reaction, matter does not appear nor disappear into thin air; the total mass remains the same even if the substances involved were transformed. ==Dalton's law of multiple proportions== John Dalton studied data gathered by himself and by other scientists. He noticed a pattern that later came to be known as the law of multiple proportions: in compounds which contain two particular elements, the amount of Element A per measure of Element B will differ across these compounds by ratios of small whole numbers. This suggested that each element combines with other elements in multiples of a basic quantity. In 1804, Dalton explained his atomic theory to his friend and fellow chemist Thomas Thomson, who published an explanation of Dalton's theory in his book A System of Chemistry in 1807. According to Thomson, Dalton's idea first occurred to him when experimenting with "olefiant gas" (ethylene) and "carburetted hydrogen gas" (methane). Dalton found that "carburetted hydrogen gas" contains twice as much hydrogen per measure of carbon as "olefiant gas", and concluded that a molecule of "olefiant gas" is one carbon atom and one hydrogen atom, and a molecule of "carburetted hydrogen gas" is one carbon atom and two hydrogen atoms. In reality, an ethylene molecule has two carbon atoms and four hydrogen atoms (C2H4), and a methane molecule has one carbon atom and four hydrogen atoms (CH4). In this particular case, Dalton was mistaken about the formulas of these compounds, but he got them right in the following examples: Example 1 — tin oxides: Dalton identified two types of tin oxide. One is a grey powder that Dalton referred to as "the protoxide of tin", which is 88.1% tin and 11.9% oxygen. The other is a white powder which Dalton referred to as "the deutoxide of tin", which is 78.7% tin and 21.3% oxygen. Adjusting these figures, in the grey powder there is about 13.5 g of oxygen for every 100 g of tin, and in the white powder there is about 27 g of oxygen for every 100 g of tin. 13.5 and 27 form a ratio of 1:2. These compounds are known today as tin(II) oxide (SnO) and tin(IV) oxide (SnO2). In Dalton's terminology, a "protoxide" is a molecule containing a single oxygen atom, and a "deutoxide" molecule has two. The modern equivalents of his terms would be monoxide and dioxide. Example 2 — iron oxides: Dalton identified two oxides of iron. There is one type of iron oxide that is a black powder which Dalton referred to as "the protoxide of iron", which is 78.1% iron and 21.9% oxygen. The other iron oxide is a red powder, which Dalton referred to as "the intermediate or red oxide of iron" which is 70.4% iron and 29.6% oxygen. Adjusting these figures, in the black powder there is about 28 g of oxygen for every 100 g of iron, and in the red powder there is about 42 g of oxygen for every 100 g of iron. 28 and 42 form a ratio of 2:3. These compounds are iron(II) oxide and iron(III) oxide and their formulas are FeO and Fe2O3 respectively. Iron(II) oxide's formula is normally written as FeO, but since it is a crystalline substance one could alternately write it as Fe2O2, and when we contrast that with Fe2O3, the 2:3 ratio stands out plainly. Dalton described the "intermediate oxide" as being "2 atoms protoxide and 1 of oxygen", which adds up to two atoms of iron and three of oxygen. That averages to one and a half atoms of oxygen for every iron atom, putting it midway between a "protoxide" and a "deutoxide". Example 3 — nitrogen oxides: Dalton was aware of three oxides of nitrogen: "nitrous oxide", "nitrous gas", and "nitric acid". These compounds are known today as nitrous oxide, nitric oxide, and nitrogen dioxide respectively. "Nitrous oxide" is 63.3% nitrogen and 36.7% oxygen, which means it has 80 g of oxygen for every 140 g of nitrogen. "Nitrous gas" is 44.05% nitrogen and 55.95% oxygen, which means there is 160 g of oxygen for every 140 g of nitrogen. "Nitric acid" is 29.5% nitrogen and 70.5% oxygen, which means it has 320 g of oxygen for every 140 g of nitrogen. 80 g, 160 g, and 320 g form a ratio of 1:2:4. The formulas for these compounds are N2O, NO, and NO2. Dalton defined an atom as being the "ultimate particle" of a chemical substance, and he used the term "compound atom" to refer to "ultimate particles" which contain two or more elements. This is inconsistent with the modern definition, wherein an atom is the basic particle of a chemical element and a molecule is an agglomeration of atoms. The term "compound atom" was confusing to some of Dalton's contemporaries as the word "atom" implies indivisibility, but he responded that if a carbon dioxide "atom" is divided, it ceases to be carbon dioxide. The carbon dioxide "atom" is indivisible in the sense that it cannot be divided into smaller carbon dioxide particles. Dalton made the following assumptions on how "elementary atoms" combined to form "compound atoms" (what we today refer to as molecules). When two elements can only form one compound, he assumed it was one atom of each, which he called a "binary compound". If two elements can form two compounds, the first compound is a binary compound and the second is a "ternary compound" consisting of one atom of the first element and two of the second. If two elements can form three compounds between them, then the third compound is a "quaternary" compound containing one atom of the first element and three of the second. Dalton thought that water was a "binary compound", i.e. one hydrogen atom and one oxygen atom. Dalton did not know that in their natural gaseous state, the ultimate particles of oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen exist in pairs (O2, N2, and H2). Nor was he aware of valencies. These properties of atoms were discovered later in the 19th century. Because atoms were too small to be directly weighed using the methods of the 19th century, Dalton instead expressed the weights of the myriad atoms as multiples of the hydrogen atom's weight, which Dalton knew was the lightest element. By his measurements, 7 grams of oxygen will combine with 1 gram of hydrogen to make 8 grams of water with nothing left over, and assuming a water molecule to be one oxygen atom and one hydrogen atom, he concluded that oxygen's atomic weight is 7. In reality it is 16. Aside from the crudity of early 19th century measurement tools, the main reason for this error was that Dalton didn't know that the water molecule in fact has two hydrogen atoms, not one. Had he known, he would have doubled his estimate to a more accurate 14. This error was corrected in 1811 by Amedeo Avogadro. Avogadro proposed that equal volumes of any two gases, at equal temperature and pressure, contain equal numbers of molecules (in other words, the mass of a gas's particles does not affect the volume that it occupies). Avogadro's hypothesis, now usually called Avogadro's law, provided a method for deducing the relative weights of the molecules of gaseous elements, for if the hypothesis is correct relative gas densities directly indicate the relative weights of the particles that compose the gases. This way of thinking led directly to a second hypothesis: the particles of certain elemental gases were pairs of atoms, and when reacting chemically these molecules often split in two. For instance, the fact that two liters of hydrogen will react with just one liter of oxygen to produce two liters of water vapor (at constant pressure and temperature) suggested that a single oxygen molecule splits in two in order to form two molecules of water. The formula of water is H2O, not HO. Avogadro measured oxygen's atomic weight to be 15.074. ==Opposition to atomic theory== Dalton's atomic theory attracted widespread interest but not everyone accepted it at first. The law of multiple proportions was shown not to be a universal law when it came to organic substances, whose molecules can be quite large. For instance, in oleic acid there is 34 g of hydrogen for every 216 g of carbon, and in methane there is 72 g of hydrogen for every 216 g of carbon. 34 and 72 form a ratio of 17:36, which is not a ratio of small whole numbers. We know now that carbon-based substances can have very large molecules, larger than any the other elements can form. Oleic acid's formula is C18H34O2 and methane's is CH4. The law of multiple proportions by itself was not complete proof, and atomic theory was not universally accepted until the end of the 19th century. Amedeo Avogadro did the opposite: he exclusively used the word "molecule" in his writings, eschewing the word "atom", instead using the term "elementary molecule". Jöns Jacob Berzelius used the term "organic atoms" to refer to particles containing three or more elements, because he thought this only existed in organic compounds. Jean-Baptiste Dumas used the terms "physical atoms" and "chemical atoms"; a "physical atom" was a particle that cannot be divided by physical means such as temperature and pressure, and a "chemical atom" was a particle that could not be divided by chemical reactions. The modern definitions of atom and molecule—an atom being the basic particle of an element, and a molecule being an agglomeration of atoms—were established in the late half of the 19th century. A key event was the Karlsruhe Congress in Germany in 1860. As the first international congress of chemists, its goal was to establish some standards in the community. A major proponent of the modern distinction between atoms and molecules was Stanislao Cannizzaro. Cannizzaro criticized past chemists such as Berzelius for not accepting that the particles of certain gaseous elements are actually pairs of atoms, which led to mistakes in their formulation of certain compounds. Berzelius believed that hydrogen gas and chlorine gas particles are solitary atoms. But he observed that when one liter of hydrogen reacts with one liter of chlorine, they form two liters of hydrogen chloride instead of one. Berzelius decided that Avogadro's law does not apply to compounds. Cannizzaro preached that if scientists just accepted the existence of single-element molecules, such discrepancies in their findings would be easily resolved. But Berzelius did not even have a word for that. Berzelius used the term "elementary atom" for a gas particle which contained just one element and "compound atom" for particles which contained two or more elements, but there was nothing to distinguish H2 from H since Berzelius did not believe in H2. So Cannizzaro called for a redefinition so that scientists could understand that a hydrogen molecule can split into two hydrogen atoms in the course of a chemical reaction. A second objection to atomic theory was philosophical. Scientists in the 19th century had no way of directly observing atoms. They inferred the existence of atoms through indirect observations, such as Dalton's law of multiple proportions. Some scientists adopted positions aligned with the philosophy of positivism, arguing that scientists should not attempt to deduce the deeper reality of the universe, but only systemize what patterns they could directly observe. ==Isomerism== Scientists discovered some substances have the exact same chemical content but different properties. For instance, in 1827, Friedrich Wöhler discovered that silver fulminate and silver cyanate are both 107 parts silver, 12 parts carbon, 14 parts nitrogen, and 16 parts oxygen (we now know their formulas as both AgCNO). In 1830 Jöns Jacob Berzelius introduced the term isomerism to describe the phenomenon. In 1860, Louis Pasteur hypothesized that the molecules of isomers might have the same set of atoms but in different arrangements. In 1874, Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff proposed that the carbon atom bonds to other atoms in a tetrahedral arrangement. Working from this, he explained the structures of organic molecules in such a way that he could predict how many isomers a compound could have. Consider, for example, pentane (C5H12). In van 't Hoff's way of modelling molecules, there are three possible configurations for pentane, and scientists did go on to discover three and only three isomers of pentane. Isomerism was not something that could be fully explained by alternative theories to atomic theory, such as radical theory and the theory of types. ==Mendeleev's periodic table== Dmitrii Mendeleev noticed that when he arranged the elements in a row according to their atomic weights, there was a certain periodicity to them. For instance, the second element, lithium, had similar properties to the ninth element, sodium, and the sixteenth element, potassium — a period of seven. Likewise, beryllium, magnesium, and calcium were similar and all were seven places apart from each other on Mendeleev's table. Using these patterns, Mendeleev predicted the existence and properties of new elements, which were later discovered in nature: scandium, gallium, and germanium. The elements on the periodic table were originally arranged in order of increasing atomic weight. However, in a number of places chemists chose to swap the positions of certain adjacent elements so that they appeared in a group with other elements with similar properties. For instance, tellurium is placed before iodine even though tellurium is heavier (127.6 vs 126.9) so that iodine can be in the same column as the other halogens. The modern periodic table is based on atomic number, which is equivalent to the nuclear charge, a change had to wait for the discovery of the nucleus. James Clerk Maxwell, a vocal proponent of atomism, revived the kinetic theory in 1860 and 1867. His key insight was that the velocity of particles in a gas would vary around an average value, introducing the concept of a distribution function. Ludwig Boltzmann and Rudolf Clausius expanded his work on gases and the laws of thermodynamics especially the second law relating to entropy. In the 1870s, Josiah Willard Gibbs extended the laws of entropy and thermodynamics and coined the term "statistical mechanics." Boltzmann defended the atomistic hypothesis against major detractors from the time like Ernst Mach or energeticists like Wilhelm Ostwald, who considered that energy was the elementary quantity of reality. At the beginning of the 20th century, Albert Einstein independently reinvented Gibbs' laws, because they had only been printed in an obscure American journal. Einstein later commented that had he known of Gibbs' work, he would "not have published those papers at all, but confined myself to the treatment of some few points [that were distinct]." All of statistical mechanics and the laws of heat, gas, and entropy took the existence of atoms as a necessary postulate. ===Brownian motion=== In 1827, the British botanist Robert Brown observed that dust particles inside pollen grains floating in water constantly jiggled about for no apparent reason. In 1905, Einstein theorized that this Brownian motion was caused by the water molecules continuously knocking the grains about, and developed a mathematical model to describe it. This model was validated experimentally in 1908 by French physicist Jean Perrin, who used Einstein's equations to measure the size of atoms. {\| class="wikitable" \|+ Atomic masses in kilograms \|- ! Molecule !! Perrin's measurements A Crookes tube is a sealed glass container in which two electrodes are separated by a vacuum. When a voltage is applied across the electrodes, cathode rays are generated, creating a glowing patch where they strike the glass at the opposite end of the tube. Through experimentation, Thomson discovered that the rays could be deflected by electric fields and magnetic fields, which meant that these rays were not a form of light but were composed of very light charged particles, and their charge was negative. Thomson called these particles "corpuscles". He measured their mass-to-charge ratio to be several orders of magnitude smaller than that of the hydrogen atom, the smallest atom. This ratio was the same regardless of what the electrodes were made of and what the trace gas in the tube was. In contrast to those corpuscles, positive ions created by electrolysis or X-ray radiation had mass-to-charge ratios that varied depending on the material of the electrodes and the type of gas in the reaction chamber, indicating they were different kinds of particles. In 1899, he showed that negative electricity created by ultraviolet light landing on a metal (known now as the photoelectric effect) has the same mass-to-charge ratio as cathode rays; then he applied his previous method for determining the charge on ions to the negative electric particles created by ultraviolet light. These "corpuscles" were so light yet carried so much charge that Thomson concluded they must be the basic particles of electricity, and for that reason other scientists decided that these "corpuscles" should instead be called electrons following an 1894 suggestion by George Johnstone Stoney for naming the basic unit of electrical charge. In 1904, Thomson published a paper describing a new model of the atom. Electrons reside within atoms, and they transplant themselves from one atom to the next in a chain in the action of an electrical current. When electrons do not flow, their negative charge logically must be balanced out by some source of positive charge within the atom so as to render the atom electrically neutral. Having no clue as to the source of this positive charge, Thomson tentatively proposed that the positive charge was everywhere in the atom, the atom being shaped like a sphere—this was the mathematically simplest model to fit the available evidence (or lack of it). The balance of electrostatic forces would distribute the electrons throughout this sphere in a more or less even manner. Thomson further explained that ions are atoms that have a surplus or shortage of electrons. Thomson's model is popularly known as the plum pudding model, based on the idea that the electrons are distributed throughout the sphere of positive charge with the same density as raisins in a plum pudding. Neither Thomson nor his colleagues ever used this analogy. It seems to have been a conceit of popular science writers. The analogy suggests that the positive sphere is like a solid, but Thomson likened it to a liquid, as he proposed that the electrons moved around in it in patterns governed by the electrostatic forces. Thus the positive electrification in Thomson's model was a temporary concept. Thomson's model was incomplete, it could not predict any of the known properties of the atom such as emission spectra or valencies. In 1906, Robert A. Millikan and Harvey Fletcher performed the oil drop experiment in which they measured the charge of an electron to be about -1.6 × 10−19, a value now defined as -1 e. Since the hydrogen ion and the electron were known to be indivisible and a hydrogen atom is neutral in charge, it followed that the positive charge in hydrogen was equal to this value, i.e. 1 e. ==Discovery of the nucleus== Thomson's plum pudding model was challenged in 1911 by one of his former students, Ernest Rutherford, who presented a new model to explain new experimental data. The new model proposed a concentrated center of charge and mass that was later dubbed the atomic nucleus. Ernest Rutherford and his colleagues Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden came to have doubts about the Thomson model after they encountered difficulties when they tried to build an instrument to measure the charge-to-mass ratio of alpha particles (these are positively-charged particles emitted by certain radioactive substances such as radium). The alpha particles were being scattered by the air in the detection chamber, which made the measurements unreliable. Thomson had encountered a similar problem in his work on cathode rays, which he solved by creating a near-perfect vacuum in his instruments. Rutherford didn't think he'd run into this same problem because alpha particles usually have much more momentum than electrons. According to Thomson's model of the atom, the positive charge in the atom is not concentrated enough to produce an electric field strong enough to deflect an alpha particle. Yet there was scattering, so Rutherford and his colleagues decided to investigate this scattering carefully. Between 1908 and 1913, Rutherford and his colleagues performed a series of experiments in which they bombarded thin foils of metal with a beam of alpha particles. They spotted alpha particles being deflected by angles greater than 90°. According to Thomson's model, all of the alpha particles should have passed through with negligible deflection. Rutherford deduced that the positive charge of the atom is not distributed throughout the atom's volume as Thomson believed, but is concentrated in a tiny nucleus at the center. This nucleus also carries most of the atom's mass. Only such an intense concentration of charge, anchored by its high mass, could produce an electric field strong enough to deflect the alpha particles as observed. ==Bohr model== Rutherford deduced the existence of the atomic nucleus through his experiments but he had nothing to say about how the electrons were arranged around it. In 1912, Niels Bohr joined Rutherford's lab and began his work on a quantum model of the atom. The dynamical structure of these models was still classical, but in 1913, Bohr abandon the classical approach. He started his Bohr model of the atom with a quantum hypothesis: an electron could only orbit the nucleus in particular circular orbits with fixed angular momentum and energy, its distance from the nucleus (i.e., their radii) being proportional to its energy. Under this model an electron could not lose energy in a continuous manner; instead, it could only make instantaneous "quantum leaps" between the fixed energy levels. Bohr's model was not perfect. It could only predict the spectral lines of hydrogen, not those of multielectron atoms. Worse still, it could not even account for all features of the hydrogen spectrum: as spectrographic technology improved, it was discovered that applying a magnetic field caused spectral lines to multiply in a way that Bohr's model couldn't explain. In 1916, Arnold Sommerfeld added elliptical orbits to the Bohr model to explain the extra emission lines, but this made the model very difficult to use, and it still couldn't explain more complex atoms. ==Discovery of isotopes== While experimenting with the products of radioactive decay, in 1913 radiochemist Frederick Soddy discovered that there appeared to be more than one variety of some elements. The term isotope was coined by Margaret Todd as a suitable name for these varieties. That same year, J. J. Thomson conducted an experiment in which he channeled a stream of neon ions through magnetic and electric fields, striking a photographic plate at the other end. He observed two glowing patches on the plate, which suggested two different deflection trajectories. Thomson concluded this was because some of the neon ions had a different mass. The nature of this differing mass would later be explained by the discovery of neutrons in 1932: all atoms of the same element contain the same number of protons, while different isotopes have different numbers of neutrons. ==Discovery of the proton== Back in 1815, William Prout observed that the atomic weights of the known elements were multiples of hydrogen's atomic weight, so he hypothesized that all atoms are agglomerations of hydrogen, a particle which he dubbed "the protyle". Prout's hypothesis was put into doubt when some elements were found to deviate from this pattern—e.g. chlorine atoms on average weigh 35.45 daltons—but when isotopes were discovered in 1913, Prout's observation gained renewed attention. In 1898, J. J. Thomson found that the positive charge of a hydrogen ion was equal to the negative charge of a single electron. In an April 1911 paper concerning his studies on alpha particle scattering, Ernest Rutherford estimated that the charge of an atomic nucleus, expressed as a multiplier of hydrogen's nuclear charge (qe), is roughly half the atom's atomic weight. In June 1911, Van den Broek noted that on the periodic table, each successive chemical element increased in atomic weight on average by 2, which in turn suggested that each successive element's nuclear charge increased by 1 qe. In 1913, van den Broek further proposed that the electric charge of an atom's nucleus, expressed as a multiplier of the elementary charge, is equal to the element's sequential position on the periodic table. Rutherford defined this position as being the element's atomic number. In 1913, Henry Moseley measured the X-ray emissions of all the elements on the periodic table and found that the frequency of the X-ray emissions was a mathematical function of the element's atomic number and the charge of a hydrogen nucleus . In 1917 Rutherford bombarded nitrogen gas with alpha particles and observed hydrogen ions being emitted from the gas. Rutherford concluded that the alpha particles struck the nuclei of the nitrogen atoms, causing hydrogen ions to split off. These observations led Rutherford to conclude that the hydrogen nucleus was a singular particle with a positive charge equal to that of the electron's negative charge. The name "proton" was suggested by Rutherford at an informal meeting of fellow physicists in Cardiff in 1920. The charge number of an atomic nucleus was found to be equal to the element's ordinal position on the periodic table. The nuclear charge number thus provided a simple and clear-cut way of distinguishing the chemical elements from each other, as opposed to Lavoisier's classic definition of a chemical element being a substance that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by chemical reactions. The charge number or proton number was thereafter referred to as the atomic number of the element. In 1923, the International Committee on Chemical Elements officially declared the atomic number to be the distinguishing quality of a chemical element. During the 1920s, some writers defined the atomic number as being the number of "excess protons" in a nucleus. Before the discovery of the neutron, scientists believed that the atomic nucleus contained a number of "nuclear electrons" which cancelled out the positive charge of some of its protons. This explained why the atomic weights of most atoms were higher than their atomic numbers. Helium, for instance, was thought to have four protons and two nuclear electrons in the nucleus, leaving two excess protons and a net nuclear charge of 2+. After the neutron was discovered, scientists realized the helium nucleus in fact contained two protons and two neutrons. ==Discovery of the neutron== Physicists in the 1920s believed that the atomic nucleus contained protons plus a number of "nuclear electrons" that reduced the overall charge. These "nuclear electrons" were distinct from the electrons that orbited the nucleus. This incorrect hypothesis would have explained why the atomic numbers of the elements were less than their atomic weights, and why radioactive elements emit electrons (beta radiation) in the process of nuclear decay. Rutherford even hypothesized that a proton and an electron could bind tightly together into a "neutral doublet". Rutherford wrote that the existence of such "neutral doublets" moving freely through space would provide a more plausible explanation for how the heavier elements could have formed in the genesis of the Universe, given that it is hard for a lone proton to fuse with a large atomic nucleus because of the repulsive electric field. In 1928, Walter Bothe observed that beryllium emitted a highly penetrating, electrically neutral radiation when bombarded with alpha particles. It was later discovered that this radiation could knock hydrogen atoms out of paraffin wax. Initially it was thought to be high-energy gamma radiation, since gamma radiation had a similar effect on electrons in metals, but James Chadwick found that the ionization effect was too strong for it to be due to electromagnetic radiation, so long as energy and momentum were conserved in the interaction. In 1932, Chadwick exposed various elements, such as hydrogen and nitrogen, to the mysterious "beryllium radiation", and by measuring the energies of the recoiling charged particles, he deduced that the radiation was actually composed of electrically neutral particles which could not be massless like the gamma ray, but instead were required to have a mass similar to that of a proton. Chadwick called this new particle "the neutron" and believed that it to be a proton and electron fused together because the neutron had about the same mass as a proton and an electron's mass is negligible by comparison. Neutrons are not in fact a fusion of a proton and an electron. ==Modern quantum mechanical models== In 1924, Louis de Broglie proposed that all particles—particularly subatomic particles such as electrons—have an associated wave. Erwin Schrödinger, fascinated by this idea, developed an equation that describes an electron as a wave function instead of a point. This approach predicted many of the spectral phenomena that Bohr's model failed to explain, but it was difficult to visualize, and faced opposition. One of its critics, Max Born, proposed instead that Schrödinger's wave function did not describe the physical extent of an electron (like a charge distribution in classical electromagnetism), but rather gave the probability that an electron would, when measured, be found at a particular point. This reconciled the ideas of wave-like and particle-like electrons: the behavior of an electron, or of any other subatomic entity, has both wave-like and particle-like aspects, and whether one aspect or the other is observed depend upon the experiment. A consequence of describing particles as waveforms rather than points is that it is mathematically impossible to calculate with precision both the position and momentum of a particle at a given point in time. This became known as the uncertainty principle, a concept first introduced by Werner Heisenberg in 1927. Schrödinger's wave model for hydrogen replaced Bohr's model, with its neat, clearly defined circular orbits. The modern model of the atom describes the positions of electrons in an atom in terms of probabilities. An electron can potentially be found at any distance from the nucleus, but, depending on its energy level and angular momentum, exists more frequently in certain regions around the nucleus than others; this pattern is referred to as its atomic orbital. The orbitals come in a variety of shapes—sphere, dumbbell, torus, etc.—with the nucleus in the middle. The shapes of atomic orbitals are found by solving the Schrödinger equation. Analytic solutions of the Schrödinger equation are known for very few relatively simple model Hamiltonians including the hydrogen atom and the hydrogen molecular ion. Beginning with the helium atom—which contains just two electrons—numerical methods are used to solve the Schrödinger equation. Qualitatively the shape of the atomic orbitals of multi-electron atoms resemble the states of the hydrogen atom. The Pauli principle requires the distribution of these electrons within the atomic orbitals such that no more than two electrons are assigned to any one orbital; this requirement profoundly affects the atomic properties and ultimately the bonding of atoms into molecules.	[ "nitrous oxide", "isopentane", "Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff", "electrostatic units", "Charles Adolphe Wurtz", "scandium", "calcium", "Jean-Baptiste Dumas", "Crookes tube", "atomic number", "Robert Brown (botanist, born 1773)", "dihydrogen cation", "magnetic field", "Richard Feynman", "law of multiple proportions", "Niels Bohr", "sodium", "hydrogen atom", "Amedeo Avogadro", "tin(IV) oxide", "nitrogen", "neon", "hydrogen", "torus", "Zeeman effect", "Moseley's law", "atomic orbital", "Robert A. Millikan", "electric field", "Atomic electron transition", "Rudolf Clausius", "atom", "John Dalton", "Louis de Broglie", "Kinetic theory of gases", "dumbbell", "radium", "wave function", "germanium", "Robert Boyle", "James Chadwick", "neutron", "Albert Einstein", "Ernest Marsden", "Prout's hypothesis", "Antonius van den Broek", "carbon dioxide", "oil drop experiment", "ideal gas law", "Balmer series", "Werner Heisenberg", "gallium", "voltage", "law of conservation of mass", "Marcellin Berthelot", "Walter Bothe", "Erwin Schrödinger", "neopentane", "Max Planck", "isotope", "Bohr model", "photoelectric effect", "potassium", "George Beilby", "ion", "tin(II) oxide", "The Physical Principles of the Quantum Theory", "thermodynamics", "Avogadro's law", "List of quantum-mechanical systems with analytical solutions", "silver fulminate", "Frederick Soddy", "Karlsruhe Congress", "Josiah Willard Gibbs", "lithium", "The Feynman Lectures on Physics", "Pauli principle", "ancient Greek", "halogens", "electron", "tin oxide (disambiguation)", "iodine", "Arnold Sommerfeld", "helium", "Jean Perrin", "hydrogen chloride", "spectral line", "Margaret Todd (doctor)", "oxygen", "periodic table", "silver cyanate", "atomic nucleus", "John William Nicholson", "uncertainty principle", "methane", "matter", "ionization", "positivism", "nitrogen dioxide", "law of definite proportions", "George Johnstone Stoney", "ethylene", "Friedrich Wöhler", "Louis Pasteur", "Spectroscopy", "Atomism", "tellurium", "oleic acid", "radioactive decay", "alpha particles", "Ludwig Boltzmann", "Harvey Fletcher", "radical theory", "Wave–particle duality", "William Prout", "energy level", "chemical substance", "atomic weight", "J. J. Thomson", "beryllium", "sphere", "Introduction to quantum mechanics", "gamma radiation", "Thomas Thomson (chemist)", "electrode", "Quantum", "pentane", "equivalent weight", "Ernest Rutherford", "Philosophical Magazine", "Alan J. Rocke", "History of molecular theory", "Atom", "noble gas", "alpha particle", "n-pentane", "Joseph Proust", "plum pudding", "Jöns Jacob Berzelius", "magnesium", "chemical element", "isotopes", "Spectrophotometry", "Ernst Mach", "elementary charge", "Atomic orbital", "Arthur Erich Haas", "Wilhelm Ostwald", "cathode ray", "Antoine Lavoisier", "radiochemistry", "dalton (unit)", "molecule", "James Clerk Maxwell", "nitric oxide", "Discovery of chemical elements", "iron(III) oxide", "Daniel Bernoulli", "paraffin wax", "Henry Moseley", "Carbon group", "beta radiation", "Energeticism", "Oliver Lodge", "Hans Geiger", "WP:SDNONE", "Dmitrii Mendeleev", "Max Born", "iron(II) oxide", "plum pudding model", "Stanislao Cannizzaro", "Brownian motion", "angular momentum" ]
2,846	Ai	AI most frequently refers to artificial intelligence, which is intelligence demonstrated by machines. Ai, AI or A.I. may also refer to: ==Animals== Ai (chimpanzee), an individual experimental subject in Japan Ai (sloth) or the pale-throated sloth, a northern Amazonian mammal species ==Arts, entertainment and media== ===Works=== Ai (album), a 2004 release by Seraphim "A.I." (song), by OneRepublic, 2016 A.I. Artificial Intelligence, a 2001 American film A.I. Rising, a 2018 Serbian film AI: The Somnium Files, a 2019 video game American Idol, a televised singing contest The American Interest, a bimonthly magazine (2005–2020) I (2015 film), an Indian Tamil film (initial title: Ai) ===Other uses in arts and media=== A.i. (band), a Californian rock–electroclash group All in (poker), wagering one's entire stake Appreciation Index, a British measure of broadcast programme approval Non-player character, in gaming (colloquially, an AI) ==Business== (a.i.), a phrase in job titles Appreciative inquiry, an organizational development method All-inclusive, a full service at a vacation resort including meals and drinks ==Organizations and businesses== ===Arts businesses and organizations=== Adventure International, a video game publisher The Art Institutes, a chain of American art schools ===Transport businesses=== Air India, the flag carrier airline of India Alitalia, the former flag carrier airline of Italy Astra International, an Indonesian automotive company ===Other businesses and organizations=== Accuracy International, a firearms manufacturer Alexis I. duPont High School, Delaware, U.S. Amnesty International, a human rights organisation Appraisal Institute, an association of real estate appraisers ==People== Ai (surname), a Chinese surname Ai (given name), a given name and list of people and characters with the name King Ai of Zhou (died 441 BC) Emperor Ai of Han (27–1 BC) Emperor Ai of Jin (341–365) Emperor Ai of Tang (892–908) Ai (poet) (1947–2010), American poet Ai (singer) (born 1981), Japanese-American singer and songwriter Allen Iverson (born 1975), American retired professional basketball player ("A.I.") Andre Iguodala (born 1984), American professional basketball player ("A.I. 2.0") ==Places== ===Areas=== Anguilla, a Caribbean territory (by ISO 3166-1 code) Appenzell Innerrhoden, a Swiss canton Armenia (by LOC MARC code) ===Cities=== Ai (Canaan), Biblical city ==== United States ==== Ai, Alabama Ai, Georgia Ai, North Carolina Ai, Ohio ===Waterways=== ==Religion, philosophy and mythology== Ái, a Norse god Ai (Canaan), Biblical city Ai (), Sinic concepts of love from Confucianism and Buddhism ', colloquially ', a Greek word for 'saint' Ai Toyon, the Yakut god of light ==Science and technology== ===Agricultural science=== Active ingredient, part of a pesticide Artificial insemination of livestock and pets, in animal breeding ===Air force and aviation=== Airborne Internet, a proposed air-to-air data network Airborne Interception radar, a Royal Air Force air-to-air system Air interdiction, an aerial military capability Attitude indicator, a flight instrument on aircraft ===The Internet=== .ai, a top-level domain ===Medical conditions=== Accommodative insufficiency of the eye Amelogenesis imperfecta of teeth Aortic insufficiency of the heart ===Medicines and healthcare=== Active ingredient, part of a drug Adequate intake, a Dietary Reference Intake nutritional parameter Aromatase inhibitor, a class of breast-cancer drug Articulation Index, a method of measuring hearing loss Artificial insemination, a method of fertilisation Automated immunoassay, automated clinical analyses of blood ===Visual arts technologies=== Adobe Illustrator, a vector graphics editor .ai, Adobe Illustrator Artwork filename extension Automatic Maximum-Aperture Indexing, aperture coupling on Nikon camera lenses	[ "Ai, Alabama", "Air India", "Anguilla", "Adobe Illustrator", "Artificial intelligence (disambiguation)", "A.i. (band)", "Ai, Ohio", ".ai", "All in (poker)", "Airborne Internet", "Ad interim", "Aye (disambiguation)", "Accuracy International", "Ai (album)", "Alitalia", "A.I. (song)", "Astra International", "Ai (Canaan)", "Accommodative insufficiency", "Aortic insufficiency", "Eye (disambiguation)", "Appraisal Institute", "Airborne Interception radar", "Adobe Illustrator Artwork", "All In (disambiguation)", "American Idol", "A.I. Artificial Intelligence", "Emperor Ai of Tang", "Armenia", "Amnesty International", "AI: The Somnium Files", "Articulation Index", "Ai, Georgia", "Emperor Ai of Jin", "Ai (singer)", "love", "Ai Toyon", "Attitude indicator", "The American Interest", "The Art Institutes", "Agios", "Aromatase inhibitor", "Non-player character", "Active ingredient", "Adequate intake", "Appreciative inquiry", "Ai (chimpanzee)", "artificial intelligence", "Air interdiction", "Automated immunoassay", "Ai (sloth)", "Ái", "Ai, North Carolina", "Art Institute (disambiguation)", "A1 (disambiguation)", "Automatic Maximum-Aperture Indexing", "AY (disambiguation)", "A.I. Rising", "Ai (given name)", "Emperor Ai of Han", "Artificial insemination of livestock and pets", "Allen Iverson", "Alexis I. duPont High School", "AL (disambiguation)", "King Ai of Zhou", "Ai (surname)", "Amelogenesis imperfecta", "Ai (poet)", "All inclusive", "I (2015 film)", "Andre Iguodala", "Appenzell Innerrhoden", "Adventure International", "Appreciation Index", "Artificial insemination" ]
2,847	Aung San Suu Kyi	Aung San Suu Kyi (born 19 June 1945) is a Burmese politician, diplomat, author, and political activist who served as State Counsellor of Myanmar and Minister of Foreign Affairs from 2016 to 2021. She has served as the general secretary of the National League for Democracy (NLD) since the party's founding in 1988 and was registered as its chairperson while it was a legal party from 2011 to 2023. She played a vital role in Myanmar's transition from military junta to partial democracy in the 2010s. The youngest daughter of Aung San, Father of the Nation of modern-day Myanmar, and Khin Kyi, Aung San Suu Kyi was born in Rangoon, British Burma. After graduating from the University of Delhi in 1964 and St Hugh's College, Oxford in 1968, she worked at the United Nations for three years. She married Michael Aris in 1972, with whom she had two children. Aung San Suu Kyi rose to prominence in the 8888 Uprising of 8 August 1988 and became the General Secretary of the NLD, which she had newly formed with the help of several retired army officials who criticised the military junta. In the 1990 general election, NLD won 81% of the seats in Parliament, but the results were nullified, as the State Peace and Development Council (SPDC), the military government, refused to hand over power, resulting in an international outcry. She had been detained before the elections and remained under house arrest for almost 15 of the 21 years from 1989 to 2010, becoming one of the world's most prominent political prisoners. In 1999, Time magazine named her one of the "Children of Gandhi" and his spiritual heir to nonviolence. She survived an assassination attempt in the 2003 Depayin massacre when at least 70 people associated with the NLD were killed. Her party boycotted the 2010 general election, resulting in a decisive victory for the military-backed Union Solidarity and Development Party (USDP). Aung San Suu Kyi became a member of the Pyithu Hluttaw (House of Representatives) while her party won 43 of the 45 vacant seats in the 2012 by-elections. In the 2015 general election, her party won a landslide victory, taking 86% of the seats in the Pyidaungsu Hluttaw, well more than the 67% supermajority needed to ensure that its preferred candidates were elected president and vice president in the Presidential Electoral College. Although she was prohibited from becoming the president due to a clause in the Myanmar Constitution—her late husband and children are foreign citizens—she assumed the newly created role of State Counsellor of Myanmar, a role akin to a prime minister or a head of government. When she ascended to the office of state counsellor, Aung San Suu Kyi drew criticism from several countries, organisations and figures over Myanmar's inaction in response to the Rohingya genocide in Rakhine State and refusal to acknowledge that the Tatmadaw (armed forces) had committed massacres. Under her leadership, Myanmar also drew criticism for prosecutions of journalists. On 12 October 2022, she was convicted of two further charges of corruption and she was sentenced to two terms of three years' imprisonment to be served concurrent to each other. On 30 December 2022, her trials ended with another conviction and an additional sentence of seven years' imprisonment for corruption. Aung San Suu Kyi's final sentence was of 33 years in prison, later reduced to 27 years. == Name == Aung San Suu Kyi, like other Burmese names, includes no surname, but is only a personal name, in her case derived from three relatives: "Aung San" from her father, "Suu" from her paternal grandmother, and "Kyi" from her mother Khin Kyi. In Myanmar, Aung San Suu Kyi is often referred to as Daw Aung San Suu Kyi. Daw, literally meaning "aunt", is not part of her name but is an honorific for any older and revered woman, akin to "Madam". She is sometimes addressed as Daw Suu or Amay Suu ("Mother Suu") by her supporters. == Personal life == Aung San Suu Kyi was born on 19 June 1945 in Rangoon (now Yangon), British Burma. According to Peter Popham, she was born in a small village outside Rangoon called Hmway Saung. Her father, Aung San, allied with the Japanese during World War II. Aung San founded the modern Burmese army and negotiated Burma's independence from the United Kingdom in 1947; he was assassinated by his rivals in the same year. She is a niece of Thakin Than Tun who was the husband of Khin Khin Gyi, the elder sister of her mother Khin Kyi. She grew up with her mother, Khin Kyi, and two brothers, Aung San Lin and Aung San Oo, in Rangoon. Aung San Lin died at the age of eight when he drowned in an ornamental lake on the grounds of the house. She was educated in Methodist English High School (now Basic Education High School No. 1 Dagon) for much of her childhood in Burma, where she was noted as having a talent for learning languages. She speaks four languages: Burmese, English (with a British accent), French, and Japanese. She is a Theravada Buddhist. Suu Kyi continued her education at St Hugh's College, Oxford, obtaining a B.A. degree in Philosophy, Politics and Economics in 1967, graduating with a third-class degree that was promoted per tradition to an MA in 1968. After graduating, she lived in New York City with family friend Ma Than E, who was once a popular Burmese pop singer. She worked at the United Nations for three years, primarily on budget matters, writing daily to her future husband, Dr. Michael Aris. On 1 January 1972, Aung San Suu Kyi and Aris, a scholar of Tibetan culture and literature, living abroad in Bhutan, were married. The following year, she gave birth to their first son, Alexander Aris, in London; their second son, Kim Aris, was born in 1977. Between 1985 and 1987, Aung San Suu Kyi was working toward a Master of Philosophy degree in Burmese literature as a research student at the School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS), University of London. She was elected as an Honorary Fellow of St Hugh's in 1990. Aris died on his 53rd birthday on 27 March 1999. Since 1989, when his wife was first placed under house arrest, he had seen her only five times, the last of which was for Christmas in 1995. She was also separated from her children, who live in the United Kingdom, until 2011. On 2 May 2008, after Cyclone Nargis hit Burma, Aung San Suu Kyi's dilapidated lakeside bungalow lost its roof and electricity, while the cyclone also left entire villages in the Irrawaddy delta submerged. Plans to renovate and repair the house were announced in August 2009. Aung San Suu Kyi was released from house arrest on 13 November 2010. == Political career == === Political beginning === Coincidentally, when Aung San Suu Kyi returned to Burma in 1988, the long-time military leader of Burma and head of the ruling party, General Ne Win, stepped down. Mass demonstrations for democracy followed that event on 8 August 1988 (8–8–88, a day seen as auspicious), which were violently suppressed in what came to be known as the 8888 Uprising. On 24 August 1988, she made her first public appearance at the Yangon General Hospital, addressing protestors from a podium. On 26 August, she addressed half a million people at a mass rally in front of the Shwedagon Pagoda in the capital, calling for a democratic government. by both Mahatma Gandhi's philosophy of non-violence and also by the Buddhist concepts, Aung San Suu Kyi entered politics to work for democratisation, helped found the National League for Democracy on 27 September 1988, but was put under house arrest on 20 July 1989. She was offered freedom if she left the country, but she refused. Despite her philosophy of non-violence, a group of ex-military commanders and senior politicians who joined NLD during the crisis believed that she was too confrontational and left NLD. However, she retained enormous popularity and support among NLD youths with whom she spent most of her time. During the crisis, the previous democratically elected Prime Minister of Burma, U Nu, initiated to form an interim government and invited opposition leaders to join him. Indian Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi had signaled his readiness to recognize the interim government. However, Aung San Suu Kyi categorically rejected U Nu's plan by saying "the future of the opposition would be decided by masses of the people". Ex-Brigadier General Aung Gyi, another influential politician at the time of the 8888 Uprising and the first chairman in the history of the NLD, followed the suit and rejected the plan after Aung San Suu Kyi's refusal. Aung Gyi later accused several NLD members of being communists and resigned from the party. Some claim that Aung San Suu Kyi would have assumed the office of Prime Minister. Instead, the results were nullified and the military refused to hand over power, resulting in an international outcry. Aung San Suu Kyi was placed under house arrest at her home on University Avenue () in Rangoon, during which time she was awarded the Sakharov Prize for Freedom of Thought in 1990, and the Nobel Peace Prize one year later. Her sons Alexander and Kim Aris accepted the Nobel Peace Prize on her behalf. Aung San Suu Kyi used the Nobel Peace Prize's US$1.3 million prize money to establish a health and education trust for the Burmese people. Around this time, Aung San Suu Kyi chose non-violence as an expedient political tactic, stating in 2007, "I do not hold to nonviolence for moral reasons, but for political and practical reasons." The decision of the Nobel Committee mentions: In 1995 Aung San Suu Kyi delivered the keynote address at the Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing. ===1996 attack=== On 9 November 1996, the motorcade that Aung San Suu Kyi was traveling in with other National League for Democracy leaders Tin Oo and Kyi Maung, was attacked in Yangon. About 200 men swooped down on the motorcade, wielding metal chains, metal batons, stones and other weapons. The car that Aung San Suu Kyi was in had its rear window smashed, and the car with Tin Oo and Kyi Maung had its rear window and two backdoor windows shattered. It is believed the offenders were members of the Union Solidarity and Development Association (USDA) who were allegedly paid Ks.500/- (@ USD $0.50) each to participate. The NLD lodged an official complaint with the police, and according to reports the government launched an investigation, but no action was taken. (Amnesty International 120297) ===House arrest=== Aung San Suu Kyi was placed under house arrest for a total of 15 years over a 21-year period, on numerous occasions, since she began her political career, during which time she was prevented from meeting her party supporters and international visitors. In an interview, she said that while under house arrest she spent her time reading philosophy, politics and biographies that her husband had sent her. She also passed the time playing the piano and was occasionally allowed visits from foreign diplomats as well as from her personal physician. Although under house arrest, Aung San Suu Kyi was granted permission to leave Burma under the condition that she never return, which she refused: "As a mother, the greater sacrifice was giving up my sons, but I was always aware of the fact that others had given up more than me. I never forget that my colleagues who are in prison suffer not only physically, but mentally for their families who have no security outside—in the larger prison of Burma under authoritarian rule." The media were also prevented from visiting Aung San Suu Kyi, as occurred in 1998 when Italian journalist Maurizio Giuliano, after photographing her, was stopped by customs officials who then confiscated all his films, tapes and some notes. In contrast, Aung San Suu Kyi did have visits from government representatives, such as during her autumn 1994 house arrest when she met the leader of Burma, Senior General Than Shwe and General Khin Nyunt on 20 September in the first meeting since she had been placed in detention. The Burmese government detained and kept Aung San Suu Kyi imprisoned because it viewed her as someone "likely to undermine the community peace and stability" of the country, and used both Article 10(a) and 10(b) of the 1975 State Protection Act (granting the government the power to imprison people for up to five years without a trial), and Section 22 of the "Law to Safeguard the State Against the Dangers of Those Desiring to Cause Subversive Acts" as legal tools against her. She continuously appealed her detention, and many nations and figures continued to call for her release and that of 2,100 other political prisoners in the country. On 12 November 2010, days after the junta-backed Union Solidarity and Development Party (USDP) won elections conducted after a gap of 20 years, the junta finally agreed to sign orders allowing Aung San Suu Kyi's release, and her house arrest term came to an end on 13 November 2010. ===United Nations involvement=== The United Nations (UN) has attempted to facilitate dialogue between the junta and Aung San Suu Kyi. Aung San Suu Kyi fled the scene with the help of her driver, Kyaw Soe Lin, but was arrested upon reaching Ye-U. The government imprisoned her at Insein Prison in Rangoon. After she underwent a hysterectomy in September 2003, the government again placed her under house arrest in Rangoon. The results from the UN facilitation have been mixed; Razali Ismail, UN special envoy to Burma, met with Aung San Suu Kyi. Ismail resigned from his post the following year, partly because he was denied re-entry to Burma on several occasions. Several years later in 2006, Ibrahim Gambari, UN Undersecretary-General (USG) of Department of Political Affairs, met with Aung San Suu Kyi, the first visit by a foreign official since 2004. He also met with her later the same year. On 2 October 2007 Gambari returned to talk to her again after seeing Than Shwe and other members of the senior leadership in Naypyidaw. State television broadcast Aung San Suu Kyi with Gambari, stating that they had met twice. This was Aung San Suu Kyi's first appearance in state media in the four years since her current detention began. The United Nations Working Group for Arbitrary Detention published an Opinion that Aung San Suu Kyi's deprivation of liberty was arbitrary and in contravention of Article 9 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights 1948, and requested that the authorities in Burma set her free, but the authorities ignored the request at that time. The U.N. report said that according to the Burmese Government's reply, "Daw Aung San Suu Kyi has not been arrested, but has only been taken into protective custody, for her own safety", and while "it could have instituted legal action against her under the country's domestic legislation ... it has preferred to adopt a magnanimous attitude, and is providing her with protection in her own interests". In November 2007, it was reported that Aung San Suu Kyi would meet her political allies National League for Democracy along with a government minister. The ruling junta made the official announcement on state TV and radio just hours after UN special envoy Ibrahim Gambari ended his second visit to Burma. The NLD confirmed that it had received the invitation to hold talks with Aung San Suu Kyi. However, the process delivered few concrete results. ===Periods under detention=== 20 July 1989: Placed under house arrest in Rangoon under martial law that allows for detention without charge or trial for three years. 25 May 2007: House arrest extended by one year despite a direct appeal from U.N. Secretary-General Kofi Annan to General Than Shwe. 24 October 2007: Reached 12 years under house arrest, solidarity protests held at 12 cities around the world. 27 May 2008: House arrest extended for another year, which is illegal under both international law and Burma's own law. 11 August 2009: House arrest extended for 18 more months because of "violation" arising from the May 2009 trespass incident. ===2007 anti-government protests=== Protests led by Buddhist monks during Saffron Revolution began on 19 August 2007 following steep fuel price increases, and continued each day, despite the threat of a crackdown by the military. On 22 September 2007, although still under house arrest, Aung San Suu Kyi made a brief public appearance at the gate of her residence in Yangon to accept the blessings of Buddhist monks who were marching in support of human rights. It was reported that she had been moved the following day to Insein Prison (where she had been detained in 2003), but meetings with UN envoy Ibrahim Gambari near her Rangoon home on 30 September and 2 October established that she remained under house arrest. ===2009 trespass incident=== On 3 May 2009, an American man, identified as John Yettaw, swam across Inya Lake to her house uninvited and was arrested when he made his return trip three days later. He had attempted to make a similar trip two years earlier, but for unknown reasons was turned away. He later claimed at trial that he was motivated by a divine vision requiring him to notify her of an impending terrorist assassination attempt. On 13 May, Aung San Suu Kyi was arrested for violating the terms of her house arrest because the swimmer, who pleaded exhaustion, was allowed to stay in her house for two days before he attempted the swim back. Aung San Suu Kyi was later taken to Insein Prison, where she could have faced up to five years' confinement for the intrusion. The trial of Aung San Suu Kyi and her two maids began on 18 May and a small number of protesters gathered outside. Diplomats and journalists were barred from attending the trial; however, on one occasion, several diplomats from Russia, Thailand and Singapore and journalists were allowed to meet Aung San Suu Kyi. The prosecution had originally planned to call 22 witnesses. It also accused John Yettaw of embarrassing the country. During the ongoing defence case, Aung San Suu Kyi said she was innocent. The defence was allowed to call only one witness (out of four), while the prosecution was permitted to call 14 witnesses. The court rejected two character witnesses, NLD members Tin Oo and Win Tin, and permitted the defence to call only a legal expert. According to one unconfirmed report, the junta was planning to, once again, place her in detention, this time in a military base outside the city. In a separate trial, Yettaw said he swam to Aung San Suu Kyi's house to warn her that her life was "in danger". The national police chief later confirmed that Yettaw was the "main culprit" in the case filed against Aung San Suu Kyi. According to aides, Aung San Suu Kyi spent her 64th birthday in jail sharing biryani rice and chocolate cake with her guards. Her arrest and subsequent trial received worldwide condemnation by the UN Secretary General Ban Ki-moon, the United Nations Security Council, Western governments, South Africa, Japan and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations, of which Burma is a member. The Burmese government strongly condemned the statement, as it created an "unsound tradition" and criticised Thailand for meddling in its internal affairs. The Burmese Foreign Minister Nyan Win was quoted in the state-run newspaper New Light of Myanmar as saying that the incident "was trumped up to intensify international pressure on Burma by internal and external anti-government elements who do not wish to see the positive changes in those countries' policies toward Burma". by flying to Burma to negotiate, but Than Shwe rejected all of his requests. On 11 August 2009, the trial concluded with Aung San Suu Kyi being sentenced to imprisonment for three years with hard labour. This sentence was commuted by the military rulers to further house arrest of 18 months. On 14 August, US Senator Jim Webb visited Burma, visiting with junta leader General Than Shwe and later with Aung San Suu Kyi. During the visit, Webb negotiated Yettaw's release and deportation from Burma. Following the verdict of the trial, lawyers of Aung San Suu Kyi said they would appeal against the 18-month sentence. On 18 August, United States President Barack Obama asked the country's military leadership to set free all political prisoners, including Aung San Suu Kyi. In her appeal, Aung San Suu Kyi had argued that the conviction was unwarranted. However, her appeal against the August sentence was rejected by a Burmese court on 2 October 2009. Although the court accepted the argument that the 1974 constitution, under which she had been charged, was null and void, it also said the provisions of the 1975 security law, under which she has been kept under house arrest, remained in force. The verdict effectively meant that she would be unable to participate in the elections scheduled to take place in 2010—the first in Burma in two decades. Her lawyer stated that her legal team would pursue a new appeal within 60 days. ===Late 2000s: International support for release === Aung San Suu Kyi has received vocal support from Western nations in Europe, Australia and South America, as well as India, Japan the Philippines and South Korea. In December 2007, the US House of Representatives voted unanimously 400–0 to award Aung San Suu Kyi the Congressional Gold Medal; the Senate concurred on 25 April 2008. On 6 May 2008, President George W. Bush signed legislation awarding Aung San Suu Kyi the Congressional Gold Medal. She is the first recipient in American history to receive the prize while imprisoned. More recently, there has been growing criticism of her detention by Burma's neighbours in the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), particularly from Indonesia, Thailand, the Philippines and Singapore. At one point Malaysia warned Burma that it faced expulsion from ASEAN as a result of the detention of Aung San Suu Kyi. Other nations including South Africa, Bangladesh and the Maldives also called for her release. The United Nations has urged the country to move towards inclusive national reconciliation, the restoration of democracy, and full respect for human rights. In December 2008, the United Nations General Assembly passed a resolution condemning the human rights situation in Burma and calling for Aung San Suu Kyi's release—80 countries voting for the resolution, 25 against and 45 abstentions. Other nations, such as China and Russia, are less critical of the regime and prefer to cooperate only on economic matters. Indonesia has urged China to push Burma for reforms. However, Samak Sundaravej, former Prime Minister of Thailand, criticised the amount of support for Aung San Suu Kyi, saying that "Europe uses Aung San Suu Kyi as a tool. If it's not related to Aung San Suu Kyi, you can have deeper discussions with Myanmar." Vietnam, however, did not support calls by other ASEAN member states for Myanmar to free Aung San Suu Kyi, state media reported Friday, 14 August 2009. The state-run Việt Nam News said Vietnam had no criticism of Myanmar's decision 11 August 2009 to place Aung San Suu Kyi under house arrest for the next 18 months, effectively barring her from elections scheduled for 2010. "It is our view that the Aung San Suu Kyi trial is an internal affair of Myanmar", Vietnamese government spokesman Le Dung stated on the website of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. In contrast with other ASEAN member states, Dung said Vietnam has always supported Myanmar and hopes it will continue to implement the "roadmap to democracy" outlined by its government. Nobel Peace Prize winners (Archbishop Desmond Tutu, the Dalai Lama, Shirin Ebadi, Adolfo Pérez Esquivel, Mairead Corrigan, Rigoberta Menchú, Prof. Elie Wiesel, US President Barack Obama, Betty Williams, Jody Williams and former US President Jimmy Carter) called for the rulers of Burma to release Aung San Suu Kyi to "create the necessary conditions for a genuine dialogue with Daw Aung San Suu Kyi and all concerned parties and ethnic groups to achieve an inclusive national reconciliation with the direct support of the United Nations". It was announced prior to the 2010 Burmese general election that Aung San Suu Kyi may be released "so she can organize her party", However, Aung San Suu Kyi was not allowed to run. On 1 October 2010 the government announced that she would be released on 13 November 2010. US President Barack Obama personally advocated the release of all political prisoners, especially Aung San Suu Kyi, during the US-ASEAN Summit of 2009. The US Government hoped that successful general elections would be an optimistic indicator of the Burmese government's sincerity towards eventual democracy. The Hatoyama government which spent 2.82 billion yen in 2008, has promised more Japanese foreign aid to encourage Burma to release Aung San Suu Kyi in time for the elections; and to continue moving towards democracy and the rule of law. In a personal letter to Aung San Suu Kyi, UK Prime Minister Gordon Brown cautioned the Burmese government of the potential consequences of rigging elections as "condemning Burma to more years of diplomatic isolation and economic stagnation". Aung San Suu Kyi met with many heads of state and opened a dialog with the Minister of Labor Aung Kyi (not to be confused with Aung San Suu Kyi). She was allowed to meet with senior members of her NLD party at the State House, however these meetings took place under close supervision. ===2010 release=== On the evening of 13 November 2010, Aung San Suu Kyi was released from house arrest. This was the date her detention had been set to expire according to a court ruling in August 2009 and came six days after a widely criticised general election. She appeared in front of a crowd of her supporters, who rushed to her house in Rangoon when nearby barricades were removed by the security forces. Aung San Suu Kyi had been detained for 15 of the past 21 years. The government newspaper New Light of Myanmar reported the release positively, saying she had been granted a pardon after serving her sentence "in good conduct". The New York Times suggested that the military government may have released Aung San Suu Kyi because it felt it was in a confident position to control her supporters after the election. He visited again on 5 July 2011, to accompany her on a trip to Bagan, her first trip outside Yangon since 2003. Her son visited again on 8 August 2011, to accompany her on a trip to Pegu, her second trip. Discussions were held between Aung San Suu Kyi and the Burmese government during 2011, which led to a number of official gestures to meet her demands. In October, around a tenth of Burma's political prisoners were freed in an amnesty and trade unions were legalised. In November 2011, following a meeting of its leaders, the NLD announced its intention to re-register as a political party to contend 48 by-elections necessitated by the promotion of parliamentarians to ministerial rank. Following the decision, Aung San Suu Kyi held a telephone conference with US President Barack Obama, in which it was agreed that Secretary of State Hillary Clinton would make a visit to Burma, a move received with caution by Burma's ally China. On 1 December 2011, Aung San Suu Kyi met with Hillary Clinton at the residence of the top-ranking US diplomat in Yangon. On 21 December 2011, Thai Prime Minister Yingluck Shinawatra met Aung San Suu Kyi in Yangon, marking Aung San Suu Kyi's "first-ever meeting with the leader of a foreign country". On 5 January 2012, British Foreign Minister William Hague met Aung San Suu Kyi and his Burmese counterpart. This represented a significant visit for Aung San Suu Kyi and Burma. Aung San Suu Kyi studied in the UK and maintains many ties there, whilst Britain is Burma's largest bilateral donor. During Aung San Suu Kyi's visit to Europe, she visited the Swiss parliament, collected her 1991 Nobel Prize in Oslo and her honorary degree from the University of Oxford. ===2012 by-elections=== In December 2011, there was speculation that Aung San Suu Kyi would run in the 2012 national by-elections to fill vacant seats. On 18 January 2012, Aung San Suu Kyi formally registered to contest a Pyithu Hluttaw (lower house) seat in the Kawhmu Township constituency in special parliamentary elections to be held on 1 April 2012. The seat was previously held by Soe Tint, who vacated it after being appointed Construction Deputy Minister, in the 2010 election. She ran against Union Solidarity and Development Party candidate Soe Min, a retired army physician and native of Twante Township. On 3 March 2012, at a large campaign rally in Mandalay, Aung San Suu Kyi unexpectedly left after 15 minutes, because of exhaustion and airsickness. In an official campaign speech broadcast on Burmese state television's MRTV on 14 March 2012, Aung San Suu Kyi publicly campaigned for reform of the 2008 Constitution, removal of restrictive laws, more adequate protections for people's democratic rights, and establishment of an independent judiciary. The speech was leaked online a day before it was broadcast. A paragraph in the speech, focusing on the Tatmadaw's repression by means of law, was censored by authorities. Aung San Suu Kyi also called for international media to monitor the by-elections, while publicly pointing out irregularities in official voter lists, which include deceased individuals and exclude other eligible voters in the contested constituencies. On 21 March 2012, Aung San Suu Kyi was quoted as saying "Fraud and rule violations are continuing and we can even say they are increasing." When asked whether she would assume a ministerial post if given the opportunity, she said the following: On 26 March 2012, Aung San Suu Kyi suspended her nationwide campaign tour early, after a campaign rally in Myeik (Mergui), a coastal town in the south, citing health problems due to exhaustion and hot weather. On 1 April 2012, the NLD announced that Aung San Suu Kyi had won the vote for a seat in Parliament. A news broadcast on state-run MRTV, reading the announcements of the Union Election Commission, confirmed her victory, as well as her party's victory in 43 of the 45 contested seats, officially making Aung San Suu Kyi the Leader of the Opposition in the Pyidaungsu Hluttaw. Although she and other MP-elects were expected to take office on 23 April when the Hluttaws resumed session, National League for Democracy MP-elects, including Aung San Suu Kyi, said they might not take their oaths because of its wording; in its present form, parliamentarians must vow to "safeguard" the constitution. In an address on Radio Free Asia, she said "We don't mean we will not attend the parliament, we mean we will attend only after taking the oath ... Changing that wording in the oath is also in conformity with the Constitution. I don't expect there will be any difficulty in doing it." On 2 May 2012, National League for Democracy MP-elects, including Aung San Suu Kyi, took their oaths and took office, though the wording of the oath was not changed. According to the Los Angeles Times, "Suu Kyi and her colleagues decided they could do more by joining as lawmakers than maintaining their boycott on principle." ===2015 general election=== On 16 June 2012, Aung San Suu Kyi was finally able to deliver her Nobel acceptance speech (Nobel lecture) at Oslo's City Hall, two decades after being awarded the peace prize. In September 2012, Aung San Suu Kyi received in person the United States Congressional Gold Medal, which is the highest Congressional award. Although she was awarded this medal in 2008, at the time she was under house arrest, and was unable to receive the medal. Aung San Suu Kyi was greeted with bipartisan support at Congress, as part of a coast-to-coast tour in the United States. In addition, Aung San Suu Kyi met President Barack Obama at the White House. The experience was described by Aung San Suu Kyi as "one of the most moving days of my life". In 2014, she was listed as the 61st-most-powerful woman in the world by Forbes. On 6 July 2012, Aung San Suu Kyi announced on the World Economic Forum's website that she wanted to run for the presidency in Myanmar's 2015 elections. The current Constitution, which came into effect in 2008, bars her from the presidency because she is the widow and mother of foreigners—provisions that appeared to be written specifically to prevent her from being eligible. The NLD won a sweeping victory in those elections, winning at least 255 seats in the House of Representatives and 135 seats in the House of Nationalities. In addition, Aung San Suu Kyi won re-election to the House of Representatives. Under the 2008 constitution, the NLD needed to win at least a two-thirds majority in both houses to ensure that its candidate would become president. Before the elections, Aung San Suu Kyi announced that even though she is constitutionally barred from the presidency, she would hold the real power in any NLD-led government. On 30 March 2016 she became Minister for the President's Office, for Foreign Affairs, for Education and for Electric Power and Energy in President Htin Kyaw's government; later she relinquished the latter two ministries and President Htin Kyaw appointed her State Counsellor, a position akin to a Prime Minister created especially for her. The position of State Counsellor was approved by the House of Nationalities on 1 April 2016 and the House of Representatives on 5 April 2016. The next day, her role as State Counsellor was established. ===State counsellor and foreign minister (2016–2021)=== As soon as she became foreign minister, she invited Chinese Foreign Minister Wang Yi, Canadian Foreign Minister Stephane Dion and Italian Foreign Minister Paolo Gentiloni in April and Japanese Foreign Minister Fumio Kishida in May and discussed how to have good diplomatic relationships with these countries. Initially, upon accepting the State Counsellor position, she granted amnesty to the students who were arrested for opposing the National Education Bill, and announced the creation of the commission on Rakhine State, which had a long record of persecution of the Muslim Rohingya minority. However, soon Aung San Suu Kyi's government did not manage with the ethnic conflicts in Shan and Kachin states, where thousands of refugees fled to China, and by 2017 the persecution of the Rohingya by the government forces escalated to the point that it is not uncommonly called a genocide. Aung San Suu Kyi, when interviewed, has denied the allegations of ethnic cleansing. She has also refused to grant citizenship to the Rohingya, instead taking steps to issue ID cards for residency but no guarantees of citizenship. Her tenure as State Counsellor of Myanmar has drawn international criticism for her failure to address her country's economic and ethnic problems, particularly the plight of the Rohingya following the 25 August 2017 ARSA attacks (described as "certainly one of the biggest refugee crises and cases of ethnic cleansing since the Second World War"), for the weakening of freedom of the press and for her style of leadership, described as imperious and "distracted and out of touch". During the COVID-19 pandemic in Myanmar, Suu Kyi chaired a National Central Committee responsible for coordinating the country's pandemic response. ====Response to the genocide of Rohingya Muslims and refugees==== In 2017, critics called for Aung San Suu Kyi's Nobel prize to be revoked, citing her silence over the genocide of Rohingya people in Myanmar. Some activists criticised Aung San Suu Kyi for her silence on the 2012 Rakhine State riots (later repeated during the 2015 Rohingya refugee crisis), and her indifference to the plight of the Rohingya, Myanmar's persecuted Muslim minority. In 2012, she told reporters she did not know if the Rohingya could be regarded as Burmese citizens. In a 2013 interview with the BBC's Mishal Husain, Aung San Suu Kyi did not condemn violence against the Rohingya and denied that Muslims in Myanmar have been subject to ethnic cleansing, insisting that the tensions were due to a "climate of fear" caused by "a worldwide perception that global Muslim power is 'very great. She did condemn "hate of any kind" in the interview. According to Peter Popham, in the aftermath of the interview, she expressed anger at being interviewed by a Muslim. Husain had challenged Aung San Suu Kyi that almost all of the impact of violence was against the Rohingya, in response to Aung San Suu Kyi's claim that violence was happening on both sides, and Peter Popham described her position on the issue as one of purposeful ambiguity for political gain. However, she said that she wanted to work towards reconciliation and she cannot take sides as violence has been committed by both sides. According to The Economist, her "halo has even slipped among foreign human-rights lobbyists, disappointed at her failure to make a clear stand on behalf of the Rohingya minority". However, she has spoken out "against a ban on Rohingya families near the Bangladeshi border having more than two children". In a 2015 BBC News article, reporter Jonah Fisher suggested that Aung San Suu Kyi's silence over the Rohingya issue is due to a need to obtain support from the majority Bamar ethnicity as she is in "the middle of a general election campaign". In May 2015, the Dalai Lama publicly called upon her to do more to help the Rohingya in Myanmar, claiming that he had previously urged her to address the plight of the Rohingya in private during two separate meetings and that she had resisted his urging. In May 2016, Aung San Suu Kyi asked the newly appointed United States Ambassador to Myanmar, Scot Marciel, not to refer to the Rohingya by that name as they "are not recognized as among the 135 official ethnic groups" in Myanmar. This followed Bamar protests at Marciel's use of the word "Rohingya". In 2016, Aung San Suu Kyi was accused of failing to protect Myanmar's Rohingya Muslims during the Rohingya genocide. State crime experts from Queen Mary University of London warned that Aung San Suu Kyi is "legitimising genocide" in Myanmar. Despite continued persecution of the Rohingya well into 2017, Aung San Suu Kyi was "not even admitting, let alone trying to stop, the army's well-documented campaign of rape, murder and destruction against Rohingya villages". On 4 September 2017, Yanghee Lee, the UN's special rapporteur on human rights in Myanmar, criticised Aung San Suu Kyi's response to the "really grave" situation in Rakhine, saying: "The de facto leader needs to step in—that is what we would expect from any government, to protect everybody within their own jurisdiction." The BBC reported that "Her comments came as the number of Rohingya fleeing to Bangladesh reached 87,000, according to UN estimates", adding that "her sentiments were echoed by Nobel Peace laureate Malala Yousafzai, who said she was waiting to hear from Ms Suu Kyi—who has not commented on the crisis since it erupted". The Nobel Foundation replied that there existed no provision for revoking a Nobel Prize. Archbishop Desmond Tutu, a fellow peace prize holder, also criticised Aung San Suu Kyi's silence: in an open letter published on social media, he said: "If the political price of your ascension to the highest office in Myanmar is your silence, the price is surely too steep ... It is incongruous for a symbol of righteousness to lead such a country." On 13 September it was revealed that Aung San Suu Kyi would not be attending a UN General Assembly debate being held the following week to discuss the humanitarian crisis, with a Myanmar's government spokesman stating "perhaps she has more pressing matters to deal with". In October 2017, Oxford City Council announced that, following a unanimous cross-party vote, the honour of Freedom of the City, granted in 1997 in recognition of her "long struggle for democracy", was to be withdrawn following evidence emerging from the United Nations which meant that she was "no longer worthy of the honour". A few days later, Munsur Ali, a councillor for City of London Corporation, tabled a motion to rescind the Freedom of the City of London: the motion was supported by Catherine McGuinness, chair of the corporation's policy and resources committee, who expressed "distress ... at the situation in Burma and the atrocities committed by the Burmese military". Geldof added that he would take pride in his award being restored if it is first stripped from her. The Dublin City Council voted 59–2 (with one abstention) to revoke Aung San Suu Kyi's Freedom of the City award over Myanmar's treatment of the Rohingya people in December 2017, though Lord Mayor of Dublin Mícheál Mac Donncha denied the decision was influenced by protests by Geldof and members of U2. At the same meeting, the Councillors voted 37–7 (with 5 abstentions) to remove Geldof's name from the Roll of Honorary Freemen. In March 2018, the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum revoked Aung San Suu Kyi's Elie Wiesel Award, awarded in 2012, citing her failure "to condemn and stop the military's brutal campaign" against Rohingya Muslims. In May 2018, Aung San Suu Kyi was considered complicit in the crimes against Rohingyas in a report by Britain's International Development Committee. In August 2018, it was revealed that Aung San Suu Kyi would be stripped of her Freedom of Edinburgh award over her refusal to speak out against the crimes committed against the Rohingya. She had received the award in 2005 for promoting peace and democracy in Burma. This will be only the second time that anyone has ever been stripped of the award, after Charles Stewart Parnell lost it in 1890 due to a salacious affair. In early October 2018, both the Canadian Senate and its House of Commons voted unanimously to strip Aung San Suu Kyi of her honorary citizenship. This decision was caused by the Government of Canada's determination that the treatment of the Rohingya by Myanmar's government amounts to genocide. On 11 November 2018, Amnesty International announced it was revoking her Ambassador of Conscience award. In December 2019, Aung San Suu Kyi appeared in the International Court of Justice at The Hague where she defended the Burmese military against allegations of genocide against the Rohingya. In a speech of over 3,000 words, Aung San Suu Kyi did not use the term "Rohingya" in describing the ethnic group. She stated that the allegations of genocide were "incomplete and misleading", However, experts have largely criticised the Burmese investigations as insincere, with the military declaring itself innocent and the government preventing a visit from investigators from the United Nations. On 14 February 2025, a court in Argentina, acting on a petition from the Burmese Rohingya Organisation UK and citing universal jurisdiction, issued arrest warrants against several officials in Myanmar, including Aung San Suu Kyi on charges of "genocide and crimes against humanity" against the Rohingyas. ====Arrests and prosecution of journalists==== In December 2017, two Reuters journalists, Wa Lone and Kyaw Soe Oo, were arrested while investigating the Inn Din massacre of Rohingyas. Suu Kyi publicly commented in June 2018 that the journalists "weren't arrested for covering the Rakhine issue", but because they had broken Myanmar's Official Secrets Act. As the journalists were then on trial for violating the Official Secrets Act, Aung San Suu Kyi's presumption of their guilt was criticised by rights groups for potentially influencing the verdict. American diplomat Bill Richardson said that he had privately discussed the arrest with Suu Kyi, and that Aung San Suu Kyi reacted angrily and labelled the journalists "traitors". A police officer testified that he was ordered by superiors to use entrapment to frame and arrest the journalists; he was later jailed and his family evicted from their home in the police camp. The judge found the journalists guilty in September 2018 and to be jailed for seven years. In September 2018, the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights issued a report that since Aung San Suu Kyi's party, the NLD, came to power, the arrests and criminal prosecutions of journalists in Myanmar by the government and military, under laws which are too vague and broad, have "made it impossible for journalists to do their job without fear or favour." ===2021 arrest and trial=== On 1 February 2021, Aung San Suu Kyi was arrested and deposed by the Myanmar's military, along with other leaders of her National League for Democracy (NLD) party, after Myanmar's military declared the November 2020 general election results fraudulent. A 1 February court order authorised her detainment for 15 days, stating that soldiers searching her Naypyidaw villa had uncovered imported communications equipment lacking proper paperwork. Aung San Suu Kyi was transferred to house arrest on the same evening, and on 3 February was formally charged with illegally importing ten or more walkie-talkies. She faces up to three years in prison for the charges. According to The New York Times, the charge "echoed previous accusations of esoteric legal crimes (and) arcane offenses" used by the military against critics and rivals. As of 9 February, Aung San Suu Kyi continues to be held incommunicado, without access to international observers or legal representation of her choice. US President Joe Biden raised the threat of new sanctions as a result of the Myanmar's military coup. In a statement, the UN Secretary-General António Guterres believes "These developments represent a serious blow to democratic reforms in Myanmar." Volkan Bozkır, President of the UN General Assembly, also voiced his concerns, having tweeted "Attempts to undermine democracy and rule of law are unacceptable", and called for the "immediate release" of the detained NLD party leaders. On 1 April 2021, Aung San Suu Kyi was charged with the fifth offence in relation to violating the official secrets act. According to her lawyer, it is the most serious charge brought against her after the coup and could carry a sentence of up to 14 years in prison if convicted. On 12 April 2021, Aung San Suu Kyi was hit with another charge, this time "under section 25 of the natural disaster management law". According to her lawyer, it is her sixth indictment. She appeared in court via video link and now faces five charges in the capital Naypyidaw and one in Yangon. On 28 April 2021, the National Unity Government (NUG), in which Aung San Suu Kyi symbolically retained her position, anticipated that there would be no talks with the junta until all political prisoners, including her, are set free. This move by her supporters come after an ASEAN-supported consensus with the junta leadership in the past days. However, on 8 May 2021, the junta designated NUG as a terrorist organisation and warned citizens not to cooperate, nor to give aid to the parallel government, stripping Aung San Suu Kyi of her symbolic position. On 10 May 2021, her lawyer said she would appear in court in person for the first time since her arrest after the Supreme Court ruled that she could attend in person and meet her lawyers. She had been previously only allowed to do so remotely from her home. On 21 May 2021, a military junta commission was formed to dissolve Aung San Suu Kyi's National League for Democracy (NLD) on grounds of election fraud in the November 2020 election. On 22 May 2021, during his first interview since the coup, junta leader Min Aung Hlaing reported that she was in good health at her home and that she would appear in court in a matter of days. On 23 May 2021, the European Union expressed support for Aung San Suu Kyi's party and condemned the commission aimed at dissolving the party, echoing the NLD's statement released earlier in the week. On 24 May 2021, Aung San Suu Kyi appeared in person in court for the first time since the coup to face the "incitement to sedition" charge against her. During the 30-minute hearing, she said that she was not fully aware of what was going on outside as she had no access to full information from the outside and refused to respond on the matters. She was also quoted on the possibility of her party's forced dissolution as "Our party grew out of the people so it will exist as long as people support it." In her meeting with her lawyers, Aung San Suu Kyi also wished people "good health". On 10 June 2021, Aung San Suu Kyi was charged with corruption, the most serious charge brought against her, which carries a maximum penalty of 15 years' imprisonment. Aung San Suu Kyi's lawyers say the charges are made to keep her out of the public eye. On 14 June 2021, the trial against Aung San Suu Kyi began. Any conviction would prevent her from running for office again. Aung San Suu Kyi's lawyers attempted to have prosecution testimony against her on the sedition charge disqualified but the motion was denied by the judge. On 13 September 2021, court proceedings were to resume against her, but it was postponed due to Aung San Suu Kyi presenting "minor health issues" that impeded her from attending the court in person. On 4 October 2021, Aung San Suu Kyi asked the judge to reduce her times of court appearances because of her fragile health. Aung San Suu Kyi described her health as "strained". In November, the Myanmar courts deferred the first verdicts in the trial without further explanation or giving dates. In the same month, she was again charged with corruption, related to the purchase and rental of a helicopter, bringing the total of charges to nearly a dozen. On 6 December 2021, Suu Kyi was sentenced to 4 years in jail. Suu Kyi, who is still facing multiple charges and further sentences, was sentenced on the charge of inciting dissent and violating COVID-19 protocols. Following a partial pardon by the chief of the military government, Aung San Suu Kyi's four-year sentence was reduced to two years' imprisonment. On 10 January 2022, the military court in Myanmar sentenced Suu Kyi to an additional four years in prison on a number of charges including "importing and owning walkie-talkies" and "breaking coronavirus rules". The trials, which are closed to the public, the media, and any observers, were described as a "courtroom circus of secret proceedings on bogus charges" by the deputy director for Asia of Human Rights Watch. On 22 June 2022, junta authorities ordered that all further legal proceedings against Suu Kyi will take place in prison venues, instead of a courtroom. No explanation of the decision was given. Citing unidentified sources, the BBC reported that Suu Kyi was also moved on 22 June from house arrest, where she had had close companions, to solitary confinement in a specially-built area inside a prison in Naypyidaw. This is the same prison in which Win Myint had similarly been placed in solitary confinement. The military confirmed that Suu Kyi had been moved to prison. On 15 August 2022, sources following Aung San Suu Kyi's court proceedings said that she was sentenced to an additional six years' imprisonment after being found guilty on four corruption charges, bringing her overall sentences to 17 years in prison. In September 2022, she was convicted of election fraud and breaching the state's secrets act and sentenced to a total of six years in prison for both convictions, increasing her overall sentence to 23 years in prison. By 12 October 2022, she had been sentenced to 26 years imprisonment on ten charges in total, including five corruption charges. On 30 December 2022, her trials ended with another conviction and an additional sentence of seven years' imprisonment for corruption. Aung San Suu Kyi's final sentence is of 33 years in prison. On 1 August 2023, the military junta granted Suu Kyi a partial pardon, reducing her sentence to a total of 27 years in prison. Prior to the pardon, she was moved from prison to a VIP government residence, according to an official from NLD party. However, it was reported that since the beginning of September 2023, she is back in prison. The exact time when she was sent back to prison is unknown. Since January, Aung San Suu Kyi and her lawyers are trying to get six corruption charges overturned. To this date, the requests are repeatedly denied. On 16 April 2024, the military announced that Aung San Suu Kyi had been transferred to house arrest due to a heat wave. However, pro-democracy publications such as The Irrawaddy claimed that she remains in prison, with air conditioners being added to her cell. ==Political beliefs== Asked what democratic models Myanmar could look to, she said: "We have many, many lessons to learn from various places, not just the Asian countries like South Korea, Taiwan, Mongolia, and Indonesia." She also cited "Eastern Europe and countries, which made the transition from communist autocracy to democracy in the 1980s and 1990s, and the Latin American countries, which made the transition from military governments. And we cannot of course forget South Africa, because although it wasn't a military regime, it was certainly an authoritarian regime." She added: "We wish to learn from everybody who has achieved a transition to democracy, and also ... our great strong point is that, because we are so far behind everybody else, we can also learn which mistakes we should avoid." In a nod to the deep US political divide between Republicans led by Mitt Romney and the Democrats by Barack Obama—then battling to win the 2012 presidential election—she stressed, "Those of you who are familiar with American politics I'm sure understand the need for negotiated compromise." Aung San Suu Kyi has been an honorary board member of International IDEA and ARTICLE 19 since her detention, and has received support from these organisations. The Vrije Universiteit Brussel and the University of Louvain (UCLouvain), both located in Belgium, granted her the title of Doctor Honoris Causa. In 2003, the Freedom Forum recognised Aung San Suu Kyi's efforts to promote democracy peacefully with the Al Neuharth Free Spirit of the Year Award, in which she was presented over satellite because she was under house arrest. She was awarded one million dollars. In June of each year, the U.S. Campaign for Burma organises hundreds of "Arrest Yourself" house parties around the world in support of Aung San Suu Kyi. At these parties, the organisers keep themselves under house arrest for 24 hours, invite their friends, and learn more about Burma and Aung San Suu Kyi. The Freedom Campaign, a joint effort between the Human Rights Action Center and US Campaign for Burma, looks to raise worldwide attention to the struggles of Aung San Suu Kyi and the people of Burma. The Burma Campaign UK is a UK-based NGO (Non-Governmental Organisation) that aims to raise awareness of Burma's struggles and follow the guidelines established by the NLD and Aung San Suu Kyi. St Hugh's College, Oxford, where she studied, had a Burmese theme for their annual ball in support of her in 2006. The university later awarded her an honorary doctorate in civil law on 20 June 2012 during her visit to her alma mater. Aung San Suu Kyi is the official patron of The Rafto Human Rights House in Bergen, Norway. She received the Thorolf Rafto Memorial Prize in 1990. She was made an honorary free person of the City of Dublin, Ireland in November 1999, although a space had been left on the roll of signatures to symbolize her continued detention. This was subsequently revoked on 13 December 2017. In November 2005 the human rights group Equality Now proposed Aung Sun Suu Kyi as a potential candidate, among other qualifying women, for the position of U.N. Secretary General. Aung San Suu Kyi was an honorary member of The Elders, a group of eminent global leaders brought together by Nelson Mandela. Her ongoing detention meant that she was unable to take an active role in the group, so The Elders placed an empty chair for her at their meetings. The Elders have consistently called for the release of all political prisoners in Burma. Upon her election to parliament, she stepped down from her post. In 2010, Aung San Suu Kyi was given an honorary doctorate from the University of Johannesburg. In 2011, Aung San Suu Kyi was named the Guest Director of the 45th Brighton Festival. She was part of the international jury of Human Rights Defenders and Personalities who helped to choose a universal Logo for Human Rights in 2011. In June 2011, the BBC announced that Aung San Suu Kyi was to deliver the 2011 Reith Lectures. The BBC covertly recorded two lectures with Aung San Suu Kyi in Burma, which were then smuggled out of the country and brought back to London. The lectures were broadcast on BBC Radio 4 and the BBC World Service on 28 June 2011 and 5 July 2011. 8 March 2012, Canadian Foreign Affairs Minister John Baird presented Aung San Suu Kyi a certificate of honorary Canadian citizenship and an informal invitation to visit Canada. The honorary citizenship was revoked in September 2018 due to the Rohingya conflict. In April 2012, British Prime Minister David Cameron became the first leader of a major world power to visit Aung San Suu Kyi and the first British prime minister to visit Burma since the 1950s. In his visit, Cameron invited Aung San Suu Kyi to Britain where she would be able to visit her 'beloved' Oxford, an invitation which she later accepted. She visited Britain on 19 June 2012. In May 2012, Aung San Suu Kyi received the inaugural Václav Havel Prize for Creative Dissent of the Human Rights Foundation. 29 May 2012 PM Manmohan Singh of India visited Aung San Suu Kyi. In his visit, PM invited Aung San Suu Kyi to India as well. She started her six-day visit to India on 16 November 2012, where among the places she visited was her alma mater Lady Shri Ram College in New Delhi. In 2012, Aung San Suu Kyi set up the charity Daw Khin Kyi Foundation to improve health, education and living standards in underdeveloped parts of Myanmar. The charity was named after Aung San Suu Kyi's mother. Htin Kyaw played a leadership role in the charity before his election as President of Myanmar. The charity runs a Hospitality and Catering Training Academy in Kawhmu Township, in Yangon Region, and runs a mobile library service which in 2014 had 8000 members. Seoul National University in South Korea conferred an honorary doctorate degree to Aung San Suu Kyi in February 2013. University of Bologna, Italy conferred an honorary doctorate degree in philosophy to Aung San Suu Kyi in October 2013. Monash University, The Australian National University, University of Sydney and University of Technology, Sydney conferred an honorary degree to Aung San Suu Kyi in November 2013. ==In popular culture== The life of Aung San Suu Kyi and her husband Michael Aris is portrayed in Luc Besson's 2011 film The Lady, in which they are played by Michelle Yeoh and David Thewlis. Yeoh visited Aung San Suu Kyi in 2011 before the film's release in November. In the John Boorman's 1995 film Beyond Rangoon, Aung San Suu Kyi was played by Adelle Lutz. Irish songwriters Damien Rice and Lisa Hannigan released in 2005 the single "Unplayed Piano", in support of the Free Aung San Suu Kyi 60th Birthday Campaign that was happening at the time. Irish rock band U2 wrote the song "Walk On" in tribute to Aung San Suu Kyi. It is the fourth track on their tenth studio album, All That You Can't Leave Behind (2000), and would later be issued as a single. Lead singer Bono is wearing a t-shirt with her image and name on the front in their official video of the song. "Walk On" won Record of the Year at the 2002 Grammy Awards, that also featured U2 performing the song. Bono publicised her plight during the U2 360° Tour, 2009–2011. Saxophonist Wayne Shorter composed a song titled "Aung San Suu Kyi". It appears on his albums 1+1 (with pianist Herbie Hancock) and Footprints Live!. ==Health problems== Aung San Suu Kyi underwent surgery for a gynecological condition in September 2003 at Asia Royal Hospital during her house arrest. She also underwent minor foot surgery in December 2013 and eye surgery in April 2016. In June 2012, her doctor Tin Myo Win said that she had no serious health problems, but weighed only , had low blood pressure, and could become weak easily. After being arrested and detained on 1 February 2021, there were concerns that Aung San Suu Kyi's health was deteriorating. However, according to military's spokesperson Zaw Min Tun, special attention is given to her health and living condition. Don Pramudwinai also said that "she was in good health, both physically and mentally". Although a junta spokesperson claimed that she is in good health, since being sent back to prison in September 2023, it is reported that her health condition is worsening and she is "suffering of toothache and unable to eat". Her request to see a dentist had been denied. Her son is urging the junta to allow Aung San Suu Kyi to receive medical assistance. ==Books== Freedom from Fear (1991) () Letters from Burma (1991) () Let's Visit Nepal (1985) () ==Honours== List of awards and honours received by Aung San Suu Kyi	[ "Win Tin", "Ye-U", "French language", "meta element", "Khin Maung Soe", "Oxford City Council", "Singapore", "Rohingyas", "Canadian Foreign Minister", "Khin San Yi", "Yangon", "Insein Prison", "Joe Biden", "Yukio Hatoyama", "Mícheál Mac Donncha", "United Nations Security Council", "freedom of the press", "Honorary Fellow", "Kachin state", "Mitt Romney", "Rohingya people", "Office of the President of Myanmar", "Maria Gunnoe", "The Daily Star (Bangladesh)", "Lady Shri Ram College", "BBC World Service", "UN General Assembly", "Freedom of the City of London", "Inn Din massacre", "Martin Schulz", "gynecological condition", "Chairman of the State Administration Council", "Thorolf Rafto Memorial Prize", "Kyi Maung", "Bangkok, Thailand", "Khin Aung Myint", "Aung Kyi", "Rigoberta Menchú", "Aung Min", "Adolfo Pérez Esquivel", "Maurizio Giuliano", "Bono", "NHK", "Cyclone Nargis", "Sein Win (politician)", "Master of Arts (Oxford, Cambridge, and Dublin)", "United States President", "Saffron Revolution", "Yangon Region", "Gordon Brown", "democracy", "Kawhmu Township", "Rohingya conflict", "Mizzima", "The Straits Times", "Nelson Mandela", "Adelle Lutz", "54 University Avenue", "Mergui", "Democratic Party (United States)", "Bagan", "Charles Stewart Parnell", "Father of the Nation", "change.org", "Wunna Maung Lwin", "Mairead Corrigan", "Wallenberg Medal", "China", "Alexander Aris", "State television", "Myo Thein Gyi", "Mahatma Gandhi", "Min Aung Hlaing", "Ministry of Electricity and Energy (Myanmar)", "Under-Secretary-General of the United Nations", "Bill Richardson", "List of civil rights leaders", "University of London", "honorary Canadian citizenship", "Union Solidarity and Development Party", "San Diego", "State Counsellor of Myanmar", "London", "Bamar people", "United Nations", "Rakhine State", "Fourth World Conference on Women", "The Economist", "Aung San Oo", "Politics of Burma", "Freedom of the City", "George Monbiot", "Russia", "Indian Prime Minister", "United States Holocaust Memorial Museum", "Htin Kyaw", "Khin Kyi", "Theravada", "Radio Free Asia", "Indian Institute of Advanced Studies", "Secretary-General of the United Nations", "Yahoo! News", "Damien Rice", "Australia", "Freedom Forum", "Nobel lecture", "House of Representatives (Myanmar)", "The Washington Post", "David Cameron", "Japanese language", "Nepal", "UN Secretary-General", "Agence France-Presse", "Tibetan culture", "National League for Democracy", "44th Annual Grammy Awards", "tax evasion", "David Thewlis", "Yonhap", "The New York Times", "Burma Campaign UK", "nonviolence", "Betty Williams (Nobel laureate)", "British Foreign Minister", "New Delhi", "World Economic Forum", "Zaw Min Tun (general)", "Opposition (Myanmar)", "Arakan Rohingya Salvation Army", "Maldives", "Communism", "United Nations Department of Political Affairs", "2008 Myanmar constitutional referendum", "Shan state", "Jonah Fisher", "solitary confinement", "Xinhua News Agency", "Straits Times", "UN Secretary General", "The Irrawaddy", "Scot Marciel", "Burmese military junta", "Denis Mukwege", "biryani", "Israel", "Los Angeles Times", "New York City", "Tin Oo", "Hillary Clinton", "Paolo Gentiloni", "Jakarta", "RTÉ News", "The Australian National University", "Samak Sundaravej", "Burmese names", "Michelle Yeoh", "Sai Hla Kyaw", "The Hague", "Wang Yi (politician)", "Prime Minister of Thailand", "CNN", "Freedom of the City of Dublin", "2020 Myanmar general election", "Western nations", "University of Technology, Sydney", "Vietnam", "MRTV", "BBC Radio 4", "supermajority", "Union Election Commission", "Supreme Court of Myanmar", "Ban Ki-moon", "John Baird (Canadian politician)", "William Hague", "Canadian Senate", "Burma", "Desert Island Discs", "List of Nobel laureates affiliated with Kyoto University", "Alexander Dubček", "Jimmy Carter", "Khin Yi", "Pyidaungsu Hluttaw", "Constitution of Burma", "Nobel Peace Prize", "Lady Shri Ram College for Women", "University of Sydney", "Military rule in Myanmar", "Record of the Year", "Oslo City Hall", "Yingluck Shinawatra", "Thein Nyunt", "Université catholique de Louvain", "Al Jazeera Media Network", "Adem Demaçi", "hysterectomy", "Italian foreign minister", "Indonesia", "Yangon General Hospital", "Walk On (U2 song)", "Burmese literature", "Human Rights Foundation", "Fumio Kishida", "The Guardian", "António Guterres", "National Democratic Institute for International Affairs", "Peter Popham", "U.S. Campaign for Burma", "Ethnic cleansing in Myanmar", "Zeya Aung", "Wa Lone", "Constitution of Myanmar", "Luc Besson", "Vice President of Myanmar", "State Peace and Development Council", "Shimla", "Rajiv Gandhi", "Senior general (Myanmar)", "International Court of Justice", "Burmese honorifics", "Brighton Festival", "Empire of Japan", "National Unity Government of Myanmar", "Independence Day (Myanmar)", "Wardah Hafidz", "Munsur Ali", "Unplayed Piano", "Depayin massacre", "Assembly of the Union", "Japan", "City of Dublin", "democratisation", "international law", "Myanmar National Education Law 2014", "British accent", "Myanmar", "List of foreign ministers in 2017", "Madam", "Khin Nyunt", "Pope John Paul II", "Seoul National University", "President of Myanmar", "2012 United States presidential election", "human rights", "2011–2015 Myanmar political reforms", "Barack Obama", "Gwangju Prize for Human Rights", "ethnic cleansing", "Ba Win", "Michael Aris", "Europe", "Aung Gyi", "2015 Myanmar general election", "National Reconciliation (Myanmar)", "List of awards and honours received by Aung San Suu Kyi", "Inya Lake", "Republican Party (United States)", "hard labour", "Equality Now", "mobile library", "University of Johannesburg", "Nobel Foundation", "Beijing", "Toronto Star", "Tin Myo Win", "Human Rights Watch", "Bob Geldof", "Taiwan", "roadmap to democracy", "genocidal intent", "Tabayin", "Péter Molnár (academic)", "Nyan Win", "Malala Yousafzai", "entrapment", "Volkan Bozkır", "human rights in Myanmar", "Mandalay", "Amnesty International", "United States", "Aye Aye Win", "Human rights in Burma", "City of London Corporation", "Prime Minister of Myanmar", "Kofi Annan", "democratic government", "Twante Township", "Doina Cornea", "Asia Royal Cardiac & Medical Care Centre", "Lord Mayor of Dublin", "President George W. Bush", "2021 Myanmar coup d'état", "St Hugh's College, Oxford", "Buddhist monks", "Elie Wiesel", "Nobel Peace Laureate", "martial law", "Voice of America", "SOAS University of London", "United Kingdom", "Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Vietnam)", "Thein Sein", "political prisoner", "School of Oriental and African Studies", "All That You Can't Leave Behind", "Forbes", "Dublin City Council", "Eastern Europe", "Bhutan", "President of the UN General Assembly", "2015 Rohingya refugee crisis", "Than Shwe", "John Yettaw", "Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights", "Hla Tun", "house arrest", "Japanese Foreign Minister", "U Nu", "Ministry of Education (Myanmar)", "Pyithu Hluttaw", "Naypyidaw", "Rohingya", "2010 Burmese general election", "Bangladesh", "Burmese language", "Burmese Martyrs' Day", "Mongolia", "Yanghee Lee", "The Wall Street Journal", "Soe Thein", "Irrawaddy delta", "The Hindu", "US Campaign for Burma", "UK Prime Minister", "US Senator", "Mishal Husain", "University of Delhi", "Thailand", "1+1 (Herbie Hancock and Wayne Shorter album)", "The Elders (organization)", "Master of Philosophy", "British Burma", "Union Solidarity and Development Association", "Việt Nam News", "US President Barack Obama", "honorary citizenship", "The Lady (2011 film)", "Vrije Universiteit Brussel", "COVID-19 pandemic in Myanmar", "Ne Win", "Burma Socialist Programme Party", "Pegu", "2024 Southeast Asia heat wave", "Channel News Asia", "Time (magazine)", "South America", "Malaysia", "Universal Declaration of Human Rights", "List of current foreign ministers", "Herbie Hancock", "Thakin Than Tun", "British undergraduate degree classification", "Myanmar Police Force", "corruption", "Than E", "Freedom from Fear (Aung San Suu Kyi)", "John Boorman", "Bogyoke Aung San Museum", "Prime Minister of Burma", "2010 Myanmar general election", "wikt:solidarity", "Shirin Ebadi", "Maurice Strong", "Soe Maung", "ASEAN", "Win Myint", "United States Ambassador to Myanmar", "UN special rapporteur", "Queen Mary University of London", "Congressional Gold Medal", "2021 Myanmar protests", "Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Myanmar)", "Shwedagon Pagoda", "Jim Webb", "Freedom of thought", "US House of Representatives", "House of Commons", "Mahathir Mohamad", "2012 Rakhine State riots", "Myeik, Burma", "Desmond Tutu", "Philippines", "BBC News", "Lisa Hannigan", "Wayne Shorter", "The Independent", "Government of Canada", "Václav Havel Prize for Creative Dissent", "2012 Burmese by-elections", "Ibrahim Gambari", "Dandeniya Gamage Jayanthi", "Myanmar kyat", "prostate cancer", "Aung San", "Mikhail Gorbachev", "State media", "14th Dalai Lama", "Doctor Honoris Causa", "Association of Southeast Asian Nations", "terminal illness", "Tatmadaw", "U2", "ARTICLE 19", "Myanmar coup d'état", "Asian countries", "Latin America", "European Union", "Basic Education High School No. 1 Dagon", "piano", "University of Bologna", "White House", "Kyaw Soe Oo", "Bachelor of Arts", "India", "International IDEA", "Arrests of Wa Lone and Kyaw Soe Oo", "Human Rights Logo", "Buddhism in Burma", "Soe Tint", "B.A. degree", "Footprints Live!", "Philosophy, Politics and Economics", "Deutsche Welle", "non-violence", "Convent of Jesus and Mary, Delhi", "United Nations General Assembly", "South Korea", "Monash University", "Freedom Now", "Catherine McGuinness", "California", "New Light of Myanmar", "Pardon", "Yelena Bonner", "Chinese Foreign Minister", "U2 360° Tour", "Myanmar Times", "Jawaharlal Nehru Award", "Burmese honorific", "Rohingya genocide", "University of Oxford", "Razali Ismail", "citizenship", "Conflict in Rakhine State (2016–present)", "Reith Lectures", "Letters from Burma", "European Parliament", "military junta", "World War II", "General", "English language", "2008 Constitution of Myanmar", "Don Pramudwinai", "Jody Williams", "International Development Committee", "Collins Dictionary", "Presidential Electoral College", "South Africa", "Rangoon", "motorcade", "Beyond Rangoon", "The Australian", "Second World War", "head of government", "visa (document)", "The Times of India", "Doctor of Civil Law", "1990 Burmese general election", "landslide victory", "Reuters", "8888 Uprising", "Stephane Dion", "Prayut Chan-o-cha", "Citizenship in the United States", "Sakharov Prize" ]
2,851	Abraham Joshua Heschel	Abraham Joshua Heschel (January 11, 1907 – December 23, 1972) was a Polish-American rabbi and one of the leading Jewish theologians and Jewish philosophers of the 20th century. Heschel, a professor of Jewish mysticism at the Jewish Theological Seminary of America, authored a number of widely read books on Jewish philosophy and was a leader in the U.S. civil rights movement. ==Biography== Abraham Joshua Heschel was born in Warsaw in 1907, the youngest of six children of Moshe Mordechai Heschel and Reizel Perlow Heschel. He was descended from preeminent European rabbis on both sides of his family. After a traditional yeshiva education and studying for Orthodox rabbinical ordination (semicha), Heschel pursued his doctorate at the University of Berlin and rabbinic ordination at the non-denominational Hochschule für die Wissenschaft des Judentums. There he studied under notable scholars including Hanoch Albeck, Ismar Elbogen, Julius Guttmann, Alexander Guttmann, and Leo Baeck. His mentor in Berlin was David Koigen. Heschel later taught Talmud at the Hochschule. He joined a Yiddish poetry group, Jung Vilna, and in 1933, published a volume of Yiddish poems, Der Shem Hamefoyrosh: Mentsch, dedicated to his father. In late October 1938, while living in a rented room in the home of a Jewish family in Frankfurt, Heschel was arrested by the Gestapo and deported to Poland in the Polenaktion. He spent ten months lecturing on Jewish philosophy and Torah at Warsaw's Institute for Jewish Studies. Heschel married Sylvia Straus, a concert pianist, on December 10, 1946, in Los Angeles. Their daughter, Susannah Heschel, became a Jewish scholar in her own right. ==Ideology== Heschel explicated many facets of Jewish thought, including studies on medieval Jewish philosophy, Kabbalah, and Hasidic philosophy. According to some scholars, he was more interested in spirituality than in critical text study; the latter was a specialty of many scholars at JTS. He was not given a graduate assistant for many years and he was mainly relegated to teach in the education school or the Rabbinical school, not in the academic graduate program. Heschel became friendly with his colleague Mordecai Kaplan. Though they differed in their approaches to Judaism, they had a very cordial relationship and visited each other's homes from time to time. Heschel believed that the teachings of the Hebrew prophets were a clarion call for social action in the United States and, inspired by this belief, he worked for African Americans' civil rights and spoke out against the Vietnam War. He also criticized what he specifically called "pan-halakhism," or an exclusive focus upon religiously compatible behavior to the neglect of the non-legalistic dimension of rabbinic tradition. Heschel is notable as a recent proponent of what one scholar calls the "Nachmanidean" school of Jewish thought - emphasizing the mutually dependent relationship between God and man - as opposed to the "Maimonidean" school in which God is independent and unchangeable. In Heschel's language, the "Maimonidean" perspective is associated with Rabbi Yishmael and the "Nachmanidean" perspective with Rabbi Akiva; according to Heschel neither perspective should be adopted in isolation, but rather both are interwoven with the other. Heschel described kabbalah as an outgrowth of classical rabbinic sources that describe God's dependence on man to implement the divine plan for the world. This contrasts with scholars like Gershon Scholem who saw kabbalah as reflecting the influence of non-Jewish thought. In recent years, a growing body of kabbalah scholarship has followed Heschel's emphasis on the mystical experience of kabbalah and on its continuity with earlier Jewish sources. For these and other reasons, Martin Luther King Jr. called Heschel "a truly great prophet." Heschel actively participated in the Civil Rights movement, and was a participant in the third Selma to Montgomery march, accompanying Dr. King and John Lewis. ==Published works== The Earth Is the Lord's: The Inner World of the Jew in Eastern Europe. 1949. Man Is Not Alone: A Philosophy of Religion. 1951. The Sabbath: Its Meaning for Modern Man. 1951. Man's Quest for God: Studies in Prayer and Symbolism. 1954. God in Search of Man: A Philosophy of Judaism. 1955. The Prophets. 1962. Who Is Man? 1965. Israel: An Echo of Eternity. 1969. A Passion for Truth. 1973. I asked for Wonder: A spiritual anthology. 1983. Heavenly Torah: As Refracted Through the Generations. 2005. ; Theology of Ancient Judaism. [Hebrew]. 2 vols. London: Soncino Press, 1962. Third volume, New York: Jewish Theological Seminary, 1995. The Ineffable Name of God: Man: Poems. 2004. . [Yiddish]. 2 v. (694 p.) Tel-Aviv: ha-Menorah, 1973. Added t.p.: Kotzk: the struggle for integrity (A Hebrew translation of vol. 1, Jerusalem: Magid, 2015). (). 45 p. Originally published: New York: Shoken, 1946. ===Man Is Not Alone (1951)=== Man Is Not Alone: A Philosophy of Religion offers Heschel's views on how people can comprehend God. Judaism views God as being radically different from humans, so Heschel explores the ways that Judaism teaches that a person may have an encounter with the ineffable. A recurring theme in this work is the radical amazement people feel when experiencing the presence of the Divine. Heschel then explores the problems of doubts and faith, what Judaism means by teaching that God is one, the essence of humanity and the problem of human needs, the definition of religion in general and Judaism in particular, and human yearning for spirituality. He offers his views as to Judaism being a pattern for life. ===The Sabbath (1951)=== The Sabbath: Its Meaning for Modern Man is a work on the nature and celebration of Shabbat, the Jewish Sabbath. It is rooted in the thesis that Judaism is a religion of time, not space, and that the Sabbath symbolizes the sanctification of time. For Heschel, "Technical civilization is man's conquest of space. It is a triumph frequently achieved by sacrificing an essential ingredient of existence, namely, time.” While he wrote that “to enhance our power in the world of space is our main objective,” he also warned that while “we have often suffered from degradation by poverty, now we are threatened with degradation through power." ===God in Search of Man (1955)=== God in Search of Man: A Philosophy of Judaism is a companion volume to Man Is Not Alone in which Heschel discusses the nature of religious thought, how thought becomes faith, and how faith creates responses in the believer. He discusses ways people can seek God's presence and the radical amazement we receive in return. He offers a criticism of nature worship, a study of humanity's metaphysical loneliness, and his view that we can consider God in search of humanity. The first section concludes with a study of Jews as a chosen people. Section two deals with the idea of revelation and what it means for one to be a prophet. This section gives us his idea of revelation as an event instead of a process. This relates to Israel's commitment to God. Section three discusses his views on how a Jew should understand the nature of Judaism as a religion. He discusses and rejects the idea that mere faith (without law) alone is enough but then cautions rabbis against adding too many restrictions to Jewish law. He discusses the need to correlate ritual observance with spirituality and love and the importance of Kavanah (intention) when performing mitzvot. He discusses religious behaviorism—when people strive for external compliance with the law, yet disregard the importance of inner devotion. ===The Prophets (1962)=== This work started as Heschel's PhD thesis in German, which he later expanded and translated into English. Originally published in a two-volume edition, The Prophets studies the books of the Hebrew prophets. It covers their lives and the historical context of their missions, summarizes their work, and discusses their psychological state. Heschel puts forward a central idea in his theology: that the prophetic (and, ultimately, Jewish) view of God is best understood not as anthropomorphic (that God takes human form) but as anthropopathic—that God has human feelings. In The Prophets, Heschel describes the Jewish prophets' unique aspect compared to similar figures. Whereas other nations have soothsayers and diviners who attempt to discover the will of their gods, Heschel asserts, the Hebrew prophets are characterized by their experience of what he calls theotropism—God turning towards humanity. Heschel argues for the view of Hebrew prophets as receivers of the "Divine Pathos," of the wrath and sorrow of God over his nation that has forsaken him. In this view, prophets do not speak for God so much as they remind their audience of God's voice for the voiceless, the poor, and the oppressed. He writes: === Torah min HaShamayim (1962) === Many consider Heschel's Torah min HaShamayim BeAspaklariya shel HaDorot, (Torah from Heaven in the mirror of the generations) to be his masterwork. The three volumes of this work are a study of classical rabbinic theology and aggadah, as opposed to halakha (Jewish law). It explores the views of the rabbis in the Mishnah, Talmud, and Midrash about the nature of Torah, the revelation of God to humankind, prophecy, and the ways that Jews have used scriptural exegesis to expand and understand these core Jewish texts. In this work, Heschel views the 2nd-century sages Rabbi Akiva and Ishmael ben Elisha as paradigms for the two dominant world-views in Jewish theology Two Hebrew volumes were published during his lifetime by Soncino Press, and the third was published posthumously by JTS Press in the 1990s. A new edition, including an expanded third volume, due to manuscripts that were found and edited by Dr. Dror Bondi, was published by Magid Press in 2021. An English translation of all three volumes, with notes, essays, and appendices, was translated and edited by Rabbi Gordon Tucker, entitled Heavenly Torah: As Refracted Through the Generations. It can be the subject of intense study and analysis, providing insight into the relationship between God and humans beyond the world of Judaism and all monotheisms. === Who is Man? (1965) === Here, Heschel discusses the nature and role of man. In these three lectures, originally delivered in somewhat different form as The Raymond Fred West Memorial Lectures at Stanford University in May 1963, Dr. Heschel inquires into the logic of being human: What is meant by being human? What are the grounds on which to justify a human being's claim to being human? The author says, “We have never been as openmouthed and inquisitive, never as astonished and embarrassed at our ignorance about man. We know what he makes, but we do not know what he is or what to expect of him. Is it not conceivable that our entire civilization is built upon a misinterpretation of man? Or that the tragedy of man is due to the fact that he is a being who has forgotten the question: Who is Man? The failure to identify himself, to know what is authentic human existence, leads him to assume a false identity, to pretend to be what he is unable to be or to not accepting what is at the very root of his being. Ignorance about man is not lack of knowledge, but false knowledge.” ===Prophetic Inspiration After the Prophets (1966)=== Heschel wrote a series of articles, originally in Hebrew, on the existence of prophecy in Judaism after the destruction of the Holy Temple in Jerusalem in 70 CE. These essays were translated into English and published as Prophetic Inspiration After the Prophets: Maimonides and Others by the American Judaica publisher Ktav. The publisher of this book states, "The standard Jewish view is that prophecy ended with the ancient prophets, somewhere early in the Second Temple era. Heschel demonstrated that this view is not altogether accurate. Belief in the possibility of continued prophetic inspiration, and belief in its actual occurrence existed throughout much of the medieval period, and it even exists in modern times. Heschel's work on prophetic inspiration in the Middle Ages originally appeared in two long Hebrew articles. In them, he concentrated on the idea that prophetic inspiration was even possible in post-Talmudic times, and, indeed, it had taken place at various schools in various times, from the Geonim to Maimonides and beyond." == Awards and commemoration== 1970: National Jewish Book Award in the Jewish Thought category for Israel: An Echo of Eternity Five schools have been named for Heschel: in Buenos Aires, Argentina the rabbinical school of the Seminario Rabinico Latinoamericano; on the Upper West Side of New York City, the A J Heschel School; in California the Abraham Joshua Heschel Day School is located in Northridge, while the Heschel West Day School is located in Agoura Hills; and The Toronto Heschel School in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. Heschel's papers are held in the Rubenstein Rare Book & Manuscript Library at Duke University. On 17 October 2022, John Paul II Catholic University of Lublin inaugurated the Abraham J. Heschel Center for Catholic-Jewish Relations, attended by Catholic and Jewish figures, including Rabbi Abraham Skorka, Susannah Heschel, Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem Archbishop Pierbattista Pizzaballa, and Archbishop Stanisław Budzik of Lublin. Pope Francis has welcomed the establishment of the Heschel Center.	[ "Julian Morgenstern", "Invasion of Poland", "Catholic Church", "Stanford University", "Seminario Rabínico Latinoamericano", "Duke University", "civil rights movement", "monotheism", "Rebbe", "Selma to Montgomery march", "Warsaw", "National Jewish Book Award", "Cincinnati", "Talmud", "University of Berlin", "Civil and political rights", "Toronto", "1938 expulsion of Polish Jews from Germany", "Kabbalah", "Mordecai Kaplan", "Nazi Germany", "Hasidic philosophy", "Jews as a chosen people", "Gordon Tucker", "Hasidic dynasties", "Soncino Press", "Yiddish", "KTAV Publishing House", "Prophets in Judaism", "Upper West Side", "Rabbi Yishmael", "Latin Patriarchate of Jerusalem", "yeshiva", "Orthodox Judaism", "Reform Judaism", "Nazi concentration camps", "Julius Guttmann", "Pathos", "Manhattan", "Iain McGilchrist", "Avraham Yehoshua Heshel", "Gershon Scholem", "Ismar Elbogen", "Opatów", "Menachem Mendel of Kotzk", "Jewish philosophy", "Second Vatican Council", "Ishmael ben Elisha", "Jewish mysticism", "List of peace activists", "John Lewis", "Dartmouth College", "Kavanah", "Gestapo", "Abraham Skorka", "Ontario", "Nahmanides", "Rubenstein Rare Book & Manuscript Library", "Humboldt University of Berlin", "Pope Francis", "American Jews", "John Paul II Catholic University of Lublin", "Conservative Judaism", "Agoura Hills, California", "aggadah", "Jewish ethics", "Martin Luther King Jr.", "Frankfurt", "Congress Poland", "Hochschule für die Wissenschaft des Judentums", "Northridge, Los Angeles", "English language", "Hanoch Albeck", "Moshe Idel", "Hebrew language", "rabbi", "Temple in Jerusalem", "influenza", "Hebrew Union College", "Shabbat", "Main Judaic Library", "Geonim", "Ger (Hasidic dynasty)", "Susannah Heschel", "Judaism", "Rabbi Akiva", "revelation", "Pierbattista Pizzaballa", "Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Lublin", "Jewish Theological Seminary of America", "Mishnah", "African Americans", "semicha", "The Matter with Things", "Leo Baeck", "The New York Times", "Torah", "Midrash", "mitzvot", "God in Search of Man", "kabbalah", "halakha", "Springfield, Missouri", "Maimonides", "Middle Ages", "Vietnam War" ]
2,853	Aberdeen Bestiary	The Aberdeen Bestiary (Aberdeen University Library, Univ Lib. MS 24) is a 12th-century English illuminated manuscript bestiary that was first listed in 1542 in the inventory of the Old Royal Library at the Palace of Westminster. Due to similarities, it is often considered to be the "sister" manuscript of the Ashmole Bestiary. Information about the manuscript's origins and patrons are circumstantial, although the manuscript most likely originated from the 13th century and was owned by a wealthy ecclesiastical patron from northern or southern England. == History == The Aberdeen Bestiary and the Ashmole Bestiary are considered by Xenia Muratova, a professor of Art History, to be "the work of different artists belonging to the same artistic milieu." Due to their "striking similarities" they are often compared and described by scholars as being "sister manuscripts." The medievalist scholar M. R. James considered the Aberdeen Bestiary ''a replica of Ashmole 1511" a view echoed by many other art historians. === Provenance === The original patron of both the Aberdeen and Ashmole Bestiary was considered to be a high-ranking member of society such as a prince, king or another high ranking church official or monastery. How King Henry acquired the manuscript remains unknown although it was probably taken from a monastery. === Illuminations === Folio page 1 to 3 recto depicts the Genesis 1:1-25 which is represented with a large full page illumination Biblical Creation scene in the manuscript. Folio 5 recto shows Adam, a large figure surrounded by gold leaf and towering over others, with the theme of 'Adam naming the animals' - this starts the compilation of the bestiary portion within the manuscript. Folio 5 verso depicts quadrupeds, livestock, wild beasts, and the concept of the herd. Folio 7 to 18 recto depicts large cats and other beasts such as wolves, foxes and dogs. Many pages from the start of the manuscript's bestiary section such as 11 verso featuring a hyena shows small pin holes which were likely used to map out and copy artwork to a new manuscript. Folio 20 verso to 28 recto depicts livestock such as sheep, horses, and goats. Small animals like cats and mice are depicted on folio 24 to 25. Pages 25 recto to 63 recto feature depictions of birds and folio 64 recto to 80 recto depicts reptiles, worms and fish. 77 recto to 91 verso depicts trees and plants and other elements of nature such as the nature of man. The end folios of the manuscript from 93 recto to 100 recto depicts the nature of stones and rocks. Seventeen of the Aberdeen manuscript pages are pricked for transfer in a process called pouncing such as clearly seen in the hyena folio as well as folio 3 recto and 3 verso depicting Genesis 1:26-1:28, 31, 1:1-2. The pricking must have been done shortly after the creation of the Adam and Eve folio pages since there is not damage done to nearby pages. Other pages used for pouncing include folio 7 recto to 18 verso which is the beginning of the beasts portion of the manuscript and likely depicted a lions as well as other big cats such as leopards, panthers and their characteristic as well as other large wild and domesticated beasts. === Missing Folios === On folio 6 recto there was likely intended to be a depiction of a lion as in the Ashmole bestiary, but in this instance the pages were left blank although there are markings of margin lines. In comparison to the Ashmole bestiary, on 9 verso some leaves are missing which should have likely contained imagery of the antelope (Antalops), unicorn (Unicornis), lynx (Lynx), griffin (Gryps), part of elephant (Elephans). Near folio 21 verso two illuminations of the ox (Bos), camel (Camelus), dromedary (Dromedarius), ass (Asinus), onager (Onager) and part of horse (Equus) are also assumed to be missing. Also missing from folio 15 recto on are some leaves which should have contained crocodile (Crocodilus), manticore (Mantichora) and part of parandrus (Parandrus). These missing folios are assumed from comparisons between the Ashmole and other related bestiaries. == Contents == Folio 1 recto : Genesis creation narrative of heaven and earth (Genesis, 1: 1–5). (Full page) Folio 1 verso: Creation of the waters and the firmament (Genesis, 1: 6–8) Folio 2 recto : Creation of the birds and fish (Genesis, 1: 20–23) Folio 2 verso : Creation of the animals (Genesis, 1: 24–25) Folio 3 recto : Creation of man (Genesis, 1: 26–28, 31; 2: 1–2) Folio 5 recto : Adam names the animals (Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae, Book XII, i, 1–2) Folio 5 verso : Animal (Animal) (Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae, Book XII, i, 3) Folio 5 verso : Quadruped (Quadrupes) (Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae, Book XII, i, 4) Folio 5 verso : Livestock (Pecus) (Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae, Book XII, i, 5–6) Folio 5 verso : Beast of burden (Iumentum) (Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae, Book XII, i, 7) Folio 5 verso : Herd (Armentum) (Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae, Book XII, i, 8) === Beasts (Bestiae) === Folio 7 recto : Lion (Leo) (Physiologus, Chapter 1; Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae, Book XII, ii, 3–6) Folio 8 recto : Tiger (Tigris) (Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae, Book XII, ii, 7) Folio 8 verso : Pard (Pard) (Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae, Book XII, ii, 10–11) Folio 9 recto : Panther (Panther) (Physiologus, Chapter 16; Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae, Book XII, ii, 8–9) Folio 10 recto : Elephant (Elephans) (Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae, Book XII, ii, 14; Physiologus, Chapter 43; Ambrose, Hexaemeron, Book VI, 35; Solinus, Collectanea rerum memorabilium, xxv, 1–7) Folio 11 recto : Beaver (Castor) Folio 11 recto : Ibex (Ibex) (Hugh of Fouilloy, II, 15) Folio 11 verso : Hyena (Yena) (Physiologus, Chapter 24; Solinus, Collectanea rerum memorabilium, xxvii, 23–24) Folio 12 recto : Crocotta (Crocotta) (Solinus, Collectanea rerum memorabilium, xxvii, 26) Folio 12 recto : Bonnacon (Bonnacon) (Solinus, Collectanea rerum memorabilium, xl, 10–11) Folio 12 verso : Ape (Simia) Folio 13 recto : Satyr (Satyrs) Folio 13 recto : Deer (Cervus) Folio 14 recto : Goat (Caper) Folio 14 verso : Wild goat (Caprea) Folio 15 recto : Monoceros (Monoceros) (Solinus, Collectanea rerum memorabilium, lii, 39–40) Folio 15 recto : Bear (Ursus) Folio 15 verso : Leucrota (Leucrota) (Solinus, Collectanea rerum memorabilium, lii, 34) Folio 16 recto : Parandrus (Parandrus) (Solinus, Collectanea rerum memorabilium, xxx, 25) Folio 16 recto : Fox (Vulpes) Folio 16 verso : Yale (Eale) (Solinus, Collectanea rerum memorabilium, lii, 35) Folio 16 verso : Wolf (Lupus) Folio 18 recto : Dog (Canis) === Livestock (Pecora) === Folio 20 verso : Sheep (Ovis) (Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae, Book XII, i, 9; Ambrose, Hexaemeron, Book VI, 20) Folio 21 recto : Wether (Vervex) (Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae, Book XII, i, 10) Folio 21 recto : Ram (Aries) (Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae, Book XII, i, 11) Folio 21 recto : Lamb (Agnus) (Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae, Book XII, i, 12; Ambrose, Hexaemeron, Book VI, 28) Folio 21 recto : He-goat (Hircus) (Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae, Book XII, i, 14) Folio 21 verso : Kid (Hedus) (Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae, Book XII, i, 13) Folio 21 verso : Boar (Aper) (Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae, Book XII, i, 27) Folio 21 verso : Bullock (Iuvencus) (Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae, Book XII, i, 28) Folio 21 verso : Bull (Taurus) (Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae, Book XII, i, 29) Folio 22 recto : Horse (Equus) (Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae, Book XII, i, 41–56; Hugh of Fouilloy, III, xxiii) Folio 23 recto : Mule (Mulus) (Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae, Book XII, i, 57–60) === Small animals (Minuta animala) === Folio 23 verso : Cat (Musio) (Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae, Book XII, ii, 38) Folio 23 verso : Mouse (Mus) (Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae, Book XII, iii, 1) Folio 23 verso : Weasel (Mustela) (Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae, Book XII, iii, 2; Physiologus, Chapter 21) Folio 24 recto : Mole (Talpa) (Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae, Book XII, iii, 5) Folio 24 recto : Hedgehog (Ericius) (Isidore of Seville, Etymologiae, Book XII, iii, 7; Ambrose, Hexaemeron, VI, 20) Folio 24 verso : Ant (Formica) (Physiologus, 12; Ambrose, Hexaemeron, Book VI, 16, 20) === Birds (Aves) === Folio 25 recto : Bird (Avis) Folio 25 verso : Dove (Columba) Folio 26 recto : Dove and hawk (Columba et Accipiter) Folio 26 verso : Dove (Columba) Folio 29 verso : North wind and South wind (Aquilo et Auster ventus) Folio 30 recto : Hawk (Accipiter) Folio 31 recto : Turtle dove (Turtur) Folio 32 verso : Palm tree (Palma) Folio 33 verso : Cedar (Cedrus) Folio 34 verso : Pelican (Pellicanus) - Orange and blue Folio 35 verso : Night heron (Nicticorax) Folio 36 recto : Hoopoe (Epops) Folio 36 verso : Magpie (Pica) Folio 37 recto : Raven (Corvus) Folio 38 verso : Cock (Gallus) Folio 41 recto : Ostrich (Strutio) Folio 44 recto : Vulture (Vultur) Folio 45 verso : Crane (Grus) Folio 46 verso : Kite (Milvus) Folio 46 verso : Parrot (Psitacus) Folio 47 recto : Ibis (Ibis) Folio 47 verso : Swallow (Yrundo) Folio 48 verso : Stork (Ciconia) Folio 49 verso : Blackbird (Merula) Folio 50 recto : Eagle-owl (Bubo) Folio 50 verso : Hoopoe (Hupupa) Folio 51 recto : Little owl (Noctua) Folio 51 recto : Bat (Vespertilio) Folio 51 verso : Jay (Gragulus) Folio 52 verso : Nightingale (Lucinia) Folio 53 recto : Goose (Anser) Folio 53 verso : Heron (Ardea) Folio 54 recto : Partridge (Perdix) Folio 54 verso : Halcyon (Alcyon) Folio 55 recto : Coot (Fulica) Folio 55 recto : Phoenix (Fenix) Folio 56 verso : Caladrius (Caladrius) Folio 57 verso : Quail (Coturnix) Folio 58 recto : Crow (Cornix) Folio 58 verso : Swan (Cignus) Folio 59 recto : Duck (Anas) Folio 59 verso : Peacock (Pavo) Folio 61 recto : Eagle (Aquila) Folio 63 recto : Bee (Apis) === Snakes and Reptiles (Serpentes) === Folio 64 verso : Peridexion tree (Perindens) Folio 65 verso : Snake (Serpens) Folio 65 verso : Dragon (Draco) Folio 66 recto : Basilisk (Basiliscus) Folio 66 verso : Regulus (Regulus) Folio 66 verso : Viper (Vipera) Folio 67 verso : Asp (Aspis) Folio 68 verso : Scitalis (Scitalis) Folio 68 verso : Amphisbaena (Anphivena) Folio 68 verso : Hydrus (Ydrus) Folio 69 recto : Boa (Boa) Folio 69 recto : Iaculus (Iaculus) Folio 69 verso : Siren (Siren) Folio 69 verso : Seps (Seps) Folio 69 verso : Dipsa (Dipsa) Folio 69 verso : Lizard (Lacertus) Folio 69 verso : Salamander (Salamandra) Folio 70 recto : Saura (Saura) Folio 70 verso : Newt (Stellio) Folio 71 recto : Of the nature of Snakes (De natura serpentium) === Worms (Vermes) === Folio 72 recto : Worms (Vermis) === Fish (Pisces) === Folio 72 verso : Fish (Piscis) Folio 73 recto : Whale (Balena) Folio 73 recto : Serra (Serra) Folio 73 recto : Dolphin (Delphinus) Folio 73 verso : Sea-pig (Porcus marinus) Folio 73 verso : Crocodile (Crocodrillus) Folio 73 verso : Mullet (Mullus) Folio 74 recto : Fish (Piscis) === Trees and Plants (Arbories) === Folio 77 verso : Tree (Arbor) Folio 78 verso : Fig (Ficus) Folio 79 recto : Again of trees (Item de arboribus) Folio 79 recto : Mulberry Folio 79 recto : Sycamore Folio 79 recto : Hazel Folio 79 recto : Nuts Folio 79 recto : Almond Folio 79 recto : Chestnut Folio 79 recto : Oak Folio 79 verso : Beech Folio 79 verso : Carob Folio 79 verso : Pistachio Folio 79 verso : Pitch pine Folio 79 verso : Pine Folio 79 verso : Fir Folio 79 verso : Cedar Folio 80 recto : Cypress Folio 80 recto : Juniper Folio 80 recto : Plane Folio 80 recto : Oak Folio 80 recto : Ash Folio 80 recto : Alder Folio 80 verso : Elm Folio 80 verso : Poplar Folio 80 verso : Willow Folio 80 verso : Osier Folio 80 verso : Box === Nature of Man (Natura hominis) === Folio 80 verso : Isidorus on the nature of man (Ysidorus de natura hominis) Folio 89 recto : Isidorus on the parts of man's body (Ysidorus de membris hominis) Folio 91 recto : Of the age of man (De etate hominis) === Stones (Lapides) === Folio 93 verso : Fire-bearing stone (Lapis ignifer) Folio 94 verso : Adamas stone (Lapis adamas) Folio 96 recto : Myrmecoleon (Mermecoleon) Folio 96 verso : Verse (Versus) Folio 97 recto : Stone in the foundation of the wall (Lapis in fundamento muri) Folio 97 recto : The first stone, Jasper Folio 97 recto : The second stone, Sapphire Folio 97 recto : The third stone, Chalcedony Folio 97 verso : The fourth stone, Smaragdus Folio 98 recto : The fifth stone, Sardonyx Folio 98 recto : The sixth stone, Sard Folio 98 verso : The seventh stone, Chrysolite Folio 98 verso : The eighth stone, Beryl Folio 99 recto : The ninth stone, Topaz Folio 99 verso : The tenth stone, Chrysoprase Folio 99 verso : The eleventh stone, Hyacinth Folio 100 recto : The twelfth stone, Amethyst Folio 100 recto : Of stones and what they can do (De effectu lapidum) == Gallery == File:Phoenix detail from Aberdeen Bestiary.jpg\|alt=Folio 56 Recto - Phoenix (detail)\|Folio 56 Recto - Phoenix (detail) File:Aberdeen Bestiary Basilisk.jpg\|alt=Folio 66 Recto - Basilisk (Detail)\|Folio 66 Recto - Basilisk (detail) File:Beaver (Aberdeen Bestiary).jpg\|alt=Folio 11 Recto - Beaver (Detail)\|Folio 11 Recto - Beaver (detail) File:Hyena bestiary.jpg\|alt=Folio 11 Verso - Hyena (Detail)\|Folio 11 Verso - Hyena (detail) File:AberdeenBestiaryFolio065vDragonDetail.jpg\|alt=Folio 65 Verso - Dragon (detail)\|Folio 65 Verso - Dragon (detail) File:Vultures in Aberdeen Bestiary.jpg\|alt=Folio 44 Recto - Vulture (detail)\|Folio 44 Recto - Vulture (detail) File:Aberdeen Bestiary - Owl.JPG\|alt=Folio 51 Recto - Little Owl (detail)\|Folio 51 Recto - Little Owl (detail) File:Bubo owl aberdeen bestiary.png\|alt=Folio 50 - Eagle Owl (detail)\|Folio 50 - Eagle Owl (detail) File:Aberdeen ram.jpg\|alt=Folio 21 Recto - Ram/Aries (Detail)\|Folio 21 Recto - Ram/Aries (detail) File:AberdeenBestiaryFolio008vLeopardDetail.jpg\|alt=Folio 8 Verso - Leopard (detail)\|Folio 8 Verso - Leopard (detail) File:AberdeenBestiaryFolio008rTigerDetail.jpg\|alt=Folio 8 Recto - Tiger\|Folio 8 Recto - Tiger File:F13r-aberdeen-best.jpg\|alt=Folio 13 Recto - Satyr (detail)\|Folio 13 Recto - Satyr (detail) File:F15r-aberdeen-best-detail.jpg\|alt=Folio 15 Recto - Monoceros (detail)\|Folio 15 Recto - Monoceros (detail) File:Wolf sneak.jpg\|alt=Folio 16 Verso - Wolf (detail)\|Folio 16 Verso - Wolf (detail) File:AberdeenBestiaryFolio005rAdamNamesAnimalsDetail.jpg\|alt=Folio 5 Recto - Adam (detail)\|Folio 5 Recto - Adam (detail)	[ "dromedary", "Pine", "Ant", "M. R. James", "Bury Bible", "Etymologiae", "herd", "camel", "Heron", "Bee", "quadrupeds", "Sheep", "cat", "Bird", "Peridexion tree", "Common blackbird", "Peacock", "Palm tree", "plant", "Domestic sheep", "Jay", "Goat", "Fir", "Cedrus", "Sardonyx", "Pantherinae", "Donkey", "Ashmole Bestiary", "South wind", "Populus", "Leucrota", "Newt", "Recto and verso", "Wild goat", "firmament", "Snake", "Vulture", "Eurasian eagle-owl", "Ibex", "Smaragdus", "Chrysoprase", "Bull", "Stork", "tarnish", "Parandrus", "Pard", "Vipera aspis", "Whale", "Tree", "Quadruped", "Henry VIII of England", "Caladrius", "Hawk", "bestiary", "James VI and I", "Almond", "livestock", "European turtle dove", "Bestiary", "Buxus", "Ostrich", "Iaculus", "horse", "Book of Genesis", "Mulberry", "Beryl", "Carob", "crocodile", "Weasel", "Physiologus", "Solinus", "Platanus", "Fraxinus", "Dipsa", "Hazel", "Siren (mythology)", "parandrus", "Isidore of Seville", "Lizard", "Chrysoberyl", "Old Royal Library", "Hugh of Fouilloy", "Dragon", "Stone", "lynx", "onager", "Genesis creation narrative", "Crane (bird)", "recto", "Canterbury", "Duck", "Sea Swine", "satyr", "Hydrus (legendary creature)", "Satyr", "Romanesque art", "sheep", "Halcyon (genus)", "Pitch pine", "Myrmecoleon", "Crocotta", "Cattle", "England", "Boidae", "unicorn", "medievalist", "Aberdeen University", "Vipera", "Homo sapiens", "leopard", "Hedgehog", "Topaz", "scribe", "Rooster", "Chestnut", "Crocodile", "goat", "Mule", "folio", "Basilisk", "Swallow", "Biblical", "Partridge", "fish", "Willow", "Canterbury Cathedral", "Dove", "Alder", "Pistachio", "man", "Dolphin", "lion", "Jacinth", "Bonnacon", "fox", "Sawfish", "Kite (bird)", "Salamander (legendary creature)", "Worm", "Hoopoe", "Bat", "worm", "Common quail", "Horse", "Magpie", "Roman mosaic", "Marischal College", "hyena", "North wind", "Aberdeen", "elephant", "Panther (legendary creature)", "He-goat", "Mole (animal)", "Little owl", "Poetry", "Night heron", "reptile", "Seps (legendary creature)", "wolves", "Juniper", "antelope", "Eagle", "Goatfish", "mice", "List of medieval bestiaries", "Sapphire", "Oak", "tree", "Phoenix (mythology)", "Genesis creation myth", "Scitalis", "stones", "Ficus", "Adam", "Bury St.Edmunds", "Nut (fruit)", "Flint tool", "nature", "gilded", "Fish", "Ibis", "Diamond", "ox", "Monocerus", "Common raven", "Palace of Westminster", "manticore", "Scotland", "Mouse", "dog", "griffin", "Herd", "Amphisbaena", "Cypress", "gold leaf", "Elm", "Sycamore", "Ambrose", "hawk", "Human body", "Sard", "Paris Psalter", "verso", "Goose", "filigree", "monastic", "Boar", "Creation according to Genesis", "Nightingale", "Jasper", "Hooded crow", "Beech", "Chalcedony", "Eurasian coot", "Amethyst", "Aviarium", "illuminated manuscript", "Parrot", "Cat", "Yale (mythical creature)", "Pelican", "bird", "Swan" ]
2,856	Latin American Integration Association	The Latin American Integration Association / Asociación Latinoamericana de Integración / Associação Latino-Americana de Integração (LAIA / ALADI) is an international and regional scope organization. It was created on 12 August 1980 by the 1980 Montevideo Treaty, replacing the Latin American Free Trade Association (LAFTA/ALALC). Currently, it has 13 member countries, and any of the Latin American States may apply for accession. == Objectives == The development of the integration process developed within the framework of the ALADI aims at promoting the harmonious and balanced socio-economic development of the region, and its long-term objective is the gradual and progressive establishment of a Latin-American single market. ==Basic functions== Promotion and regulation of reciprocal trade Economic complementation Development of economic cooperation actions contributing to the markets extension. ==General principles== Pluralism in political and economic matters; Progressive convergence of partial actions for the establishment of a Latin-American Common Market; Flexibility; Differential treatments based on the development level of the member countries; and Multiple forms of trade agreements. ==Integration mechanisms== The ALADI promotes the establishment of an area of economic preferences within the region, in order to create a Latin-American common market, through three mechanisms: A Regional Tariff Preference applied to goods from the member countries compared to tariffs in-force for third countries. Regional Scope Agreements, those in which all member countries participate. Partial Scope Agreements, those wherein two or more countries of the area participate. The Relatively Less Economically Developed Countries of the region (Bolivia, Ecuador and Paraguay) benefit from a preferential system, through the lists of markets opening offered by the countries in favor of the Relatively Less Economically Developed Countries; special programs of cooperation (business rounds, pre-investment, financing, technological support); and countervailing measures in favor of the land-locked countries, the full participation of such countries in the integration process is sought. The ALADI includes in its legal structure the strongest sub-regional, plurilateral and bilateral integration agreements arising in growing numbers in the continent. As a result, the ALADI – as an institutional and legal framework or “umbrella” of the regional integration- develops actions in order to support and foster these efforts for the progressive establishment of a common economic space. == Member states == ==Accession of other Latin American countries== The 1980 Montevideo Treaty is open to the accession of any Latin-American country. On 26 August 1999, the first accession to the 1980 Montevideo Treaty was executed, with the incorporation of the Republic of Cuba as a member country of the ALADI. On 10 May 2012, the Republic of Panama became the thirteenth member country of the ALADI. Likewise, the accession of the Republic of Nicaragua was accepted in the Sixteenth Meeting of the Council of Ministers (Resolution 75 (XVI)), held on 11 August 2011. Currently, Nicaragua moves towards the fulfillment of conditions for becoming a member country of the ALADI. The ALADI opens its field of actions for the rest of Latin America through multilateral links or partial agreements with other countries and integration areas of the continent (Article 25). The Latin-American Integration Association also contemplates the horizontal cooperation with other integration movements in the world and partial actions with third developing countries or their respective integration areas (Article 27). ==Institutional structure== Council of Ministers of Foreign Affairs The Council of Ministers is the supreme body of the ALADI, and adopts the decisions for the superior political management of the integration process. It is constituted by the Ministers of Foreign Affairs of the member countries. Notwithstanding, when one of such member countries assigns the competence of the integration affairs to a different Minister or Secretary of State, the member countries may be represented, with full powers, by the respective Minister or Secretary. It is convened by the Committee of Representatives, meets and makes decisions with the presence of all the member countries. Evaluation and Convergence Conference It is in charge, among others, of analyzing the functioning of the integration process in all its aspects, promoting the convergence of the partial scope agreements seeking their progressive multilateralization, and promoting greater scope actions as regards economic integration. It is made up of Plenipotentiaries of the member countries. Committee of Representatives It is the permanent political body and negotiating forum of the ALADI, where all the initiatives for the fulfillment of the objectives established by the 1980 Montevideo Treaty are analyzed and agreed on. It is composed of a Permanent Representative of each member country with right to one vote and an Alternate Representative. It meets regularly every 15 days and its Resolutions are adopted by the affirmative vote of two thirds of the member countries. General Secretariat It is the technical body of the ALADI, and it may propose, evaluate, study and manage for the fulfillment of the objectives of the ALADI. It is composed of technical and administrative personnel, and directed by a Secretary-General, who has the support of two Undersecretaries, elected for a three-year period, renewable for the same term. ==Secretaries general== 1980–1984 Julio César Schupp (Paraguay) 1984–1987 Juan José Real (Uruguay) 1987–1990 Norberto Bertaina (Argentina) 1990–1993 Jorge Luis Ordóñez (Colombia) 1993–1999 Antônio José de Cerqueira Antunes (Brasil) 2000–2005 Juan Francisco Rojas Penso (Venezuela) 2005–2008 Didier Opertti (Uruguay) 2008–2009 Bernardino Hugo Saguier-Caballero (Paraguay) 2009–2011 José Félix Fernández Estigarribia (Paraguay) 2011–2017 Carlos Álvarez (Argentina) 2017– Alejandro de la Peña Navarrete (Mexico)	[ "Latin American Economic System", "Buenos Aires", "Sucre", "Havana", "Nicaragua", "Asunción", "Latin American economy", "Central American Integration System", "Caribbean Community", "Spanish language", "Caracas", "Mercosur", "Julio César Schupp", "Latin American Free Trade Association", "Brasília", "Lima", "José Félix Fernández Estigarribia", "Bogotá", "Uruguay", "Santiago de Chile", "single market", "Sergio Abreu (politician)", "Carlos Álvarez (Argentine politician)", "Quito", "Developing country", "Association of Caribbean States", "Montevideo", "La Paz", "Latin American Parliament", "Portuguese language", "Community of Latin American and Caribbean States", "Union of South American Nations", "Andean Community", "Working language", "Mexico City", "Panama City", "Pacific Alliance", "Didier Opertti" ]
2,858	Aircraft spotting	Aircraft spotting or planespotting is a hobby consisting of observing and tracking aircraft, which is usually accomplished by photography or videography. Besides monitoring aircraft, planespotters also record information regarding airports, air traffic control communications, airline routes, and more. ==History and evolution== Aviation enthusiasts have been watching airplanes and other aircraft since aviation began. However, as a hobby (distinct from active/wartime work), planespotting did not appear until the second half of the 20th century. During World War II and the subsequent Cold War, some countries encouraged their citizens to become "planespotters" in an "observation corps" or similar public body for reasons of public security. Britain had the Royal Observer Corps which operated between 1925 and 1995. A journal called The Aeroplane Spotter was published in January 1940. The publication included a glossary that was refined in 2010 and published online. The development of technology and global resources enabled a revolution in planespotting. Point and shoot cameras, DSLRs and walkie talkies have significantly changed the hobby. With the help of the internet, websites such as FlightAware and Flightradar24 have made it possible for planespotters to track and locate specific aircraft around the world. Websites such as airliners.net, Instagram and YouTube allow spotters to upload their photos or videos of their sightings and share them with viewers worldwide. ==Techniques== When spotting aircraft, observers generally notice the key attributes of an aircraft, such as a distinctive noise from its engine, the number of contrails it is producing, or its callsign. Observers can also assess the size of the aircraft and the number, type, and position of its engines. Another distinctive attribute is the position of wings relative to the fuselage and the degree to which they are swept rearwards. The wings may be above the fuselage, below it, or fixed at midpoint. The number of wings indicates whether it is a monoplane, biplane or triplane. The position of the tailplane relative to the fin(s) and the shape of the fin are other attributes. The configuration of the landing gear can be distinctive, as well as the size and shape of the cockpit and passenger windows along with the layout of emergency exits and doors. Other features include the speed, cockpit placement, colour scheme or special equipment that changes the silhouette of the aircraft. Taken together these traits will enable the identification of an aircraft. If the observer is familiar with the airfield being used by the aircraft and its normal traffic patterns, they are more likely to leap quickly to a decision about the aircraft's identity – they may have seen the same type of aircraft from the same angle many times. This is particularly prevalent if the aircraft spotter is spotting commercial aircraft, operated by airlines that have a limited fleet. Spotters use equipment such as ADS-B decoders to track the movements of aircraft. The two most famous devices used are the AirNav Systems RadarBox and Kinetic Avionics SBS series. Both of them read and process the radar data and show the movements on a computer screen. Another tool that spotters can use are apps such as FlightRadar24 or Flightaware, where they can look at arrival and departure schedules and track the location of aircraft that have their transponder on. Most of the decoders also allow the exporting of logs from a certain route or airport. ==Spotting styles== Some spotters will note and compile the markings, a national insignia or airline livery or logo, a squadron badge or code letters in the case of a military aircraft. Published manuals allow more information to be deduced, such as the delivery date or the manufacturer's construction number. Camouflage markings differ, depending on the surroundings in which that aircraft is expected to operate. In general, most spotters attempt to see as many aircraft of a given type, a particular airline, or a particular subset of aircraft such as business jets, commercial airliners, military and/or general aviation aircraft. Some spotters attempt to see every airframe and are known as "frame spotters." Others are keen to see every registration worn by each aircraft. Ancillary activities might include listening-in to air traffic control transmissions (using radio scanners, where that is legal), liaising with other "spotters" to clear up uncertainties as to what aircraft have been seen at specific times or in particular places. Several internet mailing list groups have been formed to help communicate aircraft seen at airports, queries and anomalies. These groups can cater to certain regions, certain aircraft types, or may appeal to a wider audience. The result is that information on aircraft movements can be delivered worldwide in a real-time fashion to spotters. The hobbyist might travel long distances to visit different airports, to see an unusual aircraft, or to view the remains of aircraft withdrawn from use. Air shows usually draw large numbers of spotters as they are opportunities to enter airfields and air bases worldwide that are usually closed to the public and to see displayed aircraft at close range. Some aircraft may be placed in the care of museums (see Aviation archaeology) – or perhaps be cannibalized in order to repair a similar aircraft already preserved. Aircraft registrations can be found in books, with online resources, or in monthly magazines from enthusiast groups. Most spotters maintained books of different aircraft fleets and would underline or check each aircraft seen. Each year, a revised version of the books would be published and the spotter would need to re-underline every aircraft seen. With the development of commercial aircraft databases spotters were finally able to record their sightings in an electronic database and produce reports that emulated the underlined books. ==Legal ramifications== The legal repercussions of the hobby were dramatically shown in November 2001 when fourteen aircraft spotters (twelve British, two Dutch) were arrested by Greek police after being observed at an open day at the Greek Air Force base at Kalamata. They were charged with espionage and faced a possible 20-year prison sentence if found guilty. After being held for six weeks, they were eventually released on $11,696 (£9,000) bail, and the charges reduced to the misdemeanor charge of illegal information collection. They returned for their trial in April, 2002 and were found guilty, with eight of the group sentenced to three years, the rest for one year. At their appeal a year later, all were acquitted. ==As airport watch groups== In the wake of the targeting of airports by terrorists, enthusiasts' organisations and police in the UK have cooperated in creating a code of conduct for planespotters, in a similar vein to guidelines devised for train spotters. By asking enthusiasts to contact police if spotters believe they see or hear something suspicious, this is an attempt to allow enthusiasts to continue their hobby while increasing security around airports. Birmingham and Stansted pioneered this approach in Britain and prior to the 2012 London Olympics, RAF Northolt introduced a Flightwatch scheme based on the same cooperative principles. These changes are also being made abroad in countries such as Australia, where aviation enthusiasts are reporting suspicious or malicious actions to police. The organisation of such groups has now been echoed in parts of North America. For example, the Bensenville, Illinois police department have sponsored an Airport Watch group at the Chicago O'Hare Airport. Members are issued identification cards and given training to accurately record and report unusual activities around the airport perimeter. (Members are not permitted airside.) Meetings are attended and supported by the FBI, Chicago Department of Aviation and the TSA who also provide regular training to group members. The Bensenville program was modeled on similar programs in Toronto, Ottawa and Minneapolis. In 2009, a similar airport watch group was organized between airport security and local aircraft spotters at Montréal–Pierre Elliott Trudeau International Airport. As of 2016, the group has 46 members and a special phone number to use to contact police if suspicious activity is seen around the airport area. ==Extraordinary rendition== Following the events of 9/11, information collected by planespotters helped uncover what is known as extraordinary rendition by the CIA. Information on unusual movements of rendition aircraft provided data that was mapped by critical geographers such as Trevor Paglen and the Institute for Applied Autonomy. These data and maps led first to news reports and then to a number of governmental and inter-governmental investigations.	[ "airliner", "walkie talkie", "air base", "videography", "Montréal–Pierre Elliott Trudeau International Airport", "photography", "Greek Air Force", "airports", "September 11 attacks", "Train spotting", "Boeing 747-400", "triplane", "Transportation Security Administration", "radio scanner", "Ukraine", "landing gear", "Princess Juliana International Airport", "Airbus A380", "monoplane", "Minneapolis", "airliners.net", "Kalamata", "The Canadian Press", "Toronto Pearson International Airport", "cockpit", "train spotters", "airside", "Car spotting", "Institute for Applied Autonomy", "Trevor Paglen", "Instagram", "YouTube", "Barlow lens", "airfield", "Central Intelligence Agency", "Cold War", "Ilyushin Il-96-300", "Toronto", "hobby", "Military aircraft insignia", "Federal Bureau of Investigation", "Category:Aviation websites", "KrasAir", "misdemeanor", "Flightradar24", "jet blast", "Air show", "A-10 Thunderbolt II", "DSLR", "FlightAware", "aircraft", "contrail", "Bus spotting", "Aviation archaeology", "Hellenic Police", "RAF Northolt", "Chicago O'Hare Airport", "aircraft livery", "World War II", "Royal Observer Corps", "business jet", "general aviation", "Camouflage", "internet mailing list", "rendition aircraft", "ADS-B", "extraordinary rendition by the United States", "Point and shoot camera", "Satellite watching", "biplane", "AirNav Systems RadarBox", "Bensenville, Illinois", "air traffic control" ]
2,861	Advertising	Advertising is the practice and techniques employed to bring attention to a product or service. Advertising aims to present a product or service in terms of utility, advantages, and qualities of interest to consumers. It is typically used to promote a specific good or service, but there are a wide range of uses, the most common being commercial advertisement. Commercial advertisements often seek to generate increased consumption of their products or services through "branding", which associates a product name or image with certain qualities in the minds of consumers. On the other hand, ads that intend to elicit an immediate sale are known as direct-response advertising. Non-commercial entities that advertise more than consumer products or services include political parties, interest groups, religious organizations, and governmental agencies. Non-profit organizations may use free modes of persuasion, such as a public service announcement. Advertising may also help to reassure employees or shareholders that a company is viable or successful. In the 19th century, soap businesses were among the first to employ large-scale advertising campaigns. Thomas J. Barratt was hired by Pears to be its brand manager—the first of its kind—and in addition to creating slogans and images, he recruited West End stage actress and socialite Lillie Langtry to become the poster girl for Pears, making her the first celebrity to endorse a commercial product. Worldwide spending on advertising in 2015 amounted to an estimated . Advertising's projected distribution for 2017 was 40.4% on TV, 33.3% on digital, 9% on newspapers, 6.9% on magazines, 5.8% on outdoor, and 4.3% on radio. Internationally, the largest ("Big Five") advertising agency groups are Omnicom, WPP, Publicis, Interpublic, and Dentsu. In Latin, advertere means "to turn towards". == History == Egyptians used papyrus to make sales messages and wall posters. Commercial messages and political campaign displays have been found in the ruins of Pompeii and ancient Arabia. Lost and found advertising on papyrus was common in ancient Greece and ancient Rome. Wall or rock painting for commercial advertising is another manifestation of an ancient advertising form, which is present to this day in many parts of Asia, Africa, and South America. The tradition of wall painting can be traced back to Indian rock art paintings that date back to 4000 BC. In ancient China, the earliest advertising known was oral, as recorded in the Classic of Poetry (11th to 7th centuries BC) of bamboo flutes played to sell confectionery. Advertisement usually takes the form of calligraphic signboards and inked papers. A copper printing plate dated back to the Song dynasty used to print posters in the form of a square sheet of paper with a rabbit logo with "Jinan Liu's Fine Needle Shop" and "We buy high-quality steel rods and make fine-quality needles, to be ready for use at home in no time" written above and below is considered the world's earliest identified printed advertising medium. In Europe, as the towns and cities of the Middle Ages began to grow, and the general population was unable to read, instead of signs that read "cobbler", "miller", "tailor", or "blacksmith", images associated with their trade would be used such as a boot, a suit, a hat, a clock, a diamond, a horseshoe, a candle or even a bag of flour. Fruits and vegetables were sold in the city square from the backs of carts and wagons and their proprietors used street callers (town criers) to announce their whereabouts. The first compilation of such advertisements was gathered in "Les Crieries de Paris", a thirteenth-century poem by Guillaume de la Villeneuve. === 18th-19th century: Newspaper Advertising === In the 18th century, advertisements started to appear in weekly newspapers in England. These early print advertisements were used mainly to promote books and newspapers, which became increasingly affordable with advances in the printing press; and medicines, which were increasingly sought after. However, false advertising and so-called "quack" advertisements became a problem, which ushered in the regulation of advertising content. In the United States, newspapers grew quickly in the first few decades of the 19th century, in part due to advertising. By 1822, the United States had more newspaper readers than any other country. About half of the content of these newspapers consisted of advertising, usually local advertising, with half of the daily newspapers in the 1810s using the word "advertiser" in their name. In August 1859, British pharmaceutical firm Beechams created a slogan for Beecham's Pills: "Beechams Pills: Worth a guinea a box", which is considered to be the world's first advertising slogan. The phrase was said to be uttered by a satisfied lady purchaser from St Helens, Lancashire, the founder's hometown. In June 1836, the French newspaper La Presse was the first to include paid advertising in its pages, allowing it to lower its price, extend its readership and increase its profitability and the formula was soon copied by all titles. Around 1840, Volney B. Palmer established the roots of the modern day advertising agency in Philadelphia. In 1842 Palmer bought large amounts of space in various newspapers at a discounted rate then resold the space at higher rates to advertisers. The actual ad – the copy, layout, and artwork – was still prepared by the company wishing to advertise; in effect, Palmer was a space broker. The situation changed when the first full-service advertising agency of N.W. Ayer & Son was founded in 1869 in Philadelphia. Ayer & Son offered to plan, create, and execute complete advertising campaigns for its customers. By 1900 the advertising agency had become the focal point of creative planning, and advertising was firmly established as a profession. Around the same time, in France, Charles-Louis Havas extended the services of his news agency, Havas to include advertisement brokerage, making it the first French group to organize. At first, agencies were brokers for advertisement space in newspapers. Thomas J. Barratt of London has been called "the father of modern advertising". Working for the Pears soap company, Barratt created an effective advertising campaign for the company products, which involved the use of targeted slogans, images, and phrases. One of his slogans, "Good morning. Have you used Pears' soap?" was famous in its day and into the 20th century. In 1882, Barratt recruited English actress and socialite Lillie Langtry to become the poster girl for Pears, making her the first celebrity to endorse a commercial product. Becoming the company's brand manager in 1865, listed as the first of its kind by the Guinness Book of Records, Barratt introduced many of the crucial ideas that lie behind successful advertising, and these were widely circulated in his day. He constantly stressed the importance of a strong and exclusive brand image for Pears and of emphasizing the product's availability through saturation campaigns. He also understood the importance of constantly reevaluating the market for changing tastes and mores, stating in 1907 that "tastes change, fashions change, and the advertiser has to change with them. An idea that was effective a generation ago would fall flat, stale, and unprofitable if presented to the public today. Not that the idea of today is always better than the older idea, but it is different – it hits the present taste." Thanks to the revolution and the consumers it created, by the mid-19th century biscuits and chocolate became products for the masses, and British biscuit manufacturers were among the first to introduce branding to distinguish grocery products. One the world's first global brands, Huntley & Palmers biscuits were sold in 172 countries in 1900, and their global reach was reflected in their advertisements. === 20th century === As a result of massive industrialization, advertising increased dramatically in the United States. In 1919 it was 2.5 percent of gross domestic product (GDP) in the US, and it averaged 2.2 percent of GDP between then and at least 2007, though it may have declined dramatically since the Great Recession. Industry could not benefit from its increased productivity without a substantial increase in consumer spending. This contributed to the development of mass marketing designed to influence the population's economic behavior on a larger scale. In the 1910s and 1920s, advertisers in the U.S. adopted the doctrine that human instincts could be targeted and harnessed – "sublimated" into the desire to purchase commodities. Edward Bernays, a nephew of Sigmund Freud, became associated with the method and is sometimes called the founder of modern advertising and public relations. Bernays claimed that:In other words, selling products by appealing to the rational minds of customers (the main method used prior to Bernays) was much less effective than selling products based on the unconscious desires that Bernays felt were the true motivators of human action. "Sex sells" became a controversial issue, with techniques for titillating and enlarging the audience posing a challenge to conventional morality. In the 1920s, under Secretary of Commerce Herbert Hoover, the American government promoted advertising. Hoover himself delivered an address to the Associated Advertising Clubs of the World in 1925 called 'Advertising Is a Vital Force in Our National Life." In October 1929, the head of the U.S. Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, Julius Klein, stated "Advertising is the key to world prosperity." This was part of the "unparalleled" collaboration between business and government in the 1920s, according to a 1933 European economic journal. The tobacco companies became major advertisers in order to sell packaged cigarettes. The tobacco companies pioneered the new advertising techniques when they hired Bernays to create positive associations with tobacco smoking. An important tool for influencing immigrant workers was the American Association of Foreign Language Newspapers (AAFLN). The AAFLN was primarily an advertising agency but also gained heavily centralized control over much of the immigrant press. At the turn of the 20th century, advertising was one of the few career choices for women. Since women were responsible for most household purchasing done, advertisers and agencies recognized the value of women's insight during the creative process. In fact, the first American advertising to use a sexual sell was created by a woman – for a soap product. Although tame by today's standards, the advertisement featured a couple with the message "A skin you love to touch". In the 1920s, psychologists Walter D. Scott and John B. Watson contributed applied psychological theory to the field of advertising. Scott said, "Man has been called the reasoning animal, but he could with greater truthfulness be called the creature of suggestion. He is reasonable, but he is to a greater extent suggestible". He demonstrated this through his advertising technique of a direct command to the consumer. ==== Radio from the 1920s ==== In the early 1920s, the first radio stations were established by radio equipment manufacturers, followed by non-profit organizations such as schools, clubs, and civic groups who also set up their own stations. Retailers and consumer goods manufacturers quickly recognized radio's potential to reach consumers in their homes and soon adopted advertising techniques that would allow their messages to stand out; slogans, mascots, and jingles began to appear on radio in the 1920s and early television in the 1930s. The rise of mass media communications allowed manufacturers of branded goods to bypass retailers by advertising directly to consumers. This was a major paradigm shift that forced manufacturers to focus on the brand and stimulated the need for superior insights into consumer purchasing, consumption, and usage behavior; their needs, wants, and aspirations. The earliest radio drama series were sponsored by soap manufacturers and the genre became known as a soap opera. Before long, radio station owners realized they could increase advertising revenue by selling 'air-time' in small time allocations, which could be sold to multiple businesses. By the 1930s, these advertising spots, as the packets of time became known, were being sold by the station's geographical sales representatives, ushering in an era of national radio advertising. By the 1940s, manufacturers began to recognize the way in which consumers were developing personal relationships with their brands in a social/psychological/anthropological sense. Advertisers began to use motivational research and consumer research to gather insights into consumer purchasing. Strong branded campaigns for Chrysler and Exxon/Esso, using insights drawn research methods from psychology and cultural anthropology, led to some of the most enduring campaigns of the 20th century. ==== Commercial television in the 1950s ==== In the early 1950s, the DuMont Television Network began the modern practice of selling advertisement time to multiple sponsors. Previously, DuMont had trouble finding sponsors for many of their programs and compensated by selling smaller blocks of advertising time to several businesses. This eventually became the standard for the commercial television industry in the United States. However, it was still a common practice to have single sponsor shows, such as The United States Steel Hour. In some instances the sponsors exercised great control over the content of the show – up to and including having one's advertising agency actually writing the show. The single sponsor model is much less prevalent now, a notable exception being the Hallmark Hall of Fame. ==== Cable television from the 1980s ==== The late 1980s and early 1990s saw the introduction of cable television and particularly MTV. Pioneering the concept of the music video, MTV ushered in a new type of advertising: the consumer tunes in for the advertising message, rather than it being a by-product or afterthought. As cable and satellite television became increasingly prevalent, specialty channels emerged, including channels entirely devoted to advertising, such as QVC, Home Shopping Network, and ShopTV Canada. ==== Internet from the 1990s ==== With the advent of the ad server, online advertising grew, contributing to the "dot-com" boom of the 1990s. Entire corporations operated solely on advertising revenue, offering everything from coupons to free Internet access. At the turn of the 21st century, some websites, including the search engine Google, changed online advertising by personalizing ads based on web browsing behavior. This has led to other similar efforts and an increase in interactive advertising. Online advertising introduced new opportunities for targeting and engagement, with platforms like Google and Facebook leading the charge. This shift has significantly altered the advertising landscape, making digital advertising a dominant force in the industry. The share of advertising spending relative to GDP has changed little across large changes in media since 1925. In 1925, the main advertising media in America were newspapers, magazines, signs on streetcars, and outdoor posters. Advertising spending as a share of GDP was about 2.9 percent. By 1998, television and radio had become major advertising media; by 2017, the balance between broadcast and online advertising had shifted, with online spending exceeding broadcast. Nonetheless, advertising spending as a share of GDP was slightly lower – about 2.4 percent. Guerrilla marketing involves unusual approaches such as staged encounters in public places, giveaways of products such as cars that are covered with brand messages, and interactive advertising where the viewer can respond to become part of the advertising message. This type of advertising is unpredictable, which causes consumers to buy the product or idea. This reflects an increasing trend of interactive and "embedded" ads, such as via product placement, having consumers vote through text messages, and various campaigns utilizing social network services such as Facebook or Twitter. The advertising business model has also been adapted in recent years. In media for equity, advertising is not sold, but provided to start-up companies in return for equity. If the company grows and is sold, the media companies receive cash for their shares. Domain name registrants (usually those who register and renew domains as an investment) sometimes "park" their domains and allow advertising companies to place ads on their sites in return for per-click payments. These ads are typically driven by pay per click search engines like Google or Yahoo, but ads can sometimes be placed directly on targeted domain names through a domain lease or by making contact with the registrant of a domain name that describes a product. Domain name registrants are generally easy to identify through WHOIS records that are publicly available at registrar websites. == Classification == Advertising may be categorized in a variety of ways, including by style, target audience, geographic scope, medium, or purpose. For example, in print advertising, classification by style can include display advertising (ads with design elements sold by size) vs. classified advertising (ads without design elements sold by the word or line). Advertising may be local, national or global. An ad campaign may be directed toward consumers or to businesses. The purpose of an ad may be to raise awareness (brand advertising), or to elicit an immediate sale (direct response advertising). The term above the line (ATL) is used for advertising involving mass media; more targeted forms of advertising and promotion are referred to as below the line (BTL). The two terms date back to 1954 when Procter & Gamble began paying their advertising agencies differently from other promotional agencies. In the 2010s, as advertising technology developed, a new term, through the line (TTL) began to come into use, referring to integrated advertising campaigns. === Traditional media === Virtually any medium can be used for advertising. Commercial advertising media can include wall paintings, billboards, street furniture components, printed flyers and rack cards, radio, cinema and television adverts, web banners, mobile telephone screens, shopping carts, web popups, skywriting, bus stop benches, human billboards and forehead advertising, magazines, newspapers, town criers, sides of buses, banners attached to or sides of airplanes ("logojets"), in-flight advertisements on seatback tray tables or overhead storage bins, taxicab doors, roof mounts and passenger screens, musical stage shows, subway platforms and trains, elastic bands on disposable diapers, doors of bathroom stalls, stickers on apples in supermarkets, shopping cart handles (grabertising), the opening section of streaming audio and video, posters, and the backs of event tickets and supermarket receipts. Any situation in which an "identified" sponsor pays to deliver their message through a medium is advertising. Television: Television advertising is one of the most expensive types of advertising; networks charge large amounts for commercial airtime during popular events. The annual Super Bowl football game in the United States is known as the most prominent advertising event on television – with an audience of over 108 million and studies showing that 50% of those only tuned in to see the advertisements. During the 2014 edition of this game, the average thirty-second ad cost US$4 million, and $8 million was charged for a 60-second spot. Virtual advertisements may be inserted into regular programming through computer graphics. It is typically inserted into otherwise blank backdrops or used to replace local billboards that are not relevant to the remote broadcast audience. Virtual billboards may be inserted into the background where none exist in real-life. This technique is especially used in televised sporting events. Virtual product placement is also possible. An infomercial is a long-format television commercial, typically five minutes or longer. The name blends the words "information" and "commercial". The main objective in an infomercial is to create an impulse purchase, so that the target sees the presentation and then immediately buys the product through the advertised toll-free telephone number or website. Infomercials describe and often demonstrate products, and commonly have testimonials from customers and industry professionals. Radio: Radio advertisements are broadcast as radio waves to the air from a transmitter to an antenna and a thus to a receiving device. Airtime is purchased from a station or network in exchange for airing the commercials. While radio has the limitation of being restricted to sound, proponents of radio advertising often cite this as an advantage. Radio is an expanding medium that can be found on air, and also online. According to Arbitron, radio has approximately 241.6 million weekly listeners, or more than 93 percent of the U.S. population. Online: Online advertising is a form of promotion that uses the Internet and World Wide Web for the expressed purpose of delivering marketing messages to attract customers. Online ads are delivered by an ad server. Examples of online advertising include contextual ads that appear on search engine results pages, banner ads, in pay per click text ads, rich media ads, Social network advertising, online classified advertising, advertising networks and e-mail marketing, including e-mail spam. A newer form of online advertising is Native Ads; they go in a website's news feed and are supposed to improve user experience by being less intrusive. However, some people argue this practice is deceptive. Domain names: Domain name advertising is most commonly done through pay per click web search engines, however, advertisers often lease space directly on domain names that generically describe their products. When an Internet user visits a website by typing a domain name directly into their web browser, this is known as "direct navigation", or "type in" web traffic. Although many Internet users search for ideas and products using search engines and mobile phones, a large number of users around the world still use the address bar. They will type a keyword into the address bar such as "geraniums" and add ".com" to the end of it. Sometimes they will do the same with ".org" or a country-code Top Level Domain (TLD such as ".co.uk" for the United Kingdom or ".ca" for Canada). When Internet users type in a generic keyword and add .com or another top-level domain (TLD) ending, it produces a targeted sales lead. Domain name advertising was originally developed by Oingo (later known as Applied Semantics), one of Google's early acquisitions. Product placements: is when a product or brand is embedded in entertainment and media. For example, in a film, the main character can use an item or other of a definite brand, as in the movie Minority Report, where Tom Cruise's character John Anderton owns a phone with the Nokia logo clearly written in the top corner, or his watch engraved with the Bulgari logo. Another example of advertising in film is in I, Robot, where main character played by Will Smith mentions his Converse shoes several times, calling them "classics", because the film is set far in the future. I, Robot and Spaceballs also showcase futuristic cars with the Audi and Mercedes-Benz logos clearly displayed on the front of the vehicles. Cadillac chose to advertise in the movie The Matrix Reloaded, which as a result contained many scenes in which Cadillac cars were used. Similarly, product placement for Omega Watches, Ford, VAIO, BMW and Aston Martin cars are featured in recent James Bond films, most notably Casino Royale. In "Fantastic Four: Rise of the Silver Surfer", the main transport vehicle shows a large Dodge logo on the front. Blade Runner includes some of the most obvious product placement; the whole film stops to show a Coca-Cola billboard. Print: Print advertising describes advertising in a printed medium such as a newspaper, magazine, or trade journal. This encompasses everything from media with a very broad readership base, such as a major national newspaper or magazine, to more narrowly targeted media such as local newspapers and trade journals on very specialized topics. One form of print advertising is classified advertising, which allows private individuals or companies to purchase a small, narrowly targeted ad paid by the word or line. Another form of print advertising is the display ad, which is generally a larger ad with design elements that typically run in an article section of a newspaper. Sheltered outdoor advertising combines outdoor with indoor advertisement by placing large mobile, structures (tents) in public places on temporary bases. The large outer advertising space aims to exert a strong pull on the observer, the product is promoted indoors, where the creative decor can intensify the impression. Novelties: Advertising printed on small tangible items such as coffee mugs, T-shirts, pens, bags, and such is known as novelty advertising. Some printers specialize in printing novelty items, which can then be distributed directly by the advertiser, or items may be distributed as part of a cross-promotion, such as ads on fast food containers. Celebrity endorsements: Advertising in which a celebrity endorses a product or brand leverages celebrity power, fame, money, and popularity to gain recognition for their products or to promote specific stores' or products. Advertisers often advertise their products, for example, when celebrities share their favorite products or wear clothes by specific brands or designers. Celebrities are often involved in advertising campaigns such as television or print adverts to advertise specific or general products. The use of celebrities to endorse a brand can have its downsides, however; one mistake by a celebrity can be detrimental to the public relations of a brand. For example, following his performance of eight gold medals at the 2008 Olympic Games in Beijing, China, swimmer Michael Phelps' contract with Kellogg's was terminated, as Kellogg's did not want to associate with him after he was photographed smoking marijuana. Celebrities such as Britney Spears have advertised for multiple products including Pepsi, Candies from Kohl's, Twister, NASCAR, and Toyota. Aerial: Using aircraft, balloons or airships to create or display advertising media. Skywriting is a notable example. === New media approaches === A new advertising approach is known as advanced advertising, which is data-driven advertising, using large quantities of data, precise measuring tools and precise targeting. Advanced advertising also makes it easier for companies which sell ad space to attribute customer purchases to the ads they display or broadcast. Increasingly, other media are overtaking many of the "traditional" media such as television, radio and newspaper because of a shift toward the usage of the Internet for news and music as well as devices like digital video recorders (DVRs) such as TiVo. Online advertising began with unsolicited bulk e-mail advertising known as "e-mail spam". Spam has been a problem for e-mail users since 1978. As new online communication channels became available, advertising followed. The first banner ad appeared on the World Wide Web in 1994. Prices of Web-based advertising space are dependent on the "relevance" of the surrounding web content and the traffic that the website receives. In online display advertising, display ads generate awareness quickly. Unlike search, which requires someone to be aware of a need, display advertising can drive awareness of something new and without previous knowledge. Display works well for direct response. The display is not only used for generating awareness, it is used for direct response campaigns that link to a landing page with a clear 'call to action'. As the mobile phone became a new mass medium in 1998 when the first paid downloadable content appeared on mobile phones in Finland, mobile advertising followed, also first launched in Finland in 2000. By 2007 the value of mobile advertising had reached $2 billion and providers such as Admob delivered billions of mobile ads. More advanced mobile ads include banner ads, coupons, Multimedia Messaging Service picture and video messages, advergames and various engagement marketing campaigns. A particular feature driving mobile ads is the 2D barcode, which replaces the need to do any typing of web addresses, and uses the camera feature of modern phones to gain immediate access to web content. 83 percent of Japanese mobile phone users already are active users of 2D barcodes. Some companies have proposed placing messages or corporate logos on the side of booster rockets and the International Space Station. Unpaid advertising (also called "publicity advertising"), can include personal recommendations ("bring a friend", "sell it"), spreading buzz, or achieving the feat of equating a brand with a common noun (in the United States, "Xerox" = "photocopier", "Kleenex" = tissue, "Vaseline" = petroleum jelly, "Hoover" = vacuum cleaner, and "Band-Aid" = adhesive bandage). However, some companies oppose the use of their brand name to label an object. Equating a brand with a common noun also risks turning that brand into a generic trademark – turning it into a generic term which means that its legal protection as a trademark is lost. Early in its life, The CW aired short programming breaks called "Content Wraps", to advertise one company's product during an entire commercial break. The CW pioneered "content wraps" and some products featured were Herbal Essences, Crest, Guitar Hero II, CoverGirl, and Toyota. A new promotion concept has appeared, "ARvertising", advertising on augmented reality technology. Controversy exists on the effectiveness of subliminal advertising (see mind control), and the pervasiveness of mass messages (propaganda). === Rise in new media === With the Internet came many new advertising opportunities. Pop-up, Flash, banner, pop-under, advergaming, and email advertisements (all of which are often unwanted or spam in the case of email) are now commonplace. Particularly since the rise of "entertaining" advertising, some people may like an advertisement enough to wish to watch it later or show a friend. In general, the advertising community has not yet made this easy, although some have used the Internet to widely distribute their ads to anyone willing to see or hear them. In the last three quarters of 2009, mobile and Internet advertising grew by 18% and 9% respectively, while older media advertising saw declines: −10.1% (TV), −11.7% (radio), −14.8% (magazines) and −18.7% (newspapers). Between 2008 and 2014, U.S. newspapers lost more than half their print advertising revenue. === Niche marketing === Another significant trend regarding future of advertising is the growing importance of the niche market using niche or targeted ads. Also brought about by the Internet and the theory of the long tail, advertisers will have an increasing ability to reach specific audiences. In the past, the most efficient way to deliver a message was to blanket the largest mass market audience possible. However, usage tracking, customer profiles and the growing popularity of niche content brought about by everything from blogs to social networking sites, provide advertisers with audiences that are smaller but much better defined, leading to ads that are more relevant to viewers and more effective for companies' marketing products. Among others, Comcast Spotlight is one such advertiser employing this method in their video on demand menus. These advertisements are targeted to a specific group and can be viewed by anyone wishing to find out more about a particular business or practice, from their home. This causes the viewer to become proactive and actually choose what advertisements they want to view. Niche marketing could also be helped by bringing the issue of color into advertisements. Different colors play major roles when it comes to marketing strategies, for example, seeing the blue can promote a sense of calmness and gives a sense of security which is why many social networks such as Facebook use blue in their logos. Google AdSense is an example of niche marketing. Google calculates the primary purpose of a website and adjusts ads accordingly; it uses keywords on the page (or even in emails) to find the general ideas of topics disused and places ads that will most likely be clicked on by viewers of the email account or website visitors. === Crowdsourcing === The concept of crowdsourcing has given way to the trend of user-generated advertisements. User-generated ads are created by people, as opposed to an advertising agency or the company themselves, often resulting from brand sponsored advertising competitions. For the 2007 Super Bowl, the Frito-Lays division of PepsiCo held the "Crash the Super Bowl" contest, allowing people to create their own Doritos commercials. Chevrolet held a similar competition for their Tahoe line of SUVs. Another example of companies using crowdsourcing successfully is the beverage company Jones Soda that encourages consumers to participate in the label design themselves. This trend has given rise to several online platforms that host user-generated advertising competitions on behalf of a company. Founded in 2007, Zooppa has launched ad competitions for brands such as Google, Nike, Hershey's, General Mills, Microsoft, NBC Universal, Zinio, and Mini Cooper. Crowdsourcing remains controversial, as the long-term impact on the advertising industry is still unclear. === Globalization === Advertising has gone through five major stages of development: domestic, export, international, multi-national, and global. For global advertisers, there are four, potentially competing, business objectives that must be balanced when developing worldwide advertising: building a brand while speaking with one voice, developing economies of scale in the creative process, maximizing local effectiveness of ads, and increasing the company's speed of implementation. Born from the evolutionary stages of global marketing are the three primary and fundamentally different approaches to the development of global advertising executions: exporting executions, producing local executions, and importing ideas that travel. Advertising research is key to determining the success of an ad in any country or region. The ability to identify which elements and/or moments of an ad contribute to its success is how economies of scale are maximized. Once one knows what works in an ad, that idea or ideas can be imported by any other market. Market research measures, such as Flow of Attention, Flow of Emotion and branding moments provide insight into what is working in an ad in any country or region because the measures are based on the visual, not verbal, elements of the ad. === Foreign public messaging === Foreign governments, particularly those that own marketable commercial products or services, often promote their interests and positions through the advertising of those goods because the target audience is not only largely unaware of the forum as a vehicle for foreign messaging but also willing to receive the message while in a mental state of absorbing information from advertisements during television commercial breaks, while reading a periodical, or while passing by billboards in public spaces. A prime example of this messaging technique is advertising campaigns to promote international travel. While advertising foreign destinations and services may stem from the typical goal of increasing revenue by drawing more tourism, some travel campaigns carry the additional or alternative intended purpose of promoting good sentiments or improving existing ones among the target audience towards a given nation or region. It is common for advertising promoting foreign countries to be produced and distributed by the tourism ministries of those countries, so these ads often carry political statements and/or depictions of the foreign government's desired international public perception. Additionally, a wide range of foreign airlines and travel-related services which advertise separately from the destinations, themselves, are owned by their respective governments; examples include, though are not limited to, the Emirates airline (Dubai), Singapore Airlines (Singapore), Qatar Airways (Qatar), China Airlines (Taiwan/Republic of China), and Air China (People's Republic of China). By depicting their destinations, airlines, and other services in a favorable and pleasant light, countries market themselves to populations abroad in a manner that could mitigate prior public impressions. === Diversification === In the realm of advertising agencies, continued industry diversification has seen observers note that "big global clients don't need big global agencies any more". This is reflected by the growth of non-traditional agencies in various global markets, such as Canadian business TAXI and SMART in Australia and has been referred to as "a revolution in the ad world". === New technology === The ability to record shows on digital video recorders (such as TiVo) allow watchers to record the programs for later viewing, enabling them to fast forward through commercials. Additionally, as more seasons of pre-recorded box sets are offered for sale of television programs; fewer people watch the shows on TV. However, the fact that these sets are sold, means the company will receive additional profits from these sets. To counter this effect, a variety of strategies have been employed. Many advertisers have opted for product placement on TV shows like Survivor. Other strategies include integrating advertising with internet-connected program guidess (EPGs), advertising on companion devices (like smartphones and tablets) during the show, and creating mobile apps for TV programs. Additionally, some like brands have opted for social television sponsorship. The emerging technology of drone displays has recently been used for advertising purposes. === Education === In recent years there have been several media literacy initiatives, and more specifically concerning advertising, that seek to empower citizens in the face of media advertising campaigns. Advertising education has become popular with bachelor, master and doctorate degrees becoming available in the emphasis. A surge in advertising interest is typically attributed to the strong relationship advertising plays in cultural and technological changes, such as the advance of online social networking. A unique model for teaching advertising is the student-run advertising agency, where advertising students create campaigns for real companies. Organizations such as the American Advertising Federation establish companies with students to create these campaigns. == Purposes == Advertising is at the front of delivering the proper message to customers and prospective customers. The purpose of advertising is to inform the consumers about their product and convince customers that a company's services or products are the best, enhance the image of the company, point out and create a need for products or services, demonstrate new uses for established products, announce new products and programs, reinforce the salespeople's individual messages, draw customers to the business, and to hold existing customers. === Sales promotions and brand loyalty === Sales promotions are another way to advertise. Sales promotions are double purposed because they are used to gather information about what type of customers one draws in and where they are, and to jump start sales. Sales promotions include things like contests and games, sweepstakes, product giveaways, samples coupons, loyalty programs, and discounts. The ultimate goal of sales promotions is to stimulate potential customers to action. ==Criticisms== While advertising can be seen as necessary for economic growth, Advertising is increasingly invading public spaces, such as schools, which some critics argue is a form of child exploitation. This increasing difficulty in limiting exposure to specific audiences can result in negative backlash for advertisers. In tandem with these criticisms, the advertising industry has seen low approval rates in surveys and negative cultural portrayals. A 2021 study found that for more than 80% of brands, advertising had a negative return on investment. Unsolicited ads have been criticized as attention theft. One of the most controversial criticisms of advertisement in the present day is that of the predominance of advertising of foods high in sugar, fat, and salt specifically to children. Critics claim that food advertisements targeting children are exploitive and are not sufficiently balanced with proper nutritional education to help children understand the consequences of their food choices. Additionally, children may not understand that they are being sold something, and are therefore more impressionable. Michelle Obama has criticized large food companies for advertising unhealthy foods largely towards children and has requested that food companies either limit their advertising to children or advertise foods that are more in line with dietary guidelines. The other criticisms include the change that are brought by those advertisements on the society and also the deceiving ads that are aired and published by the corporations. Cosmetic and health industry are the ones which exploited the highest and created reasons of concern. Political advertisement and their regulations have been scrutinized for misinformation, ethics and political bias. == Regulation == There have been increasing efforts to protect the public interest by regulating the content and the influence of advertising. Some examples include restrictions for advertising alcohol, tobacco or gambling imposed in many countries, as well as the bans around advertising to children, which exist in parts of Europe. Advertising regulation focuses heavily on the veracity of the claims and as such, there are often tighter restrictions placed around advertisements for food and healthcare products. The advertising industries within some countries rely less on laws and more on systems of self-regulation. Advertisers and the media agree on a code of advertising standards that they attempt to uphold. The general aim of such codes is to ensure that any advertising is 'legal, decent, honest and truthful'. Some self-regulatory organizations are funded by the industry, but remain independent, with the intent of upholding the standards or codes like the Advertising Standards Authority in the UK. In the UK, most forms of outdoor advertising, such as the display of billboards, are regulated by the UK Town and County Planning system. The display of an advertisement without consent from the Planning Authority is a criminal offense liable to a fine of £2,500 per offense. In the US, where some communities believe that outdoor advertising are a blight on landscapes, attempts to ban billboard advertising in the open countryside occurred in the 1960s, leading to the Highway Beautification Act. Cities such as São Paulo have introduced an outright ban, with London also having specific legislation to control unlawful displays. Some governments restrict the languages that can be used in advertisements, but advertisers may employ tricks to try avoiding them. In France for instance, advertisers sometimes print English words in bold and French translations in fine print to deal with Article 120 of the 1994 Toubon Law limiting the use of English. The advertising of pricing information is another topic of concern for governments. In the United States for instance, it is common for businesses to only mention the existence and amount of applicable taxes at a later stage of a transaction. In Canada and New Zealand, taxes can be listed as separate items, as long as they are quoted up-front. In most other countries, the advertised price must include all applicable taxes, enabling customers to easily know how much it will cost them. == Theory == === Hierarchy-of-effects models === Various competing models of hierarchies of effects attempt to provide a theoretical underpinning to advertising practice. The model of Clow and Baack clarifies the objectives of an advertising campaign and for each individual advertisement. The model postulates six steps a buyer moves through when making a purchase: Awareness Knowledge Liking Preference Conviction Purchase Means-end theory suggests that an advertisement should contain a message or means that leads the consumer to a desired end-state. Leverage points aim to move the consumer from understanding a product's benefits to linking those benefits with personal values. === Marketing mix === The marketing mix was proposed by professor E. Jerome McCarthy in the 1960s. It consists of four basic elements called the "four Ps". Product is the first P representing the actual product. Price represents the process of determining the value of a product. Place represents the variables of getting the product to the consumer such as distribution channels, market coverage and movement organization. The last P stands for Promotion which is the process of reaching the target market and convincing them to buy the product. In the 1990s, the concept of four Cs was introduced as a more customer-driven replacement of four P's. There are two theories based on four Cs: Lauterborn's four Cs (consumer, cost, communication, convenience) and Shimizu's four Cs (commodity, cost, communication, channel) in the 7Cs Compass Model (Co-marketing). Communications can include advertising, sales promotion, public relations, publicity, personal selling, corporate identity, internal communication, SNS, and MIS. === Research === Advertising research is a specialized form of research that works to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of advertising. It entails numerous forms of research which employ different methodologies. Advertising research includes pre-testing (also known as copy testing) and post-testing of ads and/or campaigns. Pre-testing includes a wide range of qualitative and quantitative techniques, including: focus groups, in-depth target audience interviews (one-on-one interviews), small-scale quantitative studies and physiological measurement. The goal of these investigations is to better understand how different groups respond to various messages and visual prompts, thereby providing an assessment of how well the advertisement meets its communications goals. Post-testing employs many of the same techniques as pre-testing, usually with a focus on understanding the change in awareness or attitude attributable to the advertisement. With the emergence of digital advertising technologies, many firms have begun to continuously post-test ads using real-time data. This may take the form of A/B split-testing or multivariate testing. Continuous ad tracking and the Communicus System are competing examples of post-testing advertising research types. === Semiotics === Meanings between consumers and marketers depict signs and symbols that are encoded in everyday objects. Semiotics is the study of signs and how they are interpreted. Advertising has many hidden signs and meanings within brand names, logos, package designs, print advertisements, and television advertisements. Semiotics aims to study and interpret the message being conveyed in (for example) advertisements. Logos and advertisements can be interpreted at two levels – known as the surface level and the underlying level. The surface level uses signs creatively to create an image or personality for a product. These signs can be images, words, fonts, colors, or slogans. The underlying level is made up of hidden meanings. The combination of images, words, colors, and slogans must be interpreted by the audience or consumer. The "key to advertising analysis" is the signifier and the signified. The signifier is the object and the signified is the mental concept. A product has a signifier and a signified. The signifier is the color, brand name, logo design, and technology. The signified has two meanings known as denotative and connotative. The denotative meaning is the meaning of the product. A television's denotative meaning might be that it is high definition. The connotative meaning is the product's deep and hidden meaning. A connotative meaning of a television would be that it is top-of-the-line. Apple's commercials used a black silhouette of a person that was the age of Apple's target market. They placed the silhouette in front of a blue screen so that the picture behind the silhouette could be constantly changing. However, the one thing that stays the same in these ads is that there is music in the background and the silhouette is listening to that music on a white iPod through white headphones. Through advertising, the white color on a set of earphones now signifies that the music device is an iPod. The white color signifies almost all of Apple's products. The semiotics of gender plays a key influence on the way in which signs are interpreted. When considering gender roles in advertising, individuals are influenced by three categories. Certain characteristics of stimuli may enhance or decrease the elaboration of the message (if the product is perceived as feminine or masculine). Second, the characteristics of individuals can affect attention and elaboration of the message (traditional or non-traditional gender role orientation). Lastly, situational factors may be important to influence the elaboration of the message. There are two types of marketing communication claims-objective and subjective. Objective claims stem from the extent to which the claim associates the brand with a tangible product or service feature. For instance, a camera may have auto-focus features. Subjective claims convey emotional, subjective, impressions of intangible aspects of a product or service. They are non-physical features of a product or service that cannot be directly perceived, as they have no physical reality. For instance the brochure has a beautiful design. Males tend to respond better to objective marketing-communications claims while females tend to respond better to subjective marketing communications claims. Voiceovers are commonly used in advertising. Most voiceovers are done by men, with figures of up to 94% having been reported. There have been more female voiceovers in recent years, but mainly for food, household products, and feminine-care products. == Gender effects on comprehension == According to a 1977 study by David Statt, females process information comprehensively, while males process information through heuristic devices such as procedures, methods or strategies for solving problems, which could have an effect on how they interpret advertising. According to this study, men prefer to have available and apparent cues to interpret the message, whereas females engage in more creative, associative, imagery-laced interpretation. Later research by a Danish team found that advertising attempts to persuade men to improve their appearance or performance, whereas its approach to women aims at transformation toward an impossible ideal of female presentation. In Paul Suggett's article "The Objectification of Women in Advertising" he discusses the negative impact that these women in advertisements, who are too perfect to be real, have on women, as well as men, in real life. Advertising's manipulation of women's aspiration to these ideal types as portrayed in film, in erotic art, in advertising, on stage, within music videos and through other media exposures requires at least a conditioned rejection of female reality and thereby takes on a highly ideological cast. Studies show that these expectations of women and young girls negatively affect their views about their bodies and appearances. These advertisements are directed towards men. Not everyone agrees: one critic viewed this monologic, gender-specific interpretation of advertising as excessively skewed and politicized. There are some companies like Dove and aerie that are creating commercials to portray more natural women, with less post production manipulation, so more women and young girls are able to relate to them. More recent research by Martin (2003) reveals that males and females differ in how they react to advertising depending on their mood at the time of exposure to the ads and on the affective tone of the advertising. When feeling sad, males prefer happy ads to boost their mood. In contrast, females prefer happy ads when they are feeling happy. The television programs in which ads are embedded influence a viewer's mood state. Susan Wojcicki, author of the article "Ads that Empower Women don't just Break Stereotypes—They're also Effective" discusses how advertising to women has changed since the first Barbie commercial, where a little girl tells the doll that, she wants to be just like her. Little girls grow up watching advertisements of scantily clad women advertising things from trucks to burgers and Wojcicki states that this shows girls that they are either arm candy or eye candy. ==Alternatives== Other approaches to revenue include donations, paid subscriptions, microtransactions, and data monetization. Websites and applications are "ad-free" when not using advertisements at all for revenue. For example, the online encyclopedia Wikipedia provides free content by receiving funding from charitable donations. == "Fathers" of advertising == Late 1700s – Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790) – "father of advertising in America" Late 1800s – Thomas J. Barratt (1841–1914) of London – called "the father of modern advertising" by T.F.G. Coates Early 1900s – J. Henry ("Slogan") Smythe Jr of Philadelphia – "world's best known slogan writer" ===Influential thinkers in advertising theory and practice=== N. W. Ayer & Son – probably the first advertising agency to use mass media (i.e. telegraph) in a promotional campaign Claude C. Hopkins (1866–1932) – popularised the use of test campaigns, especially coupons in direct mail, to track the efficiency of marketing spend Ernest Dichter (1907–1991) – developed the field of motivational research, used extensively in advertising E. St. Elmo Lewis (1872–1948) – developed the first hierarchy of effects model (AIDA) used in sales and advertising Arthur Nielsen (1897–1980) – founded one of the earliest international advertising agencies and developed ratings for radio & TV David Ogilvy (1911–1999) – pioneered the positioning concept and advocated of the use of brand image in advertising Charles Coolidge Parlin (1872–1942) – regarded as the pioneer of the use of marketing research in advertising Rosser Reeves (1910–1984) – developed the concept of the unique selling proposition (USP) and advocated the use of repetition in advertising Al Ries (1926–2022) – advertising executive, author and credited with coining the term "positioning" in the late 1960s Daniel Starch (1883–1979) – developed the Starch score method of measuring print media effectiveness (still in use) J Walter Thompson – one of the earliest advertising agencies	[ "donation", "MTV", "Google", "Commercial speech", "In-flight advertising", "DuMont Television Network", "search engine results page", "Duke University", "David Ogilvy (businessman)", "Subscription business model", "ancient Greece", "Google AdSense", "Political party", "Survivor (TV series)", "Senior media creative", "Havas", "La Presse (France)", "domain parking", "student-run advertising agency", "Informative advertising", "Blade Runner", "Copywriting", "J. Walter Thompson", "web search engine", "Pears (soap)", "CoverGirl", "Edward Bernays", "public relations", "Shock advertising", "Coca-Cola", "masculine", "Promotional mix", "outdoor advertising", "publicity", "commercial advertisement", "dot-com bubble", "Broadcasting", "Doritos", "internal communication", "subliminal message", "Dodge", "Republic of China", "QVC", "rich media", "Co-marketing", "Radio advertisement", "air dancer", "Native advertising", "jingle", "vacuum cleaner", "Admob", "internet service provider", "data", "corporate identity", "Problem solving", "tents", "e-mail marketing", "Barbie", "Friedrichshafen", "banner ad", "UNICEF", "personal selling", "Lake Michigan", "brand names", "Media planning", "photocopier", "Digital marketing", "Advertorial", "television", "long tail", "Jones Soda", "marketing communications", "Will Smith", "Demo mode", "Spam (electronic)", "engagement marketing", "Mobile marketing", "advertising to children", "Graphic design", "street furniture", "social television", "misinformation", "rocket", "Wikt:branding moment", "Art & Copy", "coupon", "Management information system", "interactive advertising", "niche market", "Beecham's Pills", "Crest (toothpaste)", "The New York Times", "video on demand", "Market overhang", "rock art", "Audi", "attention", "Arabian Peninsula", "Virtual Product Placement", "Novelty item", "North Avenue Beach", "chocolate", "Woodbury Soap Company", "Camel (cigarette)", "Fantastic Four: Rise of the Silver Surfer", "slogan", "impulse purchase", "USA Today Super Bowl Ad Meter", "poster", "mascot", "Gender advertisement", "advertising network", "propaganda", "Herbal Essences", "VAIO", "World Federation of Advertisers", "Consumer", "Wikipedia", "Direct marketing", "GEO (magazine)", "sublimation (psychology)", "equity (finance)", "signage", "Procter & Gamble", "Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce", "Journalism ethics and standards", "Backlight", "List of advertising awards", "SMART (advertising agency)", "tobacco advertising", "augmented reality", "skywriting", "Mercedes-Benz", "Radio", "specialty channel", "Hallmark Hall of Fame", "Jinan", "Microsoft", "Consumption (economics)", "Pompeii", "Lost and found", "American football", "Family in advertising", "soap", "display ad", "PepsiCo", "silhouette", "mobile advertising", "communication", "Xerox", "Michael Phelps", "Guitar Hero II", "Thomas J. Barratt", "ad tracking", "Al Ries", "alcohol advertising", "Advertising campaign", "Market research", "Mural", "Minority Report (film)", "Wikt:flow of emotion", "Madison Avenue", "Virtual advertising", "political campaign", "Facebook", "Converse (shoe company)", "Tallinn", "Comcast Spotlight", "marketing communication", "advertising campaigns", "ShopTV Canada", "Mini Cooper", "Interest group", "Dentsu", "Advertising Standards Authority (United Kingdom)", "human billboard", "soap opera", "Aerial advertising", "Facial tissue", "Albert Lasker", "classified advertising", "Dove Beauties", "box set", "Social network advertising", "TiVo", "Television advertisement", "drone display", "digital video recorder", "by-product", "Outdoor advertising", "political bias", "Robert W. McChesney", "NBC Universal", "television advertisements", "Charles Coolidge Parlin", "Integrated marketing communications", "economies of scale", "Viral marketing", "attention theft", "I, Robot (film)", "CBS", "Multimedia Messaging Service", "Magazine", "Perception management", "gender", "Rosser Reeves", "Communication", "Ford Motor Company", "Classic of Poetry", "Chevrolet", "Arbitron", "petroleum jelly", "ancient Rome", "Arthur Nielsen", "Spaceballs", "History of Advertising Trust", "General Mills", "American Advertising Federation", "cosmetic industry", "Web search engine", "Taiwan", "advergaming", "Kleenex", "Omnicom Group", "user-generated", "Mobile advertising", "business model", "Sex in advertising", "Britney Spears", "The Hoover Company", "The CW", "Beecham Group", "Huntley & Palmers", "Wired (magazine)", "female", "E. Jerome McCarthy", "American Association of Foreign Language Newspapers", "Guerrilla marketing", "Nike, Inc.", "toll-free telephone number", "E-mail spam", "online classified advertising", "Service (economics)", "ad server", "web banner", "Conquesting", "data monetization", "town crier", "Qatar Airways", "health industry", "Product (business)", "brochure", "advertising agency", "Skywriting", "ZenithOptimedia", "WHOIS", "Male", "digital video recorders", "Stuart Ewen", "Biscuit", "Aerie (clothing retailer)", "Promotion (marketing)", "Balloon (aircraft)", "Omega SA", "The Matrix Reloaded", "J Walter Thompson", "Pop-up ad", "BMW", "Home Shopping Network", "The Wall Street Journal", "Quackery", "public service announcement", "advertising slogan", "Industrialisation", "E. St. Elmo Lewis", "The Hershey Company", "Tom Cruise", "metamorphosis", "Government agency", "Billboard", "Super Bowl", "St Helens, Merseyside", "Shopping channel", "commodity", "The United States Steel Hour", "Streaming media", "Comparative advertising", "Domain name", "Kellogg's", "Mobile billboard", "Gross rating point", "Nonprofit organization", "Dubai", "e-mail spam", "billboards", "Newspaper", "Charles-Louis Havas", "WPP plc", "Claude C. Hopkins", "Branded content", "Shopping cart", "pay per click", "China Airlines", "The Paris Review", "airship", "marketing mix", "Qatar", "Film industry", "Emirates (airline)", "Song dynasty", "Tram", "Tray-table", "Ernest Dichter", "Wikt:flow of attention", "Band-Aid", "microtransaction", "TAXI (advertising agency)", "guinea (coin)", "logojet", "advertising agencies", "Toubon Law", "Profit (economics)", "São Paulo", "2D barcode", "generic trademark", "Direct-to-consumer advertising", "EPG", "Adobe Flash", "International Space Station", "cabvision", "Casino Royale (2006 film)", "top-level domain", "Communicus", "Aston Martin", "Marketing channel", "Meta-advertising", "papyrus", "Secretary of Commerce", "tradition", "cultural assimilation", "N. W. Ayer & Son", "forehead advertising", "ATL & BTL Agencies", "James Bond", "Advertising education", "Cadillac", "cost", "gender role", "Daniel Starch", "gambling", "Guinness Book of Records", "Blue Man Group", "Lillie Langtry", "Herbert Hoover", "marketing research", "Helsinki", "social network service", "Religious organization", "feminine", "Nokia", "mobile apps", "Semiotics", "adhesive bandage", "Twitter", "Advertisements in schools", "media for equity", "infomercial", "Bulgari", "Toyota", "Annoyance factor", "Reverse Graffiti", "Publicis", "advertising professional", "Sigmund Freud", "false advertising", "image manipulation", "Fortune (magazine)", "Apple Inc.", "Local advertising", "product placement", "Shareholder", "logo", "radio", "Global marketing", "World Wide Web", "copy testing", "consumer spending", "John B. Watson", "color", "sales promotion", "Branding (promotional)", "Benjamin Franklin", "mass market", "non-profit organization", "Voiceover", "Brainwashing", "online advertising", "Singapore Airlines", "Air China", "rack card", "Performance-based advertising", "revenue", "Bibliography of advertising", "Victoria and Albert Museum", "Social networking service", "The Interpublic Group of Companies", "Vaseline" ]
2,862	AI-complete	In the field of artificial intelligence (AI), tasks that are hypothesized to require artificial general intelligence to solve are informally known as AI-complete or AI-hard. Calling a problem AI-complete reflects the belief that it cannot be solved by a simple specific algorithm. In the past, problems supposed to be AI-complete included computer vision, natural language understanding, and dealing with unexpected circumstances while solving any real-world problem. AI-complete tasks were notably considered useful for testing the presence of humans, as CAPTCHAs aim to do, and in computer security to circumvent brute-force attacks. ==History== The term was coined by Fanya Montalvo by analogy with NP-complete and NP-hard in complexity theory, which formally describes the most famous class of difficult problems. Early uses of the term are in Erik Mueller's 1987 PhD dissertation and in Eric Raymond's 1991 Jargon File. Expert systems, that were popular in the 1980s, were able to solve very simple and/or restricted versions of AI-complete problems, but never in their full generality. When AI researchers attempted to "scale up" their systems to handle more complicated, real-world situations, the programs tended to become excessively brittle without commonsense knowledge or a rudimentary understanding of the situation: they would fail as unexpected circumstances outside of its original problem context would begin to appear. When human beings are dealing with new situations in the world, they are helped by their awareness of the general context: they know what the things around them are, why they are there, what they are likely to do and so on. They can recognize unusual situations and adjust accordingly. Expert systems lacked this adaptability and were brittle when facing new situations. DeepMind published a work in May 2022 in which they trained a single model to do several things at the same time. The model, named Gato, can "play Atari, caption images, chat, stack blocks with a real robot arm and much more, deciding based on its context whether to output text, joint torques, button presses, or other tokens." Similarly, some tasks once considered to be AI-complete, like machine translation, are among the capabilities of large language models. ==AI-complete problems== AI-complete problems have been hypothesized to include: AI peer review (composite natural language understanding, automated reasoning, automated theorem proving, formalized logic expert system) Bongard problems Computer vision (and subproblems such as object recognition) Natural language understanding (and subproblems such as text mining, machine translation, and word-sense disambiguation) Autonomous driving Dealing with unexpected circumstances while solving any real world problem, whether navigation, planning, or even the kind of reasoning done by expert systems. ==Formalization== Computational complexity theory deals with the relative computational difficulty of computable functions. By definition, it does not cover problems whose solution is unknown or has not been characterized formally. Since many AI problems have no formalization yet, conventional complexity theory does not enable a formal definition of AI-completeness. ==Research== Roman Yampolskiy suggests that a problem C is AI-Complete if it has two properties: It is in the set of AI problems (Human Oracle-solvable). Any AI problem can be converted into C by some polynomial time algorithm. On the other hand, a problem H is AI-Hard if and only if there is an AI-Complete problem C that is polynomial time Turing-reducible to H. This also gives as a consequence the existence of AI-Easy problems, that are solvable in polynomial time by a deterministic Turing machine with an oracle for some problem. Yampolskiy has also hypothesized that the Turing Test is a defining feature of AI-completeness. Groppe and Jain classify problems which require artificial general intelligence to reach human-level machine performance as AI-complete, while only restricted versions of AI-complete problems can be solved by the current AI systems. For Šekrst, solving AI-complete problems would have strong repercussions on society.	[ "computer vision", "computable function", "Roman Yampolskiy", "natural-language understanding", "peer review", "ASR-complete", "large language model", "automated planning and scheduling", "CAPTCHA", "Jargon File", "automated reasoning", "List of unsolved problems in computer science", "logic", "Chris Anderson (entrepreneur)", "Software brittleness", "DeepMind", "word-sense disambiguation", "text mining", "expert system", "Computational complexity theory", "artificial general intelligence", "machine translation", "computational complexity", "Autonomous driving", "Formalism (philosophy of mathematics)", "Bongard problem", "artificial intelligence", "Expert system", "NP-hard", "TED (conference)", "commonsense knowledge", "Turing Test", "brute-force attack", "object recognition", "Eric S. Raymond", "NP-complete", "automated theorem proving", "Computer vision", "robotic mapping", "Fanya Montalvo", "Synthetic intelligence", "Gato (DeepMind)", "computer security", "reasoning", "Natural-language understanding" ]
2,864	Archaeoastronomy	Archaeoastronomy (also spelled archeoastronomy) is the interdisciplinary or multidisciplinary study of how people in the past "have understood the phenomena in the sky, how they used these phenomena and what role the sky played in their cultures". Clive Ruggles argues it is misleading to consider archaeoastronomy to be the study of ancient astronomy, as modern astronomy is a scientific discipline, while archaeoastronomy considers symbolically rich cultural interpretations of phenomena in the sky by other cultures. It is often twinned with ethnoastronomy, the anthropological study of skywatching in contemporary societies. Archaeoastronomy is also closely associated with historical astronomy, the use of historical records of heavenly events to answer astronomical problems and the history of astronomy, which uses written records to evaluate past astronomical practice. Archaeoastronomy uses a variety of methods to uncover evidence of past practices including archaeology, anthropology, astronomy, statistics and probability, and history. Because these methods are diverse and use data from such different sources, integrating them into a coherent argument has been a long-term difficulty for archaeoastronomers. Archaeoastronomy fills complementary niches in landscape archaeology and cognitive archaeology. Material evidence and its connection to the sky can reveal how a wider landscape can be integrated into beliefs about the cycles of nature, such as Mayan astronomy and its relationship with agriculture. Other examples which have brought together ideas of cognition and landscape include studies of the cosmic order embedded in the roads of settlements. Archaeoastronomy can be applied to all cultures and all time periods. The meanings of the sky vary from culture to culture; nevertheless there are scientific methods which can be applied across cultures when examining ancient beliefs. It is perhaps the need to balance the social and scientific aspects of archaeoastronomy which led Clive Ruggles to describe it as "a field with academic work of high quality at one end but uncontrolled speculation bordering on lunacy at the other". == History == Two hundred years before John Michell wrote the above, there were no archaeoastronomers and there were no professional archaeologists, but there were astronomers and antiquarians. Some of their works are considered precursors of archaeoastronomy; antiquarians interpreted the astronomical orientation of the ruins that dotted the English countryside as William Stukeley did of Stonehenge in 1740, while John Aubrey in 1678 and Henry Chauncy in 1700 sought similar astronomical principles underlying the orientation of churches. Late in the nineteenth century astronomers such as Richard Proctor and Charles Piazzi Smyth investigated the astronomical orientations of the pyramids. The term archaeoastronomy was advanced by Elizabeth Chesley Baity (following the suggestion of Euan MacKie) in 1973, but as a topic of study it may be much older, depending on how archaeoastronomy is defined. Clive Ruggles says that Heinrich Nissen, working in the mid-nineteenth century was arguably the first archaeoastronomer. Rolf Sinclair says that Norman Lockyer, working in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, could be called the 'father of archaeoastronomy'. Euan MacKie would place the origin even later, stating: "...the genesis and modern flowering of archaeoastronomy must surely lie in the work of Alexander Thom in Britain between the 1930s and the 1970s". In the 1960s the work of the engineer Alexander Thom and that of the astronomer Gerald Hawkins, who proposed that Stonehenge was a Neolithic computer, inspired new interest in the astronomical features of ancient sites. The claims of Hawkins were largely dismissed, but this was not the case for Alexander Thom's work, whose survey results of megalithic sites hypothesized widespread practice of accurate astronomy in the British Isles. Euan MacKie, recognizing that Thom's theories needed to be tested, excavated at the Kintraw standing stone site in Argyllshire in 1970 and 1971 to check whether the latter's prediction of an observation platform on the hill slope above the stone was correct. There was an artificial platform there and this apparent verification of Thom's long alignment hypothesis (Kintraw was diagnosed as an accurate winter solstice site) led him to check Thom's geometrical theories at the Cultoon stone circle in Islay, also with a positive result. MacKie therefore broadly accepted Thom's conclusions and published new prehistories of Britain. In contrast a re-evaluation of Thom's fieldwork by Clive Ruggles argued that Thom's claims of high accuracy astronomy were not fully supported by the evidence. Nevertheless, Thom's legacy remains strong, Edwin C. Krupp wrote in 1979, "Almost singlehandedly he has established the standards for archaeo-astronomical fieldwork and interpretation, and his amazing results have stirred controversy during the last three decades." His influence endures and practice of statistical testing of data remains one of the methods of archaeoastronomy. The approach in the New World, where anthropologists began to consider more fully the role of astronomy in Amerindian civilizations, was markedly different. They had access to sources that the prehistory of Europe lacks such as ethnographies and the historical records of the early colonizers. Following the pioneering example of Anthony Aveni, this allowed New World archaeoastronomers to make claims for motives which in the Old World would have been mere speculation. The concentration on historical data led to some claims of high accuracy that were comparatively weak when compared to the statistically led investigations in Europe. This came to a head at a meeting sponsored by the International Astronomical Union (IAU) in Oxford in 1981. The methodologies and research questions of the participants were considered so different that the conference proceedings were published as two volumes. Nevertheless, the conference was considered a success in bringing researchers together and Oxford conferences have continued every four or five years at locations around the world. The subsequent conferences have resulted in a move to more interdisciplinary approaches with researchers aiming to combine the contextuality of archaeological research, which broadly describes the state of archaeoastronomy today, rather than merely establishing the existence of ancient astronomies, archaeoastronomers seek to explain why people would have an interest in the night sky. == Relations to other disciplines == Archaeoastronomy has long been seen as an interdisciplinary field that uses written and unwritten evidence to study the astronomies of other cultures. As such, it can be seen as connecting other disciplinary approaches for investigating ancient astronomy: astroarchaeology (an obsolete term for studies that draw astronomical information from the alignments of ancient architecture and landscapes), history of astronomy (which deals primarily with the written textual evidence), and ethnoastronomy (which draws on the ethnohistorical record and contemporary ethnographic studies). Reflecting Archaeoastronomy's development as an interdisciplinary subject, research in the field is conducted by investigators trained in a wide range of disciplines. Authors of recent doctoral dissertations have described their work as concerned with the fields of archaeology and cultural anthropology; with various fields of history including the history of specific regions and periods, the history of science and the history of religion; and with the relation of astronomy to art, literature and religion. Only rarely did they describe their work as astronomical, and then only as a secondary category. Both practicing archaeoastronomers and observers of the discipline approach it from different perspectives. Other researchers relate archaeoastronomy to the history of science, either as it relates to a culture's observations of nature and the conceptual framework they devised to impose an order on those observations or as it relates to the political motives which drove particular historical actors to deploy certain astronomical concepts or techniques. Art historian Richard Poss took a more flexible approach, maintaining that the astronomical rock art of the North American Southwest should be read employing "the hermeneutic traditions of western art history and art criticism" Astronomers, however, raise different questions, seeking to provide their students with identifiable precursors of their discipline, and are especially concerned with the important question of how to confirm that specific sites are, indeed, intentionally astronomical. The reactions of professional archaeologists to archaeoastronomy have been decidedly mixed. Some expressed incomprehension or even hostility, varying from a rejection by the archaeological mainstream of what they saw as an archaeoastronomical fringe to an incomprehension between the cultural focus of archaeologists and the quantitative focus of early archaeoastronomers. Yet archaeologists have increasingly come to incorporate many of the insights from archaeoastronomy into archaeology textbooks and, as mentioned above, some students wrote archaeology dissertations on archaeoastronomical topics. Since archaeoastronomers disagree so widely on the characterization of the discipline, they even dispute its name. All three major international scholarly associations relate archaeoastronomy to the study of culture, using the term Astronomy in Culture or a translation. Michael Hoskin sees an important part of the discipline as fact-collecting, rather than theorizing, and proposed to label this aspect of the discipline Archaeotopography. Ruggles and Saunders proposed Cultural Astronomy as a unifying term for the various methods of studying folk astronomies. Others have argued that astronomy is an inaccurate term, what are being studied are cosmologies and people who object to the use of logos have suggested adopting the Spanish cosmovisión. When debates polarise between techniques, the methods are often referred to by a colour code, based on the colours of the bindings of the two volumes from the first Oxford Conference, where the approaches were first distinguished. Green (Old World) archaeoastronomers rely heavily on statistics and are sometimes accused of missing the cultural context of what is a social practice. Brown (New World) archaeoastronomers in contrast have abundant ethnographic and historical evidence and have been described as 'cavalier' on matters of measurement and statistical analysis. Finding a way to integrate various approaches has been a subject of much discussion since the early 1990s. == Methodology == There is no one way to do archaeoastronomy. The divisions between archaeoastronomers tend not to be between the physical scientists and the social scientists. Instead, it tends to depend on the location and/or kind of data available to the researcher. In the Old World, there is little data but the sites themselves; in the New World, the sites were supplemented by ethnographic and historic data. The effects of the isolated development of archaeoastronomy in different places can still often be seen in research today. Research methods can be classified as falling into one of two approaches, though more recent projects often use techniques from both categories. === Green archaeoastronomy === Green archaeoastronomy is named after the cover of the book Archaeoastronomy in the Old World. It is based primarily on statistics and is particularly apt for prehistoric sites where the social evidence is relatively scant compared to the historic period. The basic methods were developed by Alexander Thom during his extensive surveys of British megalithic sites. Thom wished to examine whether or not prehistoric peoples used high-accuracy astronomy. He believed that by using horizon astronomy, observers could make estimates of dates in the year to a specific day. The observation required finding a place where on a specific date the Sun set into a notch on the horizon. A common theme is a mountain that blocked the Sun, but on the right day would allow the tiniest fraction to re-emerge on the other side for a 'double sunset'. The animation below shows two sunsets at a hypothetical site, one the day before the summer solstice and one at the summer solstice, which has a double sunset. To test this idea he surveyed hundreds of stone rows and circles. Any individual alignment could indicate a direction by chance, but he planned to show that together the distribution of alignments was non-random, showing that there was an astronomical intent to the orientation of at least some of the alignments. His results indicated the existence of eight, sixteen, or perhaps even thirty-two approximately equal divisions of the year. The two solstices, the two equinoxes and four cross-quarter days, days halfway between a solstice and the equinox were associated with the medieval Celtic calendar. While not all these conclusions have been accepted, it has had an enduring influence on archaeoastronomy, especially in Europe. Euan MacKie has supported Thom's analysis, to which he added an archaeological context by comparing Neolithic Britain to the Mayan civilization to argue for a stratified society in this period. This, Thom argued, was a notch on the horizon where a double sunset would occur at midwinter. However, from ground level, this sunset would be obscured by a ridge in the landscape, and the viewer would need to be raised by two meters: another observation platform was needed. This was identified across a gorge where a platform was formed from small stones. The lack of artifacts caused concern for some archaeologists and the petrofabric analysis was inconclusive, but further research at Maes Howe and on the Bush Barrow Lozenge led MacKie to conclude that while the term 'science' may be anachronistic, Thom was broadly correct upon the subject of high-accuracy alignments. In contrast Clive Ruggles has argued that there are problems with the selection of data in Thom's surveys. Others have noted that the accuracy of horizon astronomy is limited by variations in refraction near the horizon. A deeper criticism of Green archaeoastronomy is that while it can answer whether there was likely to be an interest in astronomy in past times, its lack of a social element means that it struggles to answer why people would be interested, which makes it of limited use to people asking questions about the society of the past. Keith Kintigh wrote: "To put it bluntly, in many cases it doesn't matter much to the progress of anthropology whether a particular archaeoastronomical claim is right or wrong because the information doesn't inform the current interpretive questions." Nonetheless, the study of alignments remains a staple of archaeoastronomical research, especially in Europe. === Brown archaeoastronomy === In contrast to the largely alignment-oriented statistically led methods of green archaeoastronomy, brown archaeoastronomy has been identified as being closer to the history of astronomy or to cultural history, insofar as it draws on historical and ethnographic records to enrich its understanding of early astronomies and their relations to calendars and ritual. These cycles would have been of astrological and ritual significance as Venus was associated with Quetzalcoatl or Xolotl. Associations of architectural features with settings of Venus can be found in Chichen Itza, Uxmal, and probably some other Mesoamerican sites. The Temple of the Warriors bears iconography depicting feathered serpents associated with Quetzalcoatl or Kukulcan. This means that the building's alignment towards the place on the horizon where Venus first appears in the evening sky (when it coincides with the rainy season) may be meaningful. However, since both the date and the azimuth of this event change continuously, a solar interpretation of this orientation is much more likely. Anthony Aveni claims that another building associated with the planet Venus in the form of Kukulcan, and the rainy season at Chichen Itza is the Caracol. This is a building with a circular tower and doors facing the cardinal directions. The base faces the most northerly setting of Venus. Additionally the pillars of a stylobate on the building's upper platform were painted black and red. These are colours associated with Venus as an evening and morning star. However the windows in the tower seem to have been little more than slots, making them poor at letting light in, but providing a suitable place to view out. In their discussion of the credibility of archaeoastronomical sites, Cotte and Ruggles considered the interpretation that the Caracol is an observatory site was debated among specialists, meeting the second of their four levels of site credibility. In eastern Asia archaeoastronomy has developed from the history of astronomy and much archaeoastronomy is searching for material correlates of the historical record. This is due to the rich historical record of astronomical phenomena which, in China, stretches back into the Han dynasty, in the second century BC. A criticism of this method is that it can be statistically weak. Schaefer in particular has questioned how robust the claimed alignments in the Caracol are. Because of the wide variety of evidence, which can include artefacts as well as sites, there is no one way to practice archaeoastronomy. Despite this it is accepted that archaeoastronomy is not a discipline that sits in isolation. Because archaeoastronomy is an interdisciplinary field, whatever is being investigated should make sense both archaeologically and astronomically. Studies are more likely to be considered sound if they use theoretical tools found in archaeology like analogy and homology and if they can demonstrate an understanding of accuracy and precision found in astronomy. Both quantitative analyses and interpretations based on ethnographic analogies and other contextual evidence have recently been applied in systematic studies of architectural orientations in the Maya area and in other parts of Mesoamerica. == Source materials == Because archaeoastronomy is about the many and various ways people interacted with the sky, there are a diverse range of sources giving information about astronomical practices. === Alignments === A common source of data for archaeoastronomy is the study of alignments. This is based on the assumption that the axis of alignment of an archaeological site is meaningfully oriented towards an astronomical target. Brown archaeoastronomers may justify this assumption through reading historical or ethnographic sources, while green archaeoastronomers tend to prove that alignments are unlikely to be selected by chance, usually by demonstrating common patterns of alignment at multiple sites. An alignment is calculated by measuring the azimuth, the angle from north, of the structure and the altitude of the horizon it faces The azimuth is usually measured using a theodolite or a compass. A compass is easier to use, though the deviation of the Earth's magnetic field from true north, known as its magnetic declination must be taken into account. Compasses are also unreliable in areas prone to magnetic interference, such as sites being supported by scaffolding. Additionally a compass can only measure the azimuth to a precision of a half a degree. A theodolite can be considerably more accurate if used correctly, but it is also considerably more difficult to use correctly. There is no inherent way to align a theodolite with North and so the scale has to be calibrated using astronomical observation, usually the position of the Sun. Because the position of celestial bodies changes with the time of day due to the Earth's rotation, the time of these calibration observations must be accurately known, or else there will be a systematic error in the measurements. Horizon altitudes can be measured with a theodolite or a clinometer. === Artifacts === For artifacts such as the Sky Disc of Nebra, alleged to be a Bronze Age artefact depicting the cosmos, the analysis would be similar to typical post-excavation analysis as used in other sub-disciplines in archaeology. An artefact is examined and attempts are made to draw analogies with historical or ethnographical records of other peoples. The more parallels that can be found, the more likely an explanation is to be accepted by other archaeologists. A more mundane example is the presence of astrological symbols found on some shoes and sandals from the Roman Empire. The use of shoes and sandals is well known, but Carol van Driel-Murray has proposed that astrological symbols etched onto sandals gave the footwear spiritual or medicinal meanings. This is supported through citation of other known uses of astrological symbols and their connection to medical practice and with the historical records of the time. Another well-known artefact with an astronomical use is the Antikythera mechanism. In this case analysis of the artefact, and reference to the description of similar devices described by Cicero, would indicate a plausible use for the device. The argument is bolstered by the presence of symbols on the mechanism, allowing the disc to be read. === Art and inscriptions === Art and inscriptions may not be confined to artefacts, but also appear painted or inscribed on an archaeological site. Sometimes inscriptions are helpful enough to give instructions to a site's use. For example, a Greek inscription on a stele (from Itanos) has been translated as:"Patron set this up for Zeus Epopsios. Winter solstice. Should anyone wish to know: off 'the little pig' and the stele the sun turns." From Mesoamerica come Mayan and Aztec codices. These are folding books made from Amatl, processed tree bark on which are glyphs in Mayan or Aztec script. The Dresden codex contains information regarding the Venus cycle, confirming its importance to the Mayans. A widely known example is the Sun Dagger of Fajada Butte at which a glint of sunlight passes over a spiral petroglyph. The location of a dagger of light on the petroglyph varies throughout the year. At the summer solstice a dagger can be seen through the heart of the spiral; at the winter solstice two daggers appear to either side of it. It is proposed that this petroglyph was created to mark these events. Recent studies have identified many similar sites in the US Southwest and Northwestern Mexico. It has been argued that the number of solstitial markers at these sites provides statistical evidence that they were intended to mark the solstices. The Sun Dagger site on Fajada Butte in Chaco Canyon, New Mexico, stands out for its explicit light markings that record all the key events of both the solar and lunar cycles: summer solstice, winter solstice, equinox, and the major and minor lunar standstills of the Moon's 18.6 year cycle. In addition at two other sites on Fajada Butte, there are five light markings on petroglyphs recording the summer and winter solstices, equinox and solar noon. Numerous buildings and interbuilding alignments of the great houses of Chaco Canyon and outlying areas are oriented to the same solar and lunar directions that are marked at the Sun Dagger site. If no ethnographic nor historical data are found which can support this assertion then acceptance of the idea relies upon whether or not there are enough petroglyph sites in North America that such a correlation could occur by chance. It is helpful when petroglyphs are associated with existing peoples. This allows ethnoastronomers to question informants as to the meaning of such symbols. === Ethnographies === As well as the materials left by peoples themselves, there are also the reports of other who have encountered them. The historical records of the Conquistadores are a rich source of information about the pre-Columbian Americans. Ethnographers also provide material about many other peoples. Anthony Aveni uses the importance of zenith passages as an example of the importance of ethnography. For peoples living between the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn there are two days of the year when the noon Sun passes directly overhead and casts no shadow. In parts of Mesoamerica this was considered a significant day as it would herald the arrival of rains, and so play a part in the cycle of agriculture. This knowledge is still considered important amongst Mayan Indians living in Central America today. The ethnographic records suggested to archaeoastronomers that this day may have been important to the ancient Mayans. There are also shafts known as 'zenith tubes' which illuminate subterranean rooms when the Sun passes overhead found at places like Monte Albán and Xochicalco. It is only through the ethnography that we can speculate that the timing of the illumination was considered important in Mayan society. Alignments to the sunrise and sunset on the day of the zenith passage have been claimed to exist at several sites. However, it has been shown that, since there are very few orientations that can be related to these phenomena, they likely have different explanations. Ethnographies also caution against over-interpretation of sites. At a site in Chaco Canyon can be found a pictograph with a star, crescent and hand. It has been argued by some astronomers that this is a record of the 1054 Supernova. However recent reexaminations of related 'supernova petroglyphs' raises questions about such sites in general. Cotte and Ruggles used the Supernova petroglyph as an example of a completely refuted site Ethnoastronomy is also an important field outside of the Americas. For example, anthropological work with Aboriginal Australians is producing much information about their Indigenous astronomies and about their interaction with the modern world. == Recreating the ancient sky == Once the researcher has data to test, it is often necessary to attempt to recreate ancient sky conditions to place the data in its historical environment. === Declination === To calculate what astronomical features a structure faced a coordinate system is needed. The stars provide such a system. On a clear night observe the stars spinning around the celestial pole can be observed. This point is +90° of the North Celestial Pole or −90° observing the Southern Celestial Pole. The concentric circles the stars trace out are lines of celestial latitude, known as declination. The arc connecting the points on the horizon due East and due West (if the horizon is flat) and all points midway between the Celestial Poles is the Celestial Equator which has a declination of 0°. The visible declinations vary depending where you are on the globe. Only an observer on the North Pole of Earth would be unable to see any stars from the Southern Celestial Hemisphere at night (see diagram below). Once a declination has been found for the point on the horizon that a building faces it is then possible to say whether a specific body can be seen in that direction. === Solar positioning === While the stars are fixed to their declinations the Sun is not. The rising point of the Sun varies throughout the year. It swings between two limits marked by the solstices a bit like a pendulum, slowing as it reaches the extremes, but passing rapidly through the midpoint. If an archaeoastronomer can calculate from the azimuth and horizon height that a site was built to view a declination of +23.5° then he or she need not wait until 21 June to confirm the site does indeed face the summer solstice. For more information see History of solar observation. === Lunar positioning === The Moon's appearance is considerably more complex. Its motion, like the Sun, is between two limits—known as lunistices rather than solstices. However, its travel between lunistices is considerably faster. It takes a sidereal month to complete its cycle rather than the year-long trek of the Sun. This is further complicated as the lunistices marking the limits of the Moon's movement move on an 18.6 year cycle. For slightly over nine years the extreme limits of the Moon are outside the range of sunrise. For the remaining half of the cycle the Moon never exceeds the limits of the range of sunrise. However, much lunar observation was concerned with the phase of the Moon. The cycle from one New Moon to the next runs on an entirely different cycle, the Synodic month. Thus when examining sites for lunar significance the data can appear sparse due to the extremely variable nature of the Moon. See Moon for more details. === Stellar positioning === Finally there is often a need to correct for the apparent movement of the stars. On the timescale of human civilisation the stars have largely maintained the same position relative to each other. Each night they appear to rotate around the celestial poles due to the Earth's rotation about its axis. However, the Earth spins rather like a spinning top. Not only does the Earth rotate, it wobbles. The Earth's axis takes around 25,800 years to complete one full wobble. The effect to the archaeoastronomer is that stars did not rise over the horizon in the past in the same places as they do today. Nor did the stars rotate around Polaris as they do now. The movement of the Earth's axis was already noticed by the Sumerians over six thousand years ago, when they were able to observe the star Canopus culminating directly above the horizon on the southern meridian for the first time in their oldest and southernmost city Eridu. For several decades, Canopus was not yet visible in the neighbouring town of Ur to the north-east of Eridu, and therefore, it was called the "Star of the City of Eridu" in Sumerian. In the case of the Egyptian pyramids, it has been shown they were aligned towards Thuban, a faint star in the constellation of Draco. The effect can be substantial over relatively short lengths of time, historically speaking. For instance a person born on 25 December in Roman times would have been born with the Sun in the constellation Capricorn. In the modern period a person born on the same date would have the Sun in Sagittarius due to the precession of the equinoxes. === Transient phenomena === Additionally there are often transient phenomena, events which do not happen on an annual cycle. Most predictable are events like eclipses. In the case of solar eclipses these can be used to date events in the past. A solar eclipse mentioned by Herodotus enables us to date a battle between the Medes and the Lydians, which following the eclipse failed to happen, to 28 May, 585 BC. Some comets are predictable, most famously Halley's Comet. Yet as a class of object they remain unpredictable and can appear at any time. Some have extremely lengthy orbital periods which means their past appearances and returns cannot be predicted. Others may have only ever passed through the Solar System once and so are inherently unpredictable. Meteor showers should be predictable, but some meteors are cometary debris and so require calculations of orbits which are currently impossible to complete. Other events noted by ancients include aurorae, sun dogs and rainbows all of which are as impossible to predict as the ancient weather, but nevertheless may have been considered important phenomena. == Major topics of archaeoastronomical research == === The use of calendars === A common justification for the need for astronomy is the need to develop an accurate calendar for agricultural reasons. Ancient texts like Hesiod's Works and Days, an ancient farming manual, would appear to partially confirm this: astronomical observations are used in combination with ecological signs, such as bird migrations to determine the seasons. Ethnoastronomical studies of the Hopi of the southwestern United States indicate that they carefully observed the rising and setting positions of the Sun to determine the proper times to plant crops. However, ethnoastronomical work with the Mursi of Ethiopia shows that their luni-solar calendar was somewhat haphazard, indicating the limits of astronomical calendars in some societies. All the same, calendars appear to be an almost universal phenomenon in societies as they provide tools for the regulation of communal activities. One such example is the Tzolk'in calendar of 260 days. Together with the 365-day year, it was used in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica, forming part of a comprehensive calendrical system, which combined a series of astronomical observations and ritual cycles. Archaeoastronomical studies throughout Mesoamerica have shown that the orientations of most structures refer to the Sun and were used in combination with the 260-day cycle for scheduling agricultural activities and the accompanying rituals. The distribution of dates and intervals marked by orientations of monumental ceremonial complexes in the area along the southern Gulf Coast in Mexico, dated to about 1100 to 700 BCE, represents the earliest evidence of the use of this cycle. Other peculiar calendars include ancient Greek calendars. These were nominally lunar, starting with the New Moon. In reality the calendar could pause or skip days with confused citizens inscribing dates by both the civic calendar and ton theoi, by the moon. The lack of any universal calendar for ancient Greece suggests that coordination of panhellenic events such as games or rituals could be difficult and that astronomical symbolism may have been used as a politically neutral form of timekeeping. Orientation measurements in Greek temples and Byzantine churches have been associated to deity's name day, festivities, and special events. === Myth and cosmology === Another motive for studying the sky is to understand and explain the universe. In these cultures myth was a tool for achieving this, and the explanations, while not reflecting the standards of modern science, are cosmologies. The Incas arranged their empire to demonstrate their cosmology. The capital, Cusco, was at the centre of the empire and connected to it by means of ceques, conceptually straight lines radiating out from the centre. These ceques connected the centre of the empire to the four suyus, which were regions defined by their direction from Cusco. The notion of a quartered cosmos is common across the Andes. Gary Urton, who has conducted fieldwork in the Andean villagers of Misminay, has connected this quartering with the appearance of the Milky Way in the night sky. In one season it will bisect the sky and in another bisect it in a perpendicular fashion. The importance of observing cosmological factors is also seen on the other side of the world. The Forbidden City in Beijing is laid out to follow cosmic order though rather than observing four directions. The Chinese system was composed of five directions: North, South, East, West and Centre. The Forbidden City occupied the centre of ancient Beijing. One approaches the Emperor from the south, thus placing him in front of the circumpolar stars. This creates the situation of the heavens revolving around the person of the Emperor. The Chinese cosmology is now better known through its export as feng shui. There is also much information about how the universe was thought to work stored in the mythology of the constellations. The Barasana of the Amazon plan part of their annual cycle based on observation of the stars. When their constellation of the Caterpillar-Jaguar (roughly equivalent to the modern Scorpius) falls they prepare to catch the pupating caterpillars of the forest as they fall from the trees. The caterpillars provide food at a season when other foods are scarce. A more well-known source of constellation myth are the texts of the Greeks and Romans. The origin of their constellations remains a matter of vigorous and occasionally fractious debate. The loss of one of the sisters, Merope, in some Greek myths may reflect an astronomical event wherein one of the stars in the Pleiades disappeared from view by the naked eye. Giorgio de Santillana, professor of the History of Science in the School of Humanities at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and Hertha von Dechend, professor at Goethe University Frankfurt, argued that the old mythological stories handed down from antiquity were not random fictitious tales but were accurate depictions of celestial cosmology clothed in tales to aid their oral transmission. The chaos, monsters and violence in ancient myths are representative of the forces that shape each age. They argued that ancient myths are the remains of preliterate, late Neolithic astronomy that was lost. Santillana and von Dechend argued in their book Hamlet's Mill: An Essay on Myth and the Frame of Time (1969) that ancient myths have no historical or factual basis other than a cosmological one encoding astronomical phenomena, especially the precession of the equinoxes. Santillana and von Dechend's approach is not widely accepted. === Displays of power === By including celestial motifs in clothing it becomes possible for the wearer to make claims the power on Earth is drawn from above. It has been said that the Shield of Achilles described by Homer is also a catalogue of constellations. In North America shields depicted in Comanche petroglyphs appear to include Venus symbolism. Solsticial alignments also can be seen as displays of power. When viewed from a ceremonial plaza on the Island of the Sun (the mythical origin place of the Sun) in Lake Titicaca, the Sun was seen to rise at the June solstice between two towers on a nearby ridge. The sacred part of the island was separated from the remainder of it by a stone wall and ethnographic records indicate that access to the sacred space was restricted to members of the Inca ruling elite. Ordinary pilgrims stood on a platform outside the ceremonial area to see the solstice Sun rise between the towers. In Egypt the temple of Amun-Re at Karnak has been the subject of much study. Evaluation of the site, taking into account the change over time of the obliquity of the ecliptic show that the Great Temple was aligned on the rising of the midwinter Sun. The length of the corridor down which sunlight would travel would have limited illumination at other times of the year. In a later period the Serapeum of Alexandria was also said to have contained a solar alignment so that, on a specific sunrise, a shaft of light would pass across the lips of the statue of Serapis thus symbolising the Sun saluting the god. == Major sites of archaeoastronomical interest == Clive Ruggles and Michel Cotte recently edited a book on heritage sites of astronomy and archaeoastronomy which discussed a worldwide sample of astronomical and archaeoastronomical sites and provided criteria for the classification of archaeoastronomical sites. === Newgrange === Newgrange is a passage tomb in the Republic of Ireland dating from around 3,300 to 2,900 BC For a few days around the Winter Solstice light shines along the central passageway into the heart of the tomb. What makes this notable is not that light shines in the passageway, but that it does not do so through the main entrance. Instead it enters via a hollow box above the main doorway discovered by Michael O'Kelly. It is this roofbox which strongly indicates that the tomb was built with an astronomical aspect in mind. In their discussion of the credibility of archaeoastronomical sites, Cotte and Ruggles gave Newgrange as an example of a Generally accepted site, the highest of their four levels of credibility. It was recently proposed that this was done by observing the positions of two stars in the Plough / Big Dipper which was known to Egyptians as the thigh. It is thought that a vertical alignment between these two stars checked with a plumb bob was used to ascertain where north lay. The deviations from true north using this model reflect the accepted dates of construction. Some have argued that the pyramids were laid out as a map of the three stars in the belt of Orion, although this theory has been criticized by reputable astronomers. The site was instead probably governed by a spectacular hierophany which occurs at the summer solstice, when the Sun, viewed from the Sphinx terrace, forms—together with the two giant pyramids—the symbol Akhet, which was also the name of the Great Pyramid. Further, the south east corners of all the three pyramids align towards the temple of Heliopolis, as first discovered by the Egyptologist Mark Lehner. The astronomical ceiling of the tomb of Senenmut (BC) contains the Celestial Diagram depicting circumpolar constellations in the form of discs. Each disc is divided into 24 sections suggesting a 24-hour time period. Constellations are portrayed as sacred deities of Egypt. The observation of lunar cycles is also evident. === El Castillo === El Castillo, also known as Kukulcán's Pyramid, is a Mesoamerican step-pyramid built in the centre of Mayan center of Chichen Itza in Mexico. Several architectural features have suggested astronomical elements. Each of the stairways built into the sides of the pyramid has 91 steps. Along with the extra one for the platform at the top, this totals 365 steps, which is possibly one for each day of the year (365.25) or the number of lunar orbits in 10,000 rotations (365.01). A visually striking effect is seen every March and September as an unusual shadow occurs around the equinoxes. Light and shadow phenomena have been proposed to explain a possible architectural hierophany involving the sun at Chichén Itzá in a Maya Toltec structure dating to about 1000 CE. A shadow appears to descend the west balustrade of the northern stairway. The visual effect is of a serpent descending the stairway, with its head at the base in light. Additionally the western face points to sunset around 25 May, traditionally the date of transition from the dry to the rainy season. The intended alignment was, however, likely incorporated in the northern (main) facade of the temple, as it corresponds to sunsets on May 20 and July 24, recorded also by the central axis of Castillo at Tulum. The two dates are separated by 65 and 300 days, and it has been shown that the solar orientations in Mesoamerica regularly correspond to dates separated by calendrically significant intervals (multiples of 13 and 20 days). In their discussion of the credibility of archaeoastronomical sites, Cotte and Ruggles used the "equinox hierophany" at Chichén Itzá as an example of an Unproven site, the third of their four levels of credibility. In their discussion of the credibility of archaeoastronomical sites, Cotte and Ruggles gave Stonehenge as an example of a Generally accepted site, the highest of their four levels of credibility. As well as solar alignments, there are proposed lunar alignments. The four station stones mark out a rectangle. The short sides point towards the midsummer sunrise and midwinter sunset. The long sides if viewed towards the south-east, face the most southerly rising of the Moon. Anthony Aveni notes that these lunar alignments have never gained the acceptance that the solar alignments have received. === Maeshowe === This is an architecturally outstanding Neolithic chambered tomb on the mainland of Orkney, Scotland—probably dating to the early 3rd millennium BC, and where the setting Sun at midwinter shines down the entrance passage into the central chamber (see Newgrange). In the 1990s further investigations were carried out to discover whether this was an accurate or an approximate solar alignment. Several new aspects of the site were discovered. In the first place the entrance passage faces the hills of the island Hoy, about 10 miles away. Secondly, it consists of two straight lengths, angled at a few degrees to each other. Thirdly, the outer part is aligned towards the midwinter sunset position on a level horizon just to the left of Ward Hill on Hoy. Fourthly the inner part points directly at the Barnhouse standing stone about 400m away and then to the right end of the summit of Ward Hill, just before it dips down to the notch between it at Cuilags to the right. This indicated line points to sunset on the first Sixteenths of the solar year (according to A. Thom) before and after the winter solstice and the notch at the base of the right slope of the Hill is at the same declination. Fourthly a similar 'double sunset' phenomenon is seen at the right end of Cuilags, also on Hoy; here the date is the first Eighth of the year before and after the winter solstice, at the beginning of November and February respectively—the Old Celtic festivals of Samhain and Imbolc. This alignment is not indicated by an artificial structure but gains plausibility from the other two indicated lines. Maeshowe is thus an extremely sophisticated calendar site which must have been positioned carefully in order to use the horizon foresights in the ways described. Moreover, the great northerly extremes of Venus always occur in late April or early May, coinciding with the onset of the rainy season. The Venus glyphs placed in the cheeks of the Maya rain god Chac, most likely referring to the concomitance of these phenomena, support the west-working orientation scheme. === Chaco Canyon === In Chaco Canyon, the center of the ancient Pueblo culture in the American Southwest, numerous solar and lunar light markings and architectural and road alignments have been documented. These findings date to the 1977 discovery of the Sun Dagger site by Anna Sofaer. Three large stone slabs leaning against a cliff channel light and shadow markings onto two spiral petroglyphs on the cliff wall, marking the solstices, equinoxes and the lunar standstills of the 18.6 year cycle of the moon. In addition, research shows that the Great North Road, a thirty-five mile engineered "road", was constructed not for utilitarian purposes but rather to connect the ceremonial center of Chaco Canyon with the direction north. === Lascaux Cave === In recent years, new research has suggested that the Lascaux cave paintings in France may incorporate prehistoric star charts. Michael Rappenglueck of the University of Munich argues that some of the non-figurative dot clusters and dots within some of the figurative images correlate with the constellations of Taurus, the Pleiades and the grouping known as the "Summer Triangle". Based on her own study of the astronomical significance of Bronze Age petroglyphs in the Vallée des Merveilles and her extensive survey of other prehistoric cave painting sites in the region—most of which appear to have been selected because the interiors are illuminated by the setting Sun on the day of the winter solstice—French researcher Chantal Jègues-Wolkiewiez has further proposed that the gallery of figurative images in the Great Hall represents an extensive star map and that key points on major figures in the group correspond to stars in the main constellations as they appeared in the Paleolithic. Appliying phylogenetics to myths of the Cosmic Hunt, Julien d'Huy suggested that the palaeolithic version of this story could be the following: there is an animal that is a horned herbivore, especially an elk. One human pursues this ungulate. The hunt locates or gets to the sky. The animal is alive when it is transformed into a constellation. It forms the Big Dipper. This story may be represented in the famous Lascaux shaft 'scene' == Fringe archaeoastronomy == Archaeoastronomy owes something of a poor reputation among scholars due to its occasional misuse to advance a range of pseudo-historical accounts. During the 1930s, Otto S. Reuter compiled a study entitled Germanische Himmelskunde, or "Teutonic Skylore". The astronomical orientations of ancient monuments claimed by Reuter and his followers would place the ancient Germanic peoples ahead of the Ancient Near East in the field of astronomy, demonstrating the intellectual superiority of the "Aryans" (Indo-Europeans) over the Semites. More recently I. J. Gallagher, R. L. Pyle, and B. Fell interpreted inscriptions in West Virginia as a description in Celtic Ogham alphabet of the supposed winter solstitial marker at the site. The controversial translation was supposedly validated by a problematic archaeoastronomical indication in which the winter solstice Sun shone on an inscription of the Sun at the site. Subsequent analyses criticized its cultural inappropriateness, as well as its linguistic and archaeoastronomical claims, to describe it as an example of "cult archaeology". Archaeoastronomy is sometimes related to the fringe discipline of Archaeocryptography, when its followers attempt to find underlying mathematical orders beneath the proportions, size, and placement of archaeoastronomical sites such as Stonehenge and the Pyramid of Kukulcán at Chichen Itza. ===India=== Since the 19th century, numerous scholars have sought to use archaeoastronomical calculations to demonstrate the antiquity of Ancient Indian Vedic culture, computing the dates of astronomical observations ambiguously described in ancient poetry to as early as 4000 BC. David Pingree, a historian of Indian astronomy, condemned "the scholars who perpetrate wild theories of prehistoric science and call themselves archaeoastronomers". == Organisations == There are currently several academic organisations for scholars of archaeoastronomy (including ethnoastronomy and Indigenous astronomy). ISAACthe International Society for Archaeoastronomy and Astronomy in Culturewas founded in 1996 as the global society for the field. It sponsors the Oxford conferences and the Journal of Astronomy in Culture. SEAC – La Société Européenne pour l'Astronomie dans la Culture was founded in 1992 with a focus on broader Europe. SEAC holds annual conferences in Europe and publishes refereed conference proceedings on an annual basis. SIACLa Sociedad Interamericana de Astronomía en la Cultura was founded in 2003 with a focus on Latin America. SCAAS - The Society for Cultural Astronomy in the American Southwest was founded in 2009 as a regional organisation focusing on the astronomies of the native peoples of the Southwestern United States; it has since held seven meetings and workshops. AAAC – the Australian Association for Astronomy in Culture was founded in 2020 in Australia, focusing on Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander astronomy. The Romanian Society for Cultural Astronomy was founded in 2019, holding an annual international conference and publishing the first monograph on archaeo- and ethnoastronomy in Romania (2019). SMART – the Society of Māori Astronomy Research and Traditions was founded in Aotearoa/New Zealand in 2013, focusing on Maori astronomy. Native Skywatchers was founded in 2007 in Minnesota, USA to promote Native American star knowledge, particularly of the Lakota and Ojibwe peoples of the northern US and Canada. == Publications == Additionally the Journal for the History of Astronomy publishes many archaeoastronomical papers. For twenty-seven volumes (from 1979 to 2002) it published an annual supplement Archaeoastronomy. The Journal of Astronomical History and Heritage, Culture & Cosmos, and the Journal of Skyscape Archaeology also publish papers on archaeoastronomy. == Academic programs == National projects and university programs including, or dedicated to, cultural astronomy are found globally. They include: The Sophia Centre for Cosmology in Culture at the University of Wales - Trinity Saint David in Lampeter, UK. The Cultural Astronomy Program at the University of Melbourne in Australia. The Tata Institute of Fundamental Research made interesting findings in this field.	[ "New World", "Lake Titicaca", "University of Munich", "Canopus", "Chaco Canyon", "Journal of Astronomical History and Heritage", "Amun-Re", "Samhain", "History of astronomy", "Meteor shower", "Archaeocryptography", "history of astronomy", "pre-Columbian", "Synodic month", "Uxmal", "Tzolk'in", "Chaco Culture National Historical Park", "Karnak", "La Sociedad Interamericana de Astronomía en la Cultura", "The Sophia Centre", "East", "Medicine wheel", "History of solar observation", "Achilles", "Homer", "Flinders Petrie", "obliquity of the ecliptic", "Quetzalcoatl", "Aboriginal stone arrangement", "Paganism", "pyramid of Khafre", "Australian Aboriginal Astronomy Project", "Lunar calendar", "Conquistadores", "ethnography", "culture", "luni-solar calendar", "Pilgrimage", "Johannes Hevelius", "Earthworks (archaeology)", "Tata Institute of Fundamental Research", "Neolithic Britain", "South", "Astronomical chronology", "Newgrange", "glyph", "Aurora (astronomy)", "pyramid of Menkaure", "equinox", "Antikythera mechanism", "magnetic declination", "Nebra skydisk", "Aztec codices", "cosmology", "Gerald Hawkins", "pictograph", "southwestern United States", "azimuth", "perpendicular", "Massachusetts Institute of Technology", "Centaurus (journal)", "List of artifacts significant to archaeoastronomy", "constellation", "Beijing", "Southwestern United States", "American Southwest", "Carol van Driel-Murray", "Edwin C. Krupp", "Precursorism", "Eridu", "Mursi people", "pendulum", "Hamlet's Mill", "Maya script", "Sun", "Ogham", "astrological symbol", "Xolotl", "Anthony Aveni", "Zuni people", "orbital period", "feng shui", "Andes", "Archaeoastronomy and Vedic chronology", "New Moon", "Draco (constellation)", "Circumpolar constellation", "Amazon Rainforest", "Alnitak", "Lydia", "mythology", "cognitive archaeology", "Great Pyramid of Giza", "Petroform", "Isla del Sol", "Moon", "cross-quarter day", "Medes", "Cusco", "Norman Lockyer", "landscape archaeology", "Salisbury Plain", "Mesoamerican pyramids", "Yucatán Peninsula", "Ancient Near East", "Atmospheric refraction", "Vallée des Merveilles", "Oxford University Press", "plumb bob", "Time and Mind", "theodolite", "Latin America", "Charles Piazzi Smyth", "Ancestral Puebloans", "petroglyphs", "Lunar standstill", "University of Leicester", "Amerindian", "Stellar archaeology", "clinometer", "phenomenon", "John Aubrey", "Culmination", "Astronomical ceiling of Senenmut's Tomb", "University of Wales Trinity Saint David", "Worship of heavenly bodies", "lunar standstill", "Sidereal month", "County Londonderry", "Alexander Thom", "Itanos (city)", "Solar System", "calibration", "astronomy", "Xochicalco", "science", "winter solstice", "comet", "Current Anthropology", "megalith", "Megalith", "Journal for the History of Astronomy", "Kintraw", "Aztec script", "Maya civilization", "David Pingree", "Aboriginal astronomy", "William Stukeley", "Giorgio de Santillana", "Hopi", "List of archaeoastronomical sites sorted by country", "ecology", "Wilhelm-Foerster-Sternwarte", "Colonization of the Americas", "Sumer", "Great North Road (Ancestral Puebloans)", "Astronomy & Geophysics", "Jura, Scotland", "summer solstice", "Antiquity (journal)", "compass", "petroglyph", "Imbolc", "Inca", "agriculture", "Han dynasty", "rainbow", "Pleiades in folklore and literature", "Sicily", "Michel Cotte", "Oxford", "Halley's Comet", "Lunar phase", "solstice", "universe", "Herodotus", "Maya codices", "sun dog", "Ethiopia", "Fondachelli-Fantina", "calendar", "Fajada Butte", "logos", "Hesiod", "Orkney", "Summer Triangle", "Barry Fell", "spinning top", "Bush Barrow", "Meridian (astronomy)", "Oxford Journal of Archaeology", "Dresden codex", "Australian Aboriginal astronomy", "Cultural astronomy", "Pleiades", "Pseudohistory", "Mesoamerica", "Science Advances (journal)", "bird migration", "Semitic people", "prehistory", "SN 1054", "double sunset", "Venus", "solar eclipse", "Comanche", "Mintaka", "Ursa Major", "University of Melbourne", "Heinrich Nissen", "meteor", "analogy", "Chichen Itza", "hypothetical", "sky", "Richard Proctor", "Neolithic", "Monte Albán", "Egyptian pyramids", "Polaris", "Sagittarius (constellation)", "Centre (geometry)", "Henry Chauncy", "John Michell (writer)", "Solstice", "Maes Howe", "homology (anthropology)", "Taurus (constellation)", "moon", "Pseudoarchaeology", "Native Americans in the United States", "Archaeology", "Clive Ruggles", "stone circle", "horizon", "Mound Builders", "North", "Mayan civilization", "Aryan race", "Hellenic calendar", "Amatl", "Scotland", "Panhellenic Games", "eclipse", "Giza pyramid complex", "Ethnography", "Serapis", "Stonehenge", "Alnilam", "Thuban", "historical astronomy", "Lascaux", "anthropology", "cultural history", "West", "Hoy, Orkney", "Forbidden City", "precession of the equinoxes", "Antiquarianism", "Milky Way", "Interdisciplinarity", "Orion correlation theory", "Capricornus", "Old World", "Ireland", "Otto Sigfrid Reuter", "Serapeum of Alexandria", "International Astronomical Union", "Caracol", "Goethe University Frankfurt" ]
2,865	Andrzej Sapkowski	Andrzej Sapkowski (; born 21 June 1948) is a Polish fantasy writer. He is best known for his series of books The Witcher, which revolves around the eponymous monster-hunter, Geralt of Rivia. The saga has been popularized through television, stage, comic books, video games and translated into 37 languages making him the second most-translated Polish science fiction and fantasy writer after Stanisław Lem. Described as the "Polish Tolkien", he has written multiple novels and short story collections, selling over 30 million copies worldwide. The influence of Slavic mythology is seen as a characteristic feature of many of his works. He is a five-time recipient of the Zajdel Award, Poland's most popular science fiction and fantasy prize, as well as many other awards and honors including David Gemmell Award, World Fantasy Life Achievement Award and the Gloria Artis Medal for Merit to Culture. ==Early life== He was born on 21 June 1948 in Łódź, in central Poland. His father served in the Polish People's Army and participated in the Battle of Berlin. After the end of World War II, his parents lived near Nowa Sól before settling in Łódź. He attended the Bolesław Prus High School No. 21. He also studied economics at the University of Łódź, and before turning to writing, he had worked as a senior sales representative for a foreign trade company. He started his literary career as a translator, in particular, of science fiction. Among the first works translated by him was The Words of Guru by Cyril M. Kornbluth. ==Career== ===Major works=== He says he wrote his first short story, The Witcher (1986), ("Wiedźmin", also translated "The Hexer" or "Spellmaker"), on a whim, in order to enter a contest by Polish science fiction and fantasy magazine Fantastyka. In an interview, he said that being a businessman at the time and thus familiar with marketing, he knew how to sell, and indeed, he won third prize. The story was published in Fantastyka in 1986 and was enormously successful both with readers and critics. Sapkowski has created a cycle of tales based on the world of "The Witcher", comprising three collections of short stories and eight novels. This cycle and his other works have made him one of the best-known fantasy authors in Poland in the 1990s. The world in which these adventures take place is heavily influenced by Slavic mythology. In her review of Blood of Elves, Alice Wybrew of Total Sci-Fi writes that "Moving effortlessly between moments of wrought emotion and staggeringly effective action, to lengthy periods of political discussion and war stratagems, Sapkowski addresses every aspect of a good fantasy novel eloquently and with ease. His style reads as easily as David Gemmel, but hits harder and deeper than his late fantasy comrade. Creating a world that is both familiar and comfortable, it is through his inventive use of character manipulation that he generates a new and realistic experience". Alex Jay of Polygon further observes that within Sapkowski's fantasy tales, "there are parallels to the complicated history of ethnic strife and resistance to oppression in Central and Eastern Europe". The depictions of the disputes between nonhumans and humans "echo real-world disputes over territory and citizenship that draw dividing lines according to race, nationality, or ethnicity". In 2001, he published the Manuscript Found in a Dragon's Cave, an original and personal guide to fantasy literature. It was written in the form of an encyclopaedia and the author discusses in it the history of the literary genre, well-known fantasy heroes, descriptions of magic terminology as well as major works of notable writers including J. R. R. Tolkien's The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings, Robert E. Howard's Conan, C. S. Lewis's The Chronicles of Narnia, Ursula K. Le Guin's Earthsea, Roger Zelazny's The Chronicles of Amber, J. K. Rowling's Harry Potter, and George R. R. Martin's A Song of Ice and Fire. Sapkowski's next book series was the Hussite Trilogy set in the 15th century at the time of the Hussite Wars with Reinmar of Bielawa as the main protagonist. Mariusz Czubaj writes: Although the Hussite Trilogy proved less popular compared to The Witcher, it has been described as the author's "magnum opus". Published between 2002 and 2006, the series was released as an audiobook in 2019. In August 2023, Sapkowski announced he was working on a new novel from The Witcher universe during an on-line meeting with his Ukrainian fans. He added that his work on the book "may take a year, but no longer" giving it a potential expected publication date at some point in 2024. The novel, titled Rozdroże Kruków, was published in Poland in November 2024, and will release internationally as Crossroads of Ravens in September 2025. ===Legal dispute with CD Projekt=== In October 2018, he sent an open letter to CD Projekt demanding 60 million zloty ($16.1 million) in royalty payments from the company for using the Witcher universe in their computer games. The letter was written despite the fact that Sapkowski had sold the video game rights to the Witcher for a single sum, rather than through a royalties contract. Sapkowski and his lawyers based their claims on Article 44 of the Copyright and Related Rights Act. On 20 December 2019, the writer and the company resolved the dispute with an amicable settlement. The company stated this deal was made in an effort "to maintain good relations with authors of works which have inspired CD Projekt Red's own creations." The details of this arrangement were not made public. ==Personal life== Sapkowski resides in his hometown of Łódź in central Poland. He had a son named Krzysztof (1972–2019), who was an avid reader of the Polish Fantastyka magazine, and for whom he wrote the first Witcher story, who has since deceased. Sapkowski is a member of the Polish Writers Association. In an interview, he mentioned that his favorite writers included Ernest Hemingway, Mikhail Bulgakov, Raymond Chandler and Umberto Eco. In 2005, Stanisław Bereś conducted a lengthy interview with Sapkowski that was eventually published in a book form as Historia i fantastyka. ==Translations and adaptations of Sapkowski's works== Sapkowski's books have been translated into Bulgarian, Chinese, Croatian, Czech, Dutch, English, Estonian, Finnish, French, Georgian, German, Greek, Hebrew, Hungarian, Italian, Korean, Lithuanian, Norwegian, Persian, Portuguese, Romanian, Russian, Serbian, Slovak, Spanish, Swedish, Turkish, and Ukrainian. In English, his official debut was from his The Witcher universe that was published in 2000 in a small press anthology Chosen by Fate. An English translation of The Last Wish short story collection was published by Gollancz in 2007. From 2008, the Witcher saga is published by Gollancz. The English translation of Sapkowski's novel Blood of Elves won the David Gemmell Legend Award in 2009. In the years 1993–1995, a six-issue comic book series entitled The Witcher was released in the Komiks magazine by Prószyński i S-ka publishing house. The comic was written by Maciej Parowski and illustrated by Bogusław Polch. The comics were the first attempt to portray the Witcher universe outside the novels. Since 2014, a comic book series The Witcher has been published by the American publisher Dark Horse Comics. The stories presented in the series are mostly originals, written not by Andrzej Sapkowski but by other writers; the exception being volume 2, Fox Children, which adapted a story from the anthology Season of Storms. In 2001, a television series based on the Witcher cycle was released in Poland and internationally, entitled Wiedźmin (The Hexer). A film by the same title was compiled from excerpts of the television series but both have been critical and box office failures. In 2009, Russian heavy metal band Esse staged The Road with No Return, a rock opera based on the works by Sapkowski. Yevgeny Pronin is the author of the libretto and the composer of much of the opera's music. The premiere of the opera took place the same year in Rostov-on-Don and was subsequently released as a DVD in 2012. The Polish game developer, CD Projekt Red, created a role-playing game series based on The Witcher universe. The first game, titled simply The Witcher, was first released in October 2007. The sequel, The Witcher 2: Assassins of Kings was released in 2011. The third game in the trilogy, The Witcher 3: Wild Hunt, was released in May 2015. The game shipped over 40 million copies, making it one of the best selling video games of all time. In May 2017, Netflix commissioned The Witcher, an English-language adaptation of the book series. The Witcher television series premiered on Netflix on 20 December 2019. Sapkowski served for a while as a creative consultant on the project. The popularity of the Netflix show led to Sapkowski topping Amazon's list of best-selling authors ahead of J.K. Rowling and Stephen King. A spin-off anime The Witcher: Nightmare of the Wolf, produced by Lauren Schmidt Hissrich, premiered in 2021. A second spinoff anime, The Witcher: Sirens of the Deep, was released on February 11 2025, adapting the short story A Little Sacrifice from the collection Sword of Destiny. In September 2017, a musical Wiedźmin (The Witcher) directed by Wojciech Kościelniak was premiered at the Musical Theatre in Gdynia. The Witcher: Blood Origin is a fantasy miniseries created by Declan de Barra and Lauren Schmidt Hissrich adapted from The Witcher book series which serves as a prequel to the Netflix television series. It was released on Netflix in December 2022. == Awards and recognition== Sapkowski is a recipient of numerous awards and honours both Polish and foreign including: 1990: Janusz A. Zajdel Award for his short story Mniejsze zło (The Lesser of Two Evils) 1992: Janusz A. Zajdel Award for his short story Miecz przeznaczenia (Sword of Destiny) 1993: Ikaros Award (Czech Republic); Janusz A. Zajdel Award for his short story W leju po bombie (In a Bomb Crater) 1994: Janusz A. Zajdel Award for his novel Krew elfów (Blood of Elves) 1995: Raczyński Library Award for lifetime achievements 1996: European Science Fiction Society Hall of Fame: author 1997: Paszport Polityki, which is awarded annually to artists who have strong prospects for international success 2002: Janusz A. Zajdel for his novel Narrenturm 2003: Ignotus Award (Spain) for The Last Wish in the Best Anthology category and for Muzykanci (The Musicians) in the Best Foreign Short Story category; Nike Award nomination (Poland's top literary prize) for his novel Narrenturm 2008: Honorary citizenship of the city of Łódź 2009: David Gemmell Legend Award 2010: European Science Fiction Society "European Grand Master" honorary award 2011: FantLab's Book of the Year Award (Russia) for his short story Żmija (Viper) in the Best Translated Novella or Short Story category 2012: Tähtifantasia Award (Finland) for his short story Sword of Destiny translated from Polish by Tapani Kärkkäinen; Science Fiction & Fantasy Translation Award nomination for his novel Spellmaker, translated from the Polish by Michael Kandel 2016: World Fantasy Award—Life Achievement for The Witcher saga ===Decorations=== 2014: Silver Medal Gloria Artis, conferred by the Ministry of Culture and National Heritage of the Republic of Poland	[ "Norwegian language", "Finnish language", "Central Europe", "fantasy author", "Fantasy television", "time horizon", "Raymond Chandler", "Polish People's Army", "European Science Fiction Society", "French language", "Harry Potter", "The Witcher: Sirens of the Deep", "Józef Ignacy Kraszewski", "Honorary citizenship", "Stephen King", "Stanisław Lem", "Bulgarian language", "creative consultant", "Chinese language", "Janusz A. Zajdel", "Tähtifantasia Award", "writer", "Light Perpetual", "publishing house", "Croatian language", "Hussite Trilogy", "Rostov-on-Don", "The Witcher: Monster Slayer", "Science Fiction & Fantasy Translation Awards", "Mikhail Bulgakov", "The Witcher (video game)", "Manuscript Found in a Dragon's Cave", "J.K. Rowling", "Science fiction and fantasy in Poland", "The Tower of Fools", "encyclopaedia", "Cyril M. Kornbluth", "Ursula K. Le Guin", "Netflix", "Italian language", "The Witcher 2: Assassins of Kings", "Greek language", "Robert E. Howard", "David Gemmell Awards for Fantasy", "Novel sequence", "Łódź", "Polish People's Republic", "literary genre", "Henryk Sienkiewicz", "The Witcher (Dark Horse Comics)", "Mikhail Bakhtin", "Toss a Coin to Your Witcher", "pl:Maladie i inne opowiadania", "Empik", "Mniejsze zło", "J. R. R. Tolkien", "CD Projekt Red", "Medal for Merit to Culture - Gloria Artis", "ruse de guerre", "Katowice", "Estonian language", "Turkish language", "libretto", "magnum opus", "The Chronicles of Narnia", "Victor Gollancz Ltd", "The Witcher 3: Wild Hunt", "Maciej Parowski", "Declan de Barra", "The Last Wish", "University of Łódź", "Philip Marlowe", "audiobook", "Ukrainian language", "Dutch language", "The Chronicles of Amber", "Copyright law of Poland", "Ministry of Culture and National Heritage of the Republic of Poland", "sales representative", "Nike Award", "Polish literature", "spin-off (media)", "Polityka", "Hussite Wars", "Slavic mythology", "Ernest Hemingway", "Krew elfów", "The Tower of Swallows", "The Viper (Sapkowski)", "pl:Coś się kończy, coś się zaczyna (zbiór opowiadań)", "The Witcher (Prószyński i S-ka)", "rock opera", "World Fantasy Award—Life Achievement", "Gdynia", "Lady of the Lake (book)", "Eastern Europe", "The Witcher: Blood Origin", "Novelist", "pl:Wiedźmin (tom opowiadań)", "Battle of Berlin", "short story", "Soviet–Afghan War", "The Hexer (TV series)", "CD Projekt", "Swedish language", "MSN", "Michael Kandel", "David Gemmell Legend Award", "Spanish language", "The Hobbit", "Fantastyka", "The Hexer (film)", "The Hollywood Reporter", "Blood of Elves", "Stanisław Bereś", "history", "George R. R. Martin", "Fantasy", "Metro 2033 (novel)", "Czech language", "The Witcher", "Janusz A. Zajdel Award", "W leju po bombie", "Raczyński Library", "IGN", "Baptism of Fire (novel)", "small press", "Geralt of Rivia", "fantasy", "The Witcher (TV series)", "Persian language", "Slovak language", "Paszport Polityki", "Lithuanian language", "The Witcher: Nightmare of the Wolf", "royalties", "Lauren Schmidt Hissrich", "J. K. Rowling", "Rozdroże kruków", "Nowa Sól", "Roger Zelazny", "Jacek Dukaj", "science fiction", "World War II", "The Lord of the Rings", "Ignotus Award", "Umberto Eco", "A Polish Book of Monsters", "English language", "German language", "Lucca Comics & Games", "Conan (books)", "Romanian language", "C. S. Lewis", "Narrenturm (novel)", "David Gemmel", "Hebrew language", "Georgian language", "Polish Writers Association", "Historia i fantastyka", "Earthsea", "Sword of Destiny", "Serbian language", "comic book", "Korean language", "Hungarian language", "Russian language", "Gwent: The Witcher Card Game", "TV Insider", "media franchise", "FantLab's Book of the Year Award", "economist", "heavy metal music", "Gloria Artis Medal for Merit to Culture", "Warriors of God (book)", "Amazon (company)", "Bolesław Prus", "best selling video games of all time", "musical theatre", "World Fantasy Award-Life Achievement", "economics", "Portuguese language", "A Song of Ice and Fire", "Dmitry Glukhovsky", "Season of Storms", "Miecz przeznaczenia", "fantasy literature", "Dark Horse Comics", "Polygon (website)", "Bogusław Polch", "Gloria Artis", "List of Poles", "Time of Contempt" ]
2,866	Ammeter	An ammeter (abbreviation of ampere meter) is an instrument used to measure the current in a circuit. Electric currents are measured in amperes (A), hence the name. For direct measurement, the ammeter is connected in series with the circuit in which the current is to be measured. An ammeter usually has low resistance so that it does not cause a significant voltage drop in the circuit being measured. Instruments used to measure smaller currents, in the milliampere or microampere range, are designated as milliammeters or microammeters. Early ammeters were laboratory instruments that relied on the Earth's magnetic field for operation. By the late 19th century, improved instruments were designed which could be mounted in any position and allowed accurate measurements in electric power systems. It is generally represented by letter 'A' in a circuit. ==History== The relation between electric current, magnetic fields and physical forces was first noted by Hans Christian Ørsted in 1820, who observed a compass needle was deflected from pointing North when a current flowed in an adjacent wire. The tangent galvanometer was used to measure currents using this effect, where the restoring force returning the pointer to the zero position was provided by the Earth's magnetic field. This made these instruments usable only when aligned with the Earth's field. Sensitivity of the instrument was increased by using additional turns of wire to multiply the effect – the instruments were called "multipliers". The word rheoscope as a detector of electrical currents was coined by Sir Charles Wheatstone about 1840 but is no longer used to describe electrical instruments. The word makeup is similar to that of rheostat (also coined by Wheatstone) which was a device used to adjust the current in a circuit. Rheostat is a historical term for a variable resistance, though unlike rheoscope may still be encountered. ==Types== Some instruments are panel meters, meant to be mounted on some sort of control panel. Of these, the flat, horizontal or vertical type is often called an edgewise meter. === Moving-coil === The D'Arsonval galvanometer is a moving coil ammeter. It uses magnetic deflection, where current passing through a coil placed in the magnetic field of a permanent magnet causes the coil to move. The modern form of this instrument was developed by Edward Weston, and uses two spiral springs to provide the restoring force. The uniform air gap between the iron core and the permanent magnet poles make the deflection of the meter linearly proportional to current. These meters have linear scales. Basic meter movements can have full-scale deflection for currents from about 25 microamperes to 10 milliamperes. This type of meter responds to both direct and alternating currents (as opposed to the moving-coil ammeter, which works on direct current only). The iron element consists of a moving vane attached to a pointer, and a fixed vane, surrounded by a coil. As alternating or direct current flows through the coil and induces a magnetic field in both vanes, the vanes repel each other and the moving vane deflects against the restoring force provided by fine helical springs. These also measure true RMS for an applied AC. === Digital === In much the same way as the analogue ammeter formed the basis for a wide variety of derived meters, including voltmeters, the basic mechanism for a digital meter is a digital voltmeter mechanism, and other types of meter are built around this. Digital ammeter designs use a shunt resistor to produce a calibrated voltage proportional to the current flowing. This voltage is then measured by a digital voltmeter, through use of an analog-to-digital converter (ADC); the digital display is calibrated to display the current through the shunt. Such instruments are often calibrated to indicate the RMS value for a sine wave only, but many designs will indicate true RMS within limitations of the wave crest factor. === Integrating === There is also a range of devices referred to as integrating ammeters. In these ammeters the current is summed over time, giving as a result the product of current and time; which is proportional to the electrical charge transferred with that current. These can be used for metering energy (the charge needs to be multiplied by the voltage to give energy) or for estimating the charge of a battery or capacitor. ==Picoammeter== A picoammeter, or pico ammeter, measures very low electric current, usually from the picoampere range at the lower end to the milliampere range at the upper end. Picoammeters are used where the current being measured is below the limits of sensitivity of other devices, such as multimeters. Most picoammeters use a "virtual short" technique and have several different measurement ranges that must be switched between to cover multiple decades of measurement. Other modern picoammeters use log compression and a "current sink" method that eliminates range switching and associated voltage spikes. Special design and usage considerations must be observed in order to reduce leakage current which may swamp measurements such as special insulators and driven shields. Triaxial cable is often used for probe connections. ==Application== Ammeters must be connected in series with the circuit to be measured. For relatively small currents (up to a few amperes), an ammeter may pass the whole of the circuit current. For larger direct currents, a shunt resistor carries most of the circuit current and a small, accurately-known fraction of the current passes through the meter movement. For alternating current circuits, a current transformer may be used to provide a convenient small current to drive an instrument, such as 1 or 5 amperes, while the primary current to be measured is much larger (up to thousands of amperes). The use of a shunt or current transformer also allows convenient location of the indicating meter without the need to run heavy circuit conductors up to the point of observation. In the case of alternating current, the use of a current transformer also isolates the meter from the high voltage of the primary circuit. A shunt provides no such isolation for a direct-current ammeter, but where high voltages are used it may be possible to place the ammeter in the "return" side of the circuit which may be at low potential with respect to earth. Ammeters must not be connected directly across a voltage source since their internal resistance is very low and excess current would flow. Ammeters are designed for a low voltage drop across their terminals, much less than one volt; the extra circuit losses produced by the ammeter are called its "burden" on the measured circuit(I). Ordinary Weston-type meter movements can measure only milliamperes at most, because the springs and practical coils can carry only limited currents. To measure larger currents, a resistor called a shunt is placed in parallel with the meter. The resistances of shunts is in the integer to fractional milliohm range. Nearly all of the current flows through the shunt, and only a small fraction flows through the meter. This allows the meter to measure large currents. Traditionally, the meter used with a shunt has a full-scale deflection (FSD) of , so shunts are typically designed to produce a voltage drop of when carrying their full rated current. To make a multi-range ammeter, a selector switch can be used to connect one of a number of shunts across the meter. It must be a make-before-break switch to avoid damaging current surges through the meter movement when switching ranges. A better arrangement is the Ayrton shunt or universal shunt, invented by William E. Ayrton, which does not require a make-before-break switch. It also avoids any inaccuracy because of contact resistance. In the figure, assuming for example, a movement with a full-scale voltage of 50 mV and desired current ranges of 10 mA, 100 mA, and 1 A, the resistance values would be: R1 = 4.5 ohms, R2 = 0.45 ohm, R3 = 0.05 ohm. And if the movement resistance is 1000 ohms, for example, R1 must be adjusted to 4.525 ohms. Switched shunts are rarely used for currents above 10 amperes. Zero-center ammeters are used for applications requiring current to be measured with both polarities, common in scientific and industrial equipment. Zero-center ammeters are also commonly placed in series with a battery. In this application, the charging of the battery deflects the needle to one side of the scale (commonly, the right side) and the discharging of the battery deflects the needle to the other side. A special type of zero-center ammeter for testing high currents in cars and trucks has a pivoted bar magnet that moves the pointer, and a fixed bar magnet to keep the pointer centered with no current. The magnetic field around the wire carrying current to be measured deflects the moving magnet. Since the ammeter shunt has a very low resistance, mistakenly wiring the ammeter in parallel with a voltage source will cause a short circuit, at best blowing a fuse, possibly damaging the instrument and wiring, and exposing an observer to injury. In AC circuits, a current transformer can be used to convert the large current in the main circuit into a smaller current more suited to a meter. Some designs of transformer are able to directly convert the magnetic field around a conductor into a small AC current, typically either or at full rated current, that can be easily read by a meter. In a similar way, accurate AC/DC non-contact ammeters have been constructed using Hall effect magnetic field sensors. A portable hand-held clamp-on ammeter is a common tool for maintenance of industrial and commercial electrical equipment, which is temporarily clipped over a wire to measure current. Some recent types have a parallel pair of magnetically soft probes that are placed on either side of the conductor.	[ "electric current", "Electrical circuit", "Electrical current", "Decade (log scale)", "analog-to-digital converter", "microampere", "crest factor", "Stanford University", "milliampere", "current transformer", "William E. Ayrton", "Rheoscope", "Root mean square", "Battery (electricity)", "Ayrton shunt", "capacitor", "ampere", "Hans Christian Ørsted", "measuring instrument", "rheostat", "multimeter", "Series and parallel circuits", "Class of accuracy in electrical measurements", "shunt resistor", "alternating current", "true RMS", "battery (electricity)", "Ohmmeter", "magnetic field", "compass", "Electrical measurements", "Electronics", "Measurement category", "Shunt (electrical)", "direct current", "Electrical conductor", "List of electronics topics", "Charles Wheatstone", "voltage spike", "clamp meter", "voltage drop", "Electric circuit", "wattmeter", "voltmeter", "iron", "magnetism", "Voltmeter", "Clamp meter", "D'Arsonval galvanometer", "Austria", "electric power system", "shunt (electrical)", "short circuit", "New York City", "Galvanometer", "resistor", "Multimeter", "Logarithmic scale", "Edward Weston (chemist)", "Institution of Electrical Engineers", "Control panel (engineering)", "ohmmeter", "Hall effect", "Triaxial cable", "Deflection (engineering)", "Science Museum, London", "Friedrich Drexler", "driven shield", "Electrical resistance and conductance" ]
2,868	Amanda Hesser	Amanda Hesser (born 1971) is an American food writer, editor, cookbook author and entrepreneur. Most notably, she was the food editor of The New York Times Magazine, the editor of T Living, a quarterly publication of The New York Times, author of The Essential New York Times Cookbook which was a New York Times bestseller, and co-founder and CEO of Food52. == Biography == After finishing her first book, in 1997, Hesser was hired as a food reporter for The New York Times where she wrote more than 750 stories. While at the Times, Hesser wrote about the influence of Costco on the wine industry, and how the Farmer Consumer Advisory Committee made decisions for the New York City Greenmarket. She was also among the first to write about Ferran Adrià of El Bulli in a major American publication. Hesser was involved in two cases of conflict of interest while working at the Times. In 2004, she awarded the restaurant Spice Market a three-star rating without disclosing that the year before, the restaurant's owner, Jean-Georges Vongerichten, had provided a complimentary jacket blurb for her book Cooking for Mr. Latte. In 2007, Hesser published a favorable review of Vegetable Harvest by Patricia Wells without noting that in 1999, Wells had provided a jacket blurb for Hesser's book The Cook and the Gardener. In both cases, the Times subsequently pointed out the conflicts of interest with editors' notes. While Hesser left the Times in March 2008 to focus on the development of Food52, she continued to write the "Recipe Redux" feature for the Times magazine until February 27, 2011. As co-founder and CEO of Food52, she has raised two rounds of investment from parties including Lerer Hippeau Ventures and Bertelsmann Digital Media Investments. Food52 has won numerous notable awards, including the James Beard Foundation Award for Publication of the Year (2012) and the International Association of Culinary Professionals Award for Best Website (2013). In February 2017, noting that 92 percent of the company was white, she and her co-founder Merrill Stubbs "issued a statement about the ways in which the company intended to redress a lack of racial equality in its workplace." By the following January, "they published a follow-up letter updating readers on the progress of their efforts, stating that their staff had been reduced to being 76 percent white." Hesser was featured in Food & Wine's 40 under 40 list, was named one of the 50 most influential women in food by Gourmet magazine, and had a cameo as herself in the film Julie & Julia. Hesser lives in Brooklyn Heights with her husband, Tad Friend, a staff writer for The New Yorker, and their two children.	[ "Tad Friend", "Patricia Wells", "Jean-Georges Vongerichten", "T Living", "The New Yorker", "William Morrow and Company", "Food52", "Brooklyn Heights", "New York (magazine)", "Costco", "Bertelsmann Digital Media Investments", "Ferran Adria", "Gourmet (magazine)", "El Bulli", "Julie & Julia", "W. W. Norton & Company", "The Essential New York Times Cookbook", "Food & Wine", "James Beard Foundation Award", "The New York Times Magazine", "The New York Times", "International Association of Culinary Professionals", "Ten Speed Press", "Open Air Publishing" ]
2,869	Anxiolytic	An anxiolytic (; also antipanic or anti-anxiety agent) is a medication or other intervention that reduces anxiety. This effect is in contrast to anxiogenic agents which increase anxiety. Anxiolytic medications are used for the treatment of anxiety disorders and their related psychological and physical symptoms. ==Nature of anxiety== Anxiety is a naturally-occurring emotion and response. When anxiety levels exceed the tolerability of a person, anxiety disorders may occur. People with anxiety disorders can exhibit fear responses, such as defensive behaviors, high levels of alertness, and negative emotions. Those with anxiety disorders may have concurrent psychological disorders, such as depression. Anxiety disorders are classified using six possible clinical assessments: Different types of anxiety disorders will share some general symptoms while having their own distinctive symptoms. This explains why people with different types of anxiety disorders will respond differently to different classes of anti-anxiety medications. ==Etiology== The etiology of anxiety disorder remains unknown. There are several contributing factors that are still yet to be proved to cause anxiety disorders. Anti-anxiety medication can be classified into six types according to their different mechanisms: antidepressants, benzodiazepines, azapirones, antiepileptics, antipsychotics, and beta blockers. Antidepressants include selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), serotonin–norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs), tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs), and monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs). SSRIs are used in all types of anxiety disorders while SNRIs are used for generalized anxiety disorder (GAD). Both of them are considered as first-line anti-anxiety medications. TCAs are second-line treatment as they cause more significant adverse effects when compared to the first-line treatment. Benzodiazepines are effective in emergent and short-term treatment of anxiety disorders due to their fast onset but carry the risk of dependence. == History == The first monoamine oxidase inhibitor (MAOI), iproniazid, was discovered accidentally when developing the new antitubercular drug isoniazid. The drug was found to induce euphoria and improve the patient's appetite and sleep quality. The first tricyclic antidepressant, imipramine, was originally developed and studied to be an antihistamine alongside other first-generation antihistamines of the time, such as promethazine. TCAs can increase the level of norepinephrine and serotonin by inhibiting their reuptake transport proteins. The majority of TCAs exert greater effect on norepinephrine, which leads to side effects like drowsiness and memory loss. In order to be more effective on serotonin agonism and avoid anticholinergic and antihistaminergic side effects, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRI) were researched and introduced to treat anxiety disorders. The first SSRI, fluoxetine (Prozac), was discovered in 1974 and approved by FDA in 1987. After that, other SSRIs like sertraline (Zoloft), paroxetine (Paxil), and escitalopram (Lexapro) have entered the market. The groups of medications are as follows. === Antidepressants === Medications that are indicated for both anxiety disorders and depression. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) and serotonin–norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs) are new generations of antidepressants. They have a much lower adverse effect profile than older antidepressants like monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) and tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs). Therefore, SSRIs and SNRIs are now the first-line agent in treating long term anxiety disorders, given their applications and significance in all six types of disorders. === Azapirones === Buspirone can be useful in GAD but not particularly effective in treating phobias, panic disorder or social anxiety disorders. === Antiepileptics === Antiepileptics are rarely prescribed as an off-label treatment for anxiety disorders and post-traumatic stress disorders. There have been some suggestions that they may help with anxiety symptoms but there is generally a lack of research on its use. One antiepileptic, pregabalin, has been found to be better at treating GAD than a placebo, and comparable effects to benzodiazepines. It has also been shown be potentially efficient in treating social anxiety disorder. Gabapentin has been prescribed off-label for anxiety despite a lack of research evidence supporting such use, although some studies have indicated that it may relieve anxiety symptoms. The potential anxiolytic effect of tiagabine has been observed in some pre-clinical trials, but its effectiveness has not yet been proved. Similarly, there is a lack of research on valproate for the treatment of anxiety disorders. SSRIs are the first-line anti-anxiety medications. Serotonin is one of the crucial neurotransmitters in mood enhancement, and increasing serotonin level produces an anti-anxiety effect. SSRIs increase the serotonin level in the brain by inhibiting serotonin uptake pumps on serotonergic systems, without interactions with other receptors and ion channels. SSRIs are beneficial in both acute response and long-term maintenance treatment for both depression and anxiety disorder. The SSRIs paroxetine and escitalopram are USFDA approved to treat generalized anxiety disorder. Hypersalivation Migraine Rhinitis \|- \|Escitalopram (active enantiomer of citalopram) \| Depressive illness Generalized anxiety disorder Obsessive-compulsive disorder Panic disorder Social anxiety disorder \| Sinusitis \|- \|Fluoxetine Sexual dysfunction, anorgasmia, erectile dysfunction, and reduced libido are common adverse side effects of SSRIs. Sometimes they may persist after the cessation of treatment. === Serotonin–norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors === Serotonin–norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor (SNRIs) include venlafaxine and duloxetine drugs. Venlafaxine, in extended release form, and duloxetine, are indicated for the treatment of GAD. SNRIs are as effective as SSRIs in the treatment of anxiety disorders. === Tricyclic antidepressants === Tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) have anxiolytic effects; however, side effects are often more troubling or severe and overdose is dangerous. They are considered effective, but have generally been replaced by antidepressants that cause different adverse effects. Examples include imipramine, doxepin, amitriptyline, nortriptyline and desipramine. ==== Therapeutic use ==== ==== Adverse effect ==== Benzodiazepines lead to central nervous system depression, resulting in common adverse effects like drowsiness, oversedation, light-headedness. Memory impairment can be a common adverse effect especially in elderly, hypersalivation, ataxia, slurred speech, psychomotor effects. The alpha-1 antagonist prazosin could be effective for PTSD. The alpha-2 agonists clonidine and guanfacine have demonstrated both anxiolytic and anxiogenic effects. === Miscellaneous === ====Buspirone==== Buspirone (Buspar) is a 5-HT1A receptor agonist used to treated generalized anxiety disorder. If an individual has only recently stopped taking benzodiazepines, buspirone will be less effective. ====Pregabalin==== Pregabalin (Lyrica) produces anxiolytic effect after one week of use comparable to lorazepam, alprazolam, and venlafaxine with more consistent psychic and somatic anxiety reduction. Unlike BZDs, it does not disrupt sleep architecture nor does it cause cognitive or psychomotor impairment. ====Hydroxyzine==== Hydroxyzine (Atarax) is an antihistamine originally approved for clinical use by the FDA in 1956. Hydroxyzine has a calming effect which helps ameliorate anxiety. Hydroxyzine efficacy is comparable to benzodiazepines in the treatment of generalized anxiety disorder. ====Phenibut==== Phenibut (Anvifen, Fenibut, Noofen) is an anxiolytic used in Russia. Phenibut is a GABAB receptor agonist, The medication is not approved by the FDA for use in the United States, but is sold online as a supplement. ====Temgicoluril==== Temgicoluril (Mebicar) is an anxiolytic produced in Latvia and used in Eastern Europe. Temgicoluril has an effect on the structure of limbic-reticular activity, particularly on the hypothalamus, as well as on all four basic neuromediator systems – γ aminobutyric acid (GABA), choline, serotonin and adrenergic activity. Temgicoluril decreases noradrenaline, increases serotonin, and exerts no effect on dopamine. ====Fabomotizole==== Fabomotizole (Afobazole) is an anxiolytic drug launched in Russia in the early 2000s. Its mechanism of action is poorly-defined, with GABAergic, NGF and BDNF release promoting, MT1 receptor agonism, MT3 receptor antagonism, and sigma receptor agonism thought to have some involvement. ====Bromantane==== Bromantane is a stimulant drug with anxiolytic properties developed in Russia during the late 1980s. Bromantane acts mainly by facilitating the biosynthesis of dopamine, through indirect genomic upregulation of relevant enzymes (tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) and aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase (AAAD)). ====Emoxypine==== Emoxypine is an antioxidant that is also a purported anxiolytic. Its chemical structure resembles that of pyridoxine, a form of vitamin B6. ====Menthyl isovalerate==== Menthyl isovalerate is a flavoring food additive marketed as a sedative and anxiolytic drug in Russia under the name Validol. ====Racetams==== Some racetam based drugs such as aniracetam can have an antianxiety effect. ====Alpidem==== Alpidem is a nonbenzodiazepine anxiolytic with similar anxiolytic effectiveness as benzodiazepines but reduced sedation and cognitive, memory, and motor impairment. It was marketed briefly in France but was withdrawn from the market due to liver toxicity. Further, etifoxine does not affect memory and vigilance, and does not induce rebound anxiety, drug dependence, or withdrawal symptoms. == Alternatives to medication == Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is an effective treatment for panic disorder, social anxiety disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, and obsessive–compulsive disorder, while exposure therapy is the recommended treatment for anxiety related phobias. Healthcare providers can guide those with anxiety disorder by referring them to self-help resources. Sometimes medication is combined with psychotherapy but research has not found a benefit of combined pharmacotherapy and psychotherapy versus monotherapy. If CBT is found ineffective, both the Canadian and American medical associations then suggest the use of medication.	[ "tricyclic antidepressant", "GABA receptor", "chlordiazepoxide", "Clomipramine", "dopamine", "Tricyclic antidepressants", "doxepin", "desipramine", "oxazepam", "prazosin", "France", "anxiety disorder", "voltage-dependent calcium channel", "Fabomotizole", "monoamine oxidase inhibitor", "Escitalopram", "Food and Drug Administration", "amitriptyline", "imipramine", "temazepam", "antiepileptics", "Etifoxine", "hemorrhage", "Serotonin–norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor", "Social Phobia", "tranylcypromine", "negative emotion", "personality disorder", "benzodiazepine", "autoreceptors", "valproate", "alprazolam", "Post-traumatic stress disorder", "Major depressive disorder", "Hydroxyzine", "liver toxicity", "gabapentinoid", "Procedural sedation and analgesia", "guanfacine", "Tuberculosis management", "nonbenzodiazepine", "list of withdrawn drugs", "Specific phobia", "selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor", "narcolepsy", "Beta blockers", "neurotransmitter", "anxiety (mood)", "hypothalamus", "erectile dysfunction", "Melatonin receptor", "panic attacks", "gamma-aminobutyric acid", "escitalopram", "Emoxypine", "Imipramine", "enuresis", "reduced libido", "self-medication", "drug dependence", "GABAB receptor", "Beta blocker", "exposure therapy", "Antidepressant", "panic disorder", "choline", "aniracetam", "Pregabalin", "medication", "sympathetic nervous system", "Alpidem", "Epilepsy", "norepinephrine", "Brain-derived neurotrophic factor", "Phenibut", "sertraline", "antipsychotic", "fluoxetine", "Migraine", "Sinusitis", "antioxidant", "Latvia", "benzodiazepine withdrawal", "cataplexy", "tyrosine hydroxylase", "risperidone", "anxiogenic", "antidepressant", "Obsessive–compulsive disorder", "Gabapentin", "obsessive–compulsive disorder", "Rhinitis", "paroxetine", "clonidine", "isocarboxazid", "Alcohol (drug)", "serotonin", "Menthyl isovalerate", "tiagabine", "social anxiety disorder", "Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor", "antihistamine", "agonist", "Bromantane", "Generalized anxiety disorder", "Bulimia nervosa", "Antipsychotic", "phenelzine", "5-HT1A receptor", "promethazine", "Propranolol", "Fluoxetine", "Mayo Clinic", "Generalized Anxiety Disorder", "metoprolol", "aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase", "sigma receptor", "Temgicoluril", "Triazolam", "Mirtazapine", "Benzodiazepine", "duloxetine", "ataxia", "Muscarinic acetylcholine receptor", "Depolarization", "Panic disorder", "Anticonvulsant", "Arrhythmia", "Barbiturate", "sedation", "etiology", "Monoamine oxidase inhibitors", "central nervous system depression", "fMRI", "Gamma-Aminobutyric acid", "Drug withdrawal", "sleep architecture", "Pirlindole", "pyridoxine", "serotonin–norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor", "nortriptyline", "Citalopram", "gabapentin", "Azapirone", "Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors", "Post-SSRI Sexual Dysfunction", "Sympatholytic", "oxprenolol", "iproniazid", "Sexual dysfunction", "bromazepam", "venlafaxine", "clonazepam", "Buspirone", "extended release", "glaucoma", "hypotension", "Γ-Aminobutyric acid", "central nervous system", "Nerve growth factor", "pregabalin", "sedative", "anorgasmia", "Depression (mood)", "rebound syndrome", "Ataxia", "generalized anxiety disorder", "Voltage-dependent calcium channel", "propranolol", "Cognitive behavioral therapy", "Olanzapine", "lorazepam", "beta blockers", "Desensitization (receptor)", "diazepam", "Anxiety disorders", "azapirone", "isoniazid", "racetam" ]
2,870	Antipsychotic	{{Infobox drug class \| Image = Zyprexa.PNG \| Synonyms = Neuroleptics, major tranquilizers and major tranquilizers, are a class of psychotropic medication primarily used to manage psychosis (including delusions, hallucinations, paranoia or disordered thought), principally in schizophrenia but also in a range of other psychotic disorders. They are also the mainstay, together with mood stabilizers, in the treatment of bipolar disorder. Moreover, they are also used as adjuncts in the treatment of treatment-resistant major depressive disorder. The use of antipsychotics may result in many unwanted side effects such as involuntary movement disorders, gynecomastia, impotence, weight gain and metabolic syndrome. Long-term use can produce adverse effects such as tardive dyskinesia, tardive dystonia, tardive akathisia, and brain tissue volume reduction. First-generation antipsychotics (e.g., chlorpromazine, haloperidol, etc.), known as typical antipsychotics, were first introduced in the 1950s, and others were developed until the early 1970s. Second-generation antipsychotics, known as atypical antipsychotics, arrived with the introduction of clozapine in the early 1970s followed by others (e.g., risperidone, olanzapine, etc.). Both generations of medication block receptors in the brain for dopamine, but atypicals block serotonin receptors as well. Third-generation antipsychotics were introduced in the 2000s and offer partial agonism, rather than blockade, of dopamine receptors. Psychotic depression. In this indication it is a common practice for the psychiatrist to prescribe a combination of an atypical antipsychotic and an antidepressant as this practice is best supported by the evidence. The same can be said for insomnia, in which they are not recommended as first-line therapy. Aripiprazole, an atypical antipsychotic, is used as add-on medication to ameliorate sexual dysfunction as a symptom of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) antidepressants in women. Quetiapine is used to treat generalized anxiety disorder. ===Schizophrenia=== Antipsychotic drug treatment is a key component of schizophrenia treatment recommendations by the National Institute of Health and Care Excellence (NICE), the American Psychiatric Association, and the British Society for Psychopharmacology. The main aim of treatment with antipsychotics is to reduce the positive symptoms of psychosis, that include delusions and hallucinations. In general, the efficacy of antipsychotic treatment in reducing positive symptoms appears to increase with the severity of baseline symptoms. All antipsychotic medications work relatively the same way: by antagonizing D2 dopamine receptors. However, there are some differences when it comes to typical and atypical antipsychotics. For example, atypical antipsychotic medications have been seen to lower the neurocognitive impairment associated with schizophrenia more than conventional antipsychotics, although the reasoning and mechanics of this are still unclear to researchers. Applications of antipsychotic drugs in the treatment of schizophrenia include prophylaxis for those showing symptoms that suggest that they are at high risk of developing psychosis; treatment of first-episode psychosis; maintenance therapy (a form of prophylaxis, maintenance therapy aims to maintain therapeutic benefit and prevent symptom relapse); and treatment of recurrent episodes of acute psychosis. Researchers analyzed data from 32,240 individuals aged 17 to 64 diagnosed with schizophrenia between 2002 and 2012 to arrive at this conclusion. ====Prevention of psychosis and symptom improvement==== Test batteries such as the PACE (Personal Assessment and Crisis Evaluation Clinic) and COPS (Criteria of Prodromal Syndromes), which measure low-level psychotic symptoms and cognitive disturbances, are used to evaluate people with early, low-level symptoms of psychosis. Test results are combined with family history information to identify patients in the "high-risk" group; they are considered to have a 20–40% risk of progression to frank psychosis within two years. ====First-episode psychosis==== First-episode psychosis (FEP) is the first time that psychotic symptoms are presented. NICE recommends that all people presenting with first-episode psychosis be treated with both an antipsychotic drug and cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT). NICE further recommends that those expressing a preference for CBT alone be informed that combination treatment is more effective. The conversion rate for a first episode of drug induced psychosis to bipolar disorder or schizophrenia is lower, with 30% of people converting to either bipolar disorder or schizophrenia. NICE makes no distinction between substance-induced psychosis and any other form of psychosis. The rate of conversion differs for different classes of drugs. The goals of treatment for FEP include reducing symptoms and potentially improving long-term treatment outcomes. Randomized clinical trials have provided evidence for the efficacy of antipsychotic drugs in achieving the former goal, with first-generation and second generation antipsychotics showing about equal efficacy. The evidence that early treatment has a favorable effect on long-term outcomes is equivocal. There is little or no difference in efficacy among approved antipsychotic drugs, including both first- and second-generation agents. The efficacy of such drugs is suboptimal. Few patients achieve complete resolution of symptoms. Response rates, calculated using various cutoff values for symptom reduction, are low, and their interpretation is complicated by high placebo response rates and selective publication of clinical trial results. ====Maintenance therapy==== The majority of patients treated with an antipsychotic drug will experience a response within four weeks. The goals of continuing treatment are to maintain suppression of symptoms, prevent relapse, improve quality of life, and support engagement in psychosocial therapy. A 3-year trial following persons receiving maintenance therapy after an acute psychotic episode found that 33% obtained long-lasting symptom reduction, 13% achieved remission, and only 27% experienced satisfactory quality of life. The effect of relapse prevention on long term outcomes is uncertain, as historical studies show little difference in long term outcomes before and after the introduction of antipsychotic drugs. The authors speculated that the difference may be because the people that discontinued treatment after a longer time had more severe mental illness than those that discontinued antipsychotic therapy sooner. If someone experiences psychotic symptoms due to nonadherence, they may be compelled to receive treatment through a process called involuntary commitment, in which they can be forced to accept treatment (including antipsychotics). A person can also be committed to treatment outside of a hospital, called outpatient commitment. Antipsychotics in long-acting injectable (LAI), or "depot", form have been suggested as a method of decreasing medication nonadherence (sometimes also called non-compliance). NICE advises LAIs be offered to patients when preventing covert, intentional nonadherence is a clinical priority. LAIs are used to ensure adherence in outpatient commitment. A meta-analysis found that LAIs resulted in lower rates of rehospitalization with a hazard ratio of 0.83; however, these results were not statistically significant (the 95% confidence interval was 0.62 to 1.11). The reason for this combination is the therapeutic delay of the aforementioned mood stabilizers (for valproate therapeutic effects are usually seen around five days after treatment is commenced whereas lithium usually takes at least a week The antipsychotics have a documented efficacy when used alone in acute mania/mixed episodes. cariprazine, lurasidone, olanzapine, and quetiapine) have also been found to possess efficacy in the treatment of bipolar depression as a monotherapy, whereas only olanzapine and quetiapine have been proven to be effective broad-spectrum (i.e., against all three types of relapse—manic, mixed and depressive) prophylactic (or maintenance) treatments in patients with bipolar disorder. A recent Cochrane review also found that olanzapine had a less favourable risk/benefit ratio than lithium as a maintenance treatment for bipolar disorder. The American Psychiatric Association and the UK National Institute for Health and Care Excellence recommend antipsychotics for managing acute psychotic episodes in schizophrenia or bipolar disorder, and as a longer-term maintenance treatment for reducing the likelihood of further episodes. They state that response to any given antipsychotic can be variable so that trials may be necessary, and that lower doses are to be preferred where possible. A number of studies have looked at levels of "compliance" or "adherence" with antipsychotic regimes and found that discontinuation (stopping taking them) by patients is associated with higher rates of relapse, including hospitalization. ===Dementia=== Psychosis and agitation develop in as many as 80 percent of people living in nursing homes. Antipsychotics in old age dementia showed a modest benefit compared to placebo in managing aggression or psychosis, but this is combined with a fairly large increase in serious adverse events. Thus, antipsychotics should not be used routinely to treat dementia with aggression or psychosis, but may be an option in a few cases where there is severe distress or risk of physical harm to others. Psychosocial interventions may reduce the need for antipsychotics. In 2005, the FDA issued an advisory warning of an increased risk of death when atypical antipsychotics are used in dementia. In the subsequent 5 years, the use of atypical antipsychotics to treat dementia decreased by nearly 50%. Aripiprazole, quetiapine extended-release, and olanzapine (when used in conjunction with fluoxetine) have received the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) labelling for this indication. There is, however, a greater risk of side effects with their use compared to using traditional antidepressants. A recent study on the use of antipychotics in unipolar depression concluded that the use of those drugs in addition to antidepressants alone leads to a worse disease outcome. This effect is especially pronounced in younger patients with psychotic unipolar depression. Considering the wide use of such combination therapies, further studies on the side effects of antipychotics as an add-on therapy are warranted. ===Other=== Global antipsychotic utilization has seen a steady growth since the introduction of atypical (second-generation) antipsychotics and this is ascribed to off-label use for many other unapproved disorders. Besides the above uses antipsychotics may be used for obsessive–compulsive disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, personality disorders, Tourette syndrome, autism and agitation in those with dementia. The atypical antipsychotic risperidone may be useful for obsessive–compulsive disorder. The use of low doses of antipsychotics for insomnia, while common, is not recommended as there is little evidence of benefit as well as concern regarding adverse effects. Some of the more serious adverse effects may also occur at the low doses used, such as dyslipidemia and neutropenia, and a recent network meta-analysis of 154 double-blind, randomized controlled trials of drug therapies vs. placebo for insomnia in adults found that quetiapine did not demonstrated any short-term benefits in sleep quality. Low dose antipsychotics may also be used in treatment of impulse-behavioural and cognitive-perceptual symptoms of borderline personality disorder. Despite the lack of evidence supporting the benefit of antipsychotics in people with personality disorders, 1 in 4 who do not have a serious mental illness are prescribed them in UK primary care. Many people receive these medication for over a year, contrary to NICE guidelines. In children they may be used in those with disruptive behavior disorders, mood disorders and pervasive developmental disorders or intellectual disability. Antipsychotics are only weakly recommended for Tourette syndrome, because although they are effective, side effects are common. The situation is similar for those on the autism spectrum. Much of the evidence for the off-label use of antipsychotics (for example, for dementia, OCD, PTSD, personality disorders, Tourette's) was of insufficient scientific quality to support such use, especially as there was strong evidence of increased risks of stroke, tremors, significant weight gain, sedation, and gastrointestinal problems. A UK review of unlicensed usage in children and adolescents reported a similar mixture of findings and concerns. A survey of children with pervasive developmental disorder found that 16.5% were taking an antipsychotic drug, most commonly for irritability, aggression, and agitation. Both risperidone and aripiprazole have been approved by the US FDA for the treatment of irritability in autistic children and adolescents. A review in the UK found that the use of antipsychotics in England doubled between 2000 and 2019. Children were prescribed antipsychotics for conditions for which there is no approval, such as autism. Aggressive challenging behavior in adults with intellectual disability is often treated with antipsychotic drugs despite lack of an evidence base. A recent randomized controlled trial, however, found no benefit over placebo and recommended that the use of antipsychotics in this way should no longer be regarded as an acceptable routine treatment. Antipsychotics may be an option, together with stimulants, in people with ADHD and aggressive behavior when other treatments have not worked. They have not been found to be useful for the prevention of delirium among those admitted to hospital. ===Typicals vs atypicals=== Aside from reduced extrapyramidal symptoms, and with the clear exception of clozapine, it is unclear whether the atypical (second-generation) antipsychotics offer advantages over older, first generation antipsychotics. Amisulpride, olanzapine, risperidone and clozapine may be more effective but are associated with greater side effects. Typical antipsychotics have equal drop-out and symptom relapse rates to atypicals when used at low to moderate dosages. Clozapine is an effective treatment for those who respond poorly to other drugs ("treatment-resistant" or "refractory" schizophrenia), but it has the potentially serious side effect of agranulocytosis (lowered white blood cell count) in less than 4% of people. Due to bias in the research the accuracy of comparisons of atypical antipsychotics is a concern. In 2005, a US government body, the National Institute of Mental Health published the results of a major independent study (the CATIE project). No other atypical studied (risperidone, quetiapine, and ziprasidone) did better than the first-generation antipsychotic perphenazine on the measures used, nor did they produce fewer adverse effects than the typical antipsychotic perphenazine, although more patients discontinued perphenazine owing to extrapyramidal effects compared to the atypical agents (8% vs. 2% to 4%). This is significant because any patient with tardive dyskinesia was specifically excluded from randomization to perphenazine; i.e., in the CATIE study the patient cohort randomized to receive perphenazne was at lower risk of having extrapyramidal symptoms. Atypical antipsychotics do not appear to lead to improved rates of medication adherence compared to typical antipsychotics. Many researchers question the first-line prescribing of atypicals over typicals, and some even question the distinction between the two classes. In contrast, other researchers point to the significantly higher risk of tardive dyskinesia and other extrapyramidal symptoms with the typicals and for this reason alone recommend first-line treatment with the atypicals, notwithstanding a greater propensity for metabolic adverse effects in the latter. The UK government organization NICE recently revised its recommendation favoring atypicals, to advise that the choice should be an individual one based on the particular profiles of the individual drug and on the patient's preferences. The re-evaluation of the evidence has not necessarily slowed the bias toward prescribing the atypicals. ==Other uses== Antipsychotics, such as risperidone, quetiapine, and olanzapine, have been used as hallucinogen antidotes or "trip killers" to block the effects of serotonergic psychedelics like psilocybin and lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD). ==Adverse effects== Generally, more than one antipsychotic drug should not be used at a time because of increased adverse effects. Use of antipsychotics is associated with reductions in brain tissue volumes, including white matter reduction, an effect which is dose-dependent and time-dependent. combined with intensive psychosocial therapy may potentially prevent pallidal brain volume loss in first episode psychosis. Unwanted side effects cause people to stop treatment, resulting in relapses. Risperidone (atypical) has a similar rate of extrapyramidal symptoms to haloperidol (typical). Another less rare condition of tardive dyskinesia can occur due to long-term use of antipsychotics, developing after months or years of use. It is more often reported with use of typical antipsychotics. Very rarely antipsychotics may cause tardive psychosis. Clozapine is associated with side effects that include weight gain, tiredness, and hypersalivation. More serious adverse effects include seizures, NMS, neutropenia, and agranulocytosis (lowered white blood cell count) and its use needs careful monitoring. Clozapine is also associated with thromboembolism (including pulmonary embolism), myocarditis, and cardiomyopathy. A systematic review of clozapine-associated pulmonary embolism indicates that this adverse effect can often be fatal, and that it has an early onset, and is dose-dependent. The findings advised the consideration of using a prevention therapy for venous thromboembolism after starting treatment with clozapine, and continuing this for six months. However, the risk of serious adverse effects from clozapine is low, and there are the beneficial effects to be gained of a reduced risk of suicide, and aggression. Typical antipsychotics and atypical risperidone can have a side effect of sexual dysfunction. Clozapine, olanzapine, and quetiapine are associated with beneficial effects on sexual functioning helped by various psychotherapies. ===By rate=== Common (≥ 1% and up to 50% incidence for most antipsychotic drugs) adverse effects of antipsychotics include: Dysphoria and apathy (due to dopamine receptor blockade) Sedation (particularly common with asenapine, clozapine, olanzapine, quetiapine, chlorpromazine and zotepine) Anticholinergic side-effects (common for olanzapine, clozapine; less likely on risperidone) such as: Blurred vision Constipation Dry mouth (although hypersalivation may also occur) Reduced perspiration Tardive dyskinesia appears to be more frequent with high-potency first-generation antipsychotics, such as haloperidol, and tends to appear after chronic and not acute treatment. It is characterized by slow (hence the tardive) repetitive, involuntary and purposeless movements, most often of the face, lips, legs, or torso, which tend to resist treatment and are frequently irreversible. The rate of appearance of TD is about 5% per year of use of antipsychotic drug (whatever the drug used) Breast cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies with over 2 million individuals estimated an association between antipsychotic use and breast cancer by over 30%. Rare/Uncommon (1 and serotonin 5-HT2C receptors Neuroleptic malignant syndrome, a potentially fatal condition characterized by: Autonomic instability, which can manifest with tachycardia, nausea, vomiting, diaphoresis, etc. Hyperthermia — elevated body temperature. Mental status change (confusion, hallucinations, coma, etc.) Muscle rigidity Laboratory abnormalities (e.g., elevated creatine kinase, reduced iron plasma levels, electrolyte abnormalities, etc.) Pancreatitis QT interval prolongation — more prominent in those treated with amisulpride, pimozide, sertindole, thioridazine and ziprasidone. Both atypical and typical antipsychotics have a higher hazard ratio for dementia risk. In 2024 testable hypotheses were proposed for the mechanism responsible for cortical thinning till dementia. Some studies have found decreased life expectancy associated with the use of antipsychotics, and argued that more studies are needed. Antipsychotics may also increase the risk of early death in individuals with dementia. Antipsychotics typically worsen symptoms in people with depersonalisation disorder. Antipsychotic polypharmacy (prescribing two or more antipsychotics at the same time for an individual) is a common practice but not evidence-based or recommended, and there are initiatives to curtail it. Similarly, the use of excessively high doses (often the result of polypharmacy) continues despite clinical guidelines and evidence indicating that it is usually no more effective but is usually more harmful. A meta-analysis of observational studies with over two million individuals has suggested a moderate association of antipsychotic use with breast cancer. Loss of grey matter and other brain structural changes over time are observed amongst people diagnosed with schizophrenia. Meta-analyses of the effects of antipsychotic treatment on grey matter volume and the brain's structure have reached conflicting conclusions. A 2020 study concluded that atypical antipsychotics are linked to cortical thinning and cognitive decline in the mid (20 months) to long-term. A 2012 meta-analysis concluded that grey matter loss is greater in patients treated with first generation antipsychotics relative to those treated with atypicals, and hypothesized a protective effect of atypicals as one possible explanation. A second 2012 meta-analysis suggested that treatment with antipsychotics was associated with increased grey matter loss. Animal studies found that monkeys exposed to both first- and second-generation antipsychotics experience significant reduction in brain volume, resulting in an 8-11% reduction in brain volume with preserved neuron count and decreased glial cell count over a 17–27 month period. The National Association of State Mental Health Program Directors said that antipsychotics are not interchangeable, and it recommends including trying at least one weight-neutral treatment for those patients with potential metabolic issues. Subtle, long-lasting forms of akathisia are often overlooked or confused with post-psychotic depression, in particular when they lack the extrapyramidal aspect that psychiatrists have been taught to expect when looking for signs of akathisia. Adverse effect on cognitive function and increased risk of death in people with dementia along with worsening of symptoms has been described in the literature. Antipsychotics, due to acting as dopamine D2 receptor antagonists and thereby stimulating pituitary lactotrophs, may have a risk of prolactinoma with long-term use. This is also responsible for their induction of hyperprolactinemia (high prolactin levels). Symptoms of withdrawal commonly include nausea, vomiting, and loss of appetite. Other symptoms may include restlessness, increased sweating, and trouble sleeping. There is tentative evidence that discontinuation of antipsychotics can result in psychosis. It may also result in recurrence of the condition that is being treated. Rarely, tardive dyskinesia can occur when the medication is stopped. Tardive dyskinesia may abate during withdrawal from the antipsychotic agent, or it may persist. Withdrawal effects may also occur when switching a person from one antipsychotic to another, (it is presumed due to variations of potency and receptor activity). Such withdrawal effects can include cholinergic rebound, an activation syndrome, and motor syndromes including dyskinesias. These adverse effects are more likely during rapid changes between antipsychotic agents, so making a gradual change between antipsychotics minimises these withdrawal effects. The British National Formulary recommends a gradual dose reduction when discontinuing antipsychotic treatment to avoid acute withdrawal symptoms or rapid relapse. The process of cross-titration involves gradually increasing the dose of the new medication while gradually decreasing the dose of the old medication. City and Hackney Clinical Commissioning Group found more than 1,000 patients in their area in July 2019 who had not had regular medication reviews or health checks because they were not registered as having serious mental illness. On average they had been taking these drugs for six years. If this is typical of practice in England more than 100,000 patients are probably in the same position. == List of agents == Clinically used antipsychotic medications are listed below by drug group. Trade names appear in parentheses. A 2013 review has stated that the division of antipsychotics into first and second generation is perhaps not accurate. Sultopride – An atypical antipsychotic of the benzamide chemical class used in Europe, Japan, and Hong Kong for the treatment of schizophrenia. It was launched by Sanofi-Aventis in 1976. Sultopride acts as a selective D2 and D3 receptor antagonist. ====Benzisoxazoles/benzisothiazoles==== Iloperidone (Fanapt) – Approved by the US FDA in 2009, it is fairly well tolerated, although hypotension, dizziness, and somnolence were very common side effects. Has not received regulatory approval in other countries, however. Paliperidone (Invega) – Primary, active metabolite of risperidone that was approved in 2006. Perospirone † – Has a higher incidence of extrapyramidal side effects than other atypical antipsychotics. Risperidone (Risperdal) – Divided dosing is recommended until initial titration is completed, at which time the drug can be administered once daily. Used off-label to treat Tourette syndrome and anxiety disorder. Ziprasidone (Geodon) – Approved in 2004 to treat bipolar disorder. Side-effects include a prolonged QT interval in the heart, which can be dangerous for patients with heart disease or those taking other drugs that prolong the QT interval. Lurasidone (Latuda) – Approved by the US FDA for schizophrenia and bipolar depression, and for use as schizophrenia treatment in Canada. ====Butyrophenones==== Melperone † – Only used in a few European countries. No English-speaking country has licensed it to date. Lumateperone (Caplyta) ====Tricyclics==== Asenapine (Saphris) – Of the dibenzo-oxepino pyrrole class of atypical antipsychotics. Used for the treatment of schizophrenia and acute mania associated with bipolar disorder. Clozapine (Clozaril) – Of the dibenzodiazepine class of atypical antipsychotics. Requires routine laboratory monitoring of complete blood counts every one to four weeks due to the risk of agranulocytosis. It has unparalleled efficacy in the treatment of treatment-resistant schizophrenia. Olanzapine (Zyprexa) – Of the theienobenzodiazepine class of atypical antipsychotics. Used to treat psychotic disorders including schizophrenia, acute manic episodes, and maintenance of bipolar disorder. Used as an adjunct to antidepressant therapy, either alone or in combination with fluoxetine as Symbyax. Quetiapine (Seroquel) – Of the dibenzothiazepine class of atypical antipsychotics. Used primarily to treat bipolar disorder and schizophrenia. Also used and licensed in a few countries (including Australia, the United Kingdom and the United States) as an adjunct to antidepressant therapy in patients with major depressive disorder. It's the only antipsychotic that's demonstrated efficacy as a monotherapy for the treatment of major depressive disorder and bipolar disorder (it treats mixed mood swings alone). It indirectly serves as a norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor by means of its active metabolite, norquetiapine. Zotepine – Of the dibenzothiepin class of atypical antipsychotic indicated for acute and chronic schizophrenia. It is still used in Japan and was once used in Germany but it was discontinued.† ====Others==== Blonanserin – Approved by the PMDA in 2008. Used in Japan and South Korea. Pimavanserin – A selective 5-HT2A receptor antagonist approved for the treatment of Parkinson's disease psychosis in 2016. Sertindole ‡ – Developed by the Danish pharmaceutical company H. Lundbeck. Like the other atypical antipsychotics, it is believed to have antagonist activity at dopamine and serotonin receptors in the brain. ===Third-generation=== Third generation antipsychotics are recognized as demonstrating D2 receptor partial agonism as opposed to the D2 and 5HT-2A receptor antagonism of second-generation (atypical) antipsychotics and D2 antagonism of first-generation (typical) antipsychotics. ==== Butyrophenone(s) ==== Lumateperone (Caplyta) – In December 2019, lumateperone, a presynaptic D2 receptor partial agonist and postsynaptic D2 receptor antagonist, received its first global approval in the US for the treatment of schizophrenia in adults. In 2020 and 2021 FDA approved for depressive episodes associated with bipolar I or II disorder in adults, as monotherapy and as adjunctive therapy with lithium or valproate. ==== Phenylpiperazines/quinolinones/benzoxazinones ==== Aripiprazole (Abilify) - Partial agonist at the D2 receptor. Considered the prototypical third-generation antipsychotic. Aripiprazole lauroxil (Abilify Maintena) – Long-acting version of aripiprazole for injection. Brexpiprazole (Rexulti) – Partial agonist of the D2 receptor. Successor of aripiprazole. Brilaroxazine – A D2/3/4 and 5-HT1A partial agonist and 5-HT2A/2B/7 antagonist Cariprazine (Vraylar, Reagila) – A D3-preferring D2/3 partial agonist. ==== Muscarinic agonists ==== Xanomeline/trospium chloride (Cobenfy) - A fixed-dose combination of xanomeline and trospium chloride. Xanomeline is a functionally selective muscarinic M4 and M1 receptor agonist. Trospium chloride is a peripherally-acting non-selective muscarinic antagonist. Xanomeline/trospium chloride was approved for medical use in the United States in September 2024. ==Mechanism of action== Antipsychotic drugs such as haloperidol and chlorpromazine tend to block dopamine D2 receptors in the dopaminergic pathways of the brain. This means that dopamine released in these pathways has less effect. Excess release of dopamine in the mesolimbic pathway has been linked to psychotic experiences. Decreased dopamine release in the prefrontal cortex, and excess dopamine release in other pathways, are associated with psychotic episodes in schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. In addition to the antagonistic effects of dopamine, antipsychotics (in particular atypical antipsychotics) also antagonize 5-HT2A receptors. Different alleles of the 5-HT2A receptor have been associated with schizophrenia and other psychoses, including depression. Higher concentrations of 5-HT2A receptors in cortical and subcortical areas, in particular in the right caudate nucleus have been historically recorded. Atypical antipsychotic drugs have a similar blocking effect on D2 receptors; however, most also act on serotonin receptors, especially 5-HT2A and 5-HT2C receptors. Both clozapine and quetiapine appear to bind just long enough to elicit antipsychotic effects but not long enough to induce extrapyramidal side effects and prolactin hypersecretion. 5-HT2A antagonism increases dopaminergic activity in the nigrostriatal pathway, leading to a lowered extrapyramidal side effect liability among the atypical antipsychotics. Xanomeline/trospium chloride was approved for medical use in the United States in September 2024. It was the first antipsychotic to not act on D2 receptors. The mechanism of action instead relies on xanomeline's functional selectivity for the M1 and M4 muscarinic receptors, with trospium chloride, a peripherally selective antimuscarinic added to counteract xanomeline's unwanted peripheral muscarinic effects. Through the ability of most antipsychotics to antagonize 5-HT2A serotonin pathways enabling a sensitisation of postsynaptic serotonin receptors, MDMA exposure can be more intense because it has more excitatory receptors to activate. The same effect can be observed with the D2 antagonizing with normal amphetamine (with this just being hypothetical as there is the fact that antipsychotics sensitize receptors, with exact these postsynaptic receptors (5-HT2A, D2) being flooded by the respective neurotransmitter (serotonin, dopamine) from amphetamine exposure). ==Comparison of medications== \|} \|} ==History== The original antipsychotic drugs were happened upon largely by chance and then tested for their effectiveness. The first, chlorpromazine, was developed as a surgical anesthetic. It was first used on psychiatric patients because of its powerful calming effect; at the time it was regarded as a non-permanent "pharmacological lobotomy". Lobotomy at the time was used to treat many behavioral disorders, including psychosis, although its effect was to markedly reduce behavior and mental functioning of all types. However, chlorpromazine proved to reduce the effects of psychosis in a more effective and specific manner than lobotomy, even though it was known to be capable of causing severe sedation. The underlying neurochemistry involved has since been studied in detail, and subsequent antipsychotic drugs have been developed by rational drug design. The discovery of chlorpromazine's psychoactive effects in 1952 led to further research that resulted in the development of antidepressants, anxiolytics, and the majority of other drugs now used in the management of psychiatric conditions. In 1952, Henri Laborit described chlorpromazine only as inducing indifference towards what was happening around them in nonpsychotic, nonmanic patients, and Jean Delay and Pierre Deniker described it as controlling manic or psychotic agitation. The former claimed to have discovered a treatment for agitation in anyone, and the latter team claimed to have discovered a treatment for psychotic illness. Until the 1970s there was considerable debate within psychiatry on the most appropriate term to use to describe the new drugs. In the late 1950s the most widely used term was "neuroleptic", followed by "major tranquilizer" and then "ataraxic". In 1953 Frederik F. Yonkman, a chemist at the Swiss-based Cibapharmaceutical company, first used the term tranquilizer to differentiate reserpine from the older sedatives. The word neuroleptic was coined in 1955 by Delay and Deniker after their discovery (1952) of the antipsychotic effects of chlorpromazine. This term derived from the Greek adjective "ἀτάρακτος" (ataraktos), which means "not disturbed, not excited, without confusion, steady, calm". They are potentially addictive sedatives. Antipsychotics are broadly divided into two groups, the typical or first-generation antipsychotics and the atypical or second-generation antipsychotics. The difference between first- and second-generation antipsychotics is a subject of debate. The second-generation antipsychotics are generally distinguishable by the presence of 5HT2A receptor antagonism and a corresponding lower propensity for extrapyramidal side effects compared to first-generation antipsychotics. Antipsychotics are a type of psychoactive or psychotropic medication. ===Sales=== Antipsychotics were once among the biggest selling and most profitable of all drugs, generating $22 billion in global sales in 2008. By 2003 in the US, an estimated 3.21 million patients received antipsychotics, worth an estimated $2.82 billion. Over 2/3 of prescriptions were for the newer, more expensive atypicals, each costing on average $164 per year, compared to $40 for the older types. By 2008, sales in the US reached $14.6 billion, the biggest selling drugs in the US by therapeutic class. In the five years since July 2017 the number of antipsychotic medicines dispensed in the community in the United Kingdom has increased by 11.2%. There have also been substantial price rises. Risperidone 6 mg tablets, the largest, increased from £3.09 in July 2017 to £41.16 in June 2022. The NHS is spending an additional £33 million annually on antipsychotics. Haloperidol 500 microgram tablets constituted £14.3 million of this. === Overprescription === Antipsychotics in the nursing home population are often overprescribed, often for the purposes of making it easier to handle dementia patients. Federal efforts to reduce the use of antipsychotics in US nursing homes has led to a nationwide decrease in their usage in 2012. ===Legal=== Antipsychotics are sometimes administered as part of compulsory psychiatric treatment via inpatient (hospital) commitment or outpatient commitment. ===Formulations=== They may be administered orally or, in some cases, through long-acting (depot) injections administered in the dorsgluteal, ventrogluteal or deltoid muscle. Short-acting parenteral formulations also exist, which are generally reserved for emergencies or when oral administration is otherwise impossible. The oral formulations include immediate release, extended release, and orally disintegrating products (which are not sublingual, and can help ensure that medications are swallowed instead of "cheeked"). Sublingual products (e.g., asenapine) also exist, which must be held under the tongue for absorption. The first transdermal formulation of an antipsychotic (transdermal asenapine, marketed as Secuado), was FDA-approved in 2019. ===Recreational use=== Certain second-generation antipsychotics are misused or abused for their sedative, tranquilizing, and (paradoxically) "hallucinogenic" effects. The most commonly implicated second-generation antipsychotic is quetiapine. Use of this class of drugs has a history of criticism in residential care. As the drugs used can make patients calmer and more compliant, critics claim that the drugs can be overused. Outside doctors can feel under pressure from care home staff. In an official review commissioned by UK government ministers it was reported that the needless use of antipsychotic medication in dementia care was widespread and was linked to 1800 deaths per year. In the US, the government has initiated legal action against the pharmaceutical company Johnson & Johnson for allegedly paying kickbacks to Omnicare to promote its antipsychotic risperidone (Risperdal) in nursing homes. There has also been controversy about the role of pharmaceutical companies in marketing and promoting antipsychotics, including allegations of downplaying or covering up adverse effects, expanding the number of conditions or illegally promoting off-label usage; influencing drug trials (or their publication) to try to show that the expensive and profitable newer atypicals were superior to the older cheaper typicals that were out of patent. Following charges of illegal marketing, settlements by two large pharmaceutical companies in the US set records for the largest criminal fines ever imposed on corporations. One case involved Eli Lilly and Company's antipsychotic Zyprexa, and the other involved Bextra. In the Bextra case, the government also charged Pfizer with illegally marketing another antipsychotic, Geodon. By expanding the conditions for which they were indicated, Astrazeneca's Seroquel and Eli Lilly's Zyprexa had become the biggest selling antipsychotics in 2008 with global sales of $5.5 billion and $5.4 billion respectively. ==Special populations== It is recommended that persons with dementia who exhibit behavioral and psychological symptoms should not be given antipsychotics before trying other treatments. When taking antipsychotics this population has increased risk of cerebrovascular effects, parkinsonism or extrapyramidal symptoms, sedation, confusion and other cognitive adverse effects, weight gain, and increased mortality.	[ "5-HT2A", "Kickback (bribery)", "dopamine receptor", "white blood cell", "Periciazine", "thioridazine", "Drug-induced QT prolongation", "Agonist", "anxiety disorder", "disordered thought", "Thromboembolism", "Norclozapine", "National Institute of Health and Care Excellence", "Sultopride", "Sedation", "muscarinic acetylcholine receptor M4", "Odds ratio", "Risperidone", "muscle pains", "randomized controlled trial", "Biological half-life", "dopamine receptor D2", "cognitive behavioral therapy", "dopamine receptor antagonist", "dizziness", "caudate nucleus", "5-HT receptors", "Amoxapine", "Schizoaffective disorder", "paranoia", "lithium (medication)", "UGT1A4", "Cognitive behavioral therapy for insomnia", "Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality", "Boxed warning", "heart disease", "Trifluoperazine", "schizophrenia", "ABIM Foundation", "Fluspirilene", "wikt:ataractic", "bowel ischemia", "type II diabetes mellitus", "bipolar disorder", "Medication discontinuation", "delirium", "Nemonapride", "Psychiatric medication", "Parkinson's disease", "vomiting", "lumateperone", "Depot injection", "Dystonia", "Ziprasidone", "Schizophrenia", "pulmonary embolism", "tardive dyskinesia", "Seroquel", "Bextra", "Bipolar disorder", "Blonanserin", "Amisulpride", "Thienobenzodiazepine", "pervasive developmental disorder", "Benperidol", "Vertigo", "5-HT7 receptor", "Breast cancer", "Remoxipride", "Sulpiride", "tuberculosis", "Joanna Moncrieff", "Pharmacokinetics", "neurosis", "aplastic anaemia", "nerve", "metformin", "grey matter", "disruptive behavior disorder", "Hyperhidrosis", "The Washington Post", "Metabolic syndrome", "Tourette syndrome", "metabolic syndrome", "involuntary commitment", "Lumateperone", "Anorexia (symptom)", "hypotension", "Volume of distribution", "numbness", "ICD-11", "atypical antipsychotics", "Clotiapine", "Olanzapine", "typical antipsychotics", "serotonergic psychedelic", "Muscarinic acetylcholine receptor M4", "Molindone", "cholinergic", "autism spectrum", "olanzapine", "Flupenthixol", "Clozapine", "Dopamine supersensitivity psychosis", "Pisa syndrome", "anesthetic", "reserpine", "hallucination", "trospium chloride", "Dixyrazine", "selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor", "ventrogluteal area", "hyperprolactinaemia", "seizure", "University of Hong Kong", "CYP1A2", "extrapyramidal symptoms", "Thiothixene", "antiemetic", "Levosulpiride", "post-traumatic stress disorder", "Johnson & Johnson", "Pharmaceutical marketing", "Antipsychotic switching", "weight gain", "Confidence Interval", "dementia", "agranulocytosis", "neurochemistry", "muscarinic acetylcholine receptor M1", "prolactinoma", "Pericyazine", "Fluphenazine", "Perazine", "Dementia", "Pimozide", "Xanomeline/trospium chloride", "mesolimbic pathway", "dysthymia", "social anxiety disorder", "tardive psychosis", "drug induced psychosis", "Jean Delay", "sinew", "5-HT2A receptor", "Perphenazine", "trip killer", "Sertindole", "akathisia", "Weight Gain", "impotence", "Flupentixol", "lysergic acid diethylamide", "anxiolytic", "Henri Laborit", "nonbenzodiazepines", "Seizures", "Chlorpromazine", "Pipotiazine", "Treatment-resistant depression", "Adverse effect", "Department of Health (Australia)", "Thioridazine", "mood stabilizer", "Thrombosis prevention", "Torsades de pointes", "somnolence", "Timiperone", "peripherally selective", "Psychomotor agitation", "generalized anxiety disorder", "parkinsonism", "ziprasidone", "tuberoinfundibular pathway", "pallidal", "AstraZeneca", "xanomeline", "Daily Med", "Substance abuse", "Haloperidol", "Moperone", "adverse effect (medicine)", "dopamine", "functionally selective", "aripiprazole", "deltoid muscle", "Anticholinergic", "transdermal patch", "Intravenous", "hazard ratio", "lurasidone", "Choosing Wisely", "hypnotic", "benzodiazepine", "clozapine", "National Institute of Mental Health", "Gynaecomastia", "Asenapine", "Joseph Biederman", "neutropaenia", "neurological", "Aripiprazole lauroxil", "atypical antipsychotic", "Dopamine D2 receptor", "Prochlorperazine", "psychoactive", "Atypical antipsychotic", "tranquilizer", "NHS", "serious mental illness", "Neuroleptic malignant syndrome", "Geodon", "QT interval", "allele", "borderline personality disorder", "Clorotepine", "Quetiapine", "Veralipride", "Agranulocytosis", "Tiotixene", "Mosapramine", "intellectual disability", "cariprazine", "creatine kinase", "England", "Risperdal", "Galactorrhoea", "mood disorder", "delusion", "Lithium (medication)", "personality disorders", "Brilaroxazine", "Muscarinic acetylcholine receptor M1", "pituitary gland", "Pipamperone", "consumer advocacy groups", "insomnia", "neuroleptic malignant syndrome", "Brexpiprazole", "tardive dystonia", "fixed-dose combination", "Extrapyramidal side effects", "Omnicare", "Spiperone", "antidepressants", "Penfluridol", "British National Formulary", "Mania", "wikt:λαμβάνω", "Valproate semisodium", "mesocortical pathway", "Pfizer", "Extrapyramidal symptoms", "Levomepromazine", "leukopenia", "quetiapine", "Paliperidone", "dyslipidemia", "primary care", "hyperprolactinemia", "gynecomastia", "Zotepine", "major depressive disorder", "List of investigational antipsychotics", "Bioavailability", "Human brain", "Hypotension", "dyskinesia", "norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor", "complete blood count", "Chlorprothixene", "central nervous system", "African Americans", "Zuclopenthixol", "haloperidol", "dopaminergic pathways", "Stroke", "5HT2A receptor", "Promazine", "psychosis", "Pimavanserin", "National Institute for Health and Care Excellence", "Intramuscular", "H. Lundbeck", "Zyprexa", "drug design", "Histamine H1 receptor", "dorsogluteal muscle", "Food and Drug Administration", "Droperidol", "Pancreatitis", "Clocapramine", "Pierre Deniker", "Insomnia", "Loxapine", "Medscape", "blood–brain barrier", "CYP2D6", "Ileum", "myocarditis", "Ciba Specialty Chemicals", "Melperone", "autism", "Paliperidone palmitate", "thromboembolism", "Lurasidone", "dibenzothiepin", "synonym", "MDMA", "American Psychiatric Association", "dibenzothiazepine", "paliperidone", "polypharmacy", "wikt:ἀτάρακτος", "Perospirone", "lobotomy", "Olanzapine/fluoxetine", "nausea", "Eli Lilly and Company", "Torsades de Pointes", "Prothipendyl", "Acepromazine", "psilocybin", "Pseudoparkinsonism", "5-HT2C", "Paradoxical reaction", "fluoxetine", "cardiomyopathy", "List of long term side effects of antipsychotics", "wikt:νεῦρον", "Thioproperazine", "white matter", "typical antipsychotic", "antidepressant", "risperidone", "obsessive–compulsive disorder", "5-HT2C receptor", "Cognitive dysfunction", "Carpipramine", "Akathisia", "Mesoridazine", "placebo", "neutropenia", "Tardive dyskinesia", "DSM-5", "CYP3A4", "World Health Organization", "5-HT1A receptor", "Cariprazine", "Clinical Commissioning Group", "Conditioned avoidance response test", "unipolar depression", "Myocardial infarction", "nigrostriatal pathway", "Promethazine", "outpatient commitment", "Clopenthixol", "chlorpromazine", "Iloperidone", "eating disorder", "Bromperidol", "Aripiprazole", "Psychotic depression", "functional selectivity", "lactotroph", "Therapeutic Goods Administration", "sedative", "Cyamemazine", "receptor antagonist", "Tiapride", "WebMD", "death", "asenapine", "Triflupromazine", "Hyperprolactinaemia" ]
2,871	Akita	is a Japanese name and may refer to: == Places == Akita Prefecture, region in northeastern Japan Akita (city), capital city of the prefecture Akita Station, railway station in the city of Akita Port of Akita, seaport on the Sea of Japan coast in the city of Akita Akita Domain, also known as Kubota Domain, feudal domain in Edo period Japan Akita, Kumamoto, former town in southwestern Japan 8182 Akita, main-belt asteroid == People == Akita clan, Japanese samurai clan of northern Honshū Akita (surname), people with the surname ==Art, entertainment, and media== Akita (Ninjago), character in the animated series Ninjago == Other uses == Akita (dog), large spitz breed from the mountainous regions of northern Japan	[ "Akita (surname)", "Akita Domain", "Port of Akita", "Akita (dog)", "Akita (city)", "Akita Prefecture", "Akita (Ninjago)", "Akita clan", "Akita Station", "8182 Akita", "Akita, Kumamoto" ]
2,875	Archduke Charles, Duke of Teschen	Archduke Charles Louis John Joseph Lawrence of Austria, Duke of Teschen (; 5 September 177130 April 1847) was an Austrian field-marshal, the third son of Emperor Leopold II and his wife, Maria Luisa of Spain. He was also the younger brother of Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor. He was epileptic, but achieved respect both as a commander and as a reformer of the Austrian army. He was considered one of Napoleon's most formidable opponents and one of the greatest generals of the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars. He began his career fighting the revolutionary armies of France. Early in the wars of the First Coalition, he saw victory at Neerwinden in 1793, before being defeated at Wattignies in 1793 and Fleurus in 1794. In 1796, as chief of all Austrian forces on the Rhine, Charles defeated Jean-Baptiste Jourdan at Amberg, Würzburg and Limburg, and then won victories at Wetzlar, Emmendingen and Schliengen that forced Jean Victor Marie Moreau to withdraw across the Rhine. He also defeated opponents at Zürich, Ostrach, Stockach, and Mannheim in 1799. He reformed Austria's armies to adopt the nation-at-arms principle. In 1809, he entered the War of the Fifth Coalition and inflicted Napoleon's first major setback at Aspern-Essling, before suffering a defeat at the bloody Battle of Wagram. After Wagram, Charles saw no more significant action in the Napoleonic Wars. As a military strategist, Charles was able to successfully execute complex and risky manoeuvres of troops. However, his contemporary Carl von Clausewitz criticised his rigidity and adherence to "geographic" strategy. Many Austrians nevertheless remember Charles as a hero of the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars. ==Youth and early career== Charles was born in Florence, Tuscany. His father, then Grand Duke of Tuscany, generously permitted Charles's childless aunt Archduchess Maria Christina of Austria and her husband Albert of Saxe-Teschen to adopt and raise the boy in Vienna. Charles spent his youth in Tuscany, at Vienna and in the Austrian Netherlands, where he began his career of military service in the wars of the French Revolution. He commanded a brigade at the Battle of Jemappes (1792), and in the campaign of 1793 distinguished himself at the Action of Aldenhoven and the Battle of Neerwinden. In this year he became Governor of the Habsburg Netherlands, an office he lost with the occupation of the Low Countries by the French revolutionaries in 1794. The year he became Governor he also received the army rank of lieutenant field marshal. Shortly thereafter another promotion saw him made Feldzeugmeister (equivalent of Lieutenant General). In the remainder of the war in the Low Countries he held high commands, and was present at the Battle of Fleurus (1794). In 1795 he served on the Rhine, and in the following year, he was entrusted with chief control of all the Austrian forces on that river. His conduct of the operations against Jourdan and Moreau in 1796 marked him out at once as one of the greatest generals in Europe. At first, falling back carefully and avoiding a decision, he finally marched away, leaving a mere screen in front of Moreau. Falling upon Jourdan, he beat him in the battles of Amberg (August), Würzburg and Limburg (September), and drove him over the Rhine with great loss. He then turned upon Moreau's army, which he defeated and forced out of Germany after the battles of Wetzlar, Emmendingen and Schliengen. ==Napoleonic Wars== In 1797 he was sent to arrest the victorious march of General Bonaparte in Italy, and he conducted the retreat of the over-matched Austrians with the highest skill. In the campaign of 1799 he once more opposed Jourdan, whom he defeated in the battles of Ostrach and Stockach, following up his success by invading Switzerland and defeating Masséna in the First Battle of Zurich, after which he re-entered Germany and drove the French once more over the Rhine after winning at Mannheim in 1799. Ill-health, however, forced him to retire to Bohemia, but he was soon recalled to undertake the task of checking Moreau's advance on Vienna. The result of the Battle of Hohenlinden had, however, doomed the attempt, and the archduke had to make the armistice of Steyr. His popularity was now such that the Perpetual Diet of Regensburg, which met in 1802, resolved to erect a statue in his honour and to give him the title of saviour of his country, but Charles refused both distinctions. In the short and disastrous war of 1805 Archduke Charles commanded what was intended to be the main army in Italy, but events made Germany the decisive theatre of operations; Austria sustained defeat on the Danube, and the archduke was defeated by Massena in the Battle of Caldiero. With the conclusion of peace he began his active work of army reorganisation, which was first tested on the field in 1809. In 1806 Francis II (now Francis I of Austria) named the Archduke Charles, already a field marshal, as Commander in Chief of the Austrian army and Head of the Council of War. Supported by the prestige of being the only general who had proved capable of defeating the French, he promptly initiated a far-reaching scheme of reform, which replaced the obsolete methods of the 18th century. The chief characteristics of the new order were the adoption of the nation in arms principle and the adoption of French war organization and tactics. The army reforms were not yet completed by the war of 1809, in which Charles acted as commander in chief, yet even so it proved a far more formidable opponent than the old and was only defeated after a desperate struggle involving Austrian victories and large loss of life on both sides. Its initial successes were neutralised by the reverses of Abensberg, Landshut and Eckmühl but, after the evacuation of Vienna, the archduke won a strong victory at the Battle of Aspern-Essling but soon afterwards lost at the Battle of Wagram after heavy casualties on both sides. At the end of the campaign the archduke gave up all his military offices. In 1808, when Napoleon had crowned his brother Joseph king of Spain, Archduke Charles had said to his brother, Emperor Francis II, "Now we know what Napoleon wants – he wants everything". ==Later life== When Austria joined the ranks of the allies during the War of the Sixth Coalition, Charles was not given a command and the post of commander-in-chief of the allied Army of Bohemia went to the Prince of Schwarzenberg. Charles spent the rest of his life in retirement, except for a short time in 1815 when he was military governor of the Fortress Mainz. In 1822 he succeeded to the duchy of Saxe-Teschen. In 1830 Charles was a candidate for the throne of Belgium. On 15 September/17 September 1815 in Weilburg, Charles married Princess Henrietta of Nassau-Weilburg (1797–1829). She was a daughter of Frederick William of Nassau-Weilburg (1768–1816) and his wife Burgravine Louise Isabelle of Kirchberg. Charles died at Vienna on 30 April 1847. He is buried in tomb 122 in the New Vault of the Imperial Crypt in Vienna. An equestrian statue was erected to his memory on the Heldenplatz in Vienna in 1860. ==Assessment of his achievements== The caution which the archduke preached so earnestly in his strategic works, he displayed in practice only when the situation seemed to demand it, although his education certainly prejudiced him in favor of the defensive at all costs. He was at the same time capable of forming and executing the most daring offensive strategy, and his tactical skill in the handling of troops, whether in wide turning movements, as at Würzburg and Zürich, or in masses, as at Aspern and Wagram, was certainly equal to that of most leaders of his time, with only a few exceptions. Arthur Wellesley named Charles as the greatest general of his time. Charles was arguably the best commander ever produced by the House of Habsburg, and undoubtedly the most able Habsburg general of the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic era. Archduke Charles is credited with handing Napoleon his first major defeat. He has been described as the best general Republican France ever fought, with the exception of Alexander Suvorov. According to the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition, his campaign of 1796 is considered almost faultless. That he sustained defeat in 1809 was due in part to the great numerical superiority of the French and their allies, and in part to the condition of his newly reorganized troops. His six weeks' inaction after the victory of Aspern is, however, open to unfavorable criticism. As a military writer, his position in the evolution of the art of war is very important, and his doctrines had naturally the greatest weight. Nevertheless, they cannot but be considered antiquated even in 1806. Caution and the importance of strategic points are the chief features of his system. The rigidity of his geographical strategy may be gathered from the prescription that "this principle is never to be departed from." Again and again he repeated the advice that nothing should be hazarded unless one's army is completely secure, a rule which he himself neglected with such brilliant results in 1796. Strategic points, he says, not the defeat of the enemy's army, decide the fate of one's own country, and must constantly remain the general's main concern, a maxim which was never more remarkably disproved than in the war of 1809. The editor of the archduke's work is able to make but a feeble defense against Clausewitz's reproach that Charles attached more value to ground than to the annihilation of the foe. In his tactical writings the same spirit is conspicuous. His reserve in battle is designed to "cover a retreat." The baneful influence of these antiquated principles was clearly shown in the maintenance of Königgrätz-Josefstadt in 1866 as a strategic point, which was preferred to the defeat of the separated Prussian armies, and in the strange plans produced in Vienna for the campaign of 1859, and in the almost unintelligible Battle of Montebello in the same year. The theory and the practice of Archduke Charles form one of the most curious contrasts in military history. In the one he is unreal, in the other he displayed, along with the greatest skill, a vivid activity which made him for long the most formidable opponent of Napoleon. He was the 831st Knight of the Order of the Golden Fleece in Austria. ===Creation of the Austrian staff=== When Karl Mack von Leiberich became chief of staff of the army under Prince Josias of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld in the Netherlands, he issued the Instruktionspunkte fur die gesamte Herren Generals, the last of 19 points setting out the roles of staff officers, dealing with offensive and defensive operations, while helping the Commander-in-chief. In 1796, Archduke Charles augmented these with his own Observationspunkte, writing of the Chief of Staff: "he is duty bound to consider all possibilities related to operations and not view himself as merely carrying out those instructions". On 20 March 1801, Feldmarschalleutnant Duka became the world's first peacetime Generalquartiermeister at the head of the staff and the wartime role of the Chief of Staff was now focused on planning and operations to assist the Commander. Archduke Charles produced a new Dienstvorschrift on 1 September 1805, which divided the staff into three: 1) Political Correspondence; 2) the Operations Directorate, dealing with planning and intelligence; 3) the Service Directorate, dealing with administration, supply and military justice. The Archduke set out the position of a modern Chief of Staff: "The Chief of Staff stands at the side of the Commander-in-Chief and is completely at his disposal. His sphere of work connects him with no specific unit". "The Commander-in-Chief decides what should happen and how; his chief assistant works out these decisions, so that each subordinate understands his allotted task". With the creation of the Korps in 1809, each had a staff, whose chief was responsible for directing operations and executing the overall headquarters plan. ==Issue== ==Honours== ==Ancestry== ==Works== Grundsätze der Kriegskunst für die Generale (1806) Grundsätze der Strategie erläutert durch die Darstellung des Feldzugs 1796 (1814) Geschichte des Feldzugs von 1799 in Deutschland und in der Schweiz (1819)	[ "Duke of Teschen", "Legion of Honour", "Catholic Church", "Knight", "Archduke Albert, Duke of Teschen", "Battle of Caldiero (1805)", "Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor", "Army of Bohemia", "France", "Tuscany", "Archduchess Maria Karoline of Austria (1825-1915)", "Order of the Southern Cross", "Imperial Army of the Holy Roman Emperor", "Thomas Lawrence", "Grand Duchy of Tuscany", "Maria Christina, Duchess of Teschen", "Anton Einsle", "Battle of Theiningen", "Archduke Rainer Joseph of Austria", "armistice of Steyr", "Archduke Wilhelm Franz of Austria (1827-1894)", "First Battle of Zürich", "Battle of Ostrach", "Battle of Aldenhoven (1793)", "Prince Josias of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld", "Field Marshal (Germany)", "Burgravine Louise Isabelle of Kirchberg", "Prince Albert of Saxony, Duke of Teschen", "Helvetic Republic", "Battle of Wagram", "Johann Peter Krafft", "Battle of Schliengen", "Archduke Frederick Ferdinand of Austria", "Archduke Karl Ferdinand of Austria", "Order of Saint Hubert", "Charles III of Spain", "War of the Fifth Coalition", "Battle of Neresheim", "military campaign", "Leopold, Duke of Lorraine", "Elisabeth Farnese", "French Revolutionary Wars", "Battle of Verona (1805)", "Kingdom of Bohemia", "Napoleon's", "Feldzeugmeister", "Low Countries", "Council of War (Austria)", "Archduke Rainer Ferdinand of Austria", "archduke", "Battle of Stockach (1799)", "Ferdinand II of the Two Sicilies", "Battle of Montebello (1859)", "Kingdom of Belgium", "Battle of Königgrätz", "Order of St. Alexander Nevsky", "Karl Philipp, Prince of Schwarzenberg", "Battle of Znaim", "Augustus III of Poland", "Battle of Limburg (1796)", "epilepsy", "Battle of Amberg", "Archduke Anton Victor of Austria", "Order of the Red Eagle", "House of Habsburg-Lorraine", "Battle of Mannheim (1799)", "lieutenant field marshal", "Austrian Empire", "Napoleon", "Archduke Maximilian Franz of Austria", "Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington", "List of governors of the Habsburg Netherlands", "Battle of Würzburg", "Battle of Teugen-Hausen", "House of Habsburg", "Order of Saint Ferdinand and of Merit", "Maria Amalia of Saxony", "Maria Theresa", "Archduchess Maria Karoline of Austria", "Order of the Black Eagle", "Maria Louisa of Spain", "Kingdom of Prussia", "Henrietta of Nassau-Weilburg", "Perpetual Diet of Regensburg", "Military Order of Maria Theresa", "Battle of Eckmühl", "Order of the White Eagle (Russia)", "Heldenplatz", "Maria Theresa of Austria (1816–1867)", "Battle of Wetzlar (1796)", "Archduchess Elisabeth Franziska of Austria", "Battle of Landshut (1809)", "Archduke Albrecht, Duke of Teschen", "House of Lorraine", "Order of Saint Januarius", "Battle of Neerwinden (1793)", "Order of the Bath", "Austrians", "List of Governors of the Habsburg Netherlands", "Battle of Aldenhoven (1794)", "Emperor Leopold II", "Jean Victor Marie Moreau", "Archduke Friedrich of Austria (1821–1847)", "Imperial Crypt", "Imperial Crypt Vaults", "Archduke Wilhelm Franz of Austria", "Battle of Wattignies", "Alexander Suvorov", "Battle of Fleurus (1794)", "Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor", "Battle of Aspern-Essling", "Order of the Golden Fleece", "Lieutenant Field Marshal", "War of the Second Coalition", "Battle of Abensberg", "French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars", "Order of Saint Joseph", "Battle of Valvasone", "Maria Theresa of Austria (1816-1867)", "Napoleonic Wars", "Battle of Jemappes", "Karl Mack von Leiberich", "Elisabeth Christine of Brunswick", "Battle of Ratisbon", "Albert of Saxe-Teschen", "Battle of Tarvis (1797)", "Francis I, Holy Roman Emperor", "Maria Luisa of Spain", "Fortress Mainz", "Élisabeth Charlotte of Orléans", "Albert Casimir, Duke of Teschen", "Order of St. Andrew", "War of the Third Coalition", "War of the Sixth Coalition", "Weilburg", "French First Republic", "Battle of Hohenlinden", "Teutonic Knights", "Florence", "Imperial and Royal Army during the Napoleonic Wars", "Maria Josepha of Austria", "Rhine", "Danube", "Maxim (philosophy)", "Princess Hildegard of Bavaria", "Battle of Ettlingen", "Philip V of Spain", "War of the First Coalition", "Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor", "Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition", "First Battle of Zurich", "Order of St. Anna", "Battle of Emmendingen", "Carl von Clausewitz", "André Masséna", "Frederick William of Nassau-Weilburg", "Jean-Baptiste Jourdan", "Vienna", "Battle of Kehl (1796)" ]
2,877	Augustine of Canterbury	Augustine of Canterbury (early 6th century – most likely 26 May 604) was a Christian monk who became the first archbishop of Canterbury in the year 597. He is considered the "Apostle to the English". Augustine was the prior of a monastery in Rome when Pope Gregory the Great chose him in 595 to lead a mission, usually known as the Gregorian mission, to Britain to Christianize King Æthelberht and his Kingdom of Kent from Anglo-Saxon paganism. Kent was likely chosen because Æthelberht commanded major influence over neighbouring Anglo-Saxon kingdoms in addition to his marriage to Bertha, a Frankish princess, who was expected to exert some influence over her husband. Before reaching Kent, the missionaries had considered turning back, but Gregory urged them on, and in 597, Augustine landed on the Isle of Thanet and proceeded to Æthelberht's main town of Canterbury. King Æthelberht converted to Christianity and allowed the missionaries to preach freely, giving them land to found a monastery outside the city walls. Augustine was consecrated as a bishop and converted many of the king's subjects, including thousands during a mass baptism on Christmas Day in 597. Pope Gregory sent more missionaries in 601, along with encouraging letters and gifts for the churches, although attempts to persuade the native British bishops to submit to Augustine's authority failed. Roman bishops were established at London, and Rochester in 604, and a school was founded to train Anglo-Saxon priests and missionaries. Augustine also arranged the consecration of his successor, Laurence of Canterbury. The archbishop probably died in 604 and was soon revered as a saint. == Background to the mission == After the withdrawal of the Roman legions from their province of Britannia in 410, the inhabitants were left to defend themselves against the attacks of the Saxons. Before the Roman withdrawal, Britannia had been converted to Christianity and produced the ascetic Pelagius. Material remains testify to a growing presence of Christians, at least until around 360. After the Roman legions departed, pagan tribes settled the southern parts of the island while western Britain, beyond the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, remained Christian. This native British Church developed in isolation from Rome under the influence of missionaries from Ireland Evidence for the survival of Christianity in the eastern part of Britain during this time includes the survival of the cult of Saint Alban and the occurrence in place names of eccles, derived from the Latin ecclesia, meaning "church". There is no evidence that these native Christians tried to convert the Anglo-Saxons. The invasions destroyed most remnants of Roman civilisation in the areas held by the Saxons and related tribes, including the economic and religious structures. It was against this background that Pope Gregory I decided to send a mission, often called the Gregorian mission, to convert the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity in 595. The Kingdom of Kent was ruled by Æthelberht, who had married a Christian princess named Bertha before 588, and perhaps earlier than 560. Bertha was the daughter of Charibert I, one of the Merovingian kings of the Franks. As one of the conditions of her marriage, she brought a bishop named Liudhard with her to Kent. Together in Canterbury, they restored a church that dated to Roman timespossibly the current St Martin's Church. Æthelberht was a pagan at this point but allowed his wife freedom of worship. One biographer of Bertha states that under his wife's influence, Æthelberht asked Pope Gregory to send missionaries. Other historians, however, believe that Gregory initiated the mission, although the exact reasons remain unclear. Bede, an 8th-century monk who wrote a history of the English church, recorded a famous story in which Gregory saw fair-haired Saxon slaves from Britain in the Roman slave market and was inspired to try to convert their people. More practical matters, such as the acquisition of new provinces acknowledging the primacy of the papacy, and a desire to influence the emerging power of the Kentish kingdom under Æthelberht, were probably involved. Aside from Æthelberht's granting of freedom of worship to his wife, the choice of Kent was probably dictated by a number of other factors. Kent was the dominant power in southeastern Britain. Since the eclipse of King Ceawlin of Wessex in 592, Æthelberht was the bretwalda, or leading Anglo-Saxon ruler; Bede refers to Æthelberht as having imperium (overlordship) south of the River Humber. Trade between the Franks and Æthelberht's kingdom was well established, and the language barrier between the two regions was apparently only a minor obstacle, as the interpreters for the mission came from the Franks. Lastly, Kent's proximity to the Franks allowed support from a Christian area. There is some evidence, including Gregory's letters to Frankish kings in support of the mission, that some of the Franks felt that they had a claim to overlordship over some of the southern British kingdoms at this time. The presence of a Frankish bishop could also have lent credence to claims of overlordship, if Bertha's Bishop Liudhard was felt to be acting as a representative of the Frankish church and not merely as a spiritual advisor to the queen. Frankish influence was not merely political; archaeological remains attest to a cultural influence as well. In 595, Gregory chose Augustine, who was the prior of the Abbey of St Andrew in Rome, to head the mission to Kent. By soliciting help from the Frankish kings and bishops, Gregory helped to assure a friendly reception for Augustine in Kent, as Æthelbert was unlikely to mistreat a mission which visibly had the support of his wife's relatives and people. Moreover, the Franks appreciated the chance to participate in mission that would extend their influence in Kent. Chlothar, in particular, needed a friendly realm across the Channel to help guard his kingdom's flanks against his fellow Frankish kings. Sources make no mention of why Pope Gregory chose a monk to head the mission. Pope Gregory once wrote to Æthelberht complimenting Augustine's knowledge of the Bible, so Augustine was evidently well educated. Other qualifications included administrative ability, for Gregory was the abbot of St Andrews as well as being pope, which left the day-to-day running of the abbey to Augustine, the prior. == Arrival and first efforts == Augustine was accompanied by Laurence of Canterbury, his eventual successor to the archbishopric, and a group of about 40 companions, some of whom were monks. In 597, Augustine and his companions landed in Kent. but it probably took place in 597. Against a date in 597 is a letter of Gregory's to Patriarch Eulogius of Alexandria in June 598, which mentions the number of converts made by Augustine, but does not mention any baptism of the king. However, it is clear that by 601 the king had been converted. His baptism likely took place at Canterbury. Augustine established his episcopal see at Canterbury. The historian R. A. Markus discusses the various theories of when and where Augustine was consecrated, and suggests he was consecrated before arriving in England, but argues the evidence does not permit deciding exactly where this took place. Soon after his arrival, Augustine founded the monastery of Saints Peter and Paul, which later became St Augustine's Abbey, In a letter Gregory wrote to the patriarch of Alexandria in 598, he claimed that more than 10,000 Christians had been baptised; the number may be exaggerated but there is no reason to doubt that a mass conversion took place. One other effect of the king's conversion by Augustine's mission was that the Frankish influence on the southern kingdoms of Britain was decreased. After these conversions, Augustine sent Laurence back to Rome with a report of his success, along with questions about the mission. Bede records the letter and Gregory's replies in chapter 27 of his Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum; this section of the History is usually known as the Libellus responsionum. Further missionaries were sent from Rome in 601. They brought a pallium for Augustine and a present of sacred vessels, vestments, relics, and books. The pallium was the symbol of metropolitan status, and signified that Augustine was now an archbishop unambiguously associated with the Holy See. Along with the pallium, a letter from Gregory directed the new archbishop to consecrate 12 suffragan bishops as soon as possible and to send a bishop to York. Gregory's plan was that there would be two metropolitans, one at York and one at London, with 12 suffragan bishops under each archbishop. As part of this plan, Augustine was expected to transfer his archiepiscopal see to London from Canterbury. This move never happened; no contemporary sources give the reason, but it was probably because London was not part of Æthelberht's domains. Instead, London was part of the kingdom of Essex, ruled by Æthelberht's nephew Saebert of Essex, who converted to Christianity in 604. The historian S. Brechter has suggested that the metropolitan see was indeed moved to London, and that it was only with the abandonment of London as a see after the death of Æthelberht that Canterbury became the archiepiscopal see. This theory contradicts Bede's version of events, however. == Additional work == In 604, Augustine founded two more bishoprics in Britain. Two men who had come to Britain with him in 601 were consecrated, Mellitus as Bishop of London and Justus as Bishop of Rochester. Bede relates that Augustine, with the help of the king, "recovered" a church built by Roman Christians in Canterbury. The Latin word recuperauit could be translated either "repaired" or "recovered". Leo Sherley-Price translates the sentence as "Having been granted his episcopal see in the royal capital, as already recorded, Augustine proceeded with the king's help to repair a church he was informed had been built long ago by Roman Christians."}} It is not clear if Bede meant that Augustine rebuilt the church or that Augustine merely reconsecrated a building that had been used for pagan worship. Archaeological evidence seems to support the latter interpretation; in 1973 the remains of an aisled building dating from the Romano-British period were uncovered just south of the present Canterbury Cathedral. The historian Ian Wood argues that the existence of the Libellus points to more contact between Augustine and the native Christians because the topics covered in the work are not restricted to conversion from paganism, but also dealt with relations between differing styles of Christianity. Augustine failed to extend his authority to the Christians in Wales and Dumnonia to the west. Gregory had decreed that these Christians should submit to Augustine and that their bishops should obey him, apparently believing that more of the Roman governmental and ecclesiastical organisation survived in Britain than was actually the case. According to the narrative of Bede, the Britons in these regions viewed Augustine with uncertainty, and their suspicion was compounded by a diplomatic misjudgement on Augustine's part. In 603, Augustine and Æthelberht summoned the British bishops to a meeting south of the Severn. These guests retired early to confer with their people, they refused to recognise him as their archbishop. Also, there were political dimensions involved, as Augustine's efforts were sponsored by the Kentish king, and at this period the Wessex and Mercian kingdoms were expanding to the west, into areas held by the Britons. == Further success == Gregory also instructed Augustine on other matters. Temples were to be consecrated for Christian use, and feasts, if possible, moved to days celebrating Christian martyrs. One religious site was revealed to be a shrine of a local St Sixtus, whose worshippers were unaware of details of the martyr's life or death. They may have been native Christians, but Augustine did not treat them as such. When Gregory was informed, he told Augustine to stop the cult and use the shrine for the Roman St Sixtus. Gregory legislated on the behaviour of the laity and the clergy. He placed the new mission directly under papal authority and made it clear that English bishops would have no authority over Frankish counterparts nor vice versa. Other directives dealt with the training of native clergy and the missionaries' conduct. The King's School, Canterbury claims Augustine as its founder, which would make it the world's oldest existing school, but the first documentary records of the school date from the 16th century. Augustine did establish a school, and soon after his death Canterbury was able to send teachers out to support the East Anglian mission. Augustine received liturgical books from the pope, but their exact contents are unknown. They may have been some of the new mass books that were being written at this time. The exact liturgy that Augustine introduced to England remains unknown, but it would have been a form of the Latin language liturgy in use at Rome. == Death and legacy == Before his death, Augustine consecrated Laurence of Canterbury as his successor to the archbishopric, probably to ensure an orderly transfer of office. Although at the time of Augustine's death, 26 May 604, Much of his success came about because of Augustine's close relationship with Æthelberht, which gave the archbishop time to establish himself. Augustine's example also influenced the great missionary efforts of the Anglo-Saxon Church. Augustine's body was originally buried in the portico of what is now St Augustine's, Canterbury, King Henry I of England granted St. Augustine's Abbey a six-day fair around the date on which Augustine's relics were translated to his new shrine, from 8 September through 13 September. A life of Augustine was written by Goscelin around 1090, but this life portrays Augustine in a different light, compared to Bede's account. Goscelin's account has little new historical content, mainly being filled with miracles and imagined speeches. Building on this account, later medieval writers continued to add new miracles and stories to Augustine's life, often quite fanciful. These authors included William of Malmesbury, who claimed that Augustine founded Cerne Abbey, the author (generally believed to be John Brompton) of a late medieval chronicle containing invented letters from Augustine, and a number of medieval writers who included Augustine in their romances. Another problem with investigating Augustine's saintly cult is the confusion resulting because most medieval liturgical documents mentioning Augustine do not distinguish between Augustine of Canterbury and Augustine of Hippo, a fourth-century saint. Medieval Scandinavian liturgies feature Augustine of Canterbury quite often, however. During the English Reformation, Augustine's shrine was destroyed and his relics were lost. Augustine's shrine was re-established in March 2012 at the church of St. Augustine in Ramsgate, Kent, very close to the mission's landing site. St Augustine's Cross, a Celtic cross erected in 1884, marks the spot in Ebbsfleet, Thanet, East Kent, where the newly arrived Augustine is said to have first met and preached to the awaiting King Ethelbert.	[ "Catholic Church", "Gregory the Great", "Eastern Orthodox Church", "Chlothar II", "Norman conquest of England", "Pope Gregory I", "Augustine of Hippo", "Gregorian mission", "Liudhard", "Theudebert II", "Cerne Abbey", "tonsure", "Hambledon Press", "Rochester, Kent", "Celtic cross", "Bishop of Rochester", "Ramsgate", "monastery", "St Augustine's Cross", "Saebert of Essex", "Ian N. Wood", "consecration", "Brunhilda of Austrasia", "Translation (relics)", "Bertha of Kent", "pallium", "shrine", "St Martin's Church, Canterbury", "Anglo-Saxons", "kingdom of Essex", "British Library", "Late Middle Ages", "Cotton library", "Journal of Ecclesiastical History", "Easter", "Christianization", "Saint Petersburg Bede", "Leo Sherley-Price", "Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum", "ascetic", "Paul the Apostle", "Saint Alban", "Pentecost", "San Gregorio Magno al Celio", "Arles", "Bible", "List of members of the Gregorian mission", "Society of Archivists", "Metropolitan bishop", "patriarch of Alexandria", "Saint Peter", "Heptarchy", "language barrier", "St Augustine's Abbey", "Bretwalda", "Roman Empire", "Bede", "Mellitus", "Canterbury", "Neustria", "Eulogius of Alexandria", "East Kent", "Saint", "Ætherius", "Libellus responsionum", "Richard I of England", "Henry I of England", "St Augustine's Church, Ramsgate", "Bishop of London", "Romance (heroic literature)", "Anglicanism", "Lombards", "archbishop", "Roman Gaul", "Kingdom of Kent", "imperium", "Corpus Christi College, Cambridge", "Pope Sixtus II", "Arian", "episcopal see", "Prior (ecclesiastical)", "relic", "Æthelberht of Kent", "Christianity", "Laurence of Canterbury", "Roman Britain", "Dumnonia", "Isle of Thanet", "liturgical book", "Canterbury Cathedral", "Theuderic II", "John Brompton", "Norman Conquest", "Christmas", "Archbishop of Canterbury", "Goscelin", "Stanford University Press", "Celtic Christianity", "Norse activity in the British Isles", "Pugin's Church and Shrine of St Augustine", "Synod of Arles (314)", "archbishop of Canterbury", "Latin", "fair", "Pre-congregation", "English Reformation", "Early Middle Ages", "Merovingian", "bretwalda", "Charibert I", "Speculum (journal)", "East Anglia", "6th century in England", "Gospel Book", "Ceawlin of Wessex", "Roman legion", "Burgundy", "Austrasia", "Thomas Elmham", "Humber", "William of Malmesbury", "Pelagius", "Ebbsfleet, Thanet", "vestment", "York", "Saxons", "The King's School, Canterbury", "Justus", "Italian Peninsula", "bishop", "St Augustine Gospels", "Romano-British", "saint", "Anglo-Saxon paganism", "Franks", "suffragan bishop", "Rome" ]
2,881	Alexander of Hales	Alexander of Hales (also Halensis, Alensis, Halesius, Alesius ; 21 August 1245)—known also as , or "Irrefutable Teacher" (so-called by Pope Alexander IV in the bull ), and as (or "King of Theologians")—was a Franciscan friar, theologian, and philosopher instrumental to the development of scholasticism. ==Life== Alexander was born at Hales, Shropshire (today Halesowen, West Midlands), England, between 1180 and 1186. He came from a rather wealthy country family, studied at the University of Paris, and became a master of arts sometime before 1210. He began to read theology in 1212 or 1213, and became a regent master in 1220 or 1221. He introduced the Sentences of Peter Lombard as the basic textbook for the study of theology. During the University strike of 1229, Alexander participated in an embassy to Rome to discuss the place of Aristotle in the curriculum. Having held a prebend at Holborn (prior to 1229) and a canonry of St. Paul's in London (1226–1229), he visited England in 1230 and received a canonry and an archdeaconry in Coventry and Lichfield, his native diocese. He taught at Paris in the academic year 1232–33, but was appointed to a delegation by Henry III of England in 1235, along with Simon Langton and Fulk Basset, to negotiate the renewal of the peace between England and France. In 1236 or 1237, aged about 50, Alexander entered the Franciscan Order after considering both the Cistercians and the Dominicans. He thus became the first Franciscan friar to hold a university chair. His doctrinal positions became the starting point of the Franciscan school of theology. He continued to teach and to represent the university, and participated in the First Council of Lyon in the winter of 1245. After returning to Paris, Alexander fell ill, possibly due to an epidemic then sweeping the city. He passed his chair on to John of La Rochelle, setting the precedent for that chair to be held by a Franciscan, and soon after died in Paris on 21 August 1245. As the first Franciscan to hold a chair at the University of Paris, Alexander had many significant disciples. He was called Doctor Irrefragibilis (Irrefutable Teacher) and Doctor Doctorum (Teacher of Teachers). The latter title is especially suggestive of his role in educating several Franciscans who later became influential thinkers in the faculty, among them Bonaventure, John of La Rochelle, Odo Rigaldus, William of Middleton, and Richard Rufus of Cornwall. Bonaventure, who may not have studied under Alexander directly, nevertheless referred to him as his "father and master" and wished to "follow in his footsteps." ==Works== Alexander is known for reflecting the works of several other Middle Age thinkers, especially those of Anselm of Canterbury and Augustine of Hippo. He was also known to quote thinkers such as Bernard of Clairvaux and Richard of Saint-Victor. He differs from those in his genre as he is known to reflect his own interests and those of his generation. When using the works of his authorities, Alexander does not only review their reasoning but also gives conclusions, expands on them, and offers his agreements and disagreement with them. He also differed in that he appealed to pre-Lombardian figures, and by referencing Anselm of Canterbury and Bernard of Clairvaux, whose works were not cited as frequently by other 12th-century scholastics. Aristotle is also quite frequently quoted in Alexander's works. Alexander was fascinated by the Pseudo-Dionysian hierarchy of angels and in how their nature can be understood, given Aristotelian metaphysics. Among the doctrines which were specially developed and, so to speak, fixed by Alexander of Hales, are the thesaurus supererogationis perfectorum (treasury of supererogatory merits) and the character indelibilis (sacramental character) of baptism, confirmation, and ordination. That doctrine had been written about much earlier by Augustine and was eventually defined a dogma by the Council of Trent. He also posed an important question about the cause of the Incarnation: would Christ have been incarnated if humanity had never sinned? The question eventually became the focal point for a philosophical issue (the theory of possible worlds) and a theological topic on the distinction between God's absolute power (potentia absoluta) and His ordained power (potentia ordinata). ===Summa Universae Theologiae=== Alexander wrote a summary and commentary of Peter Lombard's four books of the Sentences. It had exposed the trinitarian theology of the Greeks. This had been the most important writing that Alexander had claimed, and it had been the earliest in the genre. While it is common for scholars to state that Alexander was the first to write a commentary on the Sentences of Peter Lombard, it is not quite accurate. Authorship is more contentious for this work; although he started this work, he died before it could be finished, and it most likely was more a product of people other than Alexander. There were a number of "commentaries" on the Sentences, but Alexander's appears to have been the first magisterial commentary. Although it was Alexander's most significant writing, it had not been completed, therefore leaving historians with many questions on the reliability and quality of the writing. This was taken into consideration when the Summa had been examined by Victorin Doucet for different editions of them. The sources has seem to be the resulting problem of the Summa, "counted there were 4814 explicit quotations and 1372 implicit quotations from Augustine, more than one quarter of texts were cited in the body of the Summa. Of Alexander's Summa, which was on one occasion proclaimed by an assembly of seventy doctors to be infallible, Roger Bacon declared that, though it was as heavy as the weight of a horse, it was full of errors and displayed ignorance of physics, of metaphysics, and even of logic. ===Other historical works=== Alexander also influenced and sometimes is confused with Alexander Carpenter, Latinized as Fabricius (fl. 1429), who was the author of the Destructorium viciorum, a religious work popular in the 15th and 16th centuries. Carpenter also authored other works, such as Homiliae eruditae ("Learned Sermons"). ==Historiographical contribution== Alexander was said to have been among the earliest scholastics to engage with Aristotle's newly translated writings. Between 1220 and 1227, he wrote Glossa in quatuor libros Sententiarum Petri Lombardi (A Gloss on the Four Books of the Sentences of Peter Lombard) (composed in the mid-12th century), which was particularly important because it was the first time that a book other than the Bible was used as a basic text for theological study. This steered the development of scholasticism in a more systematic direction, inaugurating an important tradition of writing commentaries on the Sentences as a fundamental step in the training of master theologians. ===A medieval scholastic=== In doing so, he elevated Lombard's work from a mere theological resource to the basic framework of questions and problems from which masters could teach. The commentary (or more correctly titled a Gloss) survived in student reports from Alexander's teaching in the classroom and so it provides a major insight into the way theologians taught their discipline in the 1220s. As is the case with Glossa and Quaestiones Disputatae, much of his work is probably written in the form of notes on his oral teachings by students, though the content is definitely his. For his contemporaries, however, Alexander's fame was his inexhaustible interest in disputation. His disputations prior to his becoming a Franciscan cover over 1,600 pages in their modern edition. His disputed questions after 1236 remain unpublished. Alexander was also one of the first scholastics to participate in the Quodlibeta, a university event in which a master had to respond to any question posed by any student or master over a period of three days. Alexander's Quodlibetal Questions also remain unedited. ===Theologian=== At the beginning of 1236, he entered the Franciscan order (he was at least 50) and was the first Franciscan to hold a chair at the University of Paris. He held this post until shortly before his death in Paris in 1245. When he became a Franciscan and thus created a formal Franciscan school of theology at Paris, it was soon clear that his students lacked some of the basic tools for the discipline. Alexander responded by beginning a Summa theologiae that is now known as the Summa fratris Alexandri. Alexander drew mainly from his own disputations, but also selected ideas, arguments and sources from his contemporaries. It treats in its first part the doctrines of God and his attributes; in its second, those of creation and sin; in its third, those of redemption and atonement; and, in its fourth and last, those of the sacraments. This massive text, which Roger Bacon would later sarcastically describe as weighing as much as a horse, was unfinished at his death; his students, William of Middleton and John of Rupella, were charged with its completion. It was certainly read by the Franciscans at Paris, including Bonaventure. Alexander was an innovative theologian. He was part of the generation that first grappled with the writings of Aristotle. While there was a ban on using Aristotle's works as teaching texts, theologians like Alexander continued to exploit his ideas in their theology. Two other uncommon sources were promoted by Alexander: Anselm of Canterbury, whose writings had been ignored for almost a century, gained an important advocate in Alexander and he used Anselm's works extensively in his teaching on Christology and soteriology; and, Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite, whom Alexander used in his examination of the theology of Orders and ecclesiastical structures. Though he also continued the tradition of Aristotle- and Augustine-focused thought in the Franciscan school, he did so through an Anselm-directed lens. In fact, Alexander was one of the major influences for the advancement of Anselmian thought in the 13th century. One such example is the idea of original sin as a lack of justice. Alexander believed that original sin is both a punishment as well as a cause for punishment. That is to say, the body is corrupt, but the soul is clean. Alexander advances the idea that it would not be God's fault to create a being that would bind the ‘corrupt’ with the ‘clean’. He advanced a highly original response that the soul naturally desires the body. Consequently, God is both merciful in giving the soul what it wants, as well as just in punishing the soul for binding with the corrupt flesh. Either the soul knew that the body was corrupt, or it did not (in which case it would be “laboring under ignorance”); both of these considerations are cause for divine punishment. Alexander is also known for rejecting the idea that there are many things in God's mind, instead claiming that it is more perfect to know just one thing. He did not start off with this view, though. In the Glossa, he openly suggests the idea of the multiplicity of divine ideas. In his later work, Quaestio disputata antequam erat Frater 46, he finally rejects the plurality of divine ideas, and this theme continues through the rest of his works. Specifically, in one of his last works, De scientia divina, he concludes that the idea of plurality itself is strictly temporal, a human notion. One of his more famous works, the Summa, is important because of its system for determining if a war is just. There are six requirements for determining this: authority and attitude (in reference to who declares the war), intention and condition (in reference to the soldiers), merit (of the enemy) and just cause. Just cause becomes the overarching moral principle for declaring war in three ways: the relief of good people, coercion of the wicked, and peace for all. It is important to note that Alexander put ‘peace for all’ at the end of the list to amplify its importance. ==Writings== Alexander of Hales. Glossa in quatuor libros sententiarum Petri Lombardi. Edited by the Quaracchi Fathers. Bibliotheca Franciscana scholastica medii aevi, t. 12–15. Rome: Collegii S. Bonaventurae, 1951–1957. Alexander of Hales. Quaestiones disputatae antequam esset frater. Edited by the Quaracchi Fathers. Bibliotheca Franciscana scholastica medii aevi, t. 19–21. Quaracchi: Collegii S. Bonaventurae,1960. Alexander of Hales (attributed). Summa universis theologiae, (Summa fratris Alexandri), edited by Bernardini Klumper and the Quaracchi Fathers, 4 vols. Rome: Collegii S. Bonaventurae, 1924–1948.	[ "regent master", "Just war theory", "Richard of Saint-Victor", "Shropshire", "Quodlibeta", "Holy Orders", "Franciscan friar", "Council of Trent", "John of La Rochelle", "character indelibilis", "George Glover (engraver)", "Scholasticism", "scholasticism", "Augustine of Hippo", "Chronicle of the Twenty-Four Generals of the Order of Friars Minor", "St Paul's Cathedral", "sin", "Atonement in Christianity", "soteriology", "University of Paris", "Metaphysics", "West Midlands (county)", "Arnald of Sarrant", "Sentences", "Alexander Carpenter", "Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge", "Salvation", "Order of Friars Minor", "dogma", "First Council of Lyon", "Incarnation", "God", "Franciscan", "Diocese of Coventry and Lichfield", "Roger Bacon", "sacrament", "Aristotle", "Richard Rufus of Cornwall", "Treasury of merit", "wikt:plurality", "Bernard of Clairvaux", "Pope Alexander IV", "Anselm of Canterbury", "confirmation (sacrament)", "Western philosophy", "metaphysics", "Christology", "Christian theology", "Medieval philosophy", "Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite", "Francis Seymour Stevenson", "1229 University of Paris strike", "Bonaventure", "creation myth", "Halesowen", "Augustine", "baptism", "Odo Rigaud", "Peter Lombard" ]
2,883	Active Server Pages	Active Server Pages (ASP) is Microsoft's first server-side scripting language and engine for dynamic web pages. It was first released in December 1996, before being superseded in January 2002 by ASP.NET. == History == Initially released as an add-on to Internet Information Services (IIS) via the Windows NT 4.0 Option Pack (1996), it is included as a component of Windows Server (since the initial release of Windows 2000 Server). There have been three versions of ASP, each introduced with different versions of IIS: ASP 1.0 was released in December 1996 as part of IIS 3.0 ASP 2.0 was released in September 1997 as part of IIS 4.0 ASP 3.0 was released in November 2000 as part of IIS 5.0 ASP 2.0 provides six built-in objects: Application, ASPError, Request, Response, Server, and Session. A Session object, for example, represents a session that maintains the state of variables from page to page. The Active Scripting engine's support of the Component Object Model enables ASP websites to access functionality in compiled libraries such as dynamic-link libraries. ASP 3.0 does not differ greatly from ASP 2.0 but it does offer some additional enhancements such as Server.Transfer method, Server.Execute method, and an enhanced ASPError object. ASP 3.0 also enables buffering by default and optimized the engine for better performance. ASP was supported until 14 January 2020 on Windows 7. The use of ASP pages will be supported on Windows 8 for a minimum of 10 years from the Windows 8 release date. == Architecture == ASP uses scripting on the server to generate content that is sent to the client's web browser via HTTP response. The ASP interpreter reads and executes all script code between <% and %> tags, the result of which is content generation. These scripts were written using VBScript, JScript, or PerlScript. The @Language directive, the syntax or server configuration can be used to select the language. In the example below, Response.Write Now() is in an HTML page; it would be dynamically replaced by the current time of the server. Web pages with the .asp filename extension use ASP, although some web sites disguise their choice of scripting language for security purposes by using the more common .htm or .html extensions. Pages with the .aspx extension use compiled ASP.NET; however, ASP.NET pages may still include some ASP scripting. The introduction of ASP.NET led to use of the term Classic ASP for the original technology. Sun Java System ASP (formerly ChiliSoft ASP) was a popular and reportedly complete emulator, but it has been discontinued. ===The Server object=== The server object allows connections to databases (ADO), filesystem, and use of components installed on the server. <% Dim oAdoCon, oAdoRec, oAdoStm, oCdoCon, oCdoMsg, oSciDic, oSciFsm, oMswAdr Set oAdoCon = Server.CreateObject("ADODB.Connection") Set oAdoRec = Server.CreateObject("ADODB.Recordset") Set oAdoStm = Server.CreateObject("ADODB.Stream") Set oCdoCon = Server.CreateObject("CDO.Configuration") Set oCdoMsg = Server.CreateObject("CDO.Message") Set oSciDic = Server.CreateObject("Scripting.Dictionary") Set oSciFsm = Server.CreateObject("Scripting.FileSystemObject") Set oMswAdr = Server.CreateObject("MSWC.Swingbridge") %> ===The Application object=== This object stores global variables, which are variables accessible to all users. <% Application("Ali") = "My ASP Application" Response.Write "Welcome to " & Server.HTMLEncode(Application("Ali")) & "!" %> ===The Session object=== Stores variables accessible only to a single visitor, which are local variables. <% If Len(Request.QueryString("name")) > 0 Then Session("name") = Request.QueryString("name") End If Response.Write "Welcome " & Server.HTMLEncode(Session("name")) & "!" %> The session object is file based and multiple concurrent read and/or write requests will be blocked and processed in turn. ===The Err object=== Allows the management and fixing of non-fatal errors. <% On Error Resume Next Response.Write 1 / 0 ' Division by zero If Err.Number 0 Then Response.Write "Error Code: " & Server.HTMLEncode(Err.Number) & "" Response.Write "Error Source: " & Server.HTMLEncode(Err.Source) & "" Response.Write "Error Description: " & Server.HTMLEncode(Err.Description) & "" Err.Clear End If %>	[ "Variable (programming)", "Object (computer science)", "Windows Server", "Common Gateway Interface", "VBScript", "Jakarta Server Pages", "Dynamic-link library", "server-side scripting", "Proprietary software", "Windows NT 4.0", "filename extension", "Comparison of web template engines", "Windows 7", "Session (computer science)", "PHP", "Windows 2000 Server", "Web application framework", "dynamic web page", "Microsoft", "website", "ASP.NET", "PerlScript", "Internet Information Services", "Library (computing)", "Active Scripting", "Component Object Model", "Windows 8", "HTTP Cookie", "Template processor", "HTML", "JScript" ]
2,885	Amoxicillin	Amoxicillin is an antibiotic medication belonging to the aminopenicillin class of the penicillin family. The drug is used to treat bacterial infections Common adverse effects include nausea and rash. It should not be used in those who are allergic to penicillin. Amoxil was approved for medical use in the United States in 1974, It is one of the most commonly prescribed antibiotics in children. Amoxicillin is available as a generic medication. ==Medical uses == Amoxicillin is used in the treatment of a number of infections, including acute otitis media, streptococcal pharyngitis, pneumonia, skin infections, urinary tract infections, Salmonella infections, Lyme disease, and chlamydia infections. ===Acute otitis media=== Children with acute otitis media who are younger than six months of age are generally treated with amoxicillin or other antibiotics. Although most children with acute otitis media who are older than two years old do not benefit from treatment with amoxicillin or other antibiotics, such treatment may be helpful in children younger than two years old with acute otitis media that is bilateral or accompanied by ear drainage. In the past, amoxicillin was dosed three times daily when used to treat acute otitis media, which resulted in missed doses in routine ambulatory practice. There is now evidence that two-times daily dosing or once-daily dosing has similar effectiveness. ===Respiratory infections=== Most sinusitis infections are caused by viruses, for which amoxicillin and amoxicillin-clavulanate are ineffective, and the small benefit gained by amoxicillin may be overridden by the adverse effects. Amoxicillin is considered the first-line empirical treatment for most cases of uncomplicated bacterial sinusitis in children and adults when culture data is unavailable. Amoxicillin is recommended as the preferred first-line treatment for community-acquired pneumonia in adults by the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence, either alone (mild to moderate severity disease) or in combination with a macrolide. Research suggests that is as effective as co-amoxiclav (a broad-spectrum antibiotic) for people admitted to hospital with pneumonia, regardless of its severity. The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends amoxicillin as first-line treatment for pneumonia that is not "severe". Amoxicillin is used in post-exposure inhalation of anthrax to prevent disease progression and for prophylaxis. ===Lyme borreliosis=== Amoxicillin is effective for the treatment of early cutaneous Lyme borreliosis; the effectiveness and safety of oral amoxicillin is neither better nor worse than common alternatively-used antibiotics. ===Odontogenic infections=== Amoxicillin is used to treat odontogenic infections, infections of the tongue, lips, and other oral tissues. It may be prescribed following a tooth extraction, particularly in those with compromised immune systems. ===Skin infections=== Amoxicillin is occasionally used for the treatment of skin infections, It is often an effective treatment for cases of acne vulgaris that have responded poorly to other antibiotics, such as doxycycline and minocycline. ===Infections in infants in resource-limited settings=== Amoxicillin is recommended by the World Health Organization for the treatment of infants with signs and symptoms of pneumonia in resource-limited situations when the parents are unable or unwilling to accept hospitalization of the child. Amoxicillin in combination with gentamicin is recommended for the treatment of infants with signs of other severe infections when hospitalization is not an option. ===Prevention of bacterial endocarditis=== It is also used to prevent bacterial endocarditis and as a pain-reliever in high-risk people having dental work done, to prevent Streptococcus pneumoniae and other encapsulated bacterial infections in those without spleens, such as people with sickle-cell disease, and for both the prevention and the treatment of anthrax. These recommendations do not appear to have changed the rates of infection for infectious endocarditis. ===Combination treatment=== Amoxicillin is susceptible to degradation by β-lactamase-producing bacteria, which are resistant to most β-lactam antibiotics, such as penicillin. For this reason, it may be combined with clavulanic acid, a β-lactamase inhibitor. This drug combination is commonly called co-amoxiclav. === Spectrum of activity === It is a moderate-spectrum, bacteriolytic, β-lactam antibiotic in the aminopenicillin family used to treat susceptible Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. It is usually the drug of choice within the class because it is better absorbed, following oral administration, than other β-lactam antibiotics. In general, Streptococcus, Bacillus subtilis, Enterococcus, Haemophilus, Helicobacter, and Moraxella are susceptible to amoxicillin, whereas Citrobacter, Klebsiella and Pseudomonas aeruginosa are resistant to it. Some E. coli and most clinical strains of Staphylococcus aureus have developed resistance to amoxicillin to varying degrees. ==Adverse effects== Adverse effects are similar to those for other β-lactam antibiotics, including nausea, vomiting, rashes, and antibiotic-associated colitis. Diarrhea (loose bowel movements) may also occur. Rarer adverse effects include mental and behavioral changes, lightheadedness, insomnia, hyperactivity, agitation, confusion, anxiety, sensitivity to lights and sounds, and unclear thinking. Immediate medical care is required upon the first signs of these adverse effects. Amoxicillin-induced neurotoxicity has been especially associated with concentrations of greater than 110mg/L. The onset of an allergic reaction to amoxicillin can be very sudden and intense; emergency medical attention must be sought as quickly as possible. The initial phase of such a reaction often starts with a change in mental state, skin rash with intense itching (often beginning in the fingertips and around the groin area and rapidly spreading), and sensations of fever, nausea, and vomiting. Any other symptoms that seem even remotely suspicious must be taken very seriously. However, more mild allergy symptoms, such as a rash, can occur at any time during treatment, even up to a week after treatment has ceased. For some people allergic to amoxicillin, the adverse effects can be fatal due to anaphylaxis. There is poor reporting of adverse effects of amoxicillin from clinical trials. For this reason, the severity and frequency of adverse effects from amoxicillin are probably higher than reported in clinical trials. The rash is described as maculopapular or morbilliform (measles-like; therefore, in medical literature, it is called "amoxicillin-induced morbilliform rash".). It starts on the trunk and can spread from there. This rash is unlikely to be a true allergic reaction and is not a contraindication for future amoxicillin usage, nor should the current regimen necessarily be stopped. However, this common amoxicillin rash and a dangerous allergic reaction cannot easily be distinguished by inexperienced persons, so a healthcare professional is often required to distinguish between the two. A nonallergic amoxicillin rash may also be an indicator of infectious mononucleosis. Some studies indicate about 80–90% of patients with acute Epstein–Barr virus infection treated with amoxicillin or ampicillin develop such a rash. Image:Amoxicillin rash 3 hours after 17th dose.JPG\|Nonallergic amoxicillin rash eight days after first dose: This photo was taken 24 hours after the rash began. Image:Amoxicillin rash 11 hours after 17th dose.JPG\|Eight hours after the first photo, individual spots have grown and begun to merge. Image:Amoxicillin rash 26 hours after 17th dose.JPG\|At 23 hours after the first photo, the color appears to be fading, and much of rash has spread to confluence. == Interactions == Amoxicillin may interact with these drugs: Anticoagulants (dabigatran, warfarin). Methotrexate (chemotherapy and immunosuppressant). Allopurinol (gout treatment). Mycophenolate (immunosuppressant) Amoxicillin diffuses easily into tissues and body fluids. It will cross the placenta and is excreted into breastmilk in small quantities. It is metabolized by the liver and excreted into the urine. It has an onset of 30 minutes and a half-life of 3.7 hours in newborns and 1.4 hours in adults. It inhibits cross-linkage between the linear peptidoglycan polymer chains that make up a major component of the bacterial cell wall. It has two ionizable groups in the physiological range (the amino group in alpha-position to the amide carbonyl group and the carboxyl group). ==Chemistry== Amoxicillin is a β-lactam and aminopenicillin antibiotic in terms of chemical structure. It is described as an "ambiphilic"—between hydrophilic and lipophilic—antibiotic. ==History== Amoxicillin was one of several semisynthetic derivatives of 6-aminopenicillanic acid (6-APA) developed by the Beecham Group in the 1960s. It was invented by Anthony Alfred Walter Long and John Herbert Charles Nayler, two British scientists. It became available in 1972 and was the second aminopenicillin to reach the market (after ampicillin in 1961). Co-amoxiclav became available in 1981. In 2022, a survey of eight generic antibiotics commonly prescribed in the United States found their average cost to be about $42.67, while amoxicillin was sold for $12.14 on average. === Modes of delivery === Pharmaceutical manufacturers make amoxicillin in trihydrate form, for oral use available as capsules, regular, chewable and dispersible tablets, syrup and pediatric suspension for oral use, and as the sodium salt for intravenous administration. An extended-release is available. The intravenous form of amoxicillin is not sold in the United States. When an intravenous aminopenicillin is required in the United States, ampicillin is typically used. When there is an adequate response to ampicillin, the course of antibiotic therapy may often be completed with oral amoxicillin. Research with mice indicated successful delivery using intraperitoneally injected amoxicillin-bearing microparticles. ===Names=== Amoxicillin is the international nonproprietary name (INN), British Approved Name (BAN), and United States Adopted Name (USAN), while amoxycillin is the Australian Approved Name (AAN). Amoxicillin is one of the semisynthetic penicillins discovered by the former pharmaceutical company Beecham Group. The patent for amoxicillin has expired, thus amoxicillin and co-amoxiclav preparations are marketed under various brand names across the world. ==Veterinary uses== Amoxicillin is also sometimes used as an antibiotic for animals. The use of amoxicillin for animals intended for human consumption (chickens, cattle, and swine for example) has been approved.	[ "β-lactamase inhibitor", "National Institute for Health and Care Excellence", "ionizable", "microparticles", "Chlamydia trachomatis", "peptidoglycan", "macrolide antibiotic", "Aminopenicillin", "Streptococcus pneumoniae", "clarithromycin", "empirical treatment", "chemotherapy", "WHO Model List of Essential Medicines", "β-lactam", "ciprofloxacin", "bacterial infection", "Saunders (imprint)", "Food and Drug Administration", "breastmilk", "penicillin", "acute otitis media", "cross-link", "tooth extraction", "Tablet (pharmacy)", "breastfeeding", "gentamicin", "DRESS syndrome", "American Academy of Allergy, Asthma, and Immunology", "Neisseria meningitidis", "proton-pump inhibitor", "Oral administration", "anthrax", "Intravenous therapy", "Methotrexate", "Biological half-life", "cellulitis", "maculopapular", "Hydroxylation", "Dose (biochemistry)", "Renal failure", "immunosuppressant", "carboxyl group", "hepatitis", "pregnancy", "Gram-positive", "lightheadedness", "mental confusion", "proteinaceous", "diarrhea", "Mycophenolic acid", "community-acquired pneumonia", "kidney problem", "Ambulatory care", "Australian Approved Name", "Neisseria gonorrhoeae", "seizure", "beta-lactamase", "Typhoid vaccine", "rash", "Beecham Group", "compromised immune system", "lethargy", "Oral contraceptives", "UpToDate", "Capsule (pharmacy)", "Coamoxiclav", "hydrolysates", "cattle", "nausea", "Antibiotic use in livestock", "antibiotic", "Lyme disease", "decarboxylation", "Epstein–Barr virus", "Antimicrobial spectrum", "Haemophilus influenzae", "Proteus mirabilis", "sickle-cell disease", "international nonproprietary name", "United States Adopted Name", "oral administration", "Gram-negative", "dextran", "minocycline", "doxycycline", "bacteriolytic", "intravenous", "vomiting", "generic medication", "oxidative deamination", "Enterococcus", "Haemophilus", "aminopenicillin", "aliphatic chain", "pneumonia", "carbonyl group", "aminoglycoside", "odontogenic infections", "Cellulitis", "Helicobacter", "clavulanic acid", "candidiasis", "Allopurinol", "Winchester Science Centre", "Bacillus subtilis", "Lyme borreliosis", "insomnia", "swine", "β-lactam antibiotic", "hydrate", "strep throat", "macrolide", "World Health Organization", "β-Lactam", "oxidation", "hyperactivity", "anxiety", "streptococcal pharyngitis", "cell wall", "neurotoxicity", "spleen", "semisynthesis", "intraperitoneally", "extended-release", "glucuronidation", "Citrobacter", "allergic reaction", "colitis", "hydrophilic", "virus", "Escherichia coli", "anaphylaxis", "bicarbonate", "dabigatran", "Shigella", "ampicillin", "Salmonella", "amino group", "Staphylococcus aureus", "Cholera vaccine", "Probenecid", "pediatric", "Adverse drug reaction", "infant", "Pseudomonas aeruginosa", "British Approved Name", "partition coefficient", "Measles", "infectious mononucleosis", "Chlamydia infection", "warfarin", "chicken", "gout", "Helicobacter pylori", "intramuscular injection", "Streptococcus", "Urine", "placenta", "sensory overload", "Klebsiella", "Suspension (chemistry)", "Anticoagulants", "lipophilic", "Beta-lactam antibiotics", "amide", "cognitive impairment", "intravenous injection", "structural analog", "urinary tract infection", "chemical structure", "Amoxicillin/clavulanic acid", "Moraxella", "psychomotor agitation", "encapsulated bacteria", "6-APA", "omeprazole", "Borrelia burgdorferi", "bacterial endocarditis", "hospitalization", "acne vulgaris", "BCG vaccine", "Diarrhea" ]
2,888	Amorphous	Redirect Amorphous solid	[ "Amorphous solid" ]
2,889	Amorphous solid	In condensed matter physics and materials science, an amorphous solid (or non-crystalline solid) is a solid that lacks the long-range order that is a characteristic of a crystal. The terms "glass" and "glassy solid" are sometimes used synonymously with amorphous solid; however, these terms refer specifically to amorphous materials that undergo a glass transition. Examples of amorphous solids include glasses, metallic glasses, and certain types of plastics and polymers. == Etymology == The term "Amorphous" comes from the Greek a ("without"), and morphé ("shape, form"). == Structure == Amorphous materials have an internal structure of molecular-scale structural blocks that can be similar to the basic structural units in the crystalline phase of the same compound. Unlike in crystalline materials, however, no long-range regularity exists: amorphous materials cannot be described by the repetition of a finite unit cell. Statistical measures, such as the atomic density function and radial distribution function, are more useful in describing the structure of amorphous solids. Medium range order may extend beyond the short range order by 1-2 nm. For all of these substances, specific heat has a (nearly) linear dependence as a function of temperature, and thermal conductivity has nearly quadratic temperature dependence. These properties are conventionally called anomalous being very different from properties of crystalline solids. On the phenomenological level, many of these properties were described by a collection of tunnelling two-level systems. Nevertheless, the microscopic theory of these properties is still missing after more than 50 years of the research. Remarkably, a dimensionless quantity of internal friction is nearly universal in these materials. This quantity is a dimensionless ratio (up to a numerical constant) of the phonon wavelength to the phonon mean free path. Since the theory of tunnelling two-level states (TLSs) does not address the origin of the density of TLSs, this theory cannot explain the universality of internal friction, which in turn is proportional to the density of scattering TLSs. The theoretical significance of this important and unsolved problem was highlighted by Anthony Leggett. == Nano-structured materials == Amorphous materials will have some degree of short-range order at the atomic-length scale due to the nature of intermolecular chemical bonding. Furthermore, in very small crystals, short-range order encompasses a large fraction of the atoms; nevertheless, relaxation at the surface, along with interfacial effects, distorts the atomic positions and decreases structural order. Even the most advanced structural characterization techniques, such as X-ray diffraction and transmission electron microscopy, can have difficulty distinguishing amorphous and crystalline structures at short-size scales. == Characterization of amorphous solids == Due to the lack of long-range order, standard crystallographic techniques are often inadequate in determining the structure of amorphous solids. A variety of electron, X-ray, and computation-based techniques have been used to characterize amorphous materials. Multi-modal analysis is very common for amorphous materials. === X-ray and neutron diffraction === Unlike crystalline materials, which exhibit strong Bragg diffraction, the diffraction patterns of amorphous materials are characterized by broad and diffuse peaks. As a result, detailed analysis and complementary techniques are required to extract real space structural information from the diffraction patterns of amorphous materials. It is useful to obtain diffraction data from both X-ray and neutron sources as they have different scattering properties and provide complementary data. Pair distribution function analysis can be performed on diffraction data to determine the probability of finding a pair of atoms separated by a certain distance. From these techniques, the local order of an amorphous material can be elucidated. === X-ray absorption fine-structure spectroscopy === X-ray absorption fine-structure spectroscopy is an atomic scale probe making it useful for studying materials lacking in long-range order. Spectra obtained using this method provide information on the oxidation state, coordination number, and species surrounding the atom in question as well as the distances at which they are found. === Atomic electron tomography === The atomic electron tomography technique is performed in transmission electron microscopes capable of reaching sub-Angstrom resolution. A collection of 2D images taken at numerous different tilt angles is acquired from the sample in question and then used to reconstruct a 3D image. After image acquisition, a significant amount of processing must be done to correct for issues such as drift, noise, and scan distortion. Fluctuation electron microscopy experiments can be done in conventional or scanning transmission electron microscope mode. According to these models, a necessary condition for the occurrence of amorphous phases is that (Th) has to be smaller than 0.3. The deposition temperature must be below 30% of the melting temperature. === Superconductivity === Regarding their applications, amorphous metallic layers played an important role in the discovery of superconductivity in amorphous metals made by Buckel and Hilsch. The superconductivity of amorphous metals, including amorphous metallic thin films, is now understood to be due to phonon-mediated Cooper pairing. The role of structural disorder can be rationalized based on the strong-coupling Eliashberg theory of superconductivity. === Thermal protection === Amorphous solids typically exhibit higher localization of heat carriers compared to crystalline, giving rise to low thermal conductivity. Products for thermal protection, such as thermal barrier coatings and insulation, rely on materials with ultralow thermal conductivity. The technologically most important thin amorphous film is probably represented by a few nm thin SiO2 layers serving as isolator above the conducting channel of a metal-oxide semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET). Also, hydrogenated amorphous silicon (Si:H) is of technical significance for thin-film solar cells. === Pharmaceutical use === In the pharmaceutical industry, some amorphous drugs have been shown to offer higher bioavailability than their crystalline counterparts as a result of the higher solubility of the amorphous phase. However, certain compounds can undergo precipitation in their amorphous form in vivo and can then decrease mutual bioavailability if administered together. Studies of GDC-0810 ASDs show a strong interrelationship between microstructure, physical properties and dissolution performance. === In soils === Amorphous materials in soil strongly influence bulk density, aggregate stability, plasticity, and water holding capacity of soils. The low bulk density and high void ratios are mostly due to glass shards and other porous minerals not becoming compacted. Andisol soils contain the highest amounts of amorphous materials. == Phase == Amorphous phases were a phenomenon of particular interest for the study of thin-film growth. The growth of polycrystalline films is often used and preceded by an initial amorphous layer, the thickness of which may amount to only a few nm. The most investigated example is represented by the unoriented molecules of thin polycrystalline silicon films. Wedge-shaped polycrystals were identified by transmission electron microscopy to grow out of the amorphous phase only after the latter has exceeded a certain thickness, the precise value of which depends on deposition temperature, background pressure, and various other process parameters. The phenomenon has been interpreted in the framework of Ostwald's rule of stages that predicts the formation of phases to proceed with increasing condensation time towards increasing stability.	[ "X-ray diffraction", "Precipitation (chemistry)", "metallic glasses", "amorphous metal", "condensed matter physics", "Titanium dioxide", "polymer", "unsolved problems of physics", "fundamental physics", "Reverse Monte Carlo", "crystal", "bioavailability", "Anthony Leggett", "mean free path", "thermal conductivity", "chemical bond", "micrometre", "Greek language", "amorphous silicon", "atom", "bulk density", "toughness", "In vivo supersaturation", "phonon", "molecular dynamics", "optical coating", "structural disorder", "thermal barrier", "J. Phys. Condens. Matter", "short-range order", "glass transition", "transmission electron microscopy", "Cooper pair", "Field capacity", "long-range order", "Z. Phys. Chem.", "J. Phys. Chem. Lett.", "thin-film solar cells", "plastic", "structure of liquids and glasses", "materials science", "density functional theory", "pharmaceutical industry", "glass", "nanometre", "X-ray spectroscopy", "specific heat", "absolute zero", "wavelength", "Bragg's law", "Fluctuation electron microscopy", "Plasticity (physics)", "superconductivity", "glassy solids", "Journal of Vacuum Science and Technology", "homologous temperature", "temperature", "MOSFET", "oxidation state", "Longman", "Andisol", "Biological membrane", "Science (journal)", "solubility", "radial distribution function", "Tantalum pentoxide", "scanning transmission electron microscopy", "tomography", "Phys. Rev. B", "coordination number", "crystalline solid", "Silicon dioxide", "Eliashberg theory", "void ratio", "thin film", "Wiley Interscience", "Polymorphism (materials science)", "Pair distribution function", "Soil compaction", "solid", "Soil aggregate stability", "Phys. Met. Metallogr." ]
2,890	A Wizard of Earthsea	A Wizard of Earthsea is a fantasy novel written by American author Ursula K. Le Guin and first published by the small press Parnassus in 1968. It is regarded as a classic of children's literature and of fantasy, within which it is widely influential. The story is set in the fictional archipelago of Earthsea and centers on a young mage named Ged, born in a village on the island of Gont. He displays great power while still a boy and joins a school of wizardry, where his prickly nature drives him into conflict with a fellow student. During a magical duel, Ged's spell goes awry and releases a shadow creature that attacks him. The novel follows Ged's journey as he seeks to be free of the creature. The book has often been described as a bildungsroman, or coming-of-age story, as it explores Ged's process of learning to cope with power and come to terms with death. The novel also carries Taoist themes about a fundamental balance in the universe of Earthsea, which wizards are supposed to maintain, closely tied to the idea that language and names have power to affect the material world and alter this balance. The structure of the story is similar to that of a traditional epic, although critics have also described it as subverting this genre in many ways, such as by making the protagonist dark-skinned in contrast to more typical white-skinned heroes. A Wizard of Earthsea received highly positive reviews, initially as a work for children and later among a general audience. It won the Boston Globe–Horn Book Award in 1969 and was one of the final recipients of the Lewis Carroll Shelf Award in 1979. Margaret Atwood called it one of the "wellsprings" of fantasy literature. Le Guin wrote five subsequent books that are collectively referred to as the Earthsea Cycle, together with A Wizard of Earthsea: The Tombs of Atuan (1971), The Farthest Shore (1972), Tehanu (1990), The Other Wind (2001), and Tales from Earthsea (2001). George Slusser described the series as a "work of high style and imagination", while Amanda Craig said that A Wizard of Earthsea was "the most thrilling, wise, and beautiful children's novel ever". == Background == Early concepts for the Earthsea setting were developed in two short stories, "The Rule of Names" (1964) and "The Word of Unbinding" (1964), both published in Fantastic. The stories were later collected in anthology The Wind's Twelve Quarters (1975). Earthsea was also used as the setting for a story she wrote in 1965 or 1966, which was never published. In 1967, Herman Schein (the publisher of Parnassus Press and the husband of Ruth Robbins, the illustrator of the book) asked Le Guin to try writing a book "for older kids", giving her complete freedom over the subject and the approach. She had no previous experience specifically with the genre of young adult literature, which rose in prominence during the late 1960s. Drawing from her short stories, she began work on A Wizard of Earthsea. She has said that the book was in part a response to the image of wizards as ancient and wise, and to wondering where they come from. She later said that she chose the medium of fantasy, and the theme of coming of age, with her intended adolescent audience in mind. The short stories published in 1964 introduced the world of Earthsea and important concepts in it, such as Le Guin's treatment of magic. "The Rule of Names" also introduced Yevaud, a dragon who features briefly in A Wizard of Earthsea. Her depiction of Earthsea was influenced by her familiarity with Native American legends as well as Norse mythology. Her knowledge of myths and legends, as well as her familial interest in anthropology, have been described by scholar Donna White as allowing her to create "entire cultures" for the islands of Earthsea. The influence of Norse lore in particular can be seen in the characters of the Kargs, who are blonde and blue-eyed, and worship two gods who are brothers. The influence of Taoist thought on Le Guin's writing is also visible in the idea of a cosmic "balance". == Book == ===Setting=== Earthsea itself is an archipelago, or group of islands. In the fictional history of this world, the islands were raised from the ocean by a being called Segoy. The world is inhabited by both humans and dragons, and most or all humans have some innate magical gift, some are more gifted sorcerers or wizards. The world is shown as being based on a delicate balance, which most of its inhabitants are aware of, but which is disrupted by somebody in each of the original trilogy of novels. Earthsea is pre-industrial and has diverse cultures within the widespread archipelago. Most of the characters are of the Hardic peoples, who are dark-skinned, and who populate most of the islands. Four large eastern islands are inhabited by the white-skinned Kargish people, who despise magic and see the Hardic folk as evil sorcerers: the Kargs, in turn, are viewed by the Hardic people as barbarians. The far western regions of the archipelago are the realm of the dragons. === Plot summary === The novel follows a young boy called Duny, nicknamed "Sparrowhawk", born on the island of Gont. Discovering that the boy has great innate power, his aunt, a witch, teaches him the little magic she knows. When his village is attacked by Kargish raiders, Duny summons a fog to conceal the village and its inhabitants, enabling the residents to drive off the Kargs. Hearing of this, the powerful mage Ogion takes him as an apprentice, and later gives him his "true name"—Ged. Ogion tries to teach Ged about the "equilibrium", the concept that magic can upset the natural order of the world if used improperly. In an attempt to impress a girl, however, Ged searches Ogion's spell books and inadvertently summons a strange shadow, which has to be banished by Ogion. Sensing Ged's eagerness to act and impatience with his slow teaching methods, Ogion asks if he would rather go to the renowned school for wizards on the island of Roke. Ged loves Ogion, but decides to go to the school. At the school, Ged meets Jasper, and is immediately on bad terms with him. He is befriended by an older student named Vetch, but generally remains aloof from anyone else. Ged's skills inspire admiration from teachers and students alike. He finds a small creature—an otak, named Hoeg, and keeps it as a pet. During a festival, Jasper acts condescendingly towards Ged, provoking the latter's proud nature. Ged challenges him to a duel of magic, and casts a powerful spell intended to raise the spirit of a legendary dead woman. The spell goes awry and instead releases a shadow creature, which attacks him and scars his face. The Archmage Nemmerle drives the shadow away, but at the cost of his life. Ged spends many months healing before resuming his studies. The new Archmage, Gensher, describes the shadow as an ancient evil that wishes to possess Ged, and warns him that the creature has no name. Ged eventually graduates and receives his wizard's staff. He then takes up residence in the Ninety Isles, providing the poor villagers protection from the dragons that have seized and taken up residence on the nearby island of Pendor, but discovers that he is still being sought by the shadow. Knowing that he cannot guard against both threats at the same time, he sails to Pendor and gambles his life on a guess of the adult dragon's true name. When he is proved right, the dragon offers to tell him the name of the shadow, but Ged instead extracts a promise that the dragon and his offspring will never threaten the archipelago. Chased by the shadow, Ged flees to Osskil, having heard of the stone of the Terrenon. He is attacked by the shadow, and barely escapes into the Court of Terrenon. Serret, the lady of the castle, and the same girl that Ged had tried to impress, shows him the stone, and urges Ged to speak to it, claiming it can give him limitless knowledge and power. Recognizing that the stone harbors one of the Old Powers—ancient, powerful, malevolent beings—Ged refuses. He flees and is pursued by the stone's minions, but transforms into a swift falcon and escapes as Serret, having taken the form of a gull, is killed. Ged also loses his otak to the shadow. Ged flies back to Ogion on Gont. Unlike Gensher, Ogion insists that all creatures have a name and advises Ged to confront the shadow. Ogion is proved right; when Ged seeks out the shadow, it flees from him. Ged pursues it in a small sailboat, until it lures him into a fog where the boat is wrecked on a reef. Ged recovers with the help of an elderly couple marooned on a small island since they were children; the woman gives Ged part of a broken bracelet as a gift. Ged patches his boat and resumes his pursuit of the creature into the East Reach. On the island of Iffish, he meets his friend Vetch, who insists on joining him. They journey east far beyond the last known lands before they finally come upon the shadow. Naming it with his own name, Ged merges with it and joyfully tells Vetch he is healed and whole. === Illustrations === The first edition of the book, published in 1968, was illustrated by Ruth Robbins. The cover illustration was in color, and the interior of the book contained a map of the archipelago of Earthsea. In addition, each chapter had a black-and-white illustration by Robbins, similar to a woodcut image. The images represented topics from each chapter; for instance, the very first image depicted the island of Gont, while the illustration for the chapter "The Dragon of Pendor" pictured a flying dragon. The image shown here depicts Ged sailing in his boat Lookfar, and was used in the 10th chapter, "The Open Sea", in which Ged and Vetch travel from Iffish eastward past all known lands to confront the shadow creature. ===Publication=== A Wizard of Earthsea was first published in 1968 by Parnassus Press in Berkeley, a year before The Left Hand of Darkness, Le Guin's watershed work. It was a personal landmark for Le Guin, as it represented her first attempt at writing for children; she had written only a handful of other novels and short stories prior to its publication. The book was also her first attempt at writing fantasy, rather than science fiction. A Wizard of Earthsea was the first of books to receive widespread critical attention, and has been described as her best known work, as part of the Earthsea series. The book has been released in numerous editions, including an illustrated Folio Society edition released in 2015. It was also translated into a number of other languages. An omnibus edition of all of Le Guin's Earthsea works was released on the 50th anniversary of the publication of A Wizard of Earthsea in 2018. Le Guin originally intended for A Wizard of Earthsea to be a standalone novel, but decided to write a sequel after considering the loose ends in the first book, and The Tombs of Atuan was released in 1971. The Farthest Shore was written as a third volume after further consideration, and was published in 1972. The Tombs of Atuan tells of the story of Ged's attempt to make whole the ring of Erreth Akbe, half of which is buried in the tombs of Atuan in the Kargish lands, from where he must steal it. There, he meets the child priestess Tenar, on whom the book focuses. In The Farthest Shore, Ged, who has become Archmage, tries to combat a dwindling of magic across Earthsea, accompanied by Arren, a young prince. The first three books are together seen as the "original trilogy"; in each of these, Ged is shown as trying to heal some imbalance in the world. They were followed by Tehanu (1990), Tales from Earthsea (2001), and The Other Wind (2001), which are sometimes referred to as the "second trilogy". == Reception == ===As children's literature=== Initial recognition for the book was from children's-book critics, among whom it garnered acclaim. A Wizard of Earthsea received an even more positive response in the United Kingdom when it was released there in 1971, which, according to White, reflected the greater admiration of British critics for children's fantasy. In her 1975 annotated collection Fantasy for Children, British critic Naomi Lewis described it in the following terms: "[It is not] the easiest book for casual browsing, but readers who take the step will find themselves in one of the most important works of fantasy of our time." Similarly, literary scholar Margaret Esmonde wrote in 1981 that "Le Guin has ... enriched children's literature with what may be its finest high fantasy", while a review in The Guardian by author and journalist Amanda Craig said it was "The most thrilling, wise and beautiful children's novel ever, [written] in prose as taut and clean as a ship's sail." and was one of the last winners of the Lewis Carroll Shelf Award ten years later. In 1984 it won the or the "Golden Sepulka" in Poland. In 2000 Le Guin was given the Margaret A. Edwards Award by the American Library Association for young adult literature. The award cited six of her works, including the first four Earthsea volumes, The Left Hand of Darkness, and The Beginning Place. A 1987 poll in Locus ranked A Wizard of Earthsea third among "All-Time Best Fantasy Novels", while in 2014 Pringle listed it at number 39 in his list of the 100 best novels in modern fantasy. ===Influence=== The book has been seen as widely influential within the genre of fantasy. Margaret Atwood has called A Wizard of Earthsea one of the "wellsprings" of fantasy literature. The book has been compared to major works of high fantasy such as J. R. R. Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings Modern writers have credited A Wizard of Earthsea for introducing the idea of a "wizard school", which would later be made famous by the Harry Potter series of books, Reviewers have also commented that the basic premise of A Wizard of Earthsea, that of a talented boy going to a wizard's school and making an enemy with whom he has a close connection, is also the premise of Harry Potter. == Themes == ===Coming of age=== A Wizard of Earthsea focuses on Ged's adolescence and coming of age, and along with the other two works of the original Earthsea trilogy forms a part of Le Guin's dynamic portrayal of the process of growing old. The three novels together follow Ged from youth to old age, and each of them also follow the coming of age of a different character. The novel is frequently described as a Bildungsroman. Scholar Mike Cadden stated that the book is a convincing tale "to a reader as young and possibly as headstrong as Ged, and therefore sympathetic to him". Ged's coming of age is also intertwined with the physical journey he undertakes through the novel. Ged is depicted as proud and yet unsure of himself in multiple situations: early in his apprenticeship he believes Ogion to be mocking him, and later, at Roke, feels put upon by Jasper. In both cases, he believes that others do not appreciate his greatness, and Le Guin's sympathetic narration does not immediately contradict this belief. Cadden writes that Le Guin allows young readers to sympathize with Ged, and only gradually realize that there is a price to be paid for his actions, as he learns to discipline his magical powers. Similarly, as Ged begins his apprenticeship with Ogion, he imagines that he will be taught mysterious aspects of wizardry, and has visions of transforming himself into other creatures, but gradually comes to see that Ogion's important lessons are those about his own self. The passage at the end of the novel, wherein Ged finally accepts the shadow as a part of himself and is thus released from its terror, has been pointed to by reviewers as a rite of passage. Jeanne Walker, for example, wrote that the rite of passage at the end was an analogue for the entire plot of A Wizard of Earthsea, and that the plot itself plays the role of a rite of passage for an adolescent reader. Walker goes on to say, "The entire action of A Wizard of Earthsea ... portrays the hero's slow realization of what it means to be an individual in society and a self in relation to higher powers." Many readers and critics have commented on similarities between Ged's process of growing up and ideas in Jungian psychology. The young Ged has a scary encounter with a shadow creature, which he later realizes is the dark side of himself. It is only after he recognizes and merges with the shadow that he becomes a whole person. Le Guin said that she had never read Jung before writing the Earthsea novels. Le Guin described coming of age as the main theme of the book, and wrote in a 1973 essay that she chose that theme since she was writing for an adolescent audience. She stated that "Coming of age ... is a process that took me many years; I finished it, so far as I ever will, at about age thirty-one; and so I feel rather deeply about it. So do most adolescents. It's their main occupation, in fact." She also said that fantasy was best suited as a medium for describing coming of age, because exploring the subconscious was difficult using the language of "rational daily life". The coming of age that Le Guin focused on included not just psychological development, but moral changes as well. Ged needs to recognize the balance between his power and his responsibility to use it well, a recognition which comes as he travels to the stone of Terrenon and sees the temptation that that power represents. ===Equilibrium and Taoist themes=== The world of Earthsea is depicted as being based on a delicate balance, which most of its inhabitants are aware of, but which is disrupted by somebody in each of the original trilogy of novels. This includes an equilibrium between land and sea (implicit in the name Earthsea), and between people and their natural environment. In addition to physical equilibrium, there is a larger cosmic equilibrium, which everybody is aware of, and which wizards are tasked with maintaining. Describing this aspect of Earthsea, Elizabeth Cummins wrote, "The principle of balanced powers, the recognition that every act affects self, society, world, and cosmos, is both a physical and a moral principle of Le Guin's fantasy world." The concept of balance is related to the novel's other major theme of coming of age, as Ged's knowledge of the consequences of his own actions for good or ill is necessary for him to understand how the balance is maintained. While at the school of Roke, the Master Hand tells him: The influence of Taoism on Le Guin's writing is evident through much of the book, especially in her depiction of the "balance". At the end of the novel, Ged may be seen to embody the Taoist way of life, as he has learned not to act unless absolutely necessary. He has also learned that seeming opposites, like light and dark or good and evil, are actually interdependent. Light and dark themselves are recurring images within the story. Reviewers have identified this belief as evidence of a conservative ideology within the story, shared with much of fantasy. In emphasizing concerns over balance and equilibrium, scholars have argued, Le Guin essentially justifies the status quo, which wizards strive to maintain. This tendency is in contrast to Le Guin's science fiction writing, in which change is shown to have value. The nature of human evil forms a significant related theme through A Wizard of Earthsea as well as the other Earthsea novels. As with other works by Le Guin, evil is shown as a misunderstanding of the balance of life. Ged is born with great power in him, but the pride that he takes in his power leads to his downfall; he tries to demonstrate his strength by bringing a spirit back from the dead, and in performing this act against the laws of nature, releases the shadow that attacks him. Slusser suggests that although he is provoked into performing dangerous spells first by the girl on Gont and then by Jasper, this provocation exists in Ged's mind. He is shown as unwilling to look within himself and see the pride that drives him to do what he does. When he accepts the shadow into himself, he also finally accepts responsibility for his own actions, and by accepting his own mortality he is able to free himself. His companion Vetch describes the moment by saying Thus, although there are several dark powers in Earthsea (like the stone of Terrenon and the Nameless Ones of Atuan), the true evil was not one of these powers, or even death, but Ged's actions that went against the balance of nature. This is contrary to conventional Western and Christian storytelling, in which light and darkness are often considered opposites, and are seen as symbolizing good and evil, which are constantly in conflict. On two different occasions, Ged is tempted to try to defy death and evil, but eventually learns that neither can be eliminated: instead, he chooses not to serve evil, and stops denying death. ===True names=== In Le Guin's fictional universe, to know the true name of an object or a person is to have power over it. Each child is given a true name when they reach puberty, a name which they share only with close friends. Several of the dragons in the later Earthsea novels, like Orm Embar and Kalessin, are shown as living openly with their names, which do not give anybody power over them. In A Wizard of Earthsea, however, Ged is shown to have power over Yevaud. Cadden writes that this is because Yevaud still has attachment to riches and material possessions, and is thus bound by the power of his name. Wizards exert their influence over the equilibrium through the use of names, thus linking this theme to Le Guin's depiction of a cosmic balance. According to Cummins, this is Le Guin's way of demonstrating the power of language in shaping reality. Since language is the tool we use for communicating about the environment, she argues that it also allows humans to affect the environment, and the wizards' power to use names symbolizes this. Cummins went on to draw an analogy between the wizards' use of names to change things with the creative use of words in fictional writing. Shippey wrote that Earthsea magic seems to work through what he called the "Rumpelstiltskin theory", in which names have power. He argued that this portrayal was part of Le Guin's effort to emphasize the power of words over objects, which, according to Shippey, was in contrast to the ideology of other writers, such as James Frazer in The Golden Bough. Esmonde argued that each of the first three Earthsea books hinged on an act of trust. In A Wizard of Earthsea, Vetch trusts Ged with his true name when the latter is at his lowest ebb emotionally, thus giving Ged complete power over him. Ged later offers Tenar the same gift in The Tombs of Atuan, thereby allowing her to learn trust. == Style and structure == ===Language and mood=== A Wizard of Earthsea and other novels of the Earthsea cycle differ notably from Le Guin's early Hainish cycle works, although they were written at a similar time. George Slusser described the Earthsea works as providing a counterweight to the "excessive pessimism" of the Hainish novels. He saw the former as depicting individual action in a favorable light, in contrast to works such as "Vaster than Empires and More Slow". The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction said the book was pervaded by a "grave joyfulness". In discussing the style of her fantasy works, Le Guin herself said that in fantasy it was necessary to be clear and direct with language, because there is no known framework for the reader's mind to rest upon. The story often appears to assume that readers are familiar with the geography and history of Earthsea, a technique which allowed Le Guin to avoid exposition: a reviewer wrote that this method "gives Le Guin's world the mysterious depths of Tolkien's, but without his tiresome back-stories and versifying". Multiple audio versions of the book have been released. BBC Radio produced a radioplay version in 1996 narrated by Judi Dench, and a six-part series adapting the Earthsea novels in 2015, broadcast on Radio 4 Extra. In 2011, the work was produced as an unabridged recording performed by Robert Inglis. Two screen adaptations of the story have also been produced. An original mini-series titled Legend of Earthsea was broadcast in 2004 on the Sci Fi Channel. It is based very loosely on A Wizard of Earthsea and The Tombs of Atuan. In an article published in Salon, Le Guin expressed strong displeasure at the result. She stated that by casting a "petulant white kid" as Ged (who has red-brown skin in the book) the series "whitewashed Earthsea", and had ignored her choice to write the story of a non-white character, a choice she said was central to the book. This sentiment was shared by a review in The Ultimate Encyclopedia of Fantasy, which said that Legend of Earthsea "totally missed the point" of Le Guin's novels, "ripping out all the subtlety, nuance and beauty of the books and inserting boring cliches, painful stereotypes and a very unwelcome 'epic' war in their place". Studio Ghibli released an adaptation of the series in 2006 titled Tales from Earthsea. The film very loosely combines elements of the first, third, and fourth books into a new story. Le Guin commented with displeasure on the film-making process, saying that she had acquiesced to the adaptation believing Hayao Miyazaki would be producing the film himself, which was eventually not the case. Le Guin praised the imagery of the film, but disliked the use of violence. She also expressed dissatisfaction with the portrayal of morality, and in particular the use of a villain who could be slain as a means of resolving conflict, which she said was antithetical to the message of the book. The film received generally mixed responses.	[ "high fantasy", "Folio Society", "rite of passage", "Harry Potter", "Tehanu", "Karg", "exposition (narrative)", "Legend of Earthsea", "Liverpool", "Merlin", "Fantasy fiction", "Childcraft", "archipelago", "Pre-industrial society", "Radio 4 Extra", "Tales from Earthsea (film)", "The Wonderful Wizard of Oz", "Ursula K. Le Guin", "demonic possession", "Lewis Carroll Shelf Award", "epic (genre)", "Ged (Earthsea)", "Cham, Switzerland", "White people", "Judi Dench", "Syfy", "Cloud Atlas (novel)", "Tom Shippey", "BBC", "children's literature", "L. Frank Baum", "Shadow (psychology)", "Shapeshifting", "Amanda Craig", "Boston Globe–Horn Book Award", "Gandalf", "J. R. R. Tolkien", "The Daily Telegraph", "Spirited Away", "United States", "World Book", "The Tombs of Atuan", "The Beginning Place", "The Word of Unbinding", "Self in Jungian psychology", "Epic poetry", "bildungsroman", "Aihal", "Narnia", "balance of nature", "Margaret A. Edwards Award", "woodcut", "Locus (magazine)", "Fyodor Dostoevsky", "Vaster than Empires and More Slow", "Berkeley, California", "The Other Wind", "gull", "Brian Attebery", "Bildungsroman", "Naomi Lewis", "Studio Ghibli", "Taoism", "Voldemort", "Fantastic (magazine)", "Rob Inglis", "Person of color", "Eleanor Cameron", "The Wind's Twelve Quarters", "Parnassus Press", "small press", "Ruth Robbins", "James Frazer", "sv:Övärlden", "David Mitchell (author)", "fantasy", "Indigenous peoples of the Americas", "The Guardian", "Robert Scholes", "Feminism", "Hayao Miyazaki", "The Rule of Names", "J. K. Rowling", "Tales from Earthsea", "The Lord of the Rings", "George Slusser", "American Library Association", "C. S. Lewis", "Whitewashing in film", "Beowulf", "Earthsea", "Norse mythology", "Milwaukee", "Carl Jung", "The Farthest Shore", "Magician (fantasy)", "Hainish cycle", "Project MUSE", "anthropology", "The Left Hand of Darkness", "Margaret Atwood", "Earthsea (universe)", "The Golden Bough", "true name", "reef" ]
2,893	Alex Lifeson	Aleksandar Živojinović (born 27 August 1953), known professionally as Alex Lifeson (), is a Canadian musician, best known as the guitarist for the rock band Rush. In 1968, Lifeson co-founded a band that would later become Rush, with drummer John Rutsey and bassist and lead vocalist Jeff Jones. Jones was replaced by Geddy Lee a month later, and Rutsey was replaced by Neil Peart in 1974, after which the lineup remained unchanged until the band's dissolution in 2018. Lifeson was the only member of Rush who stayed in the band throughout its entire existence, and he and Lee were the only members to appear on all of the band's albums. With Rush, Lifeson played electric and acoustic guitar, as well as other various string instruments such as mandola, mandolin, and bouzouki. He also performed backing vocals in live performances and select studio recordings, and occasionally played keyboards and bass pedal synthesizers. Like the other members of Rush, Lifeson performed real-time on-stage triggering of sampled instruments. Along with his bandmates Geddy Lee and Neil Peart, Lifeson was made an Officer of the Order of Canada on 9 May 1996. The trio was the first rock band to be so honoured as a group. In 2013, he was inducted with Rush into the Rock & Roll Hall of Fame. Lifeson was ranked 98th on Rolling Stone's list of the 100 greatest guitarists of all time and third (after Eddie Van Halen and Brian May) in a Guitar World readers' poll listing the 100 greatest guitarists. The bulk of Lifeson's work in music has been with Rush, although Lifeson has contributed to a body of work outside the band as well, including a solo album titled Victor (1996). Aside from music, Lifeson has been a painter, a licensed aircraft pilot, an actor, and the former part-owner of a Toronto bar and a restaurant called The Orbit Room, which closed in 2020. ==Biography== ===Early life=== Lifeson was born Aleksandar Živojinović (Serbian: Александар Живојиновић) in Fernie, British Columbia. His parents, Nenad and Melanija Živojinović, were Serb immigrants from Yugoslavia. He was raised in Toronto. His formal musical education began on the viola, but he abandoned it in favor of the guitar at the age of 12. Lifeson recalls what inspired him to play guitar in a 2008 interview: His first guitar was a Christmas gift from his father, a six-string Kent classical acoustic which was later replaced by an electric Japanese model. During his adolescent years, he was influenced primarily by the likes of Jimi Hendrix, Pete Townshend, Tony Iommi, Jeff Beck, Ritchie Blackmore, Hank Marvin, Eric Clapton, George Harrison, Jimmy Page, Steve Hackett, Denny Laine, and Allan Holdsworth; he explained in 2011 that "Clapton's solos seemed a little easier and more approachable. I remember sitting at my record player and moving the needle back and forth to get the solo in 'Spoonful.' But there was nothing I could do with Hendrix." In 1963, Lifeson met future Rush drummer John Rutsey in school. Both interested in music, they decided to form a band. Lifeson was primarily a self-taught guitarist with the only formal instruction coming from a high school friend in 1971 who taught classical guitar lessons. This training lasted for roughly a year and a half. When Lifeson was 17, he had an argument with his parents about his future; he wanted to drop out of high school to pursue his dream of becoming a professional guitarist. A video of the argument was part of a 1973 Canadian documentary, Come on Children, about the struggles of 10 adolescents. The argument was also included in two documentaries about Rush, Beyond the Lighted Stage (2010) and Time Stand Still (2016). Lifeson's first girlfriend, Charlene, gave birth to their eldest son, Justin, in October 1970. The couple married in 1975; their second son, Adrian, was born two years later. Adrian is also involved in music, and performed on "At the End" and "The Big Dance" from Lifeson's 1996 solo project, Victor. ===Rush=== Lifeson's neighbour John Rutsey began experimenting on a rented drum kit. In 1968, Lifeson and Rutsey formed The Projection, which disbanded a few months later. In August 1968, following the recruitment of original bassist and vocalist Jeff Jones, Lifeson and Rutsey founded Rush. Geddy Lee, a high school friend of Lifeson, assumed Jones's role soon after. Instrumentally, Lifeson is renowned for his signature riffing, electronic effects and processing, unorthodox chord structures, and the copious arsenal of equipment he has used over the years. Rush was on hiatus for several years starting in 1997 owing to personal tragedies in Neil Peart's life, and Lifeson had not picked up a guitar for at least a year following those events. However, after some work in his home studio and on various side projects, Lifeson returned to the studio with Rush to begin work on 2002's Vapor Trails. Vapor Trails is the first Rush album since the 1970s to lack keyboards—as such, Lifeson used over 50 different guitars in what Shawn Hammond of Guitar Player called "his most rabid and experimental playing ever." Geddy Lee was amenable to leaving keyboards off the album due in part to Lifeson's ongoing concern about their use. Lifeson's approach to the guitar tracks for the album eschewed traditional riffs and solos in favour of "tonality and harmonic quality." In 2006, Lifeson founded the Big Dirty Band, which he created for the purpose of providing original soundtrack material for Trailer Park Boys: The Movie. Lifeson jammed regularly with the Dexters (the Orbit Room house band from 1994 to 2004). Lifeson made a guest appearance on the 2007 album Fear of a Blank Planet by UK progressive rock band Porcupine Tree, contributing a solo during the song "Anesthetize". He also appeared on the 2008 album Fly Paper by Detroit progressive rockers Tiles. He plays on the track "Sacred and Mundane". Outside band related endeavours, Lifeson composed the theme for the first season of the science-fiction TV series Andromeda. He also produced three songs from the album Away from the Sun by 3 Doors Down. He was executive producer and contributor to the 2014 album "Come to Life" by Keram Malicki-Sanchez - playing guitar on the songs "Mary Magdalene", "Moving Dark Circles" and "The Devil Knows Me Well," and later on Keram's subsequent singles "Artificial Intelligence," (2019), "That Light," (2020) and "Rukh." (2021). Alex Lifeson is featured on Marco Minnemann's 2017 release Borrego, on which he played guitars on three songs and co-wrote the track "On That Note". In 2018, he played lead guitar on Fu Manchu's 18-minute mostly instrumental track "Il Mostro Atomico" from the group's Clone of the Universe album. In 2019 he was featured on the song "Charmed" from the Don Felder solo album American Rock 'n' Roll. On 15 June 2021, Lifeson released two new instrumental songs, "Kabul Blues" and "Spy House" on his website alexlifeson.com. The songs were released as a self titled project. Andy Curran played bass on both songs, and drums on "Spy House" were done by David Quinton Steinberg. ===Envy of None=== The first single, "Liar", from Envy of None's debut album was released on 12 January 2022. Envy of None consists of Lifeson, Curran, singer Maiah Wynne, and producer and engineer Alfio Annibalini. Envy of None's self-titled debut album, which includes "Liar," "Kabul Blues," and "Spy House," was released on 8 April. ===Television and film appearances=== Lifeson made his film debut as himself under his birth name in the 1973 Canadian documentary film Come on Children. He has appeared in several installments of the Canadian mockumentary franchise Trailer Park Boys. In 2003, he was featured in an episode titled "Closer to the Heart", playing a partly fictional version of himself. In the episode, he is kidnapped by Ricky and held as punishment for his inability (or refusal) to provide the main characters with free tickets to a Rush concert. In the end of the episode, Alex reconciles with the characters, and performs a duet of "Closer to the Heart" with Bubbles at the trailer park. In 2006, Lifeson appeared in Trailer Park Boys: The Movie as a traffic cop in the opening scene and in 2009 he appeared in their follow up movie, Trailer Park Boys: Countdown to Liquor Day, as an undercover vice cop in drag. In 2017, Lifeson appeared in an episode of the spin-off series Trailer Park Boys: Out of the Park: USA titled "Memphis." He also voiced Big Chunk in the first season of Trailer Park Boys: The Animated Series. In 2008, Lifeson and the rest of Rush played "Tom Sawyer" at the end of an episode of The Colbert Report. According to Colbert, this was their first appearance on American television as a band in 33 years. In 2009, he and the rest of the band appeared as themselves in the comedy I Love You, Man. Lifeson appears as the border guard in the 2009 movie Suck. Lifeson and bandmate Geddy Lee appeared in the series Chicago Fire, season 4, episode 6, called "2112", which first aired on 17 November 2015. The role of Dr. Funtime in The Drunk and On Drugs Happy Funtime Hour was originally written with Lifeson in mind, but due to scheduling conflicts the role was given to Maury Chaykin instead. ===Book forewords=== Lifeson has penned forewords to four books: Behind the Stage Door by Rich Engler in 2013; Shredders!: The Oral History Of Speed Guitar (And More) by Greg Prato in 2017; Geddy Lee's Big Beautiful Book of Bass by Geddy Lee in 2018; and Domenic Troiano: His Life and Music by Mark Doble and Frank Troiano in 2021. ===Personal life=== Lifeson disclosed that he had surgery on his stomach in 2023, and as an aftereffect, he suffers from gastroparesis, and that a visit to a wellness clinic in Austria that focuses on digestive system in January 2025 helped. In an interview with AllMusic, he said, "I was miserable for pretty much a year and a half...until I went to Vivamayr, and they just taught me how to take control of how I'm eating, what to eat, when to eat. And it's just remarkable." ==Guitar equipment== ===Early Rush (1970s)=== In Rush's early career, Lifeson used a Gibson ES-335 for the first tour. In 1976, Lifeson bought a 1974 Gibson Les Paul. He used both guitars until the late 1970s. He had a Fender Stratocaster with a Bill Lawrence humbucker and Floyd Rose vibrato bridge as backup "and for a different sound." and his main guitar became a white Gibson ES-355. He played a twelve-string Gibson B-45 on songs like "Closer to the Heart." He would start using them again twenty years later. He also played a Gibson Howard Roberts Fusion and an Ovation Adamas acoustic/electric guitar. He would continue to play PRS for the next sixteen years through the recording and touring of Counterparts, Test for Echo and Vapor Trails as well as the R30 tour. During this period, he also played several Fender Telecasters. ===2000s onward: Return to Gibson guitars=== In 2011, Lifeson said that for the past few years he "used Gibson almost exclusively. There's nothing like having a low-slung Les Paul over my shoulder." ====Gibson "Alex Lifeson Axcess"==== In early 2011, Gibson introduced the "Alex Lifeson Axcess", a guitar specially designed for him. These are custom made Les Pauls with Floyd Rose tremolo systems and piezoacoustic pick-ups. He used these two custom Les Pauls on the Time Machine Tour. These guitars are also available through Gibson, in a viceroy Brown or Crimson colour. Lifeson used these two guitars heavily on the tour. ====Gibson R40 Signature Les Paul Axcess==== Gibson introduced an Alex Lifeson R40 Les Paul Axcess signature guitar in June 2015. This is a limited edition with 50 guitars signed and played by Lifeson, and another 250 available without the signature. ====Gibson Custom Alex Lifeson Signature ES Les Paul semi-hollow==== At the 2017 Winter NAMM Show, Gibson representative Mike Voltz introduced an Antique White Gibson Custom Alex Lifeson Signature ES Les Paul semi-hollow guitar, a hybrid of a Les Paul Custom & an ES 335, with only 200 made. Voltz also introduced the Antique White as a new color from Gibson for this Custom (note: Gibson names this color as 'Classic White' on their web site which may be an error due to other Gibson reps labeling it as Antique White). Alex played this Custom on the last Rush tour. ===Amplification=== In 2005, Hughes & Kettner introduced an Alex Lifeson signature series amplifier; Lifeson donates his royalties from the sale of these signature models to UNICEF. ===Effects=== For effects, Lifeson is known to use chorus, phase shifting, delay and flanging. Throughout his career, he has used well-known pedals such as the Echoplex delay pedal, Electro-Harmonix Electric Mistress flanger, the BOSS CE-1 chorus and the Dunlop crybaby wah, among others. Lifeson and his guitar technician Scott Appleton have discussed in interviews Lifeson's use of Fractal Audio's Axe-FX, Apple Inc.'s MainStage, and Native Instruments' Guitar Rig. ==Other instruments played== ===Stringed instruments=== In addition to acoustic and electric guitars, Lifeson has also played mandola, mandolin and bouzouki on some Rush studio albums, including Test for Echo, Vapor Trails and Snakes & Arrows. For his Victor project and Little Drummer Boy for the Merry Axemas album, he also played bass and programmed synthesizers. ===Electronic instruments=== During live Rush performances, Lifeson used MIDI controllers that enabled him to use his free hands and feet to trigger sounds from digital samplers and synthesizers, without taking his hands off his guitar. (Prior to this, Lifeson used Moog Taurus Bass Pedals before they were replaced by Korg MIDI pedals in the 1980s.) Lifeson and his bandmates shared a desire to accurately depict songs from their albums when playing live performances. Toward this goal, beginning in the late 1980s the band equipped their live performances with a capacious rack of samplers. The band members used these samplers in real-time to recreate the sounds of non-traditional instruments, accompaniments, vocal harmonies, and other sound "events" that are familiarly heard on the studio versions of the songs. In live performances, the band members shared duties throughout most songs, with each member triggering certain sounds with his available limbs, while playing his primary instrument(s). John Petrucci of Dream Theater, Steven Wilson of Porcupine Tree, Jim Martin of Faith No More, Denis "Piggy" D'Amour of Voivod, Parris Mayhew formerly of Cro-Mags, and John Wesley. Marillion guitarist Steve Rothery has expressed his admiration for Lifeson's "dexterity" as a live performer; he also described Rush as a "fantastic live band". Jazz guitarist Kurt Rosenwinkel, after citing him as an influence, praised his "incredible sound and imagination". == Awards and honours == "Best Rock Talent" by Guitar for the Practicing Musician in 1983 "Best Rock Guitarist" by Guitar Player Magazine in 1984 and May 2008 Runner-up for "Best Rock Guitarist" in Guitar Player in 1982, 1983, 1985, 1986 Inducted into the Guitar for the Practicing Musician Hall of Fame, 1991 1996 – Officer of the Order of Canada, along with bandmates Geddy Lee and Neil Peart 2007 – Main belt asteroid "(19155) Lifeson" named after Alex Lifeson "Best Article" for "Different Strings" in Guitar Player (September 2007 issue). Most Ferociously Brilliant Guitar Album (Snakes & Arrows) – Guitar Player Magazine, May 2008 2013 – With Rush, Rock and Roll Hall of Fame inductee == Discography == === With Rush === === Solo === === With Envy of None === Following Rush's dissolution in 2018 and Neil Peart's death in 2020, Lifeson formed the supergroup Envy of None with himself on guitar, mandola and banjo, Alfio Annibalini on guitar and keyboards, Andy Curran on bass, guitar and backing vocals and Maiah Wynne on lead vocals and keyboards. === Collaborations === === Appearances ===	[ "Rik Emmett", "Maury Chaykin", "Aviator", "Crying Over You", "mandolin", "Lawrence Gowan", "List of Rock and Roll Hall of Fame inductees", "NAMM Show", "Lost Brotherhood", "Paul Gilbert", "Vapor Trails", "calque", "gastroparesis", "Steven Wilson", "Mick Fleetwood", "Jordan Rudess", "Rolling Stone", "Asexuals (band)", "Ian Gillan", "hardcore punk", "Toronto", "Cro-Mags", "Randy McStine", "John Wesley (guitarist)", "John Mayall", "Eric Clapton", "Nobody Told Me (album)", "George Harrison", "Guitar for the Practicing Musician", "Tom Morello", "Ghost Rider: Travels on the Healing Road", "Nick Beggs", "Away from the Sun", "Yes (band)", "Closer to the Heart", "Jazz.com", "Trailer Park Boys: The Animated Series", "Netherlands", "Jakalope", "Guitar World", "Geddy Lee", "mandola", "Keram Malicki-Sanchez", "The Colbert Report", "Gibson ES-355", "Ragged Ass Road (album)", "The Mute Gods", "Steve Hackett", "Denny Laine", "John Kastner", "Counterparts (Rush album)", "Scenery and Fish", "Guitar Player", "Fender Telecaster", "Electro-Harmonix", "High school (North America)", "Grace Under Pressure (Rush album)", "Pete Townshend", "Jim McCarty", "3 Doors Down", "Tony Iommi", "Andy Curran (musician)", "Emerson, Lake & Palmer", "April Wine", "Vintage Guitar (magazine)", "synthesizer", "The Drunk and On Drugs Happy Funtime Hour", "Black Sabbath", "Allan Holdsworth", "Alien Shores", "Marco Minnemann", "Parris Mitchell Mayhew", "Trailer Park Boys: The Movie", "Matthew McCauley (producer)", "Smoke on the Water", "Trailer Park Boys", "hard rock", "Iron Maiden", "I Mother Earth", "Fear Of A Blank Planet", "King Crimson", "Mashmakhan", "Chicago Fire (TV series)", "Gibson B series", "Tiles (band)", "Robb Wells", "Fernie, British Columbia", "New Bay Media", "Jimmy Page", "AllMusic", "Heavy metal music", "Kurt Rosenwinkel", "Dream Theater", "Mike Smith (actor)", "Jimi Hendrix", "Maiah Wynne", "Marillion", "Bill Lawrence (guitar maker)", "Howard Roberts", "Steven Van Zandt", "Brian May", "Steve Rothery", "Progressive rock", "Serbs", "Pink Floyd", "Native Instruments", "Styx (band)", "Trailer Park Boys: Countdown to Liquor Day", "Edwin (musician)", "Slash (musician)", "Gibson ES-335", "Pickup (music technology)", "Atlantic Records", "Faith No More", "harmonies", "Rage Against the Machine", "Živojinović", "Jim Martin (musician)", "Voivod (band)", "Brian Greenway", "string instrument", "Hughes & Kettner", "Come on Children", "Time Machine Tour", "Fear of a Blank Planet", "Fu Manchu (band)", "Platinum Blonde (band)", "Hiwatt", "Rush (band)", "PRS Guitars", "The Atlas Underground Flood", "Mohini Dey", "WKCR", "Mr. Big (American band)", "Universal Juveniles", "U.K. (band)", "Rock Aid Armenia", "James LaBrie", "Envy of None", "Extended play", "Kirk Hammett", "blues rock", "19155 Lifeson", "Roll The Bones", "Order of Canada", "Loudwire", "UNICEF", "Clone of the Universe", "Keram Malicki-Sánchez", "Echoplex", "John Rutsey", "The Yardbirds", "John Petrucci", "effects unit", "Born 4", "Dunlop crybaby", "Eddie Van Halen", "Big Dirty Band", "Denis \"Piggy\" D'Amour", "Neil Peart", "Porcupine Tree", "Gibson Les Paul", "American Rock 'n' Roll", "Yugoslavia", "Mercury Records", "Spoonful", "The Little Drummer Boy", "Apple Inc.", "Test for Echo", "Andromeda (TV series)", "sampler (musical instrument)", "mockumentary", "Mainstage (software)", "Triumph (band)", "Winnipeg Free Press", "Joe Satriani", "Deep Purple", "Led Zeppelin", "flanger", "Steve Vai", "Big Sugar (band)", "Atheists and Believers", "Metal Rules", "Gibson EDS-1275", "Hank Marvin", "Anthem Records", "Serbian language", "Main belt asteroid", "The Dudes (1970s band)", "Hugh Syme", "Sampler (musical instrument)", "W. H. Auden", "chorus effect", "Robert Fripp", "Boss Corporation", "Envy of None (album)", "Rotterdam", "phase shifting", "Fender Stratocaster", "MIDI controller", "Todd Rundgren", "accompaniment", "Jeff Jones (bassist)", "Ritchie Blackmore", "IMDb", "Floyd Rose", "A Farewell to Kings", "Austria", "Chad Smith", "James Hetfield", "Moog Taurus", "Jeff Beck", "The New York Times", "Don Felder", "Queen (band)", "viola", "Jam session", "Xanadu (Rush song)", "Max Webster", "bouzouki", "Shawn Hammond", "Tom Cochrane", "I Love You, Man", "Victor (Alex Lifeson album)", "Ovation Guitar Company", "Blue Dog Pict", "Snakes & Arrows", "Joe Bonamassa", "Metallica" ]
2,894	AZ	AZ or az may refer to: ==Arts and entertainment== Authority Zero, an Arizona punk rock band AZ (record label), a French record label Abendzeitung, a newspaper based in Munich, Germany Assignment Zero, a crowdsourced journalism project ==Companies and organizations== Alkmaar Zaanstreek, formerly AZ '67, a Dutch Eredivisie football club AZ (women), the affiliated women's football club (2007–2011) AstraZeneca, a UK-based pharmaceutical company Oxford–AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine (AZ), their COVID-19 vaccine ITA Airways (IATA code: AZ), the national airline of Italy Alitalia (former IATA code: AZ), a former Italian airline Ministry of General Affairs (), a Dutch Government ministry ==People== Az people, Turkophone people from present-day Russia AZ (rapper) (born 1972), rapper from Brooklyn, New York, US Azie Faison (born 1964; known as AZ), former drug dealer from New York, US ==Places== Arizona (postal abbreviation: AZ), a US state Azerbaijan (ISO 3166-1 country code: AZ), a Eurasian country ==Science and technology== .az, the country code top level domain for the nation of Azerbaijan AlphaZero, game-playing artificial intelligence Azimuth, the horizontal component of a compass direction Toyota AZ engine, an engine family ==Other uses== Azerbaijani language (ISO 639-1 code: az) Lighter-than-air aircraft tender (AZ), a US Navy hull classification symbol Az, the acrophonic name of the letter A (Cyrillic) in the old Russian alphabet	[ "Authority Zero", "Azerbaijan", "AZ (rapper)", "AlphaZero", "A (Cyrillic)", "A–Z (disambiguation)", "Alitalia", "Ministry of General Affairs", ".az", "Alkmaar Zaanstreek", "Assignment Zero", "AZ (record label)", "Azimuth", "Azerbaijani language", "Toyota AZ engine", "ITA Airways", "AZ1 (disambiguation)", "ZA (disambiguation)", "Oxford–AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine", "Az people", "Arizona", "List of auxiliaries of the United States Navy", "Azie Faison", "AstraZeneca", "AZ (women)", "Abendzeitung" ]
2,899	ArgoUML	ArgoUML is an UML diagramming application written in Java and released under the open source Eclipse Public License. By virtue of being a Java application, it is available on any platform supported by Java SE. ==History== ArgoUML was originally developed at UC Irvine by Jason E. Robbins, leading to his Ph.D. It was an open source project hosted by Tigris.org and moved in 2019 to GitHub. The ArgoUML project included more than 19,000 registered users and over 150 developers. In 2003, ArgoUML won the Software Development Magazine's annual Readers' Choice Award in the “Design and Analysis Tools” category. ArgoUML development has suffered from lack of manpower. For example, Undo has been a perpetually requested feature since 2003 but has not been implemented yet. ==Features== According to the official feature list, ArgoUML is capable of the following: All 9 UML 1.4 diagrams are supported. Closely follows the UML standard. Platform independent – Java 1.5+ and C++. Click and Go! with Java Web Start (no setup required, starts from your web browser). Standard UML 1.4 Metamodel. XMI support. Export diagrams as GIF, PNG, PS, EPS, PGML and SVG. Available in ten languages: EN, EN-GB, DE, ES, IT, RU, FR, NB, PT, ZH. Advanced diagram editing and zoom. Built-in design critics provide unobtrusive review of design and suggestions for improvements. Extensible modules interface. OCL support. Forward engineering (code generation supports C++ and C#, Java, PHP 4, PHP 5, Ruby and, with less mature modules, Ada, Delphi and SQL). Reverse engineering / JAR/class file import. ==Weaknesses== ArgoUML does not yet completely implement the UML standard. Partial undo feature (working for graphics edits ) Java Web Start launching may no longer work reliably. See Java Web Start.	[ "C", "Norwegian language", "PHP 5", "SQL", "XML Metadata Interchange", "Encapsulated PostScript", "French language", "Java Web Start", "Java SE", "Java (programming language)", "Platform independent", "PostScript", "Spanish language", "Chinese language", "metamodeling", "Open-source license", "Russian language", "GIF", "Scalable vector graphics", "Object Constraint Language", "Software development", "PHP", "Doctor of Philosophy", "Ruby (programming language)", "Portuguese language", "Italian language", "PGML", "C++", "Reverse engineering", "Eclipse Public License", "JAR (file format)", "British English", "UML Tool", "MetaCASE tool", "Delphi (software)", "Unified Modeling Language", "GitHub", "English language", "University of California, Irvine", "Ada (programming language)", "List of UML tools", "German language", "Portable Network Graphics" ]
2,900	File archiver	In computing, a file archiver is utility software that combines files into a single archive file or in less common cases, multiple files. A minimally designed archiver might concatenate the content of files along with file name and length. A more advanced archiver stores additional metadata, such as the timestamps, file attributes and access control information. An archiver might compress input file content to reduce the size of the resulting archive. The process of making an archive file is called archiving or packing. Reconstructing the original files from an archive is called unarchiving, unpacking or extracting. ==Multics== In the early days of computing, Multics provided the command a basic archiver without compression that descended from the CTSS command of the same name. Multics also provided a magnetic tape archiver command, , which was perhaps the forerunner of the Unix command . ==Unix== As the Unix archive tools ar, tar, and cpio do not provide compression, other tools, such as gzip, bzip2, or xz, are used to compress an archive file after it is created and to decompress before extracting. Not only does separating archiving from compressing follow the Unix philosophy that each tool should provide a single capability; not attempt to accomplish everything with one tool, it has the following advantages: As compression technology progresses, users may use a different compression tool without having to change how they use the archiver Solid compression allows the compressor can exploit redundancy across multiple archived files to achieve better compression than compressing each file individually Disadvantages include: Extracting a single file requires decompressing the entire file, which can be costly in terms of time and storage space; adding a file to an existing archive requires both decompression and recompression The archive becomes damage-prone; corruption in any part of the file might cause all files to be lost A challenge: Compression cannot take advantage of redundancy between files unless the compression window is larger than the size of an individual file; for example, gzip uses DEFLATE, which typically operates with a 32768-byte window, whereas bzip2 uses a Burrows–Wheeler transform roughly 27 times bigger; xz defaults to 8 MiB but supports significantly larger windows Generally, extensions are successively added to the file name to indicate the operations performed and therefore required to read a file. For example, archiving with command and then compressing with command might be indicated with the .tar.gz extension. ==Windows== Archiving tools on Windows tend to have a graphical user interface (GUI) and to include compression including the built-in Windows feature as well as commonly used, third-party tools such as WinRAR and 7-Zip. Unlike the built-in feature, WinRAR and 7-zip also provide a command-line interface (CLI) and solid compression.	[ "cpio", "archive file", "WinRAR", "metadata", "Comparison of archive formats", "bzip2", "command-line interface", "Multics", "Compatible Time-Sharing System", "Archive format", "filename extension", "solid compression", "Burrows–Wheeler transform", "Solid compression", "DEFLATE", "ar (Unix)", "computing", "Unix", "file name", "Unix philosophy", "utility software", "Microsoft Windows", "gzip", "tar (file format)", "XZ Utils", "7-Zip", "List of archive formats", "Timestamping (computing)", "graphical user interface", "computer file", "file attribute", "lossless data compression", "Comparison of file archivers", "magnetic tape" ]
2,905	Artemis	In ancient Greek religion and mythology, Artemis (; ) is the goddess of the hunt, the wilderness, wild animals, transitions, nature, vegetation, childbirth, care of children, and chastity. In later times, she was identified with Selene, the personification of the Moon. She was often said to roam the forests and mountains, attended by her entourage of nymphs. The goddess Diana is her Roman equivalent. In Greek tradition, Artemis is the daughter of Zeus and Leto, and twin sister of Apollo. In most accounts, the twins are the products of an extramarital liaison. For this, Zeus' wife Hera forbade Leto from giving birth anywhere on solid land. Only the island of Delos gave refuge to Leto, allowing her to give birth to her children. In one account, Artemis is born first and then proceeds to assist Leto in the birth of the second twin, Apollo. Artemis was a kourotrophic (child-nurturing) deity, being the patron and protector of young children, especially young girls. Artemis was worshipped as one of the primary goddesses of childbirth and midwifery along with Eileithyia and Hera. She was also a patron of healing and disease, particularly among women and children, and believed to send both good health and illness upon women and children. Artemis was one of the three major virgin goddesses, alongside Athena and Hestia. Artemis preferred to remain an unmarried maiden and was one of the three Greek goddesses over whom Aphrodite had no power. In myth and literature, Artemis is presented as a hunting goddess of the woods, surrounded by her chaste band of nymphs. In the myth of Actaeon, when the young hunter sees her bathing naked, he is transformed into a deer by the angered goddess and is then devoured by his own hunting dogs, who do not recognize their master. In the story of Callisto, the girl is driven away from Artemis' company after breaking her vow of virginity, having lain with and been impregnated by Zeus. In the Epic tradition, Artemis halted the winds blowing the Greek ships during the Trojan War, stranding the Greek fleet in Aulis, after King Agamemnon, the leader of the expedition, shot and killed her sacred deer. Artemis demanded the sacrifice of Iphigenia, Agamemnon's young daughter, as compensation for her slain deer. In most versions, when Iphigenia is led to the altar to be offered as a sacrifice, Artemis pities her and takes her away, leaving a deer in her place. In the war that followed, Artemis supported the Trojans against the Greeks, and she challenged Hera in battle. Artemis was one of the most widely venerated of the Ancient Greek deities; her worship spread throughout ancient Greece, with her multiple temples, altars, shrines, and local veneration found everywhere in the ancient world. Her great temple at Ephesus was one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, before it was burnt to the ground. Artemis' symbols included a bow and arrow, a quiver, and hunting knives, and the deer and the cypress were sacred to her. Diana, her Roman equivalent, was especially worshipped on the Aventine Hill in Rome, near Lake Nemi in the Alban Hills, and in Campania. although various sources have been proposed. R.S.P. Beekes suggested that the e/i interchange points to a Pre-Greek origin. Artemis was venerated in Lydia as Artimus. Georgios Babiniotis, while accepting that the etymology is unknown, also states that the name is already attested in Mycenean Greek and is possibly of pre-Greek origin. this cult was a survival of very old totemic and shamanistic rituals and formed part of a larger bear cult found further afield in other Indo-European cultures (e.g., Gaulish Artio). It is believed that a precursor of Artemis was worshipped in Minoan Crete as the goddess of mountains and hunting, Britomartis. While connection with Anatolian names has been suggested, the earliest attested forms of the name Artemis are the Mycenaean Greek , a-te-mi-to /Artemitos/ (gen.) and , a-ti-mi-te /Artimitei/ (dat.), written in Linear B at Pylos. Charles Anthon argued that the primitive root of the name is probably of Persian origin from arta, art, *arte, all meaning "great, excellent, holy", thus Artemis "becomes identical with the great mother of Nature, even as she was worshiped at Ephesus". or, like Plato did in Cratylus, to , artemḗs, i.e. "safe", "unharmed", "uninjured", "pure", "the stainless maiden". A. J. van Windekens tried to explain both and Artemis from , atremḗs, meaning "unmoved, calm; stable, firm" via metathesis. ==Description== Artemis is presented as a goddess who delights in hunting and punishes harshly those who cross her. Artemis' wrath is proverbial, and represents the hostility of wild nature to humans. Artemis was one of the most popular goddesses in Ancient Greece. The most frequent name of a month in the Greek calendars was Artemision in Ionic, territories Artemisios or Artamitios in the Doric and Aeolic territories and in Macedonia. Also Elaphios in Elis, Elaphebolion in Athens, Iasos, Apollonia of Chalkidice and Munichion in Attica. In the calendars of Aetolia, Phocis and Gytheion there was the month Laphrios and in Thebes, Corcyra, and Byzantion the month Eucleios. The goddess was venerated in festivals during spring. In some cults she retains the theriomorphic form of a Pre-Greek goddess who was conceived with the shape of a bear (άρκτος árktos: bear). Kallisto in Arcadia is a hypostasis of Artemis with the shape of a bear, and her cults at Brauron and at Piraeus (Munichia) are remarkable for the arkteia where virgin girls before marriage were disguised as she-bears. The ancient Greeks called potnia theron the representation of the goddess between animals; on a Greek vase from circa 570 BCE, a winged Artemis stands between a spotted panther and a deer. "Potnia theron" is very close to the daimons and this differentiates her from the other Greek divinities. This is the reason that Artemis was later identified with Hecate, since the daimons were tutelary deities. Hecate was the goddess of crossroads and she was the queen of the witches. Laphria is the Pre-Greek "mistress of the animals" at Delphi and Patras. There was a custom to throw animals alive into the annual fire of the fest. Other epithets that relate Artemis to the animals are Amarynthia and Kolainis.}} According to the beliefs of the first Greeks in Arcadia Artemis is the first nymph, a goddess of free nature. She is an independent free woman, and she does not need any partner. She is hunting surrounded by her nymphs. This idea of freedom and women's skill is expressed in many Greek myths. Artemis is the leader of the nymphs (Hegemone) and she is hunting surrounded by them. The nymphs appear during the festival of the marriage, and they are appealed by the pregnant women. The female dancers wore masks and were famous in antiquity. The goddess of vegetation was also related to the tree-cult with temples near the holy trees and the surnames Apanchomene, Caryatis and Cedreatis. According to Greek beliefs the image of a god or a goddess gave signs or tokens and had divine and magic powers. With these conceptions she was worshipped as Tauria (the Tauric, goddess), Aricina (Italy) and Anaitis (Lydia). In the bucolic (pastoral) songs the image of the goddess was discovered in bundles of leaves or dry sticks and she had the surnames Lygodesma and Phakelitis. In the European folklore, a wild hunter is chasing an elfish woman who falls in the water. In the Greek myths the hunter is chasing a female deer (doe) and both disappear into the waters. In relation to these myths Artemis was worshipped as Saronia and Stymphalia . The myth of a goddess who is chased and then falls in the sea is related to the cults of Aphaea and Diktynna. In Athens and Tegea, she was worshipped as Artemis Kalliste, "the most beautiful". Sometimes the goddess had the name of an Amazon like Lyceia (with a helmet of a wolf-skin) and Molpadia. The female warriors Amazons embody the idea of freedom and women's independence. In spite of her status as a virgin who avoided potential lovers, there are multiple references to Artemis' beauty and erotic aspect; in the Odyssey, Odysseus compares Nausicaa to Artemis in terms of appearance when trying to win her favor, Libanius, when praising the city of Antioch, wrote that Ptolemy was smitten by the beauty of (the statue of) Artemis; whereas her mother Leto often took pride in her daughter's beauty. == Epithets and functions == Artemis is rooted to the less developed personality of the Mycenean goddess of nature. The goddess of nature was concerned with birth and vegetation and had certain chthonic aspects. The Mycenean goddess was related to the Minoan mistress of the animals, who can be traced later in local cults, however we do not know to what extent we can differentiate the Minoan from the Mycenean religion. Artemis carries with her certain functions and characteristics of a Minoan form whose history was lost in the myths. In Greek religion we must see less tractable elements which have nothing to do with the Olympians, but come from an old, less organized world–exorcisms, rituals to raise crops, gods and goddesses conceived not quite in human shape. Some cults of Artemis retained the pre-Greek features which were consecrated by immemorial practices and connected with daily tasks. Artemis shows sometimes the wild and darker side of her character and can bring immediate death with her arrows, however she embodies the idea of "the free nature" which was introduced by the first Greeks. The Dorians came later in the area, probably from Epirus and the goddess of nature was mostly interpreted as a vegetation goddess who was related to the ecstatic Minoan tree-cult. She was worshipped in orgiastic cults with lascivious and sometimes obscene dances, which have pure Greek elements introduced by the Dorians. The feminine (sometimes male) dancers wore usually masks, and they were famous in the antiquity. The great popularity of Artemis corresponds to the Greek belief in freedom and she is mainly the goddess of women and children. The goddess of free nature is independent and celibate. Artemis is frequently depicted carrying a torch and she was occasionally identified with Hecate. Like other Greek deities, she had a number of other names applied to her, reflecting the variety of roles, duties, and aspects ascribed to the goddess. Aeginaea, probably huntress of chamois or the wielder of the javelin, at Sparta However the word may mean "from the island Aegina", that relates Artemis with Aphaia (Britomartis). Aetole, of Aetolia at Nafpaktos. A marble statue represented the goddess in the attitude of one hurling a javelin. Agoraea, guardian of popular assemblies in Athens. She was considered to be the protector of the assemblies of the people in the agora. At Olympia the cult of "Artemis Agoraea" was related to the cult of Despoinai. (The double named goddesses Demeter and Persephone). It was believed that she first hunted at Agrae of Athens after her arrival from Delos. There was a custom of making a "slaughter sacrifice", to the goddess before a battle. The deer always accompanies the goddess of hunting. Her epithet Agraea is similar with Agrotera. Alphaea, in the district of Elis. The goddess had an annual festival at Olympia and a temple at Letrinoi near the river Alpheus. Amarynthia, or Amarysia, with a famous temple at Amarynthus near Eretria. The goddess was related to the animals, however she was also a healer goddess of women. She is identified with Kolainis. Amphipyros, with fire at each end, a rare epithet of Artemis as bearing a torch in either hand. Sophocles calls her, "Elaphebolos, (deer slayer) Amphipyros", reminding the annual fire of the festival Laphria The adjective refers also to the twin fires of the two peaks of the Mount Parnassus above Delphi (Phaedriades). Anaitis, in Lydia. The fame of Tauria (the Tauric goddess) was very high, and the Lydians claimed that the image of the goddess was among them. It was considered that the image had divine powers. The Athenians believed that the image became booty to the Persians and was carried from Brauron to Susa. Angelos, messenger, envoy, title of Artemis at Syracuse in Sicily. Apanchomene, the strangled goddess, at Caphyae in Arcadia. She was a vegetation goddess related to the ecstatic tree cult. The Minoan tree goddesses Helene, Dentritis, and Ariadne were also hanged. This epithet is related to the old traditions where icons and puppets of a vegetation goddess would be hung on a tree. It was believed that the plane tree near the spring at Caphyae, was planted by Menelaus, the husband of Helen of Troy. The tree was called "Menelais". The previous name of the goddess was most likely Kondyleatis. Aphaea, or Apha, unseen or disappeared, a goddess at Aegina and a rare epithet of Artemis. Aphaea is identified with Britomartis. In the legend Britomartis (the sweet young woman) escaped from Minos, who fell in love with her. She travelled to Aegina on a wooden boat and then she disappeared. The myth indicates an identity in nature with Diktynna. Aricina, derived from the town Aricia in Latium, or from Aricia, the wife of the Roman forest god Virbius (Hippolytus). The goddess was related with Artemis Tauria (the Tauric Artemis). Her statue was considered the same with the statue that Orestes brought from Tauris. Near the sanctuary of the goddess there was a combat between slaves who had run away from their masters and the prize was the priesthood of Artemis. Ariste, the best, a goddess of the women. Pausanias describes xoana of "Ariste" and "Kalliste" in the way to the academy of Athens and he believes that the names are surnames of the goddess Artemis, who is depicted carrying a torch. Kalliste is not related to Kalliste of Arcadia. Astrateia, she that stops an invasion, at Pyrrichos in Laconia. A wooden image (xoanon), was dedicated to the goddess, because she stopped the invasion of the Amazons in this area. Another xoanon represented "Apollo Amazonios". Basileie, at Thrace and Paeonia. The women offered wheat stalks to the goddess. In this cult, which reached Athens, Artemis is relative to the Thracian goddess Bendis. Brauronia, worshipped at Brauron in Attica. Her cult is remarkable for the "arkteia", young girls who dressed with short saffron-yellow chitons and imitated bears (she-bears: arktoi). In the Acropolis of Athens, the Athenian girls before puberty should serve the goddess as "arktoi". Boulaia, of the council, in Athens. Caryatis, the lady of the nut-tree, at Caryae on the borders between Laconia and Arcadia. Artemis was strongly related to the nymphs, and young girls were dancing the dance Caryatis. The dancers of Caryai were famous in antiquity. In a legend, Carya, the female lover of Dionysos was transformed into a nut tree and the dancers into nuts. The city is considered to be the place of the origin of the bucolic (pastoral) songs. Chitonia, wearing a loose tunic, at Syracuse in Sicily, as goddess of hunting. The festival was distinguished by a peculiar dance and by a music on the flute. In a legend, when the old goddess became wrathful, she would send the terrible Erymanthian boar to lay waste to fields. Artemis can bring an immediate death with her arrows. In the Iliad, Hera stresses the wild and darker side of her character and she accuses her of being "a lioness between women". Chrisinios, of the golden reins, as a goddess of hunting in her chariot. In the Iliad, in her wrath, she kills the daughter of Bellerophon. Cnagia, near Sparta in Laconia. In a legend the native Cnageus was sold as a slave in Crete. He escaped to his country taking with him the virgin priestess of the goddess Artemis. The priestess carried with her from Crete the statue of the goddess, who was named Cnagia. Cynthia, as goddess of the moon, from her birthplace on Mount Cynthos at Delos. Selene, the Greek personification of the moon, and the Roman Diana were also sometimes called Cynthia. Daphnaea, as goddess of vegetation. Her name is most likely derived from the "laurel-branch" which was used as "May-branch", or an allusion to her statue being made of laurel-wood (daphne) Strabo refers to her annual festival at Olympia. Diktynna, from Mount Dikti, who is identified with the Minoan goddess Britomartis. Her name is derived from the mountain Dikti in Crete. A folk etymology derives her name from the word "diktyon" (net). In the legend Britomartis (the sweet young woman) was hunting together with Artemis who loved her desperately. She escaped from Minos, who fell in love with her, by jumping into the sea and falling into a net of fishes. Eileithyia, goddess of childbirth in Boeotia and other local cults especially in Crete and Laconia. During the Bronze Age, in the cave of Amnisos, she was related to the annual birth of the divine child. In the Minoan myth the child was abandoned by his mother and then he was nurtured by the powers of nature. Elaphia, goddess of hunting (deer). Strabo refers to her annual festival at Olympia. and the name of a month in several local cults. Sophocles calls Artemis "Elaphebolos, Amphipyros", carrying a torch in each hand. This was used during the annual fire of the festival of Laphria at Delphi. Ephesia, at the city Ephesus of Minor Asia. The city was a great center of the cult of the goddess, with a magnificent temple, (Artemision). Ephesia belongs to the series of the Anatolian goddesses (Great mother, or mountain-mother). However she is not a mother-goddess, but the goddess of free nature. In the Homeric Ionic sphere she is the goddess of hunting. "Eukleios" was the name of a month in several cities and "Eucleia" was the name of a festival at Delphi. In Athens Peitho, Harmonia and Eucleia can create a good marriage. The bride would sacrifice to the virgin goddess Artemis. Eupraxis, fine acting. On a relief from Sicily the goddess is depicted holding a torch in one hand and an offering on the other. The torch was used for the ignition of the fire on the altar. Eurynome, wide ruling, at Phigalia in Arcadia. Her wooden image (xoanon) was bound with a roller golden chain. The xoanon depicted a woman's upper body and the lower body of a fish. Pausanias identifies her as one of the Oceanids daughters of Oceanus and Tethys Hagemo, or Hegemone, leader, as the leader of the nymphs. Artemis was playing and dancing with the nymphs who lived near springs, waters and forests and she was hunting surrounded by them. The nymphs joined the festival of the marriage and then they returned to their original form. The pregnant women appealed to the nymphs for help. In Greek popular culture the commandress of the Neraiden (fairies) is called "Great lady", "Lady Kalo" or "Queen of the mountains". Hemeresia, the soothing goddess worshipped at well Lusoi Heurippa, horse finder, at Pheneus in Arcadia. Her sanctuary was near the bronze statue of Poseidon Hippios (horse). In a legend, Odysseus lost his mares and travelled throughout Greece to find them. He found his mares at Pheneus, where he founded the temple of "Artemis Heurippa". Hymnia, at Orchomenos in Boeotia. She was a goddess of dance and songs, especially of female choruses. The priestesses of Artemis Hymnia could not have a normal life like the other women. They were at first virgins and were to remain celibate in the priesthood. They could not use the same baths and they were not allowed to enter the house of a private man. Iakinthotrophos, nurse of Hyacinthos at Knidos. Hyacinthos was a god of vegetation with Minoan origin. After his birth he was abandoned by his mother and then he was nurtured by Artemis who represents the first power of nature. In the European and Greek popular religion the arrow-shots from invisible beings can bring diseases and death. Issora, or Isora, at Sparta, with the surname Limnaia or Pitanitis. Issorium was a part of a great summit which advances into the level of Eurotas a Pausanias identifies her with the Minoan Britomartis. Kallisto the attendant of Artemis, bore Arcas the patriarch of the Arcaden. In a legend Kallisto was transformed into a bear and in another myth Artemis shot her. Kallisto is a hypostasis of Artemis with a theriomorphic form from a pre-Greek cult. 'Keladeini, echoing chasing (noisy) in Homer's Iliad because she hunts wild boars and deer surrounded by her nymphs. 'Kithone, as a goddess of childbirth at Millet. Her name is probably derived from the custom of clothes consecration to the goddess, for a happy childbirth. The goddess became a healer goddess of women. Kondyleatis, named after the village Kondylea, where she had a grove and a temple. In a legend some boys tied a rope around the image of the goddess and said that Artemis was hanged. The boys were killed by the inhabitants and this caused a divine punishment. All the women brought dead children in the world, until the boys were honourably buried. An annual sacrifice was instituted to the divine spirits of the boys. Kondyleatis was most likely the original name of Artemis Apanchomeni. Kordaka, in Elis. Τhe dancers performed the obscene dance kordaka, which is considered the origin of the dance of the old comedy. The dance is famous for its nudge and hilarity and gave the name to the goddess. Korythalia, derived from Korythale, probably the "laurel May-branch", as a goddess of vegetation at Sparta. The epheboi and the girls who entered the marriage age placed the Korythale in front of the door of the house. In the cult the female dancers (famous in the antiquity) performed boisterous dances and were called Korythalistriai. In Italy, the male dancers wore wooden masks and they were called kyrritoi (pushing with the horns). Kourotrophos, protector of children. During the Apaturia the front hair of young girls and young boys (koureion) were offered to the goddess. "Laphria" was the name of the festival. The characteristic rite was the annual fire and there was a custom to throw animals alive in the flames during the fest. The cult of "Laphria" at Patras was transferred from the city Calydon of Aetolia In a legend during the Calydonian boar hunt the fierce-huntress Atalanta was the first who wounded the boar. Atalanta was a Greek heroine, symbolizing the free nature and independence Lecho, protector of a woman in childbed, or of one who has just given birth. Lochia, as goddess of childbirth and midwifery. Women consecrated clothes to the goddess for a happy childbirth. Other less common epithets of Artemis as goddess of childbirth are Eulochia and Geneteira. at Troezen in Argolis. It was believed that her temple was built by the hunter Hippolytus who abstained from sex and marriage. Lyceia was probably a surname of Artemis among the Amazons from whom Hippolytus descended from his mother. (Hippolyta). Lycoatis, with a bronze statue at the city Lycoa in Arcadia. The city was near the foot of the mountain Mainalo, which was sacred to, Pan. On the south slope the Mantineians fetched the bones of Arcas, the son of Kallisto.(Kalliste). Lygodesma, willow bound, at Sparta (another name of Orthia). In a legend her image was discovered in a thicket of willows. Melissa, bee or beauty of nature, as a moon goddess. In Neoplatonic philosophy melissa is any pure being of souls coming to birth. The goddess took suffering away from mothers giving birth. It was Melissa who drew souls coming to birth. Molpadia, singer of divine songs, a rare epithet of Artemis as a goddess of dances and songs and leader of the nymphs. Munichia, in a cult at Piraeus, related to the arkteia of Brauronian Artemis. According to legend, if someone killed a bear, he should be punished by sacrificing his daughter in the sanctuary. Embaros disguised his daughter by dressing her like a bear (arktos), and hid her in the adyton. He placed a goat on the altar and he sacrificed the goat instead of his daughter. Mysia, with a temple on the road from Sparta to Arcadia near the "Tomb of the Horse". Oenoatis, derived from the city Oenoe in Argolis. Above the town there was the mountain Artemisium, with the temple of the goddess on the summit. In a Greek legend the mountain was the place where Heracles chased and captured the terrible Ceryneian Hind, an enormous female deer with golden antlers and hooves of bronze. The deer was sacred to Artemis. Orthia, upright, with a famous festival at Sparta. Her cult was introduced by the Dorians. She was worshipped as a goddess of vegetation in an orgiastic cult with boisterous cyclic dances. Among the offerings, there were terracotta masks representing grotesque faces and it seems that animal-masks were also used. In literature there was a great fight for taking the pieces of cheese that were offered to the goddess. The whipping of the epheboi near the altar was a ritual of initiation, preparing them for their future life as soldiers. During this ritual the altar was full of blood. Paidotrophos, protector of children at Corone in Messenia. During a festival of Korythalia the wet-nurses brought the infants in the sanctuary of the goddess, to get her protection. In Pelopponnese Peitho is related to Artemis. In Athens Peitho is the consensual force in civilized society and emphasizes civic armony. Pheraia, from the city Pherai, at Argos, Athens and Sicyon. It was believed that the image of the goddess was brought from the city Pherai of Thessaly. This conception relates Artemis with the distinctly Thessalian goddess Enodia. Enodia had similar functions with Hecate and she carried the common epithet "Pheraia". Phakelitis, of the bundle, at Tyndaris in Sicily. In the local legend the image of the goddess was found in a bundle of dry sticks. Phosphoros, carrier of light. In Ancient Messene she is carrying a torch as a moon-goddess and she is identified with Hecate. In a legend Arethusa, was a chaste nymph and tried to escape from the river god Alpheus who fell in love with her. She was transformed by Artemis into a stream, traversed underground and appeared at Ortygia, thus providing water for the city. (Alfaea) (of the river god). Potnia Theron, mistress of the animals. The origin of her cult is Pre-Greek and the term is used by Homer for the goddess of hunting. She is the only Greek goddess who stands close to the daimons and she has a wild side which differentiates her from other Greek gods. In Arcadia and during the festival of Laphria, there is evidence of barbaric animal sacrifices. Saronia, of Saron, at Troezen across the Saronic gulf. In a legend the king Saron was chasing a doe that dashed into the sea. He followed the doe in the waters and he was drowned in the waves of the sea. He gave his name to the Saronic gulf. Selasphoros, carrier of light, flame, as a moon-goddess identified with Hecate, in the cult of Munichia at Piraeus. Stymphalia, of Stymphalus, a city in Arcadia. In a legend the water of the river descended in a chasm which was clogged up and the water overflowed creating a big marsh on the plain. A hunter was chasing a deer and both fell into the mud at the bottom of the chasm. The next day the whole water of the marsh dried up and the land was cultivated. Her image was considered to have been carried from Tauris by Orestes and Iphigenia and was brought to Brauron, Sparta or Aricia. Tauropolos, usually interpreted as hunting bull goddess. Tauropolos was not original in Greece and she has similar functions with foreign goddesses, especially with the mythical bull-goddess. The cult can be identified at Halae Araphenides in Attica. At the end of the peculiar festival, a man was sacrificed. He was killed in the ritual with a sword cutting his throat. Strabo mentions that during the night-fest of Tauropolia a girl was raped. Triclaria was a priestess of Artemis who made love with her lover in the sanctuary. They were punished to be sacrificed in the temple and each year the people should sacrifice a couple to the goddess. Europylus came carrying a chest with the image of Dionysos who put an end to the killings. Issoria (Ἰσσωρία), a name given to her from her shrine at Mount Issorion in Laconia. ==Mythology== ===Birth=== Various conflicting accounts are given in Greek mythology regarding the birth of Artemis and Apollo, her twin brother. In terms of parentage, though, all accounts agree that she was the daughter of Zeus and Leto and that she was the twin sister of Apollo. In some sources, she is born at the same time as Apollo; but in others, earlier or later. Although traditionally stated to be twins, the author of The Homeric Hymn 3 to Apollo (the oldest extant account of Leto's wandering and birth of her children) is only concerned with the birth of Apollo, and sidelines Artemis; in fact in the Homeric Hymn they are not stated to be twins at all. It is a slightly later poet, Pindar, who speaks of a single pregnancy. The two earliest poets, Homer and Hesiod, confirm Artemis and Apollo's status as full siblings born to the same mother and father, but neither explicitly makes them twins. According to Callimachus, Hera, who was angry with her husband Zeus for impregnating Leto, forbade her from giving birth on either terra firma (the mainland) or on an island, but the island of Delos disobeyed and allowed Leto to give birth there. According to some, this rooted the once freely floating island to one place. According to the Homeric Hymn to Artemis, however, the island where she and her twin were born was Ortygia. In ancient Cretan history, Leto was worshipped at Phaistos, and in Cretan mythology, Leto gave birth to Apollo and Artemis on the islands known today as Paximadia . A scholium of Servius on Aeneid iii. 72 accounts for the island's archaic name Ortygia by asserting that Zeus transformed Leto into a quail (ortux) to prevent Hera from finding out about his infidelity, and Kenneth McLeish suggested further that in quail form, Leto would have given birth with as few birth-pains as a mother quail suffers when she lays an egg. The myths also differ as to whether Artemis was born first, or Apollo. Most stories depict Artemis as firstborn, becoming her mother's midwife upon the birth of her brother Apollo. Servius, a late fourth/early fifth-century grammarian, wrote that Artemis was born first because at first it was night, whose instrument is the Moon, which Artemis represents, and then day, whose instrument is the Sun, which Apollo represents. Pindar however writes that both twins shone like the Sun when they came into the bright light. After their troubling childbirth, Leto took the twin infants and crossed over to Lycia, in the southwest corner of Asia Minor, where she tried to drink from and bathe the babies in a spring she found there. However, the local Lycian peasants tried to prevent the twins and their mother from making use of the water by stirring up the muddy bottom of the spring, so the three of them could not drink it. Leto, in her anger that the impious Lycians had refused to offer hospitality to a fatigued mother and her thirsty infants, transformed them all into frogs, forever doomed to swim and hop around the spring. ===Relations with men=== The river god Alpheus was in love with Artemis, but as he realized he could do nothing to win her heart, he decided to capture her. When Artemis and her companions at Letrenoi go to Alpheus, she becomes suspicious of his motives and covers her face with mud so he does not recognize her. In another story, Alphaeus tries to rape Artemis' attendant Arethusa. Artemis pities the girl and saves her, transforming her into a spring in the temple Artemis Alphaea in Letrini, where the goddess and her attendant drink. Bouphagos, son of the Titan Iapetus, sees Artemis and thinks about raping her. Reading his sinful thoughts, Artemis strikes him down at Mount Pholoe. Daphnis was a young boy, a son of Hermes, who was accepted by and became a follower of the goddess Artemis; Daphnis would often accompany her in hunting and entertain her with his singing of pastoral songs and playing of the panpipes. Artemis taught a man, Scamandrius, how to be a great archer, and he excelled in the use of a bow and arrow with her guidance. Broteas was a famous hunter who refused to honour Artemis, and boasted that nothing could harm him, not even fire. Artemis then drove him mad, causing him to walk into fire, ending his life. According to Antoninus Liberalis, Siproites was a Cretan who was metamorphized into a woman by Artemis, for, while hunting, seeing the goddess bathing. Artemis also changed a Calydonian man named Calydon, the son of Ares and Astynome, into stone when he saw the goddess bathing naked. ===Divine retribution=== ====Actaeon==== Multiple versions of the Actaeon myth survive, though many are fragmentary. The details vary but at the core, they involve the great hunter Actaeon whom Artemis turns into a stag for a transgression, and who is then killed by hunting dogs. Usually, the dogs are his own, but no longer recognize their master. Occasionally they are said to be the hounds of Artemis. Various tellings diverge in terms of the hunter's transgression: sometimes merely seeing the virgin goddess naked, sometimes boasting he is a better hunter than she, or even merely being a rival of Zeus for the affections of Semele. Apollodorus, who records the Semele version, notes that the ones with Artemis are more common. According to Lamar Ronald Lacey's The Myth of Aktaion: Literary and Iconographic Studies, the standard modern text on the work, the most likely original version of the myth portrays Actaeon as the hunting companion of the goddess who, seeing her naked in her sacred spring, attempts to force himself on her. For this hubris, he is turned into a stag and devoured by his own hounds. However, in some surviving versions, Actaeon is a stranger who happens upon Artemis. A single line from Aeschylus's now lost play Toxotides ("female archers") is among the earlier attestations of Actaeon's myth, stating that "the dogs destroyed their master utterly", with no confirmation of Actaeon's metamorphosis or the god he offended (but it is heavily implied to be Artemis, due to the title). Ancient artwork depicting the myth of Actaeon predate Aeschylus. Euripides, coming in a bit later, wrote in the Bacchae that Actaeon was torn to shreds and perhaps devoured by his "flesh-eating" hunting dogs when he claimed to be a better hunter than Artemis. Like Aeschylus, he does not mention Actaeon being deer-shaped when that happens. Callimachus writes that Actaeon chanced upon Artemis bathing in the woods, and she caused him to be devoured by his own hounds for the sacrilege, and he makes no mention of transformation into a deer either. Diodorus Siculus wrote that Actaeon dedicated his prizes in hunting to Artemis, proposed marriage to her, and even tried to forcefully consummate said "marriage" inside the very sacred temple of the goddess; for this he was given the form "of one of the animals which he was wont to hunt", and then torn to shreds by his hunting dogs. Diodorus also mentioned the alternative of Actaeon claiming to be a better hunter than the goddess of the hunt. Hyginus also mentions Actaeon attempting to rape Artemis when he finds her bathing naked, and her transforming him into the doomed deer. Apollodorus wrote that when Actaeon saw Artemis bathing, she turned him into a deer on the spot, and intentionally drove his dogs into a frenzy so that they would kill and devour him. Afterward, Chiron built a sculpture of Actaeon to comfort his dogs in their grief, as they could not find their master no matter how much they looked for him. Pausanias says that Actaeon saw Artemis naked and that she threw a deerskin on him so that his hounds would kill him, in order to prevent him from marrying Semele. ====Niobe==== The story of Niobe, queen of Thebes and wife of Amphion, who blasphemously boasted of being superior to Leto. This myth is very old; Homer knew of it and wrote that Niobe had given birth to twelve children, equally divided in six sons and six daughters (the Niobids). Other sources speak of fourteen children, seven sons, and seven daughters. Niobe claimed of being a better mother than Leto, for having more children than Leto's own two, "but the two, though they were only two, destroyed all those others." Leto was not slow to catch up on that and grew angry at the queen's hubris. She summoned her children and commanded them to avenge the slight against her. Swiftly Apollo and Artemis descended on Thebes. While the sons were hunting in the woods, Apollo crept up on them and slew all seven with his silver bow. The dead bodies were brought to the palace. Niobe wept for them, but did not relent, saying that even now she was better than Leto, for she still had seven children, her daughters. On cue, Artemis then started shooting the daughters one by one. Right as Niobe begged for her youngest one to be spared, Artemis killed that last one. ====Orion==== Orion was Artemis' hunting companion; after giving up on trying to find Oenopion, Orion met Artemis and her mother Leto, and joined the goddess in hunting. A great hunter himself, he bragged that he would kill every beast on earth. Gaia, the earth, was not too pleased to hear that, and sent a giant scorpion to sting him. Artemis then transferred him into the stars as the constellation Orion. In one version Orion died after pushing Leto out of the scorpion's way. In another version, Orion tries to violate Opis, one of Artemis' followers from Hyperborea, and Artemis kills him. In a version by Aratus, Orion grabs Artemis' robe and she kills him in self-defense. Other writers have Artemis kill him for trying to rape her or one of her attendants. Istrus wrote a version in which Artemis fell in love with Orion, apparently the only time Artemis ever fell in love. She meant to marry him, and no talk from her brother Apollo would change her mind. Apollo then decided to trick Artemis, and while Orion was off swimming in the sea, he pointed at him (barely a spot in the horizon) and wagered that Artemis could not hit that small "dot". Artemis, ever eager to prove she was the better archer, shot Orion, killing him. She then placed him among the stars. In Homer's Iliad, the goddess of the dawn Eos seduces Orion, angering the gods who did not approve of immortal goddesses taking mortal men for lovers, causing Artemis to shoot and kill him on the island of Ortygia. ====Callisto==== Callisto, the daughter of Lycaon, King of Arcadia, was one of Artemis' hunting attendants, and, as a companion of Artemis, took a vow of chastity. According to Hesiod in his lost poem Astronomia, Zeus appeared to Callisto, and seduced her, resulting in her becoming pregnant. Though she was able to hide her pregnancy for a time, she was soon found out while bathing. Enraged, Artemis transformed Callisto into a bear, and in this form she gave birth to her son Arcas. Both of them were then captured by shepherds and given to Lycaon, and Callisto thus lost her child. Sometime later, Callisto "thought fit to go into" a forbidden sanctuary of Zeus, and was hunted by the Arcadians, her son among them. When she was about to be killed, Zeus saved her by placing her in the heavens as a constellation of a bear. In his De astronomia, Hyginus, after recounting the version from Hesiod, presents several other alternative versions. The first, which he attributes to Amphis, says that Zeus seduced Callisto by disguising himself as Artemis during a hunting session, and that when Artemis found out that Callisto was pregnant, she replied saying that it was the goddess's fault, causing Artemis to transform her into a bear. This version also has both Callisto and Arcas placed in the heavens, as the constellations Ursa Major and Ursa Minor. Hyginus then presents another version in which, after Zeus lay with Callisto, it was Hera who transformed her into a bear. Artemis later, while hunting, kills the bear, and "later, on being recognized, Callisto was placed among the stars". Hyginus also gives another version, in which Hera tries to catch Zeus and Callisto in the act, causing Zeus to transform her into a bear. Hera, finding the bear, points it out to Artemis, who is hunting; Zeus, in panic, places Callisto in the heavens as a constellation. Ovid gives a somewhat different version: Zeus seduced Callisto once again disguised as Artemis, but she seems to realise that it is not the real Artemis, and she thus does not blame Artemis when, during bathing, she is found out. Callisto is, rather than being transformed, simply ousted from the company of the huntresses, and she thus gives birth to Arcas as a human. Only later is she transformed into a bear, this time by Hera. When Arcas, fully grown, is out hunting, he nearly kills his mother, who is saved only by Zeus placing her in the heavens. In the Bibliotheca, a version is presented in which Zeus raped Callisto, "having assumed the likeness, as some say, of Artemis, or, as others say, of Apollo". He then turned her into a bear himself so as to hide the event from Hera. Artemis then shot the bear, either upon the persuasion of Hera, or out of anger at Callisto for breaking her virginity. Once Callisto was dead, Zeus made her into a constellation, took the child, named him Arcas, and gave him to Maia, who raised him. Pausanias, in his Description of Greece, presents another version, in which, after Zeus seduced Callisto, Hera turned her into a bear, which Artemis killed to please Hera. Hermes was then sent by Zeus to take Arcas, and Zeus himself placed Callisto in the heavens. ===Minor myths=== When Zeus' gigantic son Tityos tried to rape Leto, she called out to her children for help, and both Artemis and Apollo were quick to respond by raining down their arrows on Tityos, killing him. Chione was a princess of Phokis. She was beloved by two gods, Hermes and Apollo, and boasted that she was more beautiful than Artemis because she had made two gods fall in love with her at once. Artemis was furious and killed Chione with an arrow, or struck her mute by shooting off her tongue. However, some versions of this myth say Apollo and Hermes protected her from Artemis' wrath. Artemis saved the infant Atalanta from dying of exposure after her father abandoned her. She sent a female bear to nurse the baby, who was then raised by hunters. In some stories, Artemis later sent a bear to injure Atalanta because others claimed Atalanta was a superior hunter. Among other adventures, Atalanta participated in the Calydonian boar hunt, which Artemis had sent to destroy Calydon because King Oeneus had forgotten her at the harvest sacrifices. In the hunt, Atalanta drew the first blood and was awarded the prize of the boar's hide. She hung it in a sacred grove at Tegea as a dedication to Artemis. Meleager was a hero of Aetolia. King Oeneus ordered him to gather heroes from all over Greece to hunt the Calydonian boar. After the death of Meleager, Artemis turns his grieving sisters, the Meleagrids, into guineafowl that Artemis favoured. In Nonnus' Dionysiaca, Aura, the daughter of Lelantos and Periboia, was a companion of Artemis. When out hunting one day with Artemis, she asserts that the goddess's voluptuous body and breasts are too womanly and sensual, and doubts her virginity, arguing that her own lithe body and man-like breasts are better than Artemis' and a true symbol of her own chastity. In anger, Artemis asks Nemesis for help to avenge her dignity. Nemesis agrees, telling Artemis that Aura's punishment will be to lose her virginity, since she dared question that of Artemis. Nemesis then arranges for Eros to make Dionysus fall in love with Aura. Dionysus intoxicates Aura and rapes her as she lies unconscious, after which she becomes a deranged killer. While pregnant, she tries to kill herself or cut open her belly, as Artemis mocks her over it. When she bore twin sons, she ate one, while the other, Iacchus, was saved by Artemis. The twin sons of Poseidon and Iphimedeia, Otos and Ephialtes, grew enormously at a young age. They were aggressive and skilled hunters who could not be killed except by each other. The growth of the Aloadae never stopped, and they boasted that as soon as they could reach heaven, they would kidnap Artemis and Hera and take them as wives. The gods were afraid of them, except for Artemis who captured a fine deer that jumped out between them. In another version of the story, she changed herself into a doe and jumped between them. In other versions, Artemis killed Adonis for revenge. In later myths, Adonis is a favorite of Aphrodite, who was responsible for the death of Hippolytus, who had been a hunter of Artemis. Therefore, Artemis killed Adonis to avenge Hippolytus's death. In yet another version, Adonis was not killed by Artemis, but by Ares as punishment for being with Aphrodite. Polyphonte was a young woman who fled home in pursuit of a free, virginal life with Artemis, as opposed to the conventional life of marriage and children favoured by Aphrodite. As a punishment, Aphrodite cursed her, causing her to mate and have children with a bear. Artemis, seeing that, was disgusted and sent a horde of wild animals against her, causing Polyphonte to flee to her father's house. Her resulting offspring, Agrius and Oreius, were wild cannibals who incurred the hatred of Zeus. Ultimately the entire family was transformed into birds who became ill portents for mankind. Coronis was a princess from Thessaly who became the lover of Apollo and fell pregnant. While Apollo was away, Coronis began an affair with a mortal man named Ischys. When Apollo learnt of this, he sent Artemis to kill the pregnant Coronis, or Artemis had the initiative to kill Coronis on her own accord for the insult done against her brother. The unborn child, Asclepius, was later removed from his dead mother's womb. When two of her hunting companions who had sworn to remain chaste and be devoted to her, Rhodopis and Euthynicus, fell in love with each other and broke their vows in a cavern, Artemis turned Rhodopis into a fountain inside that very cavern as punishment. The two had fallen in love not on their own but only after Eros had struck them with his love arrows, commanded by his mother Aphrodite, who had taken offence in that Rhodopis and Euthynicus rejected love and marriage in favour of a chaste life. When the monstrous Typhon attacked Olympus, all the terrified gods transformed into various animals and fled to Egypt. Artemis became a cat, as she was identified by the Greeks with the Egyptian feline goddess Bastet. When the queen of Kos Echemeia ceased to worship Artemis, she shot her with an arrow; Persephone then snatched the still-living Euthemia and brought her to the Underworld. ===Trojan War=== Artemis may have been represented as a supporter of Troy because her brother Apollo was the patron god of the city, and she herself was widely worshipped in western Anatolia in historical times. Artemis plays a significant role in the war; like Leto and Apollo, Artemis took the side of the Trojans. In the Iliad, Artemis on her chariot with the golden reins, kills the daughter of Bellerophon. When the Greek fleet was preparing at Aulis to depart for Troy to commence the Trojan War, Artemis becalmed the winds. The seer Calchas erroneously advised Agamemnon that the only way to appease Artemis was to sacrifice his daughter Iphigenia. In some version of the myth, Artemis then snatched Iphigenia from the altar and substituted a deer; in others, Artemis allowed Iphigenia to be sacrificed. In versions where Iphigenia survived, a number of different myths have been told about what happened after Artemis took her; either she was brought to Tauris and led the priests there, or she became Artemis' immortal companion. Crying, Artemis left her bow and arrows where they lay and ran to Olympus to cry at her father Zeus' knees, while her mother Leto picked up her bow and arrows and followed her weeping daughter. ==Worship== Artemis, the goddess of forests and hills, was worshipped throughout ancient Greece. Her best known cults were on the island of Delos (her birthplace), in Attica at Brauron and Mounikhia (near Piraeus), and in Sparta. She was often depicted in paintings and statues in a forest setting, carrying a bow and arrows and accompanied by a deer. The ancient Spartans used to sacrifice to her as one of their patron goddesses before starting a new military campaign. Athenian festivals in honor of Artemis included Elaphebolia, Mounikhia, Kharisteria, and Brauronia. The festival of Artemis Orthia was observed in Sparta. Pre-pubescent and adolescent Athenian girls were sent to the sanctuary of Artemis at Brauron to serve the Goddess for one year. During this time, the girls were known as arktoi, or little she-bears. A myth explaining this servitude states that a bear had formed the habit of regularly visiting the town of Brauron, and the people there fed it, so that, over time, the bear became tame. A girl teased the bear, and, in some versions of the myth, it killed her, while, in other versions, it clawed out her eyes. Either way, the girl's brothers killed the bear, and Artemis was enraged. She demanded that young girls "act the bear" at her sanctuary in atonement for the bear's death. Artemis was worshipped as one of the primary goddesses of childbirth and midwifery along with Eileithyia. Dedications of clothing to her sanctuaries after a successful birth was common in the Classical era. Artemis could be a deity to be feared by pregnant women, as deaths during this time were attributed to her. As childbirth and pregnancy was a very common and important event, there were numerous other deities associated with it, many localized to a particular geographic area, including but not limited to Aphrodite, Hera and Hekate. According to Pseudo-Apollodorus, she assisted her mother in the delivery of her twin. Older sources, such as Homeric Hymn to Delian Apollo (in Line 115), have the arrival of Eileithyia on Delos as the event that allows Leto to give birth to her children. Contradictory is Hesiod's presentation of the myth in Theogony, where he states that Leto bore her children before Zeus' marriage to Hera with no commentary on any drama related to their birth. Despite her being primarily known as a goddess of hunting and the wilderness, she was also connected to dancing, music, and song like her brother Apollo; she is often seen singing and dancing with her nymphs, or leading the chorus of the Muses and the Graces at Delphi. In Sparta, girls of marriageable age performed the partheneia (choral maiden songs) in her honor. During the Classical period in Athens, she was identified with Hekate. Artemis also assimilated Caryatis (Carya). There was a women's cult at Cyzicus worshiping Artemis, which was called Dolon (Δόλων). ===Festivals=== Artemis was born on the sixth day of the month Thargelion (around May), which made it sacred for her, as her birthday. On the seventh day of the same month was Apollo's birthday. Artemis was worshipped in many festivals throughout Greece mainland and the islands, Asia Minor and south Italy. Most of these festivals were celebrated during spring. Attica Athens. The festival Elaphebolia was celebrated on the sixth day of the month Elaphebolion (ninth month). The name is related to elaphos (deer) and Artemis is the Deer Huntress. Cakes made from flour, honey, and sesame and in the shape of stags were offered to the goddess during the festival. Brauron. The festival was remarkable for the arkteia, where girls, aged between five and ten, were dressed in saffron robes and played at being bears, or "act the bear" to appease the goddess after she sent the plague when her bear was killed. Another commentator says that girls had to placate the goddess for their virginity (parthenia), so that they would not be the object of revenge from her. Piraeus. The festival of Artemis Munichia was celebrated on the 6th or 16th day of the month Munichion (tenth month). Young girls were dressed up as bears, as for the Brauronia. In the temple have been found sherds from the geometric period. The festival commemorated the victory of the Greek fleet over the Persians at Salamis. On the 6th day of the month Boedromion, an armed procession would take a large number of goats to the temple. They would all be sacrificed in honor of the victory at the Battle of Marathon. The festival was called "Charisteria," also known as the Athenian "Thanksgiving." Kolainis is usually identified with Artemis Amarysia in Euboia. Some rites and animal sacrifices were probably similar with the rites of Laphria. Halae Araphenides, a deme near Brauron. The fest Tauropolia was celebrated in honour of Artemis Tauropolos. During the festival a human sacrifice was represented in a ritual. The Phocians achieved a great victory and each year they celebrated their victory in the festival Elaphebolia-Laphria in honour of Artemis. All kinds of offerings were burned in an annual fire, reminding the great pyre of the battle. Delphi in Phocis. The festival Laphria was celebrated in the month Laphrios. The cult of Artemis Laphria was introduced by the priests of Delphi Lab(r)yaden who had probably Cretan origin. Laphria is certainly the Pre-Greek "Mistress of the animals". Tithorea in Ancient Phocis. It seems that the festival of Isis was a reform of the festival of Artemis Laphria. Erineos in Doris. Festival of Artemis Laphria, indicated by the month Laphrios in the local calendar. Thebes in Boeotia. Before marriage a premilinary sacrifice should be made by the bride and the groom to Artemis-Eucleia. Nafpaktos in Aetolia. Cult of Artemis Laphria. Acarnania. Cult of Artemis-Agrotera (huntress) in a society of hunters. Patras. The Ionians who lived in Ancient Achaea celebrated the annual festival of Artemis Triclaria. Pausanias mentions the legend of human sacrifices to the outraged goddess. The new deity Dionysus, put an end to the sacrifices. Aigeira in Achaea. Festival of Artemis Agrotera (huntress). When the Sicyonians attacked the city, the Aigeirians tied torches on all goats of the area and during night they set the torches alight. The Sicyonians believed that Aigeira had a great army and they retreated. Sparta. Festival of Artemis-Orthia. The goddess was associated with the female initiatory rite Partheneion. Women performed round dances. In a legend Theseus stole Helene from the dancing floor of Orthia, during the round-dancing. The significant prize of the competitions was an iron sickle (drepanē) indicating that Orthia was a goddess of vegetation. Sparta on the road to Amyklai. Artemis-Korythalia was a goddess of vegetation. Women performed lascivious dances. The fest was celebrated in round huts covered with leaves. The nurses brought the infants in the temple of Korythalia during the fest Tithenedia. Messene near the borders with Laconia. Festival of Artemis Limnatis (of the lake). The festival was celebrated with cymbals and dances. The goddess was worshipped by young women during the festivals of transition from childhood to adulthood. Dereion on Taygetos in Laconia. Cult of Artemis -Dereatis. The festival was celebrated with the hymns calavoutoi and with the obscene dance callabis. Epidauros Limera in Laconia. Cult of Artemis-Limnatis. Hypsus . Annual fest of Artemis Daphnaia.(Of the laurel-branch). Tegea in Arcadia, on the road to Laconia. Cult of Artemis-Limnatis (of the lake). Troizen in Argolis. Festival of Artemis-Saronia. Near the temple was the grave of the king Saron who was drowned into the sea. Apollonia of Chalcidice. The festival Elaphebolia was celebrated in honor of Artemis in the month Elaphebolion the temple of Artemis Tauropolos was built at Oinoe. There was another smaller temenos that was sacred to Artemis-Tauropolos on the coast of the island. Cephalonia. Cult of Artemis-Laphria who is related to the legend of Britomartis. Corcyra. Cult of Artemis-Laphria in the month Laphrios. Perga in Ionia. Famous festival of Artemis-Pergaia. Under Roman rule Diana-Pergaia is identified with Selene. Furthermore, some have described Artemis along with the goddesses Hestia and Athena as being asexual; this is mainly supported by the fact that in the Homeric Hymns, 5, To Aphrodite, Aphrodite is described as having "no power" over the three goddesses. ===As a mother goddess=== Despite her virginity, both modern scholars and ancient commentaries have linked Artemis to the archetype of the mother goddess. Artemis was traditionally linked to fertility and was petitioned to assist women with childbirth. According to Herodotus, Greek playwright Aeschylus identified Artemis with Persephone as a daughter of Demeter. Her worshipers in Arcadia also traditionally associated her with Demeter and Persephone. In Asia Minor, she was often conflated with local mother-goddess figures, such as Cybele, and Anahita in Iran. In Acts of the Apostles, Ephesian metalsmiths who felt threatened by Saint Paul's preaching of Christianity, jealously rioted in her defense, shouting "Great is Artemis of the Ephesians!" Of the 121 columns of her temple, only one composite, made up of fragments, still stands as a marker of the temple's location. ===As a lunar deity=== No records have been found of the Greeks referring to Artemis as a lunar deity, as their lunar deity was Selene, but the Romans identified Artemis with Selene leading them to perceive her as a lunar deity, though the Greeks did not refer to her or worship her as such. As the Romans began to associate Apollo more with Helios, the personification of the Sun, it was only natural that the Romans would then begin to identify Apollo's twin sister, Artemis, with Helios' own sister, Selene, the personification of the Moon. Active references to Artemis as an illuminating goddess start much later. Artemis' connection to childbed and women's labour naturally led to her becoming associated with the menstrual cycle in course of time, thus the Moon. Selene, just like Artemis, was linked to childbirth, as it was believed that women had the easiest labours during the full moon, paving thus the way for the two goddesses to be seen as the same. Association to health was another reason Artemis and Selene were syncretized; Strabo wrote that Apollo and Artemis were connected to the Sun and the Moon, respectively, which was due to the changes the two celestial bodies caused in the temperature of the air, as the twins were gods of pestilential diseases and sudden deaths. Roman authors applied Artemis/Diana's byname, "Phoebe", to Luna/Selene, the same way as "Phoebus" was given to Helios due to his identification with Apollo. Another epithet of Artemis that Selene appropriated is "Cynthia", meaning "born in Mount Cynthus." The goddesses Artemis, Selene, and Hecate formed a triad, identified as the same goddess with three avatars: Selene in the sky (moon), Artemis on earth (hunting), and Hecate beneath the earth (Underworld). In Italy, those three goddesses became a ubiquitous feature in depictions of sacred groves, where Hecate/Trivia marked intersections and crossroads along with other liminal deities. The Romans enthusiastically celebrated the multiple identities of Diana as Hecate, Luna, and Trivia. In Virgil's Aeneid, when Nisus addresses Luna/the Moon, he calls her "daughter of Latona." In works of art, the two goddesses were mostly distinguished; Selene is usually depicted as being shorter than Artemis, with a rounder face, and wearing a long robe instead of a short hunting chiton, with a billowing cloak forming an arc above her head. Artemis was sometimes depicted with a lunate crown. ===As Hecate=== Hecate was the goddess of crossroads, boundaries, ghosts and witchcraft. She is the queen of the witches. Artemis absorbed the Pre-Greek goddess Potnia Theron who was closely associated with the daimons. Some scholars believe that Hecate was an aspect of Artemis prior to the latter's adoption into the Olympian pantheon. Artemis would have, at that point, become more strongly associated with purity and maidenhood on the one hand, while her originally darker attributes like her association with magic, the souls of the dead, and the night would have continued to be worshipped separately under her title Hecate. Both goddesses carried torches, and were accompanied by a dog. It seems that the character of Artemis in Arcadia was original. At Acacesium Artemis Hegemone is depicted holding two torches, and at Lycosura Artemis is depicted holding a snake and a torch. A bitch suitable for hunting was lying down by her side. At the fest of Laphria at Delphi the priestess followed the parade on a chariot which was covered with the skin of a deer. ====Deer==== Deer were the only animals held sacred to Artemis herself. On seeing a deer larger than a bull with horns shining, she fell in love with these creatures and held them sacred. Deer were also the first animals she captured. She caught five golden-horned deer and harnessed them to her chariot. At Lycosura in isolated Arcadia Artemis is depicted holding a snake and a torch and dressed with a deer skin, besides Demeter and Persephone. It seems that the depictions of Artemis and Demeter-Melaina (black) in Arcadia correspond to the earliest conceptions of the first Greeks in Greece. At the fest of Laphria at Delphi the priestess followed the parade on a chariot which was covered with the skin of a deer. ====Hunting dog==== In a legend Artemis got her hunting dogs from Pan in the forest of Arcadia. Pan gave Artemis two black-and-white dogs, three reddish ones, and one spotted one – these dogs were able to hunt even lions. Pan also gave Artemis seven bitches of the finest Arcadian race, but Artemis only ever brought seven dogs hunting with her at any one time. In the earliest conceptions of Artemis at Lycosura, a bitch suitable for hunting was lying down by her side. An etiological myth tries to explain the origin of the Arkteia. Every year, a girl between five and ten years of age was sent to Artemis' temple at Brauron. A bear was tamed by Artemis and introduced to the people of Athens. They touched it and played with it until one day a group of girls poked the bear until it attacked them. A brother of one of the girls killed the bear, so Artemis sent a plague in revenge. The Athenians consulted an oracle to understand how to end the plague. The oracle suggested that, in payment for the bear's blood, no Athenian virgin should be allowed to marry until she had served Artemis in her temple (played the bear for the goddess). In a legend of the cult of Munichia if someone killed a bear, then they were to be punished by sacrificing their daughter in the sanctuary. Embaros disguised his daughter dressing her like a bear (arktos), and hid her in the adyton. He placed a goat on the altar and he sacrificed the goat instead of his daughter. ====Boar==== The boar is one of the favorite animals of the hunters, and also hard to tame. In honor of Artemis' skill, they sacrificed it to her. Oeneus and Adonis were both killed by Artemis' boar. In The Odyssey, she descends from a peak and she travels along the ridges of Mount Erymanthos, that was sacred to the "Mistress of the animals". Ovid describes the boar as follows: A dreadful boar.—His burning, bloodshot eyes seemed coals of living fire, and his rough neck was knotted with stiff muscles, and thick-set with bristles like sharp spikes. A seething froth dripped on his shoulders, and his tusks were like the spoils of Ind [India]. Discordant roars reverberated from his hideous jaws; and lightning—belched forth from his horrid throat— scorched the green fields. — Ovid, Metamorphoses 8.284–289 (Brookes More translation) ====Guinea fowl==== Artemis felt pity for the Calydonian princesses Meleagrids as they mourned for their lost brother, Meleager, so she transformed them into Guinea fowl to be her favorite animals. ====Bee==== The bee as a symbol of abundance was associated with Artemis Ephesia. Bees appear on the statue of the goddess, while the priestesses of the goddess received the name of 'Melissa' ('Bee' 'Μέλισσα'), possibly as a late Hellenistic worship element addition. The bee was also related to the Cretan tradition of worship, whereby Artemis was designated as 'Britomartis' (Βριτομάρτις), a word possibly deriving from the root vrito- (βρίτο-) a variant of 'melissa' ('μέλισσα' or 'bee'). ====Buzzard hawk==== Hawks were the favored birds of many of the gods, Artemis included. ====Bull==== Artemis is sometimes identified with the mythical bull-goddess in a cult foreign in Greece. The cult can be identified in Halae Araphenides in Attica. At the end of the peculiar fest the sacrifice of a man was represented in a ritual. ====Torch==== Artemis is often depicted holding one or two torches. There is not any sufficient explanation for this depiction. The character of the goddess in Arcadia seems to be original. The adjective refers also to the twin fires of the two peaks of the Mount Parnassus above Delphi (Phaedriades). with hunting boots, a quiver, a golden or silver bow and arrows. Often, she is shown in the shooting pose, and is accompanied by a hunting dog or stag. When portrayed as a lunar deity, Artemis wore a long robe and sometimes a veil covered her head. Her darker side is revealed in some vase paintings, where she is shown as the death-bringing goddess whose arrows fell young maidens and women, such as the daughters of Niobe. Artemis was sometimes represented in Classical art with the crown of the crescent moon, such as also found on Luna and others. On June 7, 2007, a Roman-era bronze sculpture of Artemis and the Stag was sold at Sotheby's auction house in New York state by the Albright-Knox Art Gallery for $25.5 million. == Gallery == Funeral pithos, Potnia theron, Fortetsa near Knossos, 850-800 BC, AMH, 079075.jpg\|Potnia theron, Fortetsa near Knossos, 850–800 BCE Niobid Krater - Niobid massacre.jpg\|Apollo and Artemis kill the children of Niobe, 460–450 BCE by the Niobid Painter. Louvre, Paris. Artemis Hekate. Apollonia, Albania.jpg\|Artemis Hecate, as a goddess protector of the necropolis. Marble, 3rd century CE, Apollonia, Albania. Plaque votive figurant Artémis ou Hécate.jpg\|Votive figure Artemis and Hecate Diana and her hound.jpg\|Artemis-Diana and her hound Boucher Diane sortant du bain Louvre 2712.jpg\|Boucher, Artemis-Diana, Louvre Artemis (BM 1899,0120.160).jpg\|Artemis in a landscape Artemis-Endymion-Palais-Garnier.jpg\|Artemis-Endymion-Palais-Garnier Orion aveugle cherchant le soleil.jpg\|Nicolas Poussin (1658) "Landscape with blind Orion seeking the sun". Metropolitan Museum of Arts, Manhattan, New York. ==Legacy== ===In astronomy=== 105 Artemis (an asteroid discovered in 1868) Artemis (crater) (a tiny crater on the Moon, named in 2010) Artemis Chasma (a nearly circular fracture on the surface of the planet Venus, described in 1980) Artemis Corona (an oval feature largely enclosed by the Artemis Chasma, also described in 1980) Acronym (ArTeMiS) for "Architectures de bolometres pour des Telescopes a grand champ de vue dans le domaine sub-Millimetrique au Sol", a large bolometer camera in the submillimeter range that was installed in 2010 at the Atacama Pathfinder Experiment (APEX), located in the Atacama Desert in northern Chile. ===In taxonomy=== The taxonomic genus Artemia, which entirely comprises the family Artemiidae, derives from Artemis. Artemia species are aquatic crustaceans known as brine shrimp, the best-known species of which, Artemia salina, or sea monkeys, was first described by Carl Linnaeus in his Systema Naturae in 1758. Artemia species live in salt lakes, and although they are almost never found in an open sea, they do appear along the Aegean coast near Ephesus, where the Temple of Artemis once stood. ===In modern spaceflight=== The Artemis program is an ongoing robotic and crewed spaceflight program which has the goal of landing "the first woman and the next man" on the lunar south pole region no earlier than 2025. The program is being carried out by NASA, U.S. commercial spaceflight companies, and international partners such as the European Space Agency, the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency, and the Canadian Space Agency. ==Genealogy==	[ "Melissa", "De astronomia", "Orion (constellation)", "Omen", "Paximadia (islands)", "Iphigenia", "Libanius", "Bacchae", "Olympia, Greece", "Bastet", "Kos", "Diana of Versailles", "Sophocles", "Aristobule", "Messene", "Carl Linnaeus", "Apaturia", "Pindar", "Patras", "Agrotera", "ancient Greece", "Syracuse, Sicily", "Thrace", "Gorgon", "Euphranor", "Aegina", "Aura (mythology)", "Laconia", "Chione (daughter of Daedalion)", "Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency", "Aegean Sea", "Coeus", "Hestia", "Dione (Titaness)", "Tegea", "Celia Schultz", "Potnia", "Echemeia", "cult image", "Pheneus", "Les Belles Lettres", "Gortyn", "Dereion", "Cydonia (ancient Greece)", "Metis (mythology)", "mother goddess", "Aventine Hill", "Foloi", "Diana Lucifera", "Semele", "Bibliotheca (Pseudo-Apollodorus)", "deme", "Palermo Fragment", "Ortygia", "Scottish National Gallery", "Aeneas", "Cyclopes", "Tauri", "Hellenic Navy", "phallus", "Aegis", "Athmonia", "Leochares", "Alpheus (deity)", "panpipes", "Oenoe (Icaria)", "Mainalo", "Catasterismi", "Harper (publisher)", "Central Greece (geographic region)", "European Space Agency", "Hekate", "Ionic Greek", "Pelops", "Poseidon", "Ceryneian Hind", "Iacchus", "Louvre Museum", "Minoan civilization", "hubris", "Syracuse,Sicily", "Johns Hopkins University Press", "Madison, WI", "sacred grove", "List of human spaceflight programs", "Georgios Babiniotis", "Ancient Elis", "Trojan War", "theomachy", "Mount Erymanthos", "Asclepius", "ancient Greek religion", "Dialogues of the Gods", "Clytemnestra", "guineafowl", "Crete", "London", "Aeneid", "Orion (mythology)", "Orphic Hymns", "Meleagrids", "Bibliotheca historica", "Mycenaean Greek", "Hermitage Museum", "Gaia", "Atacama Desert", "Eretria", "Troezen", "Callisto (mythology)", "Cronus", "Athena", "music", "common buzzard", "Robert Scott (philologist)", "Persia", "Delos", "Self-immolation", "Athenian festivals", "Paeonia (kingdom)", "Drawing Down the Moon (book)", "Argos, Peloponnese", "Ovid", "hero", "Hecate", "Samos", "Upis (mythology)", "Meleager", "Periboia", "moon", "Odyssey", "Systema Naturae", "goddess", "Hippolytus of Athens", "Agoraea", "Titans", "bear worship", "Taormina", "Xenophon", "Oddysey", "Iran", "Carya (goddess)", "National Archaeological Museum, Athens", "Letrinoi", "Greeks", "Syncretism", "Tindari", "Ionia", "Artemis (crater)", "Epidauros Limera", "University of Wisconsin Press", "Lucina (mythology)", "daimon", "The J. Paul Getty Museum", "Artemis and the Stag", "William Wayte", "Fasti", "De Gruyter", "Oenoe (Argolis)", "Iphimedeia", "Issorium", "asteroid", "Euboea", "Louvre", "Euripides", "Ariadne", "Brauron", "Princeton University Press", "Amarysia (festival)", "Athens", "Pausanias (geographer)", "Muses", "Twelve Labors", "Caphyae", "Astronomia (poem)", "Iphigenia in Tauris", "Amazons", "Megalopolis, Greece", "Amphis", "Boeotia", "Boeae", "Hypsus", "Clarendon Press", "Dory (spear)", "Charites", "Janus", "John Murray (publishing house)", "Agamemnon", "Epidaurus", "San Francisco", "Ursa Minor", "Arcadia (region)", "Kerameikos", "Lake Nemi", "Hymnia", "Chalkidice", "Diana (mythology)", "Temple of Artemis Amarynthia", "Apollonia (Illyria)", "Károly Kerényi", "Lycian peasants", "Amyklai", "Loeb Classical Library", "Maurus Servius Honoratus", "Pylos", "Cupressus", "Seven Wonders of the Ancient World", "Ancient Roman", "Claudius Aelianus", "Dionysos", "Arcas", "Dali (goddess)", "Oxford Classical Dictionary", "Strabo", "Erymanthian boar", "Quintus Smyrnaeus", "Aphrodite", "Phaedriades", "FGrHist", "nymph", "Achaea (ancient region)", "Alban Hills", "Eumelos", "military campaign", "bee", "Dative case", "William Hansen (classicist)", "Greek hero cult", "Hippolyta", "Kenneth McLeish", "Chronicle Books", "Saint Petersburg", "Erineus (city)", "Britomartis", "Daphnis", "Nycteus", "Lelantos", "National Archaeological Museum (Madrid)", "Minoan Genius", "Aeolic Greek", "Bronze Age", "Diomedes", "Art in ancient Greece", "Archaeological Museum of Mykonos", "Attic calendar", "Halae Araphenides", "Artemia", "Titian", "Tityos", "Caryatis", "Antoninus Liberalis", "quiver", "Mounikhia", "Actaeon", "Zeus", "Virgil", "Artemis Chasma", "Leucophrys", "Troy", "Sol (Roman mythology)", "Description of Greece", "Temple of Artemis", "Perga", "Classical antiquity", "quail", "Phaistos", "Chersonesus", "Laphria (festival)", "Fasti (poem)", "self-defense", "Harmonia", "Calchas", "Anahita", "Battle of Salamis", "Phigalia", "Broteas", "Albright-Knox Art Gallery", "Hegemone", "Johann Theodor Jablonski", "Dionysiaca", "Diodorus Siculus", "amaranth", "Lucian", "Pompei", "Eurystheus", "childbirth", "Pherai", "interpretatio graeca", "Delphi", "ephebos", "Pamphylia", "Marousi", "British Museum", "Epic Cycle", "Edinburgh University Press", "Magna Graecia", "Artio", "Theagenes of Rhegium", "Dorians", "Homeric Hymns", "Gender (linguistics)", "Aphaea", "Venus", "Ursa Major", "Corinth", "Ares", "Chimera (mythology)", "Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology", "Cynthia", "nature", "Religion in ancient Rome", "Aegae (Macedonia)", "Maia", "Phocis (ancient region)", "Istros the Callimachean", "sanctuary of Artemis at Brauron", "Metamorphoses", "Isis", "Byzantium", "Taurus (constellation)", "Bellerophon", "Niobe", "Horace", "NASA", "Collection Budé", "Cicero", "Brauronia", "Maia (mythology)", "crescent", "pastoral", "Genitive case", "Pseudo-Plutarch", "vegetation", "Taxonomy (biology)", "virgin goddess", "Proto-Indo-European language", "hunting dog", "Musée des Beaux-Arts d'Orléans", "Nausicaa", "Oceanus", "Myrrhinus", "Vis (island)", "Greek mythology", "Latona", "metathesis (linguistics)", "Hypothermia", "Menelaus", "Archaeological Museum of Piraeus", "Rome", "Elaphebolia", "wild boar", "bear", "Campania", "Pliny the Elder", "Latium", "Dallas Museum of Art", "Pisidia", "Robert S. P. Beekes", "Tethys (mythology)", "Solar deity", "Etiology", "Harvard University Press", "Melite (Attica)", "A Greek-English Lexicon", "Europe", "Messenia", "Ceteus", "Submillimetre astronomy", "sea monkeys", "Helen of Troy", "Acarnania", "Eurotas (river)", "Rhea (mythology)", "Baltimore", "Glenn W. Most", "Cult of Artemis at Brauron", "University of Tübingen", "Timothy Gantz", "Leto", "Letrini", "History of Crimea", "Lunar deity", "York University", "Greek language", "Battle of Marathon", "University of California Press", "Mount Parnassus", "Metropolitan Museum of Arts", "Euboia", "daimons", "Mantineia", "Parnassus", "Artemis Corona", "Iapetus", "Franz Steiner Verlag", "Enodia", "De Natura Deorum", "Dictionary of Modern Greek", "National Gallery", "agora", "Roman art", "Linear B", "Susa", "Hyperborea", "United States", "Chiron", "Nisus and Euryalus", "Cyzicus", "Sparta", "Oxford University Press", "Suda", "Labours of Hercules", "Ephesus", "Agraea", "Artemis Orthia", "Northern Greece", "Hades", "Pearson Education", "Scamandrius (Trojan war)", "Lusi (Arcadia)", "Astrateia", "Walter Burkert", "Mount Olympus", "Geographica", "Hide (skin)", "United Kingdom", "Astynome", "Arricia", "William Smith (lexicographer)", "The Odyssey", "England", "Iliad", "May", "Chrysippus", "Hyampolis", "Ancient Macedonia", "Tricoloni", "Orchomenus (Arcadia)", "Locris", "Jerash, Jordan", "Boedromion", "Hellenistic period", "Eileithyia", "Polyphonte", "Hermes", "Proper noun", "Aloadae", "full moon", "Lycaon (king of Arcadia)", "Munichia (festival)", "Icaria", "Hesiod", "adyton", "Cambridge University Press", "Private spaceflight", "Sanctuary of Artemis Orthia", "Phocis", "Island of Delos", "Robert Graves", "List of islands of Greece", "Heracles", "History of Crete", "etiology", "Saffron (color)", "Apanchomene", "Plutarch", "Homeric Hymn", "Rhodopis and Euthynicus", "kourotrophos", "Lycosura", "sculpture", "Aeschylus", "Martin P. Nilsson", "Thessaly", "Eucleia", "folk etymology", "Neolithic", "Hephaestus", "Oenopion", "Proto-Indo-Europeans", "Amarynthus", "Eratosthenes", "Knidos", "Aesop", "Arkoudiotissa Cave", "Kourotrophos", "Oeneus", "Epirus", "Eros", "Despoina", "Theogony", "Howard Hayes Scullard", "Canadian Space Agency", "Artemis Ephesia", "Agrae", "Calydon (son of Ares)", "Aetolia", "Hippolytus (mythology)", "Piraeus", "Byzantion", "Sicyon", "National Archaeological Museum, Naples", "Sotheby's", "syncretism", "Oceanids", "Hyacinth (mythology)", "Artemia salina", "Erchia", "Homer", "Online Etymology Dictionary", "Ephebos", "Posthomerica", "Dikti", "Nemesis (mythology)", "Kallisto (mythology)", "Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae", "amber", "Cratylus (dialogue)", "heroine", "Scholia", "Melampus", "deer", "Perseus Tufts", "Hera", "Artemis Alphaea", "Cult (religious practice)", "Antoninus Pius", "Elis", "Nafpaktos", "Aratus", "Plato", "W. H. D. Rouse", "Greece", "scholia", "Cephalonia", "Themistocles", "Persephone", "Iasos", "Theseus", "Pyrrichos", "Ischys", "Pre-Greek", "Phosphorus (morning star)", "Helios", "Stymphalian birds", "Alpheus (mythology)", "Amarynthos", "xoanon", "Phoebe (Titaness)", "Lydia", "Callimachus", "Moon", "lunate", "Thasos", "Gytheion", "Knossos", "Acts of the Apostles", "nymphs", "Niobids", "Apollo", "Potnia Theron", "Antikyra", "N. G. L. Hammond", "Telesilla", "Demeter", "scholium", "Turkey", "Arethusa (mythology)", "Asius of Samos", "Odysseus", "Niobid Painter", "Acacesium", "Corfu", "Cybele", "Troizen", "Routledge", "Nonnus", "Fabulae", "Eos", "Adonis", "The Oxford Classical Dictionary", "Molpadia", "ABC-CLIO", "Volubilis", "Saronic gulf", "Thebes, Greece", "Orestes", "Peloponnese", "Vatican Museums", "Amphion and Zethus", "Miletus", "Amnisos", "Pisa (Greece)", "Sicily", "Italy", "Lycoa", "Rycroft Painter", "Doris (Greece)", "Twelve Olympians", "Oxford", "University of Michigan Press", "Athenian calendar", "Herodotus", "twelve Olympians", "Berlin", "Dionysus", "Corone (Messenia)", "Aulis (ancient Greece)", "Aigeira", "Atalanta", "Anatolia", "Phrygia", "Uranus (mythology)", "Athenaeus", "midwife", "Artemis program", "Caryae", "Argolis", "Selene", "Stymphalus (Arcadia)", "Virginity", "Markopoulo Mesogaias", "Minos", "Coronis (lover of Apollo)", "Arcadia (ancient region)", "elf", "Apollonia (Chalcidice)", "Mycenean Greece", "Taygetos", "Issorion", "bolometer", "Antiope (Amazon)", "lunar south pole", "Ancient Greek religion", "Asia Minor", "Peitho", "Tutelary deity", "Pherecydes of Athens", "Cymbals", "Pan (god)", "Charles Anthon", "Mark Golden", "Lycia", "Luna (goddess)", "Atacama Pathfinder Experiment", "Typhon", "Cynthus", "Timanthes", "Caria", "Laconian (dog)", "Gaius Julius Hyginus", "Bendis", "Dawn deities", "Tithorea", "Agrius and Oreius (mythology)", "hunting", "Bull (mythology)", "Attica", "Martin Litchfield West", "Calydonian boar hunt", "Deer", "Joseph Eddy Fontenrose", "classical antiquity", "105 Artemis", "Henry George Liddell", "Calydon", "Siproites", "Ephialtes", "wilderness", "Chalcidice", "chastity", "Legion of Honor (museum)" ]
2,906	Arbeit macht frei	() is a German phrase translated as "Work makes one free" or, more idiomatically, "Work sets you free" or "Work liberates". The phrase originates from the title of an 1873 novel by Lorenz Diefenbach and alludes to John 8:31–32. Following the Nazi Party's rise to power in 1933, the phrase became a slogan used in programs implemented to combat mass unemployment in Germany. Today, it is primarily known for its use above the entrance of Auschwitz and other Nazi concentration camps. Because prisoners were generally not released from the camps and performed forced labor under horrific conditions, the phrase has come to be understood as meaning that the only way for prisoners to gain a sort of freedom was to work until they died. ==Origin== The expression comes from the title of an 1873 novel by the German philologist Lorenz Diefenbach, , in which gamblers and fraudsters find the path to virtue through labour. "The truth will set you free" () is a statement of Jesus found in John 8:32—"And ye shall know the truth and the truth shall make you free" (KJV). The phrase was also used in French () by Auguste Forel, a Swiss entomologist, neuroanatomist and psychiatrist, in his () (1920). In 1922, the of Vienna, an ethnic nationalist "protective" organization of Germans within Austria, printed membership stamps with the phrase . The phrase is also evocative of the medieval German principle of ("urban air makes you free"), according to which serfs were liberated after being a city resident for one year and one day. ==Use by the Nazis== In 1933, the first communist prisoners were being rounded up for an indefinite period without charges. They were held in a number of places in Germany. The slogan was first used over the gate of the Oranienburg concentration camp, which was set up in an abandoned brewery in March 1933 (it was later rebuilt in 1936 as Sachsenhausen). The slogan's use was part of the 1937-1938 reconstruction by (SS) officer Theodor Eicke at Dachau concentration camp. From Dachau, it was copied by the Nazi officer Rudolf Höss, who had previously worked there. Höss was appointed to create the original camp at Auschwitz, which became known as Auschwitz (or Camp) 1 and whose intended purpose was to incarcerate Polish political detainees. The Auschwitz I sign was made by prisoner-laborers including master blacksmith Jan Liwacz, and features an upside-down 'B', which has been interpreted as an act of defiance by the prisoners who made it. In The Kingdom of Auschwitz, Otto Friedrich wrote about Rudolf Höss, regarding his decision to display the motto so prominently at Auschwitz: In 1938, the Austrian political cabaret writer Jura Soyfer and the composer Herbert Zipper, while prisoners at Dachau, wrote the or "The Dachau Song". They had spent weeks marching in and out of the camp's gate to daily forced labour, and considered the motto over the gate an insult. The song repeats the phrase cynically as a "lesson" taught by Dachau. An example of ridiculing the slogan was a popular saying used among Auschwitz prisoners: {{Verse translation\|lang=de \|Arbeit macht frei durch Krematorium Nummer drei. \|Work makes you free Through crematorium number three. However, Primo Levi describes seeing the words illuminated over a doorway (as distinct from a gate). The slogan appeared at the Flossenbürg camp on the left gate post at the camp entry. The original gate posts survive in another part of the camp, but the sign no longer exists. The signs are prominently displayed, and were seen by all prisoners and staff— all of whom knew, suspected, or quickly learned that prisoners confined there would likely only be freed by death. The signs' psychological impact was tremendous. The original sign is now in storage at the Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum and a replica was put over the gate in its place. On 2 November 2014, the sign over the Dachau gate was stolen. It was found on 28 November 2016 under a tarp at a parking lot in Ytre Arna, a settlement north of Bergen, Norway's second-largest city.	[ "serf", "If This Is a Man", "Belgium", "neo-Nazi", "Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum", "Gallows humor", "Ytre Arna", "Rudolf Höss", "Jedem das Seine", "Sachsenhausen (detention camp)", "Forced labour under German rule during World War II", "Protestant work ethic", "Gross-Rosen concentration camp", "John 8", "Holocaust victims", "Extermination through labour", "cabaret", "Theodor Eicke", "composer", "Fort Breendonk", "Bergen", "Laurence Rees", "brewery", "Auschwitz concentration camp", "The truth will set you free", "Dachau concentration camp", "Harper Perennial", "Jura Soyfer", "Nazi concentration camps", "Herbert Zipper", "Concentration camp Theresienstadt", "Primo Levi", "Dachaulied", "Auschwitz", "BBC News", "Encyclopedia of the Holocaust", "blacksmith", "forced labour", "Flossenbürg concentration camp", "Jesus", "Lorenz Diefenbach", "tarpaulin", "Stadtluft macht frei", "philologist", "Oranienburg concentration camp", "Schutzstaffel", "Auguste Forel", "Jan Liwacz", "Yad Vashem", "Monowitz concentration camp", "Otto Friedrich", "mass unemployment" ]
2,907	Axayacatl	Axayacatl (; ; ; meaning "face of water"; –1481) was the sixth of the of Tenochtitlan and Emperor of the Aztec Triple Alliance. ==Biography== ===Early life and background=== Axayacatl was a son of the princess Atotoztli II and her cousin, prince Tezozomoc. He was a grandson of the Emperors Moctezuma I and Itzcoatl. He was a descendant of the king Cuauhtototzin. He was a successor of Moctezuma and his brothers were Emperors Tizoc and Ahuitzotl and his sister was the Queen Chalchiuhnenetzin. He was an uncle of the Emperor Cuauhtémoc and father of Emperors Moctezuma II and Cuitláhuac. ===Rise to power=== During his youth, his military prowess gained him the favor influential figures such as Nezahualcoyotl and Tlacaelel I, and thus, upon the death of Moctezuma I in 1469, he was chosen to ascend to the throne, much to the displeasure of his two older brothers, Tizoc and Ahuitzotl. It is also important that the Great Sun Stone, also known as the Aztec Calendar, was carved under his leadership. An earthquake in Tenochtitlán occurred and destroyed many homes. ===Military actions and death=== Using as a pretext the insulting behavior of a few Tlatelolcan citizens, Axayacatl invaded his neighbor, killed its ruler, Moquihuix, and replaced him with a military governor. The Tlatelolcans lost any voice they had in forming Aztec policy. Axayacatl largely dedicated his twelve-year reign to consolidating his militaristic repute: he led successful campaigns against the neighboring of Tlatelolco in 1473 (see Battle of Tlatelolco) and the Matlatzinca of the Toluca Valley in 1474, but was finally defeated by the Tarascans of Michoacán in 1476. Despite some subsequent minor triumphs, Axayacatl's defeat at the hands of the Tarascans irreversibly marred his image, as it constituted the only major defeat suffered by the Aztecs up to that moment. In spite of his young age, he fell gravely ill in 1480, passing away a mere year later, in 1481, whereupon he was succeeded by his brother Tizoc. ===Axayacatl the poet=== Axayacatl wrote two poems. The first, Ycuic Axayayatzin (English: "Song of Axayacatl") is a defense against his brothers and critics; the second, Huehue cuicatl (English: "Song of the Ancients") is a lament written after his defeat in Michoacan. ==In popular culture== The Obsidian and Blood series by Aliette de Bodard are set in the last year of the reign of Axayacatl and the first years of the reign of Tizoc, with their youngest brother Ahuitzotl appearing as a primary character.	[ "Tizoc", "Toluca Valley", "Nezahualcoyotl (tlatoani)", "Purépecha people", "Michoacán", "Tlatoani of Tenochtitlan", "Emperor", "Tenochtitlan", "Tlatelolco (altepetl)", "Aliette de Bodard", "Aztec Triple Alliance", "Moctezuma I", "Ahuitzotl", "1475 Tenochtitlan earthquake", "Matlatzinca people", "tlatoani", "Moctezuma II", "Tlacaelel I", "Tezozomoc (son of Itzcoatl)", "Cuitláhuac", "altepetl", "List of Tenochtitlan rulers", "Moquihuix", "Itzcoatl", "Aztec warfare", "Cuauhtototzin", "Battle of Tlatelolco", "Aztec calendar", "Aztec calendar stone", "Cuauhtémoc", "Atotoztli II", "Codex Azcatitlan", "Chalchiuhnenetzin" ]
2,908	Ahuitzotl	Ahuitzotl (, ) was the eighth Aztec ruler, the Huey Tlatoani of the city of Tenochtitlan, son of princess Atotoztli II. His name literally means "Water Thorny" and was also applied to the otter. It is also theorized that more likely, the animal called ahuitzotl is actually the water opossum, the hand symbolizing its prehensile tail, which otters notably lack. Either Ahuitzotl or his predecessor Tizoc was the first tlatoani of Tenochtitlan to assume the title Huey Tlatoani ("supreme tlatoani") to make their superiority over the other cities in the Triple Alliance (Aztec Empire) clear. Ahuitzotl was responsible for much of the expansion of the Mexica domain, and consolidated the empire's power after emulating his predecessor. He took power as Emperor in the year 7 Rabbit (1486), after the death of his predecessor and brother, Tizoc. He had two sons, the kings Chimalpilli II and Cuauhtémoc, and one daughter. ==Biography== Perhaps the greatest known military leader of pre-Columbian Mesoamerica, Ahuizotl began his reign by suppressing a Huastec rebellion, and then swiftly more than doubled the size of lands under Aztec dominance. He conquered the Mixtec, Zapotec, and other peoples from Pacific Coast of Mexico down to the western part of Guatemala. Ahuizotl also supervised a major rebuilding of Tenochtitlan on a grander scale including the expansion of the Great Pyramid or Templo Mayor in the year 8 Reed (1487). He presided over the introduction of the great-tailed grackle into the Valley of Mexico, the earliest documented case of human-mediated bird introduction in the Western Hemisphere. Ahuizotl died in the year 10 Rabbit (1502) and was succeeded by his nephew, Moctezuma II. Ahuizotl took his name from the animal ahuizotl, which the Aztecs considered to be a legendary creature in its own right rather than a mere mythical representation of the king. In January 2021 the INAH proposed moving the statues of Ahuizotl and Itzcóatl, known as the Indios Verdes, from the Parque del Mestizaje in Gustavo A. Madero, Mexico City to the Paseo de la Reforma. “The transfer means a reading of the urban space, recovering the historical discourse that gave rise to the formation of a set of monuments and roundabouts on Paseo de la Reforma, conceived at the end of the 19th century, with the idea of honoring the Reformation, a great transformation that it meant for Mexico, but to recover a historical reading that began precisely by underlining the Mexican splendor and the importance of the pre-Hispanic or Mesoamerican antecedents of our country”, Diego Prieto, director of INAH said. ==In popular culture== Under the name Teomitl, Ahuitzotl is a primary character in the Obsidian and Blood series by Aliette de Bodard, which are set in the last year of the reign of Axayacatl and the first years of the reign of Tizoc. In the historical fiction novel Aztec by Gary Jennings, Ahuitzotl is a prominent character. Set in the time just before the arrival of the Spanish Conquistadors, it accounts his construction of the many expansions of Tenochtitlan, and wars of conquest, trade, and proclivities. == Citations == == General and cited references == Hassig, Ross (1988). Aztec Warfare: Imperial Expansion and Political Control. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. Townsend, Richard F. (2000). The Aztecs (revised ed.). New York: Thames and Hudson.	[ "Tizoc", "wikt:ahuitzotl", "Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia", "Pre-Columbian era", "Aztec (novel)", "Tlatoani", "great-tailed grackle", "Tenochtitlan", "Aliette de Bodard", "Aztec Triple Alliance", "water opossum", "Chimalpilli II", "2021 in Mexico", "Ahuizotl (mythology)", "Mixtec", "Paseo de la Reforma", "Pacific Coast of Mexico", "Moctezuma II", "Templo Mayor", "Tezozomoc (son of Itzcoatl)", "Codex Mendoza", "List of Tenochtitlan rulers", "Itzcóatl", "Gustavo A. Madero, Mexico City", "Aztec Empire", "Guatemala", "Axayacatl", "Aztec calendar", "Aztec religion", "Cuauhtémoc", "Zapotec civilization", "Atotoztli II", "Mesoamerica", "Huastec civilization", "Huey Tlatoani" ]
2,909	Albinism in humans	Albinism is a congenital condition characterized in humans by the partial or complete absence of pigment in the skin, hair and eyes. Albinism is associated with a number of vision defects, such as photophobia, nystagmus, and amblyopia. Lack of skin pigmentation makes for more susceptibility to sunburn and skin cancers. In rare cases such as Chédiak–Higashi syndrome, albinism may be associated with deficiencies in the transportation of melanin granules. This also affects essential granules present in immune cells, leading to increased susceptibility to infection. Albinism results from inheritance of recessive gene alleles and is known to affect all vertebrates, including humans. It is due to absence or defect of tyrosinase, a copper-containing enzyme involved in the production of melanin. Unlike humans, other animals have multiple pigments and for these, albinism is considered to be a hereditary condition characterised by the absence of melanin in particular, in the eyes, skin, hair, scales, feathers or cuticle. While an organism with complete absence of melanin is called an albino, an organism with only a diminished amount of melanin is described as leucistic or albinoid. The term is from the Latin albus, "white". ==Signs and symptoms== There are two principal types of albinism: oculocutaneous, affecting the eyes, skin and hair, and ocular affecting the eyes only. There are different types of oculocutaneous albinism depending on which gene has undergone mutation. With some there is no pigment at all. The other end of the spectrum of albinism is "a form of albinism called rufous oculocutaneous albinism, which usually affects dark-skinned people". According to the US National Organization for Albinism and Hypopigmentation, "With ocular albinism, the color of the iris of the eye may vary from blue to green or even brown, and sometimes darkens with age. However, when an optometrist or ophthalmologist examines the eye by shining a light from the side of the eye, the light shines back through the iris since very little pigment is present." Because individuals with albinism have skin that entirely lacks the dark pigment melanin, which helps protect the skin from the sun's ultraviolet radiation, their skin can burn more easily from overexposure. The human eye normally produces enough pigment to color the iris blue, green or brown and lend opacity to the eye. In photographs, those with albinism are more likely to demonstrate "red eye", due to the red of the retina being visible through the iris. Lack of pigment in the eyes also results in problems with vision, both related and unrelated to photosensitivity. Those with albinism are generally as healthy as the rest of the population (but see related disorders below), with growth and development occurring as normal, and albinism by itself does not cause mortality, ===Visual problems=== Development of the optical system is highly dependent on the presence of melanin. For this reason, the reduction or absence of this pigment in people with albinism may lead to: Misrouting of the retinogeniculate projections, resulting in abnormal decussation (crossing) of optic nerve fibres Reduced visual acuity due to foveal hypoplasia and possibly light-induced retinal damage. The resulting sensitivity (photophobia) generally leads to discomfort in bright light, but this can be reduced by the use of sunglasses or brimmed hats. Some rare forms are inherited from only one parent. There are other genetic mutations which are proven to be associated with albinism. All alterations, however, lead to changes in melanin production in the body. The chance of offspring with albinism resulting from the pairing of an organism with albinism and one without albinism is low. However, because organisms (including humans) can be carriers of genes for albinism without exhibiting any traits, albinistic offspring can be produced by two non-albinistic parents. Albinism usually occurs with equal frequency in both sexes. There are two different forms of albinism: a partial lack of the melanin is known as hypomelanism, or hypomelanosis, and the total absence of melanin is known as amelanism or amelanosis. ===Enzyme=== The enzyme defect responsible for OCA1-type albinism is tyrosine 3-monooxygenase (tyrosinase), which synthesizes melanin from the amino acid tyrosine. ===Evolutionary theories=== It is suggested that the early genus Homo (humans in the broader sense) started to evolve in East Africa around 3 million years ago. The dramatic phenotypic change from the ape-like Australopithecus to early Homo is hypothesized to have involved the extreme loss of body hair – except for areas most exposed to UV radiation, such as the head – to allow for more efficient thermoregulation in the early hunter-gatherers. The skin that would have been exposed upon general body hair loss in these early proto-humans would have most likely been non-pigmented, reflecting the pale skin underlying the hair of our chimpanzee relatives. A positive advantage would have been conferred to early hominids inhabiting the African continent that were capable of producing darker skin – those who first expressed the eumelanin-producing MC1R allele – which protected them from harmful epithelium-damaging ultraviolet rays. Over time, the advantage conferred to those with darker skin may have led to the prevalence of darker skin on the continent. The positive advantage, however, would have had to be strong enough so as to produce a significantly higher reproductive fitness in those who produced more melanin. The cause of a selective pressure strong enough to cause this shift is an area of much debate. Some hypotheses include the existence of significantly lower reproductive fitness in people with less melanin due to lethal skin cancer, lethal kidney disease due to excess vitamin D formation in the skin of people with less melanin, or simply natural selection due to mate preference and sexual selection. In two separate studies in Nigeria, very few people with albinism appear to survive to old age. One study found that 89% of people diagnosed with albinism are between 0 and 30 years of age, while the other found that 77% of albinos were under the age of 20. ==Diagnosis== Genetic testing can confirm albinism and what variety it is, but offers no medical benefits, except in the case of non-OCA disorders. Such disorders cause other medical problems in conjunction with albinism, and may be treatable. Genetic tests are currently available for parents who want to find out if they are carriers of ty-neg albinism. Diagnosis of albinism involves carefully examining a person's eyes, skin and hairs. Genealogical analysis can also help. Albinism can also be a feature of several syndromes: ABCD syndrome Albinism-hearing loss syndrome Deafness, congenital, with total albinism Ermine phenotype Hermansky-Pudlak syndrome 1 to 11 (excluding 9) Microcephaly-albinism-digital anomalies syndrome Ocular albinism with late-onset sensorineural deafness Ocular albinism, type II Oculocutaneous albinism types 1B, 3 to 7 Tyrosinase-negative oculocutaneous albinism Tyrosinase-positive oculocutaneous albinism Vici syndrome Waardenburg syndrome type 2A ==Management== Since there is no cure for albinism, it is managed through lifestyle adjustments. People with albinism need to take care not to get sunburnt and should have regular healthy skin checks by a dermatologist. For the most part, treatment of the eye conditions consists of visual rehabilitation. Surgery is possible on the extra-ocular muscles to decrease strabismus. The effectiveness of all these procedures varies greatly and depends on individual circumstances. Glasses (often with tinted lenses), low vision aids, large-print materials, and bright angled reading lights can help individuals with albinism. Some people with albinism do well using bifocals (with a strong reading lens), prescription reading glasses, hand-held devices such as magnifiers or monoculars or wearable devices like eSight and Brainport. The condition may lead to abnormal development of the optic nerve and sunlight may damage the retina of the eye as the iris cannot filter out excess light due to a lack of pigmentation. Photophobia may be ameliorated by the use of sunglasses which filter out ultraviolet light. Some use bioptics, glasses which have small telescopes mounted on, in, or behind their regular lenses, so that they can look through either the regular lens or the telescope. Newer designs of bioptics use smaller light-weight lenses. Some US states allow the use of bioptic telescopes for driving motor vehicles. (See also NOAH bulletin "Low Vision Aids".) There are a number of national support groups across the globe which come under the umbrella of the World Albinism Alliance. ==Epidemiology== Albinism affects people of all ethnic backgrounds; its frequency worldwide is estimated to be approximately one in 17,000. Prevalence of the different forms of albinism varies considerably by population, and is highest overall in people of sub-Saharan African descent. Today, the prevalence of albinism in sub-Saharan Africa is around 1 in 5,000, while in Europe and the US it is around 1 in 20,000 of the European derived population. and Ukerewe Island, the population of which shows a very high incidence of albinism. ==Society and culture== ===Special status of albinos in Native American culture=== In some Native American and South Pacific cultures, people with albinism have been traditionally revered, because they were considered heavenly beings associated with the sky. Among various indigenous tribes in South America, albinos were able to live luxurious lives due to their divine status. This special status was applied mainly to male albinos. It has been theorized that the very high level of albinism among some Native American tribes can be attributed to sexual privileges given to male albinos, which allowed them to reproduce with large numbers of non-albino women in their tribes, leading to the spread of genes that are associated with albinism. ===Persecution of people with albinism=== Humans with albinism often face social and cultural challenges (even threats), as the condition is often a source of ridicule, discrimination, or even fear and violence. It is especially socially stigmatised in many African societies. A study conducted in Nigeria on albino children stated that "they experienced alienation, avoided social interactions and were less emotionally stable. Furthermore, affected individuals were less likely to complete schooling, find employment, and find partners". Many cultures around the world have developed beliefs regarding people with albinism. In African countries such as Tanzania and Burundi, there has been an unprecedented rise in witchcraft-related killings of people with albinism in recent years, because their body parts are used in potions sold by witch doctors. Numerous authenticated incidents have occurred in Africa during the 21st century. For example, in Tanzania, in September 2009, three men were convicted of killing a 14-year-old albino boy and severing his legs in order to sell them for witchcraft purposes. Again in Tanzania and Burundi in 2010, the murder and dismemberment of a kidnapped albino child was reported from the courts, Another harmful and false belief is that sex with an albinistic woman will cure a man of HIV. This has led, for example in Zimbabwe, to rapes (and subsequent HIV infection). ===Albinism in popular culture=== Famous people with albinism include historical figures such as Oxford don William Archibald Spooner; actor-comedian Victor Varnado; musicians such as Johnny and Edgar Winter, Salif Keita, Winston "Yellowman" Foster, Brother Ali, Sivuca, Hermeto Pascoal, Willie "Piano Red" Perryman, Kalash Criminel; actor-rapper Krondon, and fashion models Connie Chiu, Ryan "La Burnt" Byrne and Shaun Ross. Emperor Seinei of Japan is thought to have albinism because he was said to have been born with white hair. ===International Albinism Awareness Day=== International Albinism Awareness Day was established after a motion was accepted on 18 December 2014 by the United Nations General Assembly, proclaiming that 13 June would be known as International Albinism Awareness Day as of 2015. This was followed by a mandate created by the United Nations Human Rights Council that appointed Ms. Ikponwosa Ero, who is from Nigeria, as the first Independent Expert on the enjoyment of human rights by persons with albinism.	[ "Leucism", "Yellowman", "Optic nerve hypoplasia", "Hermeto Pascoal", "Mandinka people", "photosensitivity", "Waardenburg syndrome", "tyrosinase", "human", "photophobia", "witchcraft", "South Pacific", "Nevus", "ultraviolet", "Albinism in popular culture", "National Institutes of Health", "Ukerewe Island", "Microcephaly albinism digital anomalies syndrome", "Burundi", "Albinism in biology", "Nystagmus", "National Geographic Society", "gene", "Brother Ali", "BBC News", "Ikponwosa Ero", "International Albinism Awareness Day", "bifocals", "Hermansky–Pudlak syndrome", "Medscape", "eSight", "Sivuca", "OCA1", "Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights", "Extraocular muscles", "Condé Nast", "American Southwest", "Kalash Criminel", "witch doctor", "Zuni people", "HIV", "Shaun Ross (model)", "Light skin", "Tyrosinemia type II", "Erythrism", "Dominance (genetics)", "Dyschromia", "Biological pigment", "retinal pigment epithelium", "sub-Saharan Africa", "Wired (magazine)", "Xanthochromism", "allele", "sunburn", "vertebrate", "Vici syndrome", "Zimbabwe", "Deafness", "Marie Antoinette syndrome", "William Archibald Spooner", "Iris (anatomy)", "Amblyopia", "hearing loss", "Vitiligo", "thermoregulation", "New Mexico", "Magnifying glass", "monocular", "United Nations General Assembly", "congenital condition", "optic nerve", "Albinism", "dominance relationship", "vitamin D", "Johns Hopkins University", "Genetic testing", "Hopi", "Edgar Winter", "retina", "eMedicine", "Panama", "ABCD syndrome", "Tanzania", "Chédiak–Higashi syndrome", "University of Oxford", "National Organization for Albinism and Hypopigmentation", "Connie Chiu", "UNICEF", "Piebaldism", "Victor Varnado", "Mendelian Inheritance in Man", "Albinism–deafness syndrome", "decussation", "Indigenous peoples of the Americas", "Krondon", "Photophobia", "Oculocutaneous albinism", "phenotype", "United Nations", "Homo", "melanin", "visual acuity", "Heterochromia iridum", "chromosome", "Brainport", "amblyopia", "Latin", "Tyrosinase", "eumelanin", "Macular hypoplasia", "Australopithecus", "Isabelline (colour)", "Dermatology", "sky", "Piano Red", "British Broadcasting Corporation", "Kuna (people)", "Ocular albinism late onset sensorineural deafness", "South America", "radiation", "tyrosine", "biological inheritance", "large-print", "United States dollar", "Johnny Winter", "MC1R", "ocular albinism", "Ocular albinism", "Human variability", "skin cancer", "genetic mutation", "strabismus", "amelanism", "OCA2", "WebMD", "bioptics (device)", "red eyes", "Salif Keita", "United Nations Human Rights Council", "Glasses", "ocular straylight", "Japan", "Arizona", "U.S. National Library of Medicine", "Southern Africa", "nystagmus", "Emperor Seinei", "sub-Saharan", "Biological pigments" ]
2,911	Amr Diab	Amr Abdel Basset Abdel Azeez Diab (, ; born 11 October 1961) is an Egyptian singer, composer and actor. He has established himself as a globally acclaimed recording artist and author. ==Early life== Diab was born as Amr Abdel Basset Abdel Azeez Diab on 11 October 1961 in Port Saidto a middle-class Egyptian Muslim family from the countryside of Menia Elamh in Sharqia Governorate. Diab graduated with a bachelor's degree in music from the Cairo Academy of Arts in 1986. ==Music career== Diab released his first album entitled ' in 1983. Diab's second album, ' (1984), was the first of a series of records he released with Delta Sound; including ' (1986), ' (1987), and ' (1988). His later releases include ' (1989), ' (1990), ' (1991), ' (1992), ' (1993), ' (1994), and ' (1995). By 1992, he became the first Egyptian and Middle Eastern artist to start making high-tech music videos. In the summer of 2004, Diab, having left Alam El Phan, released his first album with Rotana Records, , which he followed up with the hugely successful ' (2005), and ' (2007). was released for sale on the internet on 27 June 2009; however, the album was leaked online and was downloaded illegally amid complaints of slow download speed on the official site. Diab's fans initiated a massive boycott of the sites with the illegal copies. On 18 October 2009, Diab won four 2009 African Music Awards in the categories of best artist, album, vocalist and song for ""; Diab had been nominated by the Big Apple Music Awards. In February 2011, Diab released his hit single ' ("Egypt spoke"), followed by the release of his album ' in September, produced by Rotana. In 2012, Diab hosted the first Google Hangout in the Middle East during his performance in Dubai. In October 2014, Diab released his album ', which topped his last album ' (2013) and again became the best-selling album in Egypt on iTunes andp eaked at No. 1 on the Billboard World Albums Charts, making him the first Egyptian and Middle Eastern performer to accomplish such a feat. In July 2015, Diab released a music video for his song "" from his album '. In March 2016, he released ', his first album since he left Rotana Music. The album was produced by the record label Nay For Media. His new album was released in July 2017 with Nay Records. In October 2018, he released a new album called '. In 2019, he released a mini-album, ', and in February 2020, he released his 30th album, , which included 16 songs. In the same year, Amr Diab released another album, Ya Ana Ya La, at the end of the year, December 31, 2020. From April 2021 to July 2023, Amr Diab released a huge amount of singles, many of which topped the charts on digital listening platforms until his album release in 2023. In December 2023, Amr Diab released an album called “Makanak” which contains 12 songs exclusively on Anghami. Then released two singles called El Kelma El Helwa it was an Ad for Vodafone MUSIC (Egypt) and Hekyatna Helwa for Hyde Park both of them on the same March 11, 2024. In April 2024, Rolling Stone picked Tamally Maak to top the Best Arabic Pop Songs of the 21st Century. In July of that year, his exclusive contract with Anghami expired. ==Musical style== Diab is known as the "father of Mediterranean music". David Cooper and Kevin Dawe refer to his music as "the new breed of Mediterranean music". According to author Michael Frishkopf, Diab has produced a new concept of Mediterranean music, especially with his international hit, "". The film was featured in the UCLA Film and Television Archive's new program "Music on the Nile: Fifty Years of Egyptian Musical Films" at James Bridges Theater at UCLA on 6, 8 and 10 April 1999. David Chute of the LA Weekly termed it "observant" and "a big leap". His third movie was released in 1993, and was named (Laughter and Fun). The film premiered in the Egyptian Film Festival in 1993. Diab played alongside international Egyptian movie star Omar Sharif (Lawrence of Arabia, Doctor Zhivago) and Yousra. Overall, Diab did not experience the same level of success in film that he had with his music career. Since 1993, Diab has focused on his singing career. === Amr Diab in movies === Diab's songs have been used in several films, including: "" in Divine Intervention (2002) "" in The Dancer Upstairs (2002) "" and "" in O Clone (2001) "" in Double Whammy (2001) "" and "" in Coco (2009) "" in The Dictator (2012) == Egyptian Revolution == During the 2011 uprising, some protesters criticized Diab for staying silent, and for fleeing Egypt for London. A few days after former President Hosni Mubarak stepped down, Diab composed and sang a memorial song, "" (Egypt Said), and released it in conjunction with a music video showing pictures of the martyrs who died in the uprising. He initiated a charity campaign "" ("Truly Egyptian"). His online radio station Diab FM often presents talks and discussions about what the Diab FM team can offer to the community as well as applying it practically by being present in different sites across Egypt with a new humanitarian project each week. == Personal life == Diab has an elder daughter from his first marriage to Egyptian actress Shereen Reda. In 1994, he was married to Saudi businesswoman Zeina Ashour. They have three children. In 2018, he went on to marry Egyptian actress, Dina El Sherbiny, after his relationship with Ashour ended. It is unknown whether they were separated or divorced. However, Diab and El Sherbiny separated in late 2020. ==Discography== ===Main Studio Albums=== === Singles === ===Famous Songs=== == Awards == He has been awarded the World Music Award for Best Selling Middle Eastern Artist four times: 1996 for album ', 2001 for album Akter Wahed, 2007 for album El Lillady and 2013 for ' album. He has also won (Best Egyptian Artist, Best Male Arab Artist and World's Best Arab Male Artist Voted Online) at the World Music Awards 2014. Amr Diab is the only Middle Eastern artist to have received 7 World Music Awards. Five of his albums reached the top 10 of Billboard's World Albums chart, with reaching No. 1 in 2014, the first for an Arabic performer. Alongside that accomplishment, two of his albums (2014's and 2016's ) both peaked at 29 and 14 respectively on Billboard's Heatseekers charts. On 28 September 2016, Diab announced that he achieved a Guinness World Records title for "Most World Music Awards for Best Selling Middle Eastern Artist". ===List of awards received by Amr Diab=== Seven World Music Awards (1997/2001/2007/2014) Six African Music Awards (2009/2010) Two All Africa Music Awards (2016/2017) Guinness World Record (2016) == Program "Al-helm" == A program produced by Amr Afifi, consisting of 12 parts aired on Rotana Music, Rotana Cinema and Egyptian Channel 1 station. The program detailed the biography of Diab and was scheduled to be launched simultaneously with the release of Amr Diab's new album, but the album's release was postponed to a later date.	[ "MENA", "The Dancer Upstairs (film)", "Khaled (musician)", "Egyptian Music", "Google Hangouts", "Port Said", "Hassan El Shafei", "oud", "Double Whammy (film)", "Sony Music Entertainment", "Leily Nahary", "Amr Mostafa", "Billboard charts", "Hosni Mubarak", "LA Weekly", "We Yloumouni", "Alam El Phan", "iTunes", "Sharqia Governorate", "Anghami", "Nile Delta", "Nour El Ain", "Awedony", "El Lilady", "Hussein al-Imam", "Mohamed Mounir", "Rotana Records", "Rolling Stone", "Arabic pop", "Mazzika", "Wayah", "EMI", "The Dictator (2012 film)", "Fathy Salama", "UCLA School of Theater, Film and Television", "Guinness World Records", "Amarain", "Madiha Kamel", "Arab Radio and Television Network", "Omar Sharif", "Shereen Reda", "2011 Egyptian revolution", "Divine Intervention (2002 film)", "Allem Alby", "Tamally Maak (album)", "Platinum Records", "Aktar Wahed", "World Music Awards", "Coco (2009 film)", "Billboard (magazine)", "Apple Music", "Rotana Music Group", "O Clone", "Yousra", "UCLA Film and Television Archive", "Lawrence of Arabia (film)", "Tamer Hussein", "dance-pop", "Angela Dimitriou", "Kammel Kalamak", "Turki Al-Sheikh", "Doctor Zhivago (film)", "Dina El Sherbiny", "Hamid Al Shaeri", "bachelor's degree" ]
2,916	Belgian hip-hop	Belgian hip hop music has a few rappers stemming from Africa and Italy. Belgium, like France, controlled African countries like the Democratic Republic of the Congo (formerly Zaire), Rwanda, and Burundi until the early 1960s. Like in France, immigrants from these countries started to study and live in Belgium. The Belgian hip hop scene started in the late 1980s with a U.S.-based techno/hip hop group called Technotronic. In the group was an emcee named Ya Kid K from the Democratic Republic of the Congo who later led the group into international fame with hits like "Pump up the Jam" and "Shake That Body". In 1990, she also joined the group Hi-Tek 3 who were heard on Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles: The Original Motion Picture Soundtrack. However, the first major pop rapper from Belgium was Benny B, who had a very mainstream and commercial sound. According to the European Music Office's report on Music in Europe, this was the first of many pop acts that helped inspire a backlash and the creation of an underground hip hop scene. Also in the late 1980s in the Walloon south of the country, French speaking/rapping Starflam was the biggest name in hip hop. In the Flemish north Dutch speaking/rapping groups like 't Hof van Commerce, Krapoel In Axe, St Andries MC's, and ABN were popular, rapping in their regional dialects. Today, the Belgian hip hop scene is growing. Rappers like Coely, Roméo Elvis and Damso are achieving commercial success in their country and abroad. Other contemporary rappers/formations are Stikstof, Woodie Smalls, L'Or Du Commun and .	[ "Coely", "Belgium", "L'Or Du Commun", "techno music", "France", "dialect", "Ya Kid K", "Technotronic", "Damso", "Immigration", "Flanders", "Democratic Republic of the Congo", "Starflam", "Rwanda", "Wallonia", "Burundi", "Italy", "hip hop music", "'t Hof van Commerce", "Stikstof", "Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles: The Original Motion Picture Soundtrack", "rapper", "Roméo Elvis", "Benny B", "Africa" ]
2,917	Dutch hip-hop	Dutch hip hop or Nederhop ("Netherhop") is hip hop / rap music created by Dutch speaking musicians in the Netherlands and Flanders (Belgium). Although the first Dutch rappers in Europe typically wrote in the English language, this began to change when Osdorp Posse gained a big following of fans. They were the first to record and release hip hop in the Dutch language, perform for big crowds and to achieve chart success with their albums. In 1995, the same year Osdorp Posse had a top 20 chart hit with their album Afslag Osdorp, rapper Extince was the first Dutch rap artist to achieve a top 10 hit in the singles charts with Spraakwater. After rapper Def Rhymz was the first to reach the Dutch main chart with number 1 hits such as Doekoe (Sranan Tongo for 'money'; 1999), and Schudden ("Shake (it)"/"Shaking"; 2001) with a more pop, R&B and dance influenced sound, Dutchlanguage hip hop has grown into a staple of mainstream pop music in the Netherlands and Flanders in the 21st century. In 2021, Netherlands music streaming charts were dominated by Dutch rap music artists like Boef, Josylvio, Broederliefde, Lil' Kleine, Snelle, and Sevn Alias. However, in the late 1980s Nederhop ("Netherhop") emerged, as artists began to rap in Dutch, such as Def Rhymz, Blonnie B, Alex and the CityCrew, Dynamic Rockers, and the Osdorp Posse. Though there is disagreement about who were the first, the pioneers' work was at first only experimental, except for the Osdorp Posse, a group from Osdorp, a "hood" in Amsterdam, who were first to release tracks in Dutch, for instance the single Moordenaar ("Murderer") in 1989, marking a beginning milestone of Nederhop. The result was described by rapper Ali B as highly visual and captivating. Their beats, created by producer Seda on Amiga 500 with Protracker, had a heavy sound and was similar to U.S. old-school hip hop, while also embracing an own style by making use of samples from metal music. The lyrics were often focussed on social criticism, with frontman Def P describing it as hardcore rap. In Deventer they found their first following, and the first Dutch language hip hop scene was born. The first hip hop groups after Osdorp Posse were Zuid-Oost Posse and Maasstraat Mannen. Dutch rap kept on reaching a bigger crowd, though it still could be considered as an underground genre. A year after the debut album of Osdorp Posse, they released 2 more albums, Roffer Dan Ooit and Vlijmscherp. Paving the way like this, many Dutch rap acts popped up. In 1994 a breakthrough took place with the release of compilation record De Posse: Nederhop Groeit (meaning "Nederhop is growing"), presenting no less than 7 different new Dutch rap acts on one record. These groups performed all across the Netherlands, gaining even a bigger audience. By 1996, Djax Records released material by Ouderkerk Kaffers, White Wolf, West Klan, Dr. Doom, Spookrijders, Zuid Oost Posse, Klaas Vaak, Cut, Mach, Vuurwerk, Loco-Motief, Lijkenpikkers, Bitchez & Cream, Space Marines, Jesse, Neuk! and De Uitverkorenen. The media still largely boycotted Dutch rap, while often expressing criticism on the harsh lyrics and lo-fi beats. Despite this, Osdorp Posse managed to build a large following of fans by 1995, resulting in nation-wide sold-out tours and big spots at Dutch festivals. They performed at the Lowlands Festival in 1995, with their popularity getting completely underestimated by the bookers, causing fans to even climb up lightning rigs and poles of the festival tent to be able to experience the set. In 1997 Osdorp Posse did two shows at the biggest festival of The Netherlands, the Pinkpop Festival. On the main day of the festival they performed at the main stage for a packed field of fans, resulting in the biggest Dutch rap show of the decade. By that year the band had 2 albums which charted in the Dutch album charts, while still on an indie label and with virtually no airplay on radio and TV. In 1995 Afslag Osdorp, their fourth album, was the first Dutch language rap album to enter the Album Top 100, for a total of 14 weeks and even a ranking in the top 20. A unique achievement, with a peak position in the charts that would only be matched 7 years later by Brainpower. By then, the band and Dutch rap in general got taken more seriously as well. After the undeniable success live on stage and in the album charts by Osdorp Posse, the lyrical content was getting cautious praise. By the mid-90's Def P collaborated with renowned and highly esteemed writers like Remco Campert and was often invited to recite his lyrics at poetry rap festivals like the Double Talk Festival at Paradiso. At the same time a shift took place, when rapper Extince took rap in the Dutch language to a new commercial level and a different audience in 1995. While Osdorp Posse already had big chart successes with their albums, Extince's Spraakwater became the first single to make the mainstream pop single charts in the country. The song even made the top 10 of the singles charts and got airplay at the radio. From then on there were two styles dominating the Dutch hip hop landscape. On one side the hardcore rap performers like Osdorp Posse, De Uitverkorenen, Casto and West Klan, who focussed on the content of their lyrics with social criticism, political subjects and knowledge, on often energetic and rough beats. With on the other side Extince, who was more of a storyteller with a slick flow and a knack for wordplay and metaphoric imagery, on funky and laidback beats. A mix of these two styles gave birth to the Spookrijders, a three-man hip-hop group founded in 1996. With MCs Stefan and Clyde rapping about their personal lives and life in Amsterdam as a black man, the Spookrijders even gained respect from non-hip-hop musicians and fans. Most people admired the work of producer/DJ Cliff 'the Jazz' Nille after releasing Spookrijders debut album De Echte Shit ("The Real Shit"). In 1999, Spookrijders hit the charts twice with the hits "Klokkenluiders" and "Ik ben de man." Both these songs appeared on the second album, Klokkenluiders van Amsterdam. After some personal arguments among the three crewmembers, Spookrijders split up in 2003, after releasing a third and final album Hey... Spookies!! In 1999 The Postmen released their rap/reggae mix De Bom ("The Bom"), a top three hit-single. They were active across Europe from 1998 to 2003. ===2000s=== From 2000 onward, Dutch language hiphop grew considerably, both in number of artists, as well as in popularity, both underground and mainstream. In the early 2000s the MC fronted band Relax got much airplay, mainly impressing with their albums. Since 2002, they released four albums, the first three of which made the Dutch album top 40. Def Rhymz, Spookrijders & Brainpower helped develop the art. Def Rhymz & Brainpower dropped multiple hit records. Described by Ali B. as "..a white library boy with glasses..", Brainpower made Dutch rapping accessible to a much greater demographic. unique for Dutch language rap at the time. Having let a permanent mark on their fanbase, when the album was re-released on vinyl in 2019, it became the best-selling album on vinyl the week of release. From the late 1990s, a flourishing underground scene in provincial town Zwolle included rappers Blaxtar, Jawat!, and Kubus, and centered around the group Opgezwolle. Formed in 1998 by rappers Sticky Steez and Phreaco Rico, together with DJ Delic, the band Opgezwolle (punning their town's name into "Swollen"), was a group making raw hiphop. In 2015, a self-titled "New Wave" generation of 'social media' (em)powered artists broke through with their eponymous New Wave album, as a temporary collaboration, including Bokoesam, D-Double, Jonna Fraser, Lil' Kleine, Ronnie Flex, and SFB. Nine of their singles also charted in the singles Top 40. In 2016, album WOP! by Lil' Kleine was the first hip-hop album to reach number 1 on the Album Top 100. In the same year, Ali B's third album, Een klein beetje geluk ("ALittle Bit of Happiness"), proved his best yet, reaching number 7. Starting 2016, rapper Sevn Alias released five consecutive top-10 albums, with his second reaching nr. 1, and the last three consistently reaching top-2 positions. He is highly productive, and is also enjoying extensive success with singles, collaborations, and other track releases. ===2020s=== ===Conflicts=== The Dutch hip-hop scene also saw many conflicts between rappers, followed by diss tracks. The following were among the biggest Dutch feuds in hip-hop: Osdorp Posse vs. Extince, BrainPower vs. Extince, T.H.C vs. Negativ, Kempi vs. Nino, Yukkie B vs. Negativ, T.H.C. vs. Lexxxus, Baas B vs. Kimo, Kempi vs. Mini, Kempi vs. Bloedserieus, Heist Rockah vs. Negativ, and Regga vs. Lexxxus. The feud between T.H.C. and Lexxxus resulted in a fistfight on a hip-hop event, when T.H.C. frontman Rocks got into an argument with Lexxxus and then started the fistfight. == Genres in Dutch hip hop == ===Gangsta=== Dutch gangsta hip hop is currently a large scene together with underground hip-hop. Among the most notable acts and performers are THC, Heinek'n, Keizer, Kempi, Steen, Hef, Crooks, Adonis and Negativ. The rhythms are influenced by the American rap scene, and the lyrics are often about crime, drugs, money, women and other criminal things. Often coming from Dutch ghettos, lyrics often include themes occurring in these areas. Dutch gangsta hip hop mostly comes from the five largest cities: Amsterdam, Rotterdam, The Hague, Utrecht and Eindhoven. ===Commercial success=== The commercial success of Dutch hip hop is largely made by Brainpower, Yes-R, Ali B, Lange Frans & Baas B and Extince. For a large part of the Dutch hip hop community Yes-R, Ali B and Lange Frans & Baas B are sometimes considered fake because they do a lot of work for children TV stations. Brainpower and Extince however both enjoy a great respect for bringing up hip hop in their native Dutch. Other commercial rappers are De Jeugd van Tegenwoordig, and one of the more popular artists in the Netherlands, Partysquad or The Partysquad. They are a 2-man group, having had success with hits such as "Stuk" (Broken), and "Dat is Die Shit" (That's the shit), with other popular songs in the background such as "Non Stop" ft. Brainpower, "We Gaan Los" (we're going crazy {because of highness or drunkenness}) with Kempi, and "Wat Wil Je Doen" (What do you want to do?). ===Dutch oldskool=== The Dutch oldskool exists out of three primary artists, LTH, Osdorp Posse, Extince, Sugacane and Duvelduvel. Osdorp Posse make to what they themselves call hardcore rap and use beats that have much in common with N.W.A. Their lyrics are about racism, prostitution, police and other social subjects. Extince uses very different, more funky kind of beats than Osdorp Posse and uses a completely different rapstyle. Duvelduvel is known as a conceptual hip hop group. ==Notable artists== Notable Dutch hip hop artists, listed by locality include:	[ "Dansplaat", "Ice Ice Baby", "Ali B", "Dr. Dre", "Extince", "Boef", "3VOOR12", "De Wereld Draait Door", "Broederliefde", "Grote Prijs van Nederland", "Capelle aan den IJssel", "Brainpower", "Nijmegen", "Gers Pardoel", "Raymzter", "Focus...", "Ronnie Flex", "Sugacane", "hip hop music", "LTH (musician)", "rap rock", "TMF Awards", "Feis (rapper)", "Sranan Tongo", "T.H.C", "nl:SFB (Strictly Family Business)", "Osdorp", "Netherlands", "Tilburg", "NU.nl", "Dutch Album Top 100", "senseless violence", "Kyteman", "Fishbone", "Fresku", "nl:Jonna Fraser", "Cilvaringz", "Red Hot Chili Peppers", "Pete Philly and Perquisite", "Typhoon (rapper)", "Heinek'n", "King Bee (hip hop group)", "European hip hop", "Flanders", "Negativ", "Kempi", "The Hague", "Eindhoven", "idiom", "Dutch royal family", "Amsterdam", "Keizer (rapper)", "ghetto", "Brace (singer)", "Deventer", "Dutch language", "Almere", "The Opposites", "Oosterhout", "Ghetto (Akon song)", "nl:Bokoesam", "Living Colour", "Akon", "Postmen (band)", "Het land van...", "MC Miker G & DJ Sven", "D-Men", "Eigen Wereld", "Tuindorp Hustler Click", "Utrecht", "Zoetermeer", "MC James", "Vanilla Ice", "U-Niq", "Mick 2dope Murray", "Def Rhymz", "Old school hip hop", "Frans Bauer", "Nederlands Grootste Nachtmerrie", "Lange Frans & Baas B", "drugs", "Dutch Album Top 100", "hardcore rap", "Osdorp Posse", "Pinkpop Festival", "Blaxtar", "Album Top 100", "Frenna", "E-Life", "MTV Award", "Yes-R", "Snelle", "Sevn Alias", "Alkmaar", "De Jeugd van Tegenwoordig", "rap music", "N.W.A", "Lowlands (festival)", "Jawat", "Urban Dance Squad", "Billboard Hot 100", "The Postmen", "Watskeburt", "Groningen (city)", "Marco Borsato", "Fakkelbrigade", "War Child (charity)", "Alphen aan den Rijn", "Josylvio", "Madonna", "reggae", "Dutch Public Broadcasting Foundation", "Salah Edin", "Nino (rapper)", "Adonis (rapper)", "Rotterdam", "Dutch Top 40", "Zinloos", "Opgezwolle", "social media", "Colucci Era", "lyrics", "A.R.T. (musician)", "Kraantje Pappie", "Hef (rapper)", "Mr. Probz", "WOP!", "Zwolle", "Duvelduvel", "Holiday (Madonna song)", "Lil' Kleine", "nl:D-Double", "Relax (band)", "Appa (rapper)", "Winne (rapper)", "Holiday Rap" ]
2,919	Anaïs Nin	Angela Anaïs Juana Antolina Rosa Edelmira Nin y Culmell ( ; ; February 21, 1903 – January 14, 1977) was a French-born American diarist, essayist, novelist, and writer of short stories and erotica. Born to Cuban parents in France, Nin was the daughter of the composer Joaquín Nin and the classically trained singer Rosa Culmell. Nin spent her early years in Spain and Cuba, about sixteen years in Paris (1924–1940), and the remaining half of her life in the United States, where she became an established author. Nin wrote journals prolifically from age eleven until her death. Her journals, many of which were published during her lifetime, detail her private thoughts and personal relationships. Her journals also describe her marriages to Hugh Parker Guiler and Rupert Pole, in addition to her numerous affairs with men and women, including those with psychoanalyst Otto Rank and writer Henry Miller, both of whom profoundly influenced Nin and her writing. In addition to her journals, Nin wrote several novels, critical studies, essays, short stories, and volumes of erotic literature. Much of her work, including the collections of erotica, was published posthumously amid renewed critical interest in her life and work. Nin spent her later life in Los Angeles, California, where she died of cervical cancer in 1977. She was a finalist for the Neustadt International Prize for Literature in 1976. ==Early life== Anaïs Nin was born in Neuilly, France, to Joaquín Nin, a Cuban pianist and composer, and Rosa Culmell, a classically trained Cuban singer. Her father's grandfather had fled France during the French Revolution, going first to Saint-Domingue, then New Orleans, and finally to Cuba, where he helped build the country's first railway. Nin was raised a Roman Catholic but left the church when she was 16 years old. She spent her childhood and early life in Europe. Her parents separated when she was two; her mother then moved Nin and her two brothers, Thorvald Nin and Joaquín Nin-Culmell, to Barcelona, and then to New York City, where she attended high school. Nin dropped out of high school in 1919 at age sixteen, and according to her diaries, Volume One, 1931–1934, later began working as an artist's model. After being in the United States for several years, Nin had forgotten how to speak Spanish, but retained her French and became fluent in English.On March 3, 1923, in Havana, Cuba, Nin married her first husband, American Hugh Parker Guiler (1898–1985), a banker and artist from Boston, later known as "Ian Hugo", when he became an experimental filmmaker in the late 1940s. The couple moved to Paris the following year, where Guiler pursued his banking career and Nin began to pursue her interest in writing; in her diaries she also mentions having trained as a flamenco dancer in Paris in the mid-to-late 1920s with Francisco Miralles Arnau. Her first published work was a critical 1932 evaluation of D. H. Lawrence called D. H. Lawrence: An Unprofessional Study, which she wrote in sixteen days. Both men eventually became her lovers, as she recounts in her Journal. On her second visit to Rank, Nin reflects on her desire to be reborn as a woman and artist. Rank, she observes, helped her move between what she could verbalize in her journals and what remained unarticulated. She discovered the quality and depth of her feelings in the wordless transitions between what she could and could not say. "As he talked, I thought of my difficulties with writing, my struggles to articulate feelings not easily expressed. Of my struggles to find a language for intuition, feeling, instincts which are, in themselves, elusive, subtle, and wordless." In late summer 1939, when residents from overseas were urged to leave France due to the approaching war, Nin left Paris and returned to New York City with her husband (Guiler was, according to his own wishes, edited out of the diaries published during Nin's lifetime; his role in her life is therefore difficult to evaluate). During the war, Nin sent her books to Frances Steloff of the Gotham Book Mart in New York for safekeeping. In New York, Nin rejoined Otto Rank, who had previously moved there, and moved into his apartment. She actually began to act as a psychoanalyst herself, seeing patients in the room next to Rank's. She quit after several months, however, stating: "I found that I wasn't good because I wasn't objective. I was haunted by my patients. I wanted to intercede." Nin felt that French was the language of her heart, Spanish was the language of her ancestors, and English was the language of her intellect. The writing in her diaries is explicitly trilingual; she uses whichever language best expresses her thought. In the second volume of her unexpurgated journal, Incest, she wrote about her father candidly and graphically (207–15), detailing her incestuous adult sexual relationship with him. Previously unpublished works were released in A Café in Space, the Anaïs Nin Literary Journal, which includes "Anaïs Nin and Joaquín Nin y Castellanos: Prelude to a SymphonyLetters between a father and daughter". So far sixteen volumes of her journals have been published. All but the last five of her adult journals are in expurgated form. ===Erotic writings=== Nin is hailed by many critics as one of the finest writers of female erotica. She was one of the first women known to explore fully the realm of erotic writing, and certainly the first prominent woman in the modern West known to write erotica. Before her, erotica acknowledged to be written by women was rare, with a few notable exceptions, such as the work of Kate Chopin. Nin often cited authors Djuna Barnes and D. H. Lawrence as inspirations, and she states in Volume One of her diaries that she drew inspiration from Marcel Proust, André Gide, Jean Cocteau, Paul Valéry, and Arthur Rimbaud. According to Volume One of her diaries, 1931–1934, published in 1966, Nin first came across erotica when she returned to Paris with her husband, mother and two brothers in her late teens. They rented the apartment of an American man who was away for the summer, and Nin came across a number of French paperbacks: "One by one, I read these books, which were completely new to me. I had never read erotic literature in America... They overwhelmed me. I was innocent before I read them, but by the time I had read them all, there was nothing I did not know about sexual exploits... I had my degree in erotic lore." Faced with a desperate need for money, Nin, Henry Miller and some of their friends began in the 1940s to write erotic and pornographic narratives for an anonymous "collector" for a dollar a page, somewhat as a joke. (It is not clear whether Miller actually wrote these stories or merely allowed his name to be used.) Nin considered the characters in her erotica to be extreme caricatures and never intended the work to be published, but changed her mind in the early 1970s and allowed them to be published as Delta of Venus and Little Birds. In 2016, a previously undiscovered collection of Nin's erotica, Auletris, was published for the first time. Nin was a friend, and in some cases lover, of many literary figures, including Miller, John Steinbeck, Antonin Artaud, Edmund Wilson, Gore Vidal, James Agee, James Leo Herlihy, and Lawrence Durrell. Her passionate love affair and friendship with Miller strongly influenced her both sexually and as an author. Claims that Nin was bisexual were given added circulation by the 1990 Philip Kaufman film Henry & June about Miller and his second wife June Miller. The first unexpurgated portion of Nin's journal to be published, Henry and June, makes clear that Nin was stirred by June to the point of saying (paraphrasing), "I have become June", though it is unclear to what extent she consummated her feelings sexually. To both Anaïs and Henry, June was a femme fataleirresistible, cunning, and erotic. Nin gave June money, jewelry, and clothes, often leaving herself without money. ===Novels and other publications=== In addition to her journals and collections of erotica, Nin wrote several novels, which critics frequently associated with the surrealist movement. Her first book of fiction, House of Incest (1936), contains heavily veiled allusions to a brief sexual relationship Nin had with her father in 1933: while visiting her estranged father in France, the then-30-year-old Nin had a brief incestuous sexual relationship with him. In 1944, she published a collection of short stories, Under a Glass Bell, which was reviewed by Edmund Wilson. The two began a relationship and traveled to California together; Pole was 16 years her junior. On March 17, 1955, while still married to Guiler, she married Pole at Quartzsite, Arizona, returning with him to live in California. Guiler remained in New York City and was unaware of Nin's second marriage until after her death in 1977, though biographer Deirdre Bair alleges that Guiler knew what was happening while Nin was in California but consciously "chose not to know". but she and Pole continued to live together as if married until her death. According to Barbara Kraft, Nin wrote to Guiler asking for his forgiveness. He responded by saying how meaningful his life had been because of her. After Guiler's death in 1985, Pole commissioned the unexpurgated versions of Nin's journals. Six volumes have been published: Henry and June, Fire, Incest, Nearer the Moon, Mirages, and Trapeze. Pole arranged for Guiler's ashes to be scattered in the same area where Nin's ashes were, Mermaid Cove in Santa Monica Bay. Pole died in 2006. Nin once worked at Lawrence R. Maxwell Books, at 45 Christopher Street in New York City. In addition to her work as a writer, Nin appeared in the Kenneth Anger film Inauguration of the Pleasure Dome (1954) as Astarte; in the Maya Deren film Ritual in Transfigured Time (1946); and in Bells of Atlantis (1952), a film Guiler directed under the name "Ian Hugo" with a soundtrack of electronic music by Louis and Bebe Barron. In her later life, Nin worked as a tutor at the International College in Los Angeles. Nin died of the cancer at Cedars-Sinai Medical Center in Los Angeles, California, on January 14, 1977. Her body was cremated and her ashes scattered over Santa Monica Bay in Mermaid Cove. Her first husband, Hugh Guiler, died in 1985, and his ashes were scattered in the same cove. ==Legacy== The feminist movement in the 1960s gave feminist perspectives on Nin's writings of the past twenty years, which made Nin a popular lecturer at various universities; contrarily, Nin dissociated herself from the political activism of the movement. The Italian film La stanza delle parole (dubbed into English as The Room of Words) was released in 1989 based on the Henry and June diaries. Philip Kaufman directed the 1990 film Henry & June based on Nin's diaries published as Henry and June: From the Unexpurgated Diary of Anaïs Nin. She was portrayed in the film by actress Maria de Medeiros. In February 2008, poet Steven Reigns organized Anaïs Nin at 105 at the Hammer Museum in Westwood, Los Angeles. Reigns said: "Nin bonded and formed very deep friendships with women and men decades younger than her. Some of them are still living in Los Angeles and I thought it'd be wonderful to have them share their experiences with [Nin]." Bebe Barron, an electronic music pioneer and longtime friend of Nin, made her last public appearance at this event. Reigns also published an essay refuting Bern Porter's claims of a sexual relationship with Nin in the 1930s. Reigns is the President of the Board of the non-profit organization devoted to Nin's legacy, the Anaïs Nin Foundation. Cuban-American writer Daína Chaviano paid homage to Anaïs Nin and Henry Miller in her novel Gata encerrada (2001), where both characters are portrayed as disembodied spirits whose previous lives they shared with Melisa, the main character—and presumably Chaviano's alter ego—, a young Cuban obsessed with Anaïs Nin. The Cuban poet and novelist Wendy Guerra, long fascinated with Nin's life and works, published a fictional diary in Nin's voice, Posar desnuda en la Habana (Posing Nude in Havana) in 2012. She explained that "[Nin's] Cuban Diary has very few pages and my delirium was always to write an apocryphal novel; literary conjecture about what might have happened". On September 27, 2013, screenwriter and author Kim Krizan published an article in The Huffington Post In 2015, a documentary film directed by Sarah Aspinall called The Erotic Adventures of Anais Nin was released, in which Lucy Cohu portrayed Nin's character. In 2019, Kim Krizan published Spy in the House of Anaïs Nin, an examination of long-buried letters, papers, and original manuscripts Krizan found while doing archival work in Nin's Los Angeles home. Also that year, Routledge published the book Anaïs Nin: A Myth of Her Own by Clara Oropeza, that analyzes Nin's literature and literary theory through the perspective of mythological studies and depth psychology. In 2002, Alissa Levy Caiano produced a short film called "The All-Seeing" based on Nin's short story of the same name in Under a Glass Bell. In 2021, the porn film company Thousand Faces released a short film called "Mathilde" based on Nin's story of the same name in Delta of Venus.	[ "Gotham Book Mart", "Honorary degree", "New Orleans", "Djuna Barnes", "June Miller", "chemotherapy", "Elsa Dorfman", "UCLA Library", "Bebe Barron", "International College, Los Angeles", "erotica", "G. P. Putnam's Sons", "Saint-Domingue", "Auletris", "The Early Diary of Anaïs Nin", "Edmund Wilson", "Little Birds (short story collection)", "Nearer the Moon", "bisexual", "D. H. Lawrence: An Unprofessional Study", "Arthur Rimbaud", "femme fatale", "Philip Kaufman", "Jean Cocteau", "Caricature", "National Public Radio", "Los Angeles Times", "Cities of the Interior", "artist's model", "Roman Catholic", "The Novel of the Future", "Steven Reigns", "Women's erotica", "Marcel Proust", "Hugh Parker Guiler", "Hobart", "incestuous", "Los Angeles", "French Revolution", "Havana", "Antonin Artaud", "James Leo Herlihy", "cervical cancer", "Kim Krizan", "Neustadt International Prize for Literature", "Winter of Artifice", "Henry and June", "Cedars-Sinai Medical Center", "Robert Snyder (filmmaker)", "André Gide", "List of Cuban American writers", "John Steinbeck", "Waste of Timelessness", "Rupert Pole", "Quartzsite, Arizona", "Radiation therapy", "Santa Monica Bay", "mythological", "Fire: From a Journal of Love", "Encyclopædia Britannica", "feminist movement", "Gore Vidal", "bigamy", "Paul Valéry", "Henry & June", "Routledge", "A Spy in the House of Love", "Fire: From A Journal of Love", "Modernism", "experimental film", "Neuilly-sur-Seine", "Kenneth Anger", "porn", "The Diary of Anaïs Nin", "Hammer Museum", "House of Incest", "Daína Chaviano", "Surrealism", "Diary", "Maria de Medeiros", "Wendy Guerra", "alter ego", "The Huffington Post", "Kate Chopin", "Under a Glass Bell", "Lawrence Durrell", "Deirdre Bair", "René Allendy", "Inauguration of the Pleasure Dome", "Delta of Venus", "Mirages: The Unexpurgated Diary of Anaïs Nin, 1939-1947", "45 Christopher Street", "Louis and Bebe Barron", "Lucy Cohu", "Philadelphia College of Art", "Francisco Miralles Arnau", "Pornography", "Otto Rank", "James Agee", "Nearer the Moon: From A Journal of Love", "Incest: From a Journal of Love", "Joaquín Nin-Culmell", "Kuusankoski", "Henry Miller", "erotic literature", "Los Angeles, California", "electronic music", "D. H. Lawrence", "trilingual", "Ritual in Transfigured Time", "Apocrypha", "Joaquín Nin", "Maya Deren", "The Four-Chambered Heart", "Noël Riley Fitch", "D. H. Lawrence", "Taylor & Francis", "Little, Brown and Company", "D. H. Lawrence: An Unprofessional Study", "Frances Steloff", "literary executor", "psychoanalysis", "cremation", "Barcelona", "Soichi Sunami", "depth psychology", "Seduction of the Minotaur", "The New York Times", "unexpurgated", "Astarte", "Bern Porter", "flamenco", "Metastasis", "Trapeze: The Unexpurgated Diary of Anaïs Nin, 1947–1955", "List of Cuban Americans", "National Institute of Arts and Letters", "bohemian style", "Newsweek", "Lili Bita", "In Favor of the Sensitive Man" ]
2,923	AIM (software)	AOL Instant Messenger (AIM, sometimes stylized as aim) was an instant messaging and presence computer program created by AOL, which used the proprietary OSCAR instant messaging protocol and the TOC protocol to allow registered users to communicate in real time. AIM was popular by the late 1990s; teens and college students were known to use the messenger's away message feature to keep in touch with friends, often frequently changing their away message throughout a day or leaving a message up with one's computer left on to inform buddies of their ongoings, location, parties, thoughts, or jokes. AIM's popularity declined as AOL subscribers started decreasing and steeply towards the 2010s, as Gmail's Google Talk, SMS, and Internet social networks, like Facebook gained popularity. Its fall has often been compared with other once-popular Internet services, such as Myspace. In June 2015, AOL was acquired by Verizon Communications. In June 2017, Verizon combined AOL and Yahoo into its subsidiary Oath Inc. (now called Yahoo). The company discontinued AIM as a service on December 15, 2017. ==History== In May 1997, AIM was released unceremoniously as a stand-alone download for Microsoft Windows. AIM was an outgrowth of "online messages" in the original platform written in PL/1 on a Stratus computer by Dave Brown. At one time, the software had the largest share of the instant messaging market in North America, especially in the United States (with 52% of the total reported ). This does not include other instant messaging software related to or developed by AOL, such as ICQ and iChat. During its heyday, its main competitors were ICQ (which AOL acquired in 1998), Yahoo! Messenger and MSN Messenger. AOL particularly had a rivalry or "chat war" with PowWow and Microsoft, starting in 1999. There were several attempts from Microsoft to simultaneously log into their own and AIM's protocol servers. AOL was unhappy about this and started blocking MSN Messenger from being able to access AIM. This led to efforts by many companies to challenge the AOL and Time Warner merger on the grounds of antitrust behaviour, leading to the formation of the OpenNet Coalition. Official mobile versions of AIM appeared as early as 2001 on Palm OS through the AOL application. Third-party applications allowed it to be used in 2002 for the Sidekick. A version for Symbian OS was announced in 2003 as were others for BlackBerry and Windows Mobile After 2012, stand-alone official AIM client software included advertisements and was available for Microsoft Windows, Windows Mobile, Classic Mac OS, macOS, Android, iOS, and BlackBerry OS. ===Usage decline and product sunset=== Around 2011, AIM started to lose popularity rapidly, partly due to the quick rise of Gmail and its built-in real-time Google Chat instant messenger integration in 2011 and because many people migrated to SMS or iMessages text messaging and later, social networking websites and apps for instant messaging, in particular, Facebook Messenger, which was released as a standalone application the same year. AOL made a partnership to integrate AIM messaging in Google Talk, and had a feature for AIM users to send SMS messages directly from AIM to any number, as well as for SMS users to send an IM to any AIM user. As of June 2011, one source reported AOL Instant Messenger market share had collapsed to 0.73%. However, this number only reflected installed IM applications, and not active users. The engineers responsible for AIM claimed that they were unable to convince AOL management that free was the future. On October 6, 2017, it was announced that the AIM service would be discontinued on December 15; however, a non-profit development team known as Wildman Productions started up a server for older versions of AOL Instant Messenger, known as AIM Phoenix. == The "Running Man"== The AIM mascot was designed by JoRoan Lazaro and was implemented in the first release in 1997. This was a yellow stickman-like figure, often called the "Running Man". AIM's popularity in the late 1990s and the 2000s led to the “Running Man” becoming a familiar brand on the Internet. After over 14 years, the iconic logo disappeared as part of the AIM rebranding in 2011. However, in August 2013, the "Running Man" returned. It was used for other AOL services like AOL Top Speed and is still featured in a theme on AOL Mail. In 2014, a Complex editor called it a "symbol of America". In April 2015, the Running Man was officially featured in the Virgin London Marathon, dressed by a person for the AOL-partnered Free The Children charity. ==Protocol== The standard protocol that AIM clients used to communicate is called Open System for CommunicAtion in Realtime (OSCAR). Most AOL-produced versions of AIM and popular third party AIM clients use this protocol. However, AOL also created a simpler protocol called TOC that lacks many of OSCAR's features, but was sometimes used for clients that only require basic chat functionality. The TOC/TOC2 protocol specifications were made available by AOL, while OSCAR is a closed protocol that third parties had to reverse-engineer. In January 2008, AOL introduced experimental Extensible Messaging and Presence Protocol (XMPP) support for AIM, allowing AIM users to communicate using the standardized, open-source XMPP. However, in March 2008, this service was discontinued. In May 2011, AOL started offering limited XMPP support. On March 1, 2017, AOL announced (via XMPP-login-time messages) that the AOL XMPP gateway would be desupported, effective March 28, 2017. ==Privacy== For privacy regulations, AIM had strict age restrictions. AIM accounts are available only for people over the age of 13; children younger than that were not permitted access to AIM. Under the AIM Privacy Policy, AOL had no rights to read or monitor any private communications between users. The profile of the user had no privacy. If public content was accessed, it could be used for online, print or broadcast advertising, etc. This was outlined in the policy and terms of service: "... you grant AOL, its parent, affiliates, subsidiaries, assigns, agents and licensees the irrevocable, perpetual, worldwide right to reproduce, display, perform, distribute, adapt and promote this Content in any medium". This allowed anything users posted to be used without a separate request for permission. Though one could block a user from communicating with them and seeing their status, this did not prevent that user from creating a new account that would not automatically be blocked and therefore able to track their status. A more conservative privacy option was to select a menu feature that only allowed communication with users on one's buddy list; however, this option also created the side-effect of blocking all users who were not on one's buddy list. Users could also choose to be invisible to all. ==Chat robots== AOL and various other companies supplied robots (bots) on AIM that could receive messages and send a response based on the bot's purpose. For example, bots could help with studying, like StudyBuddy. Some were made to relate to children and teenagers, like Spleak. Others gave advice. The more useful chat bots had features like the ability to play games, get sport scores, weather forecasts or financial stock information. Users were able to talk to automated chat bots that could respond to natural human language. They were primarily put into place as a marketing strategy and for unique advertising options. It was used by advertisers to market products or build better consumer relations. Before the inclusions of such bots, the other bots DoorManBot and AIMOffline provided features that were provided by AOL for those who needed it. ZolaOnAOL and ZoeOnAOL were short-lived bots that ultimately retired their features in favor of SmarterChild. ==URI scheme== AOL Instant Messenger's installation process automatically installed an extra URI scheme ("protocol") handler into some Web browsers, so URIs beginning with aim: could open a new AIM window with specified parameters. This was similar in function to the mailto: URI scheme, which created a new e-mail message using the system's default mail program. For instance, a webpage might have included a link like the following in its HTML source to open a window for sending a message to the AIM user notarealuser: Send Message To specify a message body, the message parameter was used, so the link location would have looked like this: aim:goim?screenname=notarealuser&message=This+is+my+message To specify an away message, the message parameter was used, so the link location would have looked like this: aim:goaway?message=Hello,+my+name+is+Bill When placing this inside a URL link, an AIM user could click on the URL link and the away message "Hello, my name is Bill" would instantly become their away message. To add a buddy, the addbuddy message was used, with the "screenname" parameter aim:addbuddy?screenname=notarealuser This type of link was commonly found on forum profiles to easily add contacts. ==Vulnerabilities== AIM had security weaknesses that have enabled exploits to be created that used third-party software to perform malicious acts on users' computers. Although most were relatively harmless, such as being kicked off the AIM service, others performed potentially dangerous actions, such as sending viruses. Some of these exploits relied on social engineering to spread by automatically sending instant messages that contained a Uniform Resource Locator (URL) accompanied by text suggesting the receiving user click on it, an action which leads to infection, i.e., a trojan horse. These messages could easily be mistaken as coming from a friend and contain a link to a Web address that installed software on the user's computer to restart the cycle. ==Extra features== ===iPhone application=== On March 6, 2008, during Apple Inc.'s iPhone SDK event, AOL announced that they would be releasing an AIM application for iPhone and iPod Touch users. The application was available for free from the App Store, but the company also provided a paid version, which displayed no advertisements. Both were available from the App Store. The AIM client for iPhone and iPod Touch supported standard AIM accounts, as well as MobileMe accounts. There was also an express version of AIM accessible through the Safari browser on the iPhone and iPod Touch. In 2011, AOL launched an overhaul of their Instant Messaging service. Included in the update was a brand new iOS application for iPhone and iPod Touch that incorporated all the latest features. A brand new icon was used for the application, featuring the new cursive logo for AIM. The user-interface was entirely redone for the features including: a new buddy list, group messaging, in-line photos and videos, as well as improved file-sharing. Version 5.0.5, updated in March 2012, it supported more social stream features, much like Facebook and Twitter, as well as the ability to send voice messages up to 60 seconds long. ===iPad application=== On April 3, 2010, Apple released the first generation iPad. Along with this newly released device AOL released the AIM application for iPad. It was built entirely from scratch for the new version of iOS with a specialized user-interface for the device. It supported geolocation, Facebook status updates and chat, Myspace, Twitter, YouTube, Foursquare, and many other social networking platforms. ===AIM Express=== AIM Express ran in a pop-up browser window. It was intended for use by people who are unwilling or unable to install a standalone application or those at computers that lack the AIM application. AIM Express supported many of the standard features included in the stand-alone client, but did not provide advanced features like file transfer, audio chat, video conferencing, or buddy info. It was implemented in Adobe Flash. It was an upgrade to the prior AOL Quick Buddy, which was later available for older systems that cannot handle Express before being discontinued. Express and Quick Buddy were similar to MSN Web Messenger and Yahoo! Web Messenger. This web version evolved into AIM.com's web-based messenger. ===AIM Pages=== AIM Pages was a free website released in May 2006 by AOL in replacement of AIMSpace. Anyone who had an AIM user name and was at least 16 years of age could create their own web page (to display an online, dynamic profile) and share it with buddies from their AIM Buddy list. ==== Layout ==== AIM Pages included links to the email and Instant Message of the owner, along with a section listing the owners "buddies", which included AIM user names. It was possible to create modules in a Module T microformat. Video hosting sites like Netflix and YouTube could be added to ones AIM Page, as well as other sites like Amazon.com. It was also possible to insert HTML code. The main focus of AIM Pages was the integration of external modules, like those listed above, into the AOL Instant Messenger experience. ==== Discontinuation ==== By late 2007, AIM Pages were discontinued. AOL Lifestream was shut down February 24, 2017. ===AIM for Mac=== AOL released an all-new AIM for the Mac on September 29, 2008, and the final build on December 15, 2008. The redesigned AIM for Mac is a full universal binary Cocoa API application that supports both Tiger and Leopard — Mac OS X 10.4.8 (and above) or Mac OS X 10.5.3 (and above). On October 1, 2009, AOL released AIM 2.0 for Mac. ===AIM real-time IM=== This feature was available for AIM 7 and allowed for a user to see what the other is typing as it is being done. It was developed and built with assistance from Trace Research and Development Centre at University of Wisconsin–Madison and Gallaudet University. The application provides visually impaired users the ability to convert messages from text (words) to speech. For the application to work users must have AIM 6.8 or higher, as it is not compatible with older versions of AIM software, AIM for Mac or iChat. ==Discontinued features== ===AIM Phoneline=== AIM Phoneline was a Voice over IP PC-PC, PC-Phone and Phone-to-PC service provided via the AIM application. It was also known to work with Apple's iChat Client. The service was officially closed to its customers on January 13, 2009. The closing of the free service caused the number associated with the service to be disabled and not transferable for a different service. AIM Phoneline website was recommending users switch to a new service named AIM Call Out, also discontinued now. Launched on May 16, 2006, AIM Phoneline provided users the ability to have several local numbers, allowing AIM users to receive free incoming calls. The service allowed users to make calls to landlines and mobile devices through the use of a computer. The service, however, was only free for receiving and AOL charged users $14.95 a month for an unlimited calling plan. In order to use AIM Phoneline users had to install the latest free version of AIM Triton software and needed a good set of headphones with a boom microphone. It could take several days after a user signed up before it started working. It did not depend on the AIM client and could be used with only an AIM screenname via the WebConnect feature or a dedicated SIP device. The AIM Call Out service was shut down on March 25, 2009. ==Security== On November 4, 2014, AIM scored one out of seven points on the Electronic Frontier Foundation's secure messaging scorecard. AIM received a point for encryption during transit, but lost points because communications are not encrypted with a key to which the provider has no access, i.e., the communications are not end-to-end encrypted, users can't verify contacts' identities, past messages are not secure if the encryption keys are stolen, (i.e., the service does not provide forward secrecy), the code is not open to independent review, (i.e., the code is not open-source), the security design is not properly documented, and there has not been a recent independent security audit. BlackBerry Messenger (BBM), Ebuddy XMS, Hushmail, Kik Messenger, Skype, Viber, and Yahoo! Messenger also scored one out of seven points.	[ "IPad (1st generation)", "BlackBerry", "Amazon.com", "Verizon Media", "Palm OS", "Trojan horse (computing)", "iPhone", "macOS", "Foursquare City Guide", "SMS", "stick figure", "ICQ", "Microsoft Windows", "Netflix", "C++", "Danger Hiptop", "iOS", "social engineering (security)", "URL", "Mac (computer)", "Voice over IP", "Kik Messenger", "MSN Messenger", "OSCAR protocol", "User (computing)", "Windows Live Messenger", "Hushmail", "Adobe Flash", "Cocoa (API)", "XMPP", "Comparison of cross-platform instant messaging clients", "London Marathon", "Viber", "TOC protocol", "Android (operating system)", "eBuddy", "App Store (iOS)", "web page", "End-to-end encryption", "forward secrecy", "WE Charity", "Complex (magazine)", "computer program", "IOS SDK", "HTML", "PowWow (chat program)", "Message", "AOL-Time Warner", "AOL Mail", "Myspace", "CNET", "MobileMe", "Gmail", "Twitter", "SmarterChild", "AOL Instant Messenger", "YouTube", "Skype", "Facebook Messenger", "IOS version history", "Yahoo! Messenger", "PC Magazine", "Open-source software", "exploit (computer security)", "Instant messaging", "NBC News", "Apple Inc.", "Oath Inc.", "Facebook", "Electronic Frontier Foundation", "List of defunct instant messaging platforms", "Spleak", "Gallaudet University", "presence information", "Safari (web browser)", "Uniform Resource Identifier", "email", "AOL", "iPod Touch", "BlackBerry OS", "Google Talk", "Verizon Communications", "iChat", "BlackBerry Messenger", "AOL Lifestream", "iMessages", "Classic Mac OS", "Windows Mobile", "Symbian OS", "USA Today", "proprietary software", "AIM Call Out", "OpenNet Coalition", "Android TV", "universal binary", "Social networking service", "instant messaging", "computer virus", "University of Wisconsin–Madison", "text messaging", "microformat" ]
2,925	Ackermann function	In computability theory, the Ackermann function, named after Wilhelm Ackermann, is one of the simplest and earliest-discovered examples of a total computable function that is not primitive recursive. All primitive recursive functions are total and computable, but the Ackermann function illustrates that not all total computable functions are primitive recursive. After Ackermann's publication of his function (which had three non-negative integer arguments), many authors modified it to suit various purposes, so that today "the Ackermann function" may refer to any of numerous variants of the original function. One common version is the two-argument Ackermann–Péter function developed by Rózsa Péter and Raphael Robinson. This function is defined from the recurrence relation \operatorname{A}(m+1, n+1) = \operatorname{A}(m, \operatorname{A}(m+1, n)) with appropriate base cases. Its value grows very rapidly; for example, \operatorname{A}(4, 2) results in 2^{65536} - 3, an integer with 19,729 decimal digits. ==History== In the late 1920s, the mathematicians Gabriel Sudan and Wilhelm Ackermann, students of David Hilbert, were studying the foundations of computation. Both Sudan and Ackermann are credited with discovering total computable functions (termed simply "recursive" in some references) that are not primitive recursive. Sudan published the lesser-known Sudan function, then shortly afterwards and independently, in 1928, Ackermann published his function \varphi (from Greek, the letter phi). Ackermann's three-argument function, \varphi(m, n, p), is defined such that for p=0,1,2, it reproduces the basic operations of addition, multiplication, and exponentiation as \begin{align} \varphi(m, n, 0) &= m+n \\ \varphi(m, n, 1) &= m\times n \\ \varphi(m, n, 2) &= m^n \end{align} and for p > 2 it extends these basic operations in a way that can be compared to the hyperoperations: \begin{align} \varphi(m, n, 3) &= m[4](n+1) \\ \varphi(m, n, p) &\gtrapprox m[p+1](n+1) && \text{for } p > 3 \end{align} (Aside from its historic role as a total-computable-but-not-primitive-recursive function, Ackermann's original function is seen to extend the basic arithmetic operations beyond exponentiation, although not as seamlessly as do variants of Ackermann's function that are specifically designed for that purpose—such as Goodstein's hyperoperation sequence.) In On the Infinite, David Hilbert hypothesized that the Ackermann function was not primitive recursive, but it was Ackermann, Hilbert's personal secretary and former student, who actually proved the hypothesis in his paper On Hilbert's Construction of the Real Numbers. Rózsa Péter and Raphael Robinson later developed a two-variable version of the Ackermann function that became preferred by almost all authors. The generalized hyperoperation sequence, e.g. G(m, a, b) = a[m]b, is a version of the Ackermann function as well. In 1963 R.C. Buck based an intuitive two-variable variant \operatorname{F} on the hyperoperation sequence: \operatorname{F}(m,n) = 2[m]n. Compared to most other versions, Buck's function has no unessential offsets: \begin{align} \operatorname{F}(0,n) &= 2[0]n = n + 1 \\ \operatorname{F}(1,n) &= 2[1]n = 2 + n \\ \operatorname{F}(2,n) &= 2[2]n = 2 \times n \\ \operatorname{F}(3,n) &= 2[3]n = 2^n \\ \operatorname{F}(4,n) &= 2[4]n = 2^{2^{2^}}}} \\ &\quad\vdots \end{align} Many other versions of Ackermann function have been investigated. ==Definition== === Definition: as m-ary function === Ackermann's original three-argument function \varphi(m, n, p) is defined recursively as follows for nonnegative integers m,n, and p: \begin{align} \varphi(m, n, 0) &= m + n \\ \varphi(m, 0, 1) &= 0 \\ \varphi(m, 0, 2) &= 1 \\ \varphi(m, 0, p) &= m && \text{for } p > 2 \\ \varphi(m, n, p) &= \varphi(m, \varphi(m, n-1, p), p - 1) && \text{for } n, p > 0 \end{align} Of the various two-argument versions, the one developed by Péter and Robinson (called "the" Ackermann function by most authors) is defined for nonnegative integers m and n as follows: \begin{array}{lcl} \operatorname{A}(0, n) & = & n + 1 \\ \operatorname{A}(m+1, 0) & = & \operatorname{A}(m, 1) \\ \operatorname{A}(m+1, n+1) & = & \operatorname{A}(m, \operatorname{A}(m+1, n)) \end{array} The Ackermann function has also been expressed in relation to the hyperoperation sequence: A(m,n) = \begin{cases} n+1 & m=0 \\ 2[m](n+3)-3 & m>0 \\ \end{cases} or, written in Knuth's up-arrow notation (extended to integer indices \geq -2): A(m,n) = \begin{cases} n+1 & m=0 \\ 2\uparrow^{m-2} (n+3) - 3 & m>0 \\ \end{cases} or, equivalently, in terms of Buck's function F: A(m,n) = \begin{cases} n+1 & m=0 \\ F(m,n+3) - 3 & m>0 \\ \end{cases} === Definition: as iterated 1-ary function === Define f^{n} as the n-th iterate of f: \begin{array}{rll} f^{0}(x) & = & x \\ f^{n+1}(x) & = & f(f^{n}(x)) \end{array} Iteration is the process of composing a function with itself a certain number of times. Function composition is an associative operation, so f(f^{n}(x)) = f^{n}(f(x)). Conceiving the Ackermann function as a sequence of unary functions, one can set \operatorname{A}_{m}(n) = \operatorname{A}(m,n). The function then becomes a sequence \operatorname{A}_0, \operatorname{A}_1, \operatorname{A}_2, ... of unary functions, defined from iteration: \begin{array}{lcl} \operatorname{A}_{0}(n) & = & n+1 \\ \operatorname{A}_{m+1}(n) & = & \operatorname{A}_{m}^{n+1}(1) \\ \end{array} ==Computation== The recursive definition of the Ackermann function can naturally be transposed to a term rewriting system (TRS). ===TRS, based on 2-ary function=== The definition of the 2-ary Ackermann function leads to the obvious reduction rules \begin{array}{lll} \text{(r1)} & A(0,n) & \rightarrow & S(n) \\ \text{(r2)} & A(S(m),0) & \rightarrow & A(m,S(0)) \\ \text{(r3)} & A(S(m),S(n)) & \rightarrow & A(m,A(S(m),n)) \end{array} Example Compute A(1,2) \rightarrow_{} 4 The reduction sequence is To compute \operatorname{A}(m, n) one can use a stack, which initially contains the elements \langle m,n \rangle. Then repeatedly the two top elements are replaced according to the rules \begin{array}{lllllllll} \text{(r1)} & 0 &,& n & \rightarrow & (n+1) \\ \text{(r2)} & (m+1) &,& 0 & \rightarrow & m &,& 1 \\ \text{(r3)} & (m+1) &,& (n+1) & \rightarrow & m &,& (m+1) &,& n \end{array} Schematically, starting from \langle m,n \rangle: WHILE stackLength 1 { POP 2 elements; PUSH 1 or 2 or 3 elements, applying the rules r1, r2, r3 } The pseudocode is published in . For example, on input \langle 2,1 \rangle, Remarks The leftmost-innermost strategy is implemented in 225 computer languages on Rosetta Code. For all m,n the computation of A(m,n) takes no more than (A(m,n) + 1)^m steps. pointed out that in the computation of \operatorname{A}(m,n) the maximum length of the stack is \operatorname{A}(m,n), as long as m>0. Their own algorithm, inherently iterative, computes \operatorname{A}(m,n) within \mathcal{O}(m \operatorname{A}(m,n)) time and within \mathcal{O}(m) space. ===TRS, based on iterated 1-ary function=== The definition of the iterated 1-ary Ackermann functions leads to different reduction rules \begin{array}{lll} \text{(r4)} & A(S(0),0,n) & \rightarrow & S(n) \\ \text{(r5)} & A(S(0),S(m),n) & \rightarrow & A(S(n),m,S(0)) \\ \text{(r6)} & A(S(S(x)),m,n) & \rightarrow & A(S(0),m,A(S(x),m,n)) \end{array} As function composition is associative, instead of rule r6 one can define \begin{array}{lll} \text{(r7)} & A(S(S(x)),m,n) & \rightarrow & A(S(x),m,A(S(0),m,n)) \end{array} Like in the previous section the computation of \operatorname{A}^1_m(n) can be implemented with a stack. Initially the stack contains the three elements \langle 1,m,n \rangle. Then repeatedly the three top elements are replaced according to the rules this computation is more efficient in that respect. ===TRS, based on hyperoperators=== As — or — showed explicitly, the Ackermann function can be expressed in terms of the hyperoperation sequence: A(m,n) = \begin{cases} n+1 & m=0 \\ 2[m](n+3) - 3 & m>0 \\ \end{cases} or, after removal of the constant 2 from the parameter list, in terms of Buck's function A(m,n) = \begin{cases} n+1 & m=0 \\ F(m,n+3) - 3 & m>0 \\ \end{cases} Buck's function \operatorname{F}(m,n) = 2[m]n, a variant of Ackermann function by itself, can be computed with the following reduction rules: \begin{array}{lll} \text{(b1)} & F(S(0),0,n) & \rightarrow & S(n) \\ \text{(b2)} & F(S(0),S(0),0) & \rightarrow & S(S(0)) \\ \text{(b3)} & F(S(0),S(S(0)),0) & \rightarrow & 0 \\ \text{(b4)} & F(S(0),S(S(S(m))),0) & \rightarrow & S(0) \\ \text{(b5)} & F(S(0),S(m),S(n)) & \rightarrow & F(S(n),m,F(S(0),S(m),0)) \\ \text{(b6)} & F(S(S(x)),m,n) & \rightarrow & F(S(0),m,F(S(x),m,n)) \end{array} Instead of rule b6 one can define the rule \begin{array}{lll} \text{(b7)} & F(S(S(x)),m,n) & \rightarrow & F(S(x),m,F(S(0),m,n)) \end{array} To compute the Ackermann function it suffices to add three reduction rules \begin{array}{lll} \text{(r8)} & A(0,n) & \rightarrow & S(n) \\ \text{(r9)} & A(S(m),n) & \rightarrow & P(F(S(0),S(m),S(S(S(n))))) \\ \text{(r10)} & P(S(S(S(m)))) & \rightarrow & m \\ \end{array} These rules take care of the base case A(0,n), the alignment (n+3) and the fudge (-3). Example Compute A(2,1) \rightarrow_{} 5 The numbers here which are only expressed with recursive exponentiation or Knuth arrows are very large and would take up too much space to notate in plain decimal digits. Despite the large values occurring in this early section of the table, some even larger numbers have been defined, such as Graham's number, which cannot be written with any small number of Knuth arrows. This number is constructed with a technique similar to applying the Ackermann function to itself recursively. This is a repeat of the above table, but with the values replaced by the relevant expression from the function definition to show the pattern clearly: == Properties == === General remarks === It may not be immediately obvious that the evaluation of A(m, n) always terminates. However, the recursion is bounded because in each recursive application either m decreases, or m remains the same and n decreases. Each time that n reaches zero, m decreases, so m eventually reaches zero as well. (Expressed more technically, in each case the pair (m,n) decreases in the lexicographic order on pairs, which is a well-ordering, just like the ordering of single non-negative integers; this means one cannot go down in the ordering infinitely many times in succession.) However, when m decreases there is no upper bound on how much n can increase — and it will often increase greatly. For small values of m like 1, 2, or 3, the Ackermann function grows relatively slowly with respect to n (at most exponentially). For m\geq 4, however, it grows much more quickly; even A(4,2) is about 2.00353, and the decimal expansion of A(4, 3) is very large by any typical measure, about 2.12004. An interesting aspect is that the only arithmetic operation it ever uses is addition of 1. Its fast growing power is based solely on nested recursion. This also implies that its running time is at least proportional to its output, and so is also extremely huge. In actuality, for most cases the running time is far larger than the output; see above. A single-argument version f(n)=A(n,n) that increases both m and n at the same time dwarfs every primitive recursive function, including very fast-growing functions such as the exponential function, the factorial function, multi- and superfactorial functions, and even functions defined using Knuth's up-arrow notation (except when the indexed up-arrow is used). It can be seen that f(n) is roughly comparable to f_{\omega}(n) in the fast-growing hierarchy. This extreme growth can be exploited to show that f which is obviously computable on a machine with infinite memory such as a Turing machine and so is a computable function, grows faster than any primitive recursive function and is therefore not primitive recursive. === Not primitive recursive === The Ackermann function grows faster than any primitive recursive function and therefore is not itself primitive recursive. Proof sketch: primitive recursive function defined using up to k recursions must grow slower than f_{k+1}(n), the (k+1)-th function in the fast-growing hierarchy, but the Ackermann function grows at least as fast as f_\omega(n). Specifically, one shows that, for every primitive recursive function f(x_1,\ldots,x_n), there exists a non-negative integer t, such that for all non-negative integers x_1,\ldots,x_n,f(x_1,\ldots,x_n)Once this is established, it follows that A itself is not primitive recursive, since otherwise putting x_1=x_2=t would lead to the contradiction A(t,t) The proof proceeds as follows: define the class \mathcal{A} of all functions that grow slower than the Ackermann function \mathcal{A}=\left\{ f\,\bigg\|\,\exists t\ \forall x_1\cdots \forall x_n:\ f(x_1,\ldots,x_n) and show that \mathcal{A} contains all primitive recursive functions. The latter is achieved by showing that \mathcal{A} contains the constant functions, the successor function, the projection functions and that it is closed under the operations of function composition and primitive recursion. == Inverse == Since the function considered above grows very rapidly, its inverse function, f, grows very slowly. This inverse Ackermann function f−1 is usually denoted by α. In fact, α(n) is less than 5 for any practical input size n, since is on the order of 2^{2^{2^{2^{16}}}}. This inverse appears in the time complexity of some algorithms, such as the disjoint-set data structure and Chazelle's algorithm for minimum spanning trees. Sometimes Ackermann's original function or other variations are used in these settings, but they all grow at similarly high rates. In particular, some modified functions simplify the expression by eliminating the −3 and similar terms. A two-parameter variation of the inverse Ackermann function can be defined as follows, where \lfloor x \rfloor is the floor function: \alpha(m,n) = \min\{i \geq 1 : A(i,\lfloor m/n \rfloor) \geq \log_2 n\}. This function arises in more precise analyses of the algorithms mentioned above, and gives a more refined time bound. In the disjoint-set data structure, m represents the number of operations while n represents the number of elements; in the minimum spanning tree algorithm, m represents the number of edges while n represents the number of vertices. Several slightly different definitions of exist; for example, is sometimes replaced by n, and the floor function is sometimes replaced by a ceiling. Other studies might define an inverse function of one where m is set to a constant, such that the inverse applies to a particular row. The inverse of the Ackermann function is primitive recursive, since it is graph primitive recursive, and it is upper bounded by a primitive recursive function. ==Usage== === In computational complexity === The Ackermann function appears in the time complexity of some algorithms, such as vector addition systems and Petri net reachability, thus showing they are computationally infeasible for large instances. The inverse of the Ackermann function appears in some time complexity results. For instance, the disjoint-set data structure takes amortized time per operation proportional to the inverse Ackermann function, and cannot be made faster within the cell-probe model of computational complexity. ===In discrete geometry=== Certain problems in discrete geometry related to Davenport–Schinzel sequences have complexity bounds in which the inverse Ackermann function \alpha(n) appears. For instance, for n line segments in the plane, the unbounded face of the arrangement of the segments has complexity O(n\alpha(n)), and some systems of n line segments have an unbounded face of complexity \Omega(n\alpha(n)). ===As a benchmark=== The Ackermann function, due to its definition in terms of extremely deep recursion, can be used as a benchmark of a compiler's ability to optimize recursion. The first published use of Ackermann's function in this way was in 1970 by Dragoș Vaida and, almost simultaneously, in 1971, by Yngve Sundblad. Sundblad's seminal paper was taken up by Brian Wichmann (co-author of the Whetstone benchmark) in a trilogy of papers written between 1975 and 1982.	[ "BIT Numerical Mathematics", "Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society", "Davenport–Schinzel sequence", "computable function", "inverse function", "algorithm", "computability theory", "Rózsa Péter", "fast-growing hierarchy", "Raphael Robinson", "phi", "ACM SIGACT", "arrangement of lines", "Reuben Goodstein", "Base case (recursion)", "vector addition system", "Theoretical Computer Science", "American Mathematical Monthly", "computational complexity theory", "Recursion (computer science)", "cell-probe model", "Hyperoperation", "Knuth's up-arrow notation", "Primitive recursive function", "floor function", "Double recursion", "minimum spanning tree", "primitive recursive function", "multiplication", "associative", "Currying", "recursion", "Reduction strategy", "Rosetta Code", "well-order", "exponential function", "Function composition", "Iterated function", "exponential growth", "amortized time", "total function", "Rewriting", "compiler", "Wilhelm Ackermann", "Fast-growing hierarchy", "Stack (abstract data type)", "David Hilbert", "addition", "Graham's number", "Pacific Journal of Mathematics", "Whetstone (benchmark)", "Computability theory", "disjoint-set data structure", "superfactorial", "discrete geometry", "Sudan function", "Bernard Chazelle", "Memoization", "exponentiation", "recurrence relation", "Turing machine", "Reachability problem", "Goodstein function", "Mathematische Annalen", "hyperoperation", "Gabriel Sudan", "lexicographic order", "ceiling function", "pseudocode", "Robert Creighton Buck" ]
2,926	Antarctic	The Antarctic (, ; commonly ) is the polar region of Earth that surrounds the South Pole, lying within the Antarctic Circle. It is diametrically opposite of the Arctic region around the North Pole. The Antarctic comprises the continent of Antarctica, the Kerguelen Plateau, and other island territories located on the Antarctic Plate or south of the Antarctic Convergence. The Antarctic region includes the ice shelves, waters, and all the island territories in the Southern Ocean situated south of the Antarctic Convergence, a zone approximately wide and varying in latitude seasonally. The region covers some 20 percent of the Southern Hemisphere, of which 5.5 percent (14 million km2) is the surface area of the Antarctica continent itself. All of the land and ice shelves south of 60°S latitude are administered under the Antarctic Treaty System. Biogeographically, the Antarctic realm is one of eight biogeographic realms on Earth's land surface. Climate change in Antarctica is particularly important because the melting of the Antarctic ice sheet has a high potential to add to the global sea level rise. Further, this melting also disrupts the flow of Southern Ocean overturning circulation, which would have significant effects on the local climate and marine ecosystem functioning. There is no permanent country in Antarctica. == Geography == As defined by the Antarctic Treaty System, the Antarctic region is everything south of the 60°S latitude. The Treaty area covers Antarctica and the archipelagos of the Balleny Islands, Peter I Island, Scott Island, the South Orkney Islands, and the South Shetland Islands. However, this area does not include the Antarctic Convergence, a transition zone where the cold waters of the Southern Ocean collide with the warmer waters of the north, forming a natural border to the region. Because the Convergence changes seasonally, the Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources approximates the Convergence line by joining specified points along parallels of latitude and meridians of longitude. The implementation of the convention is managed through an international commission headquartered in Hobart, Australia, by an efficient system of annual fishing quotas, licenses, and international inspectors on the fishing vessels, as well as satellite surveillance. The islands situated between 60°S latitude parallel to the south and the Antarctic Convergence to the north and their respective exclusive economic zones fall under the national jurisdiction of the countries that possess them: South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands (United Kingdom), Bouvet Island (Norway), and Heard and McDonald Islands (Australia). Kerguelen Islands (France; also an EU Overseas territory) are situated in the Antarctic Convergence area, while the Isla Grande de Tierra del Fuego, Falkland Islands, Isla de los Estados, Hornos Island with Cape Horn, Diego Ramírez Islands, Campbell Island, Macquarie Island, Amsterdam and Saint Paul Islands, Crozet Islands, Prince Edward Islands, Gough Island, and Tristan da Cunha group remain north of the Convergence and thus outside the Antarctic region. == Ecology == === Antarctica === A variety of animals live in Antarctica for at least some of the year, including: Seals Penguins South Georgia pipits Albatrosses Antarctic petrels Whales Fish, such as Antarctic icefish, Antarctic toothfish Squid, including the colossal squid Antarctic krill Most of the Antarctica continent is permanently covered by ice and snow, leaving less than 1 percent of the land exposed. There are only two species of flowering plant, Antarctic hair grass and Antarctic pearlwort, but a range of mosses, liverworts, lichens and macrofungi. === Sub-Antarctic Islands === Biodiversity among terrestrial flora and fauna is low on the islands: studies have theorized that the harsh climate was a major contributor towards species richness, but multiple correlations have been found with area, temperature, remoteness of islands, and food chain stability. For example, herbivorous insects are poor in number due to low plant richness, and likewise, indigenous bird numbers are related to insects, which are a major food source. Isla de los Estados (Argentina) Isla Grande de Tierra del Fuego (Chile) == Conservation == The Antarctic hosts the world's largest protected area comprising 1.07 million km2, the South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands Marine Protection Area created in 2012. The latter exceeds the surface area of another vast protected territory, the Greenland National Park's . (While the Ross Sea Marine Protection Area established in 2016 is still larger at 1.55 million km2, its protection is set to expire in 35 years.) To protect the area, all Antarctic ships over 500 tonnes are subject to mandatory regulations under the Polar Code, adopted by the International Maritime Organization (in force since 1 January 2017). == Climate change == ==Society== === People === The first recorded sighting of Antarctica is credited to the Spaniard Gabriel de Castilla, who reported seeing distant southern snow-capped mountains in 1603. The first Antarctic land discovered was the island of South Georgia, visited by the English merchant Anthony de la Roché in 1675. Although such myths and speculation about a Terra Australis ("Southern Land") date back to antiquity, the first confirmed sighting of the continent of Antarctica is commonly accepted to have occurred in 1820 by the Russian expedition of Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen and Mikhail Lazarev on Vostok and Mirny. The Australian James Kerguelen Robinson (1859–1914) was the first human born in the Antarctic, on board the sealing ship Offley in the Gulf of Morbihan (Royal Sound then), Kerguelen Island on 11 March 1859. The first human born and raised on an Antarctic island was Solveig Gunbjørg Jacobsen born on 8 October 1913 in Grytviken, South Georgia. Emilio Marcos Palma (born 7 January 1978) is an Argentine man who was the first documented person born on the continent of Antarctica at the Esperanza Base. His father, Captain Jorge Palma, was head of the Argentine Army detachment at the base. While ten people have been born in Antarctica since, Palma's birthplace remains the southernmost. In late 1977, Silvia Morella de Palma, who was then seven months pregnant, was airlifted to Esperanza Base, in order to complete her pregnancy in the base. The airlift was a part of the Argentine solutions to the sovereignty dispute over territory in Antarctica. Emilio was automatically granted Argentine citizenship by the government since his parents were both Argentine citizens, and he was born in the claimed Argentine Antarctica. Palma can be considered to be the first native Antarctican. The Antarctic region had no indigenous population when first discovered, and its present inhabitants comprise a few thousand transient scientific and other personnel working on tours of duty at the several dozen research stations maintained by various countries. However, the region is visited by more than 40,000 tourists annually, the most popular destinations being the Antarctic Peninsula area (especially the South Shetland Islands) and South Georgia Island. In December 2009, the growth of tourism, with consequences for both the ecology and the safety of the travellers in its great and remote wilderness, was noted at a conference in New Zealand by experts from signatories to the Antarctic Treaty. The definitive results of the conference were presented at the Antarctic Treaty states' meeting in Uruguay in May 2010. === Time zones === Because Antarctica surrounds the South Pole, it is theoretically located in all time zones. For practical purposes, time zones are usually based on territorial claims or the time zone of a station's owner country or supply base. ==List of offshore islands== === North of 60°S latitude === === South of 60°S latitude ===	[ "Norway", "Kerguelen Islands", "colossal squid", "Antarctic realm", "France", "Climate change in Antarctica", "Mount Herschel", "South Shetland Islands", "Antarctic Peninsula", "exclusive economic zone", "Kyiv Peninsula", "archipelago", "National Geographic Spciety", "island", "Antarctic Plate", "Mikhail Lazarev", "lichen", "60th parallel south", "Prince Edward Islands", "Whale", "Antarctic Convergence", "National Science Foundation", "Ross Sea", "HarperCollins", "Isla de los Estados", "list of Antarctic and Subantarctic islands", "Hobart", "Campbell Island, New Zealand", "Southern Hemisphere", "Kingdom of England", "Greenland National Park", "Anthony de la Roché", "Southern Ocean overturning circulation", "Cape Horn", "Crozet Islands", "Argentina", "South Pole", "macrofungi", "meridian (geography)", "The American Naturalist", "geographic South Pole", "Île Saint-Paul", "Diego Ramírez Islands", "Albatross", "Biogeography", "Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation", "Macquarie Island", "International Code for Ships Operating in Polar Waters", "Esperanza Base", "Bouvet Island", "Heard Island and McDonald Islands", "Kerguelen Plateau", "Shag Rocks (South Georgia)", "Chile", "Balleny Islands", "time zone", "Hornos Island", "International Maritime Organization", "Graham Land", "Petermann Island", "Penguins", "Gough Island", "science", "Antarctic hair grass", "Natural Environment Research Council", "South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands", "Peter I Island", "Research stations in Antarctica", "Golfe du Morbihan (Kerguelen)", "biogeographic realm", "James Kerguelen Robinson", "Vostok (sloop-of-war)", "Scott Island", "ice shelf", "Biodiversity", "Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen", "Gabriel de Castilla", "Antarctic icefish", "Arctic", "South Georgia pipit", "McDonald Islands (Australia)", "Antarctica", "Argentine Antarctica", "History of Antarctica", "indigenous population", "The Guardian", "Antarctic pearlwort", "Territorial claims in Antarctica", "Cambridge University Press", "Southern Ocean", "Falkland Islands", "tourism in Antarctica", "Seal hunting", "sea level rise", "circle of latitude", "Antarctic krill", "polar regions of Earth", "Isla Grande de Tierra del Fuego", "The Crown", "List of Russian explorers", "Emilio Marcos Palma", "Antarctic Treaty System", "Australia", "Antarctic petrel", "Tristan da Cunha", "Antarctic ice sheet", "sea ice", "liverwort", "Squid", "Spaniards", "North Pole", "spelling pronunciation", "South Georgia (island)", "South Orkney Islands", "antipodes", "Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources", "Antarctic Circle", "Mirny (sloop-of-war)", "moss", "Solveig Gunbjørg Jacobsen", "Terra Australis", "protected area", "Earth", "Île Amsterdam", "satellite", "marine ecosystem", "Grytviken", "fishing", "Antarctic toothfish", "Pinniped", "The Associated Press" ]
2,927	Albanians	{{Infobox ethnic group \| group = Albanians \| native_name = \| image = Map of the Albanian Diaspora in the World.svg \| native_name_lang = sq \| pop = 7 to 10 million \| popplace = 2,182,917 (2023) 1,454,963 (2024) \| tablehdr = Other regions \| region1 = \| pop1 = 970,000 \| ref1 = \| region2 = \| pop2 = 500,000–600,000 \| ref2 = \| region3 = \| pop3 = 446,245 \| ref3 = \| region36 = \| pop36 = 500,000–6,000,000 \| ref36 = \| region4 = \| pop4 = 30,439 \| ref4 = \| region5 = \| pop5 = 61,687 \| ref5 = \| region6 = \| pop6 = 17,513 \| ref6 = \| region7 = \| pop7 = 6,186 \| ref7 = \| region8 = \| pop8 = 3,998 \| ref8 = \| region9 = \| pop9 = 99 \| ref9 = \| region10 = \| pop10 = 54,000 \| ref10 = \| region11 = \| pop11 = 19,891 \| ref11 = \| region12 = \| pop12 = 13,000 \| ref12 = \| region14 = \| pop14 = 10,391 \| ref14 = \| region15 = \| pop15 = 8,223 \| ref15 = \| region16 = \| pop16 = 953–2,133 \| ref16 = \| region17 = \| pop17 = 10,000 \| ref17 = \| region18 = \| pop18 = 5,000 \| ref18 = \| region19 = \| pop19 = 1,512 \| ref19 = \| region20 = \| pop20 = 17 - 31 \| ref20 = \| region21 = \| pop21 = 200,000–300,000 \| ref21 = \| region23 = \| pop23 = 28,212 \| ref23 = \| region24 = \| pop24 = 27,200 (2019) \| ref24 = \| region25 = \| pop25 = 12,969 \| ref25 = \| region26 = \| pop26 = 5,600–30,000 \| ref26 = \| region27 = \| pop27 = 2,155 \| ref27 = \| region28 = \| pop28 = 194,028 \| ref28 = \| region29 = \| pop29 = 50,000 \| ref29 = \| region30 = \| pop30 = 39,055 \| ref30 = \| region31 = \| pop31 = 348 \| ref31 = \| region32 = \| pop32 = 101 \| ref32 = \| region33 = \| pop33 = 9 \| ref33 = \| region34 = \| pop34 = 11,315 \| ref34 = \| region35 = \| pop35 = 243 \| ref35 = \| region37 = \| pop37 = 18,000 \| ref37 = \| region39 = \| pop39 = 275 \| ref39 = \| region40 = \| pop40 = 268 \| ref40 = \| region41 = \| pop41 = 200–300 \| ref41 = \| languages = Albanian \| rels = Majority: IslamSunniBektashiNon-denominationalMinority: ChristianityCatholicism ()Eastern Orthodoxy ()Protestantism ()Other:Irreligion \| footnotes = 502,546 Albanian citizens, an additional 43,751 Kosovar Albanians, 260,000 Arbëreshë people and 169,644 Albanians who have acquired the Italian citizenship Albanians are not recognized as a minority in Turkey. However approximately 500,000 people are reported to profess an Albanian identity. Of those with full or partial Albanian ancestry and others who have adopted Turkish language, culture and identity their number is estimated at 1,300,000–5,000,000 many whom do not speak Albanian. They are the main ethnic group of Albania and Kosovo, and they also live in the neighboring countries of North Macedonia, Montenegro, Greece, and Serbia, as well as in Italy, Croatia, Bulgaria, and Turkey. Albanians also constitute a large diaspora with several communities established across Europe and the other continents. The language of the Albanians is an Indo-European language and the only surviving representative of the Albanoid branch, which belongs to the Paleo-Balkan group. Albanians have a western Paleo-Balkanic origin, and for obvious geographic and historical reasons most scholars maintain that they descended at least partially from the Illyrians, but besides the Illyrians which specific Paleo-Balkan group contributed to the ethnogenesis of the Albanians is still a matter of academic debate. The first mention of the ethnonym Albanoi occurred in the 2nd century AD by Ptolemy describing an Illyrian tribe who lived around present-day central Albania. The first certain reference to Albanians as an ethnic group comes from 11th century chronicler Michael Attaleiates who describes them as living in the theme of Dyrrhachium. The Shkumbin River roughly demarcates the Albanian language between Gheg and Tosk dialects. Christianity in Albania was under the jurisdiction of the Bishop of Rome until the 8th century AD. Then, dioceses in Albania were transferred to the patriarchate of Constantinople. In 1054, after the Great Schism, the north gradually became identified with Roman Catholicism and the south with Eastern Orthodoxy. In 1190 Albanians established the Principality of Arbanon in central Albania with the capital in Krujë. The Albanian diaspora has its roots in migration from the Middle Ages initially across Southern Europe and eventually across wider Europe and the New World. Between the 13th and 18th centuries, sizeable numbers migrated to escape various social, economic or political difficulties. The term "Albanoi" (Αλβανοί) is first encountered on the works of Ptolemy (2nd century CE) Historian E. Vranoussi believes that these "Albanoi" were Normans from Sicily. She also notes that the same term (as "Albani") in medieval Latin meant "foreigners". The reference to "Arvanitai" from Attaliates regarding the participation of Albanians in a rebellion around 1078 is undisputed. In later Byzantine usage, the terms "Arbanitai" and "Albanoi" with a range of variants were used interchangeably, while sometimes the same groups were also called by the classicising name Illyrians. The first reference to the Albanian language dates to the latter 13th century (around 1285). The national ethnonym Albanian and its variants are derived from Albanoi, first mentioned as an Illyrian tribe in the 2nd century CE by Ptolemy with their centre at the city of Albanopolis, located in modern-day central Albania, somewhere in the hinterland of Durrës. Linguists believe that the alb part in the root word originates from an Indo-European term for a type of mountainous topography, from which other words such as alps are derived. Through the root word alban and its rhotacized equivalents arban, albar, and arbar, the term in Albanian became rendered as Arbëneshë/Arbëreshë for the people and Arbënia/Arbëria for the country. While the exonym Albania for the general region inhabited by the Albanians does have connotations to Classical Antiquity, the Albanian language employs a different ethnonym, with modern Albanians referring to themselves as Shqip(ë)tarë and to their country as Shqipëria. The other is within scholarship that connects it to the verb 'to speak' (me shqiptue) from the Latin "excipere". The words Shqipëri and Shqiptar are attested from 14th century onward, but it was only at the end of 17th and beginning of the early 18th centuries that the placename Shqipëria and the ethnic demonym Shqiptarë gradually replaced Arbëria and Arbëreshë amongst Albanian speakers. === Historical records === Little is known about the Albanian people prior to the 11th century, though a text compiled around the beginning of the 11th century in the Bulgarian language contains a possible reference to them. It can be seen that there are various languages on earth. Of them, there are five Orthodox languages: Bulgarian, Greek, Syrian, Iberian (Georgian) and Russian. Three of these have Orthodox alphabets: Greek, Bulgarian and Iberian (Georgian). There are twelve languages of half-believers: Alamanians, Franks, Magyars (Hungarians), Indians, Jacobites, Armenians, Saxons, Lechs (Poles), Arbanasi (Albanians), Croatians, Hizi and Germans. Michael Attaleiates (1022–1080) mentions the term Albanoi twice and the term Arbanitai once. The term Albanoi is used first to describe the groups which rebelled in southern Italy and Sicily against the Byzantines in 1038–40. The second use of the term Albanoi is related to groups which supported the revolt of George Maniakes in 1042 and marched with him throughout the Balkans against the Byzantine capital, Constantinople. The term Arvanitai is used to describe a revolt of Bulgarians (Boulgaroi) and Arbanitai in the theme of Dyrrhachium in 1078–79. It is generally accepted that Arbanitai refers to the ethnonym of medieval Albanians. As such, it is considered to be the first attestation of Albanians as an ethnic group in Byzantine historiography. The use of the term Albanoi in 1038–49 and 1042 as an ethnonym related to Albanians have been a subject of debate. In what has been termed the "Vranoussi-Ducellier debate", Alain Ducellier proposed that both uses of the term referred to medieval Albanians. Era Vranoussi counter-suggested that the first use referred to Normans, while the second didn't have an ethnic connotation necessarily and could be a reference to the Normans as "foreigners" (aubain) in Epirus which Maniakes and his army traversed. The Albanian language is spoken today by approximately 5 million people throughout the Balkan Peninsula as well as by a more substantial number by communities around the Americas, Europe and Oceania. Numerous variants and dialects of Albanian are used as an official language in Albania, Kosovo and North Macedonia. The language is also spoken in other countries whence it is officially recognised as a minority language in such countries as Croatia, Italy, Montenegro, Romania and Serbia. There are two principal dialects of the Albanian language traditionally represented by Gheg and Tosk. The ethnogeographical dividing line is traditionally considered to be the Shkumbin river, with Gheg spoken in the north of it and Tosk in the south. Dialects of linguistic minorities spoken in Croatia (Arbanasi and Istrian), Kosovo, Montenegro and northwestern North Macedonia are classified as Gheg, while those spoken in Greece, southwestern North Macedonia and Italy as Tosk. The Arbëresh and Arvanitika dialects of the Albanian language, are spoken by the Arbëreshë and Arvanites in Southern Italy and Southern Greece, respectively. They retain elements of medieval Albanian vocabulary and pronunciation that are no longer used in modern Albanian; however, both varieties are classified as endangered languages in the UNESCO Red Book of Endangered Languages. The Cham dialect is spoken by the Cham Albanians, a community that originates from Chameria in what is currently north-western Greece and southern Albania; the use of the Cham dialect in Greece is declining rapidly, while Cham communities in Albania and the diaspora have preserved it. Most of the Albanians in Albania and the Former Yugoslavia are polyglot and have the ability to understand, speak, read, or write a foreign language. As defined by the Institute of Statistics of Albania, 39.9% of the 25 to 64 years old Albanians in Albania are able to use at least one foreign language including English (40%), Italian (27.8%) and Greek (22.9%). The origin of the Albanian language remains a contentious subject that has given rise to numerous hypotheses. The hypothesis of Albanian being one of the descendant of the Illyrian languages (Messapic language) is based on geography where the languages were spoken however not enough archaeological evidence is left behind to come therefore to a definite conclusion. Another hypothesis associates the Albanian language with the Thracian language. This theory takes exception to the territory, since the language was spoken in an area distinct from Albania, and no significant population movements have been recorded in the period when the shift from one language to the other is supposed to have occurred. == History == === Late Antiquity === The Komani-Kruja culture is an archaeological culture attested from late antiquity to the Middle Ages in central and northern Albania, southern Montenegro and similar sites in the western parts of North Macedonia. It consists of settlements usually built below hillforts along the Lezhë (Praevalitana)-Dardania and Via Egnatia road networks which connected the Adriatic coastline with the central Balkan Roman provinces. Its type site is Komani and its fort on the nearby Dalmace hill in the Drin river valley. Kruja and Lezha represent significant sites of the culture. The population of Komani-Kruja represents a local, western Balkan people which was linked to the Roman Justinianic military system of forts. The development of Komani-Kruja is significant for the study of the transition between the classical antiquity population of Albania to the medieval Albanians who were attested in historical records in the 11th century. Winnifrith (2020) recently described this population as the survival of a "Latin-Illyrian" culture which emerged later in historical records as Albanians and Vlachs (Eastern Romance-speaking people). In Winnifrith's narrative, the geographical conditions of northern Albania favored the continuation of the Albanian language in hilly and mountainous areas as opposed to lowland valleys. === Middle Ages === The Albanian people maintain a very chequered and tumultuous history behind them, a fact explained by their geographical position in the Southeast of Europe at the cultural and political crossroad between the east and west, but they also have historically inhabited a hardly accessible mountainous region, which helped them preserve their peculiar culture and language. The issue surrounding the origin of the Albanian people has long been debated by historians and linguists for centuries. They have Paleo-Balkan origins, and for obvious geographic and historical reasons most scholars maintain that they descended at least partially from the Illyrians, but besides the Illyrians which specific Peleo-Balkan group contributed to the ethnogenesis of the Albanians is still a matter of academic debate. The first certain attestation of medieval Albanians as an ethnic group is in Byzantine historiography in the work of Michael Attaleiates (1022–1080). Though it was in 1190 when they established their first independent entity, the Principality of Arbër (Arbanon), with its seat based in Krujë. Immediately after the decline of the Progon dynasty in 1216, the principality came under Gregorios Kamonas and next his son-in-law Golem. Finally, the Principality was dissolved in ca. 1255 by the Empire of Nicea followed by an unsuccessful rebellion between 1257 and 1259 supported by the Despotate of Epirus. In the meantime Manfred, King of Sicily profited from the situation and launched an invasion into Albania. His forces, led by Philippe Chinard, captured Durrës, Berat, Vlorë, Spinarizza, their surroundings and the southern coastline of Albania from Vlorë to Butrint. In 1266 after defeating Manfred's forces and killing him, the Treaty of Viterbo of 1267 was signed, with Charles I, King of Sicily acquiring rights on Manfred's dominions in Albania. Local noblemen such as Andrea Vrana refused to surrender Manfred's former domains, and in 1271 negotiations were initiated. In 1272 the Kingdom of Albania was created after a delegation of Albanian noblemen from Durrës signed a treaty declaring union with the Kingdom of Sicily under Charles. Charles soon imposed military rule, new taxes, took sons of Albanian noblemen hostage to ensure loyalty, and confiscated lands for Angevin nobles. This led to discontent among Albanian noblemen, several of whom turned to Byzantine Emperor Michael VIII. In late 1274, Byzantine forces helped by local Albanian noblemen capture Berat and Butrint. Charles' attempt to advance towards Constantinople failed at the Siege of Berat (1280–1281). A Byzantine counteroffensive ensued, which drove the Angevins out of the interior by 1281. The Sicilian Vespers rebellion further weakened the position of Charles, who died in 1285. By the end of the 13th century, most of Albania was under Byzantine Emperor Andronikos II Palaiologos. In 1296 Serbian king Stephen Milutin captured Durrës. In 1299 Andronikos II married his daughter Simonis to Milutin and the lands he had conquered were considered as dowry. In 1302, Philip I, Prince of Taranto, grandson of Charles, claimed his rights on the Albanian kingdom and gained the support of local Albanian Catholics who preferred him over the Orthodox Serbs and Greeks, as well as the support of Pope Benedict XI. In the summer of 1304, the Serbs were expelled from the city of Durrës by the locals who submitted themselves to Angevin rule. Prominent Albanian leaders during this time were the Thopia family, ruling in an area between the Mat and Shkumbin rivers, and the Muzaka family in the territory between the Shkumbin and Vlorë. In 1279, Gjon I Muzaka, who remained loyal to the Byzantines and resisted Angevin conquest of Albania, was captured by the forces of Charles but later released following pressure from Albanian nobles. The Muzaka family continued to remain loyal to the Byzantines and resisted the expansion of the Serbian Kingdom. In 1335 the head of the family, Andrea II Muzaka, gained the title of Despot and other Muzakas pursued careers in the Byzantine government in Constantinople. Andrea II soon endorsed an anti-Byzantine revolt in his domains between 1335–1341 and formed an alliance with Robert, Prince of Taranto in 1336. In 1336, Serbian king Stefan Dušan captured Durrës, including the territory under the control of the Muzaka family. Although Angevins managed to recapture Durazzo, Dušan continued his expansion, and in the period of 1337–45 he had captured Kanina and Valona in southern Albania. Around 1340 forces of Andrea II defeated the Serbian army at the Pelister mountain. that Andrea II captured from Prince Marko after the Battle of Marica in 1371. A new wave of Catholic dioceses, churches and monasteries were founded, papal missionaries and a number of different religious orders began spreading into the country. Those who were not Catholic in central and northern Albania converted and a great number of Albanian clerics and monks were present in the Dalmatian Catholic institutions. Around 1230 the two main centers of Albanian settlements were around Devoll river in what is now central Albania and the other around the region known as Arbanon. Albanian presence in Croatia can be traced back to the beginning of the Late Middle Ages. In this period, there was a significant Albanian community in Ragusa with a number of families of Albanian origin inclusively the Sorgo family who came from the Cape of Rodon in central Albania, across Kotor in eastern Montenegro, to Dalmatia. By the 13th century, Albanian merchants were trading directly with the peoples of the Republic of Ragusa in Dalmatia which increased familiarity between Albanians and Ragusans. The upcoming invasion of Albania by the Ottoman Empire and the death of Skanderbeg caused many Christian Albanians to flee to Dalmatia and surrounding countries. In the 14th century a number of Albanian principalities were created. These included Principality of Kastrioti, Principality of Dukagjini, Princedom of Albania, and Principality of Gjirokastër. At the beginning of the 15th century these principalities became stronger, especially because of the fall of the Serbian Empire. Some of these principalities were united in 1444 under the anti-Ottoman military alliance called League of Lezha. Albanians were recruited all over Europe as a light cavalry known as stratioti. The stratioti were pioneers of light cavalry tactics during the 15th century. In the early 16th century heavy cavalry in the European armies was principally remodeled after Albanian stradioti of the Venetian army, Hungarian hussars and German mercenary cavalry units (Schwarzreitern). === Ottoman Empire === Prior to the Ottoman conquest of Albania, the political situation of the Albanian people was characterised by a fragmented conglomeration of scattered kingdoms and principalities such as the Principalities of Arbanon, Kastrioti and Thopia. Before and after the fall of Constantinople, the Ottoman Empire continued an extended period of conquest and expansion with its borders going deep into the Southeast Europe. As a consequence thousands of Albanians from Albania, Epirus and Peloponnese escaped to Calabria, Naples, Ragusa and Sicily, whereby others sought protection at the often inaccessible Mountains of Albania. Under the leadership of Gjergj Kastrioti Skanderbeg, a former governor of the Ottoman Sanjak of Dibra, a prosperous and longstanding revolution erupted with the formation of the League of Lezhë in 1444 up until the Siege of Shkodër ending in 1479, multiple times defeating the mightiest power of the time led by Sultans Murad II and Mehmed II. Skanderbeg managed to gather several of the Albanian principals, amongst them the Arianitis, Dukagjinis, Zaharias and Thopias, and establish a centralised authority over most of the non-conquered territories and proclaiming himself the Lord of Albania (Dominus Albaniae in Latin). Skanderbeg consistently pursued the aim relentlessly but rather unsuccessfully to create a European coalition against the Ottomans. His unequal fight against them won the esteem of Europe and financial and military aid from the Papacy and Naples, Venice and Ragusa. The Albanians, then predominantly Christian, were initially considered as an inferior class of people and as such were subjected to heavy taxes such as the Devshirme system that allowed the state to collect a requisite percentage of Christian adolescents from the Balkans and elsewhere to compose the Janissary. Since the Albanians were seen as strategically important, they made up a significant proportion of the Ottoman military and bureaucracy. They were therefore to be found within the imperial services as vital military and administrative retainers from Egypt to Algeria and the rest of the Maghreb. In the late 18th century, Ali Pasha Tepelena created the autonomous region of the Pashalik of Yanina within the Ottoman Empire which was never recognised as such by the High Porte. The territory he properly governed incorporated most of southern Albania, Epirus, Thessaly and southwestern Macedonia region. During his rule, the town of Janina blossomed into a cultural, political and economic hub for both Albanians and Greeks. The ultimate goal of Ali Pasha Tepelena seems to have been the establishment of an independent rule in Albania and Epirus. Thus, he obtained control of Arta and took control over the ports of Butrint, Preveza and Vonitsa. He also gained control of the pashaliks of Elbasan, Delvina, Berat and Vlorë. His relations with the High Porte were always tense though he developed and maintained relations with the British, French and Russians and formed alliances with them at various times. In the 19th century, the Albanian wālī Muhammad Ali established a dynasty that ruled over Egypt and Sudan until the middle of the 20th century. After a brief French invasion led by Napoleon Bonaparte and the Ottomans and Mameluks competing for power there, he managed collectively with his Albanian troops to become the Ottoman viceroy in Egypt. As he revolutionised the military and economic spheres of Egypt, his empire attracted Albanian people contributing to the emergence of the Albanian diaspora in Egypt initially formed by Albanian soldiers and mercenaries. Islam arrived in the lands of the Albanian people gradually and grew widespread between at least the 17th and 18th centuries. The new religion brought many transformations into Albanian society and henceforth offered them equal opportunities and advancement within the Ottoman Empire. With the advent of increasing suppression on Catholicism, the Ottomans initially focused their conversions on the Catholic Albanians of the north in the 17th century and followed suit in the 18th century on the Orthodox Albanians of the south. At this point, the urban centers of central and southern Albania had largely adopted the religion of the growing Muslim Albanian elite. Many mosques and takyas were constructed throughout those urban centers and cities such as Berat, Gjirokastër, Korçë and Shkodër started to flourish. In the far north, the spread of Islam was slower due to Catholic Albanian resistance and the inaccessible and rather remote mountainous terrain. The motives for conversion to Islam are subject to differing interpretations according to scholars depending on the context though the lack of sources does not help when investigating such issues. As Muslims, the Albanians attained powerful positions in the Ottoman administration including over three dozen Grand Viziers of Albanian origin, among them Zagan Pasha, Bayezid Pasha and members of the Köprülü family, and regional rulers such as Muhammad Ali of Egypt and Ali Pasha of Tepelena. The Ottoman sultans Bayezid II and Mehmed III were both Albanian on their maternal side. Areas such as Albania, western North Macedonia, southern Serbia, Kosovo, parts of northern Greece and southern Montenegro in Ottoman sources were referred to as Arnavudluk or Albania. === Albanian Renaissance === The Albanian Renaissance characterised a period wherein the Albanian people gathered both spiritual and intellectual strength to establish their rights for an independent political and social life, culture and education. By the late 18th century and the early 19th century, its foundation arose within the Albanian communities in Italy and Romania and was frequently linked to the influences of the Romanticism and Enlightenment principles. Albania was under the rule of the Ottoman Empire for almost five centuries and the Ottoman authorities suppressed any expression of unity or national conscience by the Albanian people. A number of thoroughly intellectual Albanians, among them Naum Veqilharxhi, Girolamo de Rada, Dora d'Istria, Thimi Mitko, Naim and Sami Frashëri, made a conscious effort to awaken feelings of pride and unity among their people by working to develop Albanian literature that would call to mind the rich history and hopes for a more decent future. The Albanians had poor or often no schools or other institutions in place to protect and preserve their cultural heritage. The need for schools was preached initially by the increasing number of Albanians educated abroad. The Albanian communities in Italy and elsewhere were particularly active in promoting the Albanian cause, especially in education which finally resulted with the foundation of the Mësonjëtorja in Korçë, the first secular school in the Albanian language. The Turkish yoke had become fixed in the nationalist mythologies and psyches of the people in the Balkans, and their march toward independence quickened. Due to the more substantial of Islamic influence, the Albanians internal social divisions, and the fear that they would lose their Albanian territories to the emerging neighbouring states, Serbia, Montenegro, Bulgaria and Greece, were among the last peoples in the Balkans to desire division from the Ottoman Empire. The national awakening as a coherent political movement emerged after the Treaty of San Stefano, according to which Albanian-inhabited territories were to be ceded to the neighbouring states, and focused on preventing that partition. It was the impetus for the nation-building movement, which was based more on fear of partition than national identity. It subsequently followed a period wherein the Albanians lived within an extreme isolation from the rest of the world for the next four decades. By 1967, the established government had officially proclaimed Albania to be the first atheistic state in the world as they beforehand confiscated churches, monasteries and mosques, and any religious expression instantly became grounds for imprisonment. Protests coinciding with the emerging revolutions of 1989 began to break out in various cities throughout Albania including Shkodër and Tirana which eventually lead to the fall of communism. Significant internal and external migration waves of Albanians to such countries as Greece and Italy followed. Bunkerisation is arguably the most visible and memorable legacy of communism in Albania. Nearly 175,000 reinforced concrete bunkers were built on strategic locations across Albania's territory including near borders, within towns, on the seashores or mountains. These bunkers were never used for their intended purpose or for sheltering the population from attacks or an invasion by a neighbor. However, they were abandoned after the breakup of communism and have been sometimes reused for a variety of purposes. === Independence of Kosovo === Kosovo declared independence from Serbia on 17 February 2008, after years of strained relations between the Serb and predominantly Albanian population of Kosovo. It has been officially recognised by Australia, Canada, the United States and major European Union countries, while Serbia refuse to recognise Kosovo's independence, claiming it as Autonomous Province of Kosovo and Metohija under United Nations Security Council Resolution 1244. The overwhelming majority of Kosovo's population is ethnically Albanian with nearly 1.7 million people. Their presence as well as in the adjacent regions of Toplica and Morava is recorded since the Middle Ages. As the Serbs expelled many Albanians from the wider Toplica and Morava regions in Southern Serbia, which the 1878 Congress of Berlin had given to the Principality of Serbia, many of them settled in Kosovo. After being an integral section of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, Kosovo including its Albanian population went through a period of discrimination, economic and political persecution. Rights to use the Albanian language were guaranteed by the constitution of the later formed Socialist Yugoslavia and was widely used in Macedonia and Montenegro prior to the dissolution of Yugoslavia. In 1989, Kosovo lost its status as a federal entity of Yugoslavia with rights similar to those of the six other republics and eventually became part of Serbia and Montenegro. In 1998, tensions between the Albanian and Serb population of Kosovo culminated in the Kosovo War, which led to the external and internal displacement of hundreds of thousands of Kosovo Albanians. Serbian paramilitary forces committed war crimes in Kosovo, although the government of Serbia claims that the army was only going after suspected Albanian terrorists. NATO launched a 78-day air campaign in 1999, which eventually led to an end to the war. == Distribution == === Balkans === Approximately five million Albanians are geographically distributed across the Balkan Peninsula with about half this number living in Albania, Kosovo, North Macedonia and Montenegro as well as to a more lesser extent in Croatia and Serbia. There are also significant Albanian populations in Greece. Approximately 1.8 million Albanians are concentrated in the partially recognised Republic of Kosovo. They are geographically distributed south of the municipality of North Mitrovica and constitute the overall majority ethnic group of the territory. In Montenegro, the Albanian population is currently estimated to be around 30,000 forming one of the constituent ethnic minority groups of the country. They predominantly live in the coastal region of Montenegro around the municipalities of Ulcinj and Bar but also Tuz and around Plav in the northern region as well as in the capital city of Podgorica in the central region.]] In North Macedonia, there are more than approximately 500,000 Albanians constituting the largest ethnic minority group in the country. The vast majority of the Albanians are chiefly concentrated around the municipalities of Tetovo and Gostivar in the northwestern region, Struga and Debar in the southwestern region as well as around the capital of Skopje in the central region. In Croatia, the number of Albanians stands at approximately 17.500 mostly concentrated in the counties of Istria, Split-Dalmatia and most notably in the capital city of Zagreb. The Arbanasi people who historically migrated to Bulgaria, Croatia and Ukraine live in scattered communities across Bulgaria, Croatia and Southern Ukraine. They are significantly concentrated in the municipalities of Bujanovac and Preševo in the Pčinja District. In Romania, the number of Albanians is unofficially estimated from 500 to 10,000 mainly distributed in Bucharest. They are recognised as an ethnic minority group and are respectively represented in Parliament of Romania. === Italy === The Italian Peninsula across the Adriatic Sea has attracted Albanian people for more than half a millennium often due to its immediate proximity. Albanians in Italy later became important in establishing the fundamentals of the Albanian Renaissance and maintaining the Albanian culture. The Arbëreshë people came sporadically in several small and large cycles initially as Stratioti mercenaries in service of the kingdoms of Naples and Sicily and the Republic of Venice. Larger migration waves occurred after the death of Skanderbeg and the capture of Krujë and Shkodër by the Ottomans to escape the forthcoming political and religious changes. Today, Arbëreshë constitute one of the largest ethnolinguistic minority groups and their language is recognized and protected constitutionally under the provisions of the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. The total number of Arbëreshës is approximately 260,000 scattered across Sicily, Calabria and Apulia. There are Italian Albanians in the Americas especially in such countries as Argentina, Chile, Uruguay, Canada and the United States. After 1991, a mass migration of Albanians towards Italy occurred. Between 2015 and 2016, the number of Albanian migrants who held legal permits of residence in Italy was numbered to be around 480,000 and 500,000. Tuscany, Lombardy and Emilia-Romagna represent the regions with the strongest presence of the modern Albanian population in Italy. As of 2018, an additional ca. 200,000 Albanian migrants have obtained Italian citizenship (children born in Italy not included). As of 2012, 41.5% of the Albanian in Italy population were counted as Muslim, 38.9% as Christian including 27.7% as Roman Catholic and 11% as Eastern Orthodox and 17.8% as Irreligious. === Greece === The Arvanites and Albanians of Western Thrace are a group descended from Tosks who migrated to southern and central Greece between the 13th and 16th centuries. They are Greek Orthodox Christians, and though they traditionally speak a dialect of Tosk Albanian known as Arvanitika, they have fully assimilated into the Greek nation and do not identify as Albanians. Arvanitika is in a state of attrition due to language shift towards Greek and large-scale internal migration to the cities and subsequent intermingling of the population during the 20th century. The Cham Albanians were a group that formerly inhabited a region of Epirus known as Chameria, nowadays Thesprotia in northwestern Greece. Many Cham Albanians converted to Islam during the Ottoman era. Muslim Chams were expelled from Greece during World War II, by an anti-communist resistance group (EDES). The causes of the expulsion were multifaceted and remain a matter of debate among historians. Different narratives in historiography argue that the causes involved pre-existing Greek policies which targeted the minority and sought its elimination, the Cham collaboration with the Axis forces and local property disputes which were instrumentalized after WWII. The estimated number of Cham Albanians expelled from Epirus to Albania and Turkey varies: figures include 14,000, 19,000, 20,000, 25,000 and 30,000. According to Cham reports this number should be raised to c. 35,000. Large-scale migration from Albania to Greece occurred after 1991. During this period, at least 500,000 Albanians have migrated and relocated to Greece. Despite the lack of exact statistics, it is estimated that at least 700,000 Albanians have moved to Greece during the last 25 years. The Albanian government estimates 500,000 Albanians in Greece at the very least without accounting for their children. They are economic migrants whose migration began in 1991, following the collapse of the Socialist People's Republic of Albania. , in total, there might have been more than 500,000 Albanian-born migrants and their children who received Greek citizenship over the years. In recent years, many Albanian workers and their families have left Greece in search of better opportunities elsewhere in Europe. Albanians in Greece have a long history of Hellenisation, assimilation and integration. Many ethnic Albanians have been naturalised as Greek nationals, others have self-declared as Greek since arrival and a considerable number live and work across both countries seasonally hence the number of Albanians in the country has often fluctuated. == Diaspora == Diaspora based Albanians may self identify as Albanian, use hybrid identification or identify with their nationality, often creating an obstacle in establishing a total figure of the population. === Europe === During the end of the 20th and the beginning of the 21st centuries, the conflicts in the Balkans and the Kosovo War set in motion large population movements of Albanians to Central, Western and Northern Europe. The gradual collapse of communism in Albania triggered as well a new wave of migration and contributed to the emergence of a new diaspora, mainly in Southern Europe, in such countries as Greece and Italy. In Central Europe, there are approximately 200,000 Albanians in Switzerland with the particular concentration in the cantons of Zürich, Basel, Lucerne, Bern and St. Gallen. The neighbouring Germany is home to around 250,000 to 300,000 Albanians while in Austria there are around 40,000 to 80,000 Albanians concentrated in the states of Vienna, Styria, Salzburg, Lower and Upper Austria. In Western Europe, the Albanian population of approximately 10,000 people living in the Benelux countries is in comparison to other regions relatively limited. There are more than 6,000 Albanian people living in Belgium and 2,800 in the nearby Netherlands. The most lesser number of Albanian people in the Benelux region is to be found in Luxembourg with a population of 2,100. In Turkey, the exact numbers of the Albanian population of the country are difficult to correctly estimate. According to a 2008 report, there were approximately 1.300,000 people of Albanian descent living in Turkey. As of that report, more than 500,000 Albanian descendants still recognise their ancestry and or their language, culture and traditions. There are also other estimates that range from being 3 to 4 million people up to a total of 5 million in number, although most of these are Turkish citizens of either full or partial Albanian ancestry being no longer fluent in Albanian, comparable to the German Americans. In Egypt there are 18,000 Albanians, mostly Tosk speakers. Albanian Sunnis, Bektashis and Orthodox Christians were all represented in this diaspora, whose members at some point included major Renaissance figures (Rilindasit), including Thimi Mitko, Spiro Dine, Andon Zako Çajupi, Milo Duçi, Fan Noli and others who lived in Egypt for a time. Albanians have been present in Arab countries such as Syria, Lebanon, Iraq, Jordan, and for about five centuries as a legacy of Ottoman Turkish rule. === Americas and Oceania === The first Albanian migration to North America began in the 19th and 20th centuries not long after gaining independence from the Ottoman Empire. However the Arbëreshë people from Southern Italy were the first Albanian people to arrive in the New World, many of them migrating after the wars that accompanied the Risorgimento. Since then several Albanian migration waves have occurred throughout the 20th century as for instance after the Second World War with Albanians mostly from Yugoslavia rather than from Communist Albania, then after the Breakup of Communist Albania in 1990 and finally following the Kosovo War in 1998. The most sizeable Albanian population in the Americas is predominantly to be found in the United States. New York metropolitan area in the State of New York is home to the most sizeable Albanian population of the United States. As of 2017, there are approximately 205,000 Albanians in the country with the main concentration in the states of New York, Michigan, Massachusetts and Illinois. In Canada, there are approximately 39,000 Albanians in the country, including 36,185 Albanians from Albania and 2,870 Albanians from Kosovo, predominantly distributed in a multitude of provinces such as Ontario, Quebec, Alberta and British Columbia. Albanian immigration to Australia began in the late 19th century and most took place during the 20th century. Italy's annexation of Albania marked a difficult time for Albanian Australians as many were thought by Australian authorities to pose a fascist threat. Post-war, the numbers of Albanian immigrants slowed due to immigration restrictions placed by the communist government in Albania. Albanians from southwestern Yugoslavia (modern North Macedonia) arrived and settled in Melbourne in the 1960s-1970s. Other Albanian immigrants from Yugoslavia came from Montenegro and Serbia. The immigrants were mostly Muslims, but also Catholics among them including the relatives of the Albanian nun and missionary Mother Teresa. In the early twenty first century, Victoria has the highest concentration of Albanians and smaller Albanian communities exist in Western Australia, South Australia, Queensland, New South Wales and the Northern Territory. In 2016, approximately 4,041 persons resident in Australia identified themselves as having been born in Albania and Kosovo, while 15,901 persons identified themselves as having Albanian ancestry, either alone or in combination with another ancestry. Albanian migration to New Zealand occurred mid twentieth century following the Second World War. A small group of Albanian refugees originating mainly from Albania and the rest from Yugoslavian Kosovo and Macedonia settled in Auckland. In the twenty first century, Albanian New Zealanders number 400-500 people and are mainly concentrated in Auckland. == Culture == === Traditions === ==== Tribal social structure ==== The Albanian tribes () form a historical mode of social organization (farefisní) in Albania and the southwestern Balkans characterized by a common culture, often common patrilineal kinship ties tracing back to one progenitor and shared social ties. The fis (; commonly translated as "tribe", also as "clan" or "kin" community) stands at the center of Albanian organization based on kinship relations, a concept which can be found among southern Albanians also with the term farë (). Inherited from ancient Illyrian social structures, Albanian tribal society emerged in the early Middle Ages as the dominant form of social organization among Albanians. It also remained in a less developed system in southern Albania where large feudal estates and later trade and urban centres began to develop at the expense of tribal organization. One of the most particular elements of the Albanian tribal structure is its dependence on the Kanun, a code of Albanian oral customary laws. Most tribes engaged in warfare against external forces like the Ottoman Empire. Some also engaged in limited inter-tribal struggle for the control of resources. Until the early years of the 20th century, the Albanian tribal society remained largely intact until the rise to power of communist regime in 1944, and is considered as the only example of a tribal social system structured with tribal chiefs and councils, blood feuds and oral customary laws, surviving in Europe until the middle of the 20th century. Members of the tribes of northern Albania believe their history is based on the notions of resistance and isolationism. Some scholars connect this belief with the concept of "negotiated peripherality". Throughout history the territory northern Albanian tribes occupy has been contested and peripheral so northern Albanian tribes often exploited their position and negotiated their peripherality in profitable ways. This peripheral position also affected their national program which significance and challenges are different from those in southern Albania. ==== Kanun ==== The Kanun is a set of Albanian traditional customary laws, which has directed all the aspects of the Albanian tribal society. For at least the last five centuries and until today, Albanian customary laws have been kept alive only orally by the tribal elders. The success in preserving them exclusively through oral systems highlights their universal resilience and provides evidence of their likely ancient origins. Strong pre-Christian motifs mixed with motifs from the Christian era reflect the stratification of the Albanian customary law across various historical ages. Over time, Albanian customary laws have undergone their historical development, they have been changed and supplemented with new norms, in accordance with certain requirements of socio-economic development. Besa and nderi (honour) are of major importance in Albanian customary law as the cornerstone of personal and social conduct. The Kanun is based on four pillars – Honour (), Hospitality (), Right Conduct () and Kin Loyalty (). ==== Besa ==== Besa (pledge of honor) is an Albanian cultural precept, usually translated as "faith" or "oath", that means "to keep the promise" and "word of honor". The concept is based upon faithfulness toward one's word in the form of loyalty or as an allegiance guarantee. The besa was an important institution within the tribal society of the Albanian tribes, who swore oaths to jointly fight against invaders, and in this aspect the besa served to uphold tribal autonomy. The besa was used toward regulating tribal affairs between and within the Albanian tribes. === Cuisine === The traditional cuisine of the Albanians is diverse and has been greatly influenced by traditions and their varied environment in the Balkans and turbulent history throughout the course of the centuries. There is a considerable diversity between the Mediterranean and Balkan-influenced cuisines of Albanians in the Western Balkan nations and the Italian and Greek-influenced cuisines of the Arbëreshës and Chams. The enjoyment of food has a high priority in the lives of Albanian peoples especially when celebrating religious festivals such as Ramadan, Eid, Christmas, Easter, Hanukkah or Novruz Ingredients include many varieties of fruits such as lemons, oranges, figs and olives, herbs such as basil, lavender, mint, oregano, rosemary and thyme and vegetables such as garlic, onion, peppers, potatoes and tomatoes. Albanian peoples who live closer to the Mediterranean Sea, Prespa Lake and Ohrid Lake are able to complement their diet with fish, shellfish and other seafood. Otherwise, lamb is often considered the traditional meat for different religious festivals. Poultry, beef and pork are also in plentiful supply. Tavë Kosi is a national dish in Albania consisting of garlic lamb and rice baked under a thick, tart veil of yogurt. Fërgesë is another national dish and is made with peppers, tomatoes and cottage cheese. Pite is a baked pastry with a filling of a mixture of spinach and gjizë or mish. Desserts include Flia, consisting of multiple crepe-like layers brushed with crea; petulla, a traditionally fried dough, and Krofne, similar to Berliner. === Visual arts === ==== Painting ==== The earliest preserved relics of visual arts of the Albanian people are sacred in nature and represented by numerous frescoes, murals and icons which has been created with an admirable use of color and gold. They reveal a wealth of various influences and traditions that converged in the historical lands of the Albanian people throughout the course of the centuries. The rise of the Byzantines and Ottomans during the Middle Ages was accompanied by a corresponding growth in Christian and Islamic art often apparent in examples of architecture and mosaics throughout Albania. The Albanian Renaissance proved crucial to the emancipation of the modern Albanian culture and saw unprecedented developments in all fields of literature and arts whereas artists sought to return to the ideals of Impressionism and Romanticism. Onufri, founder of the Berat School, Kolë Idromeno, David Selenica, Kostandin Shpataraku and the Zografi Brothers are the most eminent representatives of Albanian art. Albanians in Italy and Croatia have been also active among others the Renaissance influenced artists such as Marco Basaiti, Viktor Karpaçi and Andrea Nikollë Aleksi. In Greece, Eleni Boukouras is noted as being the first great female painter of post independence Greece. In 1856, Pjetër Marubi arrived in Shkodër and established the first photography museum in Albania and probably the entire Balkans, the Marubi Museum. The collection of 150,000 photographs, captured by the Albanian-Italian Marubi dynasty, offers an ensemble of photographs depicting social rituals, traditional costumes, portraits of Albanian history. The Kulla, a traditional Albanian dwelling constructed completely from natural materials, is a cultural relic from the medieval period particularly widespread in the southwestern region of Kosovo and northern region of Albania. The rectangular shape of a Kulla is produced with irregular stone ashlars, river pebbles and chestnut woods, however, the size and number of floors depends on the size of the family and their financial resources. ==== Literature ==== The roots of literature of the Albanian people can be traced to the Middle Ages with surviving works about history, theology and philosophy dating from the Renaissance. The earliest known use of written Albanian is a baptismal formula (1462) written by the Archbishop of Durrës Paulus Angelus. In 1555, a Catholic clergyman Gjon Buzuku from the Shestan region published the earliest known book written in Albanian titled Meshari (The Missal) regarding Catholic prayers and rites containing archaic medieval language, lexemes and expressions obsolete in contemporary Albanian. Other Christian clergy such as Luca Matranga in the Arbëresh diaspora published (1592) in the Tosk dialect while other notable authors were from northern Albanian lands and included Pjetër Budi, Frang Bardhi, and Pjetër Bogdani. In the 17th century and onwards, important contributions were made by the Arbëreshë people of Southern Italy who played an influential role in encouraging the Albanian Renaissance. Notable among them was figures such as Demetrio Camarda, Gabriele Dara, Girolamo de Rada, Giulio Variboba and Giuseppe Serembe who produced inspiring nationalist literature and worked to systematise the Albanian language. The Bejtexhinj in the 18th century emerged as the result of the influences of Islam and particularly Sufism orders moving towards Orientalism. The Albanian Renaissance in the 19th century is important both for its valuable poetic achievement and for its variety within the Albanian literature. It drew on the ideas of Romanticism and Enlightenment characterised by its emphasis on emotion and individualism as well as the interaction between nature and mankind. Dora d'Istria, Girolamo de Rada, Naim Frashëri, Naum Veqilharxhi, Sami Frashëri and Pashko Vasa maintained this movement and are remembered today for composing series of prominent works. The 20th century was centred on the principles of Modernism and Realism and characterised by the development to a more distinctive and expressive form of Albanian literature. After World War II, Albania emerged as a communist state and Socialist realism became part of the literary scene. Martin Camaj wrote in the diaspora while in neighbouring Yugoslavia, the emergence of Albanian cultural expression resulted in sociopolitical and poetic literature by notable authors like Adem Demaçi, Rexhep Qosja, Jusuf Buxhovi. The literary scene of the 21st century remains vibrant producing new novelists, authors, poets and other writers. === Performing arts === ==== Apparel ==== The Albanian people have incorporated various natural materials from their local agriculture and livestock as a source of attire, clothing and fabrics. Their traditional apparel was primarily influenced by nature, the lifestyle and has continuously changed since ancient times. Different regions possesses their own exceptional clothing traditions and peculiarities varied occasionally in colour, material and shape. The traditional costume of Albanian men includes a white skirt called Fustanella, a white shirt with wide sleeves, and a thin black jacket or vest such as the Xhamadan or Xhurdia. In winter, they add a warm woolen or fur coat known as Flokata or Dollama made from sheepskin or goat fur. Another authentic piece is called Tirq which is a tight pair of felt trousers mostly white, sometimes dark brown or black. The Albanian women's costumes are much more elaborate, colorful and richer in ornamentation. In all the Albanian regions the women's clothing often has been decorated with filigree ironwork, colorful embroidery, a lot of symbols and vivid accessories. A unique and ancient dress is called Xhubleta, a bell shaped skirt reaching down to the calves and worn from the shoulders with two shoulder straps at the upper part. Different traditional handmade shoes and socks were worn by the Albanian people. Opinga, leather shoes made from rough animal skin, were worn with Çorape, knitted woolen or cotton socks. Headdresses remain a contrasting and recognisable feature of Albanian traditional clothing. Albanian men wore hats of various designs, shape and size. A common headgear is a Plis and Qylafë, in contrast, Albanian women wore a Kapica adorned with jewels or embroidery on the forehead, and a Lëvere or Kryqe which usually covers the head, shoulders and neck. Wealthy Albanian women wore headdresses embellished with gems, gold or silver. ==== Music ==== For the Albanian people, music is a vital component to their culture and characterised by its own peculiar features and diverse melodic pattern reflecting the history, language and way of life. It rather varies from region to another with two essential stylistic differences between the music of the Ghegs and Tosks. Hence, their geographic position in Southeast Europe in combination with cultural, political and social issues is frequently expressed through music along with the accompanying instruments and dances. Albanian folk music is contrasted by the heroic tone of the Ghegs and the relaxed sounds of the Tosks. Traditional iso-polyphony perhaps represents the most noble and essential genre of the Tosks which was proclaimed a Masterpiece of the Intangible Heritage of Humanity by UNESCO. Ghegs in contrast have a reputation for a distinctive variety of sung epic poetry often about the tumultuous history of the Albanian people. There are a number of internationally acclaimed singers of ethnic Albanian origin such as Ava Max, Bebe Rexha, Dua Lipa, Era Istrefi, Rita Ora, and rappers such as Action Bronson, Dardan, Gashi and Loredana Zefi. Notable singers of Albanian origin from the former Yugoslavia include Selma Bajrami and Zana Nimani. In international competitions, Albania participated in the Eurovision Song Contest for the first time in 2004. Albanians have also represented other countries in the contest: Anna Oxa for Italy in 1989, Adrian Gaxha for North Macedonia in 2008, Ermal Meta for Italy in 2018, Eleni Foureira for Cyprus in 2018, as well as Gjon Muharremaj for Switzerland in 2020 and 2021. Kosovo has never participated, but is currently applying to become a member of the EBU and therefore debut in the contest. == Religion == Many different spiritual traditions, religious faiths and beliefs are practised by the Albanian people who historically have succeeded to coexist peacefully over the centuries in Southeast Europe. They are traditionally both Christians and Muslims—Catholics and Orthodox, Sunnis and Bektashis and—but also to a lesser extent Evangelicals, Protestants and Jews, constituting one of the most religiously diverse peoples of Europe. Christianity in Albania was under the jurisdiction of the Bishop of Rome until the 8th century. Then, dioceses in Albania were transferred to the patriarchate of Constantinople. In 1054 after the schism, the north became identified with the Roman Catholic Church. Since that time all churches north of the Shkumbin river were Catholic and under the jurisdiction of the Pope. Various reasons have been put forward for the spread of Catholicism among northern Albanians. Traditional affiliation with the Latin Church and Catholic missions in central Albania in the 12th century fortified the Catholic Church against Orthodoxy, while local leaders found an ally in Catholicism against Slavic Orthodox states. The communist regime which ruled Albania after World War II persecuted and suppressed religious observance and institutions, and entirely banned religion to the point where Albania was officially declared to be the world's first atheist state. Religious freedom returned to Albania following the regime's change in 1992. Albanian Sunni Muslims are found throughout the country, Albanian Orthodox Christians as well as Bektashis are concentrated in the south, while Roman Catholics are found primarily in the north of the country. According to the 2011 Census, which has been recognised as unreliable by the Council of Europe, in Albania, 58.79% of the population adheres to Islam, making it the largest religion in the country. Christianity is practiced by 16.99% of the population, making it the second largest religion in the country. The remaining population is either irreligious or belongs to other religious groups. Before World War II, there was given a distribution of 70% Muslims, 20% Eastern Orthodox, and 10% Roman Catholics. Today, Gallup Global Reports 2010 shows that religion plays a role in the lives of only 39% of Albanians, and ranks Albania the thirteenth least religious country in the world. For part of its history, Albania has also had a Jewish community. Members of the Jewish community were saved by a group of Albanians during the Nazi occupation. Many left for Israel –1992 when the borders were opened after the fall of the communist regime, but about 200 Jews still live in Albania.	[ "Marco Basaiti", "southern Albania", "Basil (herb)", "Principality of Dukagjini", "NATO bombing of Yugoslavia", "Ptolemy", "Kingdom of Naples", "Paleo-Balkan languages", "Party of Labour of Albania", "Xhamadan", "Realist literature", "Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe", "Andronikos II Palaiologos", "Pope", "Bulgarian language", "Albanians in Egypt", "Ottoman Empire", "Albanian dialects", "Tetovo Municipality", "traditional costume", "monasteries", "Gjon Buzuku", "Hasan Zyko Kamberi", "stone", "Siege of Shkodra", "official language", "Ohrid Lake", "osce.org", "Polog Statistical Region", "Evangelicalism", "Janina", "Dalmatia", "Gjon's Tears", "Ramadan", "Kosovo Protestant Evangelical Church", "Muhammad Ali of Egypt", "Roman Catholic", "Albanian Pashaliks", "Lahuta e Malcís", "Jan Kukuzeli", "Croatians", "Municipalities of Kosovo", "Golem of Kruja", "Former Yugoslavia", "Albanians in the United Kingdom", "Preševo", "New York metropolitan area", "Principality of Arbanon", "Republic of Venice", "Islamisation of Albania", "Musical instrument", "Pelister", "Gashi (rapper)", "Christians", "Despot (court title)", "States of Austria", "Red Book of Endangered Languages", "Eastern Orthodox", "Gheg Albanian", "customary law", "Mediterranean Sea", "Albanians in Ukraine", "Human migration", "Thomas Phillips", "Maghreb", "minority group", "Declaration of independence of Albania", "Canton of Lucerne", "New York (state)", "Gregorios Kamonas", "Italo-Albanian Catholic Church", "Dardan (rapper)", "Sacred art", "Instituto Nacional de Estadística (Spain)", "Michigan", "Preveza", "Ermal Meta", "Bar Municipality", "Orthodox Church in America Albanian Archdiocese", "Biophysical environment", "Sicilian Vespers", "stratioti", "Ahmet Kurt Pasha", "lavender", "Switzerland in the Eurovision Song Contest 2021", "War of Kosovo", "Republic of Turkey", "Praevalitana", "Albanian cuisine", "ecclesiastical", "pashalik", "Kosovo Albanians", "Renaissance", "Thimi Mitko", "Constantinople", "alps", "Asdreni", "Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek", "Illyrian languages", "Albanian flag", "Arbanasi people", "Bayezid Pasha", "Byzantine Greek", "Köprülü era", "Atheist", "Montenegro", "Sunnism", "type site", "Statistics Norway", "Ali Pasha of Ioannina", "precept", "Rise of nationalism in the Ottoman Empire", "State of Salzburg", "trousers", "Syria", "Rayah", "Karl Thopia", "Southern Greece", "Gjakmarrja", "Migjeni", "Skanderbeg", "integrity", "Arta, Greece", "Devoll (river)", "Czech Statistical Office", "Styria", "Tosk", "endangered language", "Ottoman military", "Shkumbin River", "Taxation in the Ottoman Empire", "Messapic language", "Lemon (fruit)", "Polyglotism", "Lower Austria", "linguist", "Illyrians", "Fan Noli", "Ismail Kadare", "Normans", "Muslims", "Giuseppe Serembe", "British Empire", "Istituto Nazionale di Statistica", "pagan", "standard of living", "Struga Municipality", "Ottoman conquest of the Balkans", "Napoleon Bonaparte", "Kosovo in the Eurovision Song Contest", "Uruguay", "Principality of Gjirokastër", "Kolë Idromeno", "Irreligion", "Spearmint", "Georgian script", "Enver Hoxha", "Balkan Wars", "Italian Peninsula", "British Columbia", "Jizya", "Clement of Ohrid", "Girolamo de Rada", "Mameluk", "Albanians in Turkey", "Municipalities and cities of Serbia", "Adriatic Sea", "Besa (Albanian culture)", "European Broadcasting Union", "Albanians in Serbia", "Kingdom of Sicily (Medieval and Early Modern)", "Moravac", "Lake Ochrida", "Serbian Empire", "Sultan", "Italian invasion of Albania", "Luca Matranga", "Selma Bajrami", "Thracian language", "Eastern Bloc", "Ground meat", "Endonym", "exonym", "Shkumbin", "Balkan Peninsula", "Roman Catholic Church", "Bektashism", "Princeton University Press", "New World", "Muzaka family", "Albanians in North Macedonia", "Norway", "Central Europe", "social ties", "Principality of Serbia", "Egypt under Muhammad Ali and his successors", "European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages", "Kastrioti family", "Köprülü family", "Impressionism", "Sanjak of Avlona", "Bishop of Rome", "Social norm", "faith", "Andrea Vrana", "Spirituality", "Kosovo", "fresco", "Russian Empire", "Saint Angelar", "Albanian Principalities", "Charles I of Naples", "Christian art", "Pashko Vasa", "Italian cuisine", "Michael Attaliates", "Brian D. Joseph", "Alberta", "Albanian Greek Catholic Church", "Mediterranean cuisine", "Statistics Finland", "Slav (ethnonym)", "Komani-Kruja culture", "Via Egnatia", "Toplica District", "Upper Austria", "Arab world", "attire", "Intangible cultural heritage", "oregano", "Formula e pagëzimit", "History of the Jews in Albania", "Sorgo family", "Dora d'Istria", "Mësonjëtorja", "manuscript", "Kosovar Albanians", "Albanian tribes", "Frang Bardhi", "UNESCO", "Khedive", "Bujanovac", "Protestants", "Albanians in Romania", "Meshari", "Wāli", "Stratioti", "oath", "sleeve", "Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia", "Ali Pasha of Tepelena", "Aromanian language", "Novruz", "Prespa Lake", "Pjetër Bogdani", "Council of Europe", "League of Lezhë", "Protestantism", "Papacy", "House of Progon", "History of Albania", "Arvanites", "Fustanella", "Pashalik of Yanina", "Stephen Milutin", "Southeast Europe", "Modernism", "fur", "Eastern Romance languages", "Muslim", "List of regions of Montenegro", "fall of Constantinople", "Vlorë", "Communism in Albania", "bunker", "Byzantine Empire", "Epirus (region)", "cultural heritage", "Ontario", "Manfred, King of Sicily", "chestnut", "Christianity", "Catholic", "Albania", "Battle of Benevento", "Adem Demaçi", "Naim Frashëri", "Empire of Nicea", "Ottoman Turk", "Berliner (doughnut)", "List of Ottoman Grand Viziers", "Republic of Kosovo", "Albanoid", "Albanians in Montenegro", "Arbëresh language", "foreign language", "catechism", "Romanticism", "Dalip Frashëri", "Auckland", "Principalities of albania", "Macedonia in the Eurovision Song Contest 2008", "Grammy Award", "Geography of Albania", "icon", "Albanians in Bulgaria", "state atheism", "irreligious", "Switzerland", "Illyrian tribe", "Tower house", "dissolution of Yugoslavia", "Durrës", "shellfish", "socialism", "Martin Camaj", "Tosk Albanian", "Arbanasi dialect", "United Nations Security Council Resolution 1244", "nature", "Christian Church", "Western Australia", "Axis-Cham Albanian collaboration", "National Institute of Statistics and Census of Panama", "Non-denominational Muslim", "government of Serbia", "Janissaries", "Italianization", "Expulsion of Cham Albanians", "North Mitrovica", "Hanukkah", "Prince Marko", "Austria", "Charles Bargue", "Era Istrefi", "Orthodoxy", "Muhammad Ali dynasty", "Arab nationalism", "Albanians in Kosovo", "aristocracy", "religious festival", "Capetian House of Anjou", "Loredana Zefi", "Rita Ora", "Middle Ages", "Principality of Arbër", "Dua Lipa", "Socialist People's Republic of Albania", "Protestantism in Albania", "Fërgesë", "Debar Municipality", "Eastern Catholic Churches", "List of mothers of the Ottoman sultans", "secularisation", "Albanian culture", "Albania under the Ottoman Empire", "Western Europe", "Denmark", "Thesprotia", "Gjergj Kastrioti Skanderbeg", "Adrian Gaxha", "Europe", "Origin of the Albanians", "U.S. Institute of Peace", "Cold War", "Philippe Chinard", "Republic of Ragusa", "Eleni Foureira", "Kruja", "Philip I, Prince of Taranto", "Vonitsa", "Indo-European migrations", "Pčinja District", "Netherlands", "Greek language", "Shkodër", "Tetovo", "Balkan cuisine", "Serbo-Croatian Language", "Bunkerisation", "Greek cuisine", "Kostandin Shpataraku", "Autonomous Province of Kosovo and Metohija", "Saints Cyril and Methodius", "Sejfulla Malëshova", "Albanian iso-polyphony", "Butrint", "Eastern Orthodoxy", "patriarchate of Constantinople", "Janissary", "Mehmed Ferid Pasha", "Argentina", "Southern Ukraine", "Germans", "Çorape", "French invasion of Egypt", "Muslim world", "Treaty of Bucharest (1913)", "Communist Albania", "Polish people", "hussar", "Serbia", "Principality of Albania (medieval)", "Massachusetts", "Turkish language", "Independent Albania", "spinach", "Vlachs", "Cham Albanians", "European Languages", "Romanticism (art)", "Languages of Europe", "Shahin Frashëri", "Pristina", "Jusuf Buxhovi", "Qeleshe", "UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists", "Zagan Pasha", "Kastoria", "Michael VIII", "Ava Max", "Albania in the Eurovision Song Contest", "German Americans", "Pope Benedict XI", "Zagreb", "Albanoi", "Paulus Angelus", "Albanian music", "Zana Nimani", "Albanians of Croatia", "Egypt", "Robert, Prince of Taranto", "Vittore Carpaccio", "Pjetër Marubi", "Principality of Kastrioti", "Opinga", "Gostivar Municipality", "Southern Italy", "Figs (fruit)", "Dyrrhachium (theme)", "Hypothesis", "Statistics Canada", "Olive (fruit)", "cultur", "Croatia", "Cathedral of St. George Historic District", "Sami Frashëri", "Sanjak of Dibra", "Devshirme", "Gamal Abdel Nasser", "Andrea Nikollë Aleksi", "revolutions of 1989", "Bulgarians", "Tavë Kosi", "Lasgush Poradeci", "Hellenisation", "Kanun (Albania)", "yogurt", "Albanians in Italy", "Albanian diaspora", "Yugoslav Wars", "Zografi Brothers", "Rebellion of Arbanon", "sovereignty", "Greek War of Independence", "Age of Enlightenment", "Michael Attaleiates", "Congress of Berlin", "Battle of Marica", "Skanderbeg's rebellion", "Yugoslavia", "Charles I, King of Sicily", "ethnic group", "honour", "Gjergj Fishta", "Provinces and territories of Canada", "Dritero Agolli", "Berat", "Bejtexhinj", "Dukagjini family", "Radio Televizioni Shqiptar", "Pashalik of Berat", "thyme", "Istria County", "Albanian language", "Dubrovnik", "Georgian language", "Skopje Statistical Region", "modern era", "Thessaly", "folk etymology", "Podgorica", "dowry", "Split-Dalmatia County", "epic poetry", "Western Bloc", "Canton of Zürich", "Tosks", "Arvanitika", "Albanian Orthodox Church", "Cham Albanian dialect", "Australian Bureau of Statistics", "Saxons", "Queensland, Australia", "Stefan Dušan", "Epirus", "Albanians of Western Thrace", "Filiates", "Tirana", "Albanian history", "Xhubleta", "sheepskin", "Serbian Kingdom (medieval)", "Institute of Statistics (Albania)", "filigree", "Treaty of Viterbo", "Risorgimento", "Regions of Italy", "Catholicism", "Franks", "Lezhë", "Luxembourg", "Bebe Rexha", "Sanjak of Delvina", "Albanian principalities", "Jean-Léon Gérôme", "Catholic Church", "Lists of Albanians", "Northern Albania", "Gabriele Dara", "Siege of Berat (1280–1281)", "Demetrio Camarda", "Arbëreshë people", "Saint Naum", "Tuscany", "Central Albania", "Eurovision Song Contest", "Skopje", "Lord Byron in Albanian Dress", "Islam", "Sudan", "takya", "Apulia", "diaspora", "Macedonia (region)", "Oral tradition", "Saint Sava", "Bulgaria", "Serbia and Montenegro", "Armenians", "Bektashi", "Toronto", "minority language", "First French Empire", "Turkification", "Canton of Bern", "Köprülü Mehmed Pasha", "Cantons of Switzerland", "Greece", "People's Socialist Republic of Albania", "Late Middle Ages", "Romania", "Italy in the Eurovision Song Contest 1989", "Korçë", "ethnonym", "Albanian Renaissance", "Murad II", "Belgium", "Ardenica Monastery", "Sunni", "ironwork", "Benelux countries", "mural", "Albanians in Croatia", "NATO", "Albanians in Greece", "Ukraine", "Calabria", "Eid al-Fitr", "East–West Schism", "National Museum of Photography \"Marubi\"", "Kaninë", "Zaharia family", "cultural assimilation", "Algeria", "Siege of Krujë (1478)", "Ethnolinguistic group", "Naum Veqilharxhi", "Bucharest", "Mehmed III", "History of Sudan under Muhammad Ali and his successors", "Hans-Peter Bartels", "European Union", "Nezim Frakulla", "Turkey", "Cyprus in the Eurovision Song Contest 2018", "Serbs in kosovo", "Eleni Boukouras", "Istrian Albanian", "Ali Pasha Tepelena", "Elbasan", "cottage cheese", "curd", "Routledge", "North Macedonia", "Chameria", "Zadar", "Shtjefën Gjeçovi", "Hellenic Statistical Authority", "Edmonton", "Roman Catholicism", "Skirt (garment)", "Kara Mahmud Pasha", "Pjetër Budi", "Kingdom of Albania (medieval)", "Partition (politics)", "Latin Church", "Ulcinj Municipality", "Dardania (Roman province)", "ancestry", "Arianiti family", "totem", "People's Republic of Albania", "Headdress", "Peloponnese", "EDES", "Action Bronson", "Cape of Rodon", "David Selenica", "Albanian national clothing", "atheistic state", "communism", "Island of Zvërnec", "Giulio Variboba", "Kotor", "Sicily", "Faik Konica", "Parliament of Romania", "High Porte", "Statistics New Zealand", "Treaty of San Stefano", "Muhammad Ali Dynasty", "kinship", "South Slavic languages", "Bayezid II", "Sunni Islam", "Emilia-Romagna", "woolen", "University of Michigan", "Mehmed the Conqueror", "Thopia family", "rosemary", "Canton of St. Gallen", "Flia", "Bektashi Order", "Kosovo crisis", "World War II", "Kingdom of Yugoslavia", "Scandinavia", "Lamb (food)", "Balkans", "Orientalism", "Italy in the Eurovision Song Contest 2018", "Islamic art", "Latin", "Illinois", "oud", "Counties of Croatia", "wālī", "Rexhep Qosja", "JLZ", "Plav Municipality", "Arbanon", "Krujë", "realm", "Second World War", "George Maniakes", "University of Edinburgh", "Southwestern Statistical Region", "Municipalities of the Republic of Macedonia", "Gjirokastër", "States of the United States", "belief", "Judaism", "Finland", "Culture of Albania", "Religious conversion", "Anna Oxa", "Albanian literature", "Italian Parliament", "Enciklopedija Jugoslavije", "Victoria (Australia)", "Hungarians", "Lifestyle (sociology)", "Independence of Kosovo", "Pashalik of Scutari", "Onufri", "Spring Day", "Albanopolis", "Bell pepper", "United States Census Bureau", "Indo-European languages", "Fall of communism in Albania", "Mother Teresa", "Canton of Basel-Stadt", "Central Statistics Office (Ireland)", "classical antiquity", "Despotate of Epirus", "Kosovo War", "Vienna" ]
2,928	Association for Computing Machinery	The Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) is a US-based international learned society for computing. It was founded in 1947 and is the world's largest scientific and educational computing society. The ACM is a non-profit professional membership group, reporting nearly 110,000 student and professional members . Its headquarters are in New York City. The ACM is an umbrella organization for academic and scholarly interests in computer science (informatics). Its motto is "Advancing Computing as a Science & Profession". ==History== In 1947, a notice was sent to various people: On January 10, 1947, at the Symposium on Large-Scale Digital Calculating Machinery at the Harvard computation Laboratory, Professor Samuel H. Caldwell of Massachusetts Institute of Technology spoke of the need for an association of those interested in computing machinery, and of the need for communication between them. [...] After making some inquiries during May and June, we believe there is ample interest to start an informal association of many of those interested in the new machinery for computing and reasoning. Since there has to be a beginning, we are acting as a temporary committee to start such an association: E. C. Berkeley, Prudential Insurance Co. of America, Newark, N. J. R. V. D. Campbell, Raytheon Manufacturing Co., Waltham, Mass. , Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C. H. E. Goheen, Office of Naval Research, Boston, Mass. J. W. Mauchly, Electronic Control Co., Philadelphia, Pa. T. K. Sharpless, Moore School of Elec. Eng., Philadelphia, Pa. R. Taylor, Mass. Inst. of Tech., Cambridge, Mass. C. B. Tompkins, Engineering Research Associates, Washington, D.C. The committee (except for Curtiss) had gained experience with computers during World War II: Berkeley, Campbell, and Goheen helped build Harvard Mark I under Howard H. Aiken, Mauchly and Sharpless were involved in building ENIAC, Tompkins had used "the secret Navy code-breaking machines", and Taylor had worked on Bush's Differential analyzers. The ACM was then founded in 1947 under the name Eastern Association for Computing Machinery, which was changed the following year to the Association for Computing Machinery. The ACM History Committee since 2016 has published the A.M.Turing Oral History project, the ACM Key Award Winners Video Series, and the India Industry Leaders Video project. ==Activities== ACM is organized into over 180 local professional chapters and 38 Special Interest Groups (SIGs), through which it conducts most of its activities. Additionally, there are over 680 student chapters. Many of the SIGs, such as SIGGRAPH, SIGDA, SIGPLAN, SIGCSE and SIGCOMM, sponsor regular conferences, which have become famous as the dominant venue for presenting innovations in certain fields. The groups also publish a large number of specialized journals, magazines, and newsletters. ACM also sponsors other computer science related events such as the worldwide ACM International Collegiate Programming Contest (ICPC), and has sponsored some other events such as the chess match between Garry Kasparov and the IBM Deep Blue computer. ==Services== ===Publications=== ACM publishes over 50 journals including the prestigious Journal of the ACM, and two general magazines for computer professionals, Communications of the ACM (also known as Communications or CACM) and Queue. Other publications of the ACM include: ACM XRDS, formerly "Crossroads", was redesigned in 2010 and is the most popular student computing magazine in the US. ACM Interactions, an interdisciplinary HCI publication focused on the connections between experiences, people and technology, and the third largest ACM publication. ACM Computing Surveys (CSUR) Computers in Entertainment (CIE) ACM Journal on Emerging Technologies in Computing Systems (JETC) ACM Special Interest Group: Computers and Society (SIGCAS) A number of journals, specific to subfields of computer science, titled ACM Transactions. Some of the more notable transactions include: ACM Transactions on Algorithms (TALG) ACM Transactions on Embedded Computing Systems (TECS) ACM Transactions on Computer Systems (TOCS) IEEE/ACM Transactions on Computational Biology and Bioinformatics (TCBB) ACM Transactions on Computational Logic (TOCL) ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction (TOCHI) ACM Transactions on Database Systems (TODS) ACM Transactions on Graphics (TOG) ACM Transactions on Mathematical Software (TOMS) ACM Transactions on Multimedia Computing, Communications, and Applications (TOMM) IEEE/ACM Transactions on Networking (TON) ACM Transactions on Programming Languages and Systems (TOPLAS) Games: Research and Practice Although Communications no longer publishes primary research and is not considered a prestigious venue, many of the great debates and results in computing history have been published in its pages. ACM has made almost all of its publications available to paid subscribers online at its Digital Library and also has a Guide to Computing Literature. ACM also offers insurance, online courses, and other services to its members. In 1997, ACM Press published Wizards and Their Wonders: Portraits in Computing (), written by Christopher Morgan, with new photographs by Louis Fabian Bachrach. The book is a collection of historic and current portrait photographs of figures from the computer industry. ===Portal and Digital Library=== The ACM Portal is an online service of the ACM. Its core are two main sections: ACM Digital Library and the ACM Guide to Computing Literature. The ACM Digital Library was launched in October 1997. It is the full-text collection of all articles published by the ACM in its articles, magazines and conference proceedings. The Guide is a bibliography in computing with over one million entries. ACM adopted a hybrid Open Access (OA) publishing model in 2013. Authors who do not choose to pay the OA fee must grant ACM publishing rights by either a copyright transfer agreement or a publishing license agreement. ACM was a "green" publisher before the term was invented. Authors may post documents on their own websites and in their institutional repositories with a link back to the ACM Digital Library's permanently maintained Version of Record. All metadata in the Digital Library is open to the world, including abstracts, linked references and citing works, citation and usage statistics, as well as all functionality and services. Other than the free articles, the full-texts are accessed by subscription. In addition, starting on April 7, 2022, ACM made its publications from 1951 to 2000 open access through the Digital Library in celebration of the 75th anniversary of the organization's founding. In 2020, ACM launched a major push to become a fully open access publisher by 2026. ACM restructured its pricing for the ACM Digital Library on the basis of publishing activity by affiliated lead authors in ACM's journals, magazines, and conference proceedings. Under this model, termed "ACM Open," institutions pay set fees for full access to ACM Digital Library contents as well as unlimited open access publishing by their affiliated authors. Authors not affiliated with a participating institution will be expected to pay an article processing charge. As of May 2024, ACM reported that more than 1,340 institutions worldwide had signed on for ACM Open, putting ACM at just over halfway to meeting its target of 2,500 participating institutions by 2026. ==Membership grades== In addition to student and regular members, ACM has several advanced membership grades to recognize those with multiple years of membership and "demonstrated performance that sets them apart from their peers". The number of Fellows, Distinguished Members, and Senior Members cannot exceed 1%, 10%, and 25% of the total number of professional members, respectively. ===Fellows=== The ACM Fellows Program was established by Council of the Association for Computing Machinery in 1993 "to recognize and honor outstanding ACM members for their achievements in computer science and information technology and for their significant contributions to the mission of the ACM." There are 1,310 Fellows out of about 100,000 members. ===Distinguished Members=== In 2006, ACM began recognizing two additional membership grades, one which was called Distinguished Members. Distinguished Members (Distinguished Engineers, Distinguished Scientists, and Distinguished Educators) have at least 15 years of professional experience and 5 years of continuous ACM membership and "have made a significant impact on the computing field". In 2006 when the Distinguished Members first came out, one of the three levels was called "Distinguished Member" and was changed about two years later to "Distinguished Educator". Those who already had the Distinguished Member title had their titles changed to one of the other three titles. List of Distinguished Members of the Association for Computing Machinery ===Senior Members=== Also in 2006, ACM began recognizing Senior Members. According to the ACM, "The Senior Members Grade recognizes those ACM members with at least 10 years of professional experience and 5 years of continuous Professional Membership who have demonstrated performance through technical leadership, and technical or professional contributions". Senior membership also requires 3 letters of reference ===Distinguished Speakers=== While not technically a membership grade, the ACM recognizes distinguished speakers on topics in computer science. A distinguished speaker is appointed for a three-year period. There are usually about 125 current distinguished speakers. The ACM website describes these people as 'Renowned International Thought Leaders'. The distinguished speakers program (DSP) has been in existence for over 20 years and serves as an outreach program that brings renowned experts from Academia, Industry and Government to present on the topic of their expertise. The DSP is overseen by a committee ==Chapters== ACM has three kinds of chapters: Special Interest Groups, Professional Chapters, and Student Chapters. , ACM has professional & SIG Chapters in 56 countries. , there exist ACM student chapters in 41 countries. ===Special Interest Groups=== SIGACCESS: Accessible Computing SIGACT: Algorithms and Computation Theory SIGAda: Ada Programming Language SIGAI: Artificial Intelligence SIGAPP: Applied Computing SIGARCH: Computer Architecture SIGBED: Embedded Systems SIGBio: Bioinformatics SIGCAS: Computers and Society SIGCHI: Computer–Human Interaction SIGCOMM: Data Communication SIGCSE: Computer Science Education SIGDA: Design Automation SIGDOC: Design of Communication SIGecom: Electronic Commerce SIGEVO: Genetic and Evolutionary Computation SIGGRAPH: Computer Graphics and Interactive Techniques SIGHPC: High Performance Computing SIGIR: Information Retrieval SIGITE: Information Technology Education SIGKDD: Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining SIGLOG: Logic and Computation SIGMETRICS: Measurement and Evaluation SIGMICRO: Microarchitecture SIGMIS: Management Information Systems SIGMM: Multimedia SIGMOBILE: Mobility of Systems, Users, Data and Computing SIGMOD: Management of Data SIGOPS: Operating Systems SIGPLAN: Programming Languages SIGSAC: Security, Audit, and Control SIGSAM: Symbolic and Algebraic Manipulation SIGSIM: Simulation and Modeling SIGSOFT: Software Engineering SIGSPATIAL: Spatial Information SIGUCCS: University and College Computing Services SIGWEB: Hypertext, Hypermedia, and Web ==Conferences== ACM and its Special Interest Groups (SIGs) sponsors numerous conferences worldwide. Most of the SIGs also have an annual conference. ACM conferences are often very popular publishing venues and are therefore very competitive. For example, SIGGRAPH 2007 attracted about 30000 attendees, while CIKM 2005 and RecSys 2022 had paper acceptance rates of only accepted 15% and 17% respectively. AIES: Conference on AI, Ethics, and Society ASPLOS: International Conference on Architectural Support for Programming Languages and Operating Systems CHI: Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems CIKM: Conference on Information and Knowledge Management COMPASS: International Conference on Computing and Sustainable Societies DAC: Design Automation Conference DEBS: Distributed Event Based Systems FAccT: Conference on Fairness, Accountability, and Transparency FCRC: Federated Computing Research Conference GECCO: Genetic and Evolutionary Computation Conference HT: Hypertext: Conference on Hypertext and Hypermedia JCDL: Joint Conference on Digital Libraries MobiHoc: International Symposium on Mobile Ad Hoc Networking and Computing SC: Supercomputing Conference SIGCOMM: ACM SIGCOMM Conference SIGCSE: SIGCSE Technical Symposium on Computer Science Education SIGGRAPH: International Conference on Computer Graphics and Interactive Techniques RecSys: ACM Conference on Recommender Systems TAPIA: Richard Tapia Celebration of Diversity in Computing Conference The ACM is a co–presenter and founding partner of the Grace Hopper Celebration of Women in Computing (GHC) with the Anita Borg Institute for Women and Technology. Some conferences are hosted by ACM student branches; this includes Reflections Projections, which is hosted by UIUC ACM. In addition, ACM sponsors regional conferences. Regional conferences facilitate increased opportunities for collaboration between nearby institutions and they are well attended. For additional non-ACM conferences, see this list of computer science conferences. ==Awards== The ACM presents or co–presents a number of awards for outstanding technical and professional achievements and contributions in computer science and information technology. ACM A. M. Turing Award ACM – AAAI Allen Newell Award ACM Athena Lecturer Award ACM/CSTA Cutler-Bell Prize in High School Computing ACM Distinguished Service Award ACM Doctoral Dissertation Award ACM Eugene L. Lawler Award ACM Fellowship, awarded annually since 1993 ACM Gordon Bell Prize ACM Grace Murray Hopper Award ACM – IEEE CS George Michael Memorial HPC Fellowships ACM – IEEE CS Ken Kennedy Award ACM – IEEE Eckert–Mauchly Award ACM India Doctoral Dissertation Award ACM Karl V. Karlstrom Outstanding Educator Award ACM Paris Kanellakis Theory and Practice Award ACM Policy Award ACM Presidential Award ACM Prize in Computing (formerly: ACM – Infosys Foundation Award in the Computing Sciences) ACM Programming Systems and Languages Paper Award ACM Student Research Competition ACM Software System Award International Science and Engineering Fair Outstanding Contribution to ACM Award SIAM/ACM Prize in Computational Science and Engineering Over 30 of ACM's Special Interest Groups also award individuals for their contributions with a few listed below. ACM Alan D. Berenbaum Distinguished Service Award ACM Maurice Wilkes Award ISCA Influential Paper Award ==Leadership== The President of ACM for 2022–2024 is Yannis Ioannidis, Professor at the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens. He is successor of Gabriele Kotsis (2020–2022), Professor at the Johannes Kepler University Linz; Cherri M. Pancake (2018–2020), professor emeritus at Oregon State University and Director of the Northwest Alliance for Computational Science and Engineering (NACSE); Vicki L. Hanson (2016–2018), Distinguished Professor at the Rochester Institute of Technology and visiting professor at the University of Dundee; Alexander L. Wolf (2014–2016), Dean of the Jack Baskin School of Engineering at the University of California, Santa Cruz; Vint Cerf (2012–2014), American computer scientist and Internet pioneer; Alain Chesnais (2010–2012); and Dame Wendy Hall of the University of Southampton, UK (2008–2010). ACM is led by a council consisting of the president, vice-president, treasurer, past president, SIG Governing Board Chair, Publications Board Chair, three representatives of the SIG Governing Board, and seven Members-At-Large. This institution is often referred to simply as "Council" in Communications of the ACM. ==Infrastructure== ACM has numerous boards, committees, and task forces which run the organization: ACM Council ACM Executive Committee Digital Library Board Education Board l Practitioner Board l Publications Board SIG Governing BoarDEI Council ACM Technology Policy Council ACM Representatives to Other Organizations Computer Science Teachers Association ==ACM Council on Women in Computing== ACM-W, the ACM council on women in computing, supports, celebrates, and advocates internationally for the full engagement of women in computing. ACM–W's main programs are regional celebrations of women in computing, ACM-W chapters, and scholarships for women CS students to attend research conferences. In India and Europe these activities are overseen by ACM-W India and ACM-W Europe respectively. ACM-W collaborates with organizations such as the Anita Borg Institute, the National Center for Women & Information Technology (NCWIT), and Committee on the Status of Women in Computing Research (CRA-W). The ACM-W gives an annual Athena Lecturer Award to honor outstanding women researchers who have made fundamental contributions to computer science. This program began in 2006. Speakers are nominated by SIG officers. ==Partner organizations== ACM's primary partner has been the IEEE Computer Society (IEEE-CS), which is the largest subgroup of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). The IEEE focuses more on hardware and standardization issues than theoretical computer science, but there is considerable overlap with ACM's agenda. They have many joint activities including conferences, publications and awards. ACM and its SIGs co-sponsor about 20 conferences each year with IEEE-CS and other parts of IEEE. Eckert–Mauchly Award and Ken Kennedy Award, both major awards in computer science, are given jointly by ACM and the IEEE-CS. They occasionally cooperate on projects like developing computing curricula. ACM has also jointly sponsored on events with other professional organizations like the Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics (SIAM). ==Criticism== In December 2019, the ACM co-signed a letter with over one hundred other publishers to President Donald Trump saying that an open access mandate would increase costs to taxpayers or researchers and hurt intellectual property. This was in response to rumors that he was considering issuing an executive order that would require federally funded research be made freely available online immediately after being published. It is unclear how these rumors started. Many ACM members opposed the letter, leading ACM to issue a statement clarifying that they remained committed to open access, and they wanted to see communication with stakeholders about the potential mandate. The statement did not significantly assuage criticism from ACM members. The SoCG conference, while originally an ACM conference, parted ways with ACM in 2014 because of problems when organizing conferences abroad.	[ "Communications of the ACM", "International Conference on Computer Graphics and Interactive Techniques", "Paris Kanellakis Theory and Practice Award", "ACM Student Research Competition", "Computing", "AAAI/ACM Conference on AI, Ethics, and Society", "Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers", "University of Dundee", "University of Southampton", "informatics", "Ken Kennedy Award", "Rochester Institute of Technology", "ACM Student Chapter", "Vannevar Bush", "honor society", "National and Kapodistrian University of Athens", "Charles Babbage Institute", "Special Interest Group on Information Retrieval", "list of computer science conferences", "Alan D. Berenbaum Distinguished Service Award", "Games: Research and Practice", "Vint Cerf", "ACM Conference on Fairness, Accountability, and Transparency", "Computer science", "Symposium on Computational Geometry", "Federated Computing Research Conference", "SIGAI", "Raytheon Technologies", "umbrella organization", "SIGKDD", "Journal of the Association for Information Systems", "CRA-W: Committee on the Status of Women in Computing Research", "New York City", "Gordon Bell Prize", "Special Interest Group on Accessible Computing", "article processing charge", "Massachusetts Institute of Technology", "Donald Trump", "Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics", "Moore School of Electrical Engineering", "SIGDA", "ACM SIGACT", "ACM SIGWEB", "Category:Fellows of the Association for Computing Machinery", "ACM Transactions on Mathematical Software", "SIGUCCS", "executive order", "bibliographic database", "National Institute of Standards and Technology", "Differential analyser", "abstracts", "Garry Kasparov", "Association of Information Technology Professionals", "Eckert–Mauchly Computer Corporation", "501(c) organization", "ACM Fellow", "computer science", "Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence", "ISCA Influential Paper Award", "intellectual property", "Louis Fabian Bachrach Jr.", "SIGPLAN", "SIGMOBILE", "ACM SIGGRAPH", "IBM Deep Blue", "Special Interest Group on Design Automation", "ACM SIGOPS", "Turing Award", "ACM Computing Surveys", "ACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction", "Wendy Hall", "IEEE Computer Society", "Edmund Berkeley", "lead author", "Grace Murray Hopper Award", "ACM Transactions on Database Systems", "SIGGRAPH", "Ada (programming language)", "Samuel H. Caldwell", "SIGDOC", "ACM Conference on Hypertext and Social Media", "Harvard Mark I", "ACM Transactions on Multimedia Computing, Communications, and Applications", "University of Southwestern Louisiana", "National Center for Women & Information Technology", "SIGSOFT", "IEEE/ACM Transactions on Computational Biology and Bioinformatics", "Gabriele Kotsis", "Category:Presidents of the Association for Computing Machinery", "ACM SIGHPC", "ACM Prize in Computing", "Computer Science Teachers Association", "ACM Transactions on Graphics", "List of academic databases and search engines", "nonprofit organization", "University of Louisiana at Lafayette", "ACM SIGARCH", "Oregon State University", "Prudential Financial", "SIGMM", "Carnegie Mellon University", "International Conference on Architectural Support for Programming Languages and Operating Systems", "Franz Alt (mathematician)", "Maurice Wilkes Award", "ACM Guide to Computing Literature", "Computer magazine", "Computers in Entertainment", "learned society", "World War II", "Anita Borg Institute for Women and Technology", "SIGCSE", "ACM Conference on Recommender Systems", "University of California, Santa Cruz", "ACM Queue", "Conference on Information and Knowledge Management", "Software System Award", "John Mauchly", "Eckert–Mauchly Award", "List of Fellows of the Association for Computing Machinery", "Institution of Analysts and Programmers", "Alexander L. Wolf", "Design Automation Conference", "ACM-W", "ACM Eugene L. Lawler Award", "ACM Transactions on Computer Systems", "Timeline of computing hardware before 1950", "ACM Transactions on Algorithms", "SIGMETRICS", "ACM Classification Scheme", "SIGCHI", "SIGMOD", "IEEE/ACM Transactions on Networking", "Journal of the ACM", "Supercomputing Conference", "ACM Transactions on Computational Logic", "SIGCOMM", "Edmund Callis Berkeley", "ACM International Collegiate Programming Contest", "computing", "SIAM/ACM Prize in Computational Science and Engineering", "Johannes Kepler University Linz", "IEEE", "XRDS (magazine)", "Engineering Research Associates", "Open access", "Jack Baskin School of Engineering", "Anita Borg Institute", "ACM Interactions (magazine)", "subscriber", "Diversity, equity, and inclusion", "women in computing", "Bernard Galler", "Office of Naval Research", "Howard H. Aiken", "SIGSAM", "Special Interest Group", "Yannis Ioannidis", "ACM Transactions on Programming Languages and Systems", "Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems", "open access", "ENIAC", "SIGCSE Technical Symposium on Computer Science Education", "International Science and Engineering Fair", "Joint Conference on Digital Libraries", "Cherri M. Pancake" ]
2,934	Anabaptism	Anabaptism (from Neo-Latin , is a Christian movement which traces its origins to the Radical Reformation in the 16th century. Anabaptists believe that baptism is valid only when candidates freely confess their faith in Christ and request to be baptized. Commonly referred to as believer's baptism, it is opposed to baptism of infants, who are not able to make a conscious decision to be baptized. The early Anabaptists formulated their beliefs in a confession of faith in 1527 called the Schleitheim Confession. Its author Michael Sattler was arrested and executed shortly afterward. Anabaptist groups varied widely in their specific beliefs, but the Schleitheim Confession represents foundational Anabaptist beliefs as well as any single document can. Other Christian groups with different roots also practice believer's baptism, such as Baptists, but these groups are not Anabaptist, even though the Baptist tradition was influenced by the Anabaptist view of Baptism. The Amish, Hutterites, and Mennonites are direct descendants of the early Anabaptist movement. Schwarzenau Brethren, River Brethren, Bruderhof, and the Apostolic Christian Church are Anabaptist denominations that developed after the Radical Reformation, following their example. Though all Anabaptists share the same core theological beliefs, there are differences in the way of life among them; Old Order Anabaptist groups include the Old Order Amish, the Old Order Mennonites, Old Order River Brethren, and the Old Order German Baptist Brethren. Emphasizing an adherence to the beliefs of early Christianity, as a whole Anabaptists are distinguished by their keeping of practices that often include nonconformity to the world, "the love feast with feet washing, laying on of hands, anointing with oil, and the holy kiss, as well as turning the other cheek, no oaths, going the second mile, giving a cup of cold water, reconciliation, repeated forgiveness, humility, non-violence, and sharing possessions." Anabaptists require that baptismal candidates be able to make a confession of faith that is freely chosen and so rejected baptism of infants. The New Testament teaches to repent and then be baptized, and infants are not able to repent and turn away from sin to a life of following Jesus. The early members of this movement did not accept the name Anabaptist, claiming that infant baptism was not part of scripture and was therefore null and void. They said that baptizing self-confessed believers was their first true baptism: Anabaptists were heavily persecuted by state churches, both Magisterial Protestants and Roman Catholics, beginning in the 16th century and continuing thereafter, largely because of their interpretation of scripture which put them at odds with official state church interpretations and local government control. Anabaptism was never established by any state and therefore never enjoyed any associated privileges. Most Anabaptists adhere to a literal interpretation of the Sermon on the Mount in Matthew 5–7, which teaches against hate, killing, violence, taking oaths, participating in use of force or any military actions, and against participation in civil government. Anabaptists view themselves as primarily citizens of the kingdom of God, not of earthly governments. As committed followers of Jesus, they seek to pattern their life after his. Some former groups who practiced rebaptism, now extinct, believed otherwise and complied with these requirements of civil society. They were thus technically Anabaptists, even though conservative Amish, Mennonites, Hutterites, and many historians consider them outside Anabaptism. Conrad Grebel wrote in a letter to Thomas Müntzer in 1524: "True Christian believers are sheep among wolves, sheep for the slaughter ... Neither do they use worldly sword or war, since all killing has ceased with them." == Lineage == === Medieval forerunners === Anabaptists are considered to have begun with the Radical Reformation in the 16th century, but historians classify certain people and groups as their forerunners because of a similar approach to the interpretation and application of the Bible. For instance, Petr Chelčický, a 15th-century Bohemian reformer, taught most of the beliefs considered integral to Anabaptist theology. Medieval antecedents may include the Brethren of the Common Life, the Hussites, Dutch Sacramentists, and some forms of monasticism. The Waldensians also represent a faith similar to the Anabaptists. Medieval dissenters and Anabaptists who held to a literal interpretation of the Sermon on the Mount share in common the following affirmations: The believer must not swear oaths or refer disputes between believers to law-courts for resolution, in accordance with . The believer must not bear arms or offer forcible resistance to wrongdoers, nor wield the sword. No Christian has the jus gladii (the right of the sword). Civil government (i.e. "Caesar") belongs to the world. The believer belongs to God's kingdom so must not fill any office nor hold any rank under government, which is to be passively obeyed. Sinners or unfaithful ones are to be excommunicated and excluded from the sacraments and from some level of interaction with believers until they repent, according to and , but no force is to be used towards them. === Zwickau prophets and the German Peasants' War === On December 27, 1521, three "prophets" from Zwickau appeared in Wittenberg who were influenced by (and, in turn, influencing) Thomas MüntzerThomas Dreschel, Nicholas Storch, and Mark Thomas Stübner. They preached an apocalyptic, radical alternative to Lutheranism. Their preaching helped to stir the feelings concerning the social crisis which erupted in the German Peasants' War in southern Germany in 1525 as a revolt against feudal oppression. Under the leadership of Müntzer, it became a war against all constituted authorities and an attempt to establish by revolution an ideal Christian commonwealth, with absolute equality among persons and the community of goods. The Zwickau prophets were not Anabaptists (that is, they did not practise "rebaptism"); nevertheless, the prevalent social inequities and the preaching of men such as these have been seen as laying the foundation for the Anabaptist movement. The social ideals of the Anabaptist movement coincided closely with those of leaders in the German Peasants' War. Studies have found a very low percentage of subsequent sectarians to have taken part in the peasant uprising. === Views on origins === Research on the origins of the Anabaptists has been tainted both by the attempts of their enemies to slander them and by the attempts of their supporters to vindicate them. It was long popular to classify all Anabaptists as Munsterites and radicals associated with the Zwickau prophets, Jan Matthys, John of Leiden, and Müntzer. Those desiring to correct this error tended to over-correct and deny all connections between the larger Anabaptist movement and the most radical elements. The modern era of Anabaptist historiography arose with Roman Catholic scholar Carl Adolf Cornelius' publication of (The History of the Münster Uprising) in 1855. Baptist historian Albert Henry Newman, who Harold S. Bender said occupied "first position in the field of American Anabaptist historiography", made a major contribution with his A History of Anti-Pedobaptism (1897). Three main theories on origins of the Anabaptists are the following: The movement began in a single expression in Zürich and spread from there (monogenesis); It developed through several independent movements (polygenesis); and It was a continuation of true New Testament Christianity (apostolic succession or church perpetuity). ==== Monogenesis ==== Some scholars (e.g. Harold S. Bender, William Estep, Robert Friedmann) consider the Anabaptist movement to have developed from the Swiss Brethren movement. They generally argue that Anabaptism had its origins in Zürich and that the Anabaptism of the Swiss Brethren was transmitted to southern Germany, Austria, the Netherlands, and northern Germany, where it developed into its various branches. The monogenesis theory usually rejects the Münsterites and other radicals from the category of true Anabaptists. In the monogenesis view the time of origin is January 21, 1525, when Conrad Grebel baptized George Blaurock, and Blaurock in turn baptized several others immediately. These baptisms were the first "re-baptisms" known in the movement. This continues to be the most widely accepted date posited for the establishment of Anabaptism. ==== Polygenesis ==== James M. Stayer, , and Klaus Deppermann disputed the idea of a single origin of Anabaptists in a 1975 essay entitled "From Monogenesis to Polygenesis", suggesting that February 24, 1527, at Schleitheim is the proper date of the origin of Anabaptism. On this date the Swiss Brethren wrote a declaration of belief called the Schleitheim Confession. The authors of the essay note the agreement among previous Anabaptist historians on polygenesis, even when disputing the date for a single starting point: "Hillerbrand and Bender (like Holl and Troeltsch) were in agreement that there was a single dispersion of Anabaptism …, which certainly ran through Zurich. The only question was whether or not it went back further to Saxony." Kenneth Davis, and Robert Kreider, have also noted the influence of humanism on Radical Reformers in the three originating points of departure to account for how this brand of reform could develop independently from each other. Relatively recent research, begun in a more advanced and deliberate manner by Andrew P. Klager, also explores how the influence and a particular reading of the Church Fathers contributed to the development of distinctly Anabaptist beliefs and practices in separate regions of Europe in the early 16th century, including by Menno Simons in the Netherlands, Grebel in Switzerland, Müntzer in central Germany, Marpeck in the Tyrol, Peter Walpot in Moravia, and especially Balthasar Hubmaier in southern Germany, Switzerland, and Moravia. ==== Apostolic succession ==== Baptist successionists have at times pointed to 16th-century Anabaptists as part of an apostolic succession of churches ("church perpetuity") from the time of Christ. This view is held by some Baptists, some Mennonites, and some "true church" movements. The opponents of the Baptist successionism theory emphasize that these non-Catholic groups clearly differed from each other, that they held some heretical views, or that the groups had no connection with one another and had origins that were separate both in time and in place. A different strain of successionism is the theory that the Anabaptists are of Waldensian origin. Some hold the idea that the Waldensians are part of the apostolic succession, while others simply believe they were an independent group out of whom the Anabaptists arose. Ludwig Keller, Thomas M. Lindsay, Henry Clay Vedder, Delbert Grätz, John T. Christian and Thieleman J. van Braght (author of Martyrs Mirror) all held, in varying degrees, the position that the Anabaptists were of Waldensian origin. == History == === Switzerland === Anabaptism in Switzerland began as an offshoot of the church reforms instigated by Ulrich Zwingli. As early as 1522, it became evident that Zwingli was on a path of reform preaching when he began to question or criticize such Catholic practices as tithes, the mass, and even infant baptism. Zwingli had gathered a group of reform-minded men around him, with whom he studied classical literature and the scriptures. However, some of these young men began to feel that Zwingli was not moving fast enough in his reform. The division between Zwingli and his more radical disciples became apparent in an October 1523 disputation held in Zurich. When the discussion of the mass was about to be ended without making any actual change in practice, Conrad Grebel stood up and asked "what should be done about the mass?" Zwingli responded by saying the council would make that decision. At this point, Simon Stumpf, a radical priest from Höngg, answered saying, "The decision has already been made by the Spirit of God." This incident illustrated clearly that Zwingli and his more radical disciples had different expectations. To Zwingli, the reforms would only go as fast as the city council allowed them. To the radicals, the council had no right to make that decision, but rather the Bible was the final authority of church reform. Feeling frustrated, some of them began to meet on their own for Bible study. As early as 1523, William Reublin began to preach against infant baptism in villages surrounding Zurich, encouraging parents to not baptize their children. Seeking fellowship with other reform-minded people, the radical group wrote letters to Martin Luther, Andreas Karlstadt, and Thomas Müntzer. Felix Manz began to publish some of Karlstadt's writings in Zurich in late 1524. By this time the question of infant baptism had become agitated, and the Zurich council had instructed Zwingli to meet weekly with those who rejected infant baptism "until the matter could be resolved". Zwingli broke off the meetings after two sessions, and Manz petitioned the council to find a solution, since he felt Zwingli was too hard to work with. The council then called a meeting for January 17, 1525. The council ruled in this meeting that all who continued to refuse to baptize their infants should be expelled from Zurich if they did not have them baptized within one week. Since Grebel had refused to baptize his daughter Rachel, born on January 5, 1525, the council decision was personal to him and others who had not baptized their children. Thus, when 16 of the radicals met on January 21, the situation seemed particularly dark. The Hutterian Chronicle records the event: Afterwards Blaurock was baptized, and he in turn baptized others at the meeting. Even though some had rejected infant baptism before this date, these baptisms marked the first re-baptisms of those who had been baptized as infants and thus Swiss Anabaptism was born on that day. === Tyrol === Anabaptism appears to have come to Tyrol through the labors of Blaurock. Similar to the German Peasants' War, the Gaismair uprising set the stage by producing a hope for social justice. Michael Gaismair had tried to bring religious, political, and economical reform through a violent peasant uprising, but the movement was quashed. Although little evidence exists of a connection between Gaismair's uprising and Tyrolian Anabaptism, at least a few of the peasants involved in the uprising later became Anabaptists. The common link was the desire for a radical change in the prevailing social injustices. Disappointed with the failure of armed revolt, Anabaptist ideals of an alternative peaceful, just society probably resonated on the ears of the disappointed peasants. Before Anabaptism was introduced to South Tyrol, Protestant ideas had been propagated in the region by men such as Hans Vischer, a former Dominican. Some of those who participated in conventicles where Protestant ideas were presented later became Anabaptists. The population in general seemed to have a favorable attitude towards reform, be it Protestant or Anabaptist. Blaurock appears to have preached itinerantly in the Puster Valley region in 1527, which most likely was the first introduction of Anabaptist ideas in the area. Another visit through the area in 1529 reinforced these ideas, but he was captured and burned at the stake in Klausen on September 6, 1529. Jacob Hutter was one of the early converts in South Tyrol and later became a leader among the Hutterites, who received their name from him. Hutter made several trips between Moravia and Tyrol, and most of the Anabaptists in South Tyrol ended up emigrating to Moravia because of the fierce persecution unleashed by Ferdinand I. In November 1535, Hutter was captured near Klausen and taken to Innsbruck where he was burned at the stake on February 25, 1536. By 1540 Anabaptism in South Tyrol was dying out, largely because of the emigration to Moravia of the converts because of incessant persecution. === Low Countries and northern Germany === Melchior Hoffman is credited with the introduction of Anabaptist ideas into the Low Countries. Hoffman had picked up Lutheran and Reformed ideas, but on April 23, 1530, he was "re-baptized" at Strasbourg and within two months had gone to Emden and baptized about 300 persons. For several years Hoffman preached in the Low Countries until he was arrested and imprisoned at Strasbourg, where he died about 10 years later. Hoffman's apocalyptic ideas were indirectly related to the Münster rebellion, even though he was "of a different spirit". Obbe and Dirk Philips had been baptized by disciples of Jan Matthijs but were opposed to the violence that occurred at Münster. Obbe later became disillusioned with Anabaptism and withdrew from the movement in about 1540, but not before ordaining David Joris, his brother Dirk, and Menno Simons. Joris and Simons parted ways, with Joris placing more emphasis on "spirit and prophecy", while Menno emphasized the authority of the Bible. For the Mennonite side, the emphasis on the "inner" and "spiritual" permitted compromise to "escape persecution", while to the Joris side, the Mennonites were under the "dead letter of the Scripture". Because of persecution and expansion, some of the Low Country Mennonites emigrated to Vistula delta, a region settled by Germans but under Polish rule until it became part of Prussia in 1772. There they formed the Vistula delta Mennonites integrating some other Mennonites mainly from northern Germany. In the late 18th century, several thousand of them migrated from there to Ukraine (which at the time was part of Russia) forming the so-called Russian Mennonites. Beginning in 1874, many of them emigrated to the prairie states and provinces of the United States and Canada. In the 1920s, the conservative faction of the Canadian settlers went to Mexico and Paraguay. Beginning in the 1950s, the most conservative of them started to migrate to Bolivia. In 1958, Mexican Mennonites migrated to Belize. Since the 1980s, traditional Russian Mennonites migrated to Argentina. Smaller groups went to Brazil and Uruguay. In 2015, some Mennonites from Bolivia settled in Peru. In 2018, there are more than 200,000 of them living in colonies in Central and South America. === Moravia, Bohemia and Silesia === Although Moravian Anabaptism was a transplant from other areas of Europe, Moravia soon became a center for the growing movement, largely because of the greater religious tolerance found there. Hans Hut was an early evangelist in the area, with one historian crediting him with baptizing more converts in two years than all the other Anabaptist evangelists put together. The coming of Balthasar Hübmaier to Nikolsburg was a definite boost for Anabaptist ideas to the area. With the great influx of religious refugees from all over Europe, many variations of Anabaptism appeared in Moravia, with Jarold Zeman documenting at least ten slightly different versions. Jacob Wiedemann appeared at Nikolsburg and began to teach the pacifistic convictions of the Swiss Brethren, on which Hübmaier had been less authoritative. This would lead to a division between the (sword-bearing) and the (staff-bearing). Wiedemann and those with him also promoted the practice of community of goods. With orders from the lords of Liechtenstein to leave Nikolsburg, about 200 withdrew to Moravia to form a community at Austerlitz. Persecution in South Tyrol brought many refugees to Moravia, many of whom formed into communities that practised community of goods. Others came from Silesia, Switzerland, German lands, and the Low Countries. With the passing of time and persecution, all the other versions of Anabaptism would die out in Moravia leaving only the Hutterites. Even the Hutterites would be dissipated by persecution, with a remnant fleeing to Transylvania, then to Ukraine, and finally to North America in 1874. === South and central Germany, Austria and Alsace === South German Anabaptism had its roots in German mysticism. Andreas Karlstadt, who first worked alongside Martin Luther, is seen as a forerunner of South German Anabaptism because of his reforming theology that rejected many Catholic practices, including infant baptism. However, Karlstadt is not known to have been "rebaptized", nor to have taught it. Hans Denck and Hans Hut, both with German mystical background (in connection with Thomas Müntzer) both accepted "rebaptism", but Denck eventually backed off from the idea under pressure. Hut is said to have brought more people into early Anabaptism than all the other Anabaptist evangelists of his time put together. However, there may have been confusion about what his baptism (at least some of the times it was done by making the sign of the Tau on the forehead) may have meant to the recipient. Some seem to have taken it as a sign by which they would escape the apocalyptical revenge of the Turks that Hut predicted. Hut even went so far as to predict a 1528 coming of the kingdom of God. When the prediction failed, some of his converts became discouraged and left the Anabaptist movement. The large congregation of Anabaptists at Augsburg fell apart (partly because of persecution) and those who stayed with Anabaptist ideas were absorbed into Swiss and Moravia Anabaptist congregations. Pilgram Marpeck was another notable leader in early South German Anabaptism who attempted to steer between the two extremes of Denck's inner Holiness and the legalistic standards of the other Anabaptists. === Persecutions and migrations === Roman Catholics and Protestants alike persecuted the Anabaptists, resorting to torture and execution in attempts to curb the growth of the movement. The Protestants under Zwingli were the first to persecute the Anabaptists, with Manz becoming the first Anabaptist martyr in 1527. On May 20 or 21, 1527, Roman Catholic authorities executed Michael Sattler. King Ferdinand declared drowning (called the third baptism) "the best antidote to Anabaptism". The Tudor regime, even the Protestant monarchs (Edward VI of England and Elizabeth I of England), persecuted Anabaptists as they were deemed too radical and therefore a danger to religious stability. The persecution of Anabaptists was condoned by the ancient laws of Theodosius I and Justinian I which were passed against the Donatists, and decreed the death penalty for anyone who practised rebaptism. Martyrs Mirror, by Thieleman J. van Braght, describes the persecution and execution of thousands of Anabaptists in various parts of Europe between 1525 and 1660. Continuing persecution in Europe was largely responsible for the mass emigrations to North America by the Amish, Hutterites, and Mennonites. Unlike Calvinists, Anabaptists failed to gain recognition in the Peace of Westphalia of 1648, and as a result they continued to be persecuted in Europe long after that treaty was signed. Anabaptism stands out among other groups of martyrs, in that Anabaptist martyrologies feature women more prominently, "making up thirty per cent of the martyr stories, compared to five to ten per cent in the other accounts." == Beliefs and practices == Anabaptists view themselves as a separate branch of Christianity, not being a part of Catholicism, Protestantism, Oriental Orthodoxy or Eastern Orthodoxy. Anabaptist beliefs were codified in the Schleitheim Confession in 1527, which best represents the beliefs of the various denominations of Anabaptism (inclusive of Mennonites, Amish, Hutterites, Bruderhof, Schwarzenau Brethren, River Brethren and Apostolic Christians). Anabaptists heavily emphasize the importance of obedience in the salvation journey of a believer. As a whole, Anabaptists emphasize an adherence to the beliefs of early Christianity and are thus distinguished by their keeping of practices that often include the observance of feetwashing, the holy kiss, and communion (with these three ordinances being practiced collectively in the lovefeast in the Schwarzenau Brethren and River Brethren traditions), Christian headcovering, nonconformity to the world, nonresistance, forgiveness, and sharing possessions, which in certain communities (as with the Bruderhof) takes on the form of communal living. In Germany some Anabaptists, "excited by mass hypnosis, experienced healings, glossolalia, contortions and other manifestations of a camp-meeting revival". The Anabaptist congregations that later developed into the Mennonite and Hutterite churches tended not to promote these manifestations but did not totally reject the miraculous. Marpeck, for example, wrote against the exclusion of miracles: "Nor does Scripture assert this exclusion ... God has a free hand even in these last days." Referring to some who had been raised from the dead, he wrote: "Many of them have remained constant, enduring tortures inflicted by sword, rope, fire and water and suffering terrible, tyrannical, unheard-of deaths and martyrdoms, all of which they could easily have avoided by recantation. Moreover one also marvels when he sees how the faithful God (Who, after all, overflows with goodness) raises from the dead several such brothers and sisters of Christ after they were hanged, drowned, or killed in other ways. Even today, they are found alive and we can hear their own testimony ... Cannot everyone who sees, even the blind, say with a good conscience that such things are a powerful, unusual, and miraculous act of God? Those who would deny it must be hardened men." The Hutterite Chronicle and the Martyrs Mirror record several accounts of miraculous events, such as when a man named Martin prophesied while being led across a bridge to his execution in 1531: "this once yet the pious are led over this bridge, but no more hereafter". Just "a short time afterwards such a violent storm and flood came that the bridge was demolished". === Holy Spirit leadership === The Anabaptists insisted upon the "free course" of the Holy Spirit in worship, yet still maintained it all must be judged according to the Scriptures. The Swiss Anabaptist document titled "Answer of Some Who Are Called (Ana-)Baptists – Why They Do Not Attend the Churches". One reason given for not attending the state churches was that these institutions forbade the congregation to exercise spiritual gifts according to "the Christian order as taught in the gospel or the Word of God in 1 Corinthians 14". "When such believers come together, 'Everyone of you (note every one) hath a psalm, hath a doctrine, hath a revelation, hath an interpretation', and so on. When someone comes to church and constantly hears only one person speaking, and all the listeners are silent, neither speaking nor prophesying, who can or will regard or confess the same to be a spiritual congregation, or confess according to 1 Corinthians 14 that God is dwelling and operating in them through His Holy Spirit with His gifts, impelling them one after another in the above-mentioned order of speaking and prophesying." == Today == === Anabaptists === In 2022, there were over 2.12 million baptized Anabaptists in 85 countries. Over 36% are found in Africa, another 30% in North America, 20% in Asia and the Pacific, 9% in Latin America and the Caribbean, and less than 3% in Europe. The major branches of Anabaptist Christianity today include the Amish, Schwarzenau Brethren, River Brethren, Hutterites, Mennonites, Apostolic Christian Church, and Bruderhof. Within many of these traditions (Amish, Mennonite, Schwarzenau Brethren and River Brethren) are three subsets: (1) Old Order Anabaptists (2) Conservative Anabaptists and (3) Mainline Anabaptists; for example, among Schwarzenau Brethren are the Old Order German Baptist Brethren (who use horse and buggy for transportation and do not use electricity), the Dunkard Brethren (who adhere to traditional theological beliefs and wear plain dress but use modern conveniences), and the Church of the Brethren (who are largely a mainline group where members are indistinguishable in dress from the general population). Although many see the more well-known Anabaptist groups (Amish, Hutterites and Mennonites) as ethnic groups, only the Amish and the Hutterites today are composed mainly of descendants of the European Anabaptists, while Mennonites come from diverse backgrounds, with only a minority being classed as ethnic Mennonites. Brethren groups have mostly lost their ethnic distinctiveness. The Bruderhof Communities were founded in Germany by Eberhard Arnold in 1920, establishing and organisationally joining the Hutterites in 1930. The group moved to England after the Gestapo confiscated their property in 1933, and they subsequently moved to Paraguay in order to avoid military conscription, and after World War II they moved to the United States. Groups which are derived from the Schwarzenau Brethren, often called German Baptists, while not directly descended from the 16th-century Radical Reformation, are considered Anabaptist because of their adherence to Anabaptist doctrine. The modern-day Brethren movement is a combination of Anabaptism and Radical Pietism. === Neo-Anabaptists === Neo-Anabaptism is a late 20th and early 21st century theological movement within American evangelical Christianity which draws inspiration from theologians who are located within the Anabaptist tradition but are ecclesiastically outside it. Neo-Anabaptists have been noted for their "low church, counter-cultural, prophetic-stance-against-empire ethos" as well as for their focus on pacifism, social justice and poverty. The works of Mennonite theologians Ron Sider and John Howard Yoder are frequently cited as having a strong influence on the movement. === Relationship with Baptists === Some similarities exist between Baptists and the Anabaptists, which is why some historians have advocated the view that General Baptists were influenced by Anabaptism. The similarities between these groups include baptism of believers only, religious freedom, similar perspectives on free will, predestination and original sin along with congregationalism. It is almost certain that the earliest Baptist church led by John Smyth and Thomas Helwys interacted with the Mennonites and that Smyth borrowed ideas from Anabaptism. However, it has been debated if influences from Anabaptism ever found their way to the English General Baptists. Those who held closer views with the Anabaptists switched to the Mennonite movement along with Smyth, while those who identified as Baptists did so under Helwys who disagreed with Smyth and the Mennonites on multiple issues, denying Melchiorite Christology and Anabaptist views of the civil magistrate. These English General Baptists may have had secondary influences from Anabaptism, although it is a matter of debate among historians. Despite the existing similarities between these two groups, the relationship between Baptists and Anabaptists was strained in 1624 when five existing Baptist churches of London issued a condemnation of the Anabaptists. The theory that Anabaptism influenced Baptist theology has been believed by Philip Schaff, A.C. Underwood, and William R. Estep. Gourley wrote that among some contemporary Baptist scholars who emphasize the faith of the community over soul liberty, the Anabaptist influence theory is making a comeback. Puritans of England and their Baptist branch arose independently, and although they may have been informed by Anabaptist theology, they clearly differentiate themselves from Anabaptists as seen in the London Confession of Faith 1644, "Of those Churches which are commonly (though falsely) called Anabaptists". Moreover, Baptist historian Chris Traffanstedt maintains that Anabaptists share "some similarities with the early General Baptists, but overall these similarities are slight and not always relational. In the end, we must come to say that this group of Christians does not reflect the historical teaching of the Baptists". There have been some discussions whether Anabaptist theology influenced Particular Baptists in a limited sense. This theory proposes that there existed a native Anabaptist population in England that may have given rise to ideas held by Particular Baptist theologians. There exists some evidence of there being native English Anabaptists during this time, however many historians have rejected the idea that Anabaptist influences gave rise to the Particular Baptists, and there appears to be no concrete evidence of any Anabaptist influence in Particular Baptists. According to Barrington Raymond White, the relationship between the English Separatists and the Radical Reformers was that of people coming to similar conclusions from their reading of the Bible based on the context of a similar situation. In practice, Anabaptists have maintained a more literal obedience to the Sermon on the Mount, while Baptists generally do not require nonresistance, non-swearing of oaths, and no remarriage if the first legitimate spouse is living. Traditional Anabaptists also require a head covering for women, modest apparel, practical separation from the world, and plain dress, which most Baptists no longer require. However, some Anabaptists and General Baptists have improved their relations and sometimes have worked together. == Influence on society == Common Anabaptist beliefs and practices of the 16th century continue to influence modern Christianity and Western society. Voluntary church membership and believer's baptism Freedom of religion – liberty of conscience Separation or nonconformity to the world Nonresistance, interpreted as pacifism by modernized groups Priesthood of all believers The Anabaptists were early promoters of a free church and freedom of religion. When it was introduced by the Anabaptists in the 15th and 16th centuries, religious freedom which was independent from the state was unthinkable to both clerical and governmental leaders. Religious liberty was equated with anarchy; Kropotkin traces the birth of anarchist thought in Europe to these early Anabaptist communities. According to Estep: Anabaptist characters exist in popular culture, most notably Chaplain Tappman in Joseph Heller's novel Catch-22; James (Jacques) in Voltaire's novella Candide; Giacomo Meyerbeer's opera (1849); and the central character in the novel Q, by the collective known as "Luther Blissett".	[ "Münster Rebellion", "John Smyth (English theologian)", "Catholic Church", "English Dissenters", "Landmark Baptist Church", "Paraguay", "Kiss of peace", "Bohemia", "Old Order River Brethren", "Thieleman J. van Braght", "Martyrs Mirror", "Church of the Brethren", "Head covering for Christian women", "early Christianity", "Tabor College (Kansas)", "Vistula", "List of Anabaptist churches", "Sermon on the Mount", "Winnipeg", "Freedom of thought", "Canadian Conference of Mennonite Brethren Churches", "Michael Gaismair", "Creed", "Mennonite Church USA", "G. P. Putnam's Sons", "Kentucky", "Agape feast", "Austerlitz, Netherlands", "Wipf & Stock Publishers", "Le prophète (opera)", "Menno Simons", "Silesia", "Eberhard Arnold", "Michael Servetus", "John Howard Yoder", "Bruderhof", "Carl Adolf Cornelius", "John T. Christian", "Evangelicalism", "Sebastian Franck", "Schleitheim Confession", "Greek language", "Neo-Anabaptism", "Christian socialism", "Innsbruck", "Paulicianists", "New Jerusalem", "Renaissance humanism", "restoration movement", "Catch-22", "Andreas Karlstadt", "Philip Schaff", "Moravia", "Jacob Hutter", "s:Balthasar Hübmaier", "University of Toronto Press", "Faustus Socinus", "Eucharist", "Christian anarchism", "Felix Manz", "polygenism", "Biblical hermeneutics", "Petr Chelčický", "Conservative Anabaptists", "Schleitheim", "Mennonite", "Baptists", "Martin Luther", "Frisia", "Jan Matthys", "Charismatic Christianity", "Puritan", "Conservative Anabaptism", "Low Countries", "Theodosius I", "rationalism", "Nazi dissolution of the Bruderhof", "Voltaire", "Kropotkin", "social justice", "Conservative Mennonites", "Sebastian Castellio", "Emden", "Amish", "Maundy (foot washing)", "German Peasants' War", "Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor", "Klausen, South Tyrol", "Peace of Westphalia", "Goshen, Indiana", "Schwarzenau Brethren", "Thomas Helwys", "Protestantism", "Königsberg in Franken", "Transylvania", "Anabaptist", "Höngg", "community of goods", "Nikolsburg", "Pilgram Marpeck", "Conrad Grebel", "E. Belfort Bax", "believer's baptism", "Church of God in Christ, Mennonite", "Hutterites", "Chaplain Tappman", "Bernhard Rothmann", "Church of God (Charleston, Tennessee)", "Michael Sattler", "Apocalypse", "Tudor period", "Radical Reformation", "Routledge", "Bruderhof Communities", "Zürich", "Michigan", "baptism", "Tau", "Candide", "pacifism", "Liechtenstein", "List of Christian movements", "low church", "Funkite", "Huldrych Zwingli", "Kingdom of God (Christianity)", "jus gladii", "Church Fathers", "Mass (liturgy)", "Clancularii", "Restorationism", "Neo-Latin", "Lutheranism", "Roman Catholics", "Rhineland mysticism", "General Baptists", "monasticism", "Shtundists", "Ontario", "Vistula delta Mennonites", "Justinian I", "David Joris", "Maastricht", "Congregationalist polity", "Augsburg", "Old Order Mennonite", "Dirk Philips", "Mennonites", "tithe", "Albert Henry Newman", "Amish Mennonite", "Plain people", "Christian communism", "Elizabeth I", "infant baptism", "Protestant Reformation", "Klaus Deppermann", "Old Order Movement", "Confession of Faith (1644)", "Freedom of religion", "Joseph Heller", "Waldensians", "Harold S. Bender", "Adrianists", "County of Tyrol", "Born again", "World War II", "River Brethren", "Magisterial Reformation", "James M. Stayer", "Calvinism", "speaking in tongues", "Hans Denck", "Theologische Realenzyklopädie", "South Tyrol", "Old Order Anabaptism", "Radical Pietism", "Puster Valley", "Nonresistance", "Prussia", "Sola fide", "Q (novel)", "Walter de Gruyter", "John of Leiden", "The Christian Hymnary", "Melchior Rink", "Obbe Philips", "Dunkard Brethren Church", "Jan Luyken", "Jan Matthijs", "Holy Spirit in Christianity", "Association of Evangelical Mennonite Churches of France", "Reformed Baptists", "Baptist successionism", "Minnesota", "nonconformity to the world", "McGill–Queen's University Press", "Melchior Hoffman", "Nicholas Storch", "Hans Hut", "nonresistance", "Ron Sider", "Celestial flesh", "Brethren of the Common Life", "Christianity Today", "George Blaurock", "Münster rebellion", "apostolic succession", "Juan de Valdes", "Old Order German Baptist Brethren", "The Meeting Place (church)", "Balthasar Hubmaier", "Hussite", "GAMEO", "Thomas Müntzer", "Swiss Brethren", "Henry Clay Vedder", "Apostolic Christian Church", "s:Balthasar Hübmaier/Chapter 6", "Wittenberg", "Donatists", "poverty", "Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online", "State religion", "Caesar (title)", "conventicle", "Strasbourg", "Batenburgers", "Dunkard Brethren", "Priesthood of all believers", "plain dress", "Old Order Amish", "Peace churches", "German mysticism", "ethnic Mennonite", "Zwickau", "Edward VI", "communal living", "Beachy Amish", "Giacomo Meyerbeer", "Russian Mennonites", "exonym", "Ludwig Keller" ]
2,935	Ans	Ans or ANS or variation, may refer to: ==Places== Ans, Belgium, a municipality in Belgium Ans, Denmark, a village in Denmark Angus, Scotland, UK; a council area by its Chapman code Ainsdale railway station, England, UK (by station code ANS) Andahuaylas Airport, Peru (by IATA airport code ANS) ==People== Ans (given name), a Dutch feminine given name Anna Nicole Smith, American model and actress == Organizations == Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States Astronomical Netherlands Satellite, a Dutch satellite American Name Society American Nuclear Society American Numismatic Society, formerly the American Numismatic and Archaeological Society ANS Group of Companies, a news organization in Azerbaijan , a Cambodian resistance group; see Coalition Government of Democratic Kampuchea Audubon Naturalist Society, an American environmental organization == Chemistry and biology == Adrenergic nervous system, adrenaline and noradrenaline neurotransmitters distribution in human body 8-Anilinonaphthalene-1-sulfonic acid, a fluorescent chemical compound used as a molecular probe Anthocyanidin synthase, an enzyme in the leucocyanidin biosynthesis pathway Approximate number system, a hypothesized physiological basis for the sense of number Autonomic nervous system, part of the peripheral nervous system in the body L-Aspartate-nitro-succinate pathway for production of nitrite ==Technology== , an unofficial file extension for ANSI art Advanced Network and Services, a non-profit network service provider in the 1990s American National Standards, defined by the American National Standards Institute ans, a variable in calculators referring to the most recent answer ANS carriage control characters (or ASA control characters), for computer line printers Asymmetric numeral systems, coding in data compression Authoritative name server, a DNS server Artificial neural system, or Artificial neural network Air Navigation Services, as delivered by an Air Navigation Service Provider (ANSP) Apple Network Server, a late 1990's AIX based server machine from Apple Inc. ==Music== ANS (album), a box set from the British band Coil ANS synthesizer, a Russian photoelectric musical instrument ==Other uses== Al Ansar FC, a Lebanese association football club Amman National School, in Amman, Jordan Ansvarlig selskap, a Norwegian personal responsibility company model Algemeen Nijmeegs Studentenblad, a Dutch student magazine Akademia Nauk Stosowanych, a vocational university in Nowy Targ, Poland	[ "Autonomic nervous system", "Algemeen Nijmeegs Studentenblad", "University of Applied Sciences in Nowy Targ", "Authoritative name server", "ASA carriage control characters", "Diazo", "Ans (given name)", "Artificial neural network", "Approximate number system", "Ans, Belgium", "Astronomical Netherlands Satellite", "Anthocyanidin synthase", "American Numismatic Society", "Audubon Naturalist Society", "8-Anilinonaphthalene-1-sulfonic acid", "American Nuclear Society", "Advanced Network and Services", "Anna Nicole Smith", "American National Standards Institute", "Ans, Denmark", "ANS (album)", "ANS synthesizer", "Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia", "ANS Group of Companies", "Al Ansar FC", "Ansvarlig selskap", "American Name Society", "Angus, Scotland", "Ainsdale railway station", "Air Navigation Service Provider", "Answer (disambiguation)", "Andahuaylas Airport", "ANSI art", "Adrenergic nervous system", "Asymmetric numeral systems", "Calculator", "AN (disambiguation)", "Apple Network Server", "Coalition Government of Democratic Kampuchea", "Amman National School" ]
2,936	Southeast Alaska	Southeast Alaska, often abbreviated to southeast or southeastern, and sometimes called the Alaska(n) panhandle, is the southeastern portion of the U.S. state of Alaska, bordered to the east and north by the northern half of the Canadian province of British Columbia (and a small part of Yukon). The majority of southeast Alaska is situated in Tlingit Aaní, much of which is part of the Tongass National Forest, the United States' largest national forest. In many places, the international border runs along the crest of the Boundary Ranges of the Coast Mountains (see Alaska boundary dispute). The region is noted for its scenery and mild, rainy climate. The largest cities in the region are Juneau, Sitka, and Ketchikan. This region is also home to Hyder, the easternmost town in Alaska. ==Geography== Southeast Alaska has a land area of , comprising much of the Alexander Archipelago. The largest islands are, from North to South, Chichagof Island, Admiralty Island, Baranof Island, Kupreanof Island, Revillagigedo Island and Prince of Wales Island. Major bodies of water of southeast Alaska include Glacier Bay, Lynn Canal, Icy Strait, Chatham Strait, Stephens Passage, Frederick Sound, Sumner Strait, and Clarence Strait. The archipelago is the northern terminus of the Inside Passage, a protected waterway of convoluted passages between islands and fjords, beginning in Puget Sound in Washington state. This was an important travel corridor for Tlingit, Haida, and Tsimshian Native peoples, as well as gold-rush era steamships. In modern times it is an important route for Alaska Marine Highway ferries as well as cruise ships. ==Demographics== Southeast Alaska includes seven entire boroughs and two census areas, in addition to the portion of the Yakutat Borough lying east of 141° West longitude. Although it has only 6.14 percent of Alaska's land area, it is larger than the state of Maine, and almost as large as the state of Indiana. The southeast Alaskan coast is roughly as long as the west coast of Canada. The 2010 census population of southeast Alaska was 71,616 inhabitants, representing approximately 10% of the state's total population. About 45% of residents in the southeast Alaska region were concentrated in the city of Juneau, the state capital. As of 2018, the number of settlements in southeast Alaska that have a population of at least 1,000 people has grown to nine. ===Boroughs=== Haines Borough Hoonah-Angoon Census Area Juneau Borough Ketchikan Gateway Borough Petersburg Borough Prince of Wales-Hyder Census Area Sitka Borough Skagway Borough Wrangell Borough Yakutat Borough (the part east of 141° W longitude; , or about 63.12 percent of the borough) ===Major cities and towns=== Populations are taken from the 2020 census. Juneau - 32,255 inhabitants Sitka - 8,458 inhabitants Ketchikan - 8,192 inhabitants Petersburg - 3,043 inhabitants Wrangell - 2,127 inhabitants Haines - 1,657 inhabitants Metlakatla - 1,454 inhabitants Skagway - 1,240 inhabitants Craig - 1,036 inhabitants ==National protected areas== Southeast Alaska includes the Tongass National Forest (which manages Admiralty Island National Monument and Misty Fjords National Monument), Glacier Bay National Park, and Sitka National Historical Park. Glacier Bay is the sixth largest national park in the United States. On August 20, 1902, President Theodore Roosevelt established the Alexander Archipelago Forest Reserve, which formed the heart of the Tongass National Forest that covers most of the region. Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve Klondike Gold Rush National Historical Park Sitka National Historical Park Wrangell–St. Elias National Park and Preserve (part, the most southeastern section only) Admiralty Island National Monument Misty Fjords National Monument ==Climate== The climate of southeast Alaska is dominated by a mid-latitude oceanic climate (Köppen Cfb) in the south, an oceanic, marine sub-polar climate (Köppen Cfc) in the central region around Juneau, and a subarctic climate (Köppen Dfc) to the far northwest and the interior highlands of the archipelago. Southeast Alaska is also the only region in Alaska where the average daytime high temperature is above freezing during the winter months, except for in the southern parts of the Aleutian islands such as Unalaska. ==Ecology== Southeast Alaska is a temperate rain forest within the Pacific temperate rain forest zone, as classified by the World Wildlife Fund's ecoregion system, which extends from northern California to Prince William Sound. The most common tree species are sitka spruce and western hemlock. Wildlife includes brown bears, black bears, endemic Alexander Archipelago wolf packs, Sitka black-tailed deer, humpback whales, orcas, five species of salmon, bald eagles, harlequin ducks, scoters, and marbled murrelets. The Ecological Atlas of Southeast Alaska, published by Audubon Alaska in 2016, offers an overview of the region's landscape, birds, wildlife, human uses, climate change, and more, synthesizing data from agencies and a variety of other sources. ==Culture== This area is the traditional homeland of the Tlingit, and home of a historic settling of Haida as well as a modern settlement of Tsimshian. The region is closely connected to Seattle and the American Pacific Northwest economically and culturally. ==Industry== Major industries in southeast Alaska include commercial fishing and tourism (primarily the cruise ship industry). === Logging === Logging has been an important industry in the past, but has been steadily declining with competition from other areas and the closure of the region's major pulp mills; the Alaska Forest Association described the situation as "desperate" in 2011. Its members include Alcan Forest Products (owned by Canadian Transpac Group, one of the top 5 log exporters in North America) and Viking Lumber, which is based in Craig, Alaska. Debates over whether to expand logging in the federally owned Tongass are not uncommon. === Mining === Mining remains important in the northern area with the Juneau mining district and Admiralty mining district hosting active mines as of 2015. Gold was discovered in 1880 and played an important part in the early history of the region. In the 2010s, mines increasingly began to be explored and eventually completed in neighboring British Columbia, upstream of important rivers such as the Unuk and the Stikine, which became known as the transboundary mining issue. In 2014, the dam breach at the Mount Polley mine focused attention on the issue, and an agreement between Canada and Alaska was drafted in 2015. The proposed Kerr Sulphurets Mitchell exploration is upstream of the Unuk. Mines upstream of the Stikine include the Red Chris, which is owned by the same company (Imperial Metals) as the Mount Polley mine. === Healthcare === Major hospitals include Bartlett Regional Hospital in Juneau and PeaceHealth Ketchikan Medical Center in Ketchikan. Southeast Alaska Regional Health Consortium runs healthcare facilities across 27 communities as of 2022, including hospitals in Sitka and Wrangell; although it originally served Native Americans only, it has expanded access and combined with other local facilities over time. === Shipbuilding === Due to the fishing and ferries in the region, ship building and maintenance are economically significant. Ketchikan hosts a shipbuilding yard owned by Vigor Industrial. === Tourism === Tourists visit southeast Alaska primarily in the summer, and most visit via cruise ships, which run from April 15 to October 30. In 2019, around 1.3 million people visited Alaska by cruise ship. The northbound Inside Passage cruise commonly starts from either Seattle or Vancouver, Canada and stops in various ports including Ketchikan, Juneau, and Skagway. One-way trips will end in Whittier or Seward. The cruise ship industry became prominent in the 1960s after cruise ship entrepreneur Stanley B. McDonald repurposed a transport ship named Princess Pat, founding Princess Cruises to do leisure cruises which expanded into southeast Alaska by 1969. The TV series The Love Boat was set on a Princess cruise and featured episodes in Alaska; it also helped to popularize cruising generally which helped it grow rapidly between 1977 and 1987. == History == The border between Alaska and the Canadian province of British Columbia was the subject of the Alaska boundary dispute, where the United States and the United Kingdom claimed different borderlines at the Alaskan panhandle. While the British foreign affairs were in favor of support of the Canadian argument, the event resulted in what was thought of as a betrayal, leading to alienation of the British from the new nation of Canada. ==Transportation== Due to the extremely rugged, mountainous nature of Southeastern Alaska, almost all communities (with the exception of Hyder, Skagway, and Haines) have no road connections outside of their locale, so aircraft and boats are the major means of transport. The Alaska Marine Highway passes through this region. ===Air transportation=== Alaska Airlines is by far the largest air carrier in the region, with Juneau's Juneau International Airport serving as the aerial hub for all of southeast, and Ketchikan's Ketchikan International Airport serving as a secondary hub for southern southeast Alaska. Alaska's bush airlines and air taxis serve many of the smaller and more isolated communities and villages in the regions. Many communities are accessible by air only by floatplane, as proper runways are often difficult to construct on the steep island slopes. ===Marine transportation=== Southeast Alaska is primarily served by the state-run Alaska Marine Highway, which links Skagway, Haines, Hoonah, Juneau, Sitka, Petersburg, Wrangell, Ketchikan and other outlying communities with Prince Rupert, BC and Bellingham, Washington; and secondarily by the Prince of Wales Island-based Inter-Island Ferry Authority, which provides the only scheduled passenger and auto ferry service to the island. A new Authority, the Rainforest Islands Ferry Authority, was created and in 2014 may possibly operate the North End route. The Authority would connect Coffman Cove with Wrangell and Petersburg. Small companies like Sitka-based Allen Marine and other independent operators in the Lynn Canal occasionally also offer marine passenger service. Ship traffic in the area is seasonally busy with cruise ships.	[ "Pacific Northwest", "Puget Sound", "Vigor Industrial", "Prince Rupert, BC", "Ketchikan", "Wrangell, Alaska", "Köppen climate classification", "Stanley McDonald", "World Wildlife Fund", "Coast Mountains", "List of national parks of the United States", "Chatham Strait", "Misty Fjords National Monument", "Washington (state)", "Alaska boundary dispute", "Unuk River", "Commonwealth Associates, Inc.", "Baranof Island", "county-equivalent", "Juneau, Alaska", "Skagway, Alaska", "Climate change in Alaska", "Ketchikan International Airport", "British Columbia Coast", "Theodore Roosevelt", "Admiralty Island", "Prince of Wales-Hyder Census Area, Alaska", "humpback whale", "Bush aviation", "Bellingham, Washington", "bald eagle", "2010 United States census", "Kupreanof Island", "harlequin duck", "commercial fishing", "U.S. state", "Stikine River", "Canada", "Craig, Alaska", "Indiana", "salmon", "United States", "oceanic climate", "Wrangell–St. Elias National Park and Preserve", "Alexander Archipelago wolf", "Hoonah-Angoon Census Area, Alaska", "Boundary Ranges", "2020 United States census", "orca", "marbled murrelet", "western hemlock", "Inside Passage", "Juneau mining district", "Admiralty mining district", "Alexander Archipelago", "United Kingdom", "Inter-Island Ferry Authority", "141st meridian west", "climate", "Yukon", "black-tailed deer", "The Love Boat", "Ketchikan Gateway Borough, Alaska", "Hoonah, Alaska", "Seattle", "President of the United States", "Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve", "Hyder, Alaska", "Southeast Alaska Regional Health Consortium", "air taxi", "American black bear", "Revillagigedo Island", "California", "Juneau", "Tlingit", "Klondike Gold Rush National Historical Park", "Haida people", "scoter", "Tsimshian", "Sitka National Historical Park", "Ketchikan, Alaska", "Prince William Sound", "Logging", "Skagway", "List of edible plants and mushrooms of Southeast Alaska", "ecoregion", "subarctic climate", "Mount Polley mine", "Pacific temperate rain forest", "international border", "Glacier Bay", "Clarence Strait", "Metlakatla, Alaska", "Frederick Sound", "Provinces and territories of Canada", "Maine", "temperate rain forest", "Haines Borough, Alaska", "Stephens Passage", "Juneau International Airport", "Tongass National Forest", "Lynn Canal", "Kerr Sulphurets Mitchell", "census area", "Petersburg, Alaska", "United States National Forest", "Alaska", "brown bear", "Glacier Bay National Park", "cruise ship", "sitka spruce", "Prince of Wales Island (Alaska)", "Juneau City and Borough, Alaska", "Tlingit people", "Haines, Alaska", "floatplane", "Sumner Strait", "Princess Cruises", "Icy Strait", "British Columbia", "Sitka City and Borough, Alaska", "Bartlett Regional Hospital", "Sitka, Alaska", "Chichagof Island", "United States Census Bureau", "Admiralty Island National Monument", "tourism", "Unalaska", "Alaska Airlines", "Yakutat City and Borough, Alaska", "Aleutian islands", "Alaska Marine Highway" ]
2,938	Algemeen Nijmeegs Studentenblad	The Algemeen Nijmeegs Studentenblad is an independent student magazine for the Radboud University Nijmegen. Founded in 1985 by members of the local student union AKKU, it is now published by the Stichting Multimedia. == Notable publications and controversies == In 1989 ANS started to publish the monthly comic strip DirkJan, before it moved to SjoSji. The magazine has published controversial articles that attracted nation-wide media attention, such as on the benefits of marihuana consumption for studying. In 2010 the university refused to distribute the magazine among freshmen because it did not endorse the editorial.	[ "Student newspaper", "DirkJan", "AKKU", "Students' union", "Stichting Multimedia", "Radboud University Nijmegen", "editorial", "Eppo (comics)" ]
2,939	Interior Alaska	Interior Alaska is the central region of Alaska's territory, roughly bounded by the Alaska Range to the south and the Brooks Range to the north. It is largely wilderness. Mountains include Denali in the Alaska Range, the Wrangell Mountains, and the Ray Mountains. The native people of the interior are Alaskan Athabaskans. The largest city in the interior is Fairbanks, Alaska's second-largest city, in the Tanana Valley. Other towns include North Pole, just southeast of Fairbanks, Eagle, Tok, Glennallen, Delta Junction, Nenana, Anderson, Healy, and Cantwell. The interior region has an estimated population of 113,154. __TOC__ == Climate == Interior Alaska experiences extreme seasonal temperature variability. Winter temperatures in Fairbanks average −12 °F (−24 °C) and summer temperatures average +62 °F (+17 °C). Temperatures there have been recorded as low as −65 °F (−54 °C) in mid-winter, and as high as +99 °F (+37 °C) in summer. Both the highest and lowest temperature records for the state were set in the Interior, with 100 °F (38 °C) in Fort Yukon and −80 °F (−62 °C) in Prospect Creek. Temperatures within a given winter are highly variable as well; extended cold snaps of forty below zero can be followed by unseasonable warmth with temperatures above freezing due to chinook wind effects. Summers can be warm and dry for extended periods creating ideal fire weather conditions. Weak thunderstorms produce mostly dry lightning, sparking wildfires that are mostly left to burn themselves out as they are often far from populated areas. The 2004 season set a new record with over burned. The average annual precipitation in Fairbanks is 11.3 inches (287 mm). Most of this comes in the form of snow during the winter. Most storms in the interior of Alaska originate in the Gulf of Alaska, south of the state, though these storms often have limited precipitation due to a rain shadow effect caused by the Alaska Range. On clear winter nights, the aurora borealis can often be seen in the sky. Like all subarctic regions, the months from May to July in the summer have no night, only a twilight during the night hours. The months of November to January have little daylight. Fairbanks receives an average 21 hours of daylight between May 10 and August 2 each summer, and an average of less than four hours of daylight between November 18 and January 24 each winter. The interior of Alaska is largely underlined by discontinuous permafrost, which grades to continuous permafrost as the Arctic Circle is approached. Image:Fires in Interior Alaska.jpg\|Fires in Interior Alaska from July 7, 2009. Image:Hundreds of Thousands of Acres Burning in Interior Alaska (natural).jpg\|The thick pall of smoke the fires were creating (August 2, 2009). Image:Hundreds of Thousands of Acres Burning in Interior Alaska.jpg\|Visible, short wave and near-infrared image showing burned areas (brick red) and unburned vegetation (bright green) (August 2, 2009). == Alaska Natives == While the vast majority of indigenous Native people of Interior Alaska are Athabaskan, large Yup'ik and Iñupiaq populations reside in Fairbanks. The federally recognized tribes of Interior Alaska: Council of Athabascan Tribal Governments (CATG): Beaver Village, Birch Creek Tribe, Circle Native Community, Native Village of Fort Yukon, Native Village of Venetie Tribal Government (also known as Arctic Village and Village of Venetie). Tanana Chiefs Conference (TCC): Allakaket Village, Alatna Village, Village of Anaktuvuk Pass, Chalkyitsik Village, Village of Dot Lake, Native Village of Eagle, Evansville Village (also known as Bettles Field), Galena Village (also known as Louden Village), Healy Lake Village, Hughes Village, Huslia Village, Village of Kaltag, Koyukuk Native Village, Manley Hot Springs Village, Native Village of Minto, Nenana Native Association, Nikolai Village (Edzeno’ Native Council), Northway Village, Nulato Village, Rampart Village, Native Village of Ruby, Native Village of Stevens, Native Village of Tanacross, Telida Village, Native Village of Tetlin. Tanana Tribal Council: Native Village of Tanana. Other places in the Interior Service Area not Federally Recognized as Tribes: Alcan, Anderson, Big Delta, Canyon Village, Central, Chatanika, Chicken, Clear, Delta Junction, Fairbanks, Fox, Indian River, Kokrines, Lake Minchumina, Medfra, North Pole, Salcha, Tok, Toklat, Tolovana, Wiseman, Wood River.	[ "Nikolai Village", "Delta Junction, Alaska", "Denali", "aurora borealis", "Arctic Circle", "Desert Research Institute", "Manley Hot Springs Village", "Anderson, Alaska", "Big Delta, Alaska", "Beaver Village", "Toklat, Alaska", "Native Village of Minto", "rain shadow", "Nenana Native Association", "Rampart Village", "Native Village of Venetie Tribal Government", "Native Village of Stevens", "Birch Creek Tribe", "Wrangell Mountains", "Nulato Village", "Iñupiaq", "Tanana Chiefs Conference", "Clear, Alaska", "Village of Anaktuvuk Pass", "Huslia Village", "chinook wind", "Salcha, Alaska", "Kokrines, Alaska", "Gulf of Alaska", "Evansville Village", "Fahrenheit", "Circle Native Community", "Canyon Village, Alaska", "Tanana Valley", "Cantwell, Alaska", "Alatna Village", "2004 Alaska fire season", "Fox, Alaska", "Galena Village", "Central, Alaska", "Native Village of Tetlin", "Alaska Range", "Indian River, Alaska", "Native Village of Ruby", "Tanana Tribal Council", "Alaska Natives", "Healy, Alaska", "Native Village of Fort Yukon", "Hughes Village", "Native Village of Tanana", "Tok, Alaska", "Allakaket Village", "Native Village of Tanacross", "Wood River, Alaska", "Eagle, Alaska", "Nenana, Alaska", "Koyukuk Native Village", "List of Alaska Native tribal entities", "tribe (Native American)", "Glennallen, Alaska", "Lake Minchumina, Alaska", "Healy Lake Village", "Brooks Range", "Native Village of Eagle", "Village of Kaltag", "Council of Athabascan Tribal Governments", "Wiseman, Alaska", "Alaskan Athabaskans", "Alaska", "Chicken, Alaska", "Celsius", "infrared", "Chatanika, Alaska", "Medfra, Alaska", "Alcan Border, Alaska", "Ray Mountains", "Yup'ik", "Prospect Creek, Alaska", "permafrost", "Fairbanks, Alaska", "Chalkyitsik Village", "Village of Dot Lake", "Northway Village", "Tolovana, Alaska", "Fort Yukon, Alaska", "wilderness", "Telida Village", "North Pole, Alaska" ]
2,940	And did those feet in ancient time	"And did those feet in ancient time" is a poem by William Blake from the preface to his epic Milton: A Poem in Two Books, one of a collection of writings known as the Prophetic Books. The date of 1804 on the title page is probably when the plates were begun, but the poem was printed . Today it is best known as the hymn "Jerusalem", with music written by Sir Hubert Parry in 1916. The famous orchestration was written by Sir Edward Elgar. It is not to be confused with another poem, much longer and larger in scope and also by Blake, called Jerusalem: The Emanation of the Giant Albion. It is often assumed that the poem was inspired by the apocryphal story that a young Jesus, accompanied by Joseph of Arimathea, a tin merchant, travelled to what is now England and visited Glastonbury during his unknown years. However, according to British folklore scholar A. W. Smith, "there was little reason to believe that an oral tradition concerning a visit made by Jesus to Britain existed before the early part of the twentieth century". Instead, the poem draws on an older story, repeated in Milton's History of Britain, that Joseph of Arimathea, alone, travelled to preach to the ancient Britons after the death of Jesus. The poem's theme is linked to the Book of Revelation (3:12 and 21:2) describing a Second Coming, wherein Jesus establishes a New Jerusalem. Churches in general, and the Church of England in particular, have long used Jerusalem as a metaphor for Heaven, a place of universal love and peace. In the most common interpretation of the poem, Blake asks whether a visit by Jesus briefly created heaven in England, in contrast to the "dark Satanic Mills" of the Industrial Revolution. Blake's poem asks four questions rather than asserting the historical truth of Christ's visit. The second verse is interpreted as an exhortation to create an ideal society in England, whether or not there was a divine visit. ==Text== The original text is found in the preface Blake wrote for inclusion with Milton, a Poem, following the lines beginning "The Stolen and Perverted Writings of Homer & Ovid: of Plato & Cicero, which all Men ought to contemn: ..." Blake's poem Beneath the poem Blake inscribed a quotation from the Bible: {{Blockquote\|"Would to God that all the Lords people were Prophets" Numbers XI. Ch 29.v That view has been linked to the fate of the Albion Flour Mills in Southwark, the first major factory in London. The rotary steam-powered flour mill, built by Matthew Boulton, assisted by James Watt, could produce 6,000 bushels of flour per week. The factory could have driven independent traditional millers out of business, but it was destroyed in 1791 by fire. There were rumours of arson, but the most likely cause was a bearing that overheated due to poor maintenance. London's independent millers celebrated, with placards reading, "Success to the mills of Albion but no Albion Mills." Opponents referred to the factory as satanic, and accused its owners of adulterating flour and using cheap imports at the expense of British producers. A contemporary illustration of the fire shows a devil squatting on the building. The mill was a short distance from Blake's home. Blake's phrase resonates with a broader theme in his works; what he envisioned as a physically and spiritually repressive ideology based on a quantified reality. Blake saw the cotton mills and collieries of the period as a mechanism for the enslavement of millions, but the concepts underpinning the works had a wider application: Another interpretation is that the phrase refers to the established Church of England, which, in contrast to Blake, preached a doctrine of conformity to the established social order and class system. Stonehenge and other megaliths are featured in Milton, suggesting they may relate to the oppressive power of priestcraft in general. Peter Porter observed that many scholars argue that the "[mills] are churches and not the factories of the Industrial Revolution everyone else takes them for". In 2007, the Bishop of Durham, N. T. Wright, explicitly recognised that element of English subculture when he acknowledged the view that "dark satanic mills" could refer to the "great churches". In similar vein, in 1967 the critic F. W. Bateson stated "the adoption by the Churches and women's organizations of this anti-clerical paean of free love is amusing evidence of the carelessness with which poetry is read". An alternative theory is that Blake is referring to a mystical concept within his own mythology, related to the ancient history of England. Satan's "mills" are referred to repeatedly in the main poem, and are first described in words which suggest neither industrialism nor ancient megaliths, but rather something more abstract: "the starry Mills of Satan/ Are built beneath the earth and waters of the Mundane Shell...To Mortals thy Mills seem everything, and the Harrow of Shaddai / A scheme of human conduct invisible and incomprehensible". ==="Chariots of fire"=== The line from the poem "Bring me my Chariot of fire!" draws on the story of 2 Kings 2:11, where the Old Testament prophet Elijah is taken directly to heaven: "And it came to pass, as they still went on, and talked, that, behold, there appeared a chariot of fire, and horses of fire, and parted them both asunder; and Elijah went up by a whirlwind into heaven." The phrase has become a byword for divine energy, and inspired the title of the 1981 film Chariots of Fire, in which the hymn "Jerusalem" is sung during the final scenes. The plural phrase "chariots of fire" refers to 2 Kings 6:17. ==="Green and pleasant land"=== Blake lived in London for most of his life, but wrote much of Milton while living in a cottage, now Blake's Cottage, in the village of Felpham in Sussex. Amanda Gilroy argues that the poem is informed by Blake's "evident pleasure" in the Felpham countryside. However, local people say that records from Lavant, near Chichester, state that Blake wrote "And did those feet in ancient time" in an east-facing alcove of the Earl of March public house. The phrase "green and pleasant land" has become a common term for an identifiably English landscape or society. It appears as a headline, title or sub-title in numerous articles and books. Sometimes it refers, whether with appreciation, nostalgia or critical analysis, to idyllic or enigmatic aspects of the English countryside. In other contexts it can suggest the perceived habits and aspirations of rural middle-class life. Sometimes it is used ironically, e.g. in the Dire Straits song "Iron Hand". ===Revolution=== Several of Blake's poems and paintings express a notion of universal humanity: "As all men are alike (tho' infinitely various)". He retained an active interest in social and political events for all his life, but was often forced to resort to cloaking social idealism and political statements in Protestant mystical allegory. Even though the poem was written during the Napoleonic Wars, Blake was an outspoken supporter of the French Revolution, and Napoleon claimed to be continuing this revolution. The poem expressed his desire for radical change without overt sedition. In 1803 Blake was charged at Chichester with high treason for having "uttered seditious and treasonable expressions", but was acquitted. The trial was not a direct result of anything he had written, but comments he had made in conversation, including "Damn the King!". The poem is followed in the preface by a quotation from Numbers 11:29: "Would to God that all the Lords people were prophets." Christopher Rowland has argued that this includes everyone in the task of speaking out about what they saw. Prophecy for Blake, however, was not a prediction of the end of the world, but telling the truth as best a person can about what he or she sees, fortified by insight and an "honest persuasion" that with personal struggle, things could be improved. A human being observes, is indignant and speaks out: it's a basic political maxim which is necessary for any age. Blake wanted to stir people from their intellectual slumbers, and the daily grind of their toil, to see that they were captivated in the grip of a culture which kept them thinking in ways which served the interests of the powerful. was included in the patriotic anthology of verse The Spirit of Man, edited by the Poet Laureate of the United Kingdom, Robert Bridges, and published in 1916, at a time when morale had begun to decline because of the high number of casualties in World War I and the perception that there was no end in sight. Under these circumstances, Bridges, finding the poem an appropriate hymn text to "brace the spirit of the nation [to] accept with cheerfulness all the sacrifices necessary," asked Sir Hubert Parry to put it to music for a Fight for Right campaign meeting in London's Queen's Hall. Bridges asked Parry to supply "suitable, simple music to Blake's stanzas – music that an audience could take up and join in", and added that, if Parry could not do it himself, he might delegate the task to George Butterworth. The poem's idealistic theme or subtext accounts for its popularity across much of the political spectrum. It was used as a campaign slogan by the Labour Party in the 1945 general election; Clement Attlee said they would build "a new Jerusalem". It has been sung at conferences of the Conservative Party, at the Glee Club of the British Liberal Assembly, the Labour Party and by the Liberal Democrats. ===Setting to music=== ====By Hubert Parry==== In adapting Blake's poem as a unison song, Parry deployed a two-stanza format, each taking up eight lines of Blake's original poem. He added a four-bar musical introduction to each verse and a coda, echoing melodic motifs of the song. The word "those" was substituted for "these" before "dark satanic mills". Parry was initially reluctant to supply music for the campaign meeting, as he had doubts about the ultra-patriotism of Fight for Right; but knowing that his former student Walford Davies was to conduct the performance, and not wanting to disappoint either Robert Bridges or Davies, he agreed, writing it on 10 March 1916, and handing the manuscript to Davies with the comment, "Here's a tune for you, old chap. Do what you like with it." Davies later recalled, Davies arranged for the vocal score to be published by Curwen in time for the concert at the Queen's Hall on 28 March and began rehearsing it. It was a success and was taken up generally. But Parry began to have misgivings again about Fight for Right, and in May 1917 wrote to the organisation's founder Sir Francis Younghusband withdrawing his support entirely. There was even concern that the composer might withdraw the song from all public use, but the situation was saved by Millicent Fawcett of the National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies (NUWSS). The song had been taken up by the Suffragists in 1917 and Fawcett asked Parry if it might be used at a Suffrage Demonstration Concert on 13 March 1918. Parry was delighted and orchestrated the piece for the concert (it had originally been for voices and organ). After the concert, Fawcett asked the composer if it might become the Women Voters' Hymn. Parry wrote back, "I wish indeed it might become the Women Voters' hymn, as you suggest. People seem to enjoy singing it. And having the vote ought to diffuse a good deal of joy too. So they would combine happily". However, Parry always referred to it by its first title. He had originally intended the first verse to be sung by a solo female voice (this is marked in the score), but this is rare in contemporary performances. Sir Edward Elgar re-scored the work for very large orchestra in 1922 for use at the Leeds Festival. Elgar's orchestration has overshadowed Parry's own, primarily because it is the version usually used now for the Last Night of the Proms (though Sir Malcolm Sargent, who introduced it to that event in the 1950s, always used Parry's version). ====By Wallen==== In 2020 a new musical arrangement of the poem by Errollyn Wallen, a British composer born in Belize, was sung by South African soprano Golda Schultz at the Last Night of the Proms. Parry's version was traditionally sung at the Last Night, with Elgar's orchestration; the new version, with different rhythms, dissonance, and reference to the blues, caused much controversy. However, some clergy in the Church of England, according to the BBC TV programme Jerusalem: An Anthem for England, have said that the song is not technically a hymn as it is not a prayer to God; consequently, it is not sung in some churches in England. Many schools use the song, especially public schools in Great Britain (it was used as the title music for the BBC's 1979 series Public School about Radley College), and several private schools in Australia, New Zealand, New England and Canada. In Hong Kong, diverted version of "Jerusalem" is also used as the school hymn of St. Catherine's School for Girls, Kwun Tong and Bishop Hall Jubilee School. "Jerusalem" was chosen as the opening hymn for the London Olympics 2012, although "God Save the Queen" was the anthem sung during the raising of the flag in salute to the Queen. Some attempts have also been made to increase its use elsewhere with other words; examples include the state funeral of President Ronald Reagan in Washington National Cathedral on 11 June 2004, and the state memorial service for Australian Prime Minister Gough Whitlam on 5 November 2014. It has been sung on BBC's Songs Of Praise for many years; in a countrywide poll to find the UK's favourite hymn in 2019, it was voted top, relegating previous favourite "How Great Thou Art" into second place. ====Proposal as English anthem==== Upon hearing the orchestral version for the first time, King George V said that he preferred "Jerusalem" over the British national anthem "God Save the King". "Jerusalem" is considered to be England's most popular patriotic song; The New York Times said it was "fast becoming an alternative national anthem," and there have been calls to give it official status. England has no official anthem and uses the British national anthem "God Save the King", also unofficial, for some national occasions, such as before English international football matches. However, some sports, including rugby league, use "Jerusalem" as the English anthem. "Jerusalem" is the official hymn of the England and Wales Cricket Board, although "God Save the Queen" has been sung before England's games on several occasions, including the 2010 ICC World Twenty20, the 2010–11 Ashes series and the 2019 ICC Cricket World Cup. Questions in Parliament have not clarified the situation, as answers from the relevant minister say that since there is no official national anthem, each sport must make its own decision. As Parliament has not clarified the situation, Team England, the English Commonwealth team, held a public poll in 2010 to decide which anthem should be played at medal ceremonies to celebrate an English win at the Commonwealth Games. "Jerusalem" was selected by 52% of voters over "Land of Hope and Glory" (used since 1930) and "God Save the Queen". In 2005 BBC Four produced Jerusalem: An Anthem For England highlighting the usages of the song/poem and a case was made for its adoption as the national anthem of England. Varied contributions come from Howard Goodall, Billy Bragg, Garry Bushell, Lord Hattersley, Ann Widdecombe and David Mellor, war proponents, war opponents, suffragettes, trade unionists, public schoolboys, the Conservatives, the Labour Party, football supporters, the British National Party, the Women's Institute, London Gay Men's Chorus, London Community Gospel Choir, Fat Les and naturists. ==Cultural significance== ===Enduring popularity=== The popularity of Parry's setting has resulted in many hundreds of recordings being made, too numerous to list, of both traditional choral performances and new interpretations by popular music artists. The song has also had a large cultural impact in Great Britain. It is sung every year by an audience of thousands at the end of the Last Night of the Proms in the Royal Albert Hall and simultaneously in the Proms in the Park venues throughout the country. Similarly, along with "The Red Flag", it is sung each year at the closing of the annual Labour Party conference. The song was used by the National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies (indeed Parry transferred the copyright to the NUWSS in 1918; the Union was wound up in 1928 after women won the right to vote). During the 1920s many Women's Institutes (WI) started closing meetings by singing it, and this caught on nationally. Although it was never adopted as the WI's official anthem, in practice it holds that position, and is an enduring element of the public image of the WI. A rendition of "Jerusalem" was included in the 1973 album Brain Salad Surgery by the progressive rock group Emerson, Lake & Palmer. The arrangement of the hymn is notable for its use of the first polyphonic synthesizer, the Moog Apollo. It was released as a single, but failed to chart in the United Kingdom. An instrumental rendition of the hymn was included in the 1989 album "The Amsterdam EP" by Scottish rock band Simple Minds. Iron Maiden singer Bruce Dickinson incorporated the full text of the poem into his 6:42 track Jerusalem (co-written with Roy Z), a part of his William Blake inspired 1998 solo album The Chemical Wedding. Dickinson performed the track live in 2023 as part of the Jon Lord Concerto for Group and Orchestra tour. "Jerusalem" is traditionally sung before rugby league's Challenge Cup Final, along with "Abide with Me", and before the Super League Grand Final, where it is introduced as "the rugby league anthem". Before 2008, it was the anthem used by the national side, as "God Save the Queen" was used by the Great Britain team: since the Lions were superseded by England, "God Save the Queen" has replaced "Jerusalem". Since 2004, it has been the anthem of the England cricket team, being played before each day of their home test matches. It was also used in the opening ceremony of the 2012 Summer Olympics held in London and inspired several of the opening show segments directed by Danny Boyle. It was included in the ceremony's soundtrack album, Isles of Wonder. ===Use in film, television and theatre=== "Bring me my Chariot of fire" inspired the title of the film Chariots of Fire. The hymn has featured in many other films and television programmes including Four Weddings and a Funeral, How to Get Ahead in Advertising, The Loneliness of the Long Distance Runner, Saint Jack, Calendar Girls, Season 3: Episode 22 of Star Trek: Deep Space Nine, Goodnight Mister Tom, Women in Love, The Man Who Fell to Earth, Shameless, Jackboots on Whitehall, Quatermass and the Pit, Monty Python's Flying Circus, Spud 2: The Madness Continues, and Collateral (UK TV series). An extract was heard in the 2013 Doctor Who episode "The Crimson Horror" although that story was set in 1893, i.e., before Parry's arrangement. A bawdy version of the first verse is sung by Mr Partridge in the third episode of Series 1 of Hi-de-Hi!. A punk version is heard in Derek Jarman's 1977 film Jubilee. In an episode of Peep Show, Jez (Robert Webb) records a track titled "This Is Outrageous" which uses the first and a version of the second line in a verse. A modified version of the hymn, replacing the word "England" with "Neo", is used in Neo Yokio as the national anthem of the eponymous city state. In the theatre it appears in Jerusalem,	[ "Milton: A Poem in Two Books", "Heaven (Christianity)", "Jon Lord", "El Shaddai", "Matthew Boulton", "Simple Minds", "collieries", "Jackboots on Whitehall", "Abide with Me", "Monty Python's Flying Circus", "Liberal Democrats (UK)", "Millicent Fawcett", "Lamb of God", "Women's Institute", "apocryphal", "Joseph of Arimathea", "Consonance and dissonance", "Danny Boyle", "Robert Bridges", "Poet Laureate of the United Kingdom", "Test cricket", "Women in Love", "Blake's Cottage", "Songs Of Praise", "Choir", "devil", "Bishop of Durham", "Royal College of Music", "cricket", "Revelation 3:12", "Bruce Dickinson", "stanza", "Book of Numbers", "George V of the United Kingdom", "Roy Z", "orchestra", "Fat Les", "William Blake", "Lord Hattersley", "Malcolm Sargent", "subtext", "The Independent", "London Olympics 2012", "Internet Movie Database", "unison", "Isles of Wonder: Music for the Opening Ceremony of the London 2012 Olympic Games", "1945 United Kingdom general election", "New Jerusalem", "Queen's Hall", "Concerto for Group and Orchestra", "Collateral (TV series)", "2010 ICC World Twenty20", "Jerusalem: The Emanation of the Giant Albion", "Industrial Revolution", "coda (music)", "BBC", "2010–11 Ashes series", "Incipit", "Errollyn Wallen", "Revelation 21", "French Revolution", "Jubilee (1978 film)", "allegory", "Derek Jarman", "Political repression", "Brain Salad Surgery", "Emerson, Lake & Palmer", "James Watt", "WP:QUOTE", "unknown years of Jesus", "Challenge Cup", "Iron Maiden", "Love Is Noise", "Anime News Network", "Saint Jack (film)", "Lavant, West Sussex", "Organ (music)", "Independent school (United Kingdom)", "Women's Institutes", "William Blake Archive", "Elijah", "Garry Bushell", "Doctor Who", "2012 Summer Olympics opening ceremony", "Jerusalem (play)", "OpenDemocracy", "Clement Attlee", "FAQ", "satan", "Church of England", "wedding of Prince William and Catherine Middleton", "Epic poetry", "Public school (UK)", "Fight for Right Movement", "Christopher Rowland (theologian)", "Curwen Press", "Moog synthesizer", "Southwark", "Brian Maidment", "Glee Club (British politics)", "British National Party", "Chariots of Fire", "The Engines of Our Ingenuity", "Hi-de-Hi!", "Napoleon", "Last Night of the Proms", "Westminster Abbey", "Star Trek: Deep Space Nine", "progressive rock", "motif (music)", "The Chemical Wedding (Bruce Dickinson album)", "Golda Schultz", "List of British anthems", "The Man Who Fell to Earth", "pacifism", "D major", "Super League Grand Final", "Chichester", "Football Supporters' Federation", "Old Testament", "George Butterworth", "Armor of God", "Howard Goodall", "How to Get Ahead in Advertising", "Albion", "Hymnary.org", "Taylor and Francis", "N. T. Wright", "Robert Webb", "Saint George's Day", "F. W. Bateson", "suffragettes", "2019 ICC Cricket World Cup", "Neo Yokio", "YouTube", "Civil religion", "How Great Thou Art", "God Save the King", "Peep Show (British TV series)", "Divine countenance", "The Guardian", "Peter Porter (poet)", "Jesus", "Quatermass and the Pit", "Jerusalem The Emanation of the Giant Albion", "rugby league", "Land of Hope and Glory", "Radley College", "Four Weddings and a Funeral", "blues", "England national rugby league team", "United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland", "Leeds Festival (classical music)", "The Loneliness of the Long Distance Runner (film)", "Royal Albert Hall", "English language", "Washington National Cathedral", "Great Britain national rugby league team", "Albion Mills, Southwark", "Discogs", "Second Coming", "Theme (literature)", "hymn", "Sir Edward Elgar", "University of Durham", "Liberal Assembly", "Napoleonic Wars", "Militarism", "Gough Whitlam", "The Verve", "Kuusankoski", "2012 Summer Olympics", "Spud 2: The Madness Continues", "Langham Place, London", "Time and the Conways", "Goodnight Mister Tom (film)", "Anthem", "David Mellor", "The Red Flag", "Illuminated manuscript", "London Gay Men's Chorus", "Felpham", "Billy Bragg", "Labour Party (UK)", "naturists", "Calendar Girls", "trade unionists", "Francis Younghusband", "Ann Widdecombe", "Iron Hand (song)", "Edward Elgar", "Conservative Party (UK)", "Stonehenge", "England and Wales Cricket Board", "London Community Gospel Choir", "The Labour Party (UK)", "Blake's prophetic books", "The One Show", "National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies", "The Crimson Horror", "cotton mill", "national anthem of England", "BBC Four", "Glastonbury", "BBC TV", "Dire Straits", "Shameless (British TV series)", "The New York Times", "The William Blake Archive", "The Fall (band)", "British Parliament", "Book of Revelation", "God Save the Queen", "England cricket team", "Hubert Parry", "Jeremy Dibble", "bushel", "The History of Britain (Milton)", "Alfred Kazin" ]
2,941	The Bush (Alaska)	In Alaska, the Bush typically refers to any region of the state that is not connected to the North American road network and does not have ready access to the state's ferry system. A large proportion of Alaska Native populations live in the Bush, often depending on subsistence hunting and fishing. Geographically, the Bush comprises the Alaska North Slope; Northwest Arctic; West, including the Baldwin and Seward Peninsulas; the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta; Southwest Alaska; Bristol Bay; Alaska Peninsula; and remote areas of the Alaska Panhandle and Interior. Some of the hub communities in the bush, which typically can be reached by larger, commercial airplanes, include Bethel, Dillingham, King Salmon, Nome, Utqiagvik, Kodiak Island, Kotzebue, and Unalaska-Dutch Harbor. Most parts of Alaska that are off the road or ferry system can be reached by small bush airplanes. Travel between smaller communities or to and from hub communities is typically accomplished by snowmobiles, boats, or ATVs.	[ "Alaska North Slope", "Bush plane", "Alaska Panhandle", "Utqiagvik, Alaska", "Bethel, Alaska", "Alaska", "Kotzebue, Alaska", "Bristol Bay", "Alaska natives", "Alaska Interior", "King Salmon, Alaska", "Dillingham", "Nome, Alaska", "Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta", "Unalaska, Alaska", "Seward Peninsula", "Southwest Alaska", "Baldwin Peninsula", "Alaska Peninsula", "Kodiak Island", "North America", "All-terrain vehicle", "Northwest Arctic Borough, Alaska", "Alaska Marine Highway" ]
2,942	A Little Night Music	A Little Night Music is a musical with music and lyrics by Stephen Sondheim and book by Hugh Wheeler. Inspired by the 1955 Ingmar Bergman film Smiles of a Summer Night, it involves the romantic lives of several couples. Its title is a literal English translation of the German name for Mozart's Serenade No. 13, K. 525, Eine kleine Nachtmusik. The musical includes the popular song "Send In the Clowns", written for Glynis Johns. Since its original 1973 Broadway production, the musical has enjoyed professional productions in the West End, by opera companies, in a 2009 Broadway revival, and elsewhere, and it is a popular choice for regional groups. It was adapted for film in 1977, with Harold Prince directing and Elizabeth Taylor, Len Cariou, Lesley-Anne Down, and Diana Rigg starring. ==Synopsis== ===Act One=== The setting is Sweden, around the year 1900. One by one, the Quintet – five singers who comment like a Greek chorus throughout the show – enter, tuning up. Gradually, their vocalizing becomes an overture blending fragments of "Remember," "Soon," and "The Glamorous Life." The other characters enter waltzing, each uncomfortable with their partner ("Night Waltz"). After they drift back off, the aging and sardonic Madame Armfeldt, a wealthy former courtesan, and her solemn granddaughter, Fredrika, enter. Madame Armfeldt tells the child that the summer night "smiles" three times: first on the young, second on fools, and third on the old. Fredrika vows to watch the smiles occur. Middle-aged, successful lawyer Fredrik Egerman has recently married an 18-year-old trophy wife, Anne, a naive girl who loves Fredrik but is not attracted to him. The two have been married for eleven months, and Anne still protects her virginity. Upon coming home from work, Fredrik surprises Anne with tickets to a play, starring Desiree Armfeldt, a glamorous actress whom Anne greatly admires. Anne giddily fantasizes about what it would be like to be as beautiful and beloved as Desiree, and starts talking at Fredrik about her day. Fredrik, distracted by his lust, considers various ways he might seduce his wife but ultimately rules each one out and elects to take a nap instead ("Now"). Meanwhile, his son Henrik, a seminary student a year older than his stepmother, is frustrated and ignored ("Later"). Anne promises her husband that shortly she will consent to have sex even though she can't help recoiling at his touch ("Soon"), and all three of them lament at once. The number concludes with Fredrik sighing Desiree's name in his sleep, which Anne overhears. Anne's maidservant Petra, an experienced and forthright girl, slightly older than the teen herself, offers her worldly but crass advice. Desiree Armfeldt, although once prominent, is now a fading flower clinging onto what's left of her past fame. Desiree tours in small, obscure towns with her theatre troupe. Madam Armfeldt, Desiree's mother, has taken over the care of Desiree's daughter Fredrika. Fredrika misses her mother, but Desiree continually delays seeing her, preferring, somewhat ironically, her life on tour ("The Glamorous Life"). As Fredrik and Anne take their seats at Desiree's play, Anne's previous excitement quickly devolves into anxiety, suspicious that Fredrik and Desiree have a romantic history that he never disclosed to her. The play begins and Desiree immediately notices Fredrik in the audience, and the Quintet reveals their shared memories and passionate relationship ("Remember"). Desiree, ironically playing a sexually irresistible countess, exchanges amorous glances with Fredrik and delivers her lines in an overtly suggestive tone, confirming Anne's suspicions as true. Anne, upset and overwhelmed, demands that Fredrik take her home. Meanwhile, Petra tries to seduce a nervous and petulant Henrik. That night, as Fredrik remembers his past with Desiree, he sneaks out to see her. The two have a happy but strained reunion, reflecting on their new lives. Desiree sarcastically boasts of her own adultery, as she has been seeing the married dragoon, Count Carl-Magnus Malcolm. Following, Fredrik tries to explain how much he loves Anne, fending off Desiree's interjecting quips, but he ultimately reveals his sexual frustration ("You Must Meet My Wife"). Upon learning that Fredrik has gone for eleven months without sex, she agrees to accommodate him as a favor for an old friend. Madam Armfeldt offers advice to young Fredrika. The elderly woman reflects poignantly on her own checkered past and wonders what happened to prior refined styles of living ("Liaisons"). In Desiree's apartment, Count Carl-Magnus Malcolm proclaims his unannounced arrival in his usual booming tones. Fredrik and Desiree fool the Count with an innocent explanation for their disheveled appearance, but he is still suspicious. He boasts of his many duels and the various wounds he has suffered before demonstrating his skills in knife-throwing. Fredrik responds sarcastically, causing the dragoon to dislike him immediately. Carl-Magnus returns to his wife, Countess Charlotte. Charlotte knows of her husband's infidelity, but Carl-Magnus is too absorbed in his suspicions of Desiree to talk to her ("In Praise of Women"). When she persuades him to blurt out the whole story, a twist is revealed—Charlotte's little sister is a schoolfriend of Anne's. Charlotte visits Anne and describes Fredrik's tryst with Desiree. Anne is shocked and saddened, but Charlotte explains that such is the lot of a wife, and love brings pain ("Every Day a Little Death"). Meanwhile, Desiree asks Madam Armfeldt to host a party for Fredrik, Anne, and Henrik. Madam Armfeldt reluctantly agrees and sends out a personal invitation; its receipt sends Anne into a frenzy, imagining Desiree further seducing Fredrik at the estate. Anne does not want to accept the invitation, but Charlotte convinces her to do so to heighten the contrast between the older Desiree and the young and beautiful teenager. Charlotte relates this to the Count, who (much to her chagrin) decides to visit the Armfeldts, uninvited, as well. Carl-Magnus plans to challenge Fredrik to a duel, while Charlotte hopes to seduce the lawyer to make her husband jealous and end his philandering. The act ends as all characters head to Madam Armfeldt's estate ("A Weekend in the Country"). ===Act Two=== Madam Armfeldt's country estate is bathed in the golden glow of perpetual summer sunset at this high latitude ("Night Waltz One and Two"). Everyone arrives, each with their own amorous purposes and desires—even Petra, who catches the eye of Armfeldt's fetching manservant, Frid. The women begin to quarrel with one another. Fredrik is astonished to learn the name of Desiree's daughter. Henrik meets Fredrika, and confesses to her he deeply loves Anne. Meanwhile, in the garden, Fredrik and Carl-Magnus reflect on the difficulty of being annoyed with Desiree, contrasting her immoral actions with her physical beauty ("It Would Have Been Wonderful"). Dinner is served, and the female Quintet singers comment on the characters’ suspense regarding the coming meal ("Perpetual Anticipation"). At dinner, Charlotte attempts to flirt with Fredrik and trades insults with Desiree. Soon, everyone is shouting and scolding everyone else, except for Henrik, who finally speaks up. He accuses the whole company of being amoral, and flees the scene. Stunned, everyone reflects on the situation and wanders away. Fredrika tells Anne of Henrik's secret love and the two dash off searching for him. Meanwhile, Desiree meets Fredrik and asks if he still wants to be "rescued" from his life. Fredrik answers honestly that he loves Desiree but cannot bring himself to hurt Anne. Hurt and bitter, Desiree can only reflect on the nature of her life and relationship with Fredrik ("Send In the Clowns"). Anne finds Henrik, who is attempting to commit suicide. The clumsy boy cannot complete the task, and Anne tells him she loves him, too. The pair begins to kiss, which leads to Anne's first sexual encounter. Meanwhile, not far away, Frid sleeps in Petra's lap. The maid imagines advantageous marriages but concludes that in the meantime, "a girl ought to celebrate what passes by" ("The Miller's Son"). Charlotte confesses her plan to Fredrik, and both watch Henrik and Anne, happy together, run away to start their new life. The two commiserate on a bench. Carl-Magnus, preparing to sleep with Desiree, sees this and challenges Fredrik to Russian Roulette; Fredrik nervously misfires and simply grazes his own ear. Feeling victorious, Carl-Magnus reaffirms his love for Charlotte, finally granting her wish. After the Count and Countess leave, Fredrika and Madam Armfeldt discuss the recent chaotic turns of events. The elderly woman asks Fredrika a surprising question: "What is it all for?" Fredrika thinks about this and decides that love, for all of its frustrations, "must be worth it." Madam Armfeldt is surprised, ruefully noting that she rejected love for material wealth at Fredrika's age. She praises her granddaughter and remembers true love's fleeting nature. Fredrik finally confesses his love for Desiree, acknowledging that Fredrika is his daughter, and the two promise to start a new life together ("Send in the Clowns" (Reprise)). Madam Armfeldt sits alone with Fredrika, who tells her grandmother that she has watched carefully but still has not seen the night smile. Madam Armfeldt laughs and points out that the night has indeed smiled twice: first on Henrik and Anne, the young, and second on Desiree and Fredrik, the fools. As the two wait for the "third smile... on the old", it occurs: Madam Armfeldt closes her eyes and dies peacefully with Fredrika beside her ("Last Waltz"). == Musical numbers == Act I Overture – Mr. Lindquist, Mrs. Nordstrom, Mrs. Anderssen, Mr. Erlanson and Mrs. Segstrom (the "Quintet") "Night Waltz" – Company "Now" – Fredrik Egerman "Later" – Henrik Egerman "Soon" – Anne Egerman "Soon/Later/Now" – Anne, Henrik and Fredrik "The Glamorous Life" – Fredrika Armfeldt, Desiree Armfeldt, Madam Armfeldt and Quintet "Remember?" – Quintet "You Must Meet My Wife" – Desiree and Fredrik "Liaisons" – Madam Armfeldt "In Praise of Women" – Count Carl-Magnus Malcolm "Every Day a Little Death" – Countess Charlotte Malcolm and Anne "A Weekend in the Country" – Company Act II Entr'acte – Orchestra "Night Waltz I (The Sun Won't Set)" – Quintet "Night Waltz II (The Sun Sits Low)" – Quintet "It Would Have Been Wonderful" – Fredrik and Carl-Magnus "Perpetual Anticipation" – Mrs. Nordstrom, Mrs. Segstrom and Mrs. Anderssen "Dinner Table Scene" – Orchestra "Send In the Clowns" – Desiree "The Miller's Son" – Petra "The World Won't End/Every Day a Little Death (reprise)" – Desiree and Charlotte Reprises ("Soon", "You Must Meet My Wife", "A Weekend in the Country" and "Every Day a Little Death") – Quintet "Send in the Clowns" (Reprise) – Desiree and Fredrik "Last Waltz" – Orchestra Additional musical numbers Stage: "Two Fairy Tales" – Henrik and Anne (cut in rehearsals when the tone of the musical changed) "Silly People" – Frid (cut for time when "The Miller's Son" was added in Boston) "Bang!" – Carl-Magnus (replaced by "In Praise of Women") "My Husband the Pig" – Charlotte (replaced by the second half of "In Praise of Women") Screen: "Love Takes Time" – Company (lyrics added to Night Waltz) "The Glamorous Life" – Fredrika (solo version; later used combined with the original in the RNT revival) A new introductory verse to "Every Day a Little Death" Additional lyrics for "A Weekend in the Country", including a short section for Mme. Armfeldt ==Characters== Fredrik Egerman: A successful widowed middle-aged lawyer. He is married to the 18-year-old Anne and has one son, Henrik, from his previous marriage. In the past, he and Desiree were lovers. Bass-Baritone A2–E4 Anne Egerman: Fredrik's new, naive wife, who is still a virgin after 11 months of marriage. Soprano G3–A5 Henrik Egerman: Fredrik's son, 20 years old and Anne's stepson. He is serious but confused; he reads the works of philosophers and theologians whilst studying for the Lutheran priesthood. His sexual repression is a great cause of his turmoil, as he lusts after Anne and attempts to have a sexual encounter with Petra. Tenor G2–B4 Petra: Anne's maid and closest confidante, brash, bold and flirtatious. She has relations with Henrik. Mezzo-soprano F3–F5 Desiree Armfeldt: Self-absorbed, once-successful actress, now touring the countryside in what is clearly not the "glamorous life". Harboured love for Fredrik for years since their affair. Mezzo-soprano F3–E5 Fredrika Armfeldt: Desiree's thirteen-year-old daughter, who may or may not be the product (unbeknownst to Fredrik) of the actress's and Fredrik's affair. Soprano C4–E5 Madame Armfeldt: Desiree's mother, a former courtesan who has had "liaisons" with royalty. Contralto C3–F4 Count Carl-Magnus Malcolm: A military dragoon who is Desiree's latest lover. Hypocritically places value on fidelity, being hugely possessive when it comes to both his wife and mistress. Comedic role. Operatic Baritone G2–F4 Countess Charlotte Malcolm: Carl-Magnus' wife, to whom he flaunts his infidelities. She despises her husband for his behaviour, but obeys his orders due to her hopeless love for him. Self-loathing and borderline alcoholic, yet the more intelligent half of the Malcolm couple. Mezzo-soprano G3–F5 Frid: Madame Armfeldt's manservant. Has a tryst with Petra. The Quintet: Mr. Lindquist, Mrs. Nordstrom, Mrs. Anderssen, Mr. Erlanson and Mrs. Segstrom. A group of five singers that act as a Greek chorus. Sometimes referred to as the Liebeslieder Singers (love song singers) although Stephen Sondheim and Hugh Wheeler did not script them to have that title, using Quintet instead. The first usage of Liebeslieder for the Quintet came during the 1990 New York City Opera production. Prince said that these characters represent "people in the show who aren't wasting time ... the play is about wasting time." Malla: Desiree's maid, who is with her constantly. Silent part Osa: Maid at Madame Armfeldt's manse. Silent part Bertrand: Page at Madame Armfeldt's manse. Silent part ==Casts and characters== === Notable replacements === Broadway (1973–74) Fredrik Egerman: William Daniels West End (1975) Desiree Armfeldt: Virginia McKenna Madame Armfeldt: Angela Baddeley Broadway Revival (2009–11) Desiree Armfeldt: Bernadette Peters Madame Armfeldt: Elaine Stritch Fredrika Armfeldt: Katherine McNamara Count Carl-Magnus: Bradley Dean ==Productions== ===Original Broadway production=== Subsequent to its January 23-February 10 tryout engagement at the Colonial Theatre (Boston),A Little Night Music opened on Broadway at the Shubert Theatre on February 25, 1973. It played there until September 15, 1973, then moved to the Majestic Theatre, on September 17, and closed there on August 3, 1974, after 601 performances and 12 previews. It was directed by Harold Prince with choreography by Patricia Birch and design by Boris Aronson. The cast included Glynis Johns (Desiree Armfeldt), Len Cariou (Fredrik Egerman), Hermione Gingold (Madame Armfeldt), Victoria Mallory (Anne Egerman), Judith Kahan (Fredrika Armfeldt), Mark Lambert (Henrik Egerman), Laurence Guittard (Carl-Magnus Malcolm), Patricia Elliott (Charlotte Malcolm), George Lee Andrews (Frid), and D'Jamin Bartlett (Petra). It won the New York Drama Critics' Circle Award and the Tony Award for Best Musical. === Australian premiere === The first international production opened at Her Majesty's Theatre in Sydney, Australia in November 1973, with a cast including Taina Elg, Bruce Barry, Jill Perryman, Doris Fitton, Anna Russell and Geraldine Turner. Australian revivals have been presented by the Sydney Theatre Company (featuring Geraldine Turner and a young Toni Collette) in 1990, Melbourne Theatre Company (featuring Helen Morse and John O'May) in 1997, Opera Australia (featuring Sigrid Thornton and Anthony Warlow as Fredrik Egerman) in 2009, and Victorian Opera (featuring Ali McGregor, Simon Gleeson and Verity Hunt-Ballard) in 2019. ===United States tour=== A US national tour began on February 26, 1974, at the Forrest Theatre, Philadelphia, and ended on February 13, 1975, at the Shubert Theatre, Boston. Jean Simmons as Desiree Armfeldt, George Lee Andrews as Fredrik Egerman and Margaret Hamilton as Madame Armfeldt headed the cast. ===West End premiere=== The musical premiered in the West End at the Adelphi Theatre on April 15, 1975, and starred Jean Simmons, Joss Ackland, David Kernan, Liz Robertson, and Diane Langton, with Hermione Gingold reprising her role as Madame Armfeldt. It ran for 406 performances. During the run, Angela Baddeley replaced Gingold, and Virginia McKenna replaced Simmons. ===1989 West End revival=== A revival opened in the West End on October 6, 1989, at the Piccadilly Theatre, directed by Ian Judge, designed by Mark Thompson, and choreographed by Anthony Van Laast. It starred Lila Kedrova as Madame Armfeldt, Dorothy Tutin as Desiree Armfeldt, Peter McEnery as Fredrik, and Susan Hampshire. The production ran for 144 performances, closing on February 17, 1990. ===1995 London revival=== A revival by the Royal National Theatre opened at the Olivier Theatre on September 26, 1995. It was directed by Sean Mathias, with set design by Stephen Brimson Lewis, costumes by Nicky Gillibrand, lighting by Mark Henderson and choreography by Wayne McGregor. It starred Judi Dench (Desiree), Siân Phillips (Madame Armfeldt), Joanna Riding (Anne Egerman), Laurence Guittard (Fredrik Egerman), Patricia Hodge (Countess Charlotte) and Issy van Randwyck (Petra). The production closed on August 31, 1996. Dench received the Olivier Award for Best Actress in a Musical. ===2008 London revival=== The third London revival ran at the Menier Chocolate Factory from November 22, 2008, until March 8, 2009. The production was directed by Trevor Nunn, with musical supervision by Caroline Humphris, choreography by Lynne Page, sets and costumes by David Farley and new orchestrations by Jason Carr. The cast included Hannah Waddingham as Desiree, Alexander Hanson as Frederik, Jessie Buckley (Anne), Maureen Lipman (Madame Armfeldt), Alistair Robins (the Count), Gabriel Vick (Henrik), Grace Link (Fredrika) and Kasia Hammarlund (Petra). This critically acclaimed production transferred to the Garrick Theatre in the West End for a limited season, opening on March 28, 2009, and running until July 25, 2009. The production then transferred to Broadway with a new cast. ===2009 Broadway revival=== The 2008 Menier Chocolate Factory production opened on Broadway at the Walter Kerr Theatre in previews on November 24, 2009, and officially on December 13, 2009, with the same creative team. The cast was led by Angela Lansbury as Madame Armfeldt and, in her Broadway debut, Catherine Zeta-Jones as Desiree. Also featured were Alexander Hanson as Frederik, Ramona Mallory (the daughter of original Broadway cast members Victoria Mallory and Mark Lambert) as Anne, Hunter Ryan Herdlicka as Henrik, Leigh Ann Larkin as Petra, Erin Davie as the Countess, Aaron Lazar as the Count, and Bradley Dean as Frid. Zeta-Jones received the award for Best Leading Actress in a Musical at the 64th Tony Awards. Originally, Katherine Doherty and Keaton Whittaker played Fredrika in alternating performances, beginning with the November 2009 previews. The official show album, which was recorded in January 2010, features both Doherty and Whittaker as Fredrika (on different songs). However, Katherine McNamara replaced Doherty in February 2010. McNamara and Whittaker stayed with the production until it ended in January 2011. When the contracts of Zeta-Jones and Lansbury ended, the production closed temporarily on June 20, 2010, and resumed on July 13, with new stars Bernadette Peters as Desiree Armfeldt and Elaine Stritch as Madame Armfeldt. In an interview, Peters said that Sondheim had "proposed the idea to her this spring and urged the producers of the revival to cast her." Trevor Nunn directed rehearsals with the two new stars, and the rest of the original cast remained. Peters and Stritch extended their contracts until January 9, 2011, when the production closed with 20 previews and 425 regular performances. Before the production closed, it recouped its initial investment. ===Europe=== Zarah Leander played Madame Armfeldt in the original Austrian staging (in 1975) as well as in the original Swedish staging in Stockholm in 1978 (here with Jan Malmsjö as Fredrik Egerman). The successful Stockholm staging was directed by Stig Olin. In 2010 the musical was scheduled to return to Stockholm and the Stockholm Stadsteater. The cast included Pia Johansson, Dan Ekborg, Yvonne Lombard and Thérese Andersson. The Théâtre du Châtelet, Paris production ran from February 15, 2010, through February 20, 2010. Lee Blakeley directed and Andrew George was the choreographer. Italian-born actress Greta Scacchi played Désirée, and Leslie Caron played Madame Armfeldt. The Turku City Theatre staged the musical in 2011 with in the role as Désirée. directed and Jussi Vahvaselkä was musical director. In 2019, the Nederlands Reisopera staged a version directed by Zack Winokur, with Susan Rigvava-Dumas playing Désirée. ===Opera companies and concerts=== The musical has also become part of the repertoire of a few opera companies. Michigan Opera Theatre was the first major American opera company to present the work in 1983, and again in November 2009. Light Opera Works (Evanston, Illinois) produced the work in August 1983. New York City Opera staged it in 1990, 1991 and 2003, the Houston Grand Opera in 1999, the Los Angeles Opera in 2004, and Hartford Opera Theater in 2014. New York City Opera's production in August 1990 and July 1991 (a total of 18 performances) won the 1990 Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Revival and was telecast on the PBS show Live at Lincoln Center on November 7, 1990. The cast included both stage performers: Sally Ann Howes and George Lee Andrews as Desiree and Frederik and opera regular Regina Resnik as Madame Armfeldt (in 1991). The 2003 production featured a young Anna Kendrick as Fredrika Armfeldt, alongside Jeremy Irons as Frederik, Juliet Stevenson as Desiree, Claire Bloom as Madame Armfeldt, Danny Gurwin as Henrik, Michele Pawk as Charlotte, Jessiva Boevers as Petra, Kristin Huxhold as Anne and Marc Kudisch as Carl-Magnus. The 2003 production was revived at Los Angeles Opera in July 2004. Kudish, Pawk, Gurwin and Boevers returned alongside Judith Ivey as Desiree, Zoe Caldwell as Madame Armfeldt, Victor Garber as Frederik, Laura Benanti as Anne and Kristen Bell as Fredrika. Opera Australia presented the piece in Melbourne in May 2009, starring Sigrid Thornton as Desiree Armfeldt and Nancye Hayes as Madame Armfeldt. The production returned in 2010 at the Sydney Opera House with Anthony Warlow taking on the role of Fredrik Egerman. The production was directed by Stuart Maunder, designed by Roger Kirk, and conducted by Andrew Greene. Opera Theatre of Saint Louis performed the musical in June 2010. Designer Isaac Mizrahi directed and designed the production, with a cast that included Amy Irving, Siân Phillips, and Ron Raines as Fredrik Egerman. The piece has also become a popular choice for amateur musical theatre and light opera companies. In 2017, the musical was performed by students at The Royal Academy of Dramatic Art. In June 2024, there was a concert presentation at David Geffen Hall in Lincoln Center. The production starred star Susan Graham (Desiree Armfeldt), Cynthia Erivo (Petra), Ron Raines (Fredrik Egerman), Kerstin Anderson (Anne Egerman), Jonathan Christopher (Mr. Erlanson), Jason Gotay (Henrik Egerman), Ellie Fishman (Mrs. Nordstrom), Jin Ha (Frid), Addie Harrington (Fredrika Armfeldt), Shuler Hensley (Count Carl Magnus), Samantha Hill (Mrs. Segstrom), Andrea Jones-Sojola (Mrs. Anderson), Ross Lekites (Mr. Lindquist), Marsha Mason (Madam Armfeldt), and Ruthie Ann Miles (Countess Charlotte). The concert was produced by Jeff Berger, in association with Doug and Stacey Meyer, David and Ryan Belenzon, and Michael Lamon. ==Film adaptation== A film version of A Little Night Music was released in 1977. Cariou, Gingold, and Guittard reprise their broadway roles alongside Elizabeth Taylor as Desiree, Lesley-Anne Down as Anne and Diana Rigg as Charlotte. The setting for the film was moved from Sweden to Austria. Sondheim wrote lyrics for the "Night Waltz" theme ("Love Takes Time") and wrote an entirely new version of "The Glamorous Life", which has been incorporated into several subsequent productions of the stage musical. However, other songs, including "In Praise of Women", "The Miller's Son" and "Liaisons", were cut and remain heard only as background orchestrations. The film marked Prince's second (and final) time as a motion picture director. Critical reaction to the film was mostly negative, with much being made of Taylor's wildly fluctuating weight from scene to scene. Some critics talked more positively of the film, with Variety calling it "an elegant looking, period romantic charade". There was praise for Diana Rigg's performance, and orchestrator Jonathan Tunick received an Oscar for his work on the score. A soundtrack recording was released on LP, and a DVD release was issued in June 2007. ==Music analysis== The score for A Little Night Music presents performance challenges more often seen in operetta or light opera pieces than in standard musical comedy. The demands made on the singing cast are considerable; although the vocal demands of the role of Desiree are rather small, most of the other singing roles require strong, legitimately-trained voices with fairly wide ranges. Sondheim's liberal use of counterpoint extends to the vocal parts, including a free-structured round (the trio "Perpetual Anticipation") as well as songs in which characters engage in interior monologues or even overt dialogue simultaneously ("Now/Later/Soon", "A Weekend in the Country"). Critic Rex Reed noted that "The score of 'Night Music' ...contains patter songs, contrapuntal duets and trios, a quartet, and even a dramatic double quintet to puzzle through. All this has been gorgeously orchestrated by Jonathan Tunick; there is no rhythm section, only strings and woodwinds to carry the melodies and harmonies aloft." Sondheim's engagement with threes extends to his lyrics. He organizes trios with the singers separated, while his duets are sung together, about a third person. === time=== Most of the music in the show is written in waltz meter ( time). Some parts adopt compound meter, with a time signature such as . Passages in "Overture", "Glamorous Life", "Liaisons", "Every Day A Little Death", and "The Miller's Son" are in duple meter. ===Counterpoint and polyphony=== At several points, Sondheim has multiple performers each sing a different song simultaneously. This use of counterpoint maintains coherence even as it extends the notion of a round, familiar in songs such as the traditional "Frère Jacques", into something more complex. Sondheim said: "As for the three songs ... going together well, I might as well confess. In those days I was just getting into contrapuntal and choral writing...and I wanted to develop my technique by writing a trio. What I didn't want to do is the quodlibet method...wouldn't it be nice to have three songs you don't think are going to go together, and they do go together ... The trick was the little vamp on "Soon" which has five-and six-note chords." Steve Swayne comments that the "contrapuntal episodes in the extended ensembles ... stand as testament to his interest in Counterpoint." but could not "sustain a phrase", he devised the song "Send in the Clowns" for her in a way that would work around her vocal weakness, e.g., by ending lines with consonants that made for a short cut-off. In analyzing the text of the song, Max Cryer wrote that it "is not intended to be sung by the young in love, but by a mature performer who has seen it all before. The song remains an anthem to regret for unwise decisions in the past and recognition that there's no need to send in the clowns – they're already here." Graham Wolfe has argued, "What Desirée is referring to in the famous song is a conventional device to cover over a moment when something has gone wrong on stage. Midway through the second Act she has deviated from her usual script by suggesting to Fredrik the possibility of being together seriously and permanently, and, having been rejected, she falters as a show-person, finds herself bereft of the capacity to improvise and wittily cover. If Desirée could perform at this moment – revert to the innuendos, one-liners and blithe self-referential humour that constitutes her normal character – all would be well. She cannot, and what follows is an exemplary manifestation of Sondheim’s musico-dramatic complexity, his inclination to write music that performs drama. That is, what needs to be covered over (by the clowns sung about in the song) is the very intensity, ragged emotion and utter vulnerability that comes forward through the music and singing itself, a display protracted to six minutes, wrought with exposed silences, a shocked Fredrik sitting so uncomfortably before Desirée while something much too real emerges in a realm where he – and his audience – felt assured of performance." ===Influences=== There is a Mozart reference in the title—A Little Night Music is an occasionally-used translation of Eine kleine Nachtmusik, the nickname of Mozart's Serenade No. 13, K. 525. The elegant, harmonically-advanced music in this musical pays indirect homage to the compositions of Maurice Ravel, especially his Valses nobles et sentimentales (whose opening chord is borrowed for the opening chord of the song "Liaisons"); part of this effect stems from the style of orchestration that Jonathan Tunick used. There is also a direct quotation in 'A Weekend in the Country' (just as it moves to A major for the last time in the final section of the number) of Octavian's theme from Strauss' 'Der Rosenkavalier', another comedy of manners with partner-swapping at its heart. === Orchestration === The original Broadway pit consisted of a 17 piece orchestra. Strings: 2 violins 1 viola, 1 cello, 1 bass, 1 harp Brass: 2 trumpets (1 player), 3 horns, 1 trombone Keyboards: 1 piano/celesta Woodwinds: Reed 1: alto flute, flute, piccolo Reed 2: clarinet, flute Reed 3: bass clarinet, clarinet Reed 4: English horn, oboe Reed 5: bassoon, clarinet Percussion: (1 player) bells, crotales, snare drum, triangle, tympani, xylophone The 2008 revival of the show modified the orchestrations to an 8 piece pit, re-orchestrated by Jason Carr. Strings: 1 violin 1 viola, 1 cello, 1 bass, 1 harp Keyboards: 1 piano/synthesizer Woodwinds: 1 player Bassoon: 1 player ==Cast recordings== In addition to the original Broadway and London cast recordings, and the motion picture soundtrack (no longer available), there are recordings of the 1990 studio cast, the 1995 Royal National Theatre revival (starring Judi Dench), and the 2001 Barcelona cast recording sung in Catalan. In 1997 an all-jazz version of the score was recorded by Terry Trotter. The 2009 Broadway revival with Catherine Zeta-Jones and Angela Lansbury recorded a cast album on January 4, 2010, which was released on April 6. ==Critical response== In his review of the original 1973 Broadway production, Clive Barnes in The New York Times called the musical "heady, civilized, sophisticated and enchanting." He noted that "the real triumph belongs to Stephen Sondheim...the music is a celebration of 3/4 time, an orgy of plaintively memorable waltzes, all talking of past loves and lost worlds...There is a peasant touch here." He commented that the lyrics are "breathtaking". In its review of the 1989 London revival, the reviewer for The Guardian wrote that the "production also strikes me as infinitely superior to Harold Prince's 1975 version at the Adelphi. Mr Judge's great innovation is to transform the Liebeslieder Singers from the evening-dressed, after-dinner line-up into 18th century ghosts weaving in and out of the action...But Mr Judge's other great realisation is that, in Sondheim, the lyrics are not an adornment to a song but their very essence: understand them and the show will flow. Thus Dorothy Tutin as Desiree, the touring thesp eventually reunited with her quondam lover, is not the melting romantic of previous productions but a working mother with the sharpness of a hat-pin." The Independent review of the 1995 National Theatre revival praised the production, writing "For three hours of gloriously barbed bliss and bewitchment, Sean Mathias's production establishes the show as a minor miracle of astringent worldly wisdom and one that is haunted by less earthy intimations." The review went on to state that "The heart of the production, in both senses, is Judi Dench's superb Desiree Armfeldt...Her husky-voiced rendering of "Send in the Clowns" is the most moving I've ever heard." In reviewing the 2008 Menier Chocolate Factory production, the Telegraph reviewer wrote that "Sondheim's lyrics are often superbly witty, his music here, mostly in haunting waltz-time, far more accessible than is sometimes the case. The score positively throbs with love, regret and desire." But of the specific production, the reviewer went on to note: "But Nunn's production, on one of those hermetic sets largely consisting of doors and tarnished mirrors that have become such a cliché in recent years, never penetrates the work's subtly erotic heart. And as is often the case with this director's work, the pace is so slow and the mood so reverent, that initial enchantment gives way to bored fidgeting." Steven Suskin, reviewing the new Broadway cast for Variety, wrote "What a difference a diva makes. Bernadette Peters steps into the six-month-old revival of A Little Night Music with a transfixing performance, playing it as if she realizes her character's onstage billing -- "the one and only Desiree Armfeldt"—is clichéd hyperbole. By figuratively rolling her eyes at the hype, Peters gives us a rich, warm and comedically human Desiree, which reaches full impact when she pierces the façade with a nakedly honest, tears-on-cheek 'Send in the Clowns.'" == Awards and nominations == ===Original Broadway production=== ===1995 London revival=== === 2009 London Revival === ===2009 Broadway revival===	[ "Grammy Award for Best Musical Show Album", "Boris Aronson", "Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart", "clarinet", "William Daniels", "Alexander Hanson (actor)", "operetta", "Jill Perryman", "Kerstin Anderson", "Stuart Maunder", "Ruthie Ann Miles", "Tony Award for Best Direction of a Musical", "celesta", "duple meter", "Tony Award for Best Performance by a Leading Actor in a Musical", "Siân Phillips", "quodlibet", "Jonathan Tunick", "Tony Award for Best Original Score", "Pia Johansson", "piccolo", "Théâtre du Châtelet", "Claire Bloom", "Anna Kendrick", "George Lee Andrews", "Katherine Doherty", "trophy wife", "vamp (music)", "Theatre World Award", "Tony Award for Best Revival of a Musical", "Ben Brantley", "Lutheran church", "Leigh Ann Larkin", "Royal National Theatre", "Shuler Hensley", "Royal Academy of Dramatic Art", "Jean Simmons", "harp", "Terry Trotter", "Tony Award for Best Performance by a Leading Actress in a Musical", "Greta Scacchi", "Opera Theatre of Saint Louis", "String section", "The Independent", "64th Tony Awards", "Isaac Mizrahi", "Andra Akers", "Triple time", "violin", "Dan Ekborg", "Her Majesty's Theatre, Sydney", "Sean Mathias", "Jan Malmsjö", "seduce", "Sigrid Thornton", "Geraldine Turner", "Liz Robertson", "snare drum", "New York Drama Critics' Circle", "Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Music", "Simon Gleeson", "maidservant", "Contralto", "Margaret Hamilton (actress)", "Anthony Warlow", "Judi Dench", "Keyboard instrument", "Woodwinds", "Tony Award for Best Performance by a Featured Actor in a Musical", "Brass instrument", "Michael Billington (critic)", "Toni Collette", "Michigan Opera Theatre", "Joss Ackland", "trumpet", "Hartford Courant", "Valses nobles et sentimentales (Ravel)", "xylophone", "David Kernan", "Elaine Stritch", "Nicky Gillibrand", "Stig Olin", "seminary", "dragoon", "Diane Langton", "Light Opera Works", "synthesizer", "Regina Resnik", "Verity Hunt-Ballard", "Laura Benanti", "The Daily Telegraph", "Greek chorus", "Laurence Olivier Award", "Eric Flynn", "Helen Morse", "Joanna Riding", "Maurice Ravel", "trombone", "The Age", "A Little Night Music (film)", "Walter Kerr Theatre", "Trevor Nunn", "Patricia Birch", "Opera Australia", "Glynis Johns", "revival (theatre)", "Catherine Zeta-Jones", "Maria Aitken", "Judith Kahan", "Aaron Lazar", "Jin Ha", "Zoe Caldwell", "piano", "Tony Award for Best Performance by a Featured Actress in a Musical", "Bernadette Peters", "bell", "Tony Award for Best Actress in a Musical", "Victorian Opera (Melbourne)", "Juliet Stevenson", "Drama Desk Award", "Hermione Gingold", "Patricia Elliott", "Sally Ann Howes", "Double bass", "Send In the Clowns", "Send in the Clowns", "Jeremy Irons", "Susan Rigvava-Dumas", "Ali McGregor", "Mezzo-soprano", "Triangle (musical instrument)", "Tony Award for Best Sound Design", "Peter McEnery", "Limelight (magazine)", "time signature", "Stockholm", "Compound meter (music)", "tryout (theatre)", "lied", "Marsha Mason", "Laurence Olivier Award for Best Musical Revival", "Patricia Hodge", "Outer Critics Circle Award", "Nancye Hayes", "West End theatre", "Tony Award for Best Book of a Musical", "Smiles of a Summer Night", "Anthony Van Laast", "Yvonne Lombard", "Musical theatre", "Sydney Theatre Company", "English Horn", "Katherine McNamara", "Adelphi Theatre", "Catalan language", "Clive Barnes", "manservant", "Frère Jacques", "Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Lyrics", "Lincoln Center", "Virginia McKenna", "Russian Roulette", "Ingmar Bergman", "crotales", "Mark Henderson (lighting designer)", "New York City Opera", "Elizabeth Taylor", "Academy Awards", "Bassoon", "Tony Award for Best Scenic Design", "Laurence Guittard", "virginity", "Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Actress in a Musical", "Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Revival", "Sydney Opera House", "Variety (magazine)", "harmony", "Victor Garber", "round (music)", "Cynthia Erivo", "Mark Lambert (American actor)", "Judith Ivey", "Susan Graham", "The Guardian", "Anna Russell", "Jessie Buckley", "Bass-Baritone", "oboe", "Angela Baddeley", "flute", "Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Featured Actress in a Musical", "Houston Grand Opera", "cello", "Grammy Award", "Los Angeles Opera", "Tony Award", "Broadway theatre", "Zack Winokur", "Florence Klotz", "tympani", "Köchel catalogue", "Susan Hampshire", "Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Book of a Musical", "D'Jamin Bartlett", "Garrick Theatre", "Leslie Caron", "Bruce Barry (actor)", "Tharon Musser", "Laurence Olivier Award for Best Costume Design", "Horn (instrument)", "Judy Kahan", "Danny Gurwin", "Diana Rigg", "John O'May", "Harold Prince", "Laurence Olivier Award for Best Actress in a Musical", "Tony Award for Best Musical", "Rex Reed", "alto flute", "Olivier Award", "Marc Kudisch", "Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Revival of a Musical", "Ron Raines", "Majestic Theatre (Broadway)", "Doris Fitton", "Erin Davie", "amorality", "Amy Irving", "Samantha Hill (actress)", "counterpoint", "Lesley-Anne Down", "bass clarinet", "Tony Award for Best Book", "Tenor", "Kristen Bell", "Bradley Dean", "bassoon", "Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Director", "courtesan", "Angela Lansbury", "Dutch Touring Opera", "Max Cryer", "Laurence Olivier Award for Best Theatre Choreographer", "Colonial Theatre (Boston)", "Soprano", "Roger Kirk (designer)", "Playbill", "David Geffen Hall", "Maureen Lipman", "PBS", "Hannah Waddingham", "Laurence Olivier Award for Best Actor in a Musical", "Tony Award for Best Costume Design", "waltz", "Issy van Randwyck", "Zarah Leander", "Tony Award for Best Lighting Design", "Hugh Wheeler", "Stephen Sondheim", "Melbourne Theatre Company", "Wayne McGregor", "Victoria Mallory", "Percussion", "Sweden", "Taina Elg", "The New York Times", "Shubert Theatre (Broadway)", "viola", "North America", "John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts", "duel", "Dan Moses Schreier", "Dorothy Tutin", "Menier Chocolate Factory", "Laurence Olivier Award for Best Performance in a Supporting Role in a Musical", "Turku City Theatre", "Michele Pawk", "Gareth Owen (sound designer)", "Lila Kedrova", "Piccadilly Theatre", "Len Cariou", "Ed Evanko", "Eine kleine Nachtmusik" ]
2,943	Dual wield	Dual wielding or Macedonian shooting is the technique of using two weapons, one in each hand, for training or combat. It is not a common combat practice. Although historical records of dual wielding in war are limited, there are numerous weapon-based martial arts that involve the use of a pair of weapons. The use of a companion weapon is sometimes employed in European martial arts and fencing, such as a parrying dagger. Miyamoto Musashi, a Japanese swordsman and ronin, was said to have conceived of the idea of a particular style of swordsmanship involving the use of two swords. In terms of firearms, especially handguns, dual wielding is generally denounced by firearm enthusiasts due to its impracticality. Though using two handguns at the same time confers an advantage by allowing more ready ammunition, it is rarely done due to other aspects of weapons handling. Dual wielding, both with melee and ranged weapons, has been popularized by fictional works (film, television, and video games). ==History== Dual wielding has not been used or mentioned much in military history, though it appears in weapon-based martial arts and fencing practices. The dimachaerus was a type of Roman gladiator that fought with two swords. Thus, an inscription from Lyon, France, mentions such a type of gladiator, here spelled dymacherus. The dimachaeri were equipped for close-combat fighting. A dimachaerus used a pair of siccae (curved scimitar) or gladius and used a fighting style adapted to both attack and defend with his weapons rather than a shield, as he was not equipped with one. The use of weapon combinations in each hand has been mentioned for close combat in western Europe during the Byzantine, Medieval, and Renaissance era. The use of a parrying dagger such as a main gauche along with a rapier is common in historical European martial arts. North American Indian tribes of the Atlantic northeast used a form involving a tomahawk in the primary hand and a knife in the secondary. It is practiced today as part of the modern Cree martial art Okichitaw. All the above-mentioned examples, involve either one long and one short weapon, or two short weapons. An example of a dual wield of two sabres is the Ukrainian cossack dance hopak. === Asia === During the campaign Muslim conquest in 6th to 7th century AD, Rashidun caliphate general Khalid ibn Walid was reported to favor wielding two broad swords, with one in each hand, during combat. Traditional schools of Japanese martial arts include dual wield techniques, particularly a style conceived by Miyamoto Musashi involving the katana and wakizashi, two-sword kenjutsu techniques he called Niten Ichi-ryū. Eskrima, the traditional martial arts of the Philippines teaches Doble Baston techniques involving the basic use of a pair of rattan sticks and also Espada y daga or Sword/Stick and Dagger. Okinawan martial arts have a method that uses a pair of sai. Chinese martial arts involve the use of a pair of butterfly swords and hook swords. Famed for his enormous strength, Dian Wei, a military general serving under the warlord Cao Cao in the late Eastern Han dynasty of China, excelled at wielding a pair of ji (a halberd-like weapon), each of which was said to weigh 40 jin. Chen An, a warlord who lived during the Jin dynasty (266–420) and Sixteen Kingdoms period, wielded a sword and a serpent spear in each hand, supposedly measuring at 7 chi and 1 zhang 8 chi respectively. During Ran Wei–Later Zhao war, Ran Min, emperor of the short-lived Ran Wei empire of China, wielded two weapons, one in each hand, and fought fiercely, inflicting many casualties on the Xianbei soldiers while mounted on the famous horse Zhu Long ("Red Dragon"). Gatka, a weapon-based martial art from the Punjab region, is known to use two sticks at a time. The Thailand weapon-based martial art Krabi Krabong involves the use of a separate Krabi in each hand. Kalaripayattu teaches advanced students to use either two sticks (of various sizes) or two daggers or two swords, simultaneously. === Modern === The use of a gun in each hand is often associated with the American Old West, mainly due to media portrayals. It was common for people in the era to carry two guns, but not to use them at the same time. The second gun served as a backup weapon, to be used only if the main one suffered a malfunction or was lost or emptied. However, there were several examples of gunmen in the West who used two pistols at the same time in their gunfights: John Wesley Hardin killed a gunman named Benjamin Bradley who shot at him, by drawing both of his pistols and firing back. The Mexican vaquero Augustine Chacon had several gunfights in which he was outnumbered by more than one gunman and prevailed by equipping himself with a revolver in each hand. King Fisher once managed to kill three bandits in a shootout by pulling both of his pistols. During the Four Dead in Five Seconds Gunfight, lawman Dallas Stoudenmire pulled both of his pistols as he ran out onto the street and killed one bystander and two other gunmen. Jonathan R. Davis, a prospector during the California Gold Rush, was ambushed by thirteen outlaws while together with two of his comrades. One of his friends was killed and the other was mortally wounded during the ambush. Davis drew both of his revolvers and fired, killing seven of the bandits, and killing four more with his bowie knife, causing the final two to flee. Dual wielding two handguns has been popularized by film and television. ==Effectiveness== MythBusters compared many firing stances, including having a gun in each hand, and found that, compared to the two-handed single-gun stance as a benchmark, only the one-handed shoulder-level stance with a single gun was comparable in terms of accuracy and speed. The ability to look down the sights of the gun was given as the main reason for this. In an episode the following year, they compared holding two guns and firing simultaneously—rather than alternating left and right shots—with holding one gun in the two-handed stance, and found that the results were in favor of using two guns and firing simultaneously. ==In media== The Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles features dual wielding being done by Leonardo with two katana swords, Raphael with two sais, and Michelangelo with two nunchucks. Sometimes, their arch enemy Shredder dual wields with many weapons. Princess Mononoke features Lady Eboshi dual wielding with a katana sword and a hairpin. The Marvel Comics features dual wielding being done by Deadpool with two katana swords, Nightcrawler with two sabres, Elektra with two sais, and Black Widow with two pistols and two batons. The DC Comics features Dick Grayson and Barbara Gordon dual wielding two bastons. The Star Wars franchise features many characters dual wielding two lightsabers or more including Darth Vader, Ahsoka Tano, and General Grievous. Star Wars: The Clone Wars features Palpatine and his former apprentice Darth Maul dual wielding two lightsabers each. Also, characters dual wielding two blaster pistols include Jango Fett and Bo-Katan Kryze. The Halo franchise allows dual-wielding weapons from Halo 2 and Halo 3 onwards. The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe features the centaur general Oreius dual wielding two longswords, and also the oppressive White Witch doing the same. It also features the Minotaur general Otmin dual wielding a falchion sword and a battle axe. Ip Man 3 features butterfly swords being dual wielded by Ip Man and Cheung Tin-chi. The Hobbit and The Lord of the Rings features the wizard Gandalf dual wielding a magic staff and a mystic longsword. The Mummy Returns features the adventurous Egyptologist Evelyn O'Connell and the treacherous Anck-su-namun dual wielding two sais. The Pirates of the Caribbean franchise features characters dual wielding two swords including Jack Sparrow, Will Turner, and Elizabeth Swann. The martial arts film Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon features Michelle Yeoh as Yu Shu Lien dual wielding with a dao sword which split to two, and then with two hook swords. The Three Musketeers features many characters dual fighting with rapiers and daggers. Mighty Morphin Power Rangers features Tommy Oliver dual wielding a sword and a dagger. Robin of Sherwood features Nasir, a Saracen assassin who dual wields two scimitars. Avatar: The Last Airbender features dual wielding done by Zuko with two dao swords, Jet with two hook swords, Suki with two war fans, and Sokka with a machete along a club or a boomerang. The Transformers features dual wielding being done by many characters including Optimus Prime and Optimus Primal with two swords. Kung Fu Hustle features iron rings being dual wielded by the humble tailor of Pigsty Alley. Power Rangers: Jungle Fury features dual wielding being done by Casey Rhodes with two nunchakus and also two dao-themed Shark Sabres, Theo Martin with two tonfas and then two tessan-themed Jungle Fans, and Camille with two sais. The Marvel Cinematic Universe film Shang Chi and the Legend of the Ten Rings features the Ten Rings, which are dual wielded by Wenwu and his son Shang-Chi. The musical version of The Lion King features Mufasa and his son Simba dual wielding two akrafena swords to fight. Lara Croft, the heroine of the Tomb Raider franchise, dual wields two pistols. Dante, the protagonist of the Devil May Cry series, dual wields two pistols, named Ebony and Ivory. Kirito, the protagonist of Sword Art Online, is known for being able to wield two swords of a similar length at the same time. Sora and Roxas of the Kingdom Hearts franchise have the ability to dual wield Keyblades.	[ "Halo (franchise)", "hopak", "Star Wars", "Simba", "Jango Fett", "martial arts", "American Old West", "Ip Man", "Discovery Channel", "The Lord of the Rings (film series)", "war fan", "Raphael (Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles)", "Eskrima", "assassin", "war", "Ji (halberd)", "Niten Ichi-ryū", "Leonardo (Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles)", "The Lion King (musical)", "Dao (Chinese sword)", "Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon", "Kung Fu Hustle", "List of The Mummy (film series) characters", "Sai (weapon)", "Ambidexterity", "John Wesley Hardin", "gladius", "Miyamoto Musashi", "Sora (Kingdom Hearts)", "Blaster (Star Wars)", "Marvel Comics", "Japanese martial arts", "Gatka", "List of Avatar: The Last Airbender characters", "Okinawan martial arts", "Darth Maul", "firearm", "Michelangelo (Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles)", "Zuko", "Pirates of the Caribbean", "iron rings", "General Grievous", "baston (weapon)", "Khalid ibn Walid", "Tommy Oliver", "parrying dagger", "Dante (Devil May Cry)", "Saracen", "weapon", "gladiator", "Jonathan R. Davis", "Wizards in Middle-earth", "tomahawk", "Sokka", "Gandalf", "akrafena", "Optimus Primal", "Wei–Jie war", "Halo 3", "White Witch", "Krabi (sword)", "List of The Chronicles of Narnia characters", "Avatar: The Last Airbender", "Chinese martial arts", "sword", "Michelle Yeoh", "Mufasa", "Kingdom Hearts", "Punjab region", "Dallas Stoudenmire", "butterfly sword", "Black Widow (Marvel Comics)", "lightsaber", "DC Comics", "Barbara Gordon", "MythBusters", "video games", "scimitars", "Zhàng", "Swordsmanship", "Baton (law enforcement)", "Lara Croft", "Byzantine", "Jack Sparrow", "Tomb Raider", "Renaissance era", "Augustine Chacon", "Minotaur", "wakizashi", "ronin", "handgun", "Star Wars: The Clone Wars (2008 TV series)", "Dian Wei", "Elizabeth Swann", "Chen An", "Elektra (character)", "falchion", "machete", "Sword Art Online", "Ran Min", "general", "companion weapon", "Shang-Chi (Marvel Cinematic Universe)", "Comic Book Resources", "List of Power Rangers Jungle Fury characters", "Robin of Sherwood", "Ip Man 3", "Bo-Katan Kryze", "Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles", "Egyptologist", "halberd", "fencing", "Deadpool", "Power Rangers: Jungle Fury", "Martial arts", "rapier", "Devil May Cry", "Cao Cao", "Princess Mononoke", "nunchaku", "ComicBook.com", "Kirito (Sword Art Online)", "Early Muslim conquests", "Dimachaerus", "Shang Chi and the Legend of the Ten Rings", "YouTube", "European martial arts", "IGN", "Wenwu", "Jin dynasty (266–420)", "Yahoo Entertainment", "Ahsoka Tano", "Screen Rant", "Palpatine", "Staff weapon", "Marvel Cinematic Universe", "dagger", "Ten Rings (object)", "film", "Will Turner", "Four Dead in Five Seconds Gunfight", "rattan sticks", "centaur", "Keyblade", "training", "tonfa", "The Mummy Returns", "Dick Grayson", "Club (weapon)", "Sixteen Kingdoms", "Roxas (Kingdom Hearts)", "Mighty Morphin Power Rangers", "television", "battle axe", "King Fisher", "tailor", "Cross-dominance", "dimachaerus", "Kalaripayattu", "longsword", "Gun fu", "Sica", "Eastern Han dynasty", "Chi (unit)", "Halo 2", "The Times of India", "kenjutsu", "Medieval", "Catty", "Transformers", "California Gold Rush", "Rashidun caliphate", "knife", "Shredder (Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles)", "pistol", "combat", "katana", "The Hobbit (film series)", "NME", "boomerang", "hook sword", "sabre", "Polygon (website)", "Japan", "Krabi Krabong", "Darth Vader", "The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe", "Optimus Prime", "The Three Musketeers (1973 live-action film)", "Collider (website)", "Nightcrawler (character)" ]
2,944	Ariel Sharon	Ariel Sharon ( ; also known by his diminutive Arik, ; 26 February 192811 January 2014) was an Israeli general and politician who served as the 11th prime minister of Israel from March 2001 until April 2006. Born in Kfar Malal in Mandatory Palestine to Russian Jewish immigrants, he rose in the ranks of the Israeli Army from its creation in 1948, participating in the 1948 Palestine war as platoon commander of the Alexandroni Brigade and taking part in several battles. Sharon became an instrumental figure in the creation of Unit 101 and the reprisal operations, including the 1953 Qibya massacre, as well as in the 1956 Suez Crisis, the Six-Day War of 1967, the War of Attrition, and the Yom-Kippur War of 1973. Yitzhak Rabin called Sharon "the greatest field commander in our history". Upon leaving the military, Sharon entered politics, joining the Likud party, and served in a number of ministerial posts in Likud-led governments in 1977–92 and 1996–99. As Minister of Defense, he directed the 1982 Lebanon War. An official enquiry found that he bore "personal responsibility" for the Sabra and Shatila massacre of Palestinian refugees, for which he became known as the "Butcher of Beirut" among Arabs. He was subsequently removed as defense minister. From the 1970s through to the 1990s, Sharon championed construction of Israeli settlements in the Israeli-occupied West Bank and Gaza Strip. He became the leader of the Likud in 1999, and in 2000, amid campaigning for the 2001 prime ministerial election, made a controversial visit to the Al-Aqsa complex on the Temple Mount, triggering the Second Intifada. He subsequently defeated Ehud Barak in the election and served as Israel's prime minister from 2001 to 2006. As Prime Minister, Sharon orchestrated the construction of the Israeli West Bank barrier in 2002–2003 and Israel's unilateral disengagement from the Gaza Strip in 2005. Facing stiff opposition to the latter policy within the Likud, in November 2005 he left Likud to form a new party, Kadima. He had been expected to win the next election and was widely interpreted as planning on "clearing Israel out of most of the West Bank", in a series of unilateral withdrawals. Following a stroke on 4 January 2006, Sharon remained in a permanent vegetative state until his death in 2014. Sharon remains a highly polarizing figure in Middle Eastern history. Israelis almost universally revere Sharon as a war hero and statesman, whereas Palestinians and Human Rights Watch have criticized him as a war criminal, with the latter lamenting that he was never held accountable. ==Early life and education== Ariel (Arik) Scheinerman (later Sharon) was born in Kfar Malal, an agricultural moshav, then in Mandatory Palestine, to Shmuel Scheinerman (1896–1956) of Brest-Litovsk and Vera (née Schneirov) Scheinerman (1900–1988) of Mogilev. His parents met while at university in Tiflis (now Tbilisi, Republic of Georgia), where Sharon's father was studying agronomy and his mother was studying medicine. They immigrated to Mandatory Palestine in 1922 in the wake of the Russian Communist government's growing persecution of Jews in the region. In Palestine, Vera Scheinerman went by the name Dvora. The family arrived with the Third Aliyah and settled in Kfar Malal, a socialist, secular community. (Ariel Sharon himself would remain proudly secular throughout his life.) Although his parents were Mapai supporters, they did not always accept communal consensus: "The Scheinermans' eventual ostracism ... followed the 1933 Arlozorov murder when Dvora and Shmuel refused to endorse the Labor movement's anti-Revisionist calumny and participate in Bolshevik-style public revilement rallies, then the order of the day. Retribution was quick to come. They were expelled from the local health-fund clinic and village synagogue. The cooperative's truck wouldn't make deliveries to their farm nor collect produce." Sharon spoke both Hebrew and Russian. Four years after their arrival at Kfar Malal, the Sheinermans had a daughter, Yehudit (Dita). Ariel was born two years later. At age 10, he joined the youth movement HaNoar HaOved VeHaLomed. As a teenager, he began to take part in the armed night-patrols of his moshav. In 1942 at the age of 14, Sharon joined the Gadna, a paramilitary youth battalion, and later the Haganah, the underground paramilitary force and the Jewish military precursor to the Israel Defense Forces (IDF). For his role in a night-raid on Iraqi forces at Bir Adas, Sharon was made a platoon commander in the Alexandroni Brigade. Sharon denied the claims, but Majali was adamant. "Sharon is like a grizzly bear," he assured. "I captured him for 9 days, I healed his wounds and released him due to his insignificance." A few fellow high-ranking Jordanian officers testified in favour of his account." In 1994 and during the peace treaty signing ceremony with Jordan, Sharon wanted to get in touch with his former captor, but the latter determinedly refused to discuss the incident publicly. After recovering from the wounds received at Latrun, he resumed command of his patrol unit. On 28 December 1948, his platoon attempted to break through an Egyptian stronghold in Iraq-El-Manshia. At about this time, Israeli founding father David Ben-Gurion gave him the Hebraized name "Sharon". In September 1949, Sharon was promoted to company commander (of the Golani Brigade's reconnaissance unit) and in 1950 to intelligence officer for Central Command. He then took leave to begin studies in history and Middle Eastern culture at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Sharon's subsequent military career would be characterized by insubordination, aggression and disobedience, but also brilliance as a commander. ===Unit 101=== A year and a half later, on the direct orders of the Prime Minister, Sharon returned to active service in the rank of major, as the founder and commander of the new Unit 101, a special forces unit tasked with reprisal operations in response to Palestinian fedayeen attacks. The first Israeli commando unit, Unit 101 specialized in offensive guerrilla warfare in enemy countries. Israeli historian Benny Morris describes Unit 101: Unit 101 undertook a series of raids against Jordan, which then held the West Bank. The raids also helped bolster Israeli morale and convince Arab states that the fledgling nation was capable of long-range military action. Known for raids against Arab civilians and military targets, the unit is held responsible for the widely condemned Qibya massacre in October 1953. After a group of Palestinians used Qibya as a staging point for a fedayeen attack in Yehud that killed a Jewish woman and her two children in Israel, Unit 101 retaliated on the village. Facing international condemnation for the attack, Ben-Gurion denied that the Israeli military was involved. Leading up to the Suez War, the missions Sharon took part in included: Operation Shoshana (now known as the Qibya massacre) Operation Black Arrow Operation Elkayam Operation Egged Operation Olive Leaves Operation Volcano Operation Gulliver (מבצע גוליבר) Operation Lulav (מבצע לולב) During a payback operation in the Deir al-Balah refugee camp in the Gaza Strip, Sharon was again wounded by gunfire, this time in the leg. Having successfully carried out the first part of his mission (joining a battalion parachuted near Mitla with the rest of the brigade moving on ground), Sharon's unit was deployed near the pass. Neither reconnaissance aircraft nor scouts reported enemy forces inside the Mitla Pass. Sharon, whose forces were initially heading east, away from the pass, reported to his superiors that he was increasingly concerned with the possibility of an enemy thrust through the pass, which could attack his brigade from the flank or the rear. Sharon asked for permission to attack the pass several times, but his requests were denied, though he was allowed to check its status so that if the pass was empty, he could receive permission to take it later. Sharon sent a small scout force, which was met with heavy fire and became bogged down due to vehicle malfunction in the middle of the pass. Sharon ordered the rest of his troops to attack to aid their comrades. Sharon was criticized by his superiors and was damaged by allegations several years later made by several former subordinates, who claimed that Sharon tried to provoke the Egyptians and sent out the scouts in bad faith, ensuring that a battle would ensue. Sharon had assaulted Themed in a dawn attack, and had stormed the town with his armor through the Themed Gap. Sharon routed the Sudanese police company, and captured the settlement. On his way to the Nakla, Sharon's men came under attack from Egyptian MIG-15s. On the 30th, Sharon linked up with Eytan near Nakla. Dayan had no more plans for further advances beyond the passes, but Sharon nonetheless decided to attack the Egyptian positions at Jebel Heitan. Gur's men were forced to retreat into the "Saucer", where they were surrounded and came under heavy fire. Hearing of this, Sharon sent in another task force while Gur's men used the cover of night to scale the walls of the Heitan Defile. During the ensuing action, the Egyptians were defeated and forced to retreat. A total of 260 Egyptian and 38 Israeli soldiers were killed during the battle at Mitla. Due to these deaths, Sharon's actions at Mitla were surrounded in controversy, with many within the IDF viewing the deaths as the result of unnecessary and unauthorized aggression. \| align = left \| width = calc(100%/3) \| bgcolor = #c6dbf7 }} The Mitla incident hindered Sharon's military career for several years. In the meantime, he occupied the position of an infantry brigade commander and received a law degree from Tel Aviv University. However, when Yitzhak Rabin became Chief of Staff in 1964, Sharon again began to rise rapidly in the ranks, occupying the positions of Infantry School Commander and Head of Army Training Branch, eventually achieving the rank of Aluf (Major General). In the Six-Day War, Sharon, in command of an armored division on the Sinai front, drew up his own complex offensive strategy that combined infantry troops, tanks and paratroopers from planes and helicopters to destroy the Egyptian forces Sharon's 38th Division faced when it broke through to the Kusseima-Abu-Ageila fortified area. According to Sapir Handelman, after Sharon's assault of the Sinai in the Six-Day War and his encirclement of the Egyptian Third Army in the Yom Kippur War, the Israeli public nicknamed him "The King of Israel". Sharon played a key role in the War of Attrition. In 1969, he was appointed the Head of IDF's Southern Command. As leader of the southern command, on 29 July Israeli frogmen stormed and destroyed Green Island, a fortress at the northern end of the Gulf of Suez whose radar and antiaircraft installations controlled that sector's airspace. On 9 September Sharon's forces carried out Operation Raviv, a large-scale raid along the western shore of the Gulf of Suez. Landing craft ferried across Russian-made tanks and armored personnel carriers that Israel had captured in 1967, and the small column harried the Egyptians for ten hours. Following his appointment to the southern command, Sharon had no further promotions, and considered retiring. Sharon discussed the issue with Rabbi Menachem M. Schneerson, who strongly advised him to remain at his post. Sharon remained in the military for another three years, before retiring in August 1973. Soon after, he helped found the Likud ("Unity") political party. At the start of the Yom Kippur War on 6 October 1973, Sharon was called back to active duty along with his assigned reserve armored division. On his farm, before he left for the front line, the Reserve Commander, Zeev Amit, said to him, "How are we going to get out of this?" Sharon replied, "You don't know? We will cross the Suez Canal and the war will end over there." Sharon arrived at the front, to participate in his fourth war, in a civilian car. His forces did not engage the Egyptian Army immediately, despite his requests. Under cover of darkness, Sharon's forces moved to a point on the Suez Canal that had been prepared before the war. In a move that again thwarted the commands of his superiors, Sharon's division crossed the Suez, effectively winning the war for Israel. Abraham Adan's division passed over the bridgehead into Africa, advancing to within 101 kilometers of Cairo. His division managed to encircle Suez, cutting off and encircling the Third Army. Tensions between the two generals followed Sharon's decision, but a military tribunal later found his action was militarily effective. Sharon's complex ground maneuver is regarded as a decisive move in the Yom Kippur War, undermining the Egyptian Second Army and encircling the Egyptian Third Army. This move was regarded by many Israelis as the turning point of the war in the Sinai front. Thus, Sharon is widely viewed as the hero of the Yom Kippur War, responsible for Israel's ground victory in the Sinai in 1973. Bar Lev suggested that such a line would defend against any major Egyptian assault across the canal, and was expected to function as a "graveyard for Egyptian troops". Moshe Dayan described it as "one of the best anti-tank ditches in the world." Sharon, and Israel Tal on the other hand, vigorously opposed the line. Sharon said that it would pin down large military formations that would be sitting ducks for deadly artillery attacks, and cited the opinion of Rabbi Menachem M. Schneerson, who explained him "the great military disaster such a line could bring." Notwithstanding, it was completed in spring 1970. During the Yom Kippur War, Egyptian forces successfully breached the Bar Lev Line in less than two hours at a cost of more than a thousand dead and some 5,000 wounded. Sharon would later recall that what Schneerson had told him was a tragedy, "but unfortunately, that happened". ==Early political career, 1974–2001== ===Beginnings of political career=== In the 1940s and 1950s, Sharon seemed to be personally devoted to the ideals of Mapai, the predecessor of the modern Labor Party. However, after retiring from military service, he joined the Liberal Party and was instrumental in establishing Likud in July 1973 by a merger of Herut, the Liberal Party and independent elements. Sharon became chairman of the campaign staff for that year's elections, which were scheduled for November. Two and a half weeks after the start of the election campaign, the Yom Kippur War erupted and Sharon was called back to reserve service. On the heels of being hailed as a war hero for crossing the Suez in the 1973 war, Sharon won a seat to the Knesset in the elections that year, In 1981, after visiting South African forces fighting in Namibia for 10 days, Sharon argued that South Africa needed more weapons to fight Soviet infiltration in the region. Sharon promised that the relationship between Israel and South Africa would continue to deepen as they work to "ensure the National Defense of both our countries". The collaboration in carrying out joint-nuclear tests, in planning counter-insurgency strategies in Namibia and in designing security fences helped to make Israel, South Africa's closest ally in this period. ===1982 Lebanon War and Sabra and Shatila massacre=== As Defense Minister, Sharon launched an invasion of Lebanon called Operation Peace for Galilee, later known as the 1982 Lebanon War, following the shooting of Israel's ambassador in London, Shlomo Argov. Although this attempted assassination was in fact perpetrated by the Abu Nidal Organization, possibly with Syrian or Iraqi involvement, the Israeli government justified the invasion by citing 270 terrorist attacks by the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) in Israel, the occupied territories, and the Jordanian and Lebanese border (in addition to 20 attacks on Israeli interests abroad). Sharon intended the operation to eradicate the PLO from its state within a state inside Lebanon, but the war is primarily remembered for the Sabra and Shatila massacre. In a three-day massacre between 16 and 18 September, between 460 and 3,500 civilians, mostly Palestinians and Lebanese Shiites, in the Sabra neighborhood and the adjacent Shatila refugee camp were killed by the Phalanges— Lebanese Maronite Christian militias. Shatila had previously been one of the PLO's three main training camps for foreign terrorists and the main training camp for European terrorists; the Israelis maintained that 2,000 to 3,000 terrorists remained in the camps, but were unwilling to risk the lives of more of their soldiers after the Lebanese army repeatedly refused to "clear them out." The killings followed years of sectarian civil war in Lebanon that left 95,000 dead. Nearly all of the victims were men. blocking camp exits and providing logistical support. The killings led some to label Sharon "the Butcher of Beirut". An Associated Press report on 15 September 1982 stated, "Defence Minister Ariel Sharon, in a statement, tied the killing of the Phalangist leader Bachir Gemayel to the PLO, saying 'it symbolises the terrorist murderousness of the PLO terrorist organisations and their supporters'." Habib Chartouni, a Lebanese Christian from the Syrian Socialist National Party confessed to the murder of Gemayel, and no Palestinians were involved. Robert Maroun Hatem, Hobeika's bodyguard, stated in his book From Israel to Damascus that Phalangist commander Elie Hobeika ordered the massacre of civilians in defiance of Israeli instructions to behave like a "dignified" army. Hatem claimed "Sharon had given strict orders to Hobeika....to guard against any desperate move" and that Hobeika perpetrated the massacre "to tarnish Israel's reputation worldwide" for the benefit of Syria. Hobeika subsequently joined the Syrian occupation government and lived as a prosperous businessman under Syrian protection; further massacres in Sabra and Shatilla occurred with Syrian support in 1985. The massacre followed intense Israeli bombings of Beirut that had seen heavy civilian casualties, testing Israel's relationship with the United States in the process. In early 1983, the commission recommended the removal of Sharon from his post as defense minister and stated: We have found ... that the Minister of Defense [Ariel Sharon] bears personal responsibility. In our opinion, it is fitting that the Minister of Defense draw the appropriate personal conclusions arising out of the defects revealed with regard to the manner in which he discharged the duties of his office—and if necessary, that the Prime Minister consider whether he should exercise his authority ... to ... remove [him] from office. Sharon initially refused to resign as defense minister, and Begin refused to fire him. After a grenade was thrown into a dispersing crowd at an Israeli Peace Now march, killing Emil Grunzweig and injuring 10 others, a compromise was reached: Sharon agreed to forfeit the post of defense minister but stayed in the cabinet as a minister without portfolio. Sharon's resignation as defense minister is listed as one of the important events of the Tenth Knesset. In its 21 February 1983 issue, Time published an article implying that Sharon was directly responsible for the massacres. Sharon sued Time for libel in American and Israeli courts. Although the jury concluded that the Time article included false allegations, they found that the magazine had not acted with actual malice and so was not guilty of libel. On 18 June 2001, relatives of the victims of the Sabra massacre began proceedings in Belgium to have Sharon indicted on alleged war crimes charges. Elie Hobeika, the leader of the Phalange militia who carried out the massacres, was assassinated in January 2002, several months before he was scheduled to testify trial. Prior to his assassination, he had "specifically stated that he did not plan to identify Sharon as being responsible for Sabra and Shatila." ===Political downturn and recovery=== After his dismissal from the Defense Ministry post, Sharon remained in successive governments as a minister without portfolio (1983–1984), Minister for Trade and Industry (1984–1990), and Minister of Housing Construction (1990–1992). In the Knesset, he was member of the Foreign Affairs and Defense committee (1990–1992) and chairman of the committee overseeing Jewish immigration from the Soviet Union. During this period he was a rival to then prime minister Yitzhak Shamir, but failed in various bids to replace him as chairman of Likud. Their rivalry reached a head in February 1990, when Sharon grabbed the microphone from Shamir, who was addressing the Likud central committee, and famously exclaimed: "Who's for wiping out terrorism?" The incident was widely viewed as an apparent coup attempt against Shamir's leadership of the party. Sharon unsuccessfully challenged Shamir in the 1984 Herut leadership election and the 1992 Likud leadership election. In Benjamin Netanyahu's 1996–1999 government, Sharon was Minister of National Infrastructure (1996–98), and Foreign Minister (1998–99). Upon the election of the Barak Labor government, Sharon became the interim leader of the Likud party and subsequently won the September 1999 Likud leadership election. ==== Opposition to the NATO bombing of Yugoslavia ==== Ariel Sharon criticised the NATO bombing of Yugoslavia in 1999 as an act of "brutal interventionism". Sharon said both Serbia and Kosovo have been victims of violence. He said prior to the current Yugoslav campaign against Kosovo Albanians, Serbians were the targets of attacks in the Kosovo province. "Israel has a clear policy. We are against aggressive actions. We are against hurting innocent people. I hope that the sides will return to the negotiating table as soon as possible." During the crisis, Elyakim Haetzni said the Serbs should be the first to receive Israeli aid. "There are our traditional friends," he told Israel Radio." It was suggested that Sharon may have supported the Yugoslav position because of the Serbian population's history of saving Jews during the holocaust. On Sharon's death, Serbian minister Aleksandar Vulin stated: The Serbian people will remember Sharon for opposing the 1999 NATO bombing campaign against the former Yugoslavia and advocating respect for sovereignty of other nations and a policy of not interfering with their internal affairs. ===Campaign for Prime Minister, 2000–2001=== On 28 September 2000, Sharon and an escort of over 1,000 Israeli police officers visited the Temple Mount complex, site of the Dome of the Rock and Qibli Mosque, the holiest place in the world to Jews and the third holiest site in Islam. Sharon declared that the complex would remain under perpetual Israeli control. Palestinian commentators accused Sharon of purposely inflaming emotions with the event to provoke a violent response and obstruct success of delicate ongoing peace talks. On the following day, a large number of Palestinian demonstrators and an Israeli police contingent confronted each other at the site. According to the U.S. State Department, "Palestinians held large demonstrations and threw stones at police in the vicinity of the Western Wall. Police used rubber-coated metal bullets and live ammunition to disperse the demonstrators, killing 4 persons and injuring about 200." According to the government of Israel, 14 policemen were injured. Sharon's visit, a few months before his election as Prime Minister, came after archeologists claimed that extensive building operations at the site were destroying priceless antiquities. Sharon's supporters claim that Yasser Arafat and the Palestinian National Authority planned the Second Intifada months prior to Sharon's visit. They state that Palestinian security chief Jabril Rajoub provided assurances that if Sharon did not enter the mosques, no problems would arise. They also often quote statements by Palestinian Authority officials, particularly Imad Falouji, the P.A. Communications Minister, who admitted months after Sharon's visit that the violence had been planned in July, far in advance of Sharon's visit, stating the intifada "was carefully planned since the return of (Palestinian President) Yasser Arafat from Camp David negotiations rejecting the U.S. conditions". According to the Mitchell Report, The Mitchell Report found that In addition, the report stated, The Or Commission, an Israeli panel of inquiry appointed to investigate the October 2000 events, ==Prime Minister (2001–2006)== After the collapse of Barak's government, Sharon was elected Prime Minister on 6 February 2001, defeating Barak 62 percent to 38 percent. The election of the more pro-Russian Sharon, as well as the more pro-Israel Vladimir Putin, led to an improvement in Israel–Russia relations. In September 2003, Sharon became the first prime minister of Israel to visit India, saying that Israel regarded India as one of the most important countries in the world. Some analysts speculated on the development of a three-way military axis of New Delhi, Washington, D.C., and Jerusalem. On 20 July 2004, Sharon called on French Jews to emigrate from France to Israel immediately, in light of an increase in antisemitism in France (94 antisemitic assaults were reported in the first six months of 2004, compared to 47 in 2003). France has the third-largest Jewish population in the world (about 600,000 people). Sharon observed that an "unfettered anti-Semitism" reigned in France. The French government responded by describing his comments as "unacceptable", as did the French representative Jewish organization CRIF, which denied Sharon's claim of intense anti-Semitism in French society. An Israeli spokesperson later claimed that Sharon had been misunderstood. France then postponed a visit by Sharon. Upon his visit, both Sharon and French President Jacques Chirac were described as showing a willingness to put the issue behind them. ===Unilateral disengagement=== In September 2001, Sharon stated for the first time that Palestinians should have the right to establish their own land west of the Jordan River. On 27 September 2005, Sharon narrowly defeated a leadership challenge by a 52–48 percent vote. The move was initiated within the central committee of the governing Likud party by Sharon's main rival, Benjamin Netanyahu, who had left the cabinet to protest Sharon's withdrawal from Gaza. The measure was an attempt by Netanyahu to call an early primary in November 2005 to choose the party's leader. ===Founding of Kadima=== On 21 November 2005, Sharon resigned as head of Likud, and dissolved parliament to form a new centrist party called Kadima ("Forward"). November polls indicated that Sharon was likely to be returned to the prime ministership. On 20 December 2005, Sharon's longtime rival Netanyahu was elected his successor as leader of Likud. Following Sharon's incapacitation, Ehud Olmert replaced Sharon as Kadima's leader, for the nearing general elections. Likud, along with the Labor Party, were Kadimas chief rivals in the March 2006 elections. Sharon's stroke occurred a few months before he had been expected to win a new election and was widely interpreted as planning on "clearing Israel out of most of the West Bank", in a series of unilateral withdrawals. (the number usually averages on the high 70%), Kadima, headed by Olmert, received the most Knesset seats, followed by Labor. The new governing coalition installed in May 2006 included Kadima, with Olmert as Prime Minister, Labor (including Amir Peretz as Defense Minister), the Pensioners' Party (Gil), the Shas religious party, and Israel Beytenu. ===Alleged fundraising irregularities and Greek island affair=== During the latter part of his career, Sharon was investigated for alleged involvement in a number of financial scandals, in particular, the Greek island affair and irregularities of fundraising during the 1999 election campaign. In the Greek island affair, Sharon was accused of promising (during his term as Foreign Minister) to help Israeli businessman David Appel in his development project on a Greek island in exchange for large consultancy payments to Sharon's son Gilad. The charges were later dropped due to lack of evidence. In the 1999 election fundraising scandal, Sharon was not charged with any wrongdoing, but his son Omri, a Knesset member at the time, was charged and sentenced in 2006 to nine months in prison. To avoid a potential conflict of interest in relation to these investigations, Sharon was not involved in the confirmation of the appointment of a new attorney general, Menahem Mazuz, in 2005. On 10 December 2005, Israeli police raided Martin Schlaff's apartment in Jerusalem. Another suspect in the case was Robert Nowikovsky, an Austrian involved in Russian state-owned company Gazprom's business activities in Europe. According to Haaretz, "The $3 million that parachuted into Gilad and Omri Sharon's bank account toward the end of 2002 was transferred there in the context of a consultancy contract for development of kolkhozes (collective farms) in Russia. Gilad Sharon was brought into the campaign to make the wilderness bloom in Russia by Getex, a large Russian-based exporter of seeds (peas, millet, wheat) from Eastern Europe. Getex also has ties with Israeli firms involved in exporting wheat from Ukraine, for example. The company owns farms in Eastern Europe and is considered large and prominent in its field. It has its Vienna offices in the same building as Jurimex, which was behind the $1-million guarantee to the Yisrael Beiteinu party." On 17 December, police found evidence of a $3 million bribe paid to Sharon's sons. Shortly afterwards, Sharon had a stroke. Stories of Sharon's appetite and obesity were legendary in Israel. He would often joke about his love of food and expansive girth. His staff car would reportedly be stocked with snacks, vodka, and caviar. He was a daily consumer of cigars and luxury foods. Numerous attempts by doctors, friends, and staff to impose a balanced diet on Sharon were unsuccessful. Sharon was hospitalized on 18 December 2005, following a minor ischemic stroke. During his hospital stay, doctors discovered a heart defect requiring surgery and ordered bed rest pending a cardiac catheterization scheduled for 5 January 2006. Instead, Sharon immediately returned to work and had a hemorrhagic stroke on 4 January. He was rushed to Hadassah Medical Center in Jerusalem. After two surgeries lasting 7 and 14 hours, doctors stopped the bleeding in Sharon's brain, but were unable to prevent him from entering into a coma. Subsequent media reports indicated that Sharon had been diagnosed with cerebral amyloid angiopathy (CAA) during his December hospitalisation. Hadassah Hospital Director Shlomo Mor-Yosef declined to respond to comments that the combination of CAA and blood thinners after Sharon's December stroke might have caused his more serious subsequent stroke. Ehud Olmert became Acting Prime Minister the night of Sharon's second stroke, while Sharon officially remained in office. Knesset elections followed in March, with Olmert and Sharon's Kadima party winning a plurality. The next month, the Israeli Cabinet declared Sharon permanently incapacitated and Olmert became Interim Prime Minister on 14 April 2006 and Prime Minister in his own right on 4 May. Sharon underwent a series of subsequent surgeries related to his state. In May 2006, he was transferred to a long-term care facility in Sheba Medical Center. In July of that year, he was briefly taken to the hospital's intensive care unit to be treated for bacteria in his blood, before returning to the long-term care facility on 6 November 2006. Sharon would remain at Sheba Medical Center until his death. Medical experts indicated that his cognitive abilities had likely been destroyed by the stroke. His condition worsened from late 2013, and Sharon suffered from renal failure on 1 January 2014. After spending eight years in a coma, Sharon died at 14:00 local time (12:00 UTC) on 11 January 2014. Sharon's state funeral was held on 13 January in accordance with Jewish burial customs, which require that interment take place as soon after death as possible. His body lay in state in the Knesset Plaza from 12 January until the official ceremony, followed by a funeral held at the family's ranch in the Negev Desert. Sharon was buried beside his wife, Lily. ==Personal life== Sharon was married twice, to two sisters, Margalit and Lily Zimmerman, who were from Romania. Sharon met Margalit in 1947 when she was 16, while she was tending a vegetable field, and married her in 1953, shortly after becoming a military instructor. Margalit was a supervisory psychiatric nurse. They had one son, Gur. Margalit died in a car accident in May 1962 and Gur died in October 1967, aged 11, after a friend accidentally shot him while the two children were playing with a rifle at the Sharon family home. After Margalit's death, Sharon married her younger sister, Lily. They had two sons, Omri and Gilad, and six grandchildren. Lily Sharon died of lung cancer in 2000. Sharon's sister, Yehudit, known as "Dita", married Shmuel Mandel. In the 1950s, the couple permanently left Israel and emigrated to the United States. This caused a permanent rift in the family. Shmuel and Vera Scheinerman were greatly hurt by their daughter's choice to leave Israel. As a result, Vera Scheinerman willed only a small part of her estate to Dita, an act which enraged her. At one point, Dita decided to return to Israel, but after Vera was informed by the Israel Lands Administration that it would not be legally possible to split the family property between Ariel and Dita, and informed her that she would not be able to build a home there, Dita, believing she was being lied to, cut her family in Israel off and refused to attend the funerals of her mother and sister-in-law. She reestablished contact with the family after Sharon's stroke. Sharon's sister has rarely been mentioned in biographies of him: he himself rarely acknowledged her and only mentioned her twice in his autobiography. ==Legacy== A hugely consequential figure, Sharon remains a highly polarizing figure as well. While generally considered a great general and statesman among Israelis, Palestinians and numerous media and political sources revile Sharon as a war criminal. Human Rights Watch has contended that Sharon should have been held criminally accountable for his role in the Sabra and Shatila massacre, and other abuses. The Ariel Sharon Park, an environmental park near Tel Aviv, is named for him. In the Negev desert, the IDF is currently building its city of training bases, Camp Ariel Sharon. In total, a NIS 50 billion project, the city of bases is named after Ariel Sharon, the largest active construction project in Israel, it is to become the largest IDF base in Israel. ==Overview of offices held== Sharon served as prime minister (Israel's head of government) from 7 March 2001 through 14 April 2006 (with Ehud Olmert serving as acting prime minister beginning 4 January 2006, after Sharon slipped into a coma). As prime minister he led the 12th government during the 15th Knesset and the 13th government during the 16th Knesset. Sharon served in the Knesset, first for several months in 1973, and later from 1977 through 2006. Sharon. From July 1999 through July 2000, Sharon served as the unofficial/honorary Knesset's opposition leader. Thereafter, from July 2000 through March 2001, he served as the first official designated Knesset opposition leader. Sharon was the leader of the Shlomtzion party from its 1976 founding until its 1977 merger into Likud. Sharon served as leader of the Likud party from 1999 through 2005, leaving to create Kadima which he led from 2005 through early 2006 (when he fell into a coma). In addition to these positions and his ministerial roles, Sharon also served as a special aide to Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin from June 1975 through March 1976. ===Ministerial posts=== ==Electoral history== ===2001 direct election for Prime Minister=== ===Party leadership elections===	[ "Foreign Affairs Minister of Israel", "The Sydney Morning Herald", "Gush Emunim", "Suez Crisis", "NATO bombing of Yugoslavia", "Eighteenth government of Israel", "Jacques Chirac", "Ehud Ya'ari", "Second Intifada", "Likud", "1947–1949 Palestine war", "Dome of the Rock", "Kahan Commission", "Southern Command (Israel)", "Yom Kippur War", "Mahmud Abbas", "Dieter Nohlen", "Operation Defensive Shield", "David Chanoff", "actual malice", "Palestinian Arab", "Twenty-ninth government of Israel", "Twenty-fourth government of Israel", "Omri Sharon", "cerebral amyloid angiopathy", "Cairo", "Simha Erlich", "Twenty-second government of Israel", "Operation Raviv", "Battle for Jerusalem (1948)", "Aharon Davidi", "renal failure", "Israel's Border Wars 1949–1956", "Meir Sheetrit", "diminutive", "Israel State Archives", "Democratic Movement for Change", "The Great War for Civilisation: The Conquest of the Middle East", "Palestinian fedayeen", "Mitla Pass", "Kataeb Party", "Meimad", "Yehud-Monosson", "French Jews", "Pulsa diNura", "Gazprom", "Minister without portfolio", "Suez Canal", "U.S. State Department", "Industry, Trade and Labour Minister of Israel", "high blood pressure", "Sinai Peninsula", "Israel Tal", "Ramat Gan", "Kissufim", "Death and funeral of Ariel Sharon", "Ministry of Defense (Israel)", "Deputy Prime Minister of Israel", "Bar Lev Line", "Thirteenth government of Israel", "cognition", "Israel Defense Forces", "Israel's unilateral disengagement", "Operation Olive Leaves", "Prime Minister of the Palestinian National Authority", "Moshe Katsav", "Habis Majali", "319th Division", "Associated Press", "Aluf", "Fox News", "Gadna (Israel)", "Israeli West Bank barrier", "platoon", "The Council for the Advancement of Arab-British Understanding", "Shlomo Argov", "Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Israel)", "Israeli Liberal Party", "Aleksandar Vulin", "Degel HaTorah", "The Washington Post", "1982 Lebanon War", "Haaretz", "Agence France-Presse", "Palestinian National Authority", "Hebrew University <!-- of Jerusalem -->", "Ehud Olmert", "lie in state", "Bloodstream infections", "War of Attrition", "Palestinian people", "Beirut", "The New York Times", "David Ben-Gurion", "prime minister of Israel", "Major General", "2001 Israeli prime ministerial election", "Yitzhak Levy", "Yitzhak Rabin", "National Infrastructure Minister of Israel", "Caspar Weinberger", "Xinhua News Agency", "Moshe Dayan", "centrism", "Twenty-first government of Israel", "Mahmoud Abbas", "cardiac catheterization", "San Francisco Chronicle", "Mafraq", "1992 Likud leadership election", "Syrian Socialist National Party", "Peace Now", "Military officer", "brigade", "Palestine Liberation Organization", "South African Defence Force", "Espionage", "Soviet Union", "Encirclement", "Agriculture Minister of Israel", "War crime", "bulletproof vest", "Front (military)", "David Levy (Israeli politician)", "Tel Aviv", "Tenth Knesset", "Operation Musketeer (1956)", "CNN", "Simon & Schuster", "Israeli Declaration of Independence", "Yitzhak Shamir", "Camp David 2000 Summit", "Shlomtzion (political party)", "Kadima", "Raanan Gissin", "permanent vegetative state", "Housing and Construction Minister of Israel", "Ministry of Religious Affairs (Israel)", "Kfar Malal", "Hebrew University of Jerusalem", "Hebraization of surnames", "Yuli Tamir", "An-Nakhl Fortress", "Martin Schlaff", "Operation Elkayam", "Al Jazeera Media Network", "United Torah Judaism", "Tzipi Livni", "Qibya massacre", "The Guardian", "Negev Desert", "obesity", "Binyamin Ben-Eliezer", "Twelfth government of Israel", "Al-Aqsa", "Haganah", "moshav", "1984 Herut leadership election", "Bloomberg News", "Ynetnews", "Mitchell Report (Arab-Israeli conflict)", "Dalia Itzik", "national unity government", "Camp Ariel Sharon", "Freddy Eytan", "Greek island affair", "Aharon Uzan", "Yasser Arafat", "Haim Bar Lev", "Prime Minister of Israel", "Battle of Ismailia", "Menachem M. Schneerson", "Tel Aviv University", "Israel Standard Time", "Yitzhak Cohen", "Paratroopers Brigade (IDF)", "law degree", "ischemic stroke", "Ministry of Communications (Israel)", "Golani Brigade", "Eli Suissa", "Company (military unit)", "Aqaba", "1948 Palestine war", "Mogilev", "Ministry of National Infrastructures", "bolshevism", "Ministry of Immigrant Absorption", "Hadassah Medical Center", "Arutz Sheva", "Labor Party (Israel)", "Qibli Mosque", "Liberalism in Israel", "Human Rights Watch", "Sheba Medical Center", "Abu Nidal Organization", "Shimon Peres", "Jordan", "hemorrhagic stroke", "Israel–Russia relations", "Abraham Rabinovich", "Operation Black Arrow", "Emil Grunzweig", "Oxford University Press", "The Age", "Yisrael Beiteinu", "Egyptian Second Army", "Twenty-third government of Israel", "surveillance aircraft", "1977 Israeli legislative election", "Egyptian Army", "Thirtieth government of Israel", "United Kingdom Parliament", "ABC News (Australia)", "HaNoar HaOved VeHaLomed", "The Jewish Week", "Israeli-occupied territories", "Reuven Rivlin", "Ariel Sharon Park", "military tribunal", "Operation Opera", "Bachir Gemayel", "September 1999 Likud leadership election", "Benny Morris", "Tbilisi", "List of members of the fifteenth Knesset", "2006 Israeli legislative election", "Raful Eitan", "high cholesterol", "minister without portfolio", "Henry Kamm", "Time (magazine)", "Nineteenth government of Israel", "Israel Beytenu", "infantry", "Leader of the Opposition (Israel)", "Meir Har-Zion", "Operation Bulmus 6", "Haim Arlosoroff", "Asher Ohana", "Reprisal operations", "Twentieth government of Israel", "Shia Islam in Lebanon", "USA Today", "Suez", "Israeli settlement", "Paratroopers Brigade", "Antisemitism in 21st-century France", "Jewish bereavement", "Acting Prime Minister of Israel", "Defense Minister of Israel", "Brest, Belarus", "Slander and libel", "Operation Egged", "1973 Israeli legislative election", "Jerusalem", "Fresh Water Canal", "Gaza Strip", "Unit 101", "Battles of Latrun", "armored division", "George W. Bush", "BBC News", "Philadelphia Daily News", "Robert Fisk", "Egyptians", "The Independent", "Mordechai Gur", "David Appel (businessman)", "Six-Day War", "Herut", "Romania", "Twenty-seventh government of Israel", "Battle of Abu-Ageila (1967)", "Coordinated Universal Time", "Yosef Dayan", "Minister of Foreign Affairs of Israel", "Pensioners' Party (Gil)", "Israeli–Palestinian peace process", "reprisal operations", "The Times of Israel", "1948 Arab Israeli War", "Road Map for Peace", "List of Palestinian suicide attacks", "Rebbe: The Life and Teachings of Menachem M. Schneerson, the Most Influential Rabbi in Modern History", "Conseil Représentatif des Institutions juives de France", "European Union", "Shas", "Gideon Patt", "Asaf Simchoni", "Qalqilyah", "agronomy", "Moshe Sharett", "Destroying angel (Bible)", "Routledge", "Elie Hobeika", "Habib Chartouni", "Osprey Publishing", "aliyah", "Stern (magazine)", "Amir Peretz", "United States Army Training and Doctrine Command", "Palestinian Authority", "Moshe Nissim", "Ministry of Agriculture (Israel)", "List of members of the sixteenth Knesset", "2002 Likud leadership election", "Temple Mount", "Mandatory Palestine", "Coup d'état", "Benjamin Netanyahu", "Menahem Mazuz", "Reconnaissance", "Operation Volcano (Israeli raid)", "Third Aliyah", "Ramatkal", "battalion", "Abraham Adan", "Ehud Barak", "major general", "head of government", "Ministry of Housing and Construction", "Mapai", "war crime", "Bill Clinton", "2006 Israel legislative election", "Alexandroni Brigade", "Ministry of Industry and Trade (Israel)", "Menachem Begin", "secularism", "Arab Legion", "Reuters", "Jordan River", "BBC Four", "Moshe Feiglin", "Drill instructor", "Sabra and Shatila massacre", "Egyptian Third Army", "Shatila refugee camp", "West Bank", "Vladimir Putin" ]
2,945	Romantic orientation	Romantic orientation, also called affectional orientation, is the classification of the sex or gender which a person experiences romantic attraction towards or is likely to have a romantic relationship with. The term is used alongside the term "sexual orientation", as well as being used alternatively to it, based upon the perspective that sexual attraction is only a single component of a larger concept. For example, although a pansexual person may feel sexually attracted to people regardless of gender, the person may experience romantic attraction and intimacy, for example, with women only. For asexual people, romantic orientation is often considered a more useful measure of attraction than sexual orientation. The relationship between sexual attraction and romantic attraction is still under debate. Sexual and romantic attractions are often studied in conjunction. Even though studies of sexual and romantic spectrums are shedding light onto this under-researched subject, much is still not fully understood. ==Romantic identities== People may or may not engage in purely emotional romantic relationships. The main identities relating to this are: Aromantic, meaning someone who experiences little to no romantic attraction (aromanticism). For identities within the aromantic spectrum, see Aromantic spectrum. Alloromantic or zedromantic: Monoromantic: Romantic attraction towards person(s) of only one gender (monoromanticism). Androromantic: Romantic attraction towards men or masculinity (androromanticism). Gyneromantic or gynoromantic: Romantic attraction towards women or femininity (gyneromanticism or gynoromanticism). : Romantic attraction towards person(s) of the opposite gender (heteroromanticism). : Romantic attraction towards person(s) of the same gender (homoromanticism). Multiromantic or pluriromantic: Romantic attraction towards person(s) of multiple genders (multiromanticism or pluriromanticism). or ambiromantic: Romantic attraction towards two genders, or person(s) of the same and other genders (biromanticism or ambiromanticism). Sometimes used the same way as panromantic or multiromantic. : Romantic attraction towards person(s) of various, but not all, genders (polyromanticism). Skolioromantic or ceteroromantic: Romantic attraction towards genderqueer or non-binary person(s) (skolioromanticism or ceteroromanticism). Not to be confused with aroflux. Pomoromantic: Rejecting preexisting romantic labels (pomoromanticism). It is common for sources to describe sexual orientation as including components of both sexual and romantic (or romantic equivalent) attractions. Asexual individuals experience little to no sexual attraction (see gray asexuality); however, they may still experience romantic attraction. Lisa M. Diamond states that a person's romantic orientation can differ from whom the person is sexually attracted to. While there is limited research on the discordance between sexual attraction and romantic attraction in individuals, the possibility of fluidity and diversity in attractions have been progressively recognized. Researchers Bulmer and Izuma found that people who identify as aromantic often have more negative attitudes in relation to romance. While roughly 1% of the population identifies as asexual, 74% of those people reported having some form of romantic attraction. A concept commonly used by people that experience discordant romantic and sexual attraction is the split attraction model, which tries to explain that romantic and sexual attractions are not exclusively tied together and is often used by people of the asexual and aromantic community to explain their differing romantic versus sexual orientations. The abbreviation aroace (or aro-ace) can be used for someone who is both aromantic ('aro') and asexual ('ace').	[ "Cross-sex friendship", "split attraction model", "Queerplatonic relationship", "ABC-CLIO", "pansexuality", "sexual orientation", "romantic attraction", "genderqueer", "gender", "aroflux", "Emotional affair", "sex", "Lisa M. Diamond", "Gyneromantic", "sexual attraction", "romantic relationship", "Aromantic spectrum", "Pomoromantic", "Womance", "Bromance", "Marshall Cavendish", "gray asexuality", "Homosociality", "non-binary", "Androromantic", "Heterosociality", "sexual fluidity", "Abroromantic", "WebMD", "Romantic friendship", "Aromantic", "Alloromantic", "Routledge", "Skolioromantic", "Asexuality", "SAGE Publications", "Romance (love)", "Interpersonal attraction" ]
2,947	Anoa	Anoa, also known as dwarf buffalo and sapiutan, are two species of the genus Bubalus, placed within the subgenus Anoa and endemic to the island of Sulawesi in Indonesia: the mountain anoa (Bubalus quarlesi) and the lowland anoa (Bubalus depressicornis). Both live in undisturbed rainforests and are similar in appearance to miniature water buffaloes, weighing . 'Anoa' itself is Celebic in origin cognate to words in other related Philippine languages in the same Austronesian family that name the common water buffalo (anwáng in Tagalog, nuáng in Ilocano, nuwang in Ifugaw etc). Both species of anoa have been classified as endangered since the 1960s and the populations continue to decrease. Fewer than 5,000 animals of each species likely remain. Reasons for their decline include poaching for hides, horns, and meat by the local peoples and loss of habitat due to the advancement of settlement. Currently, poaching is the most serious factor in most areas. Anoa are most closely allied to the larger Asian buffaloes, showing the same reversal of the direction of the hair on their backs. The horns are peculiar for their upright direction and comparative straightness, although they have the same triangular section as in other buffaloes. White spots are sometimes present below the eyes and there may be white markings on the legs and back; the absence or presence of these white markings may be indicative of distinct races. The horns of the cows are very small. The nearest allies of the anoa appear to be certain extinct Asian buffaloes, the remains of which have been found in the Siwalik Hills of northern India. Imagery of anoas may be present in the oldest rock art known as of 2024. Both are found on the island of Sulawesi and the nearby island of Buton in Indonesia. They live singly or in pairs, rather than in herds like most cattle, except when the cows are about to give birth. Little is known about their life history as well. However, in captive individuals, they have a life expectancy of 20–30 years. The anoa take two to three years before they reach sexual maturity have one calf a year and have very rarely been seen to have more. Skulls of anoa cannot be accurately identified as to species, and there is likely hybridizing and interbreeding between the two in the zoo population. It is questioned as to whether the two species were different due to them occurring together in many different areas, as well as some interbreeding. A study of the mtDNA of ten specimens from different localities found a high mitochondrial genetic diversity between individuals identified as one or the other species, indicating support for recognition as two species. ==Species== The lowland anoa (Bubalus depressicornis) is a small bovid, standing barely over at the shoulder. It is usually solitary, living in lowland forests, browsing on plants and understory. According to Groves (1969) the lowland anoa can be told apart from the other species by being larger, having a triangular horn cross-section, sparse as opposed to thick and woolly hair, and always having white markings on the face and legs. Standing at at the shoulder, it is even smaller than the lowland anoa and the smallest of all living wild cattle. They also have longer, woolier hair that moults every year, showing faint spots on the head, neck, and limbs. According to Groves (1969), the mountain anoa can be told apart from the other species by being smaller, having a round horn cross-section, thick and woolly hair, and sometimes having white markings on the face and legs. ==Distribution== Both the lowland anoa (Bubalus depressicornis) and the mountain anoa (Bubalus quarlesi) are endemic to the islands of Sulawesi in Indonesia. Both species appear to occur in the same areas. Sulawesi is a unique area because roughly 61% of the species found there are endemic species, including both anoa species. ==Habitat== Traditionally, a key difference between the two species is the altitude at which they occur. The mountain anoa can be found at higher elevations than its lowland counterpart and is found in the forests. The lowland anoa was said to spend its time in the lower elevation areas and is also found in forests. Since 2005, however, these differences do not seem to be accurate, both species occur in the same areas in the same habitats. ==Morphology== The anoa have many physical characteristics of bovine relatives and are considered to be most closely related to the water buffalo, which was confirmed through DNA analysis. The physical characteristics of the two species are similar. The anoa is the smallest of the wild cattle species. When anoa are born, they have a set of thick, woolly fur that comes in many color variations ranging from yellow to brown. In adults, the fur is typically brown or black, and males tend to have darker variations. Hair thickness varies slightly between the two species based on elevation and distribution. In both species of anoa, horns are present in both males and females and are typically straight protuberances. Another defining characteristic of the anoa is an extremely thick hide underneath the thick fur. ==Conservation== Both anoa species are endemic to the island of Sulawesi and are currently experiencing large declines in their populations. Knowledge of their decline has only recently been documented, however, and the villages and villagers lack the knowledge of how to help maintain or increase populations. The leading cause of their population decline is hunting by local villagers for meat, with habitat loss also being significant. One benefit of the lack of knowledge about the legal status of what they are doing is that villagers are open to communication with researchers on their harvests and hunting practices; where awareness of conservation issues has penetrated, villagers will lie about their activities. Logging is a large issue because both species prefer core forested habitats that are far away from humans and the influences that come with them. By logging, humans create much more fragmented habitats and, therefore, a decrease in the area where the anoa can breed and live. This habitat fragmentation also alters the natural mixing of populations of the anoa. This may lead to a loss in genetic diversity between the two species and, over time, could also lead to their decline.	[ "Germany", "Surabaya Zoo", "Horn (anatomy)", "Siwalik Hills", "Bovini", "Bubalus", "mtDNA", "wool", "water buffalo", "poaching", "Surabaya", "mitochondrial", "mountain anoa", "Celebic languages", "Krefeld", "cognate", "horn (anatomy)", "habitat loss", "lowland", "Indonesia", "bovid", "Race (biology)", "Krefeld Zoo", "Philippine languages", "lowland anoa", "meat", "habitat fragmentation", "loss of habitat", "hide (skin)", "Sulawesi", "tropical rainforest", "understory", "endangered", "hybrid (biology)", "Buton" ]
2,948	Agner Krarup Erlang	Agner Krarup Erlang (1 January 1878 – 3 February 1929) was a Danish mathematician, statistician and engineer, who invented the fields of traffic engineering and queueing theory. By the time of his relatively early death at the age of 51, Erlang had created the field of telephone networks analysis. His early work in scrutinizing the use of local, exchange and trunk telephone line usage in a small community to understand the theoretical requirements of an efficient network led to the creation of the Erlang formula, which became a foundational element of modern telecommunications network studies. == Life == Erlang was born at Lønborg, near Tarm, in Jutland. He was the son of a schoolmaster, and a descendant of Thomas Fincke on his mother's side. At age 14, he passed the Preliminary Examination of the University of Copenhagen with distinction, after receiving dispensation to take it because he was younger than the usual minimum age. For the next two years he taught alongside his father. A distant relative provided free board and lodging, and Erlang prepared for and took the University of Copenhagen entrance examination in 1896, and passed with distinction. He won a scholarship to the university and majored in mathematics, and also studied astronomy, physics and chemistry. He graduated in 1901 with an MA and over the next 7 years taught at several schools. He maintained his interest in mathematics, and received an award for a paper that he submitted to the University of Copenhagen. He was a member of the Danish Mathematicians' Association (DMF) and through this met amateur mathematician Johan Jensen, the Chief Engineer of the Copenhagen Telephone Company (KTAS in Danish), an offshoot of the International Bell Telephone Company. Erlang worked for the Copenhagen Telephone Company from 1908 for almost 20 years, until his death in Copenhagen after an abdominal operation. He was an associate of the British Institution of Electrical Engineers. == Contributions == While working for the CTC, Erlang was presented with the classic problem of determining how many circuits were needed to provide an acceptable telephone service. His thinking went further by finding how many telephone operators were needed to handle a given volume of calls. Most telephone exchanges then used human operators and cord boards to switch telephone calls by means of jack plugs. Out of necessity, Erlang was a hands-on researcher. He would conduct measurements and was prepared to climb into street manholes to do so. He was also an expert in the history and calculation of the numerical tables of mathematical functions, particularly logarithms. He devised new calculation methods for certain forms of tables. He developed his theory of telephone traffic over several years. His significant publications include: 1909 – "The Theory of Probabilities and Telephone Conversations", which proves that the Poisson distribution applies to random telephone traffic. 1917 – "Solution of some Problems in the Theory of Probabilities of Significance in Automatic Telephone Exchanges", which contains his classic formulae for call loss and waiting time. 1920 – "Telephone waiting times", which is Erlang's principal work on waiting times, assuming constant holding times. These and other notable papers were translated into English, French and German. His papers were prepared in a very brief style and can be difficult to understand without a background in the field. One Bell Telephone Laboratories researcher is said to have learned Danish to study them. The British Post Office accepted his formula as the basis for calculating circuit facilities. In 1946, the CCITT named the international unit of telephone traffic the "erlang". A statistical distribution and programming language listed below have also been named in his honour. Erlang also made an important contribution to physiologic modeling with the Krogh-Erlang capillary cylinder model describing oxygen supply to living tissue.	[ "Teletraffic engineering", "physics", "Mathematician", "Corporate spin-off", "queueing theory", "Jutland", "CCITT", "International Bell Telephone Company", "telephone switchboard", "manhole", "Erlang distribution", "Queueing theory", "Thomas Fincke", "PSTN", "engineer", "Denmark", "telecommunications", "Bell Telephone Laboratories", "mathematician", "Ericsson", "Johan Jensen (mathematician)", "statistician", "logarithm", "BT Group plc", "teletraffic engineering", "Grade of service", "Switchboard operator", "Copenhagen", "Tarm", "Erlang (unit)", "chemistry", "Institution of Electrical Engineers", "Erlang unit", "telephone call", "astronomy", "Erlang (programming language)", "Krogh model", "TDC A/S", "Erlang formula", "Poisson distribution", "probability", "University of Copenhagen", "telephone exchange", "mathematics" ]
2,950	Anyone Can Whistle	Anyone Can Whistle is a musical with music and lyrics by Stephen Sondheim, and a book by Arthur Laurents. Described as "a satire on conformity and the insanity of the so-called sane," the show tells a story of an economically depressed town whose corrupt mayor decides to create a fake miracle in order to attract tourists. The phony miracle draws the attention of an emotionally inhibited nurse, a crowd of inmates from a local asylum, and a doctor with secrets of his own. Following a tryout period in Philadelphia, Anyone Can Whistle opened at the Majestic Theatre on Broadway on April 4, 1964. The show received widely varied reviews (including negative notices from the New York Times and the New York Herald Tribune), and closed after a run of twelve previews and nine performances. The show's original run marked the stage musical debut of Angela Lansbury. In the decades since its closing, Anyone Can Whistle has seen relatively few productions compared to other Sondheim musicals; notable productions include a 1995 concert version at Carnegie Hall, a pair of stagings in London and Los Angeles in 2003 that incorporated revisions, and a 2010 concert staging for the Encores! program at New York City Center. However, its score has become acclaimed as a part of Sondheim's canon, and songs such as the title tune ("Anyone Can Whistle"), "Everybody Says Don't", and "There Won't Be Trumpets" have been performed widely. ==Background== The show was first announced in The New York Times on October 5, 1961: "For the winter of 1962, [Arthur Laurents] is nurturing another musical project, The Natives Are Restless. The narrative and staging will be Mr. Laurent's handiwork; music and lyrics that of Stephen Sondheim. A meager description was furnished by Mr. Laurents, who refused to elaborate. Although the title might indicate otherwise, it is indigenous in content and contemporary in scope. No producer yet." No news of the show appeared until July 14, 1963, in an article in The New York Times about Kermit Bloomgarden, where it discussed the four shows he was producing for the coming season; two were maybes, two were definite. One of the latter was a Sondheim-Laurents musical (now named Side Show). Following rehearsals in New York City, the company started pre-Broadway tryouts in Philadelphia from March 2 to 21, 1964. Laurents, ignoring criticism about the show's message being trite and its absurdist style difficult to comprehend, poured his energies into restaging rather than dealing with the crux of the problem. The show suffered further setbacks when supporting actor Henry Lascoe, who played Comptroller Schub, suffered a heart attack during the show's out-of-town tryout, and was replaced by Gabriel Dell. According to Sondheim, "Lansbury was so insecure onstage, and unhappy with her performance, that we considered replacing her. Ironically, it soon became apparent that it had been Lascoe, an old pro...who had made her feel like an amateur. The minute his much less confident understudy took over, she felt free to blossom, which she spectacularly did." Sondheim called the reviews "humiliating" and the audiences "hostile." ==Productions== After multiple revisions, the show opened on Broadway on April 4, 1964, at the Majestic Theatre, where it closed after 9 performances and 12 previews, unable to overcome negative notices from major papers such as the New York Times and the New York Herald Tribune. Scenic design was by William and Jean Eckart, costume design by Theoni V. Aldredge, and lighting design by Jules Fisher. Choreographer Herbert Ross received the show's sole Tony Award nomination. The show became a cult favorite, and a truncated recording by the original cast released by Columbia Records sold well among Sondheim fans and musical theater buffs. "There Won't Be Trumpets," a song cut during previews, has become a favorite of cabaret performers. On April 8, 1995, a staged concert was held at Carnegie Hall in New York City as a benefit for the Gay Men's Health Crisis. The concert was recorded by Columbia Records, preserving for the first time musical passages and numbers not included on the recording by the original Broadway cast. For example, the cut song "There's Always a Woman" was included at this concert. Lansbury served as narrator, with Madeline Kahn as Cora, Bernadette Peters as Fay, and Scott Bakula as Hapgood. Additional cast included Chip Zien, Ken Page, and Harvey Evans, the only cast member from the original show to reprise his role. In 2003, Sony reissued the original Broadway cast recording on compact disc. Two revivals were staged that year: one in London at the Bridewell Theatre and one in Los Angeles at the Matrix Theatre. The Ravinia Festival presented a staged concert on August 26 and 27, 2005, with Audra McDonald (Fay), Michael Cerveris (Hapgood) and Patti LuPone (Cora). On January 11, 2008, Talk Is Free Theatre presented the Canadian professional premiere (in concert) at the Gryphon Theatre in Barrie, Ontario, with a fundraiser performance on January 13 at the Diesel Playhouse in Toronto, Ontario. It starred Adam Brazier as Hapgood, Kate Hennig as Cora, Blythe Wilson as Fay, and Richard Ouzounian as Narrator, who also served as director. Choreography was by Sam Strasfeld. Additional cast included Juan Chioran as Comptroller Schub, Jonathan Monro as Treasurer Cooley, and Mark Harapiak as Chief Magruder. Musical direction was provided by Wayne Gwillim. Encores! presented a staged concert from April 8 through April 11, 2010, with Sutton Foster as Nurse Fay Apple, Donna Murphy as Mayoress Cora Hoover Hooper, and Raul Esparza as Hapgood, with direction and choreography by Casey Nicholaw. The production was the second most attended in Encores! history, and Stephen Sondheim was present at the post-matinee talkback on April 10. A London production of Anyone can Whistle opened at the Jermyn Street Studio Theatre, London, in association with Primavera Productions, running from March 10, 2010, to April 17, 2010. The director is Tom Littler, with Musical Director Tom Attwood, and a cast that includes Issy van Randwyck (Mayoress), Rosalie Craig (Nurse Fay Apple) and David Ricardo-Pearce (Hapgood). Porchlight Music Theatre presented Anyone Can Whistle in 2013 as a part of "Porchlight Revisits" series, in which it staged three forgotten musicals per year. It was directed by Christopher Pazdernik and music directed by Aaron Benham. A new production directed by Phil Willmott opened at the Union Theatre in London, running from February 8 through March 11, 2017. A concert presentation of the show was presented by MasterVoices, under the direction and baton of Ted Sperling, on March 10, 2022, at Carnegie Hall in New York City. This production featured Vanessa Williams (Cora Hoover Hooper), Santino Fontana (J. Bowden Hapgood), Elizabeth Stanley (Fay Apple), Douglas Sills (Comptroller Schub), Eddie Cooper (Treasurer Cooley), and Michael Mulheren (Police Chief Magruder). Joanna Gleason served as the narrator for the event IN 2022, a new production of the show ran at the Southwark Playhouse in London under the direction of Georgie Rankcom, with musical direction by Natalie Pound and choreography by Lisa Stevens. The show's cast featured Alex Young as Cora Hoover Hooper, Chrystine Symone as Nurse Fay Apple, and Jordan Broatch as J. Bowden Hapgood. This production was the largest staged version of the show since its debut on Broadway in 1964. ==Plot== ===Act One=== The story is set in an imaginary American town that has gone bankrupt. (Its former major industry was an unidentified product that never wore out. Everyone has one now, and no one needs a replacement.) The only place in town doing good business is the local mental asylum, known as "The Cookie Jar", whose inmates look much healthier than the disgruntled townspeople ("I'm Like the Bluebird"). All the money is in the hands of Cora Hoover Hooper, the stylish, ruthless mayoress and her croniesComptroller Schub, Treasurer Cooley, and Police Chief Magruder. Cora appears carried in a litter by her backup singers, and admits that she can accept anything except unpopularity ("Me and My Town"). The scheming Comptroller Schub tells her that he has a plan to save her administration and the town, promising, "It's unethical." He tells her to meet him at the rock on the edge of town. At the rock, a local mother, Mrs. Schroeder, tries to tell her child, Baby Joan, to come down from the rock, when Baby Joan licks itand a spring of water begins flowing from it. The town instantly proclaims a miracle, and Cora and her council eagerly anticipate tourist dollars as they boast of the water's curative powers ("Miracle Song"). It is soon revealed to Cora that the miracle is a fake, controlled by a pump inside the rock. The only person in town who doubts the miracle is Fay Apple, a skeptical but idealistic young nurse from the Cookie Jar. She appears at the rock with all forty-nine of the inmates, or "Cookies" in tow, intending to let them take some of the water. Schub realizes that if they drink the water and remain insane, people will discover the fraud. As he tries to stop Fay, the inmates mingle with the townspeople, until no one can guess who is who. Fay disappears, and hiding from the police, admits that she hopes for a hero to deliver the town Cora and her lackeys ("There Won't Be Trumpets"). Cora arrives on the scene with the Cookie Jar's manager, Dr. Detmold, who says that Fay has taken the records to identify the inmates. He tells Cora that he is expecting a new assistant who might help them. At that moment a mysterious stranger, J. Bowden Hapgood, arrives asking for directions to the Cookie Jar. He is instantly taken for the new assistant. Asked to identify the missing Cookies, Hapgood begins questioning random people and sorting them into two groups, group A, and group one, without divulging which group is the sane one. The town council becomes suspicious, but Hapgood simply questions them until they begin to doubt their own sanity. Cora is too caught up with his logic to care ("Simple"). As the extended musical sequence ends, the lights black out except for a spotlight on Hapgood, who announces to the audience, "You are all mad!" Seconds later, the stage lights are restored, and the cast is revealed in theater seats, holding programs, applauding the audience, as the act ends. ===Act Two=== The two groups are now in a bitter rivalry over which is the sane group ("A-1 March"). Another stranger, a French woman in a feathered coat appears. It is really Fay Apple in disguise. She introduces herself as the Lady from Lourdes, a professional Miracle Inspector, who has come to investigate the miracle. As Schub runs off to warn Cora, Fay seeks out Hapgood in his hotel, and the two seduce each other in the style of a French romantic film ("Come Play Wiz Me"). Fay tries to get Hapgood's help in exposing the miracle. Hapgood, however, sees through her disguise and wants to question her first. Fay refuses to take her wig off and confesses to him that this disguise, leftover from a college play, is the only way she can break out of her shell. She begins to hope, however, that Hapgood may be the one who can help her learn to be free ("Anyone Can Whistle"). Meanwhile, the two groups continue to march, and Cora, trying to give a speech, realizes that Hapgood has stolen her limelight ("A Parade in Town"). She and Schub plan an emergency meeting at her house. Back at the hotel, Hapgood comes up with an idea, telling Fay to destroy the Cookies' records, so both they and Fay can be free. When Fay is reluctant, Hapgood produces a record of his ownhe is her fiftieth Cookie. He is a practicing idealist who, after years of attempted heroism, is tired of crusading and has come to the Cookie Jar to retire. Inspired by his record, Fay begins to tear the records up. As she does, the Cookies appear and begin to dance ("Everybody Says Don't"). ===Act Three=== Cora is at her house with her council. Schub has put the miracle on hiatus but announces that they can easily pin the blame on Hapgood. The group celebrates their alliance ("I've Got You to Lean On"). A mob forms outside the hotel, and Hapgood and Fay, still disguised, take refuge under the rock. Discovering the fraud, Cora and the council confront them. At that moment, Cora receives a telegram from the governor warning that if the quota of 49 cookies is not filled, she will be impeached. Schub tells her that since Hapgood never said who is sane or not, they can arrest anyone at random until the quota is filled. Hapgood refuses to help Fay stop the Mayoress since he has given up crusading. Although she knows she still isn't out of her shell, Fay angrily swears to go it alone ("See What it Gets You"). As Cora and the police force begin rounding up Cookies, Fay tries to get the key to the wagon from the guards in an extended ballet sequence ("The Cookie Chase"). As it ends, Fay is captured, and Dr. Detmold recognizes her. Fay tells the townspeople about the fake miracle, but the town refuses to believe her. Detmold tells Cora that even without the records, Fay can identify the inmates from memory. Cora warns that she will arrest forty-nine people, normal or not, and Fay, helplessly, identifies all the Cookies, except Hapgood. She tells him the world needs people like him, and Hapgood can't turn himself in. He asks Fay to come with him, but she still can't bring herself to break free. They regretfully part ways ("With So Little to Be Sure Of"). Word comes of a new miracle from the town beyond the valley, of a statue with a warm heart, and the townspeople, including Magruder and Cooley, rush off to see if it is real. Soon the town is all but deserted, and Cora is alone again. Again, Schub has the answerthey can turn the entire town into one big Cookie Jar. Cora realizes she and Schub are meant for each other, and they dance off together. As Fay resumes work, Detmold's real new assistant Jane Borden Osgood arrives, and Fay is horrified to realize that she is even more rigid and disbelieving than Fay herself, and the new nurse marches the Cookies off to the next town to disprove the new miracle. Horrified at seeing what she might become, Fay returns to the rock calling for Hapgood. When he doesn't answer, she tries to whistleand succeeds in blowing a shrill, ugly whistle. Hapgood appears again, saying, "That's good enough for me." As they embrace, the water begins flowing from the rocka true miracle this time ("Finale"). == Notable casts == ==Musical numbers== (from the Broadway production) Act I Prelude Act I (instrumental) — Orchestra I'm Like the Bluebird — Company Me and My Town — Cora Hoover Hooper and Boys Miracle Song — Cora, Treasurer Cooley, Townspeople, Tourists, and Pilgrims There Won't Be Trumpets — Fay Apple* Simple — J. Bowden Hapgood and Company Act II Prelude Act II (instrumental) — Orchestra A-1 March — Company Come Play Wiz Me — Fay, Hapgood, and Boys Anyone Can Whistle — Fay A Parade In Town — Cora Everybody Says Don't — Hapgood Don't Ballet (instrumental) — Orchestra Act III Prelude Act III (instrumental) — Orchestra I've Got You to Lean On — Cora, Comptroller Schub, Treasurer Cooley, Chief Magruder, and Boys See What It Gets You — Fay Anyone Can Whistle (Reprise) — Fay Cora's Chase (The Cookie Chase) — Company I'm Like the Bluebird (Reprise 1) — Cookies With So Little to Be Sure Of — Fay and Hapgood I've Got You to Lean On (Reprise) — Cora and Schub* I'm Like the Bluebird (Reprise 2) — Cookies Finale Ultimo (instrumental) — Orchestra Notes Asterisk (*) denotes song cut during Previews. Despite being cut from the original production, "There Won't Be Trumpets" was nonetheless recorded for the original Broadway cast recording, though it remained unreleased until a 1989 remastered CD. Officially licensed scripts and scores now reinstate the song. The 1995 concert production restored the songs "There Won't Be Trumpets" (Fay Apple) and "There's Always a Woman" (Fay and Cora), both previously cut. "Finale Ultimo" is attached to the end of "With So Little to Be Sure Of" on the Original Cast Recording. ==Critical response== Howard Taubman in his The New York Times review wrote that Laurents's "book lacks the fantasy that would make the idea work, and his staging has not improved matters. Mr. Sondheim has written several pleasing songs but not enough of them to give the musical wings. The performers yell rather than talk and run rather than walk. The dancing is the cream." Steven Suskin wrote in his 2000 book about Broadway composers: The "fascinating extended musical scenes, with extended choral work... immediately marked Sondheim as the most distinctive theatre composer of his time. The first act sanity sequence... and the third act chase... are unlike anything that came before." Stuart King writing for London Box Office (April 2022) noted: "Southwark Playhouse (with Guildford graduate Georgie Rankcom at the directorial helm for this gender-fluid production) has resurrected the piece for a short run — just in time for Easter! But the burning question on Press Night was whether or not the cult 60s show would need a miracle to find a new, modern fan base, OR, have the subjects of political corruption, sexual identity and mental wellbeing potentially given the fundamentally flawed piece new meaning for a young and previously unfamiliar audience? This reviewer’s answer would be that it will almost certainly depend entirely on who you are, how you identify (if indeed you bother with such matters), whether corruption in public office bothers you (why wouldn’t it?) and probably most significantly of all, whether you consider yourself a Sondheim purist/aficionado/devotee." ==Awards and nominations== ===Original Broadway production===	[ "Casey Nicholaw", "Herbert Greene (Broadway conductor)", "Jules Fisher", "Tom Littler", "Majestic Theatre (Broadway)", "Carnegie Hall", "Chip Zien", "Richard Ouzounian", "Clyde Alves", "Michael Mulheren", "Harvey Evans", "Arthur Laurents", "Barbra Streisand", "MasterVoices", "Union Theatre, London", "New York City Center", "Joanna Gleason", "Broadway theater", "Angela Lansbury", "Elizabeth Stanley (actress)", "Martin Gottfried", "Richard Rodgers", "Walter Bobbie", "cabaret", "litter (vehicle)", "Ted Sperling", "Madeline Kahn", "Santino Fontana", "Douglas Sills", "James Frawley", "Harry Guardino", "Columbia Records", "Nick Wyman", "Theoni V. Aldredge", "Herbert Ross", "Porchlight Music Theatre", "Gay Men's Health Crisis", "Ken Page", "Issy van Randwyck", "Scott Bakula", "Kermit Bloomgarden", "Stephen Sondheim", "Funny Girl (musical)", "Sony", "Ravinia Festival", "Off-West End", "Southwark Playhouse", "Peg Murray", "Tucker Smith", "Lee Remick", "Bernadette Peters", "Phil Willmott", "Raúl Esparza", "Jeff Blumenkrantz", "Gabriel Dell", "The Sondheim Review", "Raul Esparza", "Encores!", "Tony Award", "Tony Award for Best Choreography", "Henry Lascoe", "Ken Page (Actor)", "Choreographer", "Sutton Foster", "Vanessa Williams", "Edward Hibbert", "Maureen Moore", "Donna Murphy", "Michael Cerveris", "Audra McDonald", "Rosalie Craig", "Blythe Wilson", "Patti LuPone", "William and Jean Eckart" ]
2,952	Alcopop	An alcopop (or cooler) is a category of mixed alcoholic beverages with relatively low alcohol content (e.g., 3–7% alcohol by volume), including: Malt beverages to which various fruit juices or other flavorings have been added Wine coolers: beverages containing wine to which ingredients such as fruit juice or other flavorings have been added Mixed drinks containing distilled alcohol and sweet liquids such as fruit juices or other flavourings The term alcopop (a portmanteau of the words alcohol and pop) is used commonly in the United Kingdom and Ireland to describe these drinks. In English-speaking Canada, "cooler" is more common but "alcopop" may also be used. Other terms include flavored alcoholic beverage (FAB), flavored malt beverage (FMB), "pre-packaged" or "premium packaged" spirit (PPS). In Australia and New Zealand "premix" and ready to drink (RTD) are both commonly used terms. "Spirit cooler" is used in South Africa for distilled alcohol versions. Hard seltzer is a related category of alcoholic drinks based on flavored seltzer water. Hard soda, meanwhile, is specifically related to soft drinks. Hard lemonade, which could be considered an alcopop, has been around for some time. Hard cider, on the other hand, is a fermented beverage similar to wine or beer. == Description == There are a variety of beverages produced and marketed around the world as well as within each market which are described as coolers or alcopops. They tend to be sweet and served in small bottles (typically 355 ml (the normal size of a soda pop can) in the US, 275 ml in South Africa and Germany, 330 ml in Canada and Europe), and between 4% and 7% ABV. In Europe, Canada, and South Africa coolers tend to be pre-mixed spirits, including vodka (e.g. Smirnoff Ice) or rum (e.g. Bacardi Breezer). In the United States, on the other hand, alcopops often start out as un-hopped beers, depending on the state in which they are sold. Much of the malt (and alcohol) is removed (leaving mostly water), with subsequent addition of alcohol (usually vodka or grain alcohol), sugar, coloring and flavoring. Such drinks are legally classified as beers in virtually all states and can therefore be sold in outlets that do not or cannot carry spirit-based drinks. There are, however, stronger ones that are simply pre-mixed spirits (e.g. Bacardi Rum Island Iced Tea), often containing about 12.5% alcohol by volume, that can be sold only where hard liquor is available. == History == Wine coolers gained popularity in the US market in the 1980s when Bartles and Jaymes began advertising their brand of wine coolers, which were followed by other brands, including when Bacardi introduced the Breezer. A growth in popularity occurred around 1993 with Two Dogs, DNA Alcoholic Spring Water, Hooper's Hooch and Zima, which was marketed under the title of "malternative beverage." Wine coolers were on the decline due to the increase in the US federal wine tax, and using a malt-beverage base became the new industry standard. Later, Mike's Hard Lemonade was released in the United States, with humorous commercials depicting what they called "violence against lemons". Smirnoff also came out with another citrus-flavored malt beverage in the United States in the late 1990s called Smirnoff Ice, which promoted itself with flashy commercials, usually involving trendy young people dancing in unlikely situations and places. (In the UK, Smirnoff Ice is marketed by Diageo as a PPS.) Through its Alcopop-Free Zone® campaign, " Alcohol Justice has sought to ban alcopop sales entirely since the sweet and brightly colored alcoholic drinks may appeal to children. Many cooler advertising campaigns have been criticized as trying to make alcopops appeal to young drinkers. In the United Kingdom, a media outcry during the mid-1990s arose as the tabloid press associated alcopops with under-age drinking which damaged sales and led to British liquor stores withdrawing them from their shelves. In response to a complaint from the Center for Science in the Public Interest (CSPI), the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) conducted an extensive investigation in 2001. The agency "found no evidence of intent to target minors with FMB products, packaging, or advertising. Furthermore, after reviewing the consumer survey evidence submitted by CSPI in support of the proposition that FMBs were predominantly popular with minors, the FTC concluded that flaws in the survey's methodology limited the ability to draw conclusions from the survey data." The Federal Trade Commission again in 2003 investigated FMB ads, product placement, and internal company marketing documents after a directive from the conferees of the House and Senate Appropriations Committees. "The Commission's investigation found no evidence of targeting underage consumers in the marketing of FMBs. Adults 21 to 29 appear to be the intended target of FMB marketing" and found that "the majority of FMB drinkers are over the age of 27." In December 2003, Ireland raised the tax on flavored malt beverages to equal that of spirits, the second-highest in Europe. Germany has imposed an extra duty of 0.80 to 0.90 euro per bottle effective August 1, 2004. To circumvent higher taxation, some German producers have switched to wine coolers, which are being marketed the same way. Some bottles now carry a warning stating that they are not for consumption by people under the legal drinking age (under 18 in the UK and 21 in the United States). On May 11, 2008, the Australian Government increased the excise tax on alcopops by 70%, to bring it in line with the tax on spirits. There is the concern this tax will encourage consumers to buy straight spirits and mix the drinks themselves, possibly resulting in drinks with a higher alcohol concentration than the premixed alternatives. This tax was revoked during March 2009 meaning the government had to pay back the 290 million collected on the tax. The Federal Trade Commission report states, "Further, industry-conducted research on consumers over the age of 21 who use FMBs shows that these consumers generally view the FMBs as substitutes for beer, ... This research also concludes that consumers are not likely to consume more than two or three FMBs on any occasion because of the products' sweetness. == Brands == Brands of coolers are numerous and their alcoholic base vary greatly. Some notable brands include: VK, Smirnoff Ice, Mike's Hard Lemonade, Bacardi Breezer, Palm Bay, Skyy Blue, Jack Daniel's Hard Cola and, in the UK, WKD Original Vodka. Garage is an alcopop produced by the Finnish brewery Sinebrychoff. ==Health concerns== Alcohol-based sugar-sweetened beverages like alcopop, are closely linked to episodic drinking in adolescents. == Attempts to discourage == === Australia === The Australian government increased the tax on these drinks under the 2008 budget to the same rate as spirits, volumetrically, in an effort to stop binge drinking. The tax was criticized by the opposition as a tax grab, and voted down in the Senate on March 18, 2009. Before its rejection, the tax had already raised at least A$290 million after April 2008. and it was finally approved in August 2009, increasing the tax on the drinks from $39.36 to $66.67 per litre of alcohol. A 2013 study concluded that the tax had no impact on binge drinking of the drinks by teenagers. === Germany === On 1 July 2004 the German government increased the tax on mixed drinks based on spirits (e.g. vodka, rum) by roughly one Euro per 275-ml-bottle in order to discourage teenagers drinking excessively, although those drinks were already prohibited for those under the age of 18. This had two implications: The most common alcopops, such as Smirnoff Ice or Bacardi Breezer, were nearly taken off the market, while other manufacturers changed the recipes of their drinks to replace spirit alcohols with wine or beer, but with the same ABV, enabling these mixed drinks (which are not "alcopops" under German law) to be sold legally to minors 16 and 17 years of age. === Philippines === In 2019, some senators including Pia Cayetano and former Special Assistant to the President Bong Go called for pullout of alcopops from the market due to "deceptive packaging that resembles fruit juices usually bought by young consumers". Alcopops also have seven percent alcohol content, which is slightly lower than that of local beer brand Red Horse Beer. === Sweden === Systembolaget blocked the sale of alcoholic soft drinks in Sweden until mid-1996, when Alkoholsortimentsnämnden decided, with reference to Treaty of Rome Article 30, that Systembolaget could not refuse to sell certain products. This led to great debate, where the marketing of the alcoholic soft drink was considered to be aimed above all at young people. After initially great sales successes, the popularity has now declined, and many of the alcoholic drinks' market shares have been taken over by sweeter varieties of cider that share many characteristics with the soft drink but have been fermented to their alcoholic strength. === United Kingdom === In June 1997, Co-op Food became the first major retailer to place an outright ban on the sale of alcopops in its shops. This has since been revoked.	[ "wine coolers", "Bacardi", "Federal Trade Commission", "Distilled beverage", "liquor store", "Zima (drink)", "Palm Bay (alcoholic beverage)", "Pia Cayetano", "citrus", "Europe", "Alcohol Justice", "The Independent", "sweetness", "binge drinking", "Hooper's Hooch", "2008 Australian federal budget", "Malt beverage", "Red Horse Beer", "Germany", "Smirnoff Ice", "Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union", "alcoholic beverage", "Hard soda", "beer", "Nutcracker (drink)", "ready to drink", "bottle", "soft drinks", "Bong Go", "hops", "Jack Daniel's", "Hard cider", "Mike's Hard Lemonade", "wine", "alcohol by volume", "market share", "Hard seltzer", "seltzer water", "Center for Science in the Public Interest", "euro", "VK (drink)", "Skyy Blue", "Wine coolers", "sugar", "Chuhai", "soft drink", "vodka", "juice", "Borg (drink)", "Diageo", "product placement", "chūhai", "Co-op Food", "sweetened beverage", "malt beverage", "WKD Original Vodka", "Flavoring", "Alcohol advertising", "rum", "Australia", "Systembolaget", "Mixed drink", "Queen Mary (beer cocktail)", "Republic of Ireland", "Purple drank", "Finland", "Alcohol by volume", "Sinebrychoff", "cider", "portmanteau", "tabloid journalism", "Hard lemonade", "Liqueur", "Two Dogs", "Bacardi Breezer", "Sweden", "Financial Times", "Bartles and Jaymes", "Garage (drink)", "Japan", "Smirnoff", "Jungle juice", "Jello shot", "Wine cooler" ]
2,955	Alkali	In chemistry, an alkali (; from the Arabic word , ) is a basic, ionic salt of an alkali metal or an alkaline earth metal. An alkali can also be defined as a base that dissolves in water. A solution of a soluble base has a pH greater than 7.0. The adjective alkaline, and less often, alkalescent, is commonly used in English as a synonym for basic, especially for bases soluble in water. This broad use of the term is likely to have come about because alkalis were the first bases known to obey the Arrhenius definition of a base, and they are still among the most common bases. ==Etymology== The word alkali is derived from Arabic al qalīy (or alkali), meaning (see calcination), referring to the original source of alkaline substances. A water-extract of burned plant ashes, called potash and composed mostly of potassium carbonate, was mildly basic. After heating this substance with calcium hydroxide (slaked lime), a far more strongly basic substance known as caustic potash (potassium hydroxide) was produced. Caustic potash was traditionally used in conjunction with animal fats to produce soft soaps, one of the caustic processes that rendered soaps from fats in the process of saponification, one known since antiquity. Plant potash lent the name to the element potassium, which was first derived from caustic potash, and also gave potassium its chemical symbol K (from the German name ), which ultimately derived from alkali. ==Common properties of alkalis and bases== Alkalis are all Arrhenius bases, ones which form hydroxide ions (OH−) when dissolved in water. Common properties of alkaline aqueous solutions include: Moderately concentrated solutions (over 10−3 M) have a pH of 10 or greater. This means that they will turn phenolphthalein from colorless to pink. Concentrated solutions are caustic (causing chemical burns). Alkaline solutions are slippery or soapy to the touch, due to the saponification of the fatty substances on the surface of the skin. Alkalis are normally water-soluble, although some like barium carbonate are only soluble when reacting with an acidic aqueous solution. ==Difference between alkali and base== The terms "base" and "alkali" are often used interchangeably, particularly outside the context of chemistry and chemical engineering. There are various, more specific definitions for the concept of an alkali. Alkalis are usually defined as a subset of the bases. One of two subsets is commonly chosen. A basic salt of an alkali metal or alkaline earth metal (this includes Mg(OH)2 (magnesium hydroxide) but excludes NH3 (ammonia)). Any base that is soluble in water and forms hydroxide ions or the solution of a base in water. (This includes both Mg(OH)2 and NH3, which forms NH4OH.) The second subset of bases is also called an "Arrhenius base". ==Alkali salts== Alkali salts are soluble hydroxides of alkali metals and alkaline earth metals, of which common examples are: Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) – often called "caustic soda" Potassium hydroxide (KOH) – commonly called "caustic potash" Lye – generic term for either of two previous salts or their mixture Calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) – saturated solution known as "limewater" Magnesium hydroxide (Mg(OH)2) – an atypical alkali since it has low solubility in water (although the dissolved portion is considered a strong base due to complete dissociation of its ions) ==Alkaline soil== Soils with pH values that are higher than 7.3 are usually defined as being alkaline. These soils can occur naturally due to the presence of alkali salts. Although many plants do prefer slightly basic soil (including vegetables like cabbage and fodder like buffalo grass), most plants prefer mildly acidic soil (with pHs between 6.0 and 6.8), and alkaline soils can cause problems. on the Utah–Idaho border Lake Magadi in Kenya Lake Turkana in Kenya Mono Lake, near Owens Valley in California Redberry Lake, Saskatchewan Summer Lake, Lake County, Oregon Tramping Lake, Saskatchewan	[ "soap", "Alkali metals", "Lake Magadi", "Lake Turkana", "Tramping Lake (Saskatchewan)", "adjective", "Caustic (substance)", "calcium hydroxide", "ionic compound", "Magnesium hydroxide", "Utah Geological Survey", "solubility", "magnesium hydroxide", "Kenya", "alkaline earth metals", "Mono Lake", "synonym", "California", "Lake County, Oregon", "buffalo grass", "limewater", "Baldwin Lake (San Bernardino County, California)", "calcination", "alkaline soil", "barium carbonate", "Sodium hydroxide", "salt (chemistry)", "potassium hydroxide", "water", "The Free Dictionary", "alkali metals", "Dictionary.com", "Lye", "Summer Lake (Oregon)", "Chemical burn", "Alkaline magma series", "Saskatchewan", "Soda lake", "Bear Lake (Idaho–Utah)", "potash", "Alkali manufacture", "acid-base reaction theories", "saponification", "San Bernardino County, California", "Base (chemistry)", "Chambers's encyclopaedia", "pH", "potassium", "aqueous solution", "Alkali Lake (Oregon)", "alkaline earth metal", "phenolphthalein", "chemical engineering", "Redberry Lake (Saskatchewan)", "chemistry", "Calcium hydroxide", "Potassium hydroxide", "base (chemistry)", "alkali metal", "hydroxide", "potassium carbonate", "Owens Valley", "English language", "Alkaline earth metals", "Nh4oh", "ammonia", "cabbage", "Arabic", "Acid–base reaction" ]
2,956	Ain't I a Woman? (book)	Ain't I a Woman? Black Women and Feminism is a 1981 book by bell hooks titled after Sojourner Truth's "Ain't I a Woman?" speech. hooks examines the effect of racism and sexism on Black women, the civil rights movement, and feminist movements from suffrage to the 1970s. She argues that the convergence of sexism and racism during slavery contributed to Black women having the lowest status and worst conditions of any group in American society. White female abolitionists and suffragists were often more comfortable with Black male abolitionists such as Frederick Douglass, while southern segregationalists and stereotypes of Black female promiscuity and immorality caused protests whenever Black women spoke. Hooks points out that these white female reformers were more concerned with white morality than the conditions these morals caused Black Americans. Further, she argues that the stereotypes that were set during slavery still affect Black women today. She argued that slavery allowed white society to stereotype white women as the pure goddess virgin and move Black women to the seductive whore stereotype formerly placed on all women, thus justifying the devaluation of Black femininity and rape of Black women. The work which Black women have been forced to perform, either in slavery or in a discriminatory workplace, that would be non-gender conforming for white women has been used against Black women as a proof of their emasculating behavior. hooks argues that Black nationalism was largely a patriarchal and misogynist movement, seeking to overcome racial divisions by strengthening sexist ones, and that it readily latched onto the idea of the emasculating Black matriarch proposed by Daniel Patrick Moynihan, whose theories bell hooks often criticizes. Meanwhile, she says, the "feminist movement", a largely white middle and upper class affair, did not articulate the needs of poor and non-white women, thus reinforcing sexism, racism, and classism. She suggests this explains the low numbers of Black women who participated in the feminist movement in the 1970s, pointing to Louis Harris' Virginia Slims poll done in 1972 for Philip Morris that she says showed 62 percent of Black women supported "efforts to change women's status" and 67 percent "sympathized with the women's rights movement", compared with 45 and 35 percent of white women (also Steinem, 1972). ==Reception== Since its publication, Ain't I a Woman has been critically acclaimed as groundbreaking in the study of feminist theory for discussing the correlation between the history of oppression Black women have faced in the United States and its lingering effects in modern American society. Ain't I a Woman is praised for tackling the intersection of race and gender that marginalizes Black women. hooks' writing has also opened the door for other Black women to write and theorize about similar topics. The book is commonly used in gender studies, Black studies, and philosophy courses. The work has led to some criticism of her being "ahistorical, unscholarly (there were many complaints about the absence of footnotes), and homophobic". She does not provide a bibliography for any of her work, making it difficult to find the editors and publication information for the pieces listed under the "notes" section of her work. In "Theory as Liberatory Practice," hooks explains that her lack of conventional academic format was "motivated by the desire to be inclusive, to reach as many readers as possible in as many different locations as possible". In a book review of hooks' Remembered Rapture: The Writer at Work, Nicole Abraham criticizes hooks' unconventional format rationalization. Abraham suggests that, if her rationalization for not providing footnotes and bibliographic information in her writing is that it will help her reach a broader, presumably less academic audience, hooks either assumes that the average person is uninterested in pursuing her sources and ideas or implies that her readers are too lazy or unsophisticated for proper endnotes.	[ "stereotype", "Black nationalism", "Daniel Patrick Moynihan", "Racial segregation", "civil rights movement", "Sojourner Truth", "matriarch", "Louis Harris", "Abolitionism in the United States", "sexism", "racism", "female promiscuity", "South End Press", "Black women", "Ain't I a Woman?", "Virginia Slims", "Black studies", "Black feminism", "Middle class", "Slavery in the United States", "feminist", "gender studies", "suffrage", "Patriarchy", "bell hooks", "Philip Morris USA", "misogynist", "Frederick Douglass", "classism", "virgin", "upper class" ]
2,957	AMOS (programming language)	AMOS BASIC is a dialect of the BASIC programming language for the Amiga computer. Following on from the successful STOS BASIC for the Atari ST, AMOS BASIC was written for the Amiga by François Lionet with Constantin Sotiropoulos and published by Europress Software in 1990. The language was notable for its focus on media and game development capabilities, allowing users to easily create demanding multimedia software and games. It featured full structured code and numerous high-level functions for loading and manipulating images, animations, and sounds. These capabilities made it a popular choice among Amiga enthusiasts, particularly beginners, for creating video games (especially platformers and graphical adventures), multimedia applications, and educational software. == History == AMOS competed on the Amiga platform with Acid Software's Blitz BASIC. Both BASICs differed from other dialects on different platforms, in that they allowed the easy creation of fairly demanding multimedia software, with full structured code and many high-level functions to load images, animations, sounds and display them in various ways. The original AMOS was a BASIC interpreter which, whilst working fine, suffered the same disadvantages of any language being run interpretively. By all accounts, AMOS was extremely fast among interpreted languages, being speedy enough that an extension called AMOS 3D could produce playable 3D games even on plain 7 MHz 68000 Amigas. Later, an AMOS compiler was developed that further increased speed. AMOS could also run MC68000 machine code, loaded into a program's memory banks. To simplify animation of sprites, AMOS included the AMOS Animation Language (AMAL), a compiled sprite scripting language which runs independently of the main AMOS BASIC program. It was also possible to control screen and "rainbow" effects using AMAL scripts. AMAL scripts in effect created CopperLists, small routines executed by the Amiga's Agnus chip. After the original version of AMOS, Europress released a compiler (AMOS Compiler), and two other versions of the language: Easy AMOS, a simpler version for beginners, and AMOS Professional, a more advanced version with added features, such as a better integrated development environment, ARexx support, a new user interface API and new flow control constructs. Neither of these new versions was significantly more popular than the original AMOS. AMOS was used mostly to make multimedia software, video games (platformers and graphical adventures) and educational software. The language was mildly successful within the Amiga community. Its ease of use made it especially attractive to beginners. One of AMOS BASIC's disadvantages, stemming from its Atari ST lineage, was its incompatibility with the Amiga's operating system functions and interfaces. Instead, AMOS BASIC controlled the computer directly, which caused programs written in it to have a non-standard user interface, and also caused compatibility problems with newer versions of hardware. Today, the language has declined in popularity along with the Amiga computer for which it was written. Despite this, a small community of enthusiasts are still using it. The source code to AMOS was released around 2001 under a BSD style license by Clickteam, a company that includes the original programmer. == Software == Software written using AMOS BASIC includes: AQUABYSS by Aged Code, is a 2022 strategy trading game for the Amiga Miggybyte Scorched Tanks Games by Vulcan Software, amongst which was the Valhalla trilogy Amiga version of Ultimate Domain (called Genesia) by Microïds Flight of the Amazon Queen, by Interactive Binary Illusions Extreme Violence, included on an Amiga Power cover disk Jetstrike, a commercial game by Rasputin Software Black Dawn, a 1993 game for the Amiga personal computer	[ "Procedural programming", "programming language", "Ultimate Domain", "Interactive Binary Illusions", "Amiga", "Strategy video game", "Flight of the Amazon Queen", "Europress Software", "platformer", "Atari ST", "Imperative programming", "Blitz BASIC", "user interface", "video game", "Gamasutra", "compiler", "integrated development environment", "source code", "Clickteam", "Jetstrike", "Miggybyte", "Vulcan Software", "interpreter (computing)", "François Lionet", "BASIC interpreter", "Valhalla: Before the War", "Microïds", "control flow", "Scorched Tanks", "Extreme Violence", "Amiga Power", "BASIC", "Constantin Sotiropoulos", "STOS BASIC", "AmigaOS", "AQUABYSS", "ARexx", "Black Dawn (1993 video game)", "BSD licenses", "Genesia (game)", "MC68000" ]
2,959	Arcadia 2001	The Arcadia 2001 is a second-generation 8-bit home video game console released by Emerson Radio in May 1982 for a price of US$99, Emerson licensed the Arcadia 2001 to Bandai, which released it in Japan. ==Description== The Arcadia is much smaller than its contemporary competitors and is powered by a standard 12 volt power supply so it can be used in a boat or a vehicle. It has two headphone jacks on the far left and right sides of the back. The system came with two Intellivision-style controllers with a 12-button keypad and "fire" buttons on the sides. The direction pads have a removable joystick attachment. Most games came with BoPET overlays that can be applied to the controller's keypads. The console itself has five buttons: Power, Start, Reset, Option, and Select. There are at least three different cartridge case styles and artwork, with variations on each. Emerson-family cartridges come in two different lengths (short and long) of black plastic cases. ==Technical specifications== Main Processor: Signetics 2650 CPU (some variants run a Signetics 2650A) RAM: 1 KB ROM: None Video display: 128 × 208 / 128 × 104, 8 Colours Video display controller: Signetics 2637 UVI @ 3.58 MHz (NTSC), 3.55 MHz (PAL) Sound: Single Channel "Beeper" + Single Channel "Noise" Hardware Sprites: 4 independent, single color Controllers: 2 × 2 way Keypads: 2 × 12 button (more buttons on some variants) ==Console variants and clones== Many variants and clones of the Arcadia 2001 have been released by various companies in different countries. These systems are mostly compatible with each other. In 1982, the Bandai Arcadia was released only in Japan. Four exclusive games were released for the system. ===Bandai Arcadia=== In 1982, the Bandai Arcadia, a variant of the Emerson Arcadia 2001, was licensed and distributed to Japan by Bandai for a price of 19,800 yen. ==Games== Emerson planned to launch the console with 19 games. Some Arcadia 2001 games are ports of lesser-known arcade games such as Route 16, Jungler, and Jump Bug, which were not available on other home systems. Emerson actually created many popular arcade titles including Pac-Man, Galaxian and Defender for the Arcadia, but never had them manufactured as Atari started to sue its competitor companies for releasing games to which it had exclusive-rights agreements. Early marketing showed popular arcade games, but they were later released as clones. For instance, the Arcadia 2001 game Space Raiders is a clone of Defender, and Breakaway is a clone of Breakout. === Released games === There are 47 games known to have been released for the Arcadia 2001 and its clones. ===Bandai Arcadia Only=== See here	[ "Tchibo", "Second generation of video game consoles", "home video game console", "Bandai Super Vision 8000", "Neckermann Versand AG", "Emerson Radio", "Danny Goodman", "Signetics 2650", "Hanimex", "Schmid", "Video game console", "Starpath", "Galaxian", "AC adapter", "Pac-Man", "Crazy Climber", "clone (computing)", "Atari", "Breakout (video game)", "List of commercial failures in video games", "Turtles (video game)", "Atari 2600", "Signetics", "kilobyte", "Consumer Electronics Show", "Intellivision", "Home video game console", "Starpath Supercharger", "Bandai RX-78", "IGN", "Jungler", "Berzerk (video game)", "random access memory", "Pleiades (video game)", "BoPET", "Phone connector (audio)", "ColecoVision", "Video display controller", "Astro Invader", "Bandai Arcadia", "Route-16 (video game)", "8-bit", "Creative Computing (magazine)", "keypad", "Defender (1981 video game)", "sprite (computer graphics)", "ROM cartridge", "Jump Bug", "trademark infringement", "game controller", "MHz", "Leisure Vision", "Tele-Fever", "Bandai" ]
2,961	Convex uniform honeycomb	In geometry, a convex uniform honeycomb is a uniform tessellation which fills three-dimensional Euclidean space with non-overlapping convex uniform polyhedral cells. Twenty-eight such honeycombs are known: the familiar cubic honeycomb and 7 truncations thereof; the alternated cubic honeycomb and 4 truncations thereof; 10 prismatic forms based on the uniform plane tilings (11 if including the cubic honeycomb); 5 modifications of some of the above by elongation and/or gyration. They can be considered the three-dimensional analogue to the uniform tilings of the plane. The Voronoi diagram of any lattice forms a convex uniform honeycomb in which the cells are zonohedra. == History == 1900: Thorold Gosset enumerated the list of semiregular convex polytopes with regular cells (Platonic solids) in his publication On the Regular and Semi-Regular Figures in Space of n Dimensions, including one regular cubic honeycomb, and two semiregular forms with tetrahedra and octahedra. 1905: Alfredo Andreini enumerated 25 of these tessellations. 1991: Norman Johnson's manuscript Uniform Polytopes identified the list of 28. Only 14 of the convex uniform polyhedra appear in these patterns: three of the five Platonic solids (the tetrahedron, cube, and octahedron), six of the thirteen Archimedean solids (the ones with reflective tetrahedral or octahedral symmetry), and five of the infinite family of prisms (the 3-, 4-, 6-, 8-, and 12-gonal ones; the 4-gonal prism duplicates the cube). The icosahedron, snub cube, and square antiprism appear in some alternations, but those honeycombs cannot be realised with all edges unit length. === Names === This set can be called the regular and semiregular honeycombs. It has been called the Archimedean honeycombs by analogy with the convex uniform (non-regular) polyhedra, commonly called Archimedean solids. Recently Conway has suggested naming the set as the Architectonic tessellations and the dual honeycombs as the Catoptric tessellations. The individual honeycombs are listed with names given to them by Norman Johnson. (Some of the terms used below are defined in Uniform 4-polytope#Geometric derivations for 46 nonprismatic Wythoffian uniform 4-polytopes) For cross-referencing, they are given with list indices from Andreini (1-22), Williams(1–2,9-19), Johnson (11–19, 21–25, 31–34, 41–49, 51–52, 61–65), and Grünbaum(1-28). Coxeter uses δ4 for a cubic honeycomb, hδ4 for an alternated cubic honeycomb, qδ4 for a quarter cubic honeycomb, with subscripts for other forms based on the ring patterns of the Coxeter diagram. == Compact Euclidean uniform tessellations (by their infinite Coxeter group families) == The fundamental infinite Coxeter groups for 3-space are: The {\tilde{C}}_3, [4,3,4], cubic, (8 unique forms plus one alternation) The {\tilde{B}}_3, [4,31,1], alternated cubic, (11 forms, 3 new) The {\tilde{A}}_3 cyclic group, [(3,3,3,3)] or [3[4]], (5 forms, one new) There is a correspondence between all three families. Removing one mirror from {\tilde{C}}_3 produces {\tilde{B}}_3, and removing one mirror from {\tilde{B}}_3 produces {\tilde{A}}_3. This allows multiple constructions of the same honeycombs. If cells are colored based on unique positions within each Wythoff construction, these different symmetries can be shown. In addition there are 5 special honeycombs which don't have pure reflectional symmetry and are constructed from reflectional forms with elongation and gyration operations. The total unique honeycombs above are 18. The prismatic stacks from infinite Coxeter groups for 3-space are: The {\tilde{C}}_2×{\tilde{I}}_1, [4,4,2,∞] prismatic group, (2 new forms) The {\tilde{G}}_2×{\tilde{I}}_1, [6,3,2,∞] prismatic group, (7 unique forms) The {\tilde{A}}_2×{\tilde{I}}_1, [(3,3,3),2,∞] prismatic group, (No new forms) The {\tilde{I}}_1×{\tilde{I}}_1×{\tilde{I}}_1, [∞,2,∞,2,∞] prismatic group, (These all become a cubic honeycomb) In addition there is one special elongated form of the triangular prismatic honeycomb. The total unique prismatic honeycombs above (excluding the cubic counted previously) are 10. Combining these counts, 18 and 10 gives us the total 28 uniform honeycombs. === The C̃3, [4,3,4] group (cubic) === The regular cubic honeycomb, represented by Schläfli symbol {4,3,4}, offers seven unique derived uniform honeycombs via truncation operations. (One redundant form, the runcinated cubic honeycomb, is included for completeness though identical to the cubic honeycomb.) The reflectional symmetry is the affine Coxeter group [4,3,4]. There are four index 2 subgroups that generate alternations: [1+,4,3,4], [(4,3,4,2+)], [4,3+,4], and [4,3,4]+, with the first two generated repeated forms, and the last two are nonuniform. === B̃3, [4,31,1] group === The {\tilde{B}}_3, [4,3] group offers 11 derived forms via truncation operations, four being unique uniform honeycombs. There are 3 index 2 subgroups that generate alternations: [1+,4,31,1], [4,(31,1)+], and [4,31,1]+. The first generates repeated honeycomb, and the last two are nonuniform but included for completeness. The honeycombs from this group are called alternated cubic because the first form can be seen as a cubic honeycomb with alternate vertices removed, reducing cubic cells to tetrahedra and creating octahedron cells in the gaps. Nodes are indexed left to right as 0,1,0',3 with 0' being below and interchangeable with 0. The alternate cubic names given are based on this ordering. === Ã3, [3[4]] group === There are 5 forms constructed from the {\tilde{A}}_3, [3[4]] Coxeter group, of which only the quarter cubic honeycomb is unique. There is one index 2 subgroup [3[4]]+ which generates the snub form, which is not uniform, but included for completeness. === Nonwythoffian forms (gyrated and elongated) === Three more uniform honeycombs are generated by breaking one or another of the above honeycombs where its faces form a continuous plane, then rotating alternate layers by 60 or 90 degrees (gyration) and/or inserting a layer of prisms (elongation). The elongated and gyroelongated alternated cubic tilings have the same vertex figure, but are not alike. In the elongated form, each prism meets a tetrahedron at one triangular end and an octahedron at the other. In the gyroelongated form, prisms that meet tetrahedra at both ends alternate with prisms that meet octahedra at both ends. The gyroelongated triangular prismatic tiling has the same vertex figure as one of the plain prismatic tilings; the two may be derived from the gyrated and plain triangular prismatic tilings, respectively, by inserting layers of cubes. === Prismatic stacks === Eleven prismatic tilings are obtained by stacking the eleven uniform plane tilings, shown below, in parallel layers. (One of these honeycombs is the cubic, shown above.) The vertex figure of each is an irregular bipyramid whose faces are isosceles triangles. ==== The C̃2×Ĩ1(∞), [4,4,2,∞], prismatic group ==== There are only 3 unique honeycombs from the square tiling, but all 6 tiling truncations are listed below for completeness, and tiling images are shown by colors corresponding to each form. ==== The G̃2xĨ1(∞), [6,3,2,∞] prismatic group ==== === Enumeration of Wythoff forms === All nonprismatic Wythoff constructions by Coxeter groups are given below, along with their alternations. Uniform solutions are indexed with Branko Grünbaum's listing. Green backgrounds are shown on repeated honeycombs, with the relations are expressed in the extended symmetry diagrams. ===Examples=== The alternated cubic honeycomb is of special importance since its vertices form a cubic close-packing of spheres. The space-filling truss of packed octahedra and tetrahedra was apparently first discovered by Alexander Graham Bell and independently re-discovered by Buckminster Fuller (who called it the octet truss and patented it in the 1940s). [http://members.cruzio.com/~devarco/energy.htm [http://www.cjfearnley.com/fuller-faq-2.html. Octet trusses are now among the most common types of truss used in construction. == Frieze forms == If cells are allowed to be uniform tilings, more uniform honeycombs can be defined: Families: {\tilde{C}}_2×A_1: [4,4,2] Cubic slab honeycombs (3 forms) {\tilde{G}}_2×A_1: [6,3,2] Tri-hexagonal slab honeycombs (8 forms) {\tilde{A}}_2×A_1: [(3,3,3),2] Triangular slab honeycombs (No new forms) {\tilde{I}}_1×A_1×A_1: [∞,2,2] = Cubic column honeycombs (1 form) I_2(p)×{\tilde{I}}_1: [p,2,∞] Polygonal column honeycombs (analogous to duoprisms: these look like a single infinite tower of p-gonal prisms, with the remaining space filled with apeirogonal prisms) {\tilde{I}}_1×{\tilde{I}}_1×A_1: [∞,2,∞,2] = [4,4,2] - = (Same as cubic slab honeycomb family) The first two forms shown above are semiregular (uniform with only regular facets), and were listed by Thorold Gosset in 1900 respectively as the 3-ic semi-check and tetroctahedric semi-check. == Scaliform honeycomb== A scaliform honeycomb is vertex-transitive, like a uniform honeycomb, with regular polygon faces while cells and higher elements are only required to be orbiforms, equilateral, with their vertices lying on hyperspheres. For 3D honeycombs, this allows a subset of Johnson solids along with the uniform polyhedra. Some scaliforms can be generated by an alternation process, leaving, for example, pyramid and cupola gaps. == Hyperbolic forms == There are 9 Coxeter group families of compact uniform honeycombs in hyperbolic 3-space, generated as Wythoff constructions, and represented by ring permutations of the Coxeter-Dynkin diagrams for each family. From these 9 families, there are a total of 76 unique honeycombs generated: [3,5,3] : - 9 forms [5,3,4] : - 15 forms [5,3,5] : - 9 forms [5,31,1] : - 11 forms (7 overlap with [5,3,4] family, 4 are unique) [(4,3,3,3)] : - 9 forms [(4,3,4,3)] : - 6 forms [(5,3,3,3)] : - 9 forms [(5,3,4,3)] : - 9 forms [(5,3,5,3)] : - 6 forms Several non-Wythoffian forms outside the list of 76 are known; it is not known how many there are. === Paracompact hyperbolic forms === There are also 23 paracompact Coxeter groups of rank 4. These families can produce uniform honeycombs with unbounded facets or vertex figure, including ideal vertices at infinity:	[ "scaliform polytope", "triangular orthobicupola", "truncated tetrahedron", "Buckminster Fuller", "Bitruncated cubic honeycomb", "snub cube", "Voronoi diagram", "prism (geometry)", "bitruncated cubic honeycomb", "octagonal prism", "disphenoid", "Geombinatorics", "trihexagonal tiling", "Rhombitrihexagonal prismatic honeycomb", "tetrahedral-octahedral honeycomb", "truncated cubic honeycomb", "gyrated tetrahedral-octahedral honeycomb", "space group", "gyrated alternated cubic honeycomb", "Messenger of Mathematics", "List of uniform planar tilings", "alternated cubic honeycomb", "Half oblate octahedrille", "Runcicantic cubic honeycomb", "square tiling", "Truncated trihexagonal tiling", "PDF", "John Horton Conway", "square pyramid", "Chaim Goodman-Strauss", "Lattice (group)", "rectified cubic honeycomb", "snub rectified cubic honeycomb", "Snub square prismatic honeycomb", "Snub hexagonal prismatic honeycomb", "Thorold Gosset", "Hexagonal prismatic honeycomb", "Gyroelongated alternated cubic honeycomb", "Runcic cubic honeycomb", "truncated square tiling", "truncated cuboctahedron", "Catoptric tessellation", "Coxeter-Dynkin diagram", "elongated triangular prismatic honeycomb", "vertex-transitive", "cupola (geometry)", "Hyperbolic space", "triangular tiling", "Oblate tetrahedrille", "uniform 4-polytope", "Quarter cubille", "truss", "Truncated cuboctahedron", "Convex uniform honeycomb", "Runcic cantitruncated cubic honeycomb", "Octahedron", "icosahedron", "Goursat tetrahedron", "bipyramid", "Branko Grünbaum", "Alternated cantitruncated cubic honeycomb", "square cupola", "Eighth pyramidille", "cantellated cubic honeycomb", "Cubic honeycomb", "cuboctahedron", "semiregular polytope", "Square bipyramid", "Square quarter pyramidille", "elongated triangular tiling", "quarter cubic honeycomb", "I. Alexeyev", "close-packing", "Rhombitrihexagonal tiling", "alternation (geometry)", "Coxeter group", "Triangular prismatic honeycomb", "Cantic snub cubic honeycomb", "Euclidean space", "runcitruncated cubic honeycomb", "uniform polytope", "Square tiling", "cantitruncated cubic honeycomb", "Johnson solid", "Quarter cubic honeycomb", "truncated cube", "Snub cube", "zonohedra", "cuboid", "Truncated tetrahedron", "Trihexagonal tiling", "tetrahedron", "Cantic cubic honeycomb", "Runcination (geometry)", "Alexander Graham Bell", "hexagonal prism", "omnitruncated cubic honeycomb", "Trihexagonal prismatic honeycomb", "triangular antiprism", "square antiprism", "octet truss", "Triangular pyramidille", "Triangular bipyramid", "Omnitruncated cubic honeycomb", "Regular icosahedron", "Elongated alternated cubic honeycomb", "Uniform 4-polytope", "non-Wythoffian", "octahedron", "tiling by regular polygons", "Duncan MacLaren Young Sommerville", "cube", "triangular prism", "Cantellated cubic honeycomb", "triangular cupola", "cubic honeycomb", "Wythoff construction", "uniform tiling", "convex polyhedron", "Tetrahedral-octahedral honeycomb", "Truncated square prismatic honeycomb", "Dodecahedrille", "Archimedean solid", "Cell (mathematics)", "Truncated hexagonal prismatic honeycomb", "Platonic solid", "Norman Johnson (mathematician)", "vertex figure", "hexagonal tiling", "Half pyramidille", "truncated octahedron", "uniform polyhedron", "gyroelongated triangular prismatic honeycomb", "Snub square tiling", "geometry", "Coxeter diagram", "Oblate cubille", "Snub hexagonal tiling", "tridiminished icosahedron", "Truncated square tiling", "Tetrahedron", "isosceles triangle", "Cube", "truncated trihexagonal prismatic honeycomb", "Truncated hexagonal tiling", "Schläfli symbol", "Alternated cubic honeycomb", "apeirogonal prism", "Gyrated triangular prismatic honeycomb", "Vertex figure", "Alfredo Andreini", "pyramid (geometry)", "duoprism", "tessellation", "rhombicuboctahedron" ]
2,963	Assassination	Assassination is the willful killing, by a sudden, secret, or planned attack, of a personespecially if prominent or important. It may be prompted by political, ideological, religious, personal, financial, or military motives. Assassinations are ordered by both individuals and organizations, and are carried out by their accomplices. Acts of assassination have been performed since ancient times. A person who carries out an assassination is called an assassin. ==Etymology== Assassin comes from the Italian and French Assissini, believed to derive from the word hashshashin (), and shares its etymological roots with hashish ( or ; from ). It referred to a group of Nizari Ismailis known as the Order of Assassins who worked against various political targets. Although it is commonly believed that members of the Order of Assassins were under the influence of hashish during their killings or during their indoctrination, there is debate as to whether these claims have merit, with many Eastern writers and an increasing number of Western academics coming to believe that drug-taking was not the key feature behind the name. The term "assassinare" (assassin) was used in Medieval Latin from the mid 13th century. ==Use in history== ===Ancient to medieval times=== Assassination is one of the oldest tools of power politics. It dates back at least as far as recorded history. The Egyptian pharaoh Teti, of the Old Kingdom Sixth Dynasty (23rd century BCE), is thought to be the earliest known victim of assassination, though written records are scant and thus evidence is circumstantial. Two further ancient Egyptian monarchs are more explicitly recorded to have been assassinated; Amenemhat I of the Middle Kingdom Twelfth Dynasty (20th century BCE) is recorded to have been assassinated in his bed by his palace guards for reasons unknown (as related in the Instructions of Amenemhat); meanwhile contemporary judicial records relate the assassination of New Kingdom Twentieth Dynasty monarch Ramesses III in 1155 BCE as part of a failed coup attempt. Between 550 BC and 330 BC, seven Persian kings of Achaemenid Dynasty were murdered. The Art of War, a 5th-century BC Chinese military treatise mentions tactics of Assassination and its merits. In the Old Testament, King Joash of Judah was assassinated by his own servants; Joab assassinated Absalom, King David's son; King Sennacherib of Assyria was assassinated by his own sons; and Jael assassinated Sisera. Chanakya (–283 BC) wrote about assassinations in detail in his political treatise Arthashastra. His student Chandragupta Maurya, the founder of the Maurya Empire, later made use of assassinations against some of his enemies. Some famous assassination victims are Philip II of Macedon (336 BC), the father of Alexander the Great, and Roman dictator Julius Caesar (44 BC). Emperors of Rome often met their end in this way, as did many of the Muslim Shia Imams hundreds of years later. Three successive Rashidun caliphs (Umar, Uthman Ibn Affan, and Ali ibn Abi Talib) were assassinated in early civil conflicts between Muslims. The practice was also well known in ancient China, as in Jing Ke's failed assassination of Qin king Ying Zheng in 227 BC. Whilst many assassinations were performed by individuals or small groups, there were also specialized units who used a collective group of people to perform more than one assassination. The earliest were the sicarii in 6 AD, who predated the Middle Eastern Assassins and Japanese shinobis by centuries. In the Middle Ages, regicide was rare in Western Europe, but it was a recurring theme in the Eastern Roman Empire. Strangling in the bathtub was the most commonly used method. With the Renaissance, tyrannicide—or assassination for personal or political reasons—became more common again in Western Europe. ===Modern history=== During the 16th and 17th centuries, international lawyers began to voice condemnation of assassinations of leaders. Balthazar Ayala has been described as "the first prominent jurist to condemn the use of assassination in foreign policy". Alberico Gentili condemned assassinations in a 1598 publication where he appealed to the self-interest of leaders: (i) assassinations had adverse short-term consequences by arousing the ire of the assassinated leader's successor, and (ii) assassinations had the adverse long-term consequences of causing disorder and chaos. In Japan, a group of assassins called the Four Hitokiri of the Bakumatsu killed a number of people, including Ii Naosuke who was the head of administration for the Tokugawa shogunate, during the Boshin War. Most of the assassinations in Japan were committed with bladed weaponry, a trait that was carried on into modern history. A video-record exists of the assassination of Inejiro Asanuma, using a sword. In 1895, a group of Japanese assassins killed the Korean queen (and posthumously empress) Myeongseong. In the United States, from 1865 to 1963, four presidents—Abraham Lincoln, James A. Garfield, William McKinley and John F. Kennedy—died at the hands of assassins. There have been at least 20 known attempts on U.S. presidents' lives. In Austria, the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophie, Duchess of Hohenberg was carried out in Sarajevo on June 28, 1914, by Gavrilo Princip, a Serbian nationalist. He is blamed for igniting World War I. Reinhard Heydrich died after an attack by British-trained Czechoslovak soldiers on behalf of the Czechoslovak government in exile in Operation Anthropoid, and knowledge from decoded transmissions allowed the United States to carry out a targeted attack, killing Japanese Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto while he was travelling by plane. During the 1930s and 1940s, Joseph Stalin's NKVD carried out numerous assassinations outside of the Soviet Union, such as the killings of Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists leader Yevhen Konovalets, Ignace Poretsky, Fourth International secretary Rudolf Klement, Leon Trotsky, and the Workers' Party of Marxist Unification (POUM) leadership in Catalonia. India's "Father of the Nation", Mahatma Gandhi, was shot to death on January 30, 1948, by Nathuram Godse. The African-American civil rights activist, Martin Luther King Jr., was assassinated on April 4, 1968, at the Lorraine Motel (now the National Civil Rights Museum) in Memphis, Tennessee. Three years prior, another African-American civil rights activist, Malcolm X, was assassinated at the Audubon Ballroom on February 21, 1965. ===Cold War and beyond=== Most major powers repudiated Cold War assassination tactics, but many allege that was merely a smokescreen for political benefit and that covert and illegal training of assassins continues today, with Russia, Israel, the U.S., Argentina, Paraguay, Chile, and other nations accused of engaging in such operations. After the Iranian Revolution of 1979, the new Islamic government of Iran began an international campaign of assassination that lasted into the 1990s. At least 162 killings in 19 countries have been linked to the senior leadership of the Islamic Republic of Iran. The campaign came to an end after the Mykonos restaurant assassinations because a German court publicly implicated senior members of the government and issued arrest warrants for Ali Fallahian, the head of Iranian intelligence. Evidence indicates that Fallahian's personal involvement and individual responsibility for the murders were far more pervasive than his current indictment record represents. In India, Prime Ministers Indira Gandhi and her son Rajiv Gandhi (neither of whom was related to Mahatma Gandhi, who had himself been assassinated in 1948), were assassinated in 1984 and 1991 in what were linked to separatist movements in Punjab and northern Sri Lanka, respectively. In 1994, the assassination of Juvénal Habyarimana and Cyprien Ntaryamira during the Rwandan Civil War sparked the Rwandan genocide. In Israel, Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin was assassinated on November 4, 1995, by Yigal Amir, who opposed the Oslo Accords. In Lebanon, the assassination of former Prime Minister Rafik Hariri on February 14, 2005, prompted an investigation by the United Nations. The suggestion in the resulting Mehlis report that there was involvement by Syria prompted the Cedar Revolution, which drove Syrian troops out of Lebanon. On 2 September 2022, a 35 year old Brazilian national attempted to assassinate the then vice-president of Argentina, Cristina Fernández de Kirchner. However, the attempt was unsuccessful because the assassin's gun jammed. ==== United States government killing of citizens ==== In 2012, The New York Times revealed that the Obama administration maintained a "kill list" containing terrorism suspects. The list is sometimes referred to as a "disposition matrix," and President Obama made a final decision on whether anyone listed would be killed, without court oversight and without trial. In September 2011, American citizens Anwar Al-Awlaki and Samir Khan were assassinated in Yemen by the United States government via drone strikes. Two weeks later, Awlaki's 16-year-old son, also an American citizen, was killed in a strike targeting Ibrahim al-Banna, a senior operative in Al-Qaeda. Al-Banna was not killed in the strike. An army and even a nation might be based upon and around a particularly strong, canny, or charismatic leader, whose loss could paralyze the ability of both to make war. For similar and additional reasons, assassination has also sometimes been used in the conduct of foreign policy. The costs and benefits of such actions are difficult to compute. It may not be clear whether the assassinated leader gets replaced with a more or less competent successor, whether the assassination provokes ire in the state in question, whether the assassination leads to souring domestic public opinion, and whether the assassination provokes condemnation from third-parties. In both military and foreign policy assassinations, there is the risk that the target could be replaced by an even more competent leader, or that such a killing (or a failed attempt) will prompt the masses to contemn the killers and support the leader's cause more strongly. Faced with particularly brilliant leaders, that possibility has in various instances been risked, such as in the attempts to kill the Athenian Alcibiades during the Peloponnesian War. A number of additional examples from World War II show how assassination was used as a tool: The assassination of Reinhard Heydrich in Prague on May 27, 1942, by the British and Czechoslovak government-in-exile. That case illustrates the difficulty of comparing the benefits of a foreign policy goal (strengthening the legitimacy and influence of the Czechoslovak government-in-exile in London) against the possible costs resulting from an assassination (the Lidice massacre). Use of assassination has continued in more recent conflicts: During the Vietnam War, the US engaged in the Phoenix Program to assassinate Viet Cong leaders and sympathizers. It killed between 6,000 and 41,000 people, with official "targets" of 1,800 per month. With the January 3, 2020 Baghdad International Airport airstrike, the US assassinated the commander of Iran's Quds Force General Qasem Soleimani and the commander of Iraq's Popular Mobilization Forces Abu Mahdi al-Muhandis, along with eight other high-ranking military personnel. The assassination of the military leaders was part of escalating tensions between the US and Iran and the American-led intervention in Iraq. ===As a tool of insurgents=== Insurgent groups have often employed assassination as a tool to further their causes. Assassinations provide several functions for such groups: the removal of specific enemies and as propaganda tools to focus the attention of media and politics on their cause. The Irish Republican Army guerrillas in 1919 to 1921 killed many Royal Irish Constabulary Police intelligence officers during the Irish War of Independence. Michael Collins set up a special unit, the Squad, for that purpose, which had the effect of intimidating many policemen into resigning from the force. The Squad's activities peaked with the killing of 14 British agents in Dublin on Bloody Sunday in 1920. The tactic was used again by the Provisional IRA during the Troubles in Northern Ireland (1969–1998). Assassination of unionist politicians and activists was one of a number of methods used in the Provisional IRA campaign 1969–1997. The IRA also attempted to assassinate British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher by bombing the Conservative Party Conference in a Brighton hotel. Loyalist paramilitaries retaliated by killing Catholics at random and assassinating Irish nationalist politicians. Basque separatists ETA in Spain assassinated many security and political figures since the late 1960s, notably the president of the Francoist government of Spain, Luis Carrero Blanco, 1st Duke of Carrero-Blanco Grandee of Spain, in 1973. In the early 1990s, it also began to target academics, journalists and local politicians who publicly disagreed with it. The Red Brigades in Italy carried out assassinations of political figures and, to a lesser extent, so did the Red Army Faction in Germany in the 1970s and the 1980s. In the Vietnam War, communist insurgents routinely assassinated government officials and individual civilians deemed to offend or rival the revolutionary movement. Such attacks, along with widespread military activity by insurgent bands, almost brought the Ngo Dinh Diem regime to collapse before the US intervened. ==Psychology== A major study about assassination attempts in the US in the second half of the 20th century came to the conclusion that most prospective assassins spend copious amounts of time planning and preparing for their attempts. Assassinations are thus rarely "impulsive" actions. as well as the innovative use of explosive devices. A sniper with a precision rifle is often used in fictional assassinations; however, certain pragmatic difficulties attend long-range shooting, including finding a hidden shooting position with a clear line of sight, detailed advance knowledge of the intended victim's travel plans, the ability to identify the target at long range, and the ability to score a first-round lethal hit at long range, which is usually measured in hundreds of meters. A dedicated sniper rifle is also expensive, often costing thousands of dollars because of the high level of precision machining and handfinishing required to achieve extreme accuracy. Despite their comparative disadvantages, handguns are more easily concealable and so are much more commonly used than rifles. Of the 74 principal incidents evaluated in a major study about assassination attempts in the US in the second half of the 20th century, 51% were undertaken by a handgun, 30% with a rifle or shotgun, 15% used knives, and 8% explosives (the use of multiple weapons/methods was reported in 16% of all cases). The CIA made several attempts to assassinate Fidel Castro; many of the schemes involving poisoning his cigars. In the late 1950s, the KGB assassin Bohdan Stashynsky killed Ukrainian nationalist leaders Lev Rebet and Stepan Bandera with a spray gun that fired a jet of poison gas from a crushed cyanide ampule, making their deaths look like heart attacks. A 2006 case in the UK concerned the assassination of Alexander Litvinenko who was given a lethal dose of radioactive polonium-210, possibly passed to him in aerosol form sprayed directly onto his food. ==Targeted killing== Targeted killing is the intentional killing by a government or its agents of a civilian or "unlawful combatant" who is not in the government's custody. The target is a person asserted to be taking part in an armed conflict or terrorism, by bearing arms or otherwise, who has thereby lost the immunity from being targeted that he would otherwise have under the Third Geneva Convention. wrote, "Assassinations and targeted killings are very different acts." Abraham D. Sofaer, former federal judge for the US District Court for the Southern District of New York, wrote on the subject: When people call a targeted killing an "assassination", they are attempting to preclude debate on the merits of the action. Assassination is widely defined as murder, and is for that reason prohibited in the United States ... U.S. officials may not kill people merely because their policies are seen as detrimental to our interests... But killings in self-defense are no more "assassinations" in international affairs than they are murders when undertaken by our police forces against domestic killers. Targeted killings in self-defense have been authoritatively determined by the federal government to fall outside the assassination prohibition. Similarly, Amos Guiora, a professor of law at the University of Utah, wrote, "Targeted killing is... not an assassination." Steve David, professor of international relations at Johns Hopkins University, wrote, "There are strong reasons to believe that the Israeli policy of targeted killing is not the same as assassination." Syracuse Law William Banks and GW Law Peter Raven-Hansen wrote, "Targeted killing of terrorists is... not unlawful and would not constitute assassination." Rory Miller writes: "Targeted killing... is not 'assassination. Eric Patterson and Teresa Casale wrote, "Perhaps most important is the legal distinction between targeted killing and assassination." On the other hand, the American Civil Liberties Union also states on its website, "A program of targeted killing far from any battlefield, without charge or trial, violates the constitutional guarantee of due process. It also violates international law, under which lethal force may be used outside armed conflict zones only as a last resort to prevent imminent threats, when non-lethal means are not available. Targeting people who are suspected of terrorism for execution, far from any war zone, turns the whole world into a battlefield." Yael Stein, the research director of B'Tselem, the Israeli Information Center for Human Rights in the Occupied Territories, also stated in her article "By Any Name Illegal and Immoral: Response to 'Israel's Policy of Targeted Killing: The argument that this policy affords the public a sense of revenge and retribution could serve to justify acts both illegal and immoral. Clearly, lawbreakers ought to be punished. Yet, no matter how horrific their deeds, as the targeting of Israeli civilians indeed is, they should be punished according to the law. David's arguments could, in principle, justify the abolition of formal legal systems altogether. Targeted killing has become a frequent tactic of the United States and Israel in their fights against terrorism. The tactic can raise complex questions and lead to contentious disputes as to the legal basis for its application, who qualifies as an appropriate "hit list" target, and what circumstances must exist before the tactic may be used. Methods used have included firing Hellfire missiles from Predator or Reaper drones (unmanned, remote-controlled planes), detonating a cell phone bomb, and long-range sniper shooting. Countries such as the US (in Pakistan and Yemen) and Israel (in the West Bank and Gaza) have used targeted killing to eliminate members of groups such as Al-Qaeda and Hamas. United Nations investigator Ben Emmerson said that US drone strikes may have violated international humanitarian law. The Intercept reported, "Between January 2012 and February 2013, U.S. special operations airstrikes [in northeastern Afghanistan] killed more than 200 people. Of those, only 35 were the intended targets." ==Countermeasures== ===Early forms=== One of the earliest forms of defense against assassins was employing bodyguards, who act as a shield for the potential target; keep a lookout for potential attackers, sometimes in advance, such as on a parade route; and putting themselves in harm's way, both by simple presence, showing that physical force is available to protect the target, and by shielding the target if any attack occurs. To neutralize an attacker, bodyguards are typically armed as much as legal and practical concerns permit. Notable examples of bodyguards include the Roman Praetorian Guard or the Ottoman Janissaries, but in both cases, the protectors sometimes became assassins themselves, exploiting their power to make the head of state a virtual hostage or killing the very leaders whom they were supposed to protect. The loyalty of individual bodyguards is an important question as well, especially for leaders who oversee states with strong ethnic or religious divisions. Failure to realize such divided loyalties allowed the assassination of Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi, who was assassinated by two Sikh bodyguards in 1984. The bodyguard function was often executed by the leader's most loyal warriors, and it was extremely effective throughout most of early human history, which led assassins to attempt stealthy means, such as poison, whose risk was reduced by having another person taste the leader's food first. ===Modern strategies=== With the advent of gunpowder, ranged assassination via bombs or firearms became possible. One of the first reactions was simply to increase the guard, creating what at times might seem a small army trailing every leader. Another was to begin clearing large areas whenever a leader was present to the point that entire sections of a city might be shut down. As the 20th century dawned, the prevalence and capability of assassins grew quickly, as did measures to protect against them. For the first time, armored cars or limousines were put into service for safer transport, with modern versions virtually invulnerable to small arms fire, smaller bombs and mines. Bulletproof vests also began to be used, but since they were of limited utility, restricting movement and leaving the head unprotected, they tended to be worn only during high-profile public events, if at all. Access to famous people also became more and more restricted; potential visitors would be forced through numerous different checks before being granted access to the official in question, and as communication became better and information technology more prevalent, it has become all but impossible for a would-be killer to get close enough to the personage at work or in private life to effect an attempt on their life, especially with the common use of metal and bomb detectors. Most modern assassinations have been committed either during a public performance or during transport, both because of weaker security and security lapses, such as with U.S. President John F. Kennedy and former Pakistani Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto, or as part of a coup d'état in which security is either overwhelmed or completely removed, such as with Congolese Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba. The methods used for protection by famous people have sometimes evoked negative reactions by the public, with some resenting the separation from their officials or major figures. One example might be traveling in a car protected by a bubble of clear bulletproof glass, such as the MRAP-like Popemobile of Pope John Paul II, built following an attempt at his life. Politicians often resent the need for separation and sometimes send their bodyguards away from them for personal or publicity reasons. US President William McKinley did so at the public reception in which he was assassinated. US Secret Service protective agents receive training in the psychology of assassins.	[ "Bulletproof vests", "Hassan-i Sabbah", "Special Activities Center", "Targeted killing", "MQ-1 Predator", "Jael", "Central Intelligence Agency", "Operation Gaff", "Bulgarian umbrella", "Eugen Schauman", "List of people who survived assassination attempts", "Indira Gandhi", "Assassinations in fiction", "Clara Harris", "Rwandan genocide", "List of contract killers and hitmen", "William Shakespeare", "Judicial Papyrus of Turin", "unlawful combatant", "Admiral", "Assassination of James A. Garfield", "Ulster loyalism", "Leon Trotsky", "The Intercept", "Syracuse University College of Law", "firearms", "Alcibiades", "Georgetown University Law Center", "Abbasid dynasty", "car bomb", "hashshashin", "Assassination of William McKinley", "Sikh", "Very important person", "Renaissance", "Assassination of Mahatma Gandhi", "Achaemenid Empire", "Yevhen Konovalets", "Mahatma Gandhi", "Hellfire missile", "Martin Luther King Jr.", "Syria", "Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt", "Hamas", "Amos Guiora", "Reinhard Heydrich", "Malcolm X", "Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria", "Yigal Amir", "Fox News", "Ramesses III", "Phoenix Program", "B'Tselem", "armored car (VIP)", "Chanakya", "Harem conspiracy", "Catalonia", "The Washington Post", "The Art of War", "Haaretz", "Hoover Institution", "Julius Caesar", "John F. Kennedy", "Democracy Now!", "The New York Times", "Oslo Accords", "Qin Shi Huang", "Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.", "Yitzhak Rabin", "Ignace Poretsky", "sari", "Contract killing", "Royal Irish Constabulary", "Georgi Markov", "Uthman Ibn Affan", "Teti", "United States District Court for the Southern District of New York", "American Civil Liberties Union", "George W. Bush administration", "Order of Assassins", "Ii Naosuke", "rocket-propelled grenade", "Bloody Sunday (1920)", "Francoist", "The Squad (IRA unit)", "Hugo Grotius", "New Kingdom of Egypt", "power politics", "US Secret Service", "Assassination of Abraham Lincoln", "Alexander the Great", "Ali ibn Abi Talib", "William McKinley", "Mercedes-Benz M-Class", "Islamic Republic of Iran", "international humanitarian law", "World War I", "The Daily Telegraph", "CNN", "List of assassinations by firearm", "American-led intervention in Iraq (2014–present)", "Joab", "Unmanned aerial vehicle", "assassination of Juvénal Habyarimana and Cyprien Ntaryamira", "bodyguards", "tyrannicide", "George Washington University Law School", "Abraham D. Sofaer", "Life (magazine)", "Johns Hopkins University", "Byzantine Empire", "Sixth Dynasty of Egypt", "Amenemhat I", "History of assassination", "Death of Isoroku Yamamoto", "Salman Rushdie", "Popemobile", "US citizen", "justifiable homicide", "Red Army Faction", "Rwandan Civil War", "Philip II of Macedon", "The Guardian", "Matthew Sutcliffe", "MRAP", "Jack Ruby", "bulletproof glass", "Fatimid Caliphate", "cyanide", "assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand", "propaganda of the deed", "metal detector", "Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt", "Rajiv Gandhi", "List of United States presidential assassination attempts", "hashish", "Nathuram Godse", "Erwin Rommel", "Alberico Gentili", "Qin (state)", "the Troubles", "MQ-9 Reaper", "Ronald Reagan", "foreign policy", "Gerald Ford", "Political decoy", "international law", "Middle Ages", "Samir Khan", "Vietnam War", "Pope John Paul II", "Near East", "University of Utah", "Yemen", "plastic surgery", "Maurya Empire", "Memphis, Tennessee", "Machiavelli", "Irish nationalist", "Henry Rathbone", "Seljuk Empire", "Emperors of Rome", "Absalom", "polonium", "ricin", "BBC", "Balthasar Gérard", "Cristina Fernández de Kirchner", "Janissary", "Argentina", "Lidice massacre", "Mary Todd Lincoln", "makeup", "shinobi", "Kingdom of Judah", "Steven R. David", "Qasem Soleimani", "Executive Order 12333", "Lee Harvey Oswald", "Provisional IRA", "Brighton hotel bombing", "Macbeth", "Prime Minister of India", "delusion", "Assassination of Empress Myeongseong", "James Stewart, 1st Earl of Moray", "Ancient history", "Sennacherib", "Bomb disposal", "William the Silent", "sniper rifle", "Middle Kingdom of Egypt", "sicarii", "Peloponnesian War", "Bohdan Stashynsky", "Instructions of Amenemhat", "Luis Carrero Blanco", "Crusades", "food taster", "Motive (law)", "Balthazar Ayala", "Assassination of Inejirō Asanuma", "Ngo Dinh Diem", "Patrice Lumumba", "Sky News", "sniper", "Al-Qaeda", "Isoroku Yamamoto", "poison", "Irish Republican Army (1917–22)", "assassination of Nikolay Bobrikov", "Sophie, Duchess of Hohenberg", "Fourth International", "Governor-General of Finland", "Assassination of Qasem Soleimani", "Shia Imam", "Quds Force", "small arms", "sabotage", "King David", "Margaret Thatcher", "Anwar Al-Awlaki", "Fidel Castro", "CIA", "Rafik Hariri", "Viet Cong", "List of assassinations", "regicide", "Sisera", "The Prince", "Abraham Lincoln", "Joseph Stalin", "Ali Fallahian", "John Wilkes Booth", "land mine", "grenades", "Bulgaria", "Lebanon", "KGB", "Jehoash of Judah", "ETA (separatist group)", "Lev Rebet", "NKVD", "Vasili Mitrokhin", "assassination attempts on Fidel Castro", "Gunpowder", "Sri Lanka", "Abu Mahdi al-Muhandis", "Mykonos restaurant assassinations", "Medieval Latin", "Red Brigades", "Democratic Republic of the Congo", "poisoning of Alexander Litvinenko", "Operation Anthropoid", "National Civil Rights Museum", "Audubon Ballroom", "lethal force", "due process", "extrajudicial killing", "Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists", "Old Kingdom of Egypt", "Ibrahim al-Banna", "Gary D. Solis", "Chandragupta Maurya", "Arthashastra", "Punjab, India", "Umar", "Iranian Revolution", "Journal of Forensic Sciences", "Provisional IRA campaign 1969–1997", "cult of personality", "Third Geneva Convention", "Old Testament", "Helsinki", "Assassination of John F. Kennedy", "Michael Collins (Irish leader)", "Dublin", "drone strike", "Brighton", "unionism in the United Kingdom", "Jing Ke", "Cedar Revolution", "Basque people", "POUM", "Mehlis report", "Anwar al-Awlaki", "separatist", "World War II", "Czechoslovak government-in-exile", "Praetorian Guard", "Nizari Isma'ilism", "Basic Books", "Ben Emmerson", "List of United States presidential assassination attempts and plots", "Political Science Quarterly", "United States special operations forces", "Unmanned combat aerial vehicle", "Irish War of Independence", "Sun Tzu", "Four Hitokiri of the Bakumatsu", "Popular Mobilization Forces", "List of assassinated and executed heads of state and government", "Gavrilo Princip", "Stepan Bandera", "Abdul Sattar Abu Risha", "Boshin War", "head of state", "Benazir Bhutto" ]
2,964	Optical audio disc	An audio optical disc is an optical disc that stores sound information such as music or speech. It may specifically refer to: ==Audio CDs== Compact disc (CD), an optical disc used to store digital data (700 MB storage) Compact Disc Digital Audio (CD-DA), a CD that contains PCM encoded digital audio in the original "Red Book" CD-DA format 5.1 Music Disc, an extension to the Red Book standard that uses DTS Coherent Acoustics 5.1 surround sound Compressed audio optical disc, an optical disc storing MP3s and other compressed audio files as data, rather than in the Red Book format ==Audio DVDs== DVD, 4 GB single layer, 8 GB double layer storage DVD-Audio, a DVD that plays audio Super Audio CD (SACD), a format which competes with DVD-Audio ==Audio Blu-rays== Blu-ray, 25 GB single layer, 50 GB double layer BD-Audio, a Blu-ray disc that is capable of audio-only playback	[ "Compact Disc Digital Audio", "BD-Audio", "5.1 Music Disc", "Super Audio CD", "Blu-ray", "Compatible Discrete 4", "Compressed audio optical disc", "DVD", "Compact disc", "DVD-Audio", "optical disc" ]
2,965	Alcoholism	{{Infobox medical condition (new) \| name = Alcoholism \| synonyms = Alcohol addiction, alcohol dependence syndrome, alcohol use disorder (AUD) \| image = A wife asking her drunkard husband to hand over a bottle Wellcome L0067935.jpg \| caption = A French temperance organisation poster depicting the effects of alcoholism in a family, : "Ah! When will we be rid of alcohol?" \| field = Psychiatry, clinical psychology, toxicology, addiction medicine \| symptoms = Drinking large amounts of alcohol over a long period, difficulty cutting down, acquiring and drinking alcohol taking up a lot of time, usage resulting in problems, withdrawal occurring when stopping \| complications = Mental illness, delirium, Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome, irregular heartbeat, cirrhosis of the liver, cancer, fetal alcohol spectrum disorder, suicide \| onset = \| duration = Long term \| medication = \| prognosis = \| frequency = 380 million / 5.1% adults (2016) Problematic use of alcohol has been mentioned in the earliest historical records. The World Health Organization (WHO) estimated there were 283 million people with alcohol use disorders worldwide . The term alcoholism was first coined in 1852, but alcoholism and alcoholic are considered stigmatizing and likely to discourage seeking treatment, so diagnostic terms such as "alcohol use disorder" and "alcohol dependence" are often used instead in a clinical context. Alcohol is addictive, and heavy long-term alcohol use results in many negative health and social consequences. It can damage all the organ systems, but especially affects the brain, heart, liver, pancreas and immune system. These health effects can reduce life expectancy by 10 years. Drinking during pregnancy may harm the child's health, and drunk driving increases the risk of traffic accidents. Alcoholism is also associated with increases in violent and non-violent crime. While alcoholism directly resulted in 139,000 deaths worldwide in 2013, in 2012 3.3 million deaths may be attributable globally to alcohol. Someone with a parent or sibling with an alcohol use disorder is three to four times more likely to develop an alcohol use disorder themselves, but only a minority of them do. High stress levels and anxiety, as well as alcohol's inexpensive cost and easy accessibility, increase the risk. People may continue to drink partly to prevent or improve symptoms of withdrawal. Questionnaires are usually used to detect possible alcoholism. Further information is then collected to confirm the diagnosis. Treatment of alcoholism may take several forms. The medications acamprosate or disulfiram may also be used to help prevent further drinking. Mental illness or other addictions may complicate treatment. Various individual or group therapy or support groups are used to attempt to keep a person from returning to alcoholism. Among them is the abstinence based mutual aid fellowship Alcoholics Anonymous (AA). A 2020 scientific review found that clinical interventions encouraging increased participation in AA (AA/twelve step facilitation (AA/TSF))—resulted in higher abstinence rates over other clinical interventions, and most studies in the review found that AA/TSF led to lower health costs. Many terms, some slurs and some informal, have been used to refer to people affected by alcoholism such as tippler, sot, drunk, drunkard, piss ant, dipsomaniac and souse. ==Signs and symptoms== The risk of alcohol dependence begins at low levels of drinking and increases directly with both the volume of alcohol consumed and a pattern of drinking larger amounts on an occasion, to the point of intoxication, which is sometimes called binge drinking. Binge drinking is the most common pattern of alcoholism. It has different definitions and one of this defines it as a pattern of drinking when a male has five or more drinks on an occasion or a female has at least four drinks on an occasion. ===Long-term misuse=== Alcoholism is characterized by an increased tolerance to alcohol – which means that an individual can consume more alcohol – and physical dependence on alcohol, which makes it hard for an individual to control their consumption. The physical dependency caused by alcohol can lead to an affected individual having a very strong urge to drink alcohol. These characteristics play a role in decreasing the ability to stop drinking of an individual with an alcohol use disorder. Alcoholism can have adverse effects on mental health, contributing to psychiatric disorders and increasing the risk of suicide. A depressed mood is a common symptom of heavy alcohol drinkers. === Warning signs === Warning signs of alcoholism include the consumption of increasing amounts of alcohol and frequent intoxication, preoccupation with drinking to the exclusion of other activities, promises to quit drinking and failure to keep those promises, the inability to remember what was said or done while drinking (colloquially known as "blackouts"), personality changes associated with drinking, denial or the making of excuses for drinking, the refusal to admit excessive drinking, dysfunction or other problems at work or school, the loss of interest in personal appearance or hygiene, marital and economic problems, and the complaint of poor health, with loss of appetite, respiratory infections, or increased anxiety. ====Physical==== =====Short-term effects===== Drinking enough to cause a blood alcohol concentration (BAC) of 0.03–0.12% typically causes an overall improvement in mood and possible euphoria (intense feelings of well-being and happiness), increased self-confidence and sociability, decreased anxiety, a flushed, red appearance in the face and impaired judgment and fine muscle coordination. A BAC of 0.09% to 0.25% causes lethargy, sedation, balance problems and blurred vision. A BAC of 0.18% to 0.30% causes profound confusion, impaired speech (e.g. slurred speech), staggering, dizziness and vomiting. A BAC from 0.25% to 0.40% causes stupor, unconsciousness, anterograde amnesia, vomiting (death may occur due to inhalation of vomit while unconscious) and respiratory depression (potentially life-threatening). A BAC from 0.35% to 0.80% causes a coma (unconsciousness), life-threatening respiratory depression and possibly fatal alcohol poisoning. With all alcoholic beverages, drinking while driving, operating an aircraft or heavy machinery increases the risk of an accident; many countries have penalties for drunk driving. =====Long-term effects===== Having more than one drink a day for women or two drinks for men increases the risk of heart disease, high blood pressure, atrial fibrillation, and stroke. Risk is greater with binge drinking, which may also result in violence or accidents. About 3.3 million deaths (5.9% of all deaths) are believed to be due to alcohol each year. and sexual dysfunction, and can eventually be fatal. Other physical effects include an increased risk of developing cardiovascular disease, malabsorption, alcoholic liver disease, and several cancers such as breast cancer and head and neck cancer. Damage to the central nervous system and peripheral nervous system can occur from sustained alcohol consumption. A wide range of immunologic defects can result and there may be a generalized skeletal fragility, in addition to a recognized tendency to accidental injury, resulting in a propensity for bone fractures. Women develop long-term complications of alcohol dependence more rapidly than do men; women also have a higher mortality rate from alcoholism than men. The amount of alcohol that can be biologically processed and its effects differ between sexes. Equal dosages of alcohol consumed by men and women generally result in women having higher blood alcohol concentrations (BACs), since women generally have a lower weight and higher percentage of body fat and therefore a lower volume of distribution for alcohol than men. ====Psychiatric==== Long-term misuse of alcohol can cause a wide range of mental health problems. Severe cognitive problems are common; approximately 10% of all dementia cases are related to alcohol consumption, making it the second leading cause of dementia. Excessive alcohol use causes damage to brain function, and psychological health can be increasingly affected over time. Social skills are significantly impaired in people with alcoholism due to the neurotoxic effects of alcohol on the brain, especially the prefrontal cortex area of the brain. The social skills that are impaired by alcohol use disorder include impairments in perceiving facial emotions, prosody, perception problems, and theory of mind deficits; the ability to understand humor is also impaired in people who misuse alcohol. Psychiatric disorders are common in people with alcohol use disorders, with as many as 25% also having severe psychiatric disturbances. The most prevalent psychiatric symptoms are anxiety and depression disorders. Psychiatric symptoms usually initially worsen during alcohol withdrawal, but typically improve or disappear with continued abstinence. Psychosis, confusion, and organic brain syndrome may be caused by alcohol misuse, which can lead to a misdiagnosis such as schizophrenia. Panic disorder can develop or worsen as a direct result of long-term alcohol misuse. The co-occurrence of major depressive disorder and alcoholism is well documented. Among those with comorbid occurrences, a distinction is commonly made between depressive episodes that remit with alcohol abstinence ("substance-induced"), and depressive episodes that are primary and do not remit with abstinence ("independent" episodes). Additional use of other drugs may increase the risk of depression. Psychiatric disorders differ depending on gender. Women who have alcohol-use disorders often have a co-occurring psychiatric diagnosis such as major depression, anxiety, panic disorder, bulimia, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), or borderline personality disorder. Men with alcohol-use disorders more often have a co-occurring diagnosis of narcissistic or antisocial personality disorder, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, impulse disorders or attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Women with alcohol use disorder are more likely to experience physical or sexual assault, abuse, and domestic violence than women in the general population, Alcoholism is associated with loss of employment, which can lead to financial problems. Drinking at inappropriate times and behavior caused by reduced judgment can lead to legal consequences, such as criminal charges for drunk driving or public disorder, or civil penalties for tortious behavior. An alcoholic's behavior and mental impairment while drunk can profoundly affect those surrounding him and lead to isolation from family and friends. This isolation can lead to marital conflict and divorce, or contribute to domestic violence. Alcoholism can also lead to child neglect, with subsequent lasting damage to the emotional development of children of people with alcohol use disorders. For this reason, children of people with alcohol use disorders can develop a number of emotional problems. For example, they can become afraid of their parents, because of their unstable mood behaviors. They may develop shame over their inadequacy to liberate their parents from alcoholism and, as a result of this, may develop self-image problems, which can lead to depression. ===Alcohol withdrawal=== As with similar substances with a sedative-hypnotic mechanism, such as barbiturates and benzodiazepines, withdrawal from alcohol dependence can be fatal if it is not properly managed. Alcohol's primary effect is the increase in stimulation of the GABAA receptor, promoting central nervous system depression. With repeated heavy consumption of alcohol, these receptors are desensitized and reduced in number, resulting in tolerance and physical dependence. When alcohol consumption is stopped too abruptly, the person's nervous system experiences uncontrolled synapse firing. This can result in symptoms that include anxiety, life-threatening seizures, delirium tremens, hallucinations, shakes and possible heart failure. Other neurotransmitter systems are also involved, especially dopamine, NMDA and glutamate. Severe acute withdrawal symptoms such as delirium tremens and seizures rarely occur after 1-week post cessation of alcohol. The acute withdrawal phase can be defined as lasting between one and three weeks. In the period of 3–6 weeks following cessation, anxiety, depression, fatigue, and sleep disturbance are common. Similar post-acute withdrawal symptoms have also been observed in animal models of alcohol dependence and withdrawal. A kindling effect also occurs in people with alcohol use disorders whereby each subsequent withdrawal syndrome is more severe than the previous withdrawal episode; this is due to neuroadaptations which occur as a result of periods of abstinence followed by re-exposure to alcohol. Individuals who have had multiple withdrawal episodes are more likely to develop seizures and experience more severe anxiety during withdrawal from alcohol than alcohol-dependent individuals without a history of past alcohol withdrawal episodes. The kindling effect leads to persistent functional changes in brain neural circuits as well as to gene expression. Kindling also results in the intensification of psychological symptoms of alcohol withdrawal. ==Causes== A complex combination of genetic and environmental factors influences the risk of the development of alcoholism. Genes that influence the metabolism of alcohol also influence the risk of alcoholism, as can a family history of alcoholism. There is compelling evidence that alcohol use at an early age may influence the expression of genes which increase the risk of alcohol dependence. These genetic and epigenetic results are regarded as consistent with large longitudinal population studies finding that the younger the age of drinking onset, the greater the prevalence of lifetime alcohol dependence. Severe childhood trauma is also associated with a general increase in the risk of drug dependency. The use of cannabis was associated with later problems with alcohol use. Alcohol use was associated with an increased probability of later use of tobacco and illegal drugs such as cannabis. ===Availability=== Alcohol is the most available, widely consumed, and widely misused recreational drug. Beer alone is the world's most widely consumed alcoholic beverage; it is the third-most popular drink overall, after water and tea. It is thought by some to be the oldest fermented beverage. ===Gender difference=== Based on combined data in the US from SAMHSA's 2004–2005 National Surveys on Drug Use & Health, the rate of past-year alcohol dependence or misuse among persons aged 12 or older varied by level of alcohol use: 44.7% of past month heavy drinkers, 18.5% binge drinkers, 3.8% past month non-binge drinkers, and 1.3% of those who did not drink alcohol in the past month met the criteria for alcohol dependence or misuse in the past year. Males had higher rates than females for all measures of drinking in the past month: any alcohol use (57.5% vs. 45%), binge drinking (30.8% vs. 15.1%), and heavy alcohol use (10.5% vs. 3.3%), and males were twice as likely as females to have met the criteria for alcohol dependence or misuse in the past year (10.5% vs. 5.1%). However, because females generally weigh less than males, have more fat and less water in their bodies, and metabolize less alcohol in their esophagus and stomach, they are likely to develop higher blood alcohol levels per drink. Women may also be more vulnerable to liver disease. ===Genetic variation=== There are genetic variations that affect the risk for alcoholism. Some of these variations are more common in individuals with ancestry from certain areas; for example, Africa, East Asia, the Middle East and Europe. The variants with strongest effect are in genes that encode the main enzymes of alcohol metabolism, ADH1B and ALDH2. The alcohol dehydrogenase allele ADH1B2 causes a more rapid metabolism of alcohol to acetaldehyde, and reduces risk for alcoholism; Native Americans, however, have a significantly higher rate of alcoholism than average; risk factors such as cultural environmental effects (e.g. trauma) have been proposed to explain the higher rates. The aldehyde dehydrogenase allele ALDH22 greatly reduces the rate at which acetaldehyde, the initial product of alcohol metabolism, is removed by conversion to acetate; it greatly reduces the risk for alcoholism. Several large GWAS have found differences in the genetics of alcohol consumption and alcohol dependence, although the two are to some degree related. ===DNA damage=== Alcohol-induced DNA damage, when not properly repaired, may have a key role in the neurotoxicity induced by alcohol. Metabolic conversion of ethanol to acetaldehyde can occur in the brain and the neurotoxic effects of ethanol appear to be associated with acetaldehyde induced DNA damages including DNA adducts and crosslinks. In 1979, the World Health Organization discouraged the use of alcoholism due to its inexact meaning, preferring alcohol dependence syndrome. Misuse, problem use, abuse, and heavy use of alcohol refer to improper use of alcohol, which may cause physical, social, or moral harm to the drinker. The Dietary Guidelines for Americans, issued by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) in 2005, defines "moderate use" as no more than two alcoholic beverages a day for men and no more than one alcoholic beverage a day for women. The National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA) defines binge drinking as the amount of alcohol leading to a blood alcohol content (BAC) of 0.08, which, for most adults, would be reached by consuming five drinks for men or four for women over a two-hour period. According to the NIAAA, men may be at risk for alcohol-related problems if their alcohol consumption exceeds 14 standard drinks per week or 4 drinks per day, and women may be at risk if they have more than 7 standard drinks per week or 3 drinks per day. It defines a standard drink as one 12-ounce bottle of beer, one 5-ounce glass of wine, or 1.5 ounces of distilled spirits. Despite this risk, a 2014 report in the National Survey on Drug Use and Health found that only 10% of either "heavy drinkers" or "binge drinkers" defined according to the above criteria also met the criteria for alcohol dependence, while only 1.3% of non-binge drinkers met the criteria. An inference drawn from this study is that evidence-based policy strategies and clinical preventive services may effectively reduce binge drinking without requiring addiction treatment in most cases. ====Alcoholism==== The term alcoholism is commonly used amongst laypeople, but the word is poorly defined. Despite the imprecision inherent in the term, there have been attempts to define how the word alcoholism should be interpreted when encountered. In 1992, it was defined by the National Council on Alcoholism and Drug Dependence (NCADD) and ASAM as "a primary, chronic disease characterized by impaired control over drinking, preoccupation with the drug alcohol, use of alcohol despite adverse consequences, and distortions in thinking." MeSH has had an entry for alcoholism since 1999, and references the 1992 definition. The WHO calls alcoholism "a term of long-standing use and variable meaning", and use of the term was disfavored by a 1979 WHO expert committee. In professional and research contexts, the term alcoholism is not currently favored, but rather alcohol abuse, alcohol dependence, or alcohol use disorder are used. Johnson (1980) proposed that the emotional progression of the addicted people's response to alcohol has four phases. The first two are considered "normal" drinking and the last two are viewed as "typical" alcoholic drinking. Alcohol dependence – alcohol abuse combined with tolerance, withdrawal, and an uncontrollable drive to drink. Some scholars suggested that DSM-5 merges alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence into a single new entry, named "alcohol-use disorder". \|- \| DSM-5 \| Alcohol use disorder \| "A problematic pattern of alcohol use leading to clinically significant impairment or distress, as manifested by [two or more symptoms out of a total of 12], occurring within a 12-month period ...." \|- \| ICD-10 \| Alcohol harmful use, or Alcohol dependence syndrome \| Definitions are similar to that of the DSM-IV. The World Health Organization uses the term "alcohol dependence syndrome" rather than alcoholism. \|- \| ICD-11 \| Episode of harmful use of alcohol, Harmful pattern of use of alcohol, or Alcohol dependence \| Episode of harmful use of alcohol – "A single episode of use of alcohol that has caused damage to a person's physical or mental health or has resulted in behaviour leading to harm to the health of others ..." Harmful pattern of use of alcohol – "A pattern of alcohol use that has caused damage to a person's physical or mental health or has resulted in behaviour leading to harm to the health of others ..." Alcohol dependence – "Alcohol dependence is a disorder of regulation of alcohol use arising from repeated or continuous use of alcohol. The characteristic feature is a strong internal drive to use alcohol. ... The features of dependence are usually evident over a period of at least 12 months but the diagnosis may be made if alcohol use is continuous (daily or almost daily) for at least 1 month." \|- \|} ===Social barriers=== Attitudes and social stereotypes can create barriers to the detection and treatment of alcohol use disorder. This is more of a barrier for women than men. Fear of stigmatization may lead women to deny that they have a medical condition, to hide their drinking, and to drink alone. This pattern, in turn, leads family, physicians, and others to be less likely to suspect that a woman they know has alcohol use disorder. In contrast, reduced fear of stigma may lead men to admit that they are having a medical condition, to display their drinking publicly, and to drink in groups. This pattern, in turn, leads family, physicians, and others to be more likely to suspect that a man they know is someone with an alcohol use disorder. Several tools may be used to detect a loss of control of alcohol use. These tools are mostly self-reports in questionnaire form. Another common theme is a score or tally that sums up the general severity of alcohol use. The CAGE questionnaire, named for its four questions, is one such example that may be used to screen patients quickly in a doctor's office. The CAGE questionnaire has demonstrated a high effectiveness in detecting alcohol-related problems; however, it has limitations in people with less severe alcohol-related problems, white women and college students. Other tests are sometimes used for the detection of alcohol dependence, such as the Alcohol Dependence Data Questionnaire, which is a more sensitive diagnostic test than the CAGE questionnaire. It helps distinguish a diagnosis of alcohol dependence from one of heavy alcohol use. The Michigan Alcohol Screening Test (MAST) is a screening tool for alcoholism widely used by courts to determine the appropriate sentencing for people convicted of alcohol-related offenses, driving under the influence being the most common. The Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT), a screening questionnaire developed by the World Health Organization, is unique in that it has been validated in six countries and is used internationally. Like the CAGE questionnaire, it uses a simple set of questions – a high score earning a deeper investigation. The Paddington Alcohol Test (PAT) was designed to screen for alcohol-related problems amongst those attending Accident and Emergency departments. It concords well with the AUDIT questionnaire but is administered in a fifth of the time. ===Urine and blood tests=== There are biological markers for the use of alcohol, one common test being that of blood alcohol content (BAC). Monitoring levels of gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase (GGT) is sometimes used to assess continued alcohol intake. But levels of GGT are elevated in only half of men with alcohol use disorder, and it is less commonly elevated in women and younger people. Macrocytosis (enlarged MCV) Moderate elevation of AST and ALT and an AST: ALT ratio of 2:1 High carbohydrate deficient transferrin (CDT) With regard to alcoholism, BAC is useful to judge alcohol tolerance, which in turn is a sign of alcoholism. Increasing the age at which alcohol can be purchased, and banning or restricting alcohol beverage advertising are common methods to reduce alcohol use among adolescents and young adults in particular, see Alcoholism in adolescence. Another common method of alcoholism prevention is taxation of alcohol products – increasing price of alcohol by 10% is linked with reduction of consumption of up to 10%. Credible, evidence-based educational campaigns in the mass media about the consequences of alcohol misuse have been recommended. Guidelines for parents to prevent alcohol misuse amongst adolescents, and for helping young people with mental health problems have also been suggested. Because alcohol is often used for self-medication of conditions like anxiety temporarily, prevention of alcoholism may be attempted by reducing the severity or prevalence of stress and anxiety in individuals. ===Cessation of alcohol intake=== Medical treatment for alcohol detoxification usually involves administration of a benzodiazepine, in order to ameliorate alcohol withdrawal syndrome's adverse impact. The addition of phenobarbital improves outcomes if benzodiazepine administration lacks the usual efficacy, and phenobarbital alone might be an effective treatment. Propofol also might enhance treatment for individuals showing limited therapeutic response to a benzodiazepine. Individuals who are only at risk of mild to moderate withdrawal symptoms can be treated as outpatients. Individuals at risk of a severe withdrawal syndrome as well as those who have significant or acute comorbid conditions can be treated as inpatients. Direct treatment can be followed by a treatment program for alcohol dependence or alcohol use disorder to attempt to reduce the risk of relapse. A 2020 Cochrane review concluded that Twelve-Step Facilitation (TSF) probably achieves outcomes such as fewer drinks per drinking day, however evidence for such a conclusion comes from low to moderate certainty evidence "so should be regarded with caution". Others include LifeRing Secular Recovery, SMART Recovery, Women for Sobriety, and Secular Organizations for Sobriety. Manualized Twelve Step Facilitation (TSF) interventions (i.e. therapy which encourages active, long-term Alcoholics Anonymous participation) for Alcohol Use Disorder lead to higher abstinence rates, compared to other clinical interventions and to wait-list control groups. ===Moderate drinking=== Moderate drinking amongst people with alcohol dependence—often termed 'controlled drinking'—has been subject to significant controversy. Indeed, much of the skepticism toward the viability of moderate drinking goals stems from historical ideas about 'alcoholism', now replaced with 'alcohol use disorder' or alcohol dependence in most scientific contexts. A 2021 meta-analysis and systematic review of controlled drinking covering 22 studies concluded controlled drinking was a 'non-inferior' outcome to abstinence for many drinkers. Rationing and moderation programs such as Moderation Management and DrinkWise do not mandate complete abstinence. While most people with alcohol use disorders are unable to limit their drinking in this way, some return to moderate drinking. A 2002 US study by the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA) showed that 17.7% of individuals diagnosed as alcohol dependent more than one year prior returned to low-risk drinking. This group, however, showed fewer initial symptoms of dependency. A follow-up study, using the same subjects that were judged to be in remission in 2001–2002, examined the rates of return to problem drinking in 2004–2005. The study found abstinence from alcohol was the most stable form of remission for recovering alcoholics. There was also a 1973 study showing chronic alcoholics drinking moderately again, but a 1982 follow-up showed that 95% of subjects were not able to maintain drinking in moderation over the long term. Another study was a long-term (60 year) follow-up of two groups of alcoholic men which concluded that "return to controlled drinking rarely persisted for much more than a decade without relapse or evolution into abstinence." Internet based measures appear to be useful at least in the short term. ===Medications=== In the United States there are four approved medications for alcoholism: acamprosate, two methods of using naltrexone and disulfiram. Acamprosate may stabilise the brain chemistry that is altered due to alcohol dependence via antagonising the actions of glutamate, a neurotransmitter which is hyperactive in the post-withdrawal phase. By reducing excessive NMDA activity which occurs at the onset of alcohol withdrawal, acamprosate can reduce or prevent alcohol withdrawal related neurotoxicity. Acamprosate reduces the risk of relapse amongst alcohol-dependent persons. Acamprosate is not recommended in those with advanced, decompensated liver cirrhosis due to the risk of liver toxicity. Naltrexone is a competitive antagonist for opioid receptors, effectively blocking the effects of endorphins and opioids. Naltrexone may be given as a daily oral tablet or as a monthly intramuscular injection. Evidence supports a reduced risk of relapse among alcohol-dependent persons and a decrease in excessive drinking. Calcium carbimide works in the same way as disulfiram; it has an advantage in that the occasional adverse effects of disulfiram, hepatotoxicity and drowsiness, do not occur with calcium carbimide. Ondansetron and topiramate are supported by tentative evidence in people with certain genetic patterns. Evidence for ondansetron is stronger in people who have recently started to abuse alcohol. Topiramate is a derivative of the naturally occurring sugar monosaccharide D-fructose. Review articles characterize topiramate as showing "encouraging", and "insufficient" results in the treatment of alcohol use disorders. Evidence does not support the use of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs), antipsychotics, or gabapentin. A 2010 review found that topiramate may be superior to existing alcohol pharmacotherapeutic options. Topiramate effectively reduces craving and alcohol withdrawal severity as well as improving quality-of-life-ratings. Baclofen, a GABAB receptor agonist, is under study for the treatment of alcoholism. According to a 2017 Cochrane Systematic Review, there is insufficient evidence to determine the effectiveness or safety for the use of baclofen for withdrawal symptoms in alcoholism. Psilocybin-assisted psychotherapy is under study for the treatment of patients with alcohol use disorder. ===Dual addictions and dependencies=== Alcoholics may also require treatment for other psychotropic drug addictions and drug dependencies. The most common dual dependence syndrome with alcohol dependence is benzodiazepine dependence, with studies showing 10–20% of alcohol-dependent individuals had problems of dependence and/or misuse problems of benzodiazepine drugs such as diazepam or clonazepam. These drugs are, like alcohol, depressants. Benzodiazepines may be used legally, if they are prescribed by doctors for anxiety problems or other mood disorders, or they may be purchased as illegal drugs. Benzodiazepine use increases cravings for alcohol and the volume of alcohol consumed by problem drinkers. Benzodiazepine dependency requires careful reduction in dosage to avoid benzodiazepine withdrawal syndrome and other health consequences. Dependence on other sedative-hypnotics such as zolpidem and zopiclone as well as opiates and illegal drugs is common in alcoholics. Alcohol itself is a sedative-hypnotic and is cross-tolerant with other sedative-hypnotics such as barbiturates, benzodiazepines and nonbenzodiazepines. Dependence upon and withdrawal from sedative-hypnotics can be medically severe and, as with alcohol withdrawal, there is a risk of psychosis or seizures if not properly managed. ==Epidemiology== The World Health Organization estimates that there are about 380 million people with alcoholism worldwide (5.1% of the population over 15 years of age), About 12% of American adults have had an alcohol dependence problem at some time in their life. In the United States and Western Europe, 10–20% of men and 5–10% of women at some point in their lives will meet criteria for alcoholism. In England, the number of "dependent drinkers" was calculated as over 600,000 in 2019. Estonia had the highest death rate from alcohol in Europe in 2015 at 8.8 per 100,000 population. In the United States, 30% of people admitted to hospital have a problem related to alcohol. Within the medical and scientific communities, there is a broad consensus regarding alcoholism as a disease state. For example, the American Medical Association considers alcohol a drug and states that "drug addiction is a chronic, relapsing brain disease characterized by compulsive drug seeking and use despite often devastating consequences. It results from a complex interplay of biological vulnerability, environmental exposure, and developmental factors (e.g., stage of brain maturity)." Alcoholism has a higher prevalence among men, though, in recent decades, the proportion of female alcoholics has increased. Current evidence indicates that in both men and women, alcoholism is 50–60% genetically determined, leaving 40–50% for environmental influences. Most alcoholics develop alcoholism during adolescence or young adulthood. There is a high rate of suicide in chronic alcoholics, which increases the longer a person drinks. Approximately 3–15% of alcoholics die by suicide, and research has found that over 50% of all suicides are associated with alcohol or drug dependence. This is believed to be due to alcohol causing physiological distortion of brain chemistry, as well as social isolation. Suicide is also common in adolescent alcohol abusers. Research in 2000 found that 25% of suicides in adolescents were related to alcohol abuse. Among those with alcohol dependence after one year, some met the criteria for low-risk drinking, even though only 26% of the group received any treatment, with the breakdown as follows: 25% were found to be still dependent, 27% were in partial remission (some symptoms persist), 12% asymptomatic drinkers (consumption increases chances of relapse) and 36% were fully recovered – made up of 18% low-risk drinkers plus 18% abstainers. In contrast, however, the results of a long-term (60-year) follow-up of two groups of alcoholic men indicated that "return to controlled drinking rarely persisted for much more than a decade without relapse or evolution into abstinence....return-to-controlled drinking, as reported in short-term studies, is often a mirage." That term now has a more specific meaning. The term alcoholism was first used by Swedish physician Magnus Huss in an 1852 publication to describe the systemic adverse effects of alcohol. In 2005, alcohol dependence and misuse was estimated to cost the US economy approximately 220 billion dollars per year, more than cancer and obesity. ==Society and culture== The various health problems associated with long-term alcohol consumption are generally perceived as detrimental to society; for example, money due to lost labor-hours, medical costs due to injuries due to drunkenness and organ damage from long-term use, and secondary treatment costs, such as the costs of rehabilitation facilities and detoxification centers. Alcohol use is a major contributing factor for head injuries, motor vehicle injuries (27%), interpersonal violence (18%), suicides (18%), and epilepsy (13%). Beyond the financial costs that alcohol consumption imposes, there are also significant social costs to both the alcoholic and their family and friends. For instance, alcohol consumption by a pregnant woman can lead to an incurable and damaging condition known as fetal alcohol syndrome, which often results in cognitive deficits, mental health problems, an inability to live independently and an increased risk of criminal behaviour, all of which can cause emotional stress for parents and caregivers. Estimates of the economic costs of alcohol misuse, collected by the World Health Organization, vary from 1–6% of a country's GDP. One Australian estimate pegged alcohol's social costs at 24% of all drug misuse costs; a similar Canadian study concluded alcohol's share was 41%. One study quantified the cost to the UK of all forms of alcohol misuse in 2001 as £18.5–20 billion. All economic costs in the United States in 2006 have been estimated at $223.5 billion. The idea of hitting rock bottom refers to an experience of stress that can be attributed to alcohol misuse. There is no single definition for this idea, and people may identify their own lowest points in terms of lost jobs, lost relationships, health problems, legal problems, or other consequences of alcohol misuse. The concept is promoted by 12-step recovery groups and researchers using the transtheoretical model of motivation for behavior change. Stereotypes of alcoholics are often found in fiction and popular culture. The "town drunk" is a stock character in Western popular culture. Stereotypes of drunkenness may be based on racism or xenophobia, as in the fictional depiction of the Irish as heavy drinkers. Studies by social psychologists Stivers and Greeley attempt to document the perceived prevalence of high alcohol consumption amongst the Irish in America. Alcohol consumption is relatively similar between many European cultures, the United States, and Australia. In Asian countries that have a high gross domestic product, there is heightened drinking compared to other Asian countries, but it is nowhere near as high as it is in other countries like the United States. It is also inversely seen, with countries that have very low gross domestic product showing high alcohol consumption. In a study done on Korean immigrants in Canada, they reported alcohol was typically an integral part of their meal but is the only time solo drinking should occur. They also generally believe alcohol is necessary at any social event, as it helps conversations start. Peyote, a psychoactive agent, has even shown promise in treating alcoholism. Alcohol had actually replaced peyote as Native Americans' psychoactive agent of choice in rituals when peyote was outlawed.	[ "self report study", "bulimia", "Gin Lane", "Alcohol cessation", "disulfiram", "toxicology", "medical literature", "dopamine", "Delirium tremens", "oxazepam", "interpersonal violence", "Ondansetron", "hypomagnesemia", "Psilocybin", "anxiety disorder", "blood alcohol content", "Phosphatidylethanol", "cell surface receptor", "theory of mind", "Benzodiazepines", "head injury", "xenophobia", "Pejorative", "Peyote", "atrial fibrillation", "Brain damage", "fetal alcohol spectrum disorders", "transmembrane protein", "tea", "zopiclone", "Michigan Alcohol Screening Test", "Irish people", "List of countries by alcohol consumption", "antipsychotic", "hangover", "child abuse", "hyponatremia", "Alcohol dependence", "alcohol detoxification", "Duodenal ulcer", "physical dependence", "Prosody (linguistics)", "stroke", "attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder", "clinical psychology", "driving under the influence", "Alcohol tolerance", "cognitive deficit", "Psychosis", "coma", "polyneuropathy", "benzodiazepine", "suicide", "Major depressive disorder", "binge drinking", "cardiovascular disease", "suicides", "support group", "heart failure", "pregnancy", "alcoholic liver disease", "fetal alcohol spectrum disorder", "synapse", "SMART Recovery", "nonbenzodiazepine", "topiramate", "head and neck cancer", "divorce", "blood test", "Psychological trauma", "Cerebral cortex", "Harm reduction", "comorbid", "neurotransmitter", "drug tolerance", "Drug tolerance", "Women for Sobriety", "zolpidem", "anxiety (mood)", "temperance movement", "alcoholic beverage", "pancreas", "evidence based", "town drunk", "Disulfiram", "peripheral nervous system", "Estonia", "sexual dysfunction", "Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration", "pancreatitis", "cancer", "CAGE questionnaire", "seizure", "hormone", "Twelve-step program", "menopause", "self-medication", "Klotho (biology)", "drug dependence", "schizophrenia", "GABAB receptor", "lethargy", "psychotherapy", "Macrocytosis", "respiratory depression", "phenobarbital", "child neglect", "Social stigma", "gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase", "organic brain syndrome", "borderline personality disorder", "depressant", "rape", "panic disorder", "benzodiazepine withdrawal syndrome", "anterograde amnesia", "transtheoretical model", "Whiplash (medicine)", "bipolar disorder", "European Union", "epilepsy", "tricyclic antidepressants", "gene expression", "Heart arrhythmia", "post-traumatic stress disorder", "GABAA receptor", "genome-wide association study", "Ethyl glucuronide", "National Council on Alcoholism and Drug Dependence", "alcohol tolerance", "post-withdrawal", "opiate", "Psychological stress", "Addictive personality", "alcohol (drug)", "immune system", "Stress (biological)", "Substance dependence", "Drinking water", "organ system", "Social skills", "Alcohol flush reaction", "Monosaccharide", "NMDA", "Aspartate transaminase", "Effectiveness of Alcoholics Anonymous", "Alanine transaminase", "dementia", "competitive antagonist", "selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors", "ICD-9", "Prohibition", "ketoacidosis", "High-functioning alcoholic", "confusion", "zero tolerance", "Alcohol-related brain damage", "American Society of Addiction Medicine", "dipsomaniac", "antisocial personality disorder", "reactive oxygen species", "Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome", "Alcohol Dependence Data Questionnaire", "Eastern Europe", "alcohol poisoning", "hyperuricemia", "popular culture", "Alcohol use and sleep", "alcohol dehydrogenase", "Stereotype", "MeSH", "breast cancer", "carbohydrate deficient transferrin", "high blood pressure", "domestic violence", "Holiday heart syndrome", "fetal alcohol syndrome", "euphoria", "Pulmonary aspiration", "impulse disorder", "cognitive", "DSM-5", "International Classification of Diseases", "Mean corpuscular volume", "Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test", "Magnus Huss", "Accident and Emergency department", "racism", "slang", "group therapy", "burglary", "Alcoholics Anonymous", "drinking and driving", "Alcohol Research & Health", "metabolic acidosis", "alcoholism in family systems", "acamprosate", "malabsorption", "drug addiction", "menstrual cycle", "cirrhosis", "World Health Organization", "aldehyde dehydrogenase", "Christoph Wilhelm Hufeland", "Psychiatry", "anxiety", "opioid", "benzodiazepine dependence", "neurotoxicity", "recreational drug", "blood alcohol concentration", "Indigenous peoples of the Americas", "ICD-10", "National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism", "Topiramate", "alcohol and breast cancer", "peer support", "Cochrane Library", "Binge drinking", "stock character", "Naltrexone", "CRAFFT Screening Test", "Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome", "sexual assault", "fiction", "hepatotoxicity", "acetaldehyde dehydrogenase", "lorazepam", "barbiturates", "relational disorder", "Propofol", "alcohol dependence", "Literature review", "endorphin", "Panic disorder", "Alcohol withdrawal syndrome", "glutamate", "Alcohol abuse", "sedation", "LifeRing Secular Recovery", "Nalmefene", "Collaborative Study on the Genetics of Alcoholism", "delirium tremens", "Drug withdrawal", "tort", "alcohol-related dementia", "addiction medicine", "narcissistic personality disorder", "psychological trauma", "Baclofen", "Addiction", "gabapentin", "stupor", "life expectancy", "major depressive disorder", "fermented beverage", "intramuscular injection", "Secular Organizations for Sobriety", "mental health", "Mental illness", "United States Department of Agriculture", "termination of employment", "alcohol withdrawal syndrome", "clonazepam", "low blood pressure", "naltrexone", "Alcohol-related traffic crashes in the United States", "illegal drugs", "respiratory alkalosis", "standard drink", "Calcium carbimide", "central nervous system", "Molecular and epigenetic mechanisms of alcoholism", "Paddington Alcohol Test", "Disulfiram-like drug", "DNA damage (naturally occurring)", "Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders", "ICD-11", "dipsomania", "sedative", "Depression (mood)", "drunk driving", "anovulation", "hypokalemia", "Alcoholism in family systems", "psychosis", "Beer", "major depression", "addiction", "assault", "diazepam", "Mutual aid (organization theory)", "alcohol and cancer", "benzodiazepines", "Kindling (sedative-hypnotic withdrawal)", "Alcoholism in adolescence", "Moderation Management", "barbiturate", "Acamprosate", "acetaldehyde", "prefrontal cortex" ]
2,972	Abstraction	Abstraction is a process where general rules and concepts are derived from the use and classifying of specific examples, literal (real or concrete) signifiers, first principles, or other methods. "An abstraction" is the outcome of this process — a concept that acts as a common noun for all subordinate concepts and connects any related concepts as a group, field, or category. Conceptual abstractions may be made by filtering the information content of a concept or an observable phenomenon, selecting only those aspects which are relevant for a particular purpose. For example, abstracting a leather soccer ball to the more general idea of a ball selects only the information on general ball attributes and behavior, excluding but not eliminating the other phenomenal and cognitive characteristics of that particular ball. discussed in the themes below. ==Origins== Thinking in abstractions is considered by anthropologists, archaeologists, and sociologists to be one of the key traits in modern human behaviour, believed to have developed between 50,000 and 100,000 years ago. Its development is likely to have been closely connected with the development of human language, which (whether spoken or written) appears to both involve and facilitate abstract thinking. Max Müller suggests interrelationship between metaphor and abstraction in the development of thought and language. ===History=== Abstraction involves induction of ideas or the synthesis of particular facts into one general theory about something. Its opposite, specification, is the analysis or breaking-down of a general idea or abstraction into concrete facts. Abstraction can be illustrated by Francis Bacon's Novum Organum (1620), a book of modern scientific philosophy written in the late Jacobean era of England to encourage modern thinkers to collect specific facts before making any generalizations. Bacon used and promoted induction as an abstraction tool; his induction complemented but was distinct from the ancient deductive-thinking approach that had dominated the Western intellectual world since the times of Greek philosophers like Thales, Anaximander, and Aristotle. Thales (–546 BCE) believed that everything in the universe comes from one main substance, water. He deduced or specified from a general idea, "everything is water," to the specific forms of water such as ice, snow, fog, and rivers. Early-modern scientists used the approach of abstraction (going from particular facts collected into one general idea). Newton (1642–1727) derived the motion of the planets from Copernicus' (1473–1543) simplification, that the Sun is the center of the Solar System; Kepler (1571–1630) compressed thousands of measurements into one expression to finally conclude that Mars moves in an elliptical orbit about the Sun; Galileo (1564–1642) compressed the results of one hundred specific experiments into the law of falling bodies. ==Themes== ===Compression=== An abstraction can be seen as a compression process, mapping multiple different pieces of constituent data to a single piece of abstract data; based on similarities in the constituent data, for example, many different physical cats map to the abstraction "CAT". This conceptual scheme emphasizes the inherent equality of both constituent and abstract data, thus avoiding problems arising from the distinction between "abstract" and "concrete". In this sense the process of abstraction entails the identification of similarities between objects, and the process of associating these objects with an abstraction (which is itself an object). For example, picture 1 below illustrates the concrete relationship "Cat sits on Mat". Chains of abstractions can be construed, moving from neural impulses arising from sensory perception to basic abstractions such as color or shape, to experiential abstractions such as a specific cat, to semantic abstractions such as the "idea" of a CAT, to classes of objects such as "mammals" and even categories such as "object" as opposed to "action". For example, graph 1 below expresses the abstraction "agent sits on location". This conceptual scheme entails no specific hierarchical taxonomy (such as the one mentioned involving cats and mammals), only a progressive exclusion of detail. ===Instantiation=== Non-existent things in any particular place and time are often seen as abstract. By contrast, instances, or members, of such an abstract thing might exist in many different places and times. Those abstract things are then said to be multiply instantiated, in the sense of picture 1, picture 2, etc., shown below. It is not sufficient, however, to define abstract ideas as those that can be instantiated and to define abstraction as the movement in the opposite direction to instantiation. Doing so would make the concepts "cat" and "telephone" abstract ideas since despite their varying appearances, a particular cat or a particular telephone is an instance of the concept "cat" or the concept "telephone". Although the concepts "cat" and "telephone" are abstractions, they are not abstract in the sense of the objects in graph 1 below. We might look at other graphs, in a progression from cat to mammal to animal, and see that animal is more abstract than mammal; but on the other hand mammal is a harder idea to express, certainly in relation to marsupial or monotreme. Perhaps confusingly, some philosophies refer to tropes (instances of properties) as abstract particulars—e.g., the particular redness of a particular apple is an abstract particular. This is similar to qualia and sumbebekos. ===Material process=== Still retaining the primary meaning of '' or 'to draw away from', the abstraction of money, for example, works by drawing away from the particular value of things allowing completely incommensurate objects to be compared (see the section on 'Physicality' below). The state (polity) as both concept and material practice exemplifies the two sides of this process of abstraction. Conceptually, 'the current concept of the state is an abstraction from the much more concrete early-modern use as the standing or status of the prince, his visible estates'. At the same time, materially, the 'practice of statehood is now constitutively and materially more abstract than at the time when princes ruled as the embodiment of extended power'. ===Ontological status=== The way that physical objects, like rocks and trees, have being differs from the way that properties of abstract concepts or relations have being, for example the way the concrete, particular, individuals pictured in picture 1 exist differs from the way the concepts illustrated in graph 1 exist. That difference accounts for the ontological usefulness of the word "abstract". The word applies to properties and relations to mark the fact that, if they exist, they do not exist in space or time, but that instances of them can exist, potentially in many different places and times. ===Physicality=== A physical object (a possible referent of a concept or word) is considered concrete (not abstract) if it is a particular individual that occupies a particular place and time. However, in the secondary sense of the term 'abstraction', this physical object can carry materially abstracting processes. For example, record-keeping aids throughout the Fertile Crescent included calculi (clay spheres, cones, etc.) which represented counts of items, probably livestock or grains, sealed in containers. According to , these clay containers contained tokens, the total of which were the count of objects being transferred. The containers thus served as something of a bill of lading or an accounts book. In order to avoid breaking open the containers for the count, marks were placed on the outside of the containers. These physical marks, in other words, acted as material abstractions of a materially abstract process of accounting, using conceptual abstractions (numbers) to communicate its meaning. Abstract things are sometimes defined as those things that do not exist in reality or exist only as sensory experiences, like the color red. That definition, however, suffers from the difficulty of deciding which things are real (i.e. which things exist in reality). For example, it is difficult to agree to whether concepts like God, the number three, and goodness are real, abstract, or both. An approach to resolving such difficulty is to use predicates as a general term for whether things are variously real, abstract, concrete, or of a particular property (e.g., good). Questions about the properties of things are then propositions about predicates, which propositions remain to be evaluated by the investigator. In the graph 1 below, the graphical relationships like the arrows joining boxes and ellipses might denote predicates. ===Referencing and referring=== Abstractions sometimes have ambiguous referents. For example, "happiness" can mean experiencing various positive emotions, but can also refer to life satisfaction and subjective well-being. Likewise, "architecture" refers not only to the design of safe, functional buildings, but also to elements of creation and innovation which aim at elegant solutions to construction problems, to the use of space, and to the attempt to evoke an emotional response in the builders, owners, viewers and users of the building. ===Simplification and ordering=== Abstraction uses a strategy of simplification, wherein formerly concrete details are left ambiguous, vague, or undefined; thus effective communication about things in the abstract requires an intuitive or common experience between the communicator and the communication recipient. This is true for all verbal/abstract communication. For example, many different things can be red. Likewise, many things sit on surfaces (as in picture 1, to the right). The property of redness and the relation sitting-on are therefore abstractions of those objects. Specifically, the conceptual diagram graph 1 identifies only three boxes, two ellipses, and four arrows (and their five labels), whereas the picture 1 shows much more pictorial detail, with the scores of implied relationships as implicit in the picture rather than with the nine explicit details in the graph. Graph 1 details some explicit relationships between the objects of the diagram. For example, the arrow between the agent and CAT:Elsie depicts an example of an is-a relationship, as does the arrow between the location and the MAT. The arrows between the gerund/present participle SITTING and the nouns agent and location express the diagram's basic relationship; "agent is SITTING on location"; Elsie is an instance of CAT. Although the description sitting-on (graph 1) is more abstract than the graphic image of a cat sitting on a mat (picture 1), the delineation of abstract things from concrete things is somewhat ambiguous; this ambiguity or vagueness is characteristic of abstraction. Thus something as simple as a newspaper might be specified to six levels, as in Douglas Hofstadter's illustration of that ambiguity, with a progression from abstract to concrete in Gödel, Escher, Bach (1979): An abstraction can thus encapsulate each of these levels of detail with no loss of generality. But perhaps a detective or philosopher/scientist/engineer might seek to learn about something, at progressively deeper levels of detail, to solve a crime or a puzzle. ===Thought processes=== In philosophical terminology, abstraction is the thought process wherein ideas are distanced from objects. But an idea can be symbolized. ==As used in different disciplines== ===In art=== Typically, abstraction is used in the arts as a synonym for abstract art in general. Strictly speaking, it refers to art unconcerned with the literal depiction of things from the visible world—it can, however, refer to an object or image which has been distilled from the real world, or indeed, another work of art. Artwork that reshapes the natural world for expressive purposes is called abstract; that which derives from, but does not imitate a recognizable subject is called nonobjective abstraction. In the 20th century the trend toward abstraction coincided with advances in science, technology, and changes in urban life, eventually reflecting an interest in psychoanalytic theory. Later still, abstraction was manifest in more purely formal terms, such as color, freedom from objective context, and a reduction of form to basic geometric designs. ===In computer science=== Computer scientists use abstraction to make models that can be used and re-used without having to re-write all the program code for each new application on every different type of computer. They communicate their solutions with the computer by writing source code in some particular computer language which can be translated into machine code for different types of computers to execute. Abstraction allows program designers to separate a framework (categorical concepts related to computing problems) from specific instances which implement details. This means that the program code can be written so that code does not have to depend on the specific details of supporting applications, operating system software, or hardware, but on a categorical concept of the solution. A solution to the problem can then be integrated into the system framework with minimal additional work. This allows programmers to take advantage of another programmer's work, while requiring only an abstract understanding of the implementation of another's work, apart from the problem that it solves. === In general semantics === Abstractions and levels of abstraction play an important role in the theory of general semantics originated by Alfred Korzybski. Anatol Rapoport wrote "Abstracting is a mechanism by which an infinite variety of experiences can be mapped on short noises (words)." === In history === Francis Fukuyama defines history as "a deliberate attempt of abstraction in which we separate out important from unimportant events". ===In linguistics=== Researchers in linguistics frequently apply abstraction so as to allow an analysis of the phenomena of language at the desired level of detail. A commonly used abstraction, the phoneme, abstracts speech sounds in such a way as to neglect details that cannot serve to differentiate meaning. Other analogous kinds of abstractions (sometimes called "emic units") considered by linguists include morphemes, graphemes, and lexemes. Abstraction also arises in the relation between syntax, semantics, and pragmatics. Pragmatics involves considerations that make reference to the user of the language; semantics considers expressions and what they denote (the designata) abstracted from the language user; and syntax considers only the expressions themselves, abstracted from the designata. ===In mathematics=== Abstraction in mathematics is the process of extracting the underlying structures, patterns or properties of a mathematical concept or object, removing any dependence on real-world objects with which it might originally have been connected, and generalizing it so that it has wider applications or matching among other abstract descriptions of equivalent phenomena. The advantages of abstraction in mathematics are: It reveals deep connections between different areas of mathematics. Known results in one area can suggest conjectures in another related area. Techniques and methods from one area can be applied to prove results in other related area. Patterns from one mathematical object can be generalized to other similar objects in the same class. The main disadvantage of abstraction is that highly abstract concepts are more difficult to learn, and might require a degree of mathematical maturity and experience before they can be assimilated. ===In music=== In music, the term abstraction can be used to describe improvisatory approaches to interpretation, and may sometimes indicate abandonment of tonality. Atonal music has no key signature, and is characterized by the exploration of internal numeric relationships. ===In neurology=== A recent meta-analysis suggests that the verbal system has a greater engagement with abstract concepts when the perceptual system is more engaged in processing concrete concepts. This is because abstract concepts elicit greater brain activity in the inferior frontal gyrus and middle temporal gyrus compared to concrete concepts which elicit greater activity in the posterior cingulate, precuneus, fusiform gyrus, and parahippocampal gyrus. Other research into the human brain suggests that the left and right hemispheres differ in their handling of abstraction. For example, one meta-analysis reviewing human brain lesions has shown a left hemisphere bias during tool usage. ===In philosophy=== Abstraction in philosophy is the process (or, to some, the alleged process) in concept formation of recognizing some set of common features in individuals, and on that basis forming a concept of that feature. The notion of abstraction is important to understanding some philosophical controversies surrounding empiricism and the problem of universals. It has also recently become popular in formal logic under predicate abstraction. Another philosophical tool for the discussion of abstraction is thought space. John Locke defined abstraction in An Essay Concerning Human Understanding: 'So words are used to stand as outward marks of our internal ideas, which are taken from particular things; but if every particular idea that we take in had its own special name, there would be no end to names. To prevent this, the mind makes particular ideas received from particular things become general; which it does by considering them as they are in the mind—mental appearances—separate from all other existences, and from the circumstances of real existence, such as time, place, and so on. This procedure is called abstraction. In it, an idea taken from a particular thing becomes a general representative of all of the same kind, and its name becomes a general name that is applicable to any existing thing that fits that abstract idea.' (2.11.9) ===In psychology=== Carl Jung's definition of abstraction broadened its scope beyond the thinking process to include exactly four mutually exclusive, different complementary psychological functions: sensation, intuition, feeling, and thinking. Together they form a structural totality of the differentiating abstraction process. Abstraction operates in one of these functions when it excludes the simultaneous influence of the other functions and other irrelevancies, such as emotion. Abstraction requires selective use of this structural split of abilities in the psyche. The opposite of abstraction is concretism. Abstraction is one of Jung's 57 definitions in Chapter XI of Psychological Types. ===In social theory=== Social theorists deal with abstraction both as an ideational and as a material process. Alfred Sohn-Rethel (1899–1990) asked: "Can there be abstraction other than by thought?" and an associated volume published in 2006, Globalism, Nationalism, Tribalism: Bringing Theory Back In. These books argue that a nation is an abstract community bringing together strangers who will never meet as such; thus constituting materially real and substantial, but abstracted and mediated relations. The books suggest that contemporary processes of globalization and mediatization have contributed to materially abstracting relations between people, with major consequences for how humans live their lives. One can readily argue that abstraction is an elementary methodological tool in several disciplines of social science. These disciplines have definite and different concepts of "man" that highlight those aspects of man and his behaviour by idealization that are relevant for the given human science. For example, is the man as sociology abstracts and idealizes it, depicting man as a social being. Moreover, we could talk about (the man who can extend his biologically determined intelligence thanks to new technologies), or (who is simply creative). Abstraction (combined with Weberian idealization) plays a crucial role in economics - hence abstractions such as "the market" and the generalized concept of "business". Breaking away from directly experienced reality was a common trend in 19th-century sciences (especially physics), and this was the effort which fundamentally determined the way economics tried (and still tries) to approach the economic aspects of social life. It is abstraction we meet in the case of both Newton's physics and the neoclassical theory, since the goal was to grasp the unchangeable and timeless essence of phenomena. For example, Newton created the concept of the material point by following the abstraction method so that he abstracted from the dimension and shape of any perceptible object, preserving only inertial and translational motion. Material point is the ultimate and common feature of all bodies. Neoclassical economists created the indefinitely abstract notion of homo economicus by following the same procedure. Economists abstract from all individual and personal qualities in order to get to those characteristics that embody the essence of economic activity. Eventually, it is the substance of the economic man that they try to grasp. Any characteristic beyond it only disturbs the functioning of this essential core.	[ "physics", "Lyrical abstraction", "present participle", "Hypostatic abstraction", "bill of lading", "tonality", "syntax", "speech sound", "semantics", "Suzanne K. Langer", "state (polity)", "ontological", "thought", "apple", "Computer scientists", "Theory", "machine code", "nation", "Aristotle", "phoneme", "red", "origin of language", "marsupial", "Murray Gell-Mann", "homo economicus", "first principle", "Gödel, Escher, Bach", "diagram", "designata", "Conceptual model", "Isaac Newton", "Platonic realism", "Abstract labour and concrete labour", "reality", "market (economics)", "life satisfaction", "Max Müller", "synonym", "Emergence", "qualia", "Jacobean era", "Anaximander", "High- and low-level", "abstract particular", "archaeologist", "Thales", "referent", "strategy", "Object of the mind", "symbol", "particular", "business", "Copernicus", "intuition (knowledge)", "An Essay Concerning Human Understanding", "innovation", "monotreme", "Abstract art", "falling bodies", "loss of generality", "human brain", "ball", "wikt:constituent", "pragmatics", "construction", "concretism (psychology)", "phenomenon", "Alfred Sohn-Rethel", "Douglas Hofstadter", "Solar System", "sexagesimal number system", "individual", "Abstraction (sociology)", "Leaky abstraction", "gerund", "Reification (knowledge representation)", "Abstract and concrete", "Atonality", "shape", "communication", "mathematical proof", "philosophy", "Abstract interpretation", "sensory system", "sumbebekos", "Francis Fukuyama", "hierarchical", "semantic", "empiricism", "Kepler", "John F. Sowa", "Neoclassical economists", "Fertile Crescent", "history", "abstract art", "idea", "Nucleophilic abstraction", "inductive reasoning", "concept", "emic unit", "Inductive reasoning", "anthropologist", "perception", "Abstract structure", "Sculpture", "Francis Bacon", "proposition", "Inventor's paradox", "linguistics", "Thinking", "modern human behaviour", "Relation of Ideas", "thinking", "human life (disambiguation)", "Charles Sanders Peirce", "construe", "is-a", "happiness", "conjecture", "Novum Organum", "human science", "problem of universals", "Mediatization (media)", "type–token distinction", "trope (philosophy)", "concrete (philosophy)", "metaphor", "globalization", "data compression", "Concept", "language", "information", "Catherine de Zegher", "rule of inference", "general semantics", "Psychological Types", "architecture", "predicate abstraction", "Symbol", "Anatol Rapoport", "Social theory", "Idealization (science philosophy)", "Carl Jung", "predicate (grammar)", "sitting", "mathematical maturity", "computer language", "source code", "Arena (Australian publishing co-operative)", "Engaged theory", "morpheme", "operating system", "Taxonomy (biology)", "grapheme", "category of being", "subjective well-being", "economics", "Gottlob Frege", "lexeme", "noun", "Galileo", "sociologist", "emotion", "John Locke", "object (philosophy)", "Alfred Korzybski", "deductive", "mathematics" ]
2,974	Abelian group	In mathematics, an abelian group, also called a commutative group, is a group in which the result of applying the group operation to two group elements does not depend on the order in which they are written. That is, the group operation is commutative. With addition as an operation, the integers and the real numbers form abelian groups, and the concept of an abelian group may be viewed as a generalization of these examples. Abelian groups are named after the Norwegian mathematician Niels Henrik Abel. The concept of an abelian group underlies many fundamental algebraic structures, such as fields, rings, vector spaces, and algebras. The theory of abelian groups is generally simpler than that of their non-abelian counterparts, and finite abelian groups are very well understood and fully classified. == Definition == An abelian group is a set A, together with an operation ･ , that combines any two elements a and b of A to form another element of A, denoted a \cdot b. The symbol ･ is a general placeholder for a concretely given operation. To qualify as an abelian group, the set and operation, (A, \cdot), must satisfy four requirements known as the abelian group axioms (some authors include in the axioms some properties that belong to the definition of an operation: namely that the operation is defined for any ordered pair of elements of , that the result is well-defined, and that the result belongs to ): Associativity: For all a, b, and c in A, the equation (a \cdot b)\cdot c = a \cdot (b \cdot c) holds. Identity element: There exists an element e in A, such that for all elements a in A, the equation e \cdot a = a \cdot e = a holds. Inverse element: For each a in A there exists an element b in A such that a \cdot b = b \cdot a = e, where e is the identity element. Commutativity: For all a, b in A, a \cdot b = b \cdot a. A group in which the group operation is not commutative is called a "non-abelian group" or "non-commutative group". == Facts == === Notation === There are two main notational conventions for abelian groups – additive and multiplicative. Generally, the multiplicative notation is the usual notation for groups, while the additive notation is the usual notation for modules and rings. The additive notation may also be used to emphasize that a particular group is abelian, whenever both abelian and non-abelian groups are considered, some notable exceptions being near-rings and partially ordered groups, where an operation is written additively even when non-abelian. === Multiplication table === To verify that a finite group is abelian, a table (matrix) – known as a Cayley table – can be constructed in a similar fashion to a multiplication table. If the group is G = \{g_1 = e, g_2, \dots, g_n \} under the the entry of this table contains the product g_i \cdot g_j. The group is abelian if and only if this table is symmetric about the main diagonal. This is true since the group is abelian iff g_i \cdot g_j = g_j \cdot g_i for all i, j = 1, ..., n, which is iff the (i, j) entry of the table equals the (j, i) entry for all i, j = 1, ..., n, i.e. the table is symmetric about the main diagonal. == Examples == For the integers and the operation addition +, denoted (\mathbb{Z}, +), the operation + combines any two integers to form a third integer, addition is associative, zero is the additive identity, every integer n has an additive inverse, -n, and the addition operation is commutative since n + m = m + n for any two integers m and n. Every cyclic group G is abelian, because if x, y are in G, then xy = a^ma^n = a^{m+n} = a^na^m = yx. Thus the integers, \mathbb{Z}, form an abelian group under addition, as do the integers modulo n, \mathbb{Z}/n \mathbb{Z}. Every ring is an abelian group with respect to its addition operation. In a commutative ring the invertible elements, or units, form an abelian multiplicative group. In particular, the real numbers are an abelian group under addition, and the nonzero real numbers are an abelian group under multiplication. Every subgroup of an abelian group is normal, so each subgroup gives rise to a quotient group. Subgroups, quotients, and direct sums of abelian groups are again abelian. The finite simple abelian groups are exactly the cyclic groups of prime order. The concepts of abelian group and \mathbb{Z}-module agree. More specifically, every \mathbb{Z}-module is an abelian group with its operation of addition, and every abelian group is a module over the ring of integers \mathbb{Z} in a unique way. In general, matrices, even invertible matrices, do not form an abelian group under multiplication because matrix multiplication is generally not commutative. However, some groups of matrices are abelian groups under matrix multiplication – one example is the group of 2 \times 2 rotation matrices. == Historical remarks == Camille Jordan named abelian groups after the Norwegian mathematician Niels Henrik Abel, who had found that the commutativity of the group of a polynomial implies that the roots of the polynomial can be calculated by using radicals. == Properties == If n is a natural number and x is an element of an abelian group G written additively, then nx can be defined as x + x + \cdots + x (n summands) and (-n)x = -(nx). In this way, G becomes a module over the ring \mathbb{Z} of integers. In fact, the modules over \mathbb{Z} can be identified with the abelian groups. Theorems about abelian groups (i.e. modules over the principal ideal domain \mathbb{Z}) can often be generalized to theorems about modules over an arbitrary principal ideal domain. A typical example is the classification of finitely generated abelian groups which is a specialization of the structure theorem for finitely generated modules over a principal ideal domain. In the case of finitely generated abelian groups, this theorem guarantees that an abelian group splits as a direct sum of a torsion group and a free abelian group. The former may be written as a direct sum of finitely many groups of the form \mathbb{Z}/p^k\mathbb{Z} for p prime, and the latter is a direct sum of finitely many copies of \mathbb{Z}. If f, g: G \to H are two group homomorphisms between abelian groups, then their sum f + g, defined by (f + g)(x) = f(x) + g(x), is again a homomorphism. (This is not true if H is a non-abelian group.) The set \text{Hom}(G,H) of all group homomorphisms from G to H is therefore an abelian group in its own right. Somewhat akin to the dimension of vector spaces, every abelian group has a rank. It is defined as the maximal cardinality of a set of linearly independent (over the integers) elements of the group. Finite abelian groups and torsion groups have rank zero, and every abelian group of rank zero is a torsion group. The integers and the rational numbers have rank one, as well as every nonzero additive subgroup of the rationals. On the other hand, the multiplicative group of the nonzero rationals has an infinite rank, as it is a free abelian group with the set of the prime numbers as a basis (this results from the fundamental theorem of arithmetic). The center Z(G) of a group G is the set of elements that commute with every element of G. A group G is abelian if and only if it is equal to its center Z(G). The center of a group G is always a characteristic abelian subgroup of G. If the quotient group G/Z(G) of a group by its center is cyclic then G is abelian. == Finite abelian groups == Cyclic groups of integers modulo n, \mathbb{Z}/n\mathbb{Z}, were among the first examples of groups. It turns out that an arbitrary finite abelian group is isomorphic to a direct sum of finite cyclic groups of prime power order, and these orders are uniquely determined, forming a complete system of invariants. The automorphism group of a finite abelian group can be described directly in terms of these invariants. The theory had been first developed in the 1879 paper of Georg Frobenius and Ludwig Stickelberger and later was both simplified and generalized to finitely generated modules over a principal ideal domain, forming an important chapter of linear algebra. Any group of prime order is isomorphic to a cyclic group and therefore abelian. Any group whose order is a square of a prime number is also abelian. In fact, for every prime number p there are (up to isomorphism) exactly two groups of order p^2, namely \mathbb{Z}_{p^2} and \mathbb{Z}_p\times\mathbb{Z}_p. === Classification === The fundamental theorem of finite abelian groups states that every finite abelian group G can be expressed as the direct sum of cyclic subgroups of prime-power order; it is also known as the basis theorem for finite abelian groups. Moreover, automorphism groups of cyclic groups are examples of abelian groups. This is generalized by the fundamental theorem of finitely generated abelian groups, with finite groups being the special case when G has zero rank; this in turn admits numerous further generalizations. The classification was proven by Leopold Kronecker in 1870, though it was not stated in modern group-theoretic terms until later, and was preceded by a similar classification of quadratic forms by Carl Friedrich Gauss in 1801; see history for details. The cyclic group \mathbb{Z}_{mn} of order mn is isomorphic to the direct sum of \mathbb{Z}_m and \mathbb{Z}_n if and only if m and n are coprime. It follows that any finite abelian group G is isomorphic to a direct sum of the form \bigoplus_{i=1}^{u}\ \mathbb{Z}_{k_i} in either of the following canonical ways: the numbers k_1, k_2, \dots, k_u are powers of (not necessarily distinct) primes, or k_1 divides k_2, which divides k_3, and so on up to k_u. For example, \mathbb{Z}_{15} can be expressed as the direct sum of two cyclic subgroups of order 3 and 5: \mathbb{Z}_{15} \cong \{0,5,10\} \oplus \{0,3,6,9,12\}. The same can be said for any abelian group of order 15, leading to the remarkable conclusion that all abelian groups of order 15 are isomorphic. For another example, every abelian group of order 8 is isomorphic to either \mathbb{Z}_8 (the integers 0 to 7 under addition modulo 8), \mathbb{Z}_4\oplus \mathbb{Z}_2 (the odd integers 1 to 15 under multiplication modulo 16), or \mathbb{Z}_2\oplus \mathbb{Z}_2 \oplus \mathbb{Z}_2. See also list of small groups for finite abelian groups of order 30 or less. === Automorphisms === One can apply the fundamental theorem to count (and sometimes determine) the automorphisms of a given finite abelian group G. To do this, one uses the fact that if G splits as a direct sum H\oplus K of subgroups of coprime order, then \operatorname{Aut}(H\oplus K) \cong \operatorname{Aut}(H)\oplus \operatorname{Aut}(K). Given this, the fundamental theorem shows that to compute the automorphism group of G it suffices to compute the automorphism groups of the Sylow p-subgroups separately (that is, all direct sums of cyclic subgroups, each with order a power of p). Fix a prime p and suppose the exponents e_i of the cyclic factors of the Sylow p-subgroup are arranged in increasing order: e_1\leq e_2 \leq\cdots\leq e_n for some n > 0. One needs to find the automorphisms of \mathbf{Z}_{p^{e_1}} \oplus \cdots \oplus \mathbf{Z}_{p^{e_n}}. One special case is when n = 1, so that there is only one cyclic prime-power factor in the Sylow p-subgroup P. In this case the theory of automorphisms of a finite cyclic group can be used. Another special case is when n is arbitrary but e_i = 1 for 1 \le i \le n. Here, one is considering P to be of the form \mathbf{Z}_p \oplus \cdots \oplus \mathbf{Z}_p, so elements of this subgroup can be viewed as comprising a vector space of dimension n over the finite field of p elements \mathbb{F}_p. The automorphisms of this subgroup are therefore given by the invertible linear transformations, so \operatorname{Aut}(P)\cong\mathrm{GL}(n,\mathbf{F}_p), where \mathrm{GL} is the appropriate general linear group. This is easily shown to have order \left\|\operatorname{Aut}(P)\right\|=(p^n-1)\cdots(p^n-p^{n-1}). In the most general case, where the e_i and n are arbitrary, the automorphism group is more difficult to determine. It is known, however, that if one defines d_k=\max\{r\mid e_r = e_k\} and c_k=\min\{r\mid e_r=e_k\} then one has in particular k \le d_k, c_k \le k, and \left\|\operatorname{Aut}(P)\right\| = \prod_{k=1}^n (p^{d_k}-p^{k-1}) \prod_{j=1}^n (p^{e_j})^{n-d_j} \prod_{i=1}^n (p^{e_i-1})^{n-c_i+1}. One can check that this yields the orders in the previous examples as special cases (see Hillar & Rhea). ==Finitely generated abelian groups== An abelian group is finitely generated if it contains a finite set of elements (called generators) G=\{x_1, \ldots, x_n\} such that every element of the group is a linear combination with integer coefficients of elements of . Let be a free abelian group with basis B=\{b_1, \ldots, b_n\}. There is a unique group homomorphism p\colon L \to A, such that p(b_i) = x_i\quad \text{for } i=1,\ldots, n. This homomorphism is surjective, and its kernel is finitely generated (since integers form a Noetherian ring). Consider the matrix with integer entries, such that the entries of its th column are the coefficients of the th generator of the kernel. Then, the abelian group is isomorphic to the cokernel of linear map defined by . Conversely every integer matrix defines a finitely generated abelian group. It follows that the study of finitely generated abelian groups is totally equivalent with the study of integer matrices. In particular, changing the generating set of is equivalent with multiplying on the left by a unimodular matrix (that is, an invertible integer matrix whose inverse is also an integer matrix). Changing the generating set of the kernel of is equivalent with multiplying on the right by a unimodular matrix. The Smith normal form of is a matrix S=UMV, where and are unimodular, and is a matrix such that all non-diagonal entries are zero, the non-zero diagonal entries are the first ones, and is a divisor of for . The existence and the shape of the Smith normal form proves that the finitely generated abelian group is the direct sum \Z^r \oplus \Z/d_{1,1}\Z \oplus \cdots \oplus \Z/d_{k,k}\Z, where is the number of zero rows at the bottom of (and also the rank of the group). This is the fundamental theorem of finitely generated abelian groups. The existence of algorithms for Smith normal form shows that the fundamental theorem of finitely generated abelian groups is not only a theorem of abstract existence, but provides a way for computing expression of finitely generated abelian groups as direct sums. == Infinite abelian groups == The simplest infinite abelian group is the infinite cyclic group \mathbb{Z}. Any finitely generated abelian group A is isomorphic to the direct sum of r copies of \mathbb{Z} and a finite abelian group, which in turn is decomposable into a direct sum of finitely many cyclic groups of prime power orders. Even though the decomposition is not unique, the number r, called the rank of A, and the prime powers giving the orders of finite cyclic summands are uniquely determined. By contrast, classification of general infinitely generated abelian groups is far from complete. Divisible groups, i.e. abelian groups A in which the equation nx = a admits a solution x \in A for any natural number n and element a of A, constitute one important class of infinite abelian groups that can be completely characterized. Every divisible group is isomorphic to a direct sum, with summands isomorphic to \mathbb{Q} and Prüfer groups \mathbb{Q}_p/Z_p for various prime numbers p, and the cardinality of the set of summands of each type is uniquely determined. Moreover, if a divisible group A is a subgroup of an abelian group G then A admits a direct complement: a subgroup C of G such that G = A \oplus C. Thus divisible groups are injective modules in the category of abelian groups, and conversely, every injective abelian group is divisible (Baer's criterion). An abelian group without non-zero divisible subgroups is called reduced. Two important special classes of infinite abelian groups with diametrically opposite properties are torsion groups and torsion-free groups, exemplified by the groups \mathbb{Q}/\mathbb{Z} (periodic) and \mathbb{Q} (torsion-free). === Torsion groups === An abelian group is called periodic or torsion, if every element has finite order. A direct sum of finite cyclic groups is periodic. Although the converse statement is not true in general, some special cases are known. The first and second Prüfer theorems state that if A is a periodic group, and it either has a bounded exponent, i.e., nA = 0 for some natural number n, or is countable and the p-heights of the elements of A are finite for each p, then A is isomorphic to a direct sum of finite cyclic groups. The cardinality of the set of direct summands isomorphic to \mathbb{Z}/p^m\mathbb{Z} in such a decomposition is an invariant of A. These theorems were later subsumed in the Kulikov criterion. In a different direction, Helmut Ulm found an extension of the second Prüfer theorem to countable abelian p-groups with elements of infinite height: those groups are completely classified by means of their Ulm invariants. === Torsion-free and mixed groups === An abelian group is called torsion-free if every non-zero element has infinite order. Several classes of torsion-free abelian groups have been studied extensively: Free abelian groups, i.e. arbitrary direct sums of \mathbb{Z} Cotorsion and algebraically compact torsion-free groups such as the p-adic integers Slender groups An abelian group that is neither periodic nor torsion-free is called mixed. If A is an abelian group and T(A) is its torsion subgroup, then the factor group A/T(A) is torsion-free. However, in general the torsion subgroup is not a direct summand of A, so A is not isomorphic to T(A) \oplus A/T(A). Thus the theory of mixed groups involves more than simply combining the results about periodic and torsion-free groups. The additive group \mathbb{Z} of integers is torsion-free \mathbb{Z}-module. === Invariants and classification === One of the most basic invariants of an infinite abelian group A is its rank: the cardinality of the maximal linearly independent subset of A. Abelian groups of rank 0 are precisely the periodic groups, while torsion-free abelian groups of rank 1 are necessarily subgroups of \mathbb{Q} and can be completely described. More generally, a torsion-free abelian group of finite rank r is a subgroup of \mathbb{Q}_r. On the other hand, the group of p-adic integers \mathbb{Z}_p is a torsion-free abelian group of infinite \mathbb{Z}-rank and the groups \mathbb{Z}_p^n with different n are non-isomorphic, so this invariant does not even fully capture properties of some familiar groups. The classification theorems for finitely generated, divisible, countable periodic, and rank 1 torsion-free abelian groups explained above were all obtained before 1950 and form a foundation of the classification of more general infinite abelian groups. Important technical tools used in classification of infinite abelian groups are pure and basic subgroups. Introduction of various invariants of torsion-free abelian groups has been one avenue of further progress. See the books by Irving Kaplansky, László Fuchs, Phillip Griffith, and David Arnold, as well as the proceedings of the conferences on Abelian Group Theory published in Lecture Notes in Mathematics for more recent findings. === Additive groups of rings === The additive group of a ring is an abelian group, but not all abelian groups are additive groups of rings (with nontrivial multiplication). Some important topics in this area of study are: Tensor product A.L.S. Corner's results on countable torsion-free groups Shelah's work to remove cardinality restrictions Burnside ring == Relation to other mathematical topics == Many large abelian groups possess a natural topology, which turns them into topological groups. The collection of all abelian groups, together with the homomorphisms between them, forms the category \textbf{Ab}, the prototype of an abelian category. proved that the first-order theory of abelian groups, unlike its non-abelian counterpart, is decidable. Most algebraic structures other than Boolean algebras are undecidable. There are still many areas of current research: Amongst torsion-free abelian groups of finite rank, only the finitely generated case and the rank 1 case are well understood; There are many unsolved problems in the theory of infinite-rank torsion-free abelian groups; While countable torsion abelian groups are well understood through simple presentations and Ulm invariants, the case of countable mixed groups is much less mature. Many mild extensions of the first-order theory of abelian groups are known to be undecidable. Finite abelian groups remain a topic of research in computational group theory. Moreover, abelian groups of infinite order lead, quite surprisingly, to deep questions about the set theory commonly assumed to underlie all of mathematics. Take the Whitehead problem: are all Whitehead groups of infinite order also free abelian groups? In the 1970s, Saharon Shelah proved that the Whitehead problem is: Undecidable in ZFC (Zermelo–Fraenkel axioms), the conventional axiomatic set theory from which nearly all of present-day mathematics can be derived. The Whitehead problem is also the first question in ordinary mathematics proved undecidable in ZFC; Undecidable even if ZFC is augmented by taking the generalized continuum hypothesis as an axiom; Positively answered if ZFC is augmented with the axiom of constructibility (see statements true in L). == A note on typography == Among mathematical adjectives derived from the proper name of a mathematician, the word "abelian" is rare in that it is usually spelled with a lowercase a, rather than an uppercase A, the lack of capitalization being a tacit acknowledgment not only of the degree to which Abel's name has been institutionalized but also of how ubiquitous in modern mathematics are the concepts introduced by him.	[ "p-adic integer", "Norway", "American Mathematical Society", "Phillip Griffith", "Ludwig Stickelberger", "injective module", "MIT Press", "cyclic group", "order (group theory)", "Decidability (logic)", "abelian category", "basic subgroup", "American Mathematical Monthly", "Sylow theorems", "modular arithmetic", "University of Chicago Press", "Singapore", "Wiley-Interscience", "Leopold Kronecker", "additive inverse", "Surjective function", "set theory", "topological group", "Prüfer theorems", "multiplicative group", "Group isomorphism", "prime power", "de:Hans Kurzweil", "kernel (linear algebra)", "list of small groups", "periodic group", "category of abelian groups", "structure theorem for finitely generated modules over a principal ideal domain", "cardinal number", "non-abelian group", "Academic Press", "algebraic structure", "cokernel", "linearly independent", "Maurice Auslander", "Milton Park", "generalized continuum hypothesis", "Cham, Switzerland", "group homomorphism", "if and only if", "fundamental theorem of finitely generated abelian groups", "World Scientific", "solvability by radicals", "de:Carl Faith", "torsion-free abelian groups of rank 1", "torsion-free abelian group", "Order (group theory)", "Divisible group", "Dover Publications", "torsion group", "David Arnold (mathematician)", "adjective", "quotient group", "unit (ring theory)", "Oxfordshire", "direct sum", "principal ideal domain", "near-ring", "Prüfer group", "linear combination", "Fundamental theorem of finitely generated abelian groups", "topology", "Boolean algebra (structure)", "additive group", "Helmut Ulm", "axiomatic set theory", "Module (mathematics)", "multiplication table", "simple group", "Basel", "additive identity", "characteristic subgroup", "ring (mathematics)", "Slender group", "automorphism group", "commutative", "vector space", "CRC Press", "Prime number", "Springer Science+Business Media", "height (abelian group)", "If and only if", "Wiley (publisher)", "rotation matrix", "Cotorsion group", "Whitehead problem", "Free abelian group", "Carl Friedrich Gauss", "ZFC", "linear algebra", "integer matrix", "normal subgroup", "pure subgroup", "center (group theory)", "Springer Nature", "integer", "Irving Kaplansky", "symmetric", "Fundamenta Mathematicae", "László Fuchs", "Transactions of the American Mathematical Society", "algebraically compact module", "Valery Rubakov", "Zermelo–Fraenkel axioms", "Cayley table", "torsion (algebra)", "group isomorphism", "torsion subgroup", "finitely generated abelian group", "Ulm invariant", "Ring (mathematics)", "Cambridge, Massachusetts", "free abelian group", "Baer's criterion", "David Buchsbaum", "mathematician", "proper name", "Dimension (vector space)", "Camille Jordan", "subgroup", "statements true in L", "element (mathematics)", "finite group", "polynomial", "William Kantor", "computational group theory", "real number", "David A. Cox", "rational number", "Niels Henrik Abel", "Providence, Rhode Island", "Abingdon-on-Thames", "fundamental theorem of arithmetic", "Burnside ring", "algebra over a field", "Mineola, New York", "rank of an abelian group", "Georg Frobenius", "prime number", "Rank of an abelian group", "coprime", "field (mathematics)", "commutative ring", "unimodular matrix", "Tensor product", "Constructible universe", "infinite cyclic group", "group operation", "Well-defined expression", "partially ordered group", "divisor", "Smith normal form", "Saharon Shelah", "list of statements undecidable in ZFC", "general linear group", "Boca Raton, Florida", "group (mathematics)", "addition", "Taylor & Francis", "Lecture Notes in Mathematics", "Group homomorphism", "direct product", "matrix (mathematics)", "de:Bernd Stellmacher", "Direct sum of groups", "set (mathematics)", "Hoboken, New Jersey", "Noetherian ring", "natural number", "Binary operation", "John Wiley & Sons", "Element (mathematics)", "module (mathematics)", "mathematics" ]
2,975	Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty	The Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty, also known as the ABM Treaty or ABMT, was an arms control treaty between the United States and the Soviet Union on the limitation of the anti-ballistic missile (ABM) systems used in defending areas against ballistic missile-delivered nuclear weapons. It was intended to reduce pressures to build more nuclear weapons to maintain deterrence. Under the terms of the treaty, each party was limited to two ABM complexes, each of which was to be limited to 100 anti-ballistic missiles. Signed in 1972, it was in force for the next 30 years. In 1997, five years after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, four former Soviet republics agreed with the United States to succeed the USSR's role in the treaty, with Russia assuming all rights and obligations as the successor state of the Soviet Union. Citing purported risks of nuclear blackmail, the United States unilaterally withdrew from the treaty in June 2002, leading to its termination. ==Background== Throughout the late 1950s and into the 1960s, the United States and the Soviet Union had been developing missile systems with the ability to shoot down incoming Intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) warheads. During this period, the US considered the defense of the US as part of reducing the overall damage inflicted in a full nuclear exchange. As part of this defense, Canada and the US established the North American Air Defense Command (now called North American Aerospace Defense Command). By the early 1950s, US research on the Nike Zeus missile system had developed to the point where small improvements would allow it to be used as the basis of an operational ABM system. Work started on a short-range, high-speed counterpart known as Sprint to provide defense for the ABM sites themselves. By the mid-1960s, both systems showed enough promise to start development of base selection for a limited ABM system dubbed Sentinel. In 1967, the US announced that Sentinel itself would be scaled down to the smaller and less expensive Safeguard. Soviet doctrine called for development of its own ABM system and return to strategic parity with the US. This was achieved with the operational deployment of the A-35 ABM system and its successors, which remain operational to this day. The development of multiple independently targetable reentry vehicle (MIRV) systems allowed a single ICBM to deliver as many as ten separate warheads at a time. An ABM defense system could be overwhelmed with the sheer number of warheads. Upgrading it to counter the additional warheads would be economically unfeasible: The defenders required one rocket per incoming warhead, whereas the attackers could place 10 warheads on a single missile at a reasonable cost. To further protect against ABM systems, the Soviet MIRV missiles were equipped with decoys; R-36M heavy missiles carried as many as 40. These decoys would appear as warheads to an ABM, effectively requiring engagement of five times as many targets and rendering defense even less effective. ==ABM Treaty== The United States first proposed an anti-ballistic missile treaty at the 1967 Glassboro Summit Conference during discussions between U.S. Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara and Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the Soviet Union Alexei Kosygin. McNamara argued both that ballistic missile defense could provoke an arms race, and that it might provoke a first-strike against the nation fielding the defense. Kosygin rejected this reasoning. They were trying to minimize the number of nuclear missiles in the world. Following the proposal of the Sentinel and Safeguard decisions on American ABM systems, the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks began in November 1969 (SALT I). By 1972 an agreement had been reached to limit strategic defensive systems. Each country was allowed two sites at which it could base a defensive system, one for the capital and one for ICBM silos. The treaty was signed during the 1972 Moscow Summit on 26 May by the President of the United States, Richard Nixon and the General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, Leonid Brezhnev; and ratified by the U.S. Senate on 3 August 1972. The 1974 Protocol reduced the number of sites to one per party, largely because neither country had developed a second site. The sites were Moscow for the USSR and the North Dakota Safeguard Complex for the US, which was already under construction. ===Missiles limited by the treaty=== The Treaty limited only ABMs capable of defending against "strategic ballistic missiles", without attempting to define "strategic". It was understood that both ICBMs and SLBMs are obviously "strategic". Neither country intended to stop the development of counter-tactical ABMs. The topic became disputable as soon as most potent counter-tactical ABMs started to be capable of shooting down SLBMs (SLBMs naturally tend to be much slower than ICBMs), nevertheless both sides continued counter-tactical ABM development. ==After the SDI announcement== On 23 March 1983, Ronald Reagan announced the Strategic Defense Initiative, a research program into ballistic missile defense which he claimed would be "consistent with our obligations under the ABM Treaty". Reagan was wary of mutual deterrence with what he referred to as the "Evil Empire", and wanted to escape the traditional confines of mutual assured destruction. The project was a blow to Yuri Andropov's overtures for peace. Andropov said, "It is time Washington stopped thinking up one option after another in search of the best way of unleashing nuclear war in the hope of winning it. To do this is not just irresponsible. It is madness". Regardless of the opposition, Reagan gave every indication that SDI would not be used as a bargaining chip and that the United States would do all in its power to build the system. The Soviets were alarmed because the Americans might have been able to make a nuclear first strike possible. In The Nuclear Predicament, Beckman claims that one of the central goals of Soviet diplomacy was to terminate SDI. He went on to state that a surprise attack from the Americans would destroy much of the Soviet ICBM fleet, allowing SDI to defeat a "ragged" Soviet retaliatory response. The Soviets could not afford to ignore Reagan's new endeavour; therefore, their policy at the time was to enter negotiations with the Americans. By 1987, however, the USSR withdrew its opposition, concluding the SDI posed no threat and scientifically "would never work". SDI research went ahead, although it did not achieve the hoped-for result. SDI research was cut back following the end of Reagan's presidency, and in 1995 it was reiterated in a presidential joint statement that "missile defense systems may be deployed... [that] will not pose a realistic threat to the strategic nuclear force of the other side and will not be tested to... [create] that capability." This was reaffirmed in 1997. ==Theater Missile Defense negotiations== The ABM Treaty prohibited "National Missile Defense" (NMD), but some interpreted it to allow more limited systems called "Theater Missile Defense" (TMD). The problem arose as TMD systems could also potentially be capable of countering strategic ballistic missiles, not just theatre ballistic missiles. The 1997 agreement were eventually ratified by the Russian parliament on May 4, 2000 (along with START II treaty). Russia was confirmed as the USSR's successor state in January 1992. An additional memorandum of understanding was prepared in 1997, establishing Belarus, Kazakhstan, the Russian Federation, and Ukraine as successor states to the Soviet Union, for the purposes of the treaty. The US considered only extending the obligations to these countries, and not all, as only these ones had significant ABM assets. In the United States, there was a debate on whether after the dissolution of the USSR, the ABM Treaty was still in effect. A month after the USSR's dissolution, President George H. W. Bush affirmed the ABM Treaty and regarded Russia as USSR's successor. Russia also accepted the ABM Treaty. (before he terminated it). However, some Americans (mostly conservative Republicans This led to the eventual creation of the American Missile Defense Agency. Supporters of the withdrawal claimed that it was a necessity in order to test and build a limited National Missile Defense to protect the United States from nuclear blackmail by a rogue state. However, the withdrawal had many foreign and domestic critics, who said the construction of a missile defense system would lead to fears of a U.S. nuclear first strike, as the missile defense could blunt the retaliatory strike that would otherwise deter such a preemptive attack. John Rhinelander, a negotiator of the ABM treaty, predicted that the withdrawal would be a "fatal blow" to the Non-Proliferation Treaty and would lead to a "world without effective legal constraints on nuclear proliferation". Former U.S. Secretary of Defense William Perry also criticized the U.S. withdrawal as a very bad decision. ===Russian response=== The then-newly elected Russian president, Vladimir Putin, responded to the withdrawal by ordering a build-up of Russia's nuclear capabilities, designed to counterbalance U.S. capabilities, although he noted there was no immediate danger stemming from the US withdrawal. Russia and the United States signed the Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty in Moscow on 24 May 2002. This treaty mandates cuts in deployed strategic nuclear warheads, but without actually mandating cuts to total stockpiled warheads, and without any mechanism for enforcement. On June 13, 2002, the US withdrew from ABM (having given notice 6 months earlier). The next day, Russia responded by declaring it would no longer abide by the START II treaty, which had not entered into force. In interviews with Oliver Stone in 2017, Russian president Vladimir Putin said that in trying to persuade Russia to accept US withdrawal from the treaty, both Bill Clinton and George W. Bush had tried, without evidence, to convince him of an emerging nuclear threat from Iran. On 1 March 2018, Russian president Vladimir Putin, in an address to the Federal Assembly, announced the development of a series of technologically new "super weapons" in response to U.S. withdrawal from the ABM Treaty. His statements were referred to by an anonymous US official under the Trump administration as largely "boastful untruths". He said that the U.S. decision triggered the Russian Government to order an increase in Russia's nuclear capabilities, designed to counterbalance U.S. ones. In 2021, Putin cited U.S. withdrawal among his grievances against the West: "We tried to partner with the West for many years, but the partnership was not accepted, it didn't work," often citing it as one of America's great post-Cold War sins.	[ "NORAD", "Robert McNamara", "Succession of states", "United States Department of State", "MIT Press", "Richard Nixon", "General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union", "rogue state", "Washington, D.C.", "Presidential Address to the Federal Assembly", "Federation of American Scientists", "Russian 'super weapons'", "Nike Zeus", "U.S. Secretary of Defense", "nuclear blackmail", "Mutual assured destruction", "George W. Bush", "Moscow", "Leonid Brezhnev", "First presidency of Donald Trump", "Government of Russia", "Nuclear deterrence", "United States Senate", "National Missile Defense", "Presidency of Bill Clinton", "Soviet Union", "United States Army", "anti-ballistic missile", "Internet Archive", "CNN News", "nuclear weapon", "Russia and weapons of mass destruction", "Yuri Andropov", "Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic", "Gulf War", "Intercontinental ballistic missile", "Canada", "mutual assured destruction", "Evil Empire speech", "United States", "TASS", "Pre-emptive nuclear strike", "ballistic missile", "START II", "Washington Post", "theatre ballistic missile", "Safeguard Program", "Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists", "Sprint (missile)", "Springer Science+Business Media", "William J. Perry", "Missile Defense Agency", "Stanley R. Mickelsen Safeguard Complex", "Google Books", "A-35 anti-ballistic missile system", "SLBM", "Strategic Defense Initiative", "University of Washington Press", "President of the United States", "President of Russia", "Moscow Summit (1972)", "R. James Woolsey Jr.", "Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union", "Brookings Institution Press", "R-36 (missile)", "arms control treaty", "Oliver Stone", "Kremlin.ru", "The Guardian", "The Putin Interviews", "Boris Yeltsin", "nuclear proliferation", "NBC News", "Stanford University Press", "Patriot Missile", "Russia", "Russia and the United Nations", "SALT I", "Dissolution of the Soviet Union", "Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty", "Jesse Helms", "Bill Clinton", "MIRV", "Iran", "Post-Soviet states", "Michael J. Glennon", "Reuters", "Pravda", "Ronald Reagan", "George H. W. Bush", "Alexei Kosygin", "Glassboro Summit Conference", "The New York Times", "Carnegie Endowment for International Peace", "Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons", "Deterrence theory", "Bureau of Arms Control, Verification and Compliance", "Vladimir Putin", "Project Nike" ]
2,983	Austria-Hungary	Austria-Hungary, also referred to as the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Dual Monarchy or the Habsburg Monarchy, was a multi-national constitutional monarchy in Central Europe between 1867 and 1918. A military and diplomatic alliance, it consisted of two sovereign states with a single monarch who was titled both the Emperor of Austria and the King of Hungary. Austria-Hungary constituted the last phase in the constitutional evolution of the Habsburg monarchy: it was formed with the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 in the aftermath of the Austro-Prussian War, following wars of independence by Hungary in opposition to Habsburg rule. It was dissolved shortly after Hungary terminated the union with Austria in 1918. One of Europe's major powers, Austria-Hungary was geographically the second-largest country in Europe (after Russia) and the third-most populous (after Russia and the German Empire), while being among the 10 most populous countries worldwide. The Empire built up the fourth-largest machine-building industry in the world. With the exception of the territory of the Bosnian Condominium, the Empire of Austria and the Kingdom of Hungary were separate sovereign countries in international law. At its core was the dual monarchy, which was a real union between Cisleithania, the northern and western parts of the former Austrian Empire, and Transleithania (Kingdom of Hungary). Following the 1867 reforms, the Austrian and Hungarian states were co-equal in power. The two countries conducted unified diplomatic and defence policies. For these purposes, "common" ministries of foreign affairs and defence were maintained under the monarch's direct authority, as was a third finance ministry responsible only for financing the two "common" portfolios. A third component of the union was the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia, an autonomous region under the Hungarian crown, which negotiated the Croatian–Hungarian Settlement in 1868. After 1878, Bosnia and Herzegovina came under Austro-Hungarian joint military and civilian rule until it was fully annexed in 1908, provoking the Bosnian crisis. Austria-Hungary was one of the Central Powers in World War I, which began with an Austro-Hungarian war declaration on the Kingdom of Serbia on 28 July 1914. It was already effectively dissolved by the time the military authorities signed the armistice of Villa Giusti on 3 November 1918. The Kingdom of Hungary and the First Austrian Republic were treated as its successors de jure, whereas the independence of the First Czechoslovak Republic, the Second Polish Republic, and the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, respectively, and most of the territorial demands of the Kingdom of Romania and the Kingdom of Italy were also recognized by the victorious powers in 1920. ==Name and terminology== The realm's official name was the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy (, ; , ), though in international relations Austria–Hungary was used (; ). The Austrians also used the names () (in detail ; ) and Danubian Monarchy (; ) or Dual Monarchy (; ) and The Double Eagle (; ), but none of these became widespread either in Hungary or elsewhere. The realm's full name used in internal administration was The Kingdoms and Lands Represented in the Imperial Council and the Lands of the Holy Hungarian Crown of St. Stephen. German: Hungarian: From 1867 onwards, the abbreviations heading the names of official institutions in Austria–Hungary reflected their responsibility: (' or Imperial and Royal) was the label for institutions common to both parts of the monarchy, e.g., the ' (Navy) and, during the war, the ' (Army). The common army changed its label from ' to only in 1889 at the request of the Hungarian government. ' (') or Imperial-Royal was the term for institutions of Cisleithania (Austria); "royal" in this label referred to the Crown of Bohemia. ' (') or ' (') ("Royal Hungarian") referred to Transleithania, the lands of the Hungarian crown. In the Kingdom of Croatia and Slavonia, the autonomous institutions used k. () ("Royal"), since according to the Croatian–Hungarian Settlement, the only official language in Croatia and Slavonia was Croatian, and the institutions were "only" Croatian. Following a decision of Franz Joseph I in 1868, the realm bore the official name Austro-Hungarian Monarchy/Realm (; ) in its international relations. It was often contracted to the "Dual Monarchy" in English or simply referred to as Austria. ==Background and establishment== Following Hungary's defeat against the Ottoman Empire in the Battle of Mohács of 1526, the Habsburg Empire became more involved in the Kingdom of Hungary, and subsequently assumed the Hungarian throne. However, as the Ottomans expanded further into Hungary, the Habsburgs came to control only a small north-western portion of the former kingdom's territory. Eventually, following the Treaty of Passarowitz in 1718, all former territories of the Hungarian kingdom were ceded from the Ottomans to the Habsburgs. In the revolutions of 1848, the Kingdom of Hungary called for greater self-government and later even independence from the Austrian Empire. The ensuing Hungarian Revolution of 1848 was crushed by the Austrian military with Russian military assistance, and the level of autonomy that the Hungarian state had enjoyed was replaced with absolutist rule from Vienna. In the 1860s, the Empire faced two severe defeats: its loss in the Second Italian War of Independence broke its dominion over a large part of Northern Italy (Lombardy, Veneto, Modena, Reggio, Tuscany, Parma and Piacenza) while defeat in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 led to the dissolution of the German Confederation (of which the Habsburg emperor was the hereditary president) and the exclusion of Austria from German affairs. These twin defeats gave the Hungarians the opportunity to remove the shackles of absolutist rule. Realizing the need to compromise with Hungary in order to retain its great power status, the central government in Vienna began negotiations with the Hungarian political leaders, led by Ferenc Deák. The Hungarians maintained that the April Laws were still valid, but conceded that under the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713, foreign affairs and defence were "common" to Austria and Hungary. On 20 March 1867, the newly re-established Hungarian parliament at Pest started to negotiate the new laws to be accepted on 30 March. However, Hungarian leaders received word that the Emperor's formal coronation as King of Hungary on 8 June had to have taken place in order for the laws to be enacted within the lands of the Holy Crown of Hungary. On 28 July, Franz Joseph, in his new capacity as King of Hungary, approved and promulgated the new laws, which officially gave birth to the Dual Monarchy. ===1866–1878: beyond Lesser Germany=== The Austro-Prussian War was ended by the Peace of Prague (1866) which settled the "German question" in favor of a Lesser German Solution. Count Friedrich Ferdinand von Beust, who was the foreign minister from 1866 to 1871, hated the Prussian chancellor, Otto von Bismarck, who had repeatedly outmaneuvered him. Beust looked to France for avenging Austria's defeat and attempted to negotiate with Emperor Napoleon III of France and Italy for an anti-Prussian alliance, but no terms could be reached. The decisive victory of the Prusso-German armies in the Franco-Prussian war and the subsequent founding of the German Empire ended all hope of re-establishing Austrian influence in Germany, and Beust retired. After being forced out of Germany and Italy, the Dual Monarchy turned to the Balkans, which were in tumult as nationalistic movements were gaining strength and demanding independence. Both Russia and Austria–Hungary saw an opportunity to expand in this region. Russia took on the role of protector of Slavs and Orthodox Christians. Austria envisioned a multi-ethnic, religiously diverse empire under Vienna's control. Count Gyula Andrássy, a Hungarian who was Foreign Minister (1871–1879), made the centerpiece of his policy one of opposition to Russian expansion in the Balkans and blocking Serbian ambitions to dominate a new South Slav federation. He wanted Germany to ally with Austria, not Russia. ==Government== The Compromise of 1867 turned the Habsburg domains into a real union between the Austrian Empire ("Lands Represented in the Imperial Council", or Cisleithania)}} Hungary and Austria maintained separate parliaments, each with its own prime minister: the Diet of Hungary (commonly known as the National Assembly) and the Imperial Council () in Cisleithania. Each parliament had its own executive government, appointed by the monarch. After 1878, Bosnia and Herzegovina came under Austro-Hungarian military and civilian rule until it was fully annexed in 1908, provoking the Bosnian crisis with the Great Powers and Austria-Hungary's Balkan neighbors, Serbia and Montenegro. The disputes culminated in the early 1900s in a prolonged constitutional crisis. It was triggered by disagreement over which language to use for command in Hungarian army units and deepened by the advent to power in Budapest in April 1906 of a Hungarian nationalist coalition. Provisional renewals of the common arrangements occurred in October 1907 and in November 1917 on the basis of the status quo. The negotiations in 1917 ended with the dissolution of the Dual Monarchy. ==Demographics== In July 1849, the Hungarian Revolutionary Parliament proclaimed and enacted ethnic and minority rights (the next such laws were in Switzerland), but these were overturned after the Russian and Austrian armies crushed the Hungarian Revolution. After the Kingdom of Hungary reached the Compromise with the Habsburg Dynasty in 1867, one of the first acts of its restored Parliament was to pass a Law on Nationalities (Act Number XLIV of 1868). It was a liberal piece of legislation and offered extensive language and cultural rights. It did not recognize non-Hungarians to have rights to form states with any territorial autonomy. Article 19 of the 1867 "Basic State Act" (Staatsgrundgesetz), valid only for the Cisleithanian (Austrian) part of Austria–Hungary, said: The implementation of this principle led to several disputes, as it was not clear which languages could be regarded as "customary". The Germans, the traditional bureaucratic, capitalist and cultural elite, demanded the recognition of their language as a customary language in every part of the empire. German nationalists, especially in the Sudetenland (part of Bohemia), looked to Berlin in the new German Empire. The Hungarian Minority Act of 1868 gave the minorities (Slovaks, Romanians, Serbs, et al.) individual (but not also communal) rights to use their language in offices, schools (although in practice often only in those founded by them and not by the state), courts and municipalities (if 20% of the deputies demanded it). Beginning with the 1879 Primary Education Act and the 1883 Secondary Education Act, the Hungarian state made more efforts to reduce the use of non-Magyar languages, in strong violation of the 1868 Nationalities Law. After 1875, all Slovak language schools higher than elementary were closed, including the only three high schools (gymnasiums) in Revúca (Nagyrőce), Turčiansky Svätý Martin (Turócszentmárton) and Kláštor pod Znievom (Znióváralja). Language was, as a proxy for ethnicity, one of the most contentious issues in Austro-Hungarian politics. All governments faced difficult and divisive hurdles in deciding on the languages of government and of instruction. The minorities sought the widest opportunities for education in their own languages, as well as in the "dominant" languages—Hungarian and German. By the "Ordinance of 5 April 1897", the Austrian Prime Minister Count Kasimir Felix Badeni gave Czech equal standing with German in the internal government of Bohemia; this led to a crisis because of nationalist German agitation throughout the empire. The Crown dismissed Badeni. Italian was regarded as an old "culture language" () by German intellectuals and had always been granted equal rights as an official language of the Empire, but the Germans had difficulty in accepting the Slavic languages as equal to their own. On one occasion Count A. Auersperg (Anastasius Grün) entered the Diet of Carniola carrying what he claimed to be the whole corpus of Slovene literature under his arm; this was to demonstrate that the Slovene language could not be substituted for German as the language of higher education. The following years saw official recognition of several languages, at least in Austria. Since 1867, laws awarded Croatian equal status with Italian in Dalmatia. Beginning in 1882, there was a Slovene majority in the Diet of Carniola and in the capital Laibach (Ljubljana); they replaced German with Slovene as their primary official language. Galicia designated Polish instead of German in 1869 as the customary language of government. As of June 1907, all public and private schools in Hungary were obliged to ensure that after the fourth grade, the pupils could express themselves fluently in Hungarian. This led to the further closing of minority schools, devoted mostly to the Slovak and Rusyn languages. The two kingdoms sometimes divided their spheres of influence. According to Misha Glenny in his book, The Balkans, 1804–1999, the Austrians responded to Hungarian support of Czechs by supporting the Croatian national movement in Zagreb. In recognition that he reigned in a multi-ethnic country, Emperor Franz Joseph spoke (and used) German, Hungarian and Czech fluently, and Croatian, Serbian, Polish and Italian to some degree. The language disputes were most fiercely fought in Bohemia, where the Czech speakers formed a majority and sought equal status for their language to German. The Czechs had lived primarily in Bohemia since the 6th century and German immigrants had begun settling the Bohemian periphery in the 13th century. The constitution of 1627 made the German language a second official language and equal to Czech. German speakers lost their majority in the Bohemian Diet in 1880 and became a minority to Czech speakers in the cities of Prague and Pilsen (while retaining a slight numerical majority in the city of Brno (Brünn)). The old Charles University in Prague, hitherto dominated by German speakers, was divided into German and Czech-speaking faculties in 1882. At the same time, Hungarian dominance faced challenges from the local majorities of Romanians in Transylvania and in the eastern Banat, Slovaks in today's Slovakia, and Croats and Serbs in the crown lands of Croatia and of Dalmatia (today's Croatia), in Bosnia and Herzegovina and in the provinces known as the Vojvodina (today's northern Serbia). The Romanians and the Serbs began to agitate for union with their fellow nationalists and language speakers in the newly founded states of Romania (1859–1878) and Serbia. Hungary's leaders were generally less willing than their Austrian counterparts to share power with their subject minorities, but they granted a large measure of autonomy to Croatia in 1868. To some extent, they modeled their relationship to that kingdom on their own compromise with Austria of the previous year. In spite of nominal autonomy, the Croatian government was an economic and administrative part of Hungary, which the Croatians resented. In the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia and Bosnia and Herzegovina many advocated the idea of a trialist Austro-Hungaro-Croatian monarchy; among the supporters of the idea were Archduke Leopold Salvator, Archduke Franz Ferdinand and emperor and king Charles I who during his short reign supported the trialist idea only to be vetoed by the Hungarian government and Count István Tisza. The count finally signed the trialist proclamation after heavy pressure from the king on 23 October 1918. ===Ethnic relations=== In Istria, the Istro-Romanians, a small ethnic group composed by around 2,600 people in the 1880s, suffered severe discrimination. The Croats of the region, who formed the majority, tried to assimilate them, while the Italian minority supported them in their requests for self-determination. In 1888, the possibility of opening the first school for the Istro-Romanians teaching in the Romanian language was discussed in the Diet of Istria. The proposal was very popular among them. The Italian deputies showed their support, but the Croat ones opposed it and tried to show that the Istro-Romanians were in fact Slavs. During Austro-Hungarian rule, the Istro-Romanians lived under poverty conditions, and those living in the island of Krk were fully assimilated by 1875. Around 1900, Jews numbered about two million in the whole territory of the Austro-Hungarian Empire; their position was ambiguous. The populist and antisemitic politics of the Christian Social Party are sometimes viewed as a model for Adolf Hitler's Nazism. Antisemitic parties and movements existed, but the governments of Vienna and Budapest did not initiate pogroms or implement official antisemitic policies. They feared that such ethnic violence could ignite other ethnic minorities and escalate out of control. The antisemitic parties remained on the periphery of the political sphere due to their low popularity among voters in the parliamentary elections. In that period, the majority of Jews in Austria–Hungary lived in small towns (shtetls) in Galicia and rural areas in Hungary and Bohemia; however, they had large communities and even local majorities in the downtown districts of Vienna, Budapest, Prague, Kraków and Lwów. Of the pre-World War I military forces of the major European powers, the Austro-Hungarian army was almost alone in its regular promotion of Jews to positions of command. While the Jewish population of the lands of the Dual Monarchy was about 5%, Jews made up nearly 18% of the reserve officer corps. Thanks to the modernity of the constitution and to the benevolence of emperor Franz Joseph, the Austrian Jews came to regard the era of Austria–Hungary as a golden era of their history. By 1910 about 900,000 religious Jews made up approximately 5% of the population of Hungary and about 23% of Budapest's citizenry. In the Austro-Hungarian Empire the generally fiercely patriotic Hungarian Jews were securing the tenuous Hungarian majority in the Kingdom of Hungary. Jews accounted for 54% of commercial business owners, 85% of financial institution directors and owners in banking, and 62% of all employees in commerce, 20% of all general grammar school students, and 37% of all commercial scientific grammar school students, 31.9% of all engineering students, and 34.1% of all students in human faculties of the universities. Jews accounted for 48.5% of all physicians, and 49.4% of all lawyers/jurists in Hungary. Note: The numbers of Jews were reconstructed from religious censuses. They did not include the people of Jewish origin who had converted to Christianity, or the number of atheists. Among many Hungarian parliament members of Jewish origin, the most famous Jewish members in Hungarian political life were Minister of Justice Vilmos Vázsonyi, Minister of War Samu Hazai, Minister of Finance János Teleszky, and ministers of trade and . ==Education== ===Universities in Cisleithania=== The first university in the Austrian half of the Empire (Charles University) was founded by Emperor Charles IV in Prague in 1347, the second oldest university was the Jagiellonian University established in Kraków by the King of Poland Casimir III the Great in 1364, while the third oldest (University of Vienna) was founded by Duke Rudolph IV in 1365. The higher educational institutions were predominantly German, but beginning in the 1870s, language shifts began to occur. These establishments, which in the middle of the 19th century had had a predominantly German character, underwent in Galicia a conversion into Polish national institutions, in Bohemia and Moravia a separation into German and Czech ones. Thus Germans, Czechs and Poles were provided for. But now the smaller nations also made their voices heard: the Ruthenians, Slovenes and Italians. The Ruthenians demanded at first, in view of the predominantly Ruthenian character of rural East Galicia, a national partition of the Polish University of Lwów. Since the Poles were at first unyielding, Ruthenian demonstrations and strikes of students arose, and the Ruthenians were no longer content with the reversion of a few separate professorial chairs, and with parallel courses of lectures. By a pact concluded on 28 January 1914 the Poles promised a Ruthenian university; but owing to the war the question lapsed. The Italians could hardly claim a university of their own on grounds of population (in 1910 they numbered 783,000), but they claimed it all the more on grounds of their ancient culture. All parties were agreed that an Italian faculty of laws should be created; the difficulty lay in the choice of the place. The Italians demanded Trieste; but the Government was afraid to let this Adriatic port become the centre of an irredenta; moreover the Southern Slavs of the city wished it kept free from an Italian educational establishment. Bienerth in 1910 brought about a compromise; namely, that it should be founded at once, the situation to be provisionally in Vienna, and to be transferred within four years to Italian national territory. The German National Union (Nationalverband) agreed to extend temporary hospitality to the Italian university in Vienna, but the Southern Slav Hochschule Club demanded a guarantee that a later transfer to the coast provinces should not be contemplated, together with the simultaneous foundation of Slovene professorial chairs in Prague and Cracow, and preliminary steps towards the foundation of a Southern Slav university in Laibach. But in spite of the constant renewal of negotiations for a compromise it was impossible to arrive at any agreement, until the outbreak of war left all the projects for a Ruthenian university at Lemberg, a Slovene one in Laibach, and a second Czech one in Moravia, unrealized. ===Universities in Transleithania=== In the year 1276, the university of Veszprém was destroyed by the troops of Péter Csák and it was never rebuilt. A university was established by Louis I of Hungary in Pécs in 1367. Sigismund established a university at Óbuda in 1395. Another, Universitas Istropolitana, was established 1465 in Pozsony (now Bratislava in Slovakia) by Mattias Corvinus. None of these medieval universities survived the Ottoman wars. Nagyszombat University was founded in 1635 and moved to Buda in 1777 and it is called Eötvös Loránd University today. The world's first institute of technology was founded in Selmecbánya, Kingdom of Hungary (since 1920 Banská Štiavnica, now Slovakia) in 1735. Its legal successor is the University of Miskolc in Hungary. The Budapest University of Technology and Economics (BME) is considered the oldest institute of technology in the world with university rank and structure. Its legal predecessor the Institutum Geometrico-Hydrotechnicum was founded in 1782 by Emperor Joseph II. The high schools included the universities, of which Hungary possessed five, all maintained by the state: at Budapest (founded in 1635), at Kolozsvár (founded in 1872), and at Zagreb (founded in 1874). Newer universities were established in Debrecen in 1912, and Pozsony university was reestablished after a half millennium in 1912. They had four faculties: theology, law, philosophy and medicine (the university at Zagreb was without a faculty of medicine). There were in addition ten high schools of law, called academies, which in 1900 were attended by 1,569 pupils. The Polytechnicum in Budapest, founded in 1844, which contained four faculties and was attended in 1900 by 1,772 pupils, was also considered a high school. There were in Hungary in 1900 forty-nine theological colleges, twenty-nine Catholic, five Greek Uniat, four Greek Orthodox, ten Protestant and one Jewish. Among special schools the principal mining schools were at Selmeczbánya, Nagyág and Felsőbánya; the principal agricultural colleges at Debreczen and Kolozsvár; and there was a school of forestry at Selmeczbánya, military colleges at Budapest, Kassa, Déva and Zagreb, and a naval school at Fiume. There were in addition a number of training institutes for teachers and a large number of schools of commerce, several art schools – for design, painting, sculpture, and music. ==Economy== The heavily rural Austro-Hungarian economy slowly modernised after 1867. Railroads opened up once-remote areas, and cities grew. Many small firms promoted capitalist way of production. Technological change accelerated industrialization and urbanization. The first Austrian stock exchange (the Wiener Börse) was opened in 1771 in Vienna, the first stock exchange of the Kingdom of Hungary (the Budapest Stock Exchange) was opened in Budapest in 1864. The central bank (Bank of issue) was founded as Austrian National Bank in 1816. In 1878, it transformed into Austro-Hungarian National Bank with principal offices in both Vienna and Budapest. The central bank was governed by alternating Austrian or Hungarian governors and vice-governors. Austria-Hungary also became the world's third-largest manufacturer and exporter of electric home appliances, electric industrial appliances, and power generation apparatus for power plants, after the United States and the German Empire, and it constructed Europe's second-largest railway network, after the German Empire. In 2000, a study estimated that GDP in constant national prices in 1913 was 19,140.8 million for Cisleithania and 10,971.6 million for Transleithania, a combined 30,112.4 million krone. According to a 2005 study, GDP (PPP) in 1913 was 105,515 million 1990 Int$, the fifth-largest in Europe. The gross national product per capita grew roughly 1.76% per year from 1870 to 1913. That level of growth compared very favorably to that of other European nations such as Britain (1%), France (1.06%), and Germany (1.51%). Galicia, which has been described as the poorest province of Austro-Hungary, experienced near-constant famines, resulting in 50,000 deaths a year. The Istro-Romanians of Istria were also poor, as pastoralism lost strength and agriculture was not productive. ==Infrastructure== ===Telecommunications=== ====Telegraph==== The first telegraph connection (Vienna—Brno—Prague) had started operation in 1847. In Hungarian territory the first telegraph stations were opened in Pressburg (Pozsony, today's Bratislava) in December 1847 and in Buda in 1848. The first telegraph connection between Vienna and Pest–Buda (later Budapest) was constructed in 1850, and Vienna–Zagreb in 1850. Austria subsequently joined a telegraph union with German states. In the Kingdom of Hungary, 2,406 telegraph post offices operated in 1884. By 1914 the number of telegraph offices reached 3,000 in post offices and further 2,400 were installed in the railway stations of the Kingdom of Hungary. ====Telephone==== The first telephone exchange was opened in Zagreb (8 January 1881), the second was in Budapest (1 May 1881), and the third was opened in Vienna (3 June 1881). Initially telephony was available in the homes of individual subscribers, companies and offices. Public telephone stations appeared in the 1890s, and they quickly became widespread in post offices and railway stations. Austria–Hungary had 568 million telephone calls in 1913; only two Western European countries had more phone calls: the German Empire and the United Kingdom. The Austro-Hungarian Empire was followed by France with 396 million telephone calls and Italy with 230 million phone calls. In 1916, there were 366 million telephone calls in Cisleithania, among them 8.4 million long distant calls. All telephone exchanges of the cities, towns and larger villages in Transleithania were linked until 1893. By 1914, more than 2000 settlements had telephone exchange in Kingdom of Hungary. In 1890 most large Hungarian private railway companies were nationalized as a consequence of the poor management of private companies, except the strong Austrian-owned Kaschau-Oderberg Railway (KsOd) and the Austrian-Hungarian Southern Railway (SB/DV). They also joined the zone tariff system of the MÁV (Hungarian State Railways). By 1910, the total length of the rail networks of Hungarian Kingdom reached , the Hungarian network linked more than 1,490 settlements. Nearly half (52%) of the empire's railways were built in Hungary, thus the railroad density there became higher than that of Cisleithania. This has ranked Hungarian railways the 6th most dense in the world (ahead of Germany and France). Electrified commuter railways: A set of four electric commuter rai lines were built in Budapest, the BHÉV: Ráckeve line (1887), Szentendre line (1888), Gödöllő line (1888), Csepel line (1912) ====Tramway lines in the cities==== Horse-drawn tramways appeared in the first half of the 19th century. Between the 1850s and 1880s many were built : Vienna (1865), Budapest (1866), Brno (1869), Trieste (1876). Steam trams appeared in the late 1860s. The electrification of tramways started in the late 1880s. The first electrified tramway in Austria–Hungary was built in Budapest in 1887. Electric tramway lines in the Austrian Empire: Austria: Gmunden (1894); Linz, Vienna (1897); Graz (1898); Trieste (1900); Ljubljana (1901); Innsbruck (1905); Unterlach, Ybbs an der Donau (1907); Salzburg (1909); Klagenfurt, Sankt Pölten (1911); Piran (1912) Austrian Littoral: Pula (1904). Bohemia: Prague (1891); Teplice (1895); Liberec (1897); Ústí nad Labem, Plzeň, Olomouc (1899); Moravia, Brno, Jablonec nad Nisou (1900); Ostrava (1901); Mariánské Lázně (1902); Budějovice, České Budějovice, Jihlava (1909) Austrian Silesia: Opava (Troppau) (1905), Cieszyn (Cieszyn) (1911) Dalmatia: Dubrovnik (1910) Galicia: Lviv (1894), Bielsko-Biała (1895); Kraków (1901); Tarnów, Cieszyn (1911) Electric tramway lines in the Kingdom of Hungary: Hungary: Budapest (1887); Pressburg/Pozsony/Bratislava (1895); Szabadka/Subotica (1897), Szombathely (1897), Miskolc (1897); Temesvár/Timișoara (1899); Sopron (1900); Szatmárnémeti/Satu Mare (1900); Nyíregyháza (1905); Nagyszeben/Sibiu (1905); Nagyvárad/Oradea (1906); Szeged (1908); Debrecen (1911); Újvidék/Novi Sad (1911); Kassa/Košice (1913); Pécs (1913) Croatia: Fiume (1899); Pula (1904); Opatija – Lovran (1908); Zagreb (1910); Dubrovnik (1910). ====Underground==== The Budapest Metro Line 1 (originally the "Franz Joseph Underground Electric Railway Company") is the second oldest underground railway in the world (the first being the London Underground's Metropolitan Line and the third being Glasgow), and the first on the European mainland. It was built from 1894 to 1896 and opened on 2 May 1896. In 2002, it was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The M1 line became an IEEE Milestone due to the radically new innovations in its era: "Among the railway's innovative elements were bidirectional tram cars; electric lighting in the subway stations and tram cars; and an overhead wire structure instead of a third-rail system for power". ===Inland waterways and river regulation=== The first Danubian steamer company, Donaudampfschiffahrtsgesellschaft (DDSG), was the world's largest inland shipping company until the collapse of Austria-Hungary. In 1900 the engineer C. Wagenführer drew up plans to link the Danube and the Adriatic Sea by a canal from Vienna to Trieste. It was born from the desire of Austria–Hungary to have a direct link to the Adriatic Sea but was never constructed. ====Lower Danube and the Iron Gates==== In 1831 a plan had already been drafted to make the passage navigable, at the initiative of the Hungarian politician István Széchenyi. Finally Gábor Baross, Hungary's "Iron Minister", succeeded in financing this project. The riverbed rocks and the associated rapids made the gorge valley an infamous passage for shipping. In German, the passage is still known as the Kataraktenstrecke, even though the cataracts are gone. Near the actual "Iron Gates" strait the Prigrada rock was the most important obstacle until 1896: the river widened considerably here and the water level was consequently low. Upstream, the Greben rock near the "Kazan" gorge was notorious. ====Tisza River==== The length of the Tisza river in Hungary used to be . It flowed through the Great Hungarian Plain, which is one of the largest flat areas in central Europe. Since plains can cause a river to flow very slowly, the Tisza used to follow a path with many curves and turns, which led to many large floods in the area. After several small-scale attempts, István Széchenyi organised the "regulation of the Tisza" (Hungarian: a Tisza szabályozása) which started on 27 August 1846, and substantially ended in 1880. The new length of the river in Hungary was ( total), with of "dead channels" and of new riverbed. The resultant length of the flood-protected river comprises (out of of all Hungarian protected rivers). ===Shipping and ports=== The most important seaport was Trieste (today part of Italy), where the Austrian merchant marine was based. Two major shipping companies (Austrian Lloyd and Austro-Americana) and several shipyards were located there. From 1815 to 1866, Venice had been part of the Habsburg empire. The loss of Venice prompted the development of the Austrian merchant marine. By 1913, the commercial marine of Austria, comprised 16,764 vessels with a tonnage of 471,252, and crews number-ing 45,567. Of the total (1913) 394 of 422,368 tons were steamers, and 16,370 of 48,884 tons were sailing vessels The Austrian Lloyd was one of the biggest ocean shipping companies of the time. Prior to the beginning of World War I, the company owned 65 middle-sized and large steamers. The Austro-Americana owned one third of this number, including the biggest Austrian passenger ship, the SS Kaiser Franz Joseph I. In comparison to the Austrian Lloyd, the Austro-American concentrated on destinations in North and South America. The military system of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy was similar in both states, and rested since 1868 upon the principle of the universal and personal obligation of the citizen to bear arms. Its military force was composed of the Common Army; the special armies, namely the Austrian Landwehr, and the Hungarian Honvéd, which were separate national institutions, and the Landsturm or levy-en masse. As stated above, the common army stood under the administration of the joint minister of war, while the special armies were under the administration of the respective ministries of national defence. The yearly contingent of recruits for the army was fixed by the military bills voted on by the Austrian and Hungarian parliaments and was generally determined on the basis of the population, according to the last census returns. It amounted in 1905 to 103,100 men, of which Austria furnished 59,211 men, and Hungary 43,889. Besides 10,000 men were annually allotted to the Austrian Landwehr, and 12,500 to the Hungarian Honved. The term of service was two years (three years in the cavalry) with the colours, seven or eight in the reserve and two in the Landwehr; in the case of men not drafted to the active army the same total period of service was spent in various special reserves. The common minister of war was the head for the administration of all military affairs, except those of the Austrian Landwehr and of the Hungarian Honved, which were committed to the ministries for national defence of the two respective states. But the supreme command of the army was nominally vested in the monarch, who had the power to take all measures regarding the whole army. In practice, the emperor's nephew Archduke Albrecht was his chief military advisor and made the policy decisions.]] Russian Pan-Slavic organizations sent aid to the Balkan rebels and so pressured the tsar's government to declare war on the Ottoman Empire in 1877 in the name of protecting Orthodox Christians. On the heels of the Great Balkan Crisis, Austro-Hungarian forces occupied Bosnia and Herzegovina in August 1878 and the monarchy eventually annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina in October 1908 as a common holding of Cisleithania and Transleithania under the control of the Imperial & Royal finance ministry rather than attaching it to either territorial government. The annexation in 1908 led some in Vienna to contemplate combining Bosnia and Herzegovina with Croatia to form a third Slavic component of the monarchy. The deaths of Franz Joseph's brother, Maximilian (1867), and his only son, Rudolf, made the Emperor's nephew, Franz Ferdinand, heir to the throne. The Archduke was rumoured to have been an advocate for this trialism as a means to limit the power of the Hungarian aristocracy. A proclamation issued on the occasion of its annexation to the Habsburg monarchy in October 1908 promised these lands constitutional institutions, which should secure to their inhabitants full civil rights and a share in the management of their own affairs by means of a local representative assembly. In performance of this promise a constitution was promulgated in 1910. The principal players in the Bosnian Crisis of 1908–09 were the foreign ministers of Austria and Russia, Alois Lexa von Aehrenthal and Alexander Izvolsky. Both were motivated by political ambition; the first would emerge successful, and the latter would be broken by the crisis. Along the way, they would drag Europe to the brink of war in 1909. They would also divide Europe into the two armed camps that would go to war in July 1914. Aehrenthal had started with the assumption that the Slavic minorities could never come together, and the Balkan League would never cause any damage to Austria. He turned down an Ottoman proposal for an alliance that would include Austria, Turkey, and Romania. However, his policies alienated the Bulgarians, who turned instead to Russia and Serbia. Although Austria had no intention to embark on additional expansion to the south, Aehrenthal encouraged speculation to that effect, expecting that it would paralyze the Balkan states. Instead, it incited them to feverish activity to create a defensive block to stop Austria. A series of grave miscalculations at the highest level thus significantly strengthened Austria's enemies. In 1914, Slavic militants in Bosnia rejected Austria's plan to fully absorb the area; they assassinated the Austrian heir and precipitated World War I. ==1914–1918: World War I== ===Prelude of WW I=== The 28 June 1914 assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in the Bosnian capital, Sarajevo, excessively intensified the existing traditional religion-based ethnic hostilities in Bosnia. However, in Sarajevo itself, Austrian authorities encouraged violence against the Serb residents, which resulted in anti-Serb riots in Sarajevo, in which Catholic Croats and Bosnian Muslims killed two and damaged numerous Serb-owned buildings. Writer Ivo Andrić referred to the violence as the "Sarajevo frenzy of hate." Violent actions against ethnic Serbs were organized not only in Sarajevo but also in many other larger Austro-Hungarian cities in modern-day Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina. Austro-Hungarian authorities in Bosnia and Herzegovina imprisoned and extradited approximately 5,500 prominent Serbs, 700 to 2,200 of whom died in prison. Four hundred sixty Serbs were sentenced to death and a predominantly Muslim special militia known as the Schutzkorps was established and carried out the persecution of Serbs. Some members of the government, such as Minister of Foreign Affairs Count Leopold Berchtold and Army Commander Count Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf, had wanted to confront the resurgent Serbian nation for some years in a preventive war, but the Emperor and Hungarian prime minister István Tisza were opposed. The foreign ministry of Austro-Hungarian Empire sent ambassador László Szőgyény to Potsdam, where he inquired about the standpoint of the German emperor, Wilhelm II, on 5 July and received a supportive response. The leaders of Austria–Hungary therefore decided to confront Serbia militarily before it could incite a revolt; using the assassination as an excuse, they presented a list of ten demands called the July Ultimatum, ===Wartime foreign policy=== The Austro-Hungarian Empire played a relatively passive diplomatic role in the war, as it was increasingly dominated and controlled by Germany. The only goal was to punish Serbia and try to stop the ethnic breakup of the Empire, and it completely failed. Starting in late 1916 the new Emperor Karl removed the pro-German officials and opened peace overtures to the Allies, whereby the entire war could be ended by compromise, or perhaps Austria would make a separate peace from Germany. The main effort was vetoed by Italy, which had been promised large slices of Austria for joining the Allies in 1915. Austria was only willing to turn over the Trentino region but nothing more. Karl was seen as a defeatist, which weakened his standing at home and with both the Allies and Germany. ===Homefront=== The heavily rural empire did have a small industrial base, but its major contributions were manpower and food. Nevertheless, Austria–Hungary was more urbanized (25%) than its actual opponents in the war, like the Russian Empire (13.4%), Serbia (13.2%) or Romania (18.8%). Furthermore, the Austro-Hungarian Empire had also more industrialized economy and higher GDP per capita than the Kingdom of Italy, which was economically the far most developed actual opponent of the Empire. On the home front, food grew scarcer and scarcer, as did heating fuel. Hungary, with its heavy agricultural base, was somewhat better fed. The army conquered productive agricultural areas in Romania and elsewhere, but refused to allow food shipments to civilians back home. Morale fell every year, and the diverse nationalities gave up on the empire and looked for ways to establish their own nation states. Inflation soared, from an index of 129 in 1914 to 1589 in 1918, wiping out the cash savings of the middle class. In terms of war damage to the economy, the war consumed about 20 percent of the gross domestic product. The dead soldiers amounted to about four percent of the 1914 labor force, and the wounded ones to another six percent. Compared to the major countries in the war, the death and casualty rates were toward the high end regarding the present-day territory of Austria. ===Theaters of operations=== The Austro-Hungarian Empire conscripted 7.8 million soldiers during the war. General von Hötzendorf was the Chief of the Austro-Hungarian General Staff. Franz Joseph I, who was much too old to command the army, appointed Archduke Friedrich von Österreich-Teschen as Supreme Army Commander (Armeeoberkommandant), but asked him to give Von Hötzendorf freedom to take any decisions. Von Hötzendorf remained in effective command of the military forces until Emperor Karl I took supreme command himself in late 1916 and dismissed Conrad von Hötzendorf in 1917. Meanwhile, economic conditions on the home front deteriorated rapidly. The empire depended on agriculture, and agriculture depended on the heavy labor of millions of men who were now in the army. Food production fell, the transportation system became overcrowded, and industrial production could not successfully handle the overwhelming need for munitions. Germany provided a great deal of help, but it was not enough. Furthermore, the political instability of the multiple ethnic groups within the empire now ripped apart any hope for national consensus in support of the war. Increasingly there was a demand for breaking up the empire and setting up autonomous national states based on historic, language-based cultures. The new emperor sought peace terms from the Allies, but his initiatives were vetoed by Italy. ====Serbian front 1914–1916==== At the start of the war, the army was divided into two: the smaller part attacked Serbia, while the larger part fought against the formidable Imperial Russian Army. The invasion of Serbia in 1914 was a disaster: by the end of the year, the Austro-Hungarian Army had taken no territory, but had lost 227,000 out of a total force of 450,000 men. However, in the autumn of 1915, the Serbian Army was defeated by the Central Powers, which led to the occupation of Serbia. Near the end of 1915, in a massive rescue operation involving more than 1,000 trips made by Italian, French and British steamers, 260,000 Serb soldiers were transported to Brindisi and Corfu, where they waited for the chance of the victory of Allied powers to reclaim their country. Corfu hosted the Serbian government in exile after the collapse of Serbia and served as a supply base for the Greek front. In April 1916 a large number of Serbian troops were transported in British and French naval vessels from Corfu to mainland Greece. The contingent numbering over 120,000 relieved a much smaller army at the Macedonian front and fought alongside British and French troops. ====Russian front 1914–1917==== On the Eastern front, the war started out equally poorly. The government accepted the Polish proposal of establishing the Supreme National Committee as the Polish central authority within the empire, responsible for the formation of the Polish Legions, an auxiliary military formation within the Austro-Hungarian Army. The Austro-Hungarian Army was defeated at the Battle of Lemberg and the great fortress city of Przemyśl was besieged and fell in March 1915. The Gorlice–Tarnów Offensive started as a minor German offensive to relieve the pressure of the Russian numerical superiority on the Austro-Hungarians, but the cooperation of the Central Powers resulted in huge Russian losses and the total collapse of the Russian lines and their long retreat into Russia. The Russian Third Army disintegrated. In summer 1915, the Austro-Hungarian Army, under a unified command with the Germans, participated in the successful Gorlice–Tarnów Offensive. From June 1916, the Russians focused their attacks on the Austro-Hungarian Army in the Brusilov Offensive, recognizing the latter's numerical inferiority. By the end of September 1916, Austria–Hungary mobilized and concentrated new divisions, and the successful Russian advance was halted and slowly repelled; but the Austrian armies took heavy losses (about 1 million men) and never recovered. Nevertheless, the huge losses in men and materiel inflicted on the Russians during the offensive contributed greatly to the Russian Revolution of 1917 and caused an economic crash in the Russian Empire. The Act of 5 November 1916 was then proclaimed to the Poles jointly by the Emperors Wilhelm II of Germany and Franz Joseph of Austria-Hungary. This act promised the creation of the Kingdom of Poland out of the territory of Congress Poland, envisioned by its authors as a puppet state controlled by the Central Powers, with the nominal authority vested in the Regency Council. The origin of that document was the dire need to draft new recruits from German-occupied Poland for the war with Russia. Following the Armistice of 11 November 1918 ending the World War I, in spite of the previous initial total dependence of the kingdom on its sponsors, it ultimately served against their intentions as the cornerstone proto state of the nascent Second Polish Republic, the latter composed also of territories never intended by the Central Powers to be ceded to Poland. The Battle of Zborov (1917) was the first significant action of the Czechoslovak Legions, which fought for the independence of Czechoslovakia against the Austro-Hungarian Army. ====Italian front 1915–1918==== In May 1915, Italy attacked Austria–Hungary. Italy was the only military opponent of Austria–Hungary which had a similar degree of industrialization and economic level; moreover, her army was numerous (≈1,000,000 men were immediately fielded), but suffered from poor leadership, training and organization. Chief of Staff Luigi Cadorna marched his army towards the Isonzo River, hoping to seize Ljubljana, and to eventually threaten Vienna. However, the Royal Italian Army were halted on the river, where four battles took place over five months (23 June – 2 December 1915). The fight was extremely bloody and exhausting for both sides. On 15 May 1916, Austrian Chief of Staff Conrad von Hötzendorf launched the Strafexpedition ("punitive expedition"): the Austrians broke through the front and occupied the Asiago plateau. The Italians managed to resist and in a counteroffensive seized Gorizia on 9 August. Nonetheless, they had to stop on the Carso, a few kilometres away from the border. At this point, several months of indecisive trench warfare ensued (analogous to the Western front). As the Russian Empire collapsed as a result of the Bolshevik Revolution and the Russians ended their involvement in the war, Germans and Austrians were able to transfer much of their manpower to the Western and Southern fronts from the erstwhile Eastern fighting. On 24 October 1917, Austrians (now enjoying decisive German support) attacked at Caporetto using new infiltration tactics; although they advanced more than in the direction of Venice and gained considerable supplies, they were halted and could not cross the Piave River. Italy, although suffering massive casualties, recovered from the blow, and a coalition government under Vittorio Emanuele Orlando was formed. Italy also enjoyed the support of the Entente: by 1918, large amounts of war materials and a few auxiliary American, British, and French divisions arrived in the Italian battle zone. Cadorna was replaced by General Armando Diaz; under his command, the Italians retook the initiative and won the decisive Second Battle of the Piave River (15–23 June 1918), in which some 60,000 Austrian and 43,000 Italian soldiers were killed. The final battle at Vittorio Veneto was lost by 31 October 1918 and the armistice was signed at Villa Giusti on 3 November. ====Romanian front 1916–1917==== On 27 August 1916, Romania declared war against Austria–Hungary. The Romanian Army crossed the borders of eastern Hungary (Transylvania), but despite initial successes, by November 1916, the Austro-Hungarian, German, Bulgarian, and Ottoman armies had defeated the Romanian and Russian armies, and occupied the southern part of Romania (including Oltenia, Muntenia and Dobruja). Within three months of the war, the Central Powers approached Bucharest, the Romanian capital. On 6 December, Bucharest was captured, and part of the population moved to the unoccupied Romanian territory, in Moldavia, together with the Romanian government, royal court and public authorities, which relocated to Iași. In 1917, after several defensive victories (managing to stop the German-Austro-Hungarian advance), with Russia's withdrawal from the war following the October Revolution, Romania was forced to drop out of the war. ===Role of Hungary=== Although the Kingdom of Hungary comprised only 42% of the population of Austria–Hungary, the thin majority more than 3.8 million soldiersof the Austro-Hungarian armed forces were conscripted from the Kingdom of Hungary during the First World War. Roughly 600,000 soldiers were killed in action, and 700,000 soldiers were wounded in the war. Austria–Hungary held on for years, as the Hungarian half provided sufficient supplies for the military to continue to wage war. The Austrians viewed the German army favorably; on the other hand, by 1916 the general belief in Germany was that Germany, in its alliance with Austria–Hungary, was "shackled to a corpse". The operational capability of the Austro-Hungarian army was seriously affected by supply shortages, low morale and a high casualty rate, and by the army's composition of multiple ethnicities with different languages and customs. ===1918: Demise, disintegration, dissolution=== By 1918, the economic situation had deteriorated and governmental failure on the homefront ended popular support for the war. The Austro-Hungarian monarchy collapsed with dramatic speed in the autumn of 1918. Leftist and pacifist political movements organized strikes in factories, and uprisings in the army had become commonplace. As the war went on, the ethnic unity declined; the Allies encouraged breakaway demands from minorities and the Empire faced disintegration. However, on 18 October, United States Secretary of State Robert Lansing replied that autonomy for the nationalities – the tenth of the Fourteen Points – was no longer enough. In fact, a Czechoslovak provisional government had joined the Allies on 14 October. The South Slavs in both halves of the monarchy had already declared in favor of uniting with Serbia in a large South Slav state in the 1917 Corfu Declaration signed by members of the Yugoslav Committee. The Croatians had begun disregarding orders from Budapest earlier in October. Lansing's response was, in effect, the death certificate of Austria–Hungary. During the Italian battles, the Czechoslovaks and Southern Slavs declared their independence. With defeat in the war imminent after the Italian offensive in the Battle of Vittorio Veneto on 24 October, Czech politicians peacefully took over command in Prague on 28 October (later declared the birth of Czechoslovakia) and followed up in other major cities in the next few days. On 30 October, the Slovaks did the same. On 29 October, the Slavs in both portions of what remained of Austria–Hungary proclaimed the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs and declared that their ultimate intention was to unite with Serbia and Montenegro in a large South Slav state. On the same day, the Czechs and Slovaks formally proclaimed the establishment of Czechoslovakia as an independent state. On 17 October 1918, the Hungarian Parliament voted in favour of terminating the union with Austria. The most prominent opponent of continued union with Austria, Count Mihály Károlyi, seized power in the Aster Revolution on 31 October. Charles was all but forced to appoint Károlyi as his Hungarian prime minister. One of Károlyi's first acts was to formally repudiate the compromise agreement on 31 October, effectively terminating the personal union with Austria and thus officially dissolving the Austro-Hungarian state. By the end of October, there was nothing left of the Habsburg realm but its majority-German Danubian and Alpine provinces, and Karl's authority was being challenged even there by the German-Austrian state council. Karl's last Austrian prime minister, Heinrich Lammasch, concluded that Karl's position was untenable. Lammasch persuaded Karl that the best course was to relinquish, at least temporarily, his right to exercise sovereign authority. On 11 November, Karl issued a carefully worded proclamation in which he recognized the Austrian people's right to determine the form of the state and "relinquish(ed) every participation" in Austrian state affairs. On the day after he announced his withdrawal from Austrian politics, the German-Austrian National Council proclaimed the Republic of German Austria. Károlyi followed suit on 16 November, proclaiming the Hungarian Democratic Republic. ==Successor states== There were two legal successor states of the former Austro–Hungarian monarchy: German Austria (which became the Republic of Austria) Hungarian Democratic Republic (which after a few other short-lived intermediaries became the Kingdom of Hungary) The 1919 Treaties of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (between the victors of World War I and Austria) and Trianon (between the victors and Hungary) regulated the new borders of Austria and Hungary, reducing them to small-sized and landlocked states. The Entente not only assumed without question that the minority peoples wished to leave Austria and Hungary, but allowed them to claim vast territories containing sizeable German- and Hungarian-speaking populations. With this in mind, in regard to areas without a decisive national majority, the Entente powers ruled in many cases in favour of the newly emancipated independent nation-states. The Republic of Austria lost roughly 60% of the old Austrian Empire's territory. It also had to drop its plans for union with Germany, as it was not allowed to unite with Germany without League approval. Hungary, however, was severely disrupted by the loss of 72% of its territory, 64% of its population and most of its natural resources. The Hungarian Democratic Republic was short-lived and was temporarily replaced by the communist Hungarian Soviet Republic. Romanian troops ousted Béla Kun and his communist government during the Hungarian–Romanian War of 1919. In the summer of 1919, a Habsburg, Archduke Joseph August, became regent, but was forced to stand down after only two weeks when it became apparent the Allies would not recognise him. Finally, in March 1920, royal powers were entrusted to a regent, Miklós Horthy, who had been the last commanding admiral of the Austro-Hungarian Navy and had helped organize the counter-revolutionary forces. It was this government that signed the Treaty of Trianon under protest on 4 June 1920 at the Grand Trianon Palace in Versailles, France. The restored Kingdom of Hungary lost roughly 72% of the pre-war territory of the Kingdom of Hungary. ===Habsburg banishment=== Austria had passed the "Habsburg Law", which both dethroned the Habsburgs and banished all Habsburgs from Austrian territory. While Karl was banned from ever returning to Austria again, other Habsburgs could return if they gave up all claims to the defunct throne. In March and again in October 1921, ill-prepared attempts by Karl to regain the throne in Budapest collapsed. The initially wavering Horthy, after receiving threats of intervention from the Allied Powers and the Little Entente, refused his cooperation. Soon afterward, the Hungarian government nullified the Pragmatic Sanction, effectively dethroning the Habsburgs. Subsequently, the British took custody of Karl and removed him and his family to the Portuguese island of Madeira, where he died the following year. ==Territorial legacy== ===Immediately after World War I=== The following states were formed, re-established or expanded at the dissolution of the former Austro–Hungarian monarchy: German Austria (which became the Republic of Austria) First Hungarian Republic which became the Hungarian Soviet Republic, subsequently briefly restored and replaced by the Hungarian Republic, ultimately transformed into the Kingdom of Hungary First Czechoslovak Republic, later "Czechoslovakia" Second Polish Republic, contested by the short-lived proto-states of Tarnobrzeg Republic and Polish Soviet Socialist Republic State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs and the Kingdom of Serbia, both later absorbed into the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes Greater Romania Kingdom of Italy Republic of China (former Austro-Hungarian concession of Tianjin) the short-lived Ruthenian (Ukrainian and Rusyn) proto-states of West Ukrainian People's Republic (later absorbed into Ukrainian People's Republic), Hutsul Republic, Lemko Republic, Komancza Republic and the Galician Soviet Socialist Republic; all were ultimately absorbed mostly into Poland, but also into Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Romania and Yugoslavia. The Principality of Liechtenstein, which had formerly looked to Vienna for protection and whose ruling house held sizable real estate in Cisleithania, formed a customs and defense union with Switzerland, and adopted the Swiss currency instead of the Austrian. In April 1919, Vorarlbergthe westernmost province of Austriavoted by a large majority to join Switzerland; however, both the Swiss and the Allies disregarded this result. ===Present=== The following present-day countries and parts of countries were within the boundaries of Austria–Hungary when the empire was dissolved. Some other provinces of Europe had been part of the Habsburg monarchy at one time before 1867. Empire of Austria (Cisleithania): Austria (except Burgenland without Sopron) Czech Republic (except the Hlučínsko area) Slovenia (except Prekmurje) Italy (Trentino, South Tyrol, parts of the province of Belluno and small portions of Friuli-Venezia Giulia) Croatia (Dalmatia, Istria) Poland (voivodeships of Lesser Poland, Subcarpathia, southernmost part of Silesia (Bielsko and Cieszyn)) Ukraine (oblasts of Lviv, Ivano-Frankivsk, Ternopil (except its northern corner) and most of the oblast of Chernivtsi) Romania (county of Suceava) Montenegro (bay of Boka Kotorska, the coast and the immediate hinterland around the cities of Budva, Petrovac and Sutomore) Kingdom of Hungary (Transleithania): Hungary Slovakia Austria (Burgenland except Sopron) Slovenia (Prekmurje) Croatia (Croatian Baranja and Međimurje county, Fiume as corpus separatum along with Slavonia and Central Croatia were not part of Hungary proper, the latter two were part of the sovereign Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia) Ukraine (oblast of Zakarpattia) Romania (region of Transylvania, Partium and parts of Banat, Crișana, and Maramureș) Serbia (autonomous province of Vojvodina and northern Belgrade region) Poland (Polish parts of Orava and Spiš) Austro-Hungarian Condominium Bosnia and Herzegovina (the villages of Zavalje, Mali Skočaj and Veliki Skočaj including the immediate surrounding area west of the city of Bihać) Montenegro (Sutorina – western part of the Municipality of Herceg Novi between present borders with Croatia (SW) and Bosnia and Herzegovina (NW), Adriatic coast (E) and the township of Igalo (NE)) Sandžak-Raška region, Austro-Hungarian occupied 1878 until withdrawal in 1908 whilst formally part of the Ottoman Empire The Empire treated Bosnia-Herzegovina in much the same way the other powers treated their overseas colonies Other possessions of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy People's Republic of China (former Austro-Hungarian concession of Tianjin)	[ "Emperor of Austria", "Mariánské Lázně", "Long Depression", "GDP (PPP)", "Triple Alliance (1882)", "Lesser Germany", "Siege of Przemyśl", "Grand Trianon", "Polish language", "Oradea", "Mihály Károlyi", "Grand Duchy of Tuscany", "Regency Council (Poland)", "Slovene language", "Ottoman Empire", "Orava (region)", "House of Magnates of Hungary", "official language", "Dalmatia", "Transleithania", "Duchy of Modena and Reggio", "Innsbruck", "Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria", "Ethnic and religious composition of Austria-Hungary", "deputies", "The Columbia Encyclopedia", "Austro-Prussian War", "Battle of Galicia", "Banat", "Empress Elisabeth of Austria", "commuter rail", "Wilhelm II", "Chernivtsi Oblast", "Royal Hungarian Honvéd", "Modern Humanities Research Association", "Pressburg", "Herceg Novi", "industrialization", "Palace of Versailles", "Sudetenland", "Casimir III the Great", "Opava", "Brindisi", "Macmillan Publishers", "Kingdom of Croatia and Slavonia", "Rusyn language", "University of Lwów", "Yiddish language", "Maximilian I of Mexico", "Friulian language", "Gorlice–Tarnów Offensive", "Tisza", "minority group", "Transylvania", "Carpathian Romani", "Czech Republic", "Count Kasimir Felix Badeni", "Brno", "Kent State University Press", "Duchy of Carniola", "Austrian Empire", "Imperial Council (Austria)", "Trentino", "Hungarian Parliament", "Die Bosniaken Kommen (March)", "Russian Revolution", "Matthias Church", "Suceava County", "April Laws", "Suez Canal", "First Hungarian Republic", "Oltenia", "List of Ministers-President of Austria", "German Empire", "Lutheranism", "Pécs", "Tarnobrzeg Republic", "July Crisis", "Muntenia", "Western Moldavia", "Vác", "constitutional crisis", "Adolf Hitler", "Lands of the Bohemian Crown (1867–1918)", "Czech language", "China", "Telefon Hírmondó", "Greater Bulgaria", "German Army (German Empire)", "Slovaks", "Archduke Albrecht, Duke of Teschen", "Montenegro", "Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen", "Encyclopedia Britannica", "Ternopil Oblast", "Charles University", "Bielsko-Biała", "Cisleithania", "Battle of Mohács", "Gymnasium (school)", "Slovene literature", "Mikulas Teich", "Kingdom of Italy", "County of Tyrol", "Kingdom of Poland (1916-1918)", "Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria", "Zakarpattia Oblast", "Calvinism", "Madeira", "Kraków", "Eastern Orthodox Christianity", "Galician Soviet Socialist Republic", "Ivano-Frankivsk Oblast", "Bosnia and Herzegovina (Austro-Hungarian condominium)", "Sutorina", "Pan-Slavic", "Theobald von Bethmann-Hollweg", "Hebrew language", "Austrian nobility", "German Austria", "Austro-Hungarian Monarchy", "Vilmos Vázsonyi", "Lower Austria", "Ferenc Deák (politician)", "dual monarchy", "Common Army", "Miskolc", "Treaty of Trianon", "Košice", "State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs", "Austro-Hungarian occupation of Serbia", "Béla Kun", "heads of state", "Adriatic Sea", "Ljubljana", "Carniola", "Ostrava", "Burgenland", "constitutional monarchy", "Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (Russia–Central Powers)", "Franco-Prussian War", "Armando Diaz", "Carlile Aylmer Macartney", "Central Europe", "České Budějovice", "Csepel", "Otto von Bismarck", "Aftermath of World War I", "Budapest Metro", "Kingdom of Serbia", "Battle of Asiago", "Croatian language", "Ladin language", "Isonzo", "Zavalje", "Administrative divisions of the Kingdom of Hungary", "First Austrian Republic", "Act of 5 November", "Wilhelm II of Germany", "Dobruja", "Russian Empire", "Croats", "Prekmurje", "Kingdom of Hungary", "Central European University Press", "parliament", "Maramureș", "Vittorio Emanuele Orlando", "Hungarian Democratic Republic", "Neue Freie Presse", "pastoralism", "Lemko Republic", "Bosnian-Herzegovinian Infantry", "János Teleszky", "Veliki Skočaj", "Trialism in Austria-Hungary", "Count Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf", "Upper Austria", "Szentendre", "Romanian Land Forces", "Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia", "Sarajevo", "Buda", "István Burián", "Yugoslav Committee", "Yugoslavs", "Austrian Silesia", "proto-state", "League of the Three Emperors", "UNESCO", "Count Anton Alexander von Auersperg", "Little Entente", "Lviv Oblast", "Famines in Austrian Galicia", "Unitarianism", "Kingdom of Bohemia", "World War I", "BHÉV", "Diet of Hungary", "Lovran", "Trams in Lviv", "Austro-Hungarian Navy", "Kingdom of Dalmatia", "István Tisza", "Komancza Republic", "Corpus separatum (Fiume)", "Hungary", "Partium", "defensive alliance", "Diet of Istria", "Istriot language", "trench warfare", "Krk", "Encyclopædia Britannica", "Protestantism", "Duchy of Bukovina", "Bosnian Muslims", "Asiago plateau", "Friedrich Ferdinand von Beust", "War crimes in World War I", "Armistice of Villa Giusti", "Line 1 (Budapest Metro)", "Kláštor pod Znievom", "Hungarian Republic (1919–1920)", "Roy Porter", "Polish Soviet Socialist Republic", "Rudolf, Crown Prince of Austria", "Green Cadres", "Cieszyn", "Technological change", "antisemitism", "Srđan Budisavljević", "prime minister", "Budapest Stock Exchange", "Former countries in Europe after 1815", "Ráckeve", "Belgrade", "Sandžak", "First Czechoslovak Republic", "German Confederation", "Central Powers", "Austro-Hungarian annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina", "University of Mostar", "Duchy of Styria", "Second Polish Republic", "Maney Publishing", "Margraviate of Moravia", "Vorarlberg", "Kingdom of Hungary (1920–1946)", "Gábor Baross", "punitive expedition", "Switzerland", "division of labour", "coalition government", "Subotica", "German language", "Satu Mare", "Italian Front (World War I)", "Military of Hungary", "Chief of Staff", "Iași", "Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1919)", "Battle of Zborov (1917)", "Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia", "World Heritage Site", "Slavonia", "Pula", "Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)", "Duchy of Salzburg", "July Ultimatum", "Greater Romania", "Charles University in Prague", "Budva", "economic and monetary union", "Lands of the Bohemian Crown", "Piave (river)", "Revúca", "University of Warwick", "Brusilov Offensive", "Two national legislatures", "Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes", "Anti-Serb riots of Sarajevo", "Mattias Corvinus", "Pragmatic Sanction of 1713", "Christian Social Party (Austria)", "Count Leopold Berchtold", "Eastern Catholic Churches", "Nazism", "Bosnia and Herzegovina", "Supreme National Committee", "Abgeordnetenhaus (Austria)", "Western Europe", "Habsburg monarchy", "ethnic violence", "Neolog Judaism", "Franz Joseph I of Austria", "Archduke Leopold Salvator of Austria", "Eastern Front (World War I)", "regent", "gross domestic product", "German question", "Austro-Hungarian entry into World War I", "Dissolution of Austria-Hungary", "Bosnian crisis", "Industrial Revolution", "Czechoslovak Legions", "proto state", "Hutsul Republic", "Republic of German-Austria", "Moravia", "text corpus", "Wiener Börse", "Polish people", "Archduke Friedrich, Duke of Teschen", "Romanians", "Serbia", "Landsturm", "pogroms", "King of Hungary", "Austrian Littoral", "Ukrainian language", "Alexander Izvolsky", "Fordham University Press", "real union", "shtetls", "Bihać", "Duchy of Carinthia", "Zagreb", "House of Habsburg-Lorraine", "Leopoldstadt", "Napoleon III", "Hungarian nobility", "Rudolf IV, Duke of Austria", "Vojvodina", "Italian Empire", "Kingdom of Montenegro", "Subcarpathian Voivodeship", "Eastern Europe", "Talk:Austria-Hungary", "Silesian Voivodeship", "Int$", "Diplomatic history of World War I", "Croatia", "Szeged", "List of Prime Ministers of Hungary", "Plzeň", "Schutzkorps", "Holy Crown of Hungary", "Bosnian language", "Potsdam", "Republic of German Austria", "Charles I of Austria's attempts to retake the throne of Hungary", "Szombathely", "Debrecen", "Battle of Caporetto", "Bosnian Crisis", "Sibiu", "Baranya (region)", "Croatian–Hungarian Settlement", "Treaty of Passarowitz", "Battles of the Isonzo", "South Tyrol", "Gyula Andrássy", "Czechs", "Jagiellonian University", "Wilhelm II, German Emperor", "Triple Entente", "Dubrovnik", "Central Croatia", "province of Belluno", "West Ukrainian People's Republic", "Second Italian War of Independence", "Piave River", "armistice of Villa Giusti", "Međimurje County", "Corfu Declaration", "Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor", "Rijeka", "IEEE", "Ruthenian language", "poverty", "Talk:Austria-Hungary/Archive 6", "succession of states", "Fiume", "Austro-Hungarian florin", "private school", "Great Hungarian Plain", "Herrenhaus (Austria)", "Lesser Poland Voivodeship", "Catholic Church", "Mali Skočaj", "Flags of Austria-Hungary", "Succession of states", "Duchy of Parma and Piacenza", "New Imperialism", "Islam", "Constitutional monarchy", "Hungarian Soviet Republic", "Louis I of Hungary", "Robert Lansing", "sphere of influence", "House of Representatives of Hungary", "Heinrich Lammasch", "Prague", "food industry", "Measures of national income and output", "Budapest", "Aster Revolution", "puppet state", "Italian language", "Royal Italian Army", "Principality of Montenegro", "Bratislava", "Alois Lexa von Aehrenthal", "Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867", "Romania", "Donaudampfschiffahrtsgesellschaft", "Austro-Hungarian Army", "Reviews in History", "Imperial-Royal Landwehr", "Halle an der Saale", "Pest, Hungary", "Horse-drawn tramway", "Lwów", "Habsburg Law", "Peace of Prague (1866)", "Battle of Vittorio Veneto", "Spiš", "Coat of arms of Austria-Hungary", "Hlučín Region", "Nyíregyháza", "Imperial Russian Army", "Bucharest", "Slovenia", "Imperial and Royal", "Istro-Romanian language", "Hungarian Revolution of 1848", "Slovakia", "Sopron", "Serbs", "Polish Legions in World War I", "Revolutions of 1848 in the Austrian Empire", "Corfu", "Iron Gates", "Carso", "Crișana", "populism", "King-Emperor", "telephone exchange", "Timișoara", "Magyarization", "Liechtenstein", "Reinsurance Treaty", "László Szőgyény-Marich Jr.", "ABC-CLIO", "Social equality", "Ukrainian People's Republic", "Latin Church", "István Széchenyi", "Imperial-Royal", "Friuli-Venezia Giulia", "urbanization", "Petrovac (Montenegro)", "Gott erhalte Franz den Kaiser", "materiel", "University of Vienna", "Samu Hazai", "Margraviate of Istria", "Fourteen Points", "Second Battle of the Piave River", "Treaty of San Stefano", "Austrian German", "Macedonian front", "Slovak language", "Austro-Hungarian concession of Tianjin", "Slavic languages", "Congress Poland", "Western Front (World War I)", "Bolshevik Revolution", "Corporative federalism", "Kingdom of Yugoslavia", "English language", "central bank", "Opatija", "Misha Glenny", "assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria", "Martin, Slovakia", "Czechoslovakia", "Dual Alliance (1879)", "Romanian language", "Ministry of Finance (Austria-Hungary)", "Benjamin Disraeli", "Istro-Romanians", "Eduard Wagnes", "Hungarian–Romanian War of 1919", "admiral", "Austro-Hungarian rule in Bosnia and Herzegovina", "Serbian language", "Woodrow Wilson", "Sutomore", "Hungarian language", "Judaism", "Austro-Hungarian krone", "United States of Greater Austria", "Ivo Andrić", "Armistice of 11 November 1918", "Second Industrial Revolution", "Gödöllő", "Luigi Cadorna", "Gavrilo Princip", "Serbian Campaign of World War I", "Austrian Jews", "Danube", "Rhine", "Archduke Joseph August of Austria", "Novi Sad", "Miklós Horthy", "Kingdom of Romania", "Republic of China (1912–1949)", "Bay of Kotor", "Charles I of Austria", "Vienna" ]
2,986	Abracadabra	Abracadabra is a magic word, historically used as an apotropaic incantation on amulets and common today in stage magic. The actual origin is unknown, but one of the first appearances of the word was in a second-century work by Roman physician Serenus Sammonicus. == Etymology == Abracadabra is of unknown origin, and is first attested in a second-century work of Serenus Sammonicus relating to a cure for a fever. Some conjectural etymologies are: from phrases in Hebrew that mean "I will create as I speak", or Aramaic "I create like the word" (), to etymologies that point to similar words in Latin and Greek such as abraxas or to its similarity to the first four letters of the Greek alphabet (alpha-beta-gamma-delta or ΑΒΓΔ). However, "no documentation has been found to support any of the various conjectures". The Aramaic linguist Steve Caruso argues that Abracadabra can neither be Aramaic nor Hebrew, and suggests that the popularisation of the mistaken etymology is a result of an extended discussion on an early internet message board, which credits rabbi Lawrence Kushner with publishing a modern etymology. ==History== The first known mention of the word was in the second century AD in a book called (sometimes known as ) by Serenus Sammonicus, physician to the Roman emperor Caracalla, who in chapter 52 prescribed that malaria sufferers wear an amulet containing Abracadabra written in the form of a triangle. The power of the amulet, he claimed, makes lethal diseases go away. Other Roman emperors, including Geta and Severus Alexander, were followers of the medical teachings of Serenus Sammonicus and may have used the incantation as well. It is found on Abraxas stones, which were worn as amulets. Subsequently, its use spread beyond the Gnostics. To use it, when a person was sick and unhealthy they would wear an amulet around their neck that was made up of a piece of parchment inscribed with a triangular formula derived from this. It was believed that when it was written out this way that it acted like a funnel and drove the sickness out of the body. A Jewish codex from 16th century Italy titled (The Tree of Knowledge) and described as a collection of magical spells contains the word Abracadabra, referring to an amulet. It was described as a "cure from heavens" for "all sorts of fever[s]", consumption, and fire. The Puritan minister Increase Mather dismissed the word as bereft of power. Daniel Defoe wrote dismissively about Londoners who posted the word on their doorways to ward off sickness during the Great Plague of London. In the early 1800s, the word was used as an example of what magicians would say. Abracadabra is now more commonly used in the performance of stage magic as a magic word at the culmination of a trick. Aleister Crowley adapted the word Abracadabra into the word Abrahadabra in The Book of the Law, the central sacred text of Thelema.	[ "Daniel Defoe", "Great Plague of London", "Serenus Sammonicus", "Abraxas", "Increase Mather", "incantation", "Hebrew language", "Severus Alexander", "Caracalla", "Abrahadabra", "Harry Potter", "magic word", "malaria", "Poland", "abraxas", "Lawrence Kushner", "Roman emperor", "Gnosticism", "Oxford University Press", "Italy", "Basilideans", "Aramaic", "physician", "magical formula", "An Encyclopedia of Claims, Frauds, and Hoaxes of the Occult and Supernatural", "National Geographic", "Aleister Crowley", "Robert Todd Carroll", "Apotropaic magic", "The Book of the Law", "Thelema", "Skeptic's Dictionary", "stage magic", "Oxford English Dictionary", "Geta (emperor)", "amulets" ]
2,987	Acts of Union 1707	The Acts of Union refer to two acts of Parliament, one by the Parliament of Scotland in March 1707, followed shortly thereafter by an equivalent act of the Parliament of England. They put into effect the international Treaty of Union agreed on 22 July 1706, which politically joined the Kingdom of England and Kingdom of Scotland into a single "political state", the Kingdom of Great Britain, with Queen Anne as sovereign of both Kingdoms. The English and Scottish acts of ratification took effect on 1 May 1707, creating the new kingdom, with its parliament based in the Palace of Westminster. The two countries had shared a monarch since the "personal" Union of the Crowns in 1603, when James VI of Scotland inherited the English throne from his cousin Elizabeth I to become (in addition) 'James I of England', styled James VI and I. Attempts had been made to try to unite the two separate countries, in 1606, 1667, and in 1689 (following the 1688 Dutch invasion of England, and subsequent deposition of James II of England by his daughter Mary and her husband William of Orange), but it was not until the early 18th century that both nations via separate groups of English and Scots Royal Commissioners and their respective political establishments, "though not the Scots people", came to support the idea of an international "Treaty of political, monetary and trade Union", albeit for different reasons. ==Political background== Prior to 1603, England and Scotland had different monarchs, but when Elizabeth I died without children, she was succeeded as King of England by her distant relative, James VI of Scotland. After her death, the two Crowns were held in personal union by James (reigning as James VI and I), who announced his intention to unite the two realms. The 1603 Union of England and Scotland Act established a joint Commission to agree terms, but Parliament of England was concerned this would lead to an absolutist structure similar to that of Scotland. James was forced to withdraw his proposals, but used the royal prerogative to take the title "King of Great Britain". Attempts to revive the project of union in 1610 were met with hostility. English opponents such as Sir Edwin Sandys argued that changing the name of England "were as to make a conquest of our name, which was more than ever the Dane or Norman could do". Instead, James set about creating a unified Church of Scotland and England, as the first step towards a centralised, Unionist state. However, despite both being nominally Episcopal in structure, the two were very different in doctrine; the Church of Scotland, or kirk, was Calvinist in doctrine, and viewed many Church of England practices as little better than Catholicism. As a result, attempts to impose religious policy by James and his son Charles I ultimately led to the 1639–1651 Wars of the Three Kingdoms. The 1639–1640 Bishops' Wars confirmed the primacy of the Scots kirk, and established a Covenanter government in Scotland. The Scots remained neutral when the First English Civil War began in 1642, before becoming concerned at the impact on Scotland of an English Royalist victory. Presbyterian leaders like Argyll viewed union as a way to ensure free trade between England and Scotland, and preserve a Scots Presbyterian kirk. Under the 1643 Solemn League and Covenant, the Scots Parliament agreed to provide military support to its English counterpart in return for a united Presbyterian church, but did not explicitly commit to political union. As the war progressed, Scots and English Presbyterians increasingly viewed the English Independents, and associated radical groups like the Levellers, as a bigger threat than the Royalists. Both Royalists and Presbyterians agreed monarchy was divinely ordered, but disagreed on the nature and extent of Royal authority over the church. When Charles I surrendered in 1646, an English pro-Royalist faction known as the Engagers allied with their former enemies to restore him to the English throne. After defeat in the 1647–1648 Second English Civil War, Scotland was occupied by English troops, which were withdrawn once those whom Cromwell held responsible had been replaced by the Kirk Party. In December 1648, Pride's Purge paved the way for the Trial of Charles I in England by excluding MPs who opposed it. Following the execution of Charles I in January 1649, and establishment of the Commonwealth of England, the Scots Kirk Party proclaimed Charles II King of Scots and England and, in the 1650 Treaty of Breda, resolved to restore him to the English throne. Instead, defeat in the Anglo-Scottish War resulted in Scotland's incorporation into the Commonwealth in 1653, largely driven by Cromwell's determination to break the power of the Scots kirk. The 1652 Tender of Union was followed on 12 April 1654 by An Ordinance by the Protector for the Union of England and Scotland, creating the Commonwealth of England and Scotland. It was ratified by the Second Protectorate Parliament on 26 June 1657, creating a single Parliament in Westminster, with 30 representatives each from Scotland and Ireland added to the existing English members. ===1660–1707=== While integration into the Commonwealth established free trade between Scotland and England, the economic benefits were diminished by the costs of military occupation. Both Scotland and England associated union with heavy taxes and military rule; it had little popular support in either Country, and the union was dissolved after the Restoration of Charles II in 1660. The Scottish economy was badly damaged by the (protectionist) English Navigation Acts of 1660 and 1663 and England's wars with the Dutch Republic, Scotland's major export market. An Anglo-Scots Trade Commission was set up in January 1668 but the English had no interest in making concessions, as the Scots had little to offer in return. In 1669, Charles II revived talks on "political union"; his motives may have been to weaken Scotland's commercial and political links with the Dutch, still seen as an enemy and complete the work of his grandfather James I and VI. On the Scottish side, the proposed union received parliamentary support, boosted by the desire to ensure free trade. Continued opposition meant these negotiations were abandoned by the end of 1669. Following the 1688 invasion of England by a Dutch fleet and army led by Prince William of Orange and his wife Mary (daughter of James II), and their deposition of James II as King of England, a Scottish Convention of the Estates (a sister body to the Parliament of Scotland) met in Edinburgh in April 1689 to agree a new Constitutional settlement for Scotland. The Convention of the Estates issued an address to William and Mary "as both kingdomes are united in one head and soveraigne so they may become one body pollitick, one nation to be represented in one parliament", reserving "our church government, as it shall be established at the tyme of the union". William and Mary were supportive of the idea but it was opposed both by the Presbyterian majority in Scotland and the English Parliament. Episcopacy in Scotland was abolished in 1690, alienating a significant part of the political class; it was this element that later formed the bedrock of opposition to Union. The 1690s were a time of economic hardship in Europe as a whole and Scotland in particular, a period now known as the Seven ill years which led to strained relations with England. In 1698, the Company of Scotland Trading to Africa and the Indies received a charter to raise capital through public subscription. The Company invested in the Darién scheme, an ambitious plan funded almost entirely by Scottish investors to build a colony on the Isthmus of Panama for trade with East Asia. The scheme was a disaster; the losses of over £150,000 severely impacted the Scottish commercial system. ==Political motivations== The International Treaty, and English and Scots acts of ratification of Union may be seen within a wider European context of increasing state centralisation during the late 17th and early 18th centuries, including the monarchies of France, Sweden, Denmark-Norway and Spain. While there were exceptions, such as the Dutch Republic or the Republic of Venice, the trend was clear. The dangers of the monarch using one parliament against the other first became apparent in 1647 and 1651. It resurfaced during the 1679 to 1681 Exclusion Crisis, caused by English resistance to the Catholic James II (of England, VII of Scots) succeeding his brother Charles II. James was sent to Edinburgh in 1681 as Lord High Commissioner; in August, the Parliament of Scotland passed the Succession Act, confirming the divine right of kings, the rights of the natural heir "regardless of religion", the duty of all to swear allegiance to that king, and the Independence of the Scots Crown. It then went beyond ensuring James's succession to the Scots throne by explicitly stating the aim was to make his exclusion from the English throne impossible without "the fatall and dreadfull consequences of a civil war". The issue reappeared during the 1688 Dutch invasion and (subsequently entitled as "the Glorious Revolution"). The English Convention Parliament generally supported replacing King James II with his Protestant daughter Mary, holding to their "legal fiction" that James, by fleeing to France, had abandoned his English subjects and "abdicated". They resisted, however, making her Dutch husband William of Orange joint ruler. They gave way "fearing the return of James" only when William threatened to take his troops and fleet and return to the Netherlands, and Mary refused to rule without him. In Scotland, it became a Constitutional issue. The fact that James VII of Scots had not been present in the Scotland meant that the question of abdication need not arise. On 4 April 1689 a Convention of the Three Estates of Scotland (sister body to the Parliament of Scotland) declared that James VII "had acted irregularly" by assuming regal power (government) "without ever taking the Coronation Oath required by Scots Law". Thus, he had "FOREFALTED [forfeited] the Right to the Scots Crown, and the Scots Throne is become vacant". This was a fundamental difference; if the Parliament of Scotland could decide James VII had "Forfaulted" his Scots throne by actions having, in the words of the "Claim of Right" act 1689 "Invaded the fundamentall Constitution of the Kingdome and altered it from a legall limited monarchy To ane arbitrary despotick power". "Scots monarchs derived legitimacy from the Convention of the Estates", later declared a Parliament of Scotland, not God, thus ending the principle of divine right of kings. Enshrined in the Union with England Act 1707: Conflict over control of the kirk between Presbyterians and Episcopalians and William's position as a fellow Calvinist put him in a much stronger position. He originally insisted on retaining Episcopacy, and the Committee of the Articles, an unelected body that controlled what legislation Parliament could debate. Both would have given the Crown far greater control than in England but he withdrew his demands due to the 1689–1692 Jacobite Rising. William's attempts to have the Claim of Right amended were directed through the "Court faction" which began arguing from 1699 onwards that: The Convention of the Estates was not a parliament so the act did not really count as binding and the Convention of the Estates was a parliament and so parliament could just rewrite it. A year and a half after William's death, the Parliament of Scotland "put a period on the end of that sentence" by passing an act which recognised the standing of the Convention of the Estates as a parliament in its own right and made it "high treason" to impugn its authority or to so much as suggest attempting to alter the Claim of Right. Here is the Claim of Right understood and upheld for its secular constitutional provisions quite as much as for its religious provisions. === English perspective === The English succession was provided for by the English Act of Settlement 1701, which ensured that the monarch of England would be a Protestant member of the House of Hanover. Until the union of parliaments, the Scottish throne might be inherited by a different successor after Queen Anne, who had said in her first speech to the English parliament that a union was "very necessary". === Scottish perspective === The Scottish economy was severely impacted by privateers during the 1688–1697 Nine Years' War and the 1701 War of the Spanish Succession, with the Royal Navy focusing on protecting English ships. This compounded the economic pressure caused by the Darien scheme, and the seven ill years of the 1690s, when 5–15% of the population died of starvation. The Scottish Parliament was promised financial assistance, protection for its maritime trade, and an end to economic restrictions on trade with England. The votes of the Court party, influenced by Queen Anne's favourite, James Douglas, 2nd Duke of Queensberry, combined with the majority of the Squadrone Volante, were sufficient to ensure passage of the treaty. As for representation going forwards, Scotland was, in the new united parliament, only to get 45 MPs, one more than Cornwall, and only 16 (unelected) peers in the House of Lords. As the seat of the Scottish Parliament, demonstrators in Edinburgh feared the impact of its loss on the local economy. Elsewhere, there was widespread concern about the independence of the kirk, and possible tax rises. As the treaty passed through the Parliament of Scotland, opposition was voiced by petitions from shires, burghs, presbyteries and parishes. The Convention of Royal Burghs claimed: Not one petition in favour of Union was received by Parliament. On the day the treaty was signed, the carillonneur in St Giles Cathedral, Edinburgh, rang the bells to the tune of "Why should I be so sad on my wedding day?" Threats of widespread civil unrest resulted in Parliament imposing martial law. Virtually all of the print discourses of 1699–1706 spoke against incorporating union, creating the conditions for wide spread rejection of the treaty in 1706 and 1707. Country party tracts condemned English influence within the existing framework of the Union of the Crowns and asserted the need to renegotiate this union. During this period, the Darien failure, the succession issue and the Worcester seizure all provided opportunities for Scottish writers to attack the Court Party as unpatriotic and reaffirm the need to fight for true interests of Scotland. The British government did not respond to the invitation and an equal union between Great Britain and Ireland was out of consideration until the 1790s. The union with Ireland finally came about on 1 January 1801. ==Treaty and passage of the 1707 acts== Deeper political integration had been a key policy of Queen Anne from the time she acceded to the throne in 1702. Under the aegis of the Queen and her ministers in both kingdoms, the parliaments of England and Scotland (the ) agreed to participate in fresh negotiations for a union treaty in 1705. Both countries appointed 31 commissioners to conduct the negotiations. Most of the Scottish commissioners favoured union, and about half were government ministers and other officials. At the head of the list was the Duke of Queensberry, and the Lord Chancellor of Scotland, the Earl of Seafield. The English commissioners included the Lord High Treasurer, Sidney Godolphin, 1st Earl of Godolphin, the Lord Keeper of the Great Seal, William Cowper, Baron Cowper, and a large number of Whigs who supported union. Tories were not in favour of union and only one was represented among the commissioners. England had gained a guarantee that the Hanoverian dynasty would succeed Queen Anne to the Scottish crown, and Scotland received a guarantee of access to colonial markets, in the hope that they would be placed on an equal footing in terms of trade. After negotiations ended in July 1706, the acts had to be ratified by both Parliaments. In Scotland, about 100 of the 227 members of the Parliament of Scotland were supportive of the Court Party. For extra votes the pro-court side could rely on about 25 members of the Squadrone Volante, led by the James Graham, 4th Marquess of Montrose and John Ker, 1st Duke of Roxburghe. Opponents of the court were generally known as the Country party, and included various factions and individuals such as the James Hamilton, 4th Duke of Hamilton, John Hamilton, Lord Belhaven and Andrew Fletcher of Saltoun, who spoke forcefully and passionately against the union, when the Scottish Parliament began its debate on the act on 3 October 1706, but the deal had already been done. The act ratifying the Treaty of Union was finally carried in the Parliament of Scotland by 110 votes to 69 on 16 January 1707, with a number of key amendments. News of the ratification and of the amendments was received in Westminster, where the Act was passed quickly through both Houses and received the royal assent on 6 March. Though the English Act was later in date, it bore the year '1706' while Scotland's was '1707', as the legal year in England began only on 25 March. In Scotland, the Duke of Queensberry was largely responsible for the successful passage of the Union act by the Parliament of Scotland. In Scotland, he was greeted by stones and eggs but in England he was cheered for his action. A day of thanksgiving was declared in England and Ireland but not in Scotland, where the bells of St Giles rang out the tune of "why should I be so sad on my wedding day". ==Provisions== The Treaty of Union, agreed between representatives of the Parliament of England and the Parliament of Scotland in 1706, consisted of 25 articles, 15 of which were economic in nature. In Scotland, each article was voted on separately and several clauses in articles were delegated to specialised subcommittees. Article 1 of the treaty was based on the political principle of an incorporating union and this was secured by a majority of 116 votes to 83 on 4 November 1706. To minimise the opposition of the Church of Scotland, an Act was also passed to secure the Presbyterian establishment of the Church, after which the Church stopped its open opposition, although hostility remained at lower levels of the clergy. The treaty as a whole was finally ratified on 16 January 1707 by a majority of 110 votes to 69. The two Acts incorporated provisions for Scotland to send representative peers from the Peerage of Scotland to sit in the House of Lords. It guaranteed that the Church of Scotland would remain the established church in Scotland, that the Court of Session would "remain in all time coming within Scotland", and that Scots law would "remain in the same force as before". Other provisions included the restatement of the Act of Settlement 1701 and the ban on Roman Catholics from taking the throne. It also created a customs union and monetary union. The Act provided that any "laws and statutes" that were "contrary to or inconsistent with the terms" of the Act would "cease and become void". ===Related acts=== The Scottish Parliament also passed the Protestant Religion and Presbyterian Church Act 1707 guaranteeing the status of the Presbyterian Church of Scotland. The English Parliament passed a similar Act, 6 Ann. c. 8. Soon after the Union, the Act 6 Ann. c. 40later named the Union with Scotland (Amendment) Act 1707united the Privy Council of England and Privy Council of Scotland and decentralised Scottish administration by appointing justices of the peace in each shire to carry out administration. In effect it took the day-to-day government of Scotland out of the hands of politicians and into those of the College of Justice. On 18 December 1707 the Act for better Securing the Duties of East India Goods was passed which extended the monopoly of the East India Company to Scotland. In the year following the Union, the Treason Act 1708 abolished the Scottish law of treason and extended the corresponding English law across Great Britain. == Evaluations == Scotland benefited, says historian G.N. Clark, gaining "freedom of trade with England and the colonies" as well as "a great expansion of markets". The agreement guaranteed the permanent status of the Presbyterian church in Scotland, and the separate system of laws and courts in Scotland. Clark argued that in exchange for the financial benefits and bribes that England bestowed, what it gained was of inestimable value. Scotland accepted the Hanoverian succession and gave up her power of threatening England's military security and complicating her commercial relations ... The sweeping successes of the eighteenth-century wars owed much to the new unity of the two nations. By the time Samuel Johnson and James Boswell made their tour in 1773, recorded in A Journey to the Western Islands of Scotland, Johnson noted that Scotland was "a nation of which the commerce is hourly extending, and the wealth increasing" and in particular that Glasgow had become one of the greatest cities of Britain. == Economic perspective == According to the Scottish historian Christopher Smout, prior to the Union of the Crowns the Scottish economy had been flourishing completely independently of the English one, with little to no interaction between each other. Developing a closer economic partnership with England was unsustainable, and Scotland's main trade partner was continental Europe, especially the Netherlands, where Scotland could trade its wool and fish for luxurious imports such as iron, spices or wine. Scotland and England were generally hostile to each other and were often at war, and the alliance with France gave Scotland privileges that further encouraged developing cultural and economic ties with the continent rather than England. The union of 1603 only served the political and dynastic ambitions of King James and was detrimental to Scotland economically – exports that Scotland offered were largely irrelevant to English economy, and while the Privy Council of Scotland did keep its ability to manage internal economic policy, the foreign policy of Scotland was now in English hands. This limited Scotland's hitherto expansive trade with continental Europe, and forced it into English wars. While the Scottish economy already suffered because of English wars with France and Spain in the 1620s, the civil wars in England had a particularly disastrous effect on Scotland and left it relatively impoverished as a result. The economy would slowly recover afterwards, but at the cost of being increasingly dependent on trade with England. A power struggle developed between Scotland and England in the 1680s, as Scotland recovered from the political turmoil and set on its own economic ambitions, which London considered a threat to its dominant and well-established position. English wars with continental powers undermined Scottish trade with France and the Netherlands, countries that used to be the Scotland's main trade partners before the union, and the English Navigation Acts severely limited Scottish ability to trade by sea, and made the Scottish ambitions to expand the trade beyond Europe unachievable. Opinion in Scotland at the time was that England was sabotaging Scottish economic expansion. Scotland grew increasingly dependent on its linen industry, which became the biggest source of employment after agriculture and constituted one-third of Scottish industry. Continental linen industries could outcompete Scotland, and protectionist tariffs implemented by Scotland led to tariff wars as European countries closed their markets to Scotland. In this situation, England became the largest foreign market for Scottish linen; however, while the tariffs in place shielded Scotland from the much larger English industry, England also retaliated against them. This forced Scotland to seek economic alternatives. In what was dubbed the "affair of Hamburgh" in Scotland, William III of England persuaded European powers against buying stocks in the scheme; William commented on Darien: English actions against the Darien scheme were also motivated by other factors – the decline in the East India Company's stock values, concerns of Darien causing a labour shortage in the Colony of Jamaica, and the scheme being seen as a threat to "the general peace of Christendom", as Catholic Spain laid a territorial claim to the area. In the first few decades after the union, England did not end up becoming the main trading partner of Scotland, as other European powers became the primary source of imported goods for Scotland. For at least the first 40 years after the union, Scotland persisted in its traditional trade patterns, and the economic situation of Scotland was not as dire as that described in the months leading up to the Acts of Union. == 300th anniversary == A commemorative two-pound coin was issued to mark the tercentennial—300th anniversary—of the Union, which occurred two days before the Scottish Parliament general election on 3 May 2007. The Scottish Government held a number of commemorative events through the year including an education project led by the Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland, an exhibition of Union-related objects and documents at the National Museums of Scotland and an exhibition of portraits of people associated with the Union at the National Galleries of Scotland. == Scottish voting records ==	[ "Patrick Lyon of Auchterhouse", "Ayrshire (Parliament of Scotland constituency)", "Protestant Religion and Presbyterian Church Act 1707", "John Fleming, 6th Earl of Wigtown", "George Mackenzie, 1st Earl of Cromartie", "Company of Scotland", "Levellers", "Anglo-Scottish war (1650–1652)", "George Clark (historian)", "Privy Council of Scotland", "Acts of Union 1800", "Sir Thomas Burnett, 3rd Baronet", "Treason Act 1708", "Peebles (Parliament of Scotland constituency)", "Isthmus of Panama", "List of treaties", "John Erskine, Earl of Mar (1675–1732)", "royal prerogative in the United Kingdom", "Kingdom of France", "Darién scheme", "Aberdeenshire (Parliament of Scotland constituency)", "James VI and I", "George Lockhart (politician)", "Kingdom of Great Britain", "Republic of Venice", "Anglo-Dutch Wars", "Fortrose (Parliament of Scotland constituency)", "Kilrenny (Parliament of Scotland constituency)", "John Elphinstone, 4th Lord Balmerino", "Robert Rollo, 4th Lord Rollo", "Peerage of Scotland", "Church of Scotland", "Trial of Charles I", "Rutherglen (Parliament of Scotland constituency)", "National Museums of Scotland", "John Hamilton, 2nd Lord Belhaven and Stenton", "Alexander Douglas of Eagleshay", "Act of Security 1704", "Whithorn (Parliament of Scotland constituency)", "33 Geo. 3", "Unionism in Scotland", "Treaty of Breda (1650)", "Nine Years' War", "Dunbar (Parliament of Scotland constituency)", "Robert Rollo of Powhouse", "William Livingston, 3rd Viscount of Kilsyth", "Wick (Parliament of Scotland constituency)", "Annan (Parliament of Scotland constituency)", "privateer", "Second Protectorate Parliament", "Mary II of England", "Anne, Queen of Great Britain", "Sir Humphray Colquhoun of Luss", "Lochmaben (Parliament of Scotland constituency)", "Hew Dalrymple, Lord North Berwick", "College of Justice", "Charles II of England", "James Graham, 1st Duke of Montrose", "Major Henry Balfour of Dunboog", "Parliament of Ireland", "David Erskine, 9th Earl of Buchan", "Estates of the realm", "The Equivalent", "Lord High Treasurer", "Sir William Seton, 2nd Baronet", "Lord High Commissioner to the Parliament of Scotland", "Darien scheme", "two-pound coin", "Archibald Douglas, 1st Earl of Forfar", "Daniel Campbell (died 1753)", "Kirkcudbrightshire (Parliament of Scotland constituency)", "Hon. Alexander Maitland", "St Giles Cathedral", "Thomas Green (captain)", "personal union", "Scottish independence", "Stirlingshire (Parliament of Scotland constituency)", "Francis Sempill, 10th Lord Sempill", "Alexander Abercromby (Scottish politician, born 1678)", "Seven ill years", "Denmark-Norway", "Weights and Measures Act 1878", "Convention Parliament (1689)", "George Ogilvy, 3rd Lord Banff", "Calvinism", "Lord President of the Council of Scotland", "Sir William Kerr, 3rd Baronet", "Anstruther Easter (Parliament of Scotland constituency)", "Scots law", "Wars of the Three Kingdoms", "Andrew Fletcher of Saltoun", "Queen's Commissioner in Parliament", "Lord Colvill", "Parliament of Great Britain", "Lord Bargany", "William III of England", "Kingdom of Scotland", "Sir Hugh Cathcart of Carletoun", "House of Hanover", "James Douglas, 2nd Duke of Queensberry", "Lord Fraser", "Sidney Godolphin, 1st Earl of Godolphin", "Nairnshire (Parliament of Scotland constituency)", "Brechin (Parliament of Scotland constituency)", "Church of England", "Act Anent Peace and War", "6 Ann.", "Presbyterian", "Fife (Parliament of Scotland constituency)", "Cullen (Parliament of Scotland constituency)", "John Brisbane, younger, of Bishoptoun", "Declaration of Arbroath", "Kirkwall (Parliament of Scotland constituency)", "William Maxwell of Cardines", "MacCormick v Lord Advocate", "National Galleries of Scotland", "William Fraser, 12th Lord Saltoun", "Second English Civil War", "Sir Robert Pollock, 1st Baronet", "John Murray, Lord Bowhill", "Alexander Sinclair, 9th Earl of Caithness", "New Galloway (Parliament of Scotland constituency)", "Jedburgh (Parliament of Scotland constituency)", "Earl of Kinnoull", "Archibald Douglas, 13th of Cavers", "Kintore (Parliament of Scotland constituency)", "Montgomery-Cuninghame baronets", "Earl of Morton", "Edwin Sandys (1561–1629)", "Irish Appeals Act 1783", "John Forbes of Colloden", "John Murray, 1st Duke of Atholl", "Tain (Parliament of Scotland constituency)", "Perth (Parliament of Scotland constituency)", "John Clerk of Eldin", "Andrew Fletcher (politician)", "Parliament of Scotland", "Linlithgow (Parliament of Scotland constituency)", "Navigation Acts", "Scottish thistle", "Charles Oliphant, 7th Lord Oliphant", "Kincardineshire (Parliament of Scotland constituency)", "George Baillie (MP, born 1664)", "Lord Keeper of the Great Seal", "Glorious Revolution", "Dumbarton (Parliament of Scotland constituency)", "English Independents", "Convention of the Estates of Scotland", "Arbroath (Parliament of Scotland constituency)", "Archibald Campbell, 1st Marquess of Argyll", "2007 Scottish Parliament election", "James Ogilvy, 4th Earl of Findlater", "Parliament of England", "William Cowper, 1st Earl Cowper", "Lord Forbes", "Jacobitism", "established church", "First English Civil War", "David Wemyss, 4th Earl of Wemyss", "John Stewart (died 1748)", "execution of Charles I", "Inverurie (Parliament of Scotland constituency)", "Convention of Royal Burghs", "A Tour thro' the Whole Island of Great Britain", "John Gordon, 16th Earl of Sutherland", "Darien Disaster", "Lanark (Parliament of Scotland constituency)", "Bank of Scotland", "High treason in the United Kingdom", "John Hay, 2nd Marquess of Tweeddale", "Ayr (Parliament of Scotland constituency)", "William Mackenzie, 5th Earl of Seaforth", "James Stewart, 5th Earl of Galloway", "Glasgow (Parliament of Scotland constituency)", "customs union", "John Ker, 1st Duke of Roxburghe", "William Ross, 12th Lord Ross", "Tudor rose", "Chipping Barnet", "Walter Stuart, 6th Lord Blantyre", "Elizabeth I", "North Berwick (Parliament of Scotland constituency)", "John Maitland, 5th Earl of Lauderdale", "Gulf of Darién", "Berwickshire (Parliament of Scotland constituency)", "Union of the Crowns", "Exchequer Court (Scotland) Act 1707", "Alexander Gordon of Pitlurg", "Scotland Act 1998", "Banff (Parliament of Scotland constituency)", "Act of Settlement 1701", "Sir John Houstoun, 2nd Baronet", "George Allardice", "James Boswell", "Sir John Clerk, 2nd Baronet", "Lord Duffus", "Court of Session", "Inverness-shire (Parliament of Scotland constituency)", "John Campbell, 2nd Duke of Argyll", "David Leslie, 3rd Earl of Leven", "Inveraray (Parliament of Scotland constituency)", "James Hamilton, 4th Duke of Hamilton", "6 Ann. (GB)", "Episcopal polity", "Patrick Hume, 1st Earl of Marchmont", "John Lauder, Lord Fountainhall", "Lord Clerk Register", "David Carnegie, 4th Earl of Northesk", "Treaty of Union", "Sinclair baronets", "William Morison (1663–1739)", "John Cockburn (Scottish politician)", "carillonneur", "Union with Scotland (Amendment) Act 1707", "James Scott (1671–1732)", "Sir John Anstruther, 1st Baronet, of Anstruther", "Hon. John Campbell (c. 1660 – 9 Apr 1729)", "James Carnegie (died 1707)", "Interpretation Act 1978", "Earl of Glencairn", "Haddingtonshire (Parliament of Scotland constituency)", "Union of England and Scotland Act 1603", "Alien Act 1705", "Acts of Parliament (Commencement) Act 1793", "English Restoration", "Adam Cockburn, Lord Ormiston", "Cockpit-in-Court", "James Murray, Lord Philiphaugh", "Edinburghshire (Parliament of Scotland constituency)", "Netherlands", "Christopher Smout", "William Kerr, 2nd Marquess of Lothian", "David Graham, younger, of Fintrie", "Kensington Palace", "short title", "Culross (Parliament of Scotland constituency)", "Thomas Hamilton, 6th Earl of Haddington", "Covenanters", "Selkirkshire (Parliament of Scotland constituency)", "absolute monarchy", "Tom Devine", "Exclusion Crisis", "Samuel Johnson", "Calendar (New Style) Act 1750", "Statute Law Revision Act 1948", "Episcopalians", "Linlithgowshire (Parliament of Scotland constituency)", "Political union", "Kirk Party", "Scottish representative peers", "Pride's Purge", "Charles Hay, 13th Earl of Erroll", "Wigtownshire (Parliament of Scotland constituency)", "Sir John Bruce, 2nd Baronet", "Argyllshire (Parliament of Scotland constituency)", "Dunfermline (Parliament of Scotland constituency)", "martial law", "House of Lords", "Auld Alliance", "acts of Parliament", "William Keith, 9th Earl Marischal", "Sir Robert Inglis, 2nd Baronet", "Mary II", "Daniel Defoe", "English Civil War", "Elginshire (Parliament of Scotland constituency)", "Sir David Dalrymple, 1st Baronet", "Innes baronets", "Statute Law Revision (Scotland) Act 1906", "Dornoch (Parliament of Scotland constituency)", "Squadrone Volante (Scotland)", "John Hamilton-Leslie, 9th Earl of Rothes", "James Sinclair of Stempster", "Short Titles Act 1896", "William Ferguson (historian)", "David Bethun of Balfour", "Andrew Carrick Gow", "Dundee (Parliament of Scotland constituency)", "Lanarkshire (Parliament of Scotland constituency)", "Presbyterianism", "Sir John Johnstone, 1st Baronet", "Peerage of England", "Hamburg", "Real union", "Cromartyshire (Parliament of Scotland constituency)", "Roxburghshire (Parliament of Scotland constituency)", "Promissory Oaths Act 1871", "English independence", "Mr William Cochrane of Kilmaronock", "Sir James Campbell, 2nd Baronet, of Ardkinglass", "East India Company", "Colin Lindsay, 3rd Earl of Balcarres", "Dingwall (Parliament of Scotland constituency)", "Ross-shire (Parliament of Scotland constituency)", "Charles I of England", "Edinburgh (Parliament of Scotland constituency)", "Statute Law Revision Act 1867", "Glasgow", "Kingdom of Ireland", "Mr Thomas Hope of Rankeillor", "Alexander McKye of Palgown", "Lord Justice Clerk", "List of deposed politicians", "Renfrewshire (Parliament of Scotland constituency)", "Dutch Republic", "Committee of the Articles", "Banffshire (Parliament of Scotland constituency)", "John Sinclair, younger, of Stevensone", "Inverbervie (Parliament of Scotland constituency)", "Charles Campbell (member for Campbeltown)", "Kinross-shire (Parliament of Scotland constituency)", "Earl of Dalhousie", "Statute Law Revision (Scotland) Act 1964", "William Bennet (Scottish politician)", "Welsh independence", "Mr Alexander Fergusson of Isle", "Three Estates of Scotland", "Lord Chancellor of Scotland", "Caithness (Parliament of Scotland constituency)", "Haddington (Parliament of Scotland constituency)", "Archibald Campbell, 3rd Duke of Argyll", "James Sandilands, 7th Lord Torphichen", "Colony of Jamaica", "Kingdom of England", "Buteshire (Parliament of Scotland constituency)", "Forfarshire (Parliament of Scotland constituency)", "Robert Burns", "Patrick Moncreiff", "Lord Elphinstone", "Swedish Empire", "coup d'etat", "Lauder (Parliament of Scotland constituency)", "Glencoe Massacre", "Peeblesshire (Parliament of Scotland constituency)", "Gilbert Elliot (1680–1764)", "James Hamilton, 6th Earl of Abercorn", "Peerage Act 1963", "William Johnstone, 1st Marquess of Annandale", "Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland", "seven ill years", "Henry Scott, 1st Earl of Deloraine", "Campbeltown (Parliament of Scotland constituency)", "Forres (Parliament of Scotland constituency)", "Campbell of Auchinbreck", "Statute Law (Repeals) Act 1973", "Criminal Justice Act 1948", "Privy Council of England", "Lady Day", "Scottish Government", "Forfar (Parliament of Scotland constituency)", "David Boyle, 1st Earl of Glasgow", "Hon. Francis Montgomerie", "Roman Catholicism", "David Murray, 5th Viscount of Stormont", "Commonwealth of England", "Court Party", "William Bayllie of Lamingtoun", "Inverkeithing (Parliament of Scotland constituency)", "Lord Kinnaird", "Tender of Union", "Mr George McKenzie of Inchcoulter", "Parliament of the United Kingdom", "Archibald Primrose, 1st Earl of Rosebery", "History of Spain (1700-1808)", "James VI of Scotland", "Royal Navy", "Elgin (Parliament of Scotland constituency)", "Queensferry (Parliament of Scotland constituency)", "Speaker of the House of Commons (United Kingdom)", "Engagers", "Stranraer (Parliament of Scotland constituency)", "Perthshire (Parliament of Scotland constituency)", "William Boyd, 3rd Earl of Kilmarnock", "Alexander Grant (died 1719)", "Dumfriesshire (Parliament of Scotland constituency)", "Godfrey Kneller", "Hugh Montgomerie (Scottish politician)", "Selkirk (Parliament of Scotland constituency)", "John Purser (musician)", "Bishops' Wars", "War of the Spanish Succession", "William Dalrymple (politician, born 1678)", "Kinghorn (Parliament of Scotland constituency)", "John Keith, 1st Earl of Kintore", "Lord Elibank", "Solemn League and Covenant", "Palace of Westminster", "A Journey to the Western Islands of Scotland", "Country Party (Britain)", "Montrose (Parliament of Scotland constituency)", "Jacobite rising of 1689", "James II of England", "Act for better Securing the Duties of East India Goods", "Christopher Whatley", "Thomas Sharp of Houstoun", "Sir Patrick Home of Rentoun", "Sophia of Hanover", "Covenanter", "Kirkcudbright (Parliament of Scotland constituency)", "Dumbartonshire (Parliament of Scotland constituency)", "Mr Robert Forbes of Learnie", "monetary union", "Orkney and Shetland (Parliament of Scotland constituency)", "Charles Hope, 1st Earl of Hopetoun", "James Hamilton of Aikenhead" ]
2,988	Admiralty (United Kingdom)	The Admiralty was a department of the Government of the United Kingdom responsible for the command of the Royal Navy until 1964, historically under its titular head, the Lord High Admiral – one of the Great Officers of State. For much of its history, from the early 18th century until its abolition, the role of the Lord High Admiral was almost invariably put "in commission" and exercised by the Lords Commissioner of the Admiralty, who sat on the governing Board of Admiralty, rather than by a single person. The Admiralty was replaced by the Admiralty Board in 1964, as part of the reforms that created the Ministry of Defence and its Navy Department (later Navy Command). Before the Acts of Union 1707, the Office of the Admiralty and Marine Affairs administered the Royal Navy of the Kingdom of England, which merged with the Royal Scots Navy and then absorbed the responsibilities of the Lord High Admiral of the Kingdom of Scotland with the unification of the Kingdom of Great Britain. The Admiralty was among the most important departments of the British Government, because of the Royal Navy's role in the expansion and maintenance of the English overseas possessions in the 17th century, the British Empire in the 18th century, and subsequently. The modern Admiralty Board, to which the functions of the Admiralty were transferred in 1964, is a committee of the tri-service Defence Council of the United Kingdom. This Admiralty Board meets only twice a year, and the day-to-day running of the Royal Navy is controlled by a Navy Board (not to be confused with the historic Navy Board). It is common for the various authorities now in charge of the Royal Navy to be referred to as simply 'The Admiralty'. The title of Lord High Admiral of the United Kingdom was vested in the monarch from 1964 to 2011. The title was awarded to Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh by Queen Elizabeth II on his 90th birthday and since his death in 2021 has reverted to the monarch. There also continues to be a Vice-Admiral of the United Kingdom and a Rear-Admiral of the United Kingdom, both of which are honorary offices. ==History== The office of Admiral of England (later Lord Admiral, and later Lord High Admiral) was created around 1400; there had previously been Admirals of the northern and western seas. King Henry VIII established the Council of the Marine—later to become the Navy Board—in 1546, to oversee administrative affairs of the naval service. Operational control of the Royal Navy remained the responsibility of the Lord High Admiral, who was one of the nine Great Officers of State. This management approach would continue in force in the Royal Navy until 1832. King Charles I put the office of Lord High Admiral into commission in 1628, and control of the Royal Navy passed to a committee in the form of the Board of Admiralty. The office of Lord High Admiral passed a number of times in and out of commission until 1709, after which the office was almost permanently in commission (the last Lord High Admiral being the future King William IV in the early 19th century). Following this, a new advisory body called the Admiralty War Staff was then instituted in 1912, headed by the Chief of the War Staff who was responsible for administering three new sub-divisions responsible for operations, intelligence and mobilisation. The new War Staff had hardly found its feet and it continually struggled with the opposition to its existence by senior officers they were categorically opposed to a staff. The deficiencies of the system within this department of state could be seen in the conduct of the Dardanelles campaign. There were no mechanisms in place to answer the big strategic questions. A Trade Division was created in 1914. Sir John Jellicoe came to the Admiralty in 1916. He re-organized the war staff as following: Chief of War Staff, Operations, Intelligence, Signal Section, Mobilisation, Trade. It was not until 1917 that the admiralty department was again properly reorganized and began to function as a professional military staff. In May 1917, the term "Admiralty War Staff" was renamed and that department and its functional role were superseded by a new "Admiralty Naval Staff"; in addition, the newly created office of Chief of the Naval Staff was merged in the office of the First Sea Lord. Also appointed was a new post, that of Deputy Chief of the Naval Staff, and an Assistant Chief of the Naval Staff; all were given seats on the Board of Admiralty. This for the first time gave the naval staff direct representation on the board; the presence of three senior naval senior members on the board ensured the necessary authority to carry through any operation of war. The Deputy Chief of Naval Staff would direct all operations and movements of the fleet, while the Assistant Chief of Naval Staff would be responsible for mercantile movements and anti-submarine operations. ==Organizational structure== In the 20th century the structure of the Admiralty Headquarters was predominantly organized into four parts: The Board of Admiralty, which directs and controls the whole machine chaired by a civilian government minister the First Lord of the Admiralty. His chief military adviser was the First Sea Lord and Chief of Naval Staff as the Senior Naval Lord to the board. Offices of the Naval Staff Office of Deputy Chief of the Naval Staff. }}	[ "Navy Board (1964–present)", "Admiralty Record Office", "Admiralty in the 18th century", "Survey of London", "Naval tactics in the Age of Steam", "Admiralty and Marine Affairs Office", "Treasurer of the Navy", "Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh", "The Times", "Mobilisation Division (Royal Navy)", "Signal Division (Royal Navy)", "Civil Lord of the Admiralty (Royal Navy)", "Admiralty Board (United Kingdom)", "Admiralty Navy War Council", "Rear-Admiral of the United Kingdom", "St Boniface's Catholic College", "Admiralty buildings", "account (accountancy)", "Admiral of the North", "Admiralty War Staff", "Admiralty Naval Staff", "Admiralty Peak", "Naval warfare", "Permanent Secretary to the Admiralty", "Comptroller of the Navy (Navy Board)", "Henry VIII of England", "Acts of Union 1707", "Air Ministry", "Navy Office (Royal Navy)", "Shipbuilding", "Clerk of the Acts", "C. I. Hamilton", "William IV of the United Kingdom", "department of state", "Permanent Secretary of the Admiralty", "Queen Elizabeth II", "Kingdom of Great Britain", "Kingdom of England", "First Sea Lord and Chief of Naval Staff", "Navy Command (Ministry of Defence)", "His Majesty's Naval Service", "List of first lords of the Admiralty", "English overseas possessions", "Admiralty Inlet", "Lords Commissioner of the Admiralty", "History of the Royal Navy (before 1707)", "Operations Division", "Monarchy of the United Kingdom", "Secretary of State for Defence", "Sir John Barrow, 1st Baronet", "Vice-Admiral of the United Kingdom", "Additional Civil Lord of the Admiralty", "Admiral of the West", "Departments of the Government of the United Kingdom", "Whitehall", "Cabinet of the United Kingdom", "Royal Scots Navy", "Surveyor of the Navy", "Government of the United Kingdom", "List of lords commissioners of the Admiralty", "Royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom", "Admiralty chart", "Admiralty administration", "Vice Chief of the Naval Staff (United Kingdom)", "Naval Intelligence Division (United Kingdom)", "Navy Board", "Board of Admiralty", "finance", "Civil Service (United Kingdom)", "Air Force Board", "Great Officers of State", "Third Sea Lord", "Christopher Lloyd (naval historian)", "Royal Navy", "Navy Records Society", "Fourth Sea Lord", "N.A.M. Rodger", "Navy Department (Ministry of Defence)", "Lord Commissioner of the Admiralty", "London", "List of fleets and major commands of the Royal Navy", "United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland", "Army Board", "Defence Council of the United Kingdom", "Oswyn Murray (civil servant)", "First Lord of the Admiralty", "British Government", "the Crown", "Lord High Admiral of Scotland", "N. A. M. Rodger", "Admiralty Secretariat", "Department of the Permanent Secretary (Royal Navy)", "Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom)", "Second Sea Lord", "Fifth Sea Lord", "Deputy First Sea Lord", "quorum", "admiral", "Dardanelles campaign", "Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty", "Deputy Chief of the Naval Staff (United Kingdom)", "British Empire", "Staff (military)", "Assistant Chief of the Naval Staff (United Kingdom)", "Kingdom of Scotland", "Charles I of England", "Sir James Graham, 2nd Baronet", "War Office", "Kipling", "Daniel A. Baugh", "order in Council", "First Sea Lord", "Parliamentary and Financial Secretary to the Admiralty", "Trade Division (Royal Navy)", "John Ehrman", "Sir John Jellicoe", "Admiralty in the 17th century", "Lord High Admiral of the United Kingdom", "Military operation", "Naval Secretary" ]
2,991	Amphibian (disambiguation)	An amphibian is a member of the class Amphibia of ectothermic, tetrapod vertebrates Amphibian may also refer to: Amphibian (comics), two superheroes from Marvel Comics "Amphibian" (song), by Björk Amphibious vehicle, a vehicle that can operate on water or land Amphibious aircraft, an aircraft for land, air, and sea Loening OL or Loening Amphibian, an amphibious biplane built for the US Army Air Corps and Navy Mark IV Amphibian, a type of World War II period British rebreather	[ "Mark IV Amphibian", "Amphibian (song)", "Loening OL", "Amphibia (disambiguation)", "Amphibious (disambiguation)", "Amphibious vehicle", "Amphibious aircraft", "amphibian", "Amphibian (comics)" ]
2,992	Amputation	Amputation is the removal of a limb or other body part by trauma, medical illness, or surgery. As a surgical measure, it is used to control pain or a disease process in the affected limb, such as malignancy or gangrene. In some cases, it is carried out on individuals as a preventive surgery for such problems. A special case is that of congenital amputation, a congenital disorder, where fetal limbs have been cut off by constrictive bands. In some countries, judicial amputation is currently used to punish people who commit crimes. Amputation has also been used as a tactic in war and acts of terrorism; it may also occur as a war injury. In some cultures and religions, minor amputations or mutilations are considered a ritual accomplishment. When done by a person, the person executing the amputation is an amputator. The oldest evidence of this practice comes from a skeleton found buried in Liang Tebo cave, East Kalimantan, Indonesian Borneo dating back to at least 31,000 years ago, where it was done when the amputee was a young child. A prosthesis or a bioelectric replantation restores sensation of the amputated limb. ==Types== === Leg === Lower limb amputations can be divided into two broad categories: minor and major amputations. Minor amputations generally refer to the amputation of digits. Major amputations are commonly below-knee- or above-knee amputations. Common partial foot amputations include the Chopart, Lisfranc, and ray amputations. Common forms of ankle disarticulations include Pyrogoff, Boyd, and Syme amputations. A less common major amputation is the Van Nes rotation, or rotationplasty, i.e. the turning around and reattachment of the foot to allow the ankle joint to take over the function of the knee. Types of amputations include: partial foot amputation: amputation of the lower limb distal to the ankle joint ankle disarticulation: amputation of the lower limb at the ankle joint trans-tibial amputation: amputation of the lower limb between the knee joint and the ankle joint, commonly referred to as a below-knee amputation knee disarticulation: amputation of the lower limb at the knee joint trans-femoral amputation: amputation of the lower limb between the hip joint and the knee joint, commonly referred to an above-knee amputation hip disarticulation: amputation of the lower limb at the hip joint trans-pelvic disarticulation: amputation of the whole lower limb together with all or part of the pelvis, also known as a hemipelvectomy or hindquarter amputation ===Arm=== Types of upper extremity amputations include: partial hand amputation wrist disarticulation trans-radial amputation, commonly referred to as below-elbow or forearm amputation elbow disarticulation trans-humeral amputation, commonly referred to as above-elbow amputation shoulder disarticulation forequarter amputation A variant of the trans-radial amputation is the Krukenberg procedure in which the radius and ulna are used to create a stump capable of a pincer action. ===Other=== Facial amputations include but are not limited to: amputation of the ears amputation of the nose (rhinotomy) amputation of the tongue (glossectomy) amputation of the eyes (enucleation) amputation of the teeth (Dental evulsion). Removal of teeth, mainly incisors, is or was practiced by some cultures for ritual purposes (for instance in the Iberomaurusian culture of Neolithic North Africa). Breasts: amputation of the breasts (mastectomy) Genitals: amputation of the testicles (castration) amputation of the penis (penectomy) amputation of the foreskin (circumcision) amputation of the clitoris (clitoridectomy) amputation of the vulva (vulvectomy) Radicals: Amputation of the waist (hemicorporectomy) Amputation of the head (decapitation) Genital modification and mutilation may involve amputating tissue, although not necessarily as a result of injury or disease. Laryngectomy is the amputation of the larynx. ===Self-amputation=== In some rare cases when a person has become trapped in a deserted place, with no means of communication or hope of rescue, the victim has amputated their own limb. The most notable case of this is Aron Ralston, a hiker who amputated his own right forearm after it was pinned by a boulder in a hiking accident and he was unable to free himself for over five days. Body integrity identity disorder is a psychological condition in which an individual feels compelled to remove one or more of their body parts, usually a limb. In some cases, that individual may take drastic measures to remove the offending appendages, either by causing irreparable damage to the limb so that medical intervention cannot save the limb, or by causing the limb to be severed. ===Urgent=== In surgery, a guillotine amputation is an amputation performed without closure of the skin in an urgent setting. Typical indications include catastrophic trauma or infection control in the setting of infected gangrene. ===Neoplasm=== Cancerous bone or soft tissue tumors (e.g. osteosarcoma, chondrosarcoma, fibrosarcoma, epithelioid sarcoma, Ewing's sarcoma, synovial sarcoma, sacrococcygeal teratoma, liposarcoma), melanoma ===Trauma=== Severe limb injuries in which the efforts to save the limb fail or the limb cannot be saved. Traumatic amputation (an unexpected amputation that occurs at the scene of an accident, where the limb is partially or entirely severed as a direct result of the accident, for example, a finger that is severed from the blade of a table saw) Amputation in utero (Amniotic band) ===Congenital anomalies=== Deformities of digits and/or limbs (e.g., proximal femoral focal deficiency, Fibular hemimelia) Extra digits and/or limbs (e.g., polydactyly) ===Infection=== === Frostbite === Frostbite is a cold-related injury occurring when an area (typically a limb or other extremity) is exposed to extreme low temperatures, causing the freezing of the skin or other tissues. Its pathophysiology involves the formation of ice crystals upon freezing and blood clots upon thawing, leading to cell damage and cell death. if there is deep injury autoamputation may occur. ===Athletic performance=== Sometimes professional athletes may choose to have a non-essential digit amputated to relieve chronic pain and impaired performance. Australian Rules footballer Daniel Chick elected to have his left ring finger amputated as chronic pain and injury was limiting his performance. Rugby union player Jone Tawake also had a finger removed. National Football League safety Ronnie Lott had the tip of his little finger removed after it was damaged in the 1985 NFL season. === Criminal penalties === According to Quran 5:38, the punishment for stealing is the amputation of the hand. Under Sharia law, after repeated offense, the foot may also be cut off. This is still in practice today in countries like Brunei, the United Arab Emirates, Iran, Saudi Arabia, Yemen, and 11 of the 36 states within Nigeria. Cross-amputation is one of the Hudud punishments prescribed under Islamic jurisprudence (Sharia law) and involves cutting off the right hand and left foot of the alleged transgressor. The scriptural authority for the double amputation procedure is in the Quran (surah 5.33–34) which stipulates: The severe punishment, for "highway robbery (hirabah, qat' al-tariq) and civil disturbance against Islam", is usually carried out in a single session in public, without anaesthetic and using a sword. The ancient punishment is practised in Islamic countries such as Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Somalia, Mauritania, the Maldives, Iran, Afghanistan (under Taliban rule), and Yemen. In 1779, Thomas Jefferson proposed a bill to the Virginia Assembly that ostensibly would have replaced capital punishment with other penalties, including amputation, for certain crimes, For the crimes of rape, sodomy, and polygamy (the last removed from a later version), the punishment was to be castration for men or rhinotomy for women. For intentional maiming, the bill specified literal eye for an eye retribution. The bill never passed, due to the combination of its perceived barbarity in some parts and perceived leniency in others. In England, the Offences within the Court Act 1541 provided for cutting off a hand as punishment for striking someone inside a courtroom. Thomas Jefferson's punishments revision bill also intended to repeal this. The punishment was abolished in England and Wales by the Offences Against the Person Act 1828. As of 2021, this form of punishment is controversial, as most modern cultures consider it to be morally abhorrent, as it has the effect of permanently disabling a person and constitutes torture. It is thus seen as grossly disproportionate for crimes less than those such as murder. == Surgery == ===Method=== Surgeons performing an amputation have to first ligate the supplying artery and vein, so as to prevent hemorrhage (bleeding). The muscles are transected, and finally, the bone is sawed through with an oscillating saw. Sharp and rough edges of bones are filed, skin and muscle flaps are then transposed over the stump, occasionally with the insertion of elements to attach a prosthesis. Distal stabilisation of muscles is often performed. This allows effective muscle contraction which reduces atrophy, allows functional use of the stump and maintains soft tissue coverage of the remnant bone. The preferred stabilisation technique is myodesis where the muscle is attached to the bone or its periosteum. In joint disarticulation amputations tenodesis may be used where the muscle tendon is attached to the bone. Muscles are attached under similar tension to normal physiological conditions. An experimental technique known as the "Ewing amputation" aims to improve post-amputation proprioception. Another technique with similar goals, which has been tested in a clinical trial, is Agonist-antagonist Myoneural Interface (AMI). In 1920, Dr. Janos Ertl Sr. of Hungary, developed the Ertl procedure in order to return a high number of amputees to the work force. The Ertl technique, an osteomyoplastic procedure for transtibial amputation, can be used to create a highly functional residual limb. Creation of a tibiofibular bone bridge provides a stable, broad tibiofibular articulation that may be capable of some distal weight bearing. Several different modified techniques and fibular bridge fixation methods have been used; however, no current evidence exists regarding comparison of the different techniques. === Post-operative management === A 2019 Cochrane systematic review aimed to determine whether rigid dressings were more effective than soft dressings in helping wounds heal following transtibial (below the knee) amputations. Due to the limited and very low certainty evidence available, the authors concluded that it was uncertain what the benefits and harms were for each dressing type. They recommended that clinicians consider the pros and cons of each dressing type on a case-by-case basis: rigid dressings may potentially benefit patients who have a high risk of falls; soft dressings may potentially benefit patients who have poor skin integrity. A 2017 review found that the use of rigid removable dressings (RRD's) in trans-tibial amputations, rather than soft bandaging, improved healing time, reduced edema, prevented knee flexion contractures and reduced complications, including further amputation, from external trauma such as falls onto the stump. Post-operative management, in addition to wound healing, considers maintenance of limb strength, joint range, edema management, preservation of the intact limb (if applicable) and stump desensitization. == Trauma == Traumatic amputation is the partial or total avulsion of a part of a body during a serious accident, like traffic, labor, or combat. Traumatic amputation of a human limb, either partial or total, creates the immediate danger of death from blood loss. Orthopedic surgeons often assess the severity of different injuries using the Mangled Extremity Severity Score. Given different clinical and situational factors, they can predict the likelihood of amputation. This is especially useful for emergency physicians to quickly evaluate patients and decide on consultations. ===Causes=== Traumatic amputation is uncommon in humans (1 per 20,804 population per year). Loss of limb usually happens immediately during the accident, but sometimes a few days later after medical complications. Statistically, the most common causes of traumatic amputations are: Vehicle accidents (cars, motorcycles, bicycles, trains, etc.) Labor accidents (equipment, instruments, cylinders, chainsaws, press machines, meat machines, wood machines, etc.) Agricultural accidents, with machines and mower equipment Electric shock hazards Firearms, bladed weapons, explosives Violent rupture of ship rope or industry wire rope Ring traction (ring amputation, de-gloving injuries) Building doors and car doors Animal attacks Gas cylinder explosions Other rare accidents ===Treatment=== The development of the science of microsurgery over the last 40 years has provided several treatment options for a traumatic amputation, depending on the patient's specific trauma and clinical situation: 1st choice: Surgical amputation - break - prosthesis 2nd choice: Surgical amputation - transplantation of other tissue - plastic reconstruction. 3rd choice: Replantation - reconnection - revascularisation of amputated limb, by microscope (after 1969) 4th choice: Transplantation of cadaveric hand (after 2000)]] In the United States in 1999, there were 14,420 non-fatal traumatic amputations according to the American Statistical Association. Of these, 4,435 occurred as a result of traffic and transportation accidents and 9,985 were due to labor accidents. Of all traumatic amputations, the distribution percentage is 30.75% for traffic accidents and 69.24% for labor accidents. The population of the United States in 1999 was about 300,000,000, so the conclusion is that there is one amputation per 20,804 persons per year. In the group of labor amputations, 53% occurred in laborers and technicians, 30% in production and service workers, 16% in silviculture and fishery workers. In 2017, an estimated 57.7 million people globally were living with existing traumatic limb injuries. Of these 57.7 million, the leading causes of amputation "were falls (36.2%), road injuries (15.7%), other transportation injuries (11.2%), and mechanical forces (10.4%)." On 2 August 2023, an investigation by The Wall Street Journal found that Ukrainian medical amputations in the war came to between 20,000 and 50,000 including both military and civilians. In comparison, during World War One 41,000 British and 67,000 Germans needed amputations. In 2024 Gaza was the site of the most child amputees in the history. ==Prevention== Methods in preventing amputation, limb-sparing techniques, depend on the problems that might cause amputations to be necessary. Chronic infections, often caused by diabetes or decubitus ulcers in bedridden patients, are common causes of infections that lead to gangrene, which, when widespread, necessitates amputation. There are two key challenges: first, many patients have impaired circulation in their extremities, and second, they have difficulty curing infections in limbs with poor blood circulation. Crush injuries where there is extensive tissue damage and poor circulation also benefit from hyperbaric oxygen therapy (HBOT). The high level of oxygenation and revascularization speed up recovery times and prevent infections. A study found that the patented method called Circulator Boot achieved significant results in prevention of amputation in patients with diabetes and arteriosclerosis. Another study found it also effective for healing limb ulcers caused by peripheral vascular disease. The boot checks the heart rhythm and compresses the limb between heartbeats; the compression helps cure the wounds in the walls of veins and arteries, and helps to push the blood back to the heart. For victims of trauma, advances in microsurgery in the 1970s have made replantations of severed body parts possible. The establishment of laws, rules, and guidelines, and employment of modern equipment help protect people from traumatic amputations. ==Prognosis== The individual may experience psychological trauma and emotional discomfort. The stump will remain an area of reduced mechanical stability. Limb loss can present significant or even drastic practical limitations. A large proportion of amputees (from 50-80% to 80-100%, according to different studies) experience the phenomenon of phantom limbs; they feel body parts that are no longer there. These limbs can itch, ache, burn, feel tense, dry or wet, locked in or trapped or they can feel as if they are moving. Some scientists believe it has to do with a kind of neural map that the brain has of the body, which sends information to the rest of the brain about limbs regardless of their existence. Phantom sensations and phantom pain may also occur after the removal of body parts other than the limbs, e.g. after amputation of the breast, extraction of a tooth (phantom tooth pain) or removal of an eye (phantom eye syndrome). A similar phenomenon is unexplained sensation in a body part unrelated to the amputated limb. It has been hypothesized that the portion of the brain responsible for processing stimulation from amputated limbs, being deprived of input, expands into the surrounding brain, (Phantoms in the Brain: V.S. Ramachandran and Sandra Blakeslee) such that an individual who has had an arm amputated will experience unexplained pressure or movement on his face or head. In many cases, the phantom limb aids in adaptation to a prosthesis, as it permits the person to experience proprioception of the prosthetic limb. To support improved resistance or usability, comfort or healing, some type of stump socks may be worn instead of or as part of wearing a prosthesis. Due to technological advances in prosthetics, many amputees live active lives with little restriction. Organizations such as the Challenged Athletes Foundation have been developed to give amputees the opportunity to be involved in athletics and adaptive sports such as amputee soccer. Nearly half of the individuals who have an amputation due to vascular disease will die within 5 years, usually secondary to the extensive co-morbidities rather than due to direct consequences of amputation. This is higher than the five year mortality rates for breast cancer, colon cancer, and prostate cancer. Of persons with diabetes who have a lower extremity amputation, up to 55% will require amputation of the second leg within two to three years. ==Etymology== The word amputation is borrowed from Latin amputātus, past participle of amputāre "to prune back (a plant), prune away, remove by cutting (unwanted parts or features), cut off (a branch, limb, body part)," from am-, assimilated variant of amb- "about, around" + putāre "to prune, make clean or tidy, scour (wool)". The English word "Poes" was first applied to surgery in the 17th century, possibly first in Peter Lowe's A discourse of the Whole Art of Chirurgerie (published in either 1597 or 1612); his work was derived from 16th-century French texts and early English writers also used the words "extirpation" (16th-century French texts tended to use extirper), "disarticulation", and "dismemberment" (from the Old French desmembrer and a more common term before the 17th century for limb loss or removal), or simply "cutting", but by the end of the 17th century "amputation" had come to dominate as the accepted medical term. ==Notable cases==	[ "BBC News Online", "proximal femoral focal deficiency", "compartment syndrome", "phlegmasia cerulea dolens", "Patch Adams", "Frostbite", "Ewing's sarcoma", "Zach Gowen", "mutilation", "Yemen", "ring finger", "Genitals", "gangrene", "Rugby union", "Amniotic band", "blood clot", "Laryngectomy", "Daniel Chick", "Terry Fox", "fibrosarcoma", "pathophysiology", "Surgery", "hemicorporectomy", "hemorrhage", "Gaza Strip", "Cross-amputation", "Hudud", "infected gangrene", "BBC News", "Limb (anatomy)", "congenital disorder", "Necrosis", "Iraq War", "Cochrane (organisation)", "Quran 5:38", "Amy Purdy", "corporal punishment", "Bethany Hamilton", "castration", "liposarcoma", "Trench foot", "phantom eye syndrome", "heterotopic ossification", "Götz von Berlichingen", "disarticulation", "Major trauma", "Tammy Duckworth", "Bioelectronics", "François Chopart", "decapitation", "Saudi Arabia", "William Stanford (judge)", "RTÉ.ie", "hemipelvectomy", "proprioception", "Sportsperson", "microsurgery", "Jone Tawake", "glossectomy", "Roberto Carlos (singer)", "circumcision", "Alex Zanardi", "melanoma", "Kalamandalam Sankaran Embranthiri", "cancer", "decubitus ulcers", "Prehistoric Central North Africa", "improvised explosive device", "ligature (medicine)", "The Daily Telegraph", "capital punishment", "replantation", "WBUR", "Amputee football", "foreskin", "injury", "limb-sparing techniques", "Hungary", "Physical trauma", "Merriam-Webster", "Bubonic plague", "East Kalimantan", "Robert David Hall", "Offences within the Court Act 1541", "Brunei", "epithelioid sarcoma", "toe", "Phantoms in the Brain", "forequarter amputation", "Safety (American and Canadian football position)", "stump sock", "Pete Gray", "American Statistical Association", "adaptive sports", "1985 NFL season", "cell damage", "hirabah", "Gas gangrene", "Van Nes rotation", "Krukenberg procedure", "dismemberment", "Body integrity identity disorder", "autoamputation", "V.S. Ramachandran", "Oscar Pistorius", "osteosarcoma", "Fiqh", "Acrotomophilia", "Robotic prosthesis control", "Lisa Bufano", "Rick Allen (drummer)", "Hans-Ulrich Rudel", "Sports Illustrated", "deep vein thrombosis", "1866", "Preventive healthcare", "Quran", "Hyperbaric medicine", "Hugh Herr", "congenital amputation", "vein", "oscillating saw", "Meningococcal meningitis", "World War One", "chondrosarcoma", "clitoridectomy", "systematic review", "Shaquem Griffin", "The Wall Street Journal", "Mayhem (crime)", "Mayo Clinic", "Peripheral artery disease", "Aimee Mullins", "Nigeria", "ResearchGate", "Offences Against the Person Act 1828", "Fibular hemimelia", "mastectomy", "Diabetes", "Hari Budha Magar", "rhinotomy", "sacrococcygeal teratoma", "Frida Kahlo", "United Arab Emirates", "Iberomaurusian", "phantom limb", "Vibrio vulnificus", "enucleation of the eye", "Emergency medicine", "Physical medicine and rehabilitation", "fetus", "Flail limb", "penectomy", "artery", "above knee amputation", "bone", "Osteomyelitis", "vulvectomy", "Gangrene", "Aron Ralston", "Virginia Assembly", "Streptococcus", "Sepsis", "Douglas Bader", "Phantom limb syndrome", "Legionella", "Carl Brashear", "Diabetic foot infection", "Brazilian ironclad Tamandaré", "Iran", "Replantation", "Thomas Jefferson", "surgery", "Tarsometatarsal articulations", "polydactyly", "medical illness", "Borneo", "Necrotizing fasciitis", "Influenza A Virus", "Business Insider", "cell death", "The Papers of Thomas Jefferson", "Challenged Athletes Foundation", "Dental evulsion", "Sandra Blakeslee", "Genital modification and mutilation", "The New York Times", "Huffington Post", "Adapted automobile", "synovial sarcoma", "National Football League", "Ronnie Lott", "Sharia law", "punishment", "U.S. Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality", "Animal bite", "prosthesis", "University of Calgary", "eye for an eye", "Princeton University Press" ]
2,994	Anemometer	In meteorology, an anemometer () is a device that measures wind speed and direction. It is a common instrument used in weather stations. The earliest known description of an anemometer was by Italian architect and author Leon Battista Alberti (1404–1472) in 1450. ==History== The anemometer has changed little since its development in the 15th century. Alberti is said to have invented it around 1450. In the ensuing centuries numerous others, including Robert Hooke (1635–1703), developed their own versions, with some mistakenly credited as its inventor. In 1846, Thomas Romney Robinson (1792–1882) improved the design by using four hemispherical cups and mechanical wheels. In 1926, Canadian meteorologist John Patterson (1872–1956) developed a three-cup anemometer, which was improved by Brevoort and Joiner in 1935. In 1991, Derek Weston added the ability to measure wind direction. In 1994, Andreas Pflitsch developed the sonic anemometer. ==Velocity anemometers== ===Cup anemometers=== A simple type of anemometer was invented in 1845 by Rev. Dr. John Thomas Romney Robinson of Armagh Observatory. It consisted of four hemispherical cups on horizontal arms mounted on a vertical shaft. The air flow past the cups in any horizontal direction turned the shaft at a rate roughly proportional to the wind's speed. Therefore, counting the shaft's revolutions over a set time interval produced a value proportional to the average wind speed for a wide range of speeds. This type of instrument is also called a rotational anemometer. ====Four cup==== With a four-cup anemometer, the wind always has the hollow of one cup presented to it, and is blowing on the back of the opposing cup. Since a hollow hemisphere has a drag coefficient of .38 on the spherical side and 1.42 on the hollow side, more force is generated on the cup that presenting its hollow side to the wind. Because of this asymmetrical force, torque is generated on the anemometer's axis, causing it to spin. Theoretically, the anemometer's speed of rotation should be proportional to the wind speed because the force produced on an object is proportional to the speed of the gas or fluid flowing past it. However, in practice, other factors influence the rotational speed, including turbulence produced by the apparatus, increasing drag in opposition to the torque produced by the cups and support arms, and friction on the mount point. When Robinson first designed his anemometer, he asserted that the cups moved one-third of the speed of the wind, unaffected by cup size or arm length. This was apparently confirmed by some early independent experiments, but it was incorrect. Instead, the ratio of the speed of the wind and that of the cups, the anemometer factor, depends on the dimensions of the cups and arms, and can have a value between two and a little over three. Once the error was discovered, all previous experiments involving anemometers had to be repeated. ====Three cup==== The three-cup anemometer developed by Canadian John Patterson in 1926, and subsequent cup improvements by Brevoort & Joiner of the United States in 1935, led to a cupwheel design with a nearly linear response and an error of less than 3% up to . Patterson found that each cup produced maximum torque when it was at 45° to the wind flow. The three-cup anemometer also had a more constant torque and responded more quickly to gusts than the four-cup anemometer. ====Three cup wind direction==== The three-cup anemometer was further modified by Australian Dr. Derek Weston in 1991 to also measure wind direction. He added a tag to one cup, causing the cupwheel speed to increase and decrease as the tag moved alternately with and against the wind. Wind direction is calculated from these cyclical changes in speed, while wind speed is determined from the average cupwheel speed. Three-cup anemometers are currently the industry standard for wind resource assessment studies and practice. ===Vane anemometers=== One of the other forms of mechanical velocity anemometer is the vane anemometer. It may be described as a windmill or a propeller anemometer. Unlike the Robinson anemometer, whose axis of rotation is vertical, the vane anemometer must have its axis parallel to the direction of the wind and is therefore horizontal. Furthermore, since the wind varies in direction and the axis has to follow its changes, a wind vane or some other contrivance to fulfill the same purpose must be employed. A vane anemometer thus combines a propeller and a tail on the same axis to obtain accurate and precise wind speed and direction measurements from the same instrument. The speed of the fan is measured by a revolution counter and converted to a windspeed by an electronic chip. Hence, volumetric flow rate may be calculated if the cross-sectional area is known. In cases where the direction of the air motion is always the same, as in ventilating shafts of mines and buildings, wind vanes known as air meters are employed, and give satisfactory results. File:Wind speed and direction instrument - NOAA.jpg\|Vane style of anemometer File:Prop vane anemometer.jpg\|Helicoid propeller anemometer incorporating a wind vane for orientation File:Anemometer-IMG 4734-white.jpg\|Hand-held low-speed vane anemometer File:Digital_Handheld_Anemometer.jpg\|Hand-held digital anemometer or Byram anenometer. ===Hot-wire anemometers=== Hot wire anemometers use a fine wire (on the order of several micrometres) electrically heated to some temperature above the ambient. Air flowing past the wire cools the wire. As the electrical resistance of most metals is dependent upon the temperature of the metal (tungsten is a popular choice for hot-wires), a relationship can be obtained between the resistance of the wire and the speed of the air. In most cases, they cannot be used to measure the direction of the airflow, unless coupled with a wind vane. Several ways of implementing this exist, and hot-wire devices can be further classified as CCA (constant current anemometer), CVA (constant voltage anemometer) and CTA (constant-temperature anemometer). The voltage output from these anemometers is thus the result of some sort of circuit within the device trying to maintain the specific variable (current, voltage or temperature) constant, following Ohm's law. Additionally, PWM (pulse-width modulation) anemometers are also used, wherein the velocity is inferred by the time length of a repeating pulse of current that brings the wire up to a specified resistance and then stops until a threshold "floor" is reached, at which time the pulse is sent again. Hot-wire anemometers, while extremely delicate, have extremely high frequency-response and fine spatial resolution compared to other measurement methods, and as such are almost universally employed for the detailed study of turbulent flows, or any flow in which rapid velocity fluctuations are of interest. An industrial version of the fine-wire anemometer is the thermal flow meter, which follows the same concept, but uses two pins or strings to monitor the variation in temperature. The strings contain fine wires, but encasing the wires makes them much more durable and capable of accurately measuring air, gas, and emissions flow in pipes, ducts, and stacks. Industrial applications often contain dirt that will damage the classic hot-wire anemometer. ===Laser Doppler anemometers=== In laser Doppler velocimetry, laser Doppler anemometers use a beam of light from a laser that is divided into two beams, with one propagated out of the anemometer. Particulates (or deliberately introduced seed material) flowing along with air molecules near where the beam exits reflect, or backscatter, the light back into a detector, where it is measured relative to the original laser beam. When the particles are in great motion, they produce a Doppler shift for measuring wind speed in the laser light, which is used to calculate the speed of the particles, and therefore the air around the anemometer. ===Ultrasonic anemometers=== Ultrasonic anemometers, first developed in the 1950s, use ultrasonic sound waves to measure wind velocity. They measure wind speed based on the time of flight of sonic pulses between pairs of transducers. The time that a sonic pulse takes to travel from one transducer to its pair is inversely proportionate to the speed of sound in air plus the wind velocity in the same direction: t=\frac{L}{(c+v)} where t is the time of flight, L is the distance between transducers, c is the speed of sound in air and v is the wind velocity. In other words, the faster the wind is blowing, the faster the sound pulse travels. To correct for the speed of sound in air (which varies according to temperature, pressure and humidity) sound pulses are sent in both directions and the wind velocity is calculated using the forward and reverse times of flight: v=\frac{1}{2} L(\frac{1}{t_1}-\frac{1}{t_2}) where t_1 is the forward time of flight and t_2 the reverse. Because ultrasonic anenometers have no moving parts, they need little maintenance and can be used in harsh environments. They operate over a wide range of wind speeds. They can measure rapid changes in wind speed and direction, taking many measurements each second, and so are useful in measuring turbulent air flow patterns. Their main disadvantage is the distortion of the air flow by the structure supporting the transducers, which requires a correction based upon wind tunnel measurements to minimize the effect. Rain drops or ice on the transducers can also cause inaccuracies. Since the speed of sound varies with temperature, and is virtually stable with pressure change, ultrasonic anemometers are also used as thermometers. Measurements from pairs of transducers can be combined to yield a measurement of velocity in 1-, 2-, or 3-dimensional flow. Two-dimensional (wind speed and wind direction) sonic anemometers are used in applications such as weather stations, ship navigation, aviation, weather buoys and wind turbines. Monitoring wind turbines usually requires a refresh rate of wind speed measurements of 3 Hz, easily achieved by sonic anemometers. Three-dimensional sonic anemometers are widely used to measure gas emissions and ecosystem fluxes using the eddy covariance method when used with fast-response infrared gas analyzers or laser-based analyzers. ====Acoustic resonance anemometers==== Acoustic resonance anemometers are a more recent variant of sonic anemometer. The technology was invented by Savvas Kapartis and patented in 1999. Whereas conventional sonic anemometers rely on time of flight measurement, acoustic resonance sensors use resonating acoustic (ultrasonic) waves within a small purpose-built cavity in order to perform their measurement. Built into the cavity is an array of ultrasonic transducers, which are used to create the separate standing-wave patterns at ultrasonic frequencies. As wind passes through the cavity, a change in the wave's property occurs (phase shift). By measuring the amount of phase shift in the received signals by each transducer, and then by mathematically processing the data, the sensor is able to provide an accurate horizontal measurement of wind speed and direction. Because acoustic resonance technology enables measurement within a small cavity, the sensors tend to be typically smaller in size than other ultrasonic sensors. The small size of acoustic resonance anemometers makes them physically strong and easy to heat, and therefore resistant to icing. This combination of features means that they achieve high levels of data availability and are well suited to wind turbine control and to other uses that require small robust sensors such as battlefield meteorology. One issue with this sensor type is measurement accuracy when compared to a calibrated mechanical sensor. For many end uses, this weakness is compensated for by the sensor's longevity and the fact that it does not require recalibration once installed. ==Pressure anemometers== The first designs of anemometers that measure the pressure were divided into plate and tube classes. ===Plate anemometers=== These are the first modern anemometers. They consist of a flat plate suspended from the top so that the wind deflects the plate. In 1450, the Italian art architect Leon Battista Alberti invented the first such mechanical anemometer; in 1663 it was re-invented by Robert Hooke. Later versions of this form consisted of a flat plate, either square or circular, which is kept normal to the wind by a wind vane. The pressure of the wind on its face is balanced by a spring. The compression of the spring determines the actual force which the wind is exerting on the plate, and this is either read off on a suitable gauge, or on a recorder. Instruments of this kind do not respond to light winds, are inaccurate for high wind readings, and are slow at responding to variable winds. Plate anemometers have been used to trigger high wind alarms on bridges. ===Tube anemometers=== James Lind's anemometer of 1775 consisted of a vertically mounted glass U tube containing a liquid manometer (pressure gauge), with one end bent out in a horizontal direction to face the wind flow and the other vertical end capped. Though the Lind was not the first, it was the most practical and best known anemometer of this type. If the wind blows into the mouth of a tube, it causes an increase of pressure on one side of the manometer. The wind over the open end of a vertical tube causes little change in pressure on the other side of the manometer. The resulting elevation difference in the two legs of the U tube is an indication of the wind speed. However, an accurate measurement requires that the wind speed be directly into the open end of the tube; small departures from the true direction of the wind causes large variations in the reading. The successful metal pressure tube anemometer of William Henry Dines in 1892 utilized the same pressure difference between the open mouth of a straight tube facing the wind and a ring of small holes in a vertical tube which is closed at the upper end. Both are mounted at the same height. The pressure differences on which the action depends are very small, and special means are required to register them. The recorder consists of a float in a sealed chamber partially filled with water. The pipe from the straight tube is connected to the top of the sealed chamber and the pipe from the small tubes is directed into the bottom inside the float. Since the pressure difference determines the vertical position of the float this is a measure of the wind speed. The great advantage of the tube anemometer lies in the fact that the exposed part can be mounted on a high pole, and requires no oiling or attention for years; and the registering part can be placed in any convenient position. Two connecting tubes are required. It might appear at first sight as though one connection would serve, but the differences in pressure on which these instruments depend are so minute, that the pressure of the air in the room where the recording part is placed has to be considered. Thus, if the instrument depends on the pressure or suction effect alone, and this pressure or suction is measured against the air pressure in an ordinary room in which the doors and windows are carefully closed and a newspaper is then burnt up the chimney, an effect may be produced equal to a wind of 10 mi/h (16 km/h); and the opening of a window in rough weather, or the opening of a door, may entirely alter the registration. While the Dines anemometer had an error of only 1% at , it did not respond very well to low winds due to the poor response of the flat plate vane required to turn the head into the wind. In 1918 an aerodynamic vane with eight times the torque of the flat plate overcame this problem. ====Pitot tube static anemometers==== Modern tube anemometers use the same principle as in the Dines anemometer, but using a different design. The implementation uses a pitot-static tube, which is a pitot tube with two ports, pitot and static, that is normally used in measuring the airspeed of aircraft. The pitot port measures the dynamic pressure of the open mouth of a tube with pointed head facing the wind, and the static port measures the static pressure from small holes along the side on that tube. The pitot tube is connected to a tail so that it always makes the tube's head face the wind. Additionally, the tube is heated to prevent rime ice formation on the tube. There are two lines from the tube down to the devices to measure the difference in pressure of the two lines. The measurement devices can be manometers, pressure transducers, or analog chart recorders. ===Ping-pong ball anemometers=== A common anemometer for basic use is constructed from a ping-pong ball attached to a string. When the wind blows horizontally, it presses on and moves the ball; because ping-pong balls are very lightweight, they move easily in light winds. Measuring the angle between the string-ball apparatus and the vertical gives an estimate of the wind speed. This type of anemometer is mostly used for middle-school level instruction, which most students make on their own, but a similar device was also flown on the Phoenix Mars Lander. ===Effect of density on measurements=== In the tube anemometer the dynamic pressure is actually being measured, although the scale is usually graduated as a velocity scale. If the actual air density differs from the calibration value, due to differing temperature, elevation or barometric pressure, a correction is required to obtain the actual wind speed. Approximately 1.5% (1.6% above 6,000 feet) should be added to the velocity recorded by a tube anemometer for each 1000 ft (5% for each kilometer) above sea-level. ==Effect of icing== At airports, it is essential to have accurate wind data under all conditions, including freezing precipitation. Anemometry is also required in monitoring and controlling the operation of wind turbines, which in cold environments are prone to in-cloud icing. Icing alters the aerodynamics of an anemometer and may entirely block it from operating. Therefore, anemometers used in these applications must be internally heated. Both cup anemometers and sonic anemometers are presently available with heated versions. ==Instrument location== In order for wind speeds to be comparable from location to location, the effect of the terrain needs to be considered, especially in regard to height. Other considerations are the presence of trees, and both natural canyons and artificial canyons (urban buildings). The standard anemometer height in open rural terrain is 10 meters.	[ "Sphere", "Robert Hooke", "Particle image velocimetry", "Anemoscope", "pressure transducer", "torque", "ultrasound", "wind vane", "wind direction", "transducer", "Ohm's law", "laser", "Anemoi", "weather station", "Museo Galileo", "manometer", "Wind power forecasting", "wind resource assessment", "windmill", "speed of sound", "Wind run", "eddy covariance", "rime ice", "wind speed", "John Patterson (meteorologist)", "Helicoid", "James Lind (1736–1812)", "Savonius wind turbine", "Automated airport weather station", "ping-pong ball", "Phoenix Mars Lander", "Thomas Romney Robinson", "meteorology", "laser Doppler velocimetry", "Air flow meter", "Voltage source", "Armagh Observatory", "drag coefficient", "Windsock", "Leon Battista Alberti", "Night of the Big Wind", "infrared gas analyzer", "weather buoy", "weather vane", "pulse-width modulation", "pitot tube", "chart recorder", "tungsten", "Thermal mass flow meter", "thermometers", "Doppler shift", "constant current" ]
2,995	Archaeopteryx	Archaeopteryx (; ), sometimes referred to by its German name, "" ( Primeval Bird) is a genus of bird-like dinosaurs. The name derives from the ancient Greek (archaîos), meaning "ancient", and (ptéryx), meaning "feather" or "wing". Between the late 19th century and the early 21st century, Archaeopteryx was generally accepted by palaeontologists and popular reference books as the oldest known bird (member of the group Avialae). Older potential avialans have since been identified, including Anchiornis, Xiaotingia, Aurornis, and Baminornis. Archaeopteryx lived in the Late Jurassic around 150 million years ago, in what is now southern Germany, during a time when Europe was an archipelago of islands in a shallow warm tropical sea, much closer to the equator than it is now. Similar in size to a Eurasian magpie, with the largest individuals possibly attaining the size of a raven, == History of discovery == Over the years, fourteen body fossil specimens of Archaeopteryx have been found. All of the fossils come from the limestone deposits, quarried for centuries, near , Germany. These quarries excavate sediments from the Solnhofen Limestone formation and related units. It is now in the Natural History Museum of Berlin. Though it was the initial holotype, there were indications that it might not have been from the same animal as the body fossils. This conclusion was challenged in 2020 as being unlikely; the feather was identified on the basis of morphology as most likely having been an upper major primary covert feather.) to the Natural History Museum in London, where it remains. The Haarlem Specimen (TM 6428/29, also known as the Teylers Specimen) was discovered in 1855 near , Germany, and described as a Pterodactylus crassipes in 1857 by Meyer. It was reclassified in 1970 by John Ostrom and is currently located at the Teylers Museum in Haarlem, the Netherlands. It was the very first specimen found, but was incorrectly classified at the time. It is also one of the least complete specimens, consisting mostly of limb bones, isolated cervical vertebrae, and ribs. In 2017 it was named as a separate genus Ostromia, considered more closely related to Anchiornis from China. The Eichstätt Specimen (JM 2257) was discovered in 1951 near Workerszell, Germany, and described by Peter Wellnhofer in 1974. Currently located at the Jura Museum in Eichstätt, Germany, it is the smallest known specimen and has the second-best head. It is possibly a separate genus (Jurapteryx recurva) or species (A. recurva). The Solnhofen Specimen (unnumbered specimen) was discovered in the 1970s near Eichstätt, Germany, and described in 1988 by Wellnhofer. Currently located at the Bürgermeister-Müller-Museum in Solnhofen, it originally was classified as Compsognathus by an amateur collector, the same mayor Friedrich Müller after which the museum is named. It is the largest specimen known and may belong to a separate genus and species, Wellnhoferia grandis. It is missing only portions of the neck, tail, backbone, and head. The Munich Specimen (BSP 1999 I 50, formerly known as the Solenhofer-Aktien-Verein Specimen) was discovered on 3 August 1992 near Langenaltheim and described in 1993 by Wellnhofer. It is currently located at the Paläontologisches Museum München in Munich, to which it was sold in 1999 for 1.9 million Deutschmark. What was initially believed to be a bony sternum turned out to be part of the coracoid, but more recent studies suggest it belongs to A. siemensii. After a lengthy period in a closed private collection, it was moved to the Museum of Evolution at Knuthenborg Safaripark (Denmark) in 2022, where it has since been on display and also been made available for researchers. Another fragmentary fossil was found in 2000. It is in private possession and, since 2004, on loan to the Bürgermeister-Müller Museum in Solnhofen, so it is called the Bürgermeister-Müller Specimen; the institute itself officially refers to it as the "Exemplar of the families Ottman & Steil, Solnhofen". As the fragment represents the remains of a single wing of Archaeopteryx, it is colloquially known as "chicken wing". Long in a private collection in Switzerland, the Thermopolis Specimen (WDC CSG 100) was discovered in Bavaria and described in 2005 by Mayr, Pohl, and Peters. Donated to the Wyoming Dinosaur Center in Thermopolis, Wyoming, it has the best-preserved head and feet; most of the neck and the lower jaw have not been preserved. The "Thermopolis" specimen was described on 2 December 2005 Science journal article as "A well-preserved Archaeopteryx specimen with theropod features"; it shows that Archaeopteryx lacked a reversed toe—a universal feature of birds—limiting its ability to perch on branches and implying a terrestrial or trunk-climbing lifestyle. Palaeontologists of the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich studied the specimen, which revealed previously unknown features of the plumage, such as feathers on both the upper and lower legs and metatarsus, and the only preserved tail tip. A twelfth specimen had been discovered by an amateur collector in 2010 at the Schamhaupten quarry, but the finding was only announced in February 2014. It was scientifically described in 2018. It represents a complete and mostly articulated skeleton with skull. It is the only specimen lacking preserved feathers. It is from the Painten Formation and somewhat older than the other specimens. The existence of a thirteenth specimen (the Chicago specimen) was announced in 2024 by the Field Museum in Chicago, US. One of two specimens in an institution outside Europe, the specimen was originally identified in a private collection in Switzerland, and had been acquired by these collectors in 1990, prior to Germany's 2015 ban on exporting Archaeopteryx specimens. The specimen was acquired by the Field Museum in 2022, and went on public display in 2024 following two years of preparation. The specimen is to be studied by famed paleornithologist Jingmai O'Connor. A fourteenth specimen, SMNK-PAL 10,000, was published in January 2025, this one from the Mörnsheim Formation. It preserves the right forelimb, shoulder, and fragments of the other limbs, with various features of the shoulder and forelimb resembling Archaeopteryx more than any other avialan within the Mörnsheim Formation. However, due to the fragmentary nature of this specimen, it cannot be assigned to a specific species within Archaeopteryx. === Authenticity === Beginning in 1985, an amateur group including astronomer Fred Hoyle and physicist Lee Spetner, published a series of papers claiming that the feathers on the Berlin and London specimens of Archaeopteryx were forged. Archaeopteryx was roughly the size of a raven, Archaeopteryx feathers, although less documented than its other features, were very similar in structure to modern-day bird feathers. === Plumage === Specimens of Archaeopteryx were most notable for their well-developed flight feathers. They were markedly asymmetrical and showed the structure of flight feathers in modern birds, with vanes given stability by a barb-barbule-barbicel arrangement. This would mean that the skin already was softened and loose, which is bolstered by the fact that in some specimens the flight feathers were starting to detach at the point of embedding in the sediment. So it is hypothesized that the pertinent specimens moved along the sea bed in shallow water for some time before burial, the head and upper neck feathers sloughing off, while the more firmly attached tail feathers remained.]] In 2011, graduate student Ryan Carney and colleagues performed the first colour study on an Archaeopteryx specimen. In a 2013 study published in the Journal of Analytical Atomic Spectrometry, new analyses of Archaeopteryxs feathers revealed that the animal may have had complex light- and dark-coloured plumage, with heavier pigmentation in the distal tips and outer vanes. This analysis of colour distribution was based primarily on the distribution of sulphate within the fossil. An author on the previous Archaeopteryx colour study argued against the interpretation of such biomarkers as an indicator of eumelanin in the full Archaeopteryx specimen. Carney and other colleagues also argued against the 2013 study's interpretation of the sulphate and trace metals, and in a 2020 study published in Scientific Reports demonstrated that the isolated covert feather was entirely matte black (as opposed to black and white, or iridescent) and that the remaining "plumage patterns of Archaeopteryx remain unknown". This suggestion was upheld by the ICZN after four years of debate, and the London specimen was designated the neotype on 3 October 2011. Below is a cladogram published in 2013 by Godefroit et al. Phylogenetic studies conducted by Senter, et al. (2012) and Turner, Makovicky, and Norell (2012) also found Archaeopteryx to be more closely related to living birds than to dromaeosaurids and troodontids. On the other hand, Godefroit et al. (2013) recovered Archaeopteryx as more closely related to dromaeosaurids and troodontids in the analysis included in their description of Eosinopteryx brevipenna. The authors used a modified version of the matrix from the study describing Xiaotingia, adding Jinfengopteryx elegans and Eosinopteryx brevipenna to it, as well as adding four additional characters related to the development of the plumage. Unlike the analysis from the description of Xiaotingia, the analysis conducted by Godefroit, et al. did not find Archaeopteryx to be related particularly closely to Anchiornis and Xiaotingia, which were recovered as basal troodontids instead. Agnolín and Novas (2013) found Archaeopteryx and (possibly synonymous) Wellnhoferia to form a clade sister to the lineage including Jeholornis and Pygostylia, with Microraptoria, Unenlagiinae, and the clade containing Anchiornis and Xiaotingia being successively closer outgroups to the Avialae (defined by the authors as the clade stemming from the last common ancestor of Archaeopteryx and Aves). Another phylogenetic study by Godefroit, et al., using a more inclusive matrix than the one from the analysis in the description of Eosinopteryx brevipenna, also found Archaeopteryx to be a member of Avialae (defined by the authors as the most inclusive clade containing Passer domesticus, but not Dromaeosaurus albertensis or Troodon formosus). Archaeopteryx was found to form a grade at the base of Avialae with Xiaotingia, Anchiornis, and Aurornis. Compared to Archaeopteryx, Xiaotingia was found to be more closely related to extant birds, while both Anchiornis and Aurornis were found to be more distantly so. Wang et al. (2018) and Hartman et al. (2019) found Archaeopteryx to have been a deinonychosaur instead of an avialan. More specifically, it and closely related taxa were considered basal deinonychosaurs, with dromaeosaurids and troodontids forming together a parallel lineage within the group. Because Hartman et al. found Archaeopteryx isolated in a group of flightless deinonychosaurs (otherwise considered "anchiornithids"), they considered it highly probable that this animal evolved flight independently from bird ancestors (and from Microraptor and Yi). The following cladogram illustrates their hypothesis regarding the position of Archaeopteryx: The authors, however, found that the Archaeopteryx being an avialan was only slightly less likely than this hypothesis, and as likely as Archaeopterygidae and Troodontidae being sister clades. Archaeopteryx wings were relatively large, which would have resulted in a low stall speed and reduced turning radius. The short and rounded shape of the wings would have increased drag, but also could have improved its ability to fly through cluttered environments such as trees and brush (similar wing shapes are seen in birds that fly through trees and brush, such as crows and pheasants). The presence of "hind wings", asymmetrical flight feathers stemming from the legs similar to those seen in dromaeosaurids such as Microraptor, also would have added to the aerial mobility of Archaeopteryx. The first detailed study of the hind wings by Longrich in 2006, suggested that the structures formed up to 12% of the total airfoil. This would have reduced stall speed by up to 6% and turning radius by up to 12%. The degree of asymmetry seen in Archaeopteryx is more typical for slow flyers than for flightless birds. In 2010, Robert L. Nudds and Gareth J. Dyke in the journal Science published a paper in which they analysed the rachises of the primary feathers of Confuciusornis and Archaeopteryx. The analysis suggested that the rachises on these two genera were thinner and weaker than those of modern birds relative to body mass. The authors determined that Archaeopteryx and Confuciusornis, were unable to use flapping flight. This study was criticized by Philip J. Currie and Luis Chiappe. Chiappe suggested that it is difficult to measure the rachises of fossilized feathers, and Currie speculated that Archaeopteryx and Confuciusornis must have been able to fly to some degree, as their fossils are preserved in what is believed to have been marine or lake sediments, suggesting that they must have been able to fly over deep water. Gregory Paul also disagreed with the study, arguing in a 2010 response that Nudds and Dyke had overestimated the masses of these early birds, and that more accurate mass estimates allowed powered flight even with relatively narrow rachises. Nudds and Dyke had assumed a mass of for the Munich specimen Archaeopteryx, a young juvenile, based on published mass estimates of larger specimens. Paul argued that a more reasonable body mass estimate for the Munich specimen is about . Paul also criticized the measurements of the rachises themselves, noting that the feathers in the Munich specimen are poorly preserved. Nudds and Dyke reported a diameter of for the longest primary feather, which Paul could not confirm using photographs. Paul measured some of the inner primary feathers, finding rachises across. Despite these criticisms, Nudds and Dyke stood by their original conclusions. They claimed that Paul's statement, that an adult Archaeopteryx would have been a better flyer than the juvenile Munich specimen, was dubious. This, they reasoned, would require an even thicker rachis, evidence for which has not yet been presented. Another possibility is that they had not achieved true flight, but instead used their wings as aids for extra lift while running over water after the fashion of the basilisk lizard, which could explain their presence in lake and marine deposits (see Origin of avian flight). In 2004, scientists analysing a detailed CT scan of the braincase of the London Archaeopteryx concluded that its brain was significantly larger than that of most dinosaurs, indicating that it possessed the brain size necessary for flying. The overall brain anatomy was reconstructed using the scan. The reconstruction showed that the regions associated with vision took up nearly one-third of the brain. Other well-developed areas involved hearing and muscle coordination. Newer research shows that while the Archaeopteryx brain was more complex than that of more primitive theropods, it had a more generalized brain volume among Maniraptora dinosaurs, even smaller than that of other non-avian dinosaurs in several instances, which indicates the neurological development required for flight was already a common trait in the maniraptoran clade. Recent studies of flight feather barb geometry reveal that modern birds possess a larger barb angle in the trailing vane of the feather, whereas Archaeopteryx lacks this large barb angle, indicating potentially weak flight abilities. Archaeopteryx continues to play an important part in scientific debates about the origin and evolution of birds. Some scientists see it as a semi-arboreal climbing animal, following the idea that birds evolved from tree-dwelling gliders (the "trees down" hypothesis for the evolution of flight proposed by O. C. Marsh). Other scientists see Archaeopteryx as running quickly along the ground, supporting the idea that birds evolved flight by running (the "ground up" hypothesis proposed by Samuel Wendell Williston). Still others suggest that Archaeopteryx might have been at home both in the trees and on the ground, like modern crows, and this latter view is what currently is considered best supported by morphological characters. Altogether, it appears that the species was not particularly specialized for running on the ground or for perching. A scenario outlined by Elżanowski in 2002 suggested that Archaeopteryx used its wings mainly to escape predators by glides punctuated with shallow downstrokes to reach successively higher perches, and alternatively, to cover longer distances (mainly) by gliding down from cliffs or treetops. This study on Archaeopteryxs bone histology identified biomechanical and physiological adaptations exhibited by modern volant birds that perform intermittent flapping, such as pheasants and other burst flyers. Some researchers suggested that the feather sheaths of Archaeopteryx shows a center-out, flight related moulting strategy like modern birds. As it was a weak flier, this would have been extremely advantageous in preserving its maximum flight performance. Kiat and colleagues reinterpreted this purported moulting evidence to be problematic and equivocal at best, and considered that these structures more likely represents the calami traces of the fully grown feathers, though the original authors still remained by their conclusion. === Growth === An histological study by Erickson, Norell, Zhongue, and others in 2009 estimated that Archaeopteryx grew relatively slowly compared to modern birds, presumably because the outermost portions of Archaeopteryx bones appear poorly vascularized; One of the few modern birds that exhibit slow growth is the flightless kiwi, and the authors speculated that Archaeopteryx and the kiwi had similar basal metabolic rate. == Palaeoecology == The richness and diversity of the Solnhofen limestones in which all specimens of Archaeopteryx have been found have shed light on an ancient Jurassic Bavaria strikingly different from the present day. The latitude was similar to Florida, though the climate was likely to have been drier, as evidenced by fossils of plants with adaptations for arid conditions and a lack of terrestrial sediments characteristic of rivers. Evidence of plants, although scarce, include cycads and conifers while animals found include a large number of insects, small lizards, pterosaurs, and Compsognathus. The absence of trees does not preclude Archaeopteryx from an arboreal lifestyle, as several species of bird live exclusively in low shrubs. Various aspects of the morphology of Archaeopteryx point to either an arboreal or ground existence, including the length of its legs and the elongation in its feet; some authorities consider it likely to have been a generalist capable of feeding in both shrubs and open ground, as well as along the shores of the lagoon. It most likely hunted small prey, seizing it with its jaws if it was small enough, or with its claws if it was larger.	[ "Bamberg", "Charles Darwin", "Jacana (genus)", "Birds", "International Code of Zoological Nomenclature", "Oviraptorosauria", "Florida", "Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society", "Solnhofen Limestone", "holotype", "The Berlin specimen", "Deinonychosauria", "Suevia", "Late Jurassic", "Dromaeosaurus", "Kiwi (bird)", "archipelago", "Daiting", "riddle", "Haarlem", "Jura Museum", "Oxygen saturation", "Rhamphorhynchidae", "cladogram", "tropical", "Evolutionary grade", "Biological Journal of the Linnean Society", "braincase", "semi-arid", "Naturkundemuseum", "pheasant", "Avimimus", "coracoid", "Field Museum of Natural History", "Augsburger Allgemeine", "University of California, Berkeley", "Anchiornis", "Maxberg Museum", "ICZN", "Tubercle (bone)", "Pterodactylus", "seabird", "Wellnhoferia grandis", "counterslab", "Yi (dinosaur)", "Sternum", "pterosaur", "Gregory Paul", "transitional fossil", "zoological nomenclature", "melanosome", "flight feather", "eocene", "Carcharodontosaurus", "paleontology", "Richard Owen", "Unenlagiinae", "Ostromia", "moulting", "homeothermy", "Fred Hoyle", "dromaeosauridae", "Allosaurus", "origin of birds", "Convergent evolution", "limestone", "Rahonavis", "Knuthenborg Safaripark", "John Ostrom", "Painten Formation", "house sparrow", "flora", "Pascal Godefroit", "Bürgermeister-Müller-Museum", "Predation", "Nature Communications", "Balaur (dinosaur)", "raven", "histological", "Evolution of birds", "barbule", "basilisk lizard", "talk.origins", "ischium", "Talk.Origins", "Paraves", "rachis", "taxon", "cement", "Ancient Greek", "interdental plate", "Alan J. Charig", "Riedenburg", "cartilage", "Solnhofen", "pennaceous feather", "Encarta", "Deutschmark", "Sapeornis", "Thermopolis, Wyoming", "Origin of birds", "Vagrancy (biology)", "Avebrevicauda", "lithification", "Xiaotingia", "duck", "Gerhard Heilmann", "German gold mark", "Bürgermeister-Müller Museum", "barbicel", "sclerotic ring", "obturator foramen", "Baminornis", "Eduard Opitsch", "cartilaginous", "Tithonian", "Compsognathus", "Eurasian magpie", "Serikornis", "conserved name", "Peter Wellnhofer", "Orca Basin", "Dromaeosauridae", "ancient Greek", "airfoil", "swan", "species", "Sinosauropteryx", "Avialae", "Lee Spetner", "Maxberg specimen", "feathered dinosaur", "Jinfengopteryx", "nomen nudum", "cycad", "pollen", "sternum", "troodontidae", "maniraptora", "Solnhofen limestone", "The Origin of Birds (book)", "coelurosaurian", "Lagerstätte", "X-ray spectroscopy", "CT scan", "growth ring", "Confuciusornis", "Darwin, Charles", "crows", "Comptes Rendus", "barb (feather)", "Workerszell", "Natural History Museum, London", "evolution", "Wellnhoferia", "avialan", "Origin of avian flight", "Ernst Werner von Siemens", "calcite", "ankle bone", "Gregory S. Paul", "Mahakala (dinosaur)", "Jingmai O'Connor", "Johann Andreas Wagner", "Ichthyornis", "covert feather", "London", "Mörnsheim Formation", "O. C. Marsh", "Unenlagiidae", "ratite", "Scanning electron microscope", "Generalist and specialist species", "maniraptoran", "Dinosaur coloration", "Florian Heller", "Switzerland", "Gulf of Mexico", "genus", "deinonychosaur", "Rhamphorhynchus", "Caihong", "skeleton", "Mesozoic", "rejected name", "Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich", "scapula", "Tooth", "dry season", "basal metabolic rate", "Scientific Reports", "Science (journal)", "alula", "Theropoda", "Die Zeit", "Langenaltheim", "Thomas Henry Huxley", "feather", "Wyoming Dinosaur Center", "Teylers Museum", "Down feather", "Diurnality", "Gavin de Beer", "humerus", "Christian Erich Hermann von Meyer", "Microraptoria", "The Washington Post", "Oolite", "Yale University", "maniraptorans", "Siemens", "Paläontologisches Museum München", "Sueddeutsche Zeitung", "Philip Senter", "Flight feather", "Eosinopteryx", "Microraptor", "Aurornis", "equator", "turning radius", "Philip J. Currie", "Feathered dinosaur", "metatarsus", "Eichstätt", "claw", "On the Origin of Species", "wingspan", "hoatzin", "Covert (feather)", "Jeholornis", "neotype", "Biological type", "death pose", "ecological niche", "fossil", "Troodontidae", "type specimen", "Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy", "Natural History Museum, Berlin", "Troodon", "Donauwörth", "Samuel Wendell Williston", "Anchiornithidae", "Temporal paradox (paleontology)", "University of Calgary", "bird", "dinosaur", "Wilhelm Dames", "thumb" ]
2,999	Arthur Laurents	Arthur Laurents (July 14, 1917 – May 5, 2011) was an American playwright, theatre director, film producer and screenwriter. With a career spanning seven decades he received numerous accolades including two Tony Awards, a Drama Desk Award, and nominations for two Academy Awards, two BAFTA Awards, and a Golden Globe Award. After writing scripts for radio shows after college and then training films for the U.S. Army during World War II, Laurents turned to writing for Broadway, producing a body of work that includes West Side Story (1957), Gypsy (1959), and Hallelujah, Baby! (1967), winning the Tony Award for Best Musical for the latter. He directed the musical La Cage aux Folles in 1983 and received the Tony Award for Best Direction of a Musical. Laurents also worked as a screenwriter on Hollywood films such as Alfred Hitchcock's thriller Rope (1948), Anastasia (1956), Bonjour Tristesse (1958) and Sydney Pollack's romance The Way We Were (1973). He received two Academy Award nominations for Best Picture and Best Original Screenplay for the Herbert Ross drama film The Turning Point (1977). ==Early life== Born Arthur Levine, Laurents was the son of middle-class Jewish parents, his father a lawyer and his mother a schoolteacher, who gave up her career when she married. He was born and raised in the Flatbush section of Brooklyn, a borough of New York City, New York, the elder of two children, and attended Erasmus Hall High School. His sister Edith suffered from chorea as a child. His paternal grandparents were Orthodox Jews, and his mother's parents, although born Jewish, were atheists. His mother kept a kosher home for her husband's sake, but was lax about attending synagogue and observing the Jewish holidays. His Bar Mitzvah marked the end of Laurents's religious education and the beginning of his rejection of all fundamentalist religions, although he continued to identify himself as Jewish. However, late in life he admitted to having changed his last name from Levine to the less Jewish-sounding Laurents, "to get a job." Laurents' career was interrupted when he was drafted into the U.S. Army in the middle of World War II. Through a series of clerical errors, he never saw battle, but instead was assigned to the U.S. Army Pictorial Service located in a film studio in Astoria, Queens, where he wrote training films and met, among others, George Cukor and William Holden. He later was reassigned to write plays for Armed Service Force Presents, a radio show that dramatized the contributions of all branches of the armed forces. == Career == === Theatre === According to John Clum, "Laurents was always a mirror of his times. Through his best work, one sees a staged history of leftist, gender, and gay politics in the decades after World War II." After graduating from Cornell University in 1937, Laurents, who was gay, went to work as a writer for radio drama at CBS in New York. His military duties during World War II, which consisted of writing training films and radio scripts for Armed Service Force Presents, brought him into contact with some of the best film directors—distinguished director George Cukor directed his first script. Laurents's work in radio and film during World War II was an excellent apprenticeship for a budding playwright and screenwriter. He also had the good fortune to be based in New York City. His first stage play, Home of the Brave, was produced in 1945. The sale of the play to a film studio gave Laurents the entrée he needed to become a Hollywood screenwriter though he continued, with mixed success, to write plays. The most important of his early screenplays is his adaptation of Rope for Alfred Hitchcock. Soon after being discharged from the Army, Laurents met ballerina Nora Kaye, and the two became involved in an on-again, off-again romantic relationship. While Kaye was on tour with Fancy Free, Laurents continued to write for the radio but was becoming discontented with the medium. In 1962, Laurents directed I Can Get It for You Wholesale, which helped to turn then-unknown Barbra Streisand into a star. His next project was the stage musical Anyone Can Whistle, which he directed and for which he wrote the book, but it proved to be an infamous flop. He later had success with the musicals Hallelujah, Baby! (written for Lena Horne but ultimately starring Leslie Uggams) and La Cage Aux Folles (1983), which he directed, however Nick & Nora was not successful. In 2008, Laurents directed a Broadway revival of Gypsy starring Patti LuPone, and in 2009, he tackled a bilingual revival of West Side Story, with Spanish translations of some dialogue and lyrics by Lin-Manuel Miranda. While preparing West Side Story, he noted, "The musical theatre and cultural conventions of 1957 made it next to impossible for the characters to have authenticity." Following the production's March 19 opening at the Palace Theatre, Ben Brantley of The New York Times called the translations "an only partly successful experiment" and added, "Mr. Laurents has exchanged insolence for innocence and, as with most such bargains, there are dividends and losses." The national tour (2011–2012) was directed by David Saint, who was Laurents' assistant director on the Broadway production. The Spanish lyrics and dialog were reduced from about 18% of the total to about 10%. === Hollywood === Laurents' first Hollywood experience proved to be a frustrating disappointment. Director Anatole Litvak, unhappy with the script submitted by Frank Partos and Millen Brand for The Snake Pit (1948), hired Laurents to rewrite it. Partos and Brand later insisted the bulk of the shooting script was theirs, and produced carbon copies of many of the pages Laurents actually had written to bolster their claim. Having destroyed the original script and all his notes and rewritten pages after completing the project, Laurents had no way to prove most of the work was his, and the Writers Guild of America denied him screen credit. Brand later confessed he and Partos had copied scenes written by Laurents and apologized for his role in the deception. Four decades later, Laurents learned he was ineligible for WGA health benefits because he had failed to accumulate enough credits to qualify. He was short by one, the one he failed to get for The Snake Pit. Upon hearing 20th Century Fox executives were pleased with Laurents' work on The Snake Pit, Alfred Hitchcock hired him for his next project, the film Rope starring James Stewart. Hitchcock wanted Laurents to Americanize the British play Rope (1929) by Patrick Hamilton for the screen. With his then-lover Farley Granger set to star, Laurents was happy to accept the assignment. His dilemma was how to make the audience aware of the fact the three main characters were homosexual without blatantly saying so. The Hays Office kept close tabs on his work, and the final script was so discreet that Laurents was unsure whether co-star James Stewart ever realized that his character was gay. In later years, Hitchcock asked him to script both Torn Curtain (1966) and Topaz (1969), However, Laurents, in both cases unenthused by the material, declined the offers. Laurents also scripted Anastasia (1956) and Bonjour Tristesse (1958). The Way We Were (1973), in which he incorporated many of his own experiences, particularly those with the HUAC, reunited him with Barbra Streisand, and The Turning Point (1977), inspired in part by his love for Nora Kaye, was directed by her husband Herbert Ross. The Fox animated feature film Anastasia (1997) was based in part on his screenplay of the live-action 1956 film of the same title. === Blacklist === Because of a casual remark made by Russel Crouse, Laurents was called to Washington, D.C., to account for his political views. He explained himself to the House Un-American Activities Committee, and his appearance had no obvious impact on his career, which at the time was primarily in the theatre. When the McCarran Internal Security Act, which prohibited individuals suspected of engaging in subversive activities from obtaining a passport, was passed in 1950, Laurents and Granger immediately applied for and received passports and departed for Paris with Harold Clurman and his wife Stella Adler. Laurents and Granger remained abroad, traveling throughout Europe and northern Africa, for about 18 months. Years earlier, Laurents and Jerome Robbins had developed Look Ma, I'm Dancin'! (1948), a stage musical about the world of ballet that ran for 188 performances on Broadway, and starred Nancy Walker and Harold Lang. Laurents left the project, however, and the musical was ultimately produced with a book by Jerome Lawrence and Robert E. Lee. When Robbins approached Paramount Pictures about directing a screen version, the studio agreed as long as Laurents was not part of the package. It was only then that Laurents learned he officially had been blacklisted, primarily because a review of Home of the Brave had been published in the Daily Worker. He decided to return to Paris, but the State Department refused to renew his passport. Laurents spent three months trying to clear his name, and after submitting a lengthy letter explaining his political beliefs in detail, it was determined they were so idiosyncratic he could not have been a member of any subversive groups. Within a week his passport was renewed, and the following day he sailed for Europe on the Ile de France. While on board, he received a cable from Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer offering him a screenwriting assignment. The blacklisting had ended. === Memoirs === Laurents wrote Original Story By Arthur Laurents: A Memoir of Broadway and Hollywood, published in 2000. In it, he discusses his lengthy career and his many gay affairs and long-term relationships, including those with Farley Granger and Tom Hatcher (August 24, 1929 - October 26, 2006). Hatcher was an aspiring actor whom Gore Vidal suggested Laurents seek out at the Beverly Hills men's clothing store Hatcher was managing at the time. The couple remained together for 52 years until Hatcher's death on October 26, 2006. Laurents wrote Mainly on Directing: Gypsy, West Side Story and Other Musicals, published in 2009, in which he discussed musicals he directed and the work of other directors he admired. His last memoir titled The Rest of the Story was published posthumously in September 2012. ==Death== Laurents died from complications of pneumonia at his home in Manhattan on May 5, 2011, aged 93. Following a long tradition, Broadway theatre lights were dimmed at 8 p.m. on May 6, 2011, for one minute in his memory. His ashes were buried alongside those of Tom Hatcher in a memorial bench in Quogue, Long Island, New York. ==Work== ===Writing=== Musicals West Side Story – 1957 – Tony Nomination for Best Musical Gypsy – 1959 – Tony Nomination for Best Musical Anyone Can Whistle – 1964 Do I Hear a Waltz? – 1965 Hallelujah, Baby! – 1967 – Tony Award for Best Musical The Madwoman of Central Park West – 1979 Nick & Nora – 1991 Novels The Way We Were – 1972; Harper & Row (New York City) The Turning Point – 1977; New American Library (New York City); Plays Home of the Brave – 1945 The Bird Cage – 1950 The Time of the Cuckoo – 1952 A Clearing in the Woods – 1957 Invitation to a March – 1960 The Enclave – 1973 ===Directing=== ===Additional credits=== ==Accolades== ===Legacy=== A new award was established in 2010, The Laurents/Hatcher Foundation Award. This is awarded annually "for an un-produced, full-length play of social relevance by an emerging American playwright." The Laurents/Hatcher Foundation will give $50,000 to the writer with a grant of $100,000 towards production costs at a nonprofit theatre. The first award will be given in 2011.	[ "Caught (1949 film)", "David Saint", "Flatbush, Brooklyn", "Lux Radio Theater", "Patrick Hamilton (writer)", "Quogue, New York", "United States Department of State", "Alfred Hitchcock", "Academy Award", "William Holden", "Rope (film)", "Daily Worker", "Writers Guild of America Award for Best Original Screenplay", "Barbra Streisand", "CBS", "Music Division, Library of Congress", "Tony Award for Best Direction of a Musical", "West Side Story", "Lin-Manuel Miranda", "British Academy Film Awards", "Seattle Times", "The Time of the Cuckoo", "Farley Granger", "Anyone Can Whistle", "Invitation to a March", "HFPA", "Chorea (disease)", "Erasmus Hall High School", "Hollywood blacklist", "Ben Brantley", "Jerome Robbins", "Harold Lang (dancer)", "The Turning Point (1977 film)", "Anastasia (1997 film)", "CBS Radio", "Academy Award for Best Picture", "Edgar Awards", "Do I Hear a Waltz?", "List of playwrights from the United States", "training film", "United States Army", "I Can Get It for You Wholesale", "Nick & Nora (musical)", "Hallelujah, Baby!", "Bonjour Tristesse (1958 film)", "Astoria, Queens", "Jerome Lawrence", "The Way We Were (novel)", "Cinema of the United States", "The Way We Were", "38th Tony Awards", "New American Library", "Shirley Booth", "BAFTA Award for Best British Screenplay", "Golden Globe Award for Best Screenplay", "26th Writers Guild of America Awards", "Template:Infobox writer/doc", "Beverly Hills", "Writers Guild of America", "50th Academy Awards", "borough (New York City)", "The Daily Telegraph", "New York (magazine)", "Russel Crouse", "James Stewart", "Orthodox Judaism", "clairvoyance", "Kaufman Astoria Studios", "62nd Tony Awards", "Kashrut", "George Cukor", "Gore Vidal", "Drama Desk Award", "Millen Brand", "Nancy Walker", "Topaz (1969 film)", "12th British Academy Film Awards", "SS Ile de France", "Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer", "29th Tony Awards", "Nora Kaye", "Rope (play)", "Anatole Litvak", "Jewish holiday", "The Snake Pit", "Bloomberg L.P.", "Bar and Bat Mitzvah", "Home of the Brave (play)", "Cambria Press", "Tony Awards", "National Board of Review Awards 1999", "The Turning Point (novel)", "Academy Awards", "BAFTA Awards", "30th Writers Guild of America Awards", "Brooklyn", "Frank Partos", "Daily News (New York)", "Herbert Ross", "Gypsy (musical)", "Harper & Row", "20th Century Fox", "Paramount Pictures", "Sydney Pollack", "La Cage aux Folles (musical)", "William N. Robson", "Tony Award", "Broadway theatre", "McCarran Internal Security Act", "Leslie Uggams", "World War II", "National Board of Review", "Torn Curtain", "List of Edgar Allan Poe Award for Best Motion Picture Screenplay winners", "Cornell University", "Gypsy: A Musical Fable", "Jerry Herman", "List of people from Brooklyn, New York", "Tony Award for Best Musical", "United States Motion Picture Production Code of 1930", "Columbia Workshop", "A Clearing in the Woods", "11th British Academy Film Awards", "Stella Adler", "The Madwoman of Central Park West", "Lena Horne", "List of novelists from the United States", "House Un-American Activities Committee", "Palace Theatre (Broadway)", "Playbill", "35th Golden Globe Awards", "Golden Globe Awards", "List of theatre directors", "Backstage (magazine)", "Golden Globe Award", "Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay", "WGA screenwriting credit system", "List of Jewish American playwrights", "Atheism", "BAFTA", "The New York Times", "Anastasia (1956 film)", "New York University", "Fancy Free (ballet)", "Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Director of a Musical", "Internet Broadway Database", "Patti LuPone", "Robert Edwin Lee", "Harold Clurman" ]
3,003	Adrian Lamo	Adrián Alfonso Lamo Atwood and hacker. Lamo first gained media attention for breaking into several high-profile computer networks, including those of The New York Times, Yahoo!, and Microsoft, culminating in his 2003 arrest. Lamo was best known for reporting U.S. soldier Chelsea Manning to Army criminal investigators in 2010 for leaking hundreds of thousands of sensitive U.S. government documents to WikiLeaks. Lamo died on March 14, 2018, at the age of 37. His father, Mario Ricardo Lamo, was Colombian. Adrian Lamo attended high schools in Bogotá and San Francisco, from which he did not graduate, but received a GED and was court-ordered to take courses at American River College, a community college in Sacramento County, California. Lamo began his hacking efforts by hacking games on the Commodore 64 and through phone phreaking. ===Security compromise=== Lamo was a grey hat hacker who viewed the rise of the World Wide Web with a mixture of excitement and alarm. He felt that others failed to see the importance of internet security in the Web's early days. Lamo broke into corporate computer systems but never damaged them. Instead, he would offer to fix the security flaws free of charge, and if the flaw was not fixed, he would alert the media. In February 2002, he broke into the internal computer network of The New York Times, added his name to the internal database of expert sources, and used the paper's LexisNexis account to research high-profile subjects. The New York Times filed a complaint, and a warrant for Lamo's arrest was issued in August 2003 following a 15-month investigation by federal prosecutors in New York. At 10:15 a.m. on September 9, after spending a few days in hiding, he surrendered to the US Marshals in Sacramento, California. He surrendered to the FBI in New York City on September 11, and pleaded guilty to one felony count of computer crimes against Microsoft, LexisNexis, and The New York Times on January 8, 2004. In July 2004, Lamo was sentenced to two years' probation with six months to be served in home detention and ordered to pay $65,000 in restitution. Yahoo!, and WorldCom. When challenged for a response to allegations that he was glamorizing crime for the sake of publicity, he responded: "Anything I could say about my person or my actions would only cheapen what they have to say for themselves". When approached for comment during his criminal case, Lamo frustrated reporters with non-sequiturs, such as "Faith manages" and "It's a beautiful day." At his sentencing, Lamo expressed remorse for the harm his intrusions had caused. The court record quotes him as adding: "I want to answer for what I have done and do better with my life." He subsequently declared on the question-and-answer site Quora: "We all own our actions in fullness, not just the pleasant aspects of them." Lamo accepted that he had made mistakes. ===DNA controversy=== On May 9, 2006, 18 months into a two-year probation sentence, Lamo refused to give the United States government a blood sample it had demanded to record his DNA in its CODIS system. According to his attorney at the time, Lamo had a religious objection to giving blood but was willing to give his DNA in another form. On June 15, 2006, Lamo's lawyers filed a motion citing the Book of Genesis as one basis for Lamo's religious opposition to giving blood. On June 20, 2007, Lamo's legal counsel reached a settlement agreement with the U.S. Department of Justice whereby Lamo would submit a cheek swab instead of a blood sample. ===WikiLeaks and Chelsea Manning=== In February 2009, a partial list of the anonymous donors to the WikiLeaks website was leaked and published on the site. Some media sources indicated at the time that Lamo was among the donors on the list. Lamo commented on his Twitter page, "Thanks WikiLeaks, for leaking your donor list... That's dedication." Lamo informed U.S. Army authorities that Chelsea Manning had claimed to have leaked a large body of classified documents, including 260,000 classified United States diplomatic cables. He said that Manning also "took credit for leaking" the video footage of the July 12, 2007, Baghdad airstrike, which has since come to be known as the "Collateral Murder" video. Lamo said he would not have turned Manning in "if lives weren't in danger". He characterized her as "in a war zone and basically trying to vacuum up as much classified information as [she] could and just throwing it up into the air." The Taliban insurgency later announced its intention to execute Afghan nationals named in the leaks as having cooperated with the U.S.-led coalition in Afghanistan. By that time, the U.S. had received months of advance warning that their names were among the leaks. Manning was arrested and incarcerated in the U.S. military justice system and later sentenced to 35 years in confinement. President Barack Obama commuted the sentence to seven years, including time served. Lamo responded to the commutation with a post on Medium and an interview with U.S. News & World Report. Lamo characterized his decision to work with the government as morally ambiguous but objectively necessary, writing that "there were no right choices that day, only less wrong ones. It was cold, it was needful, and it was no one's to make except mine." Lamo was criticized by fellow hackers, such as those at the Hackers on Planet Earth conference in 2010, who labeled him a "snitch." Another told Lamo, following his speech during a panel discussion: "from my perspective, I see what you have done as treason." ===Greenwald, Lamo, and Wired magazine=== Lamo's role in Manning's case drew criticism from Glenn Greenwald, who suggested that Lamo lied to Manning by turning her in and then lied after the fact to cover up the circumstances of her confessions. In an article about the case, Greenwald mentioned Wired reporter Kevin Poulsen's 1994 felony conviction for computer hacking and wrote that "over the years, Poulsen has served more or less as Lamo's personal media voice." This drew a response from Wired: "At his most reasonable, Greenwald impugns our motives, attacks the character of our staff and carefully selects his facts and sources to misrepresent the truth and generate outrage in his readership." On July 13, 2011, Wired published the Lamo–Manning chat logs in full, stating: "The most significant of the unpublished details have now been publicly established with sufficient authority that we no longer believe any purpose is served by withholding the logs." Greenwald wrote that the logs validated his claim that Wired had concealed important evidence. ==Film and television== On August 22, 2002, Lamo was removed from a segment of NBC Nightly News when, after being asked to demonstrate his skills for the camera, he gained access to NBC's internal network. NBC was concerned that it broke the law by taping Lamo while he possibly broke the law. Lamo was a guest on The Screen Savers five times beginning in 2002. Hackers Wanted, a documentary film focusing on Lamo's life as a hacker, was produced by Trigger Street Productions and narrated by Kevin Spacey. Focusing on the 2003 hacking scene, the film features interviews with Kevin Rose and Steve Wozniak. In May 2010, an early cut of the film was leaked via BitTorrent. According to an insider, what was leaked on the Internet was very different from the newer version, which includes additional footage. On June 12, 2010, a director's cut version of the film was leaked onto torrent sites. Lamo also appeared on Good Morning America, Fox News, Democracy Now!, Frontline, and repeatedly on KCRA-TV News as an expert on netcentric crime and incidents. He was interviewed for the documentaries We Steal Secrets: The Story of WikiLeaks and True Stories: WikiLeaks – Secrets and Lies. Lamo reconnected with Leo Laporte in 2015 as a result of a Quora article on the "dark web" for an episode of The New Screen Savers. Lamo wrote the book Ask Adrian, a collection of his best Q&A drawn from over 500 pages of Quora answers. ==Personal life and death== Lamo was known as the "Homeless Hacker" for his reportedly transient lifestyle, claiming that he spent much of his travels couch-surfing, squatting in abandoned buildings, and traveling to Internet cafés, libraries, and universities to investigate networks, sometimes exploiting security holes. Lamo was bisexual and volunteered for the gay and lesbian media firm PlanetOut Inc. in the mid-1990s. In 1998, he was appointed to the Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, Queer and Questioning Youth Task Force by the San Francisco Board of Supervisors. Lamo used a wide variety of supplements and drugs. His wife, Lauren Fisher, called his drug use "body hacking". One of Lamo's preferred supplements was 'kratom' (Mitragyna speciosa), which he used as a less-dangerous alternative to opioids. In a 2004 interview with Wired, an ex-girlfriend of Lamo's called him "very controlling", alleging "he carried a stun gun, which he used on me". The same article claimed a court had issued a restraining order against Lamo; he disputed the claim, writing: "I have never been subject to a restraining order in my life". Lamo said in a Wired article that, in May 2010, after he reported the theft of his backpack, an investigating officer noted unusual behavior and placed him under a 72-hour involuntary psychiatric hold, which was extended to a nine-day hold. Lamo said he was diagnosed with Asperger syndrome at the psychiatric ward. For a period of time in March 2011, Lamo was allegedly "in hiding", claiming that his "life was under threat" after turning in Manning. Lamo died on March 14, 2018, in Wichita, Kansas, at age 37. Nearly three months later, the Sedgwick County Regional Forensic Science Center reported that "Despite a complete autopsy and supplemental testing, no definitive cause of death was identified." Many bottles of pills were found in his home, some of which were known to cause severe health problems when combined with kratom. As a result, evidence points to an accidental death due to drug abuse.	[ "Kevin Poulsen", "Kevin Rose", "Hackers on Planet Earth", "Barack Obama", "red team", "5150 (involuntary psychiatric hold)", "General Educational Development", "TorrentFreak", "AOL News", "Bogotá", "Phreaking", "U.S. News & World Report", "bisexual", "Sacramento, California", "body hacking", "July 12, 2007, Baghdad airstrike", "cheek swab", "squatting", "Quora", "Kevin Spacey", "United States Marshals Service", "KCRA-TV", "amphetamine", "The New Screen Savers", "grey hat hacker", "Book of Genesis", "Sedgwick County, Kansas", "Fox News Channel", "The Wichita Eagle", "DNA", "Taliban insurgency", "Wired (magazine)", "Steve Wozniak", "Salon.com", "Medium (website)", "Good Morning America", "Sacramento County, California", "Federal Bureau of Investigation", "Mitragyna speciosa", "Wichita, Kansas", "Microsoft", "Leo Laporte", "Aquí y Ahora (TV series)", "Chelsea Manning", "CNET News", "dark web", "WikiLeaks", "restraining order", "couch-surfing", "Commodore 64", "List of unsolved deaths", "Yahoo!", "CNET", "Trigger Street Productions", "Watchdog journalism", "Twitter", "We Steal Secrets: The Story of WikiLeaks", "Daily News (New York)", "NBC Nightly News", "BitTorrent (protocol)", "Federal government of the United States", "Information Week", "We Steal Secrets", "Non sequitur (literary device)", "Worldcom", "Facebook", "Fox News", "United States Department of Justice", "Asperger syndrome", "American River College", "Threat analyst", "LexisNexis", "World Wide Web", "Combined DNA Index System", "Hacker (computer security)", "Glenn Greenwald", "AOL", "internet leak", "The Screen Savers", "The Washington Post", "Frontline (U.S. TV series)", "SecurityFocus", "Hackers Wanted", "Malden, Massachusetts", "SF Weekly", "Informant", "Democracy Now!", "Internet café", "The New York Times", "Huffington Post", "computer crime", "Eric Corley", "San Francisco Board of Supervisors", "PlanetOut Inc." ]
3,004	Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States	An associate justice of the Supreme Court of the United States is a justice of the Supreme Court of the United States, other than the chief justice of the United States. The number of associate justices is eight, as set by the Judiciary Act of 1869. Article II, Section 2, Clause 2 of the Constitution of the United States grants plenary power to the president to nominate, and with the advice and consent (confirmation) of the Senate, appoint justices to the Supreme Court. Article III, Section 1 of the Constitution effectively grants life tenure to associate justices, and all other federal judges, which ends only when a justice dies, retires, resigns, or is impeached and convicted. Each Supreme Court justice has a single vote in deciding the cases argued before it, and the chief justice's vote counts no more than that of any other justice; however, the chief justice leads the discussion of the case among the justices. Furthermore, the chief justice—when in the majority—decides who writes the court's opinion; otherwise, the senior justice in the majority assigns the writing of a decision. The chief justice also has certain administrative responsibilities that the other justices do not and is paid slightly more ($298,500 per year as of 2023, compared to $285,400 per year for an associate justice). Associate justices have seniority in order of the date their respective commissions bear, although the chief justice is always considered to be the most senior justice. If two justices are commissioned on the same day, the elder is designated the senior justice of the two. Currently, the senior associate justice is Clarence Thomas. By tradition, when the justices are in conference deliberating the outcome of cases before the Supreme Court, the justices state their views in order of seniority. The senior associate justice is also tasked with carrying out the chief justice's duties when he is unable to, or if that office is vacant. ==Current associate justices== There are currently eight associate justices on the Supreme Court. The justices, ordered by seniority, are: File:Clarence Thomas official SCOTUS portrait.jpg\|Clarence Thomas,since October 23, 1991 File:010 alito.jpg\|Samuel Alito,since January 31, 2006 File:Sonia Sotomayor in SCOTUS robe.jpg\|Sonia Sotomayor,since August 8, 2009 File:Elena Kagan Official SCOTUS Portrait (2013).jpg\|Elena Kagan,since August 7, 2010 File:Associate Justice Neil Gorsuch Official Portrait.jpg\|Neil Gorsuch,since April 10, 2017 File:Associate Justice Brett Kavanaugh Official Portrait (full length).jpg\|Brett Kavanaugh,since October 6, 2018 File:Justice Amy Coney Barrett (cropped).jpg\|Amy Coney Barrett,since October 27, 2020 File:Justice Jackson Official Portrait.jpg\|alt=\|Ketanji Brown Jackson,since June 30, 2022 ==Retired associate justices== An associate justice who leaves the Supreme Court after attaining the age and meeting the service requirements prescribed by federal statute () may retire rather than resign. After retirement, they keep their title, and by custom may also keep a set of chambers in the Supreme Court building, and employ law clerks. The names of retired associate justices continue to appear alongside those of the active justices in the bound volumes of Supreme Court decisions. Federal statute () provides that retired Supreme Court justices may serve—if designated and assigned by the chief justice—on panels of the U.S. courts of appeals, or on the U.S. district courts. Retired justices are not, however, authorized to take part in the consideration or decision of any cases before the Supreme Court (unlike other retired federal judges who may be permitted to do so in their former courts); neither are they known or designated as a "senior judge". When, after his retirement, William O. Douglas attempted to take a more active role than was customary, maintaining that it was his prerogative to do so because of his senior status, he was rebuffed by Chief Justice Warren Burger and admonished by the whole Court. There are currently three living retired associate justices: David Souter, retired June 29, 2009; Anthony Kennedy, retired July 31, 2018; and Stephen Breyer, retired June 30, 2022. Souter has served on panels of the First Circuit Courts of Appeals following his retirement; Kennedy and Breyer have not performed any judicial duties since retiring. ==List of associate justices== Since the Supreme Court was established in 1789, the following 104 persons have served as an associate justice:	[ "George Washington", "Abraham Lincoln", "Howell Edmunds Jackson", "United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit", "John Paul Stevens", "Samuel Blatchford", "United States House of Representatives", "William Henry Moody", "Calvin Coolidge", "Charles Evans Whittaker", "Constitutional Convention (United States)", "Richard Nixon", "Supreme Court of California", "Judiciary Act of 1869", "New York Supreme Court", "John Tyler", "United States Solicitor General", "Barack Obama", "Maryland's 2nd congressional district", "United States District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia", "United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit", "Office of Legal Counsel", "Alabama House of Representatives", "Appointments Clause", "Benjamin Harrison", "Nutter McClennen & Fish", "James Buchanan", "Potter Stewart", "Samuel Nelson", "governor of South Carolina", "James Clark McReynolds", "Joe Biden", "Willis Van Devanter", "Recess appointment", "Supreme Court of the United States", "United States Deputy Attorney General", "George W. Bush", "United States Secretary of Labor", "Henry Billings Brown", "Chester A. Arthur", "Antonin Scalia", "Alfred Moore", "David Davis (Supreme Court justice)", "William Johnson (judge)", "Frank Murphy", "List of Governors of South Carolina", "United States Secretary of the Treasury", "United States District Court for the Eastern District of Michigan", "Lewis F. Powell Jr.", "John Quincy Adams", "Byron White", "Chief Justice", "Franklin D. Roosevelt", "Harlan F. Stone", "United States Senate", "Samuel Freeman Miller", "Theodore Roosevelt", "Louis Brandeis", "Henry Baldwin (judge)", "William Strong (Pennsylvania judge)", "Ulysses S. Grant", "William Paterson (judge)", "Philadelphia", "Donald Trump", "Justice (title)", "Constitution of the United States", "plenary power", "Solicitor General of the United States", "Sherman Minton", "Stephen Johnson Field", "James A. Garfield", "Alabama", "James F. Byrnes", "South Carolina House of Representatives", "William McKinley", "Supreme Court of Georgia (U.S. state)", "United States Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit", "life tenure", "Abe Fortas", "United States Secretary of the Navy", "John Rutledge", "Smith Thompson", "John Catron", "advice and consent", "Horace Gray", "The Brethren (Woodward and Armstrong book)", "United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit", "Dwight D. Eisenhower", "Oxford University Press", "William Burnham Woods", "governor of Maryland", "Brett Kavanaugh", "Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court", "Ketanji Brown Jackson", "Virginia House of Burgesses", "United States District Court for the District of Kentucky", "New York Court of Appeals", "John Marshall Harlan", "Joseph McKenna", "Thurgood Marshall", "John McKinley", "List of Governors of New York", "List of Governors of New Jersey", "Henry Brockholst Livingston", "Gabriel Duvall", "United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit", "Robert H. Jackson", "Samuel Chase", "University of Alabama", "Arthur Goldberg", "Google Books", "Attorney General of Kentucky", "Acclamation", "Millard Fillmore", "Impeachment of Samuel Chase", "President of the United States", "Herbert Hoover", "Sonia Sotomayor", "Benjamin N. Cardozo", "Massachusetts House of Representatives", "Elena Kagan", "Virginia Ratifying Convention", "Ohio", "Associate Justice", "Harry Blackmun", "John McLean", "governor of New York", "Pennsylvania's 9th congressional district", "Wiley Blount Rutledge", "James Wilson (Founding Father)", "Warren Burger", "John Blair Jr.", "Robert Trimble", "Georgia's at-large congressional district", "George Sutherland", "James Monroe", "Stanley Forman Reed", "United States District Court for the Middle District of Tennessee", "South Carolina", "James K. Polk", "Harold Hitz Burton", "Arizona Court of Appeals", "Article Three of the United States Constitution", "New Jersey's 4th congressional district", "U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission", "Hugo Black", "Attorney General of North Carolina", "Warren G. Harding", "Sandra Day O'Connor", "Rufus W. Peckham", "Mahlon Pitney", "Owen Roberts", "Noah Haynes Swayne", "Joseph P. Bradley", "Ruth Bader Ginsburg", "List of Minnesota State Bar Association Presidents", "United States Attorney General", "Supreme Court Historical Society", "Neil Gorsuch", "Edward Terry Sanford", "John Marshall Harlan (1899–1971)", "Louisiana", "chief justice of the United States", "John Hessin Clarke", "United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit", "Pierce Butler (justice)", "Peter Vivian Daniel", "United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit", "United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit", "William J. Brennan Jr.", "Clarence Thomas", "Anthony Kennedy", "governor of New Jersey", "James Moore Wayne", "Allegheny County, Pennsylvania", "Grover Cleveland", "John Adams", "American Bar Association", "Stephen Breyer", "David Josiah Brewer", "Bushrod Washington", "William R. Day", "Nathan Clifford", "Illinois circuit courts", "Felix Frankfurter", "James Madison", "United States Secretary of the Interior", "United States Assistant Attorney General", "Charles Evans Hughes", "United States Deputy Secretary of the Interior", "Edward Douglass White", "Joseph Rucker Lamar", "Lyndon B. Johnson", "Philip P. Barbour", "Kentucky Court of Appeals", "Joseph Story", "Minnesota State Bar Association", "Woodrow Wilson", "United States Attorney", "Bill Clinton", "United States District Court for the Northern District of Ohio", "Franklin Pierce", "Horace Harmon Lurton", "United States Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit", "Federal impeachment in the United States", "Harry S. Truman", "Stanley Matthews (judge)", "Lucius Quintus Cincinnatus Lamar II", "Thomas Jefferson", "Samuel Alito", "Rutherford B. Hayes", "Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.", "Thomas Todd", "Andrew Jackson", "Thomas Johnson (jurist)", "Benjamin Robbins Curtis", "John F. Kennedy", "Utah", "Levi Woodbury", "Massachusetts Superior Court", "Robert Cooper Grier", "Harvard Law School", "Tom C. Clark", "James Iredell", "Lawyer", "Martin Van Buren", "John Archibald Campbell", "Ronald Reagan", "George H. W. Bush", "William O. Douglas", "Pennsylvania's 14th congressional district", "United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit", "Gerald Ford", "William Cushing", "William Howard Taft", "Massachusetts's 2nd congressional district", "Supreme Court of New Jersey", "United States Postmaster General", "George Shiras Jr.", "United States federal judge", "Amy Coney Barrett", "Oath of office", "David Souter", "Ward Hunt", "Tennessee Supreme Court of Errors and Appeals", "William Rehnquist" ]
3,009	Analcim	Redirect Analcime	[ "Analcime" ]
3,010	Alan Jay Lerner	Alan Jay Lerner (August 31, 1918 – June 14, 1986) was an American lyricist and librettist. In collaboration with Frederick Loewe, and later Burton Lane, he created some of the world's most popular and enduring works of musical theatre both for the stage and on film. Lerner won three Tony Awards and three Academy Awards, among other honors. ==Early life and education== Lerner was born in New York City to a Jewish family. He was the son of Edith ( Adelson) and Joseph Jay Lerner, whose brother, Samuel Alexander Lerner, was founder and owner of the Lerner Stores, a chain of dress shops. One of Lerner's cousins was the radio comedian and television game show panelist Henry Morgan. Lerner was educated at Bedales School in England, The Choate School (now Choate Rosemary Hall) in Wallingford, Connecticut, (where he wrote "The Choate Marching Song") and Harvard. He attended both Camp Androscoggin and Camp Greylock. At both Choate and Harvard, Lerner was a classmate of John F. Kennedy; at Choate they had worked together on the yearbook staff. Like Cole Porter at Yale and Richard Rodgers at Columbia, his career in musical theater began with his collegiate contributions, in Lerner's case to the annual Harvard Hasty Pudding musicals. During the summers of 1936 and 1937, Lerner studied music composition at Juilliard. While attending Harvard, he lost his sight in his left eye due to an accident in the boxing ring. In 1957, Lerner and Leonard Bernstein, another of Lerner's college classmates, collaborated on "Lonely Men of Harvard", a tongue-in-cheek salute to their alma mater. ==Career== Owing to his eye injury, Lerner could not serve in World War II. Instead he wrote radio scripts, including Your Hit Parade, until he was introduced to German-Austrian composer Frederick Loewe, who needed a partner, in 1942 at the Lamb's Club. While at the Lamb's, he also met Lorenz Hart, with whom he would also collaborate. Lerner and Loewe's first collaboration was a musical adaptation of Barry Conners's farce The Patsy called Life of the Party for a Detroit stock company. The lyrics were mostly written by Earle Crooker, but he had left the project, with the score needing vast improvement. It enjoyed a nine-week run and encouraged the duo to join forces with Arthur Pierson for What's Up?, which opened on Broadway in 1943. It ran for 63 performances and was followed two years later by The Day Before Spring. Their first hit was Brigadoon (1947), a romantic fantasy set in a mystical Scottish village, directed by Robert Lewis. It was followed in 1951 by the Gold Rush story Paint Your Wagon. While the show ran for nearly a year and included songs that later became pop standards, such as "They Call the Wind Maria", it was less successful than Lerner's previous work. He later said of Paint Your Wagon, it was "a success but not a hit." Lerner worked with Kurt Weill on the stage musical Love Life (1948) and Burton Lane on the movie musical Royal Wedding (1951). In that same year Lerner also wrote the Oscar-winning original screenplay for An American in Paris, produced by Arthur Freed and directed by Vincente Minnelli. This was the same team who would later join with Lerner and Loewe to create Gigi. In 1956, Lerner and Loewe unveiled My Fair Lady. By this time, too, Lerner and Burton Lane were already working on a musical about Li'l Abner. Gabriel Pascal owned the rights to Pygmalion, which had been unsuccessful with other composers who tried to adapt it into a musical. Arthur Schwartz and Howard Dietz first tried, and then Richard Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein II attempted, but gave up and Hammerstein told Lerner, "Pygmalion had no subplot". Lerner and Loewe's adaptation of George Bernard Shaw's Pygmalion retained his social commentary and added appropriate songs for the characters of Henry Higgins and Eliza Doolittle, played originally by Rex Harrison and Julie Andrews. It set box-office records in New York and London. When brought to the screen in 1964, the movie version won eight Oscars, including Best Picture and Best Actor for Rex Harrison. Lerner and Loewe's run of success continued with their next project, a film adaptation of stories from Colette, the Academy Award-winning film musical Gigi, starring Leslie Caron, Louis Jourdan and Maurice Chevalier. The film won all of its nine Oscar nominations, a record at that time, and a special Oscar for co-star Maurice Chevalier. The Lerner-Loewe partnership cracked under the stress of producing the Arthurian Camelot in 1960, with Loewe resisting Lerner's desire to direct as well as write when original director Moss Hart suffered a heart attack in the last few months of rehearsals and died about a year after the show's Broadway premiere. Lerner was hospitalized with bleeding ulcers while Loewe continued to have heart troubles. Camelot was a hit nonetheless, and immediately following the assassination of John F. Kennedy, his widow told reporter Theodore H. White that JFK's administration reminded her of the "one brief shining moment" of Lerner and Loewe's Camelot. As of the early 21st century, Camelot was still invoked to describe the idealism, romance, and tragedy of the Kennedy years. Loewe retired to Palm Springs, California, while Lerner went through a series of musicals—some successful, some not—with such composers as André Previn (Coco), John Barry (Lolita, My Love), Leonard Bernstein (1600 Pennsylvania Avenue), Burton Lane (Carmelina) and Charles Strouse (Dance a Little Closer, based on the film, Idiot's Delight, nicknamed Close A Little Faster by Broadway humorists because it closed on opening night). Most biographers blame Lerner's professional decline on the lack of a strong director with whom Lerner could collaborate, as Neil Simon did with Mike Nichols or Stephen Sondheim with Harold Prince. (Moss Hart, who had directed My Fair Lady, died shortly after Camelot opened.) In 1965 Lerner collaborated again with Burton Lane on the musical On a Clear Day You Can See Forever, which was adapted for film in 1970. At this time, Lerner was hired by film producer Arthur P. Jacobs to write a treatment for an upcoming film project, Doctor Dolittle, but Lerner abrogated his contract after several non-productive months of non-communicative procrastination and was replaced with Leslie Bricusse. Lerner was inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame in 1971. In 1973, Lerner coaxed Loewe out of retirement to augment the Gigi score for a musical stage adaptation. The following year they collaborated on a musical film version of The Little Prince, based on the classic children's tale by Antoine de Saint-Exupéry. This film was a critical and box office failure, but it has gained a modern following. Lerner's autobiography, The Street Where I Live (1978), was an account of three of his and Loewe's successful collaborations, My Fair Lady, Gigi, and Camelot, along with personal information. In the last year of his life, he published The Musical Theatre: A Celebration, a well-reviewed history of the theatre, with personal anecdotes and humor. The Los Angeles Times reviewer wrote: "There are several reasons why this book makes a fine introduction to musical theater. One is that Lerner knows exactly what was new, and when and why....In "The Musical Theatre," one is privy to the judgment of a man... who expresses his opinions in a forthright, warm and personal manner." A book of Lerner's lyrics entitled A Hymn To Him, edited by a British writer Benny Green, was published in 1987. At the time of Lerner's death, he had been working with Gerard Kenny and Kristi Kane in London on a musical version of the film My Man Godfrey. He had also received an urgent call from Andrew Lloyd Webber, asking him to write the lyrics to The Phantom of the Opera. He wrote "Masquerade", but he then informed Webber that he wanted to leave the project because he was losing his memory (he had developed metastatic lung cancer) and Charles Hart replaced him. He had turned down an invitation to write the English-language lyrics for the musical version of Les Misérables. After Lerner's death, Paul Blake made a musical revue based on Lerner's lyrics and life entitled Almost Like Being In Love, which featured music by Loewe, Lane, Previn, Strouse, and Weill. The show ran for 10 days at the Herbst Theatre in San Francisco. ==Songwriting== Lerner often struggled with writing his lyrics. He was uncharacteristically able to complete "I Could Have Danced All Night" from My Fair Lady in one 24-hour period. He usually spent months on each song and was constantly rewriting them. Lerner was said to have insecurity about his talent. He would sometimes write songs with someone in mind. For instance, he changed the rhymes in some lines of "I've Grown Accustomed To Her Face" to ones that Rex Harrison was more comfortable with. Lerner said of writing: In a 1979 interview on NPR's All Things Considered, Lerner went into some depth about his lyrics for My Fair Lady. Professor Henry Higgins sings, "Look at her, a prisoner of the gutters / Condemned by every syllable she utters / By right she should be taken out and hung / For the cold-blooded murder of the English tongue." Lerner said he knew the lyric used incorrect grammar for the sake of a rhyme. He was later approached about it by another lyricist: ==Dramatists Guild== Alan Jay Lerner was an advocate for writers' rights in theatre. He was a member of the Dramatists Guild of America. In 1960, he was elected as the twelfth president of the non-profit organization. He continued to serve as the Guild's president until 1964. ==Personal life== For nearly twenty years, Lerner was addicted to amphetamines; during the 1960s he was a patient of Max Jacobson, known as "Dr. Feelgood", who administered injections of "vitamins with enzymes" that were in fact laced with amphetamines. Lerner's addiction is believed to have been the result of Jacobson's practice. ===Marriages and children=== Lerner married eight times: Ruth Boyd (1940–1947), singer Marion Bell (1947–1949), actress Nancy Olson (1950–1957), lawyer Micheline Muselli Pozzo di Borgo (1957–1965), editor Karen Gundersen (1966–1974), Sandra Payne (1974–1976), Nina Bushkin (1977–1981) and Liz Robertson (1981–1986 [his death]). Four of his eight wives — Olson, Payne, Bushkin, and Robertson — were actresses. After their divorce in 1981, Lerner was ordered to pay her a settlement of $50,000. Lerner wrote in his autobiography (as quoted by The New York Times): "All I can say is that if I had no flair for marriage, I also had no flair for bachelorhood." All of this lent some irony to the lyrics for his song Get Me to the Church on Time. Lerner had four children — three daughters, Susan (by Boyd), Liza, and Jennifer (by Olson), and one son, screenwriter and journalist Michael Alan Lerner (by di Borgo). Lerner's multiple divorces cost him much of his wealth. Still, he was primarily responsible for his financial ups and downs and was less than truthful about his financial fecklessness. It was claimed that his divorce settlement from Micheline Muselli Pozzo di Borgo (his fourth wife) cost him an estimated $1 million in 1965. This was untrue. Lerner's pattern of financial mismanagement continued until his death from cancer in 1986 when he reportedly owed the U.S. Internal Revenue Service over US$1 million in back taxes and was unable to pay for his final medical expenses. ==Death== On June 14, 1986, Lerner died of lung cancer in Manhattan at the age of 67. At the time of his death he was married to actress Liz Robertson, who was 36 years his junior. He has a memorial plaque in St Paul's Church, the Actors' Church in Covent Garden in London. ==Awards and honors== American Theater Hall of Fame 1979 Kennedy Center Honors 1985 Academy Award Best Original Screenplay, 1951 An American in Paris Best Adapted Screenplay, 1958 Gigi Best Original Song, 1958 Gigi Golden Globes Best Original Song, 1968 Camelot Best Original Score, 1975 The Little Prince Tony Award Best Book of a Musical, 1957 My Fair Lady Best Original Score, 1957 My Fair Lady and 1974 Gigi New York Drama Critics Circle Lyric Writing, 1985, Lifetime ==Works== ===Stage=== Life of the Party (1942), with Frederick Loewe What's Up? (1943), with Frederick Loewe The Day Before Spring (1945), with Frederick Loewe Brigadoon (1947), with Frederick Loewe Love Life (1948), with Kurt Weill Paint Your Wagon (1951), Frederick Loewe My Fair Lady (1956), with Frederick Loewe Camelot (1960), with Frederick Loewe On a Clear Day You Can See Forever (1965), with Burton Lane Coco (1969), with André Previn Lolita, My Love (1971), with John Barry Gigi (1973), based on the 1958 film of the same name, with Frederick Loewe 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue (1976), with Leonard Bernstein Carmelina (1979), with Burton Lane and Joseph Stein Dance a Little Closer (1983), with Charles Strouse My Man Godfrey (1984), unfinished, with Gerard Kenny ===Films=== Source: TCM Royal Wedding, 1951 (screenwriter/lyricist) An American in Paris (1951) (writer) Brigadoon, 1954 (film) (screenwriter/lyricist) Gigi, 1958 (screenwriter/lyricist) The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, 1960 (lyricist) My Fair Lady, 1964 (screenwriter/lyricist) Camelot, 1967 (screenwriter/lyricist) Paint Your Wagon, 1969 (producer/screenwriter/lyricist) On a Clear Day You Can See Forever, 1970 (screenwriter/lyricist) The Little Prince, 1974 (screenwriter/lyricist) Tribute, 1980 ("It's All for the Best", lyricist) Secret Places, 1984 (title song lyricist)	[ "Sandra Payne (actress)", "Camp Greylock", "On a Clear Day You Can See Forever", "Covent Garden", "David R. Godine", "John Barry (composer)", "Music Division, Library of Congress", "Sun-Sentinel", "Burton Lane", "Idiot's Delight (film)", "Tony Award for Best Original Score", "Noël Coward", "Camp Androscoggin", "All Things Considered", "Doctor Dolittle (film)", "Arthur Pierson (director)", "Chicago Tribune", "1600 Pennsylvania Avenue (musical)", "The Phantom of the Opera (1986 musical)", "Rex Harrison", "screenplay", "Masquerade (The Phantom of the Opera song)", "Julie Andrews", "Max Jacobson", "Frederick Loewe", "Lorenz Hart", "Colette", "Los Angeles Times", "New York City", "Liz Robertson", "Gabriel Pascal", "Andrew Lloyd Webber", "Dramatists Guild of America", "Joey Bushkin", "New York Drama Critics' Circle", "Love Life (musical)", "Royal Wedding", "Life of the Party (musical)", "New York Drama Critics Circle", "Kristi Kane (libretto)", "Your Hit Parade", "lyricist", "My Fair Lady (film)", "Neil Simon", "Harvard University", "Popular music", "The New York Sun", "Louis Jourdan", "Coco (musical)", "lung cancer", "Marion Bell", "On a Clear Day You Can See Forever (film)", "Lyricist", "My Man Godfrey", "Academy Award for Writing Original Screenplay", "Manhattan", "Herbst Theatre", "Stock company (acting)", "Columbia University", "Howard Dietz", "Robert Lewis (actor)", "Leslie Bricusse", "Nancy Olson", "Substance use disorder", "St Paul's, Covent Garden", "Lamb's Club", "Camelot (film)", "Brigadoon (film)", "Get Me to the Church on Time", "San Francisco, California", "Li'l Abner", "Bedales School", "Golden Globe Award for Best Original Song", "Vincente Minnelli", "Tony Award for Best Book of a Musical", "Musical theatre", "Detroit", "They Call the Wind Maria", "Paint Your Wagon (musical)", "Benny Green (saxophonist)", "Cole Porter", "I've Grown Accustomed To Her Face", "American Theater Hall of Fame", "Center Island, New York", "Arthur P. Jacobs", "Richard Rodgers", "Les Misérables (musical)", "Academy Awards", "Leonard Bernstein", "George Bernard Shaw", "Arthur Freed", "Gigi (musical)", "The Little Prince (1974 film)", "Carmelina", "Charles Strouse", "Golden Globe Award for Best Original Score", "What's Up? (musical)", "Mannes College of Music", "Tony Award", "I Could Have Danced All Night", "World War II", "Choate Rosemary Hall", "Stanley Green (historian)", "Leslie Caron", "Lolita, My Love", "Gigi (1958 film)", "Associated Press", "Harold Prince", "Maurice Chevalier", "Moss Hart", "Gerard Kenny", "Lerner Stores", "Henry Morgan (comedian)", "librettist", "Brigadoon", "Tribute (1980 film)", "André Previn", "Arthur Schwartz", "Brigadoon (musical)", "The Day Before Spring", "Yale", "Hasty Pudding Theatricals", "Antoine de Saint-Exupéry", "Playbill", "An American in Paris (film)", "The Little Prince", "Turner Classic Movies", "Songwriters Hall of Fame", "Academy Award for Best Original Song", "Dance a Little Closer", "Golden Globes", "Juilliard", "Camelot (musical)", "Michael Alan Lerner", "Pygmalion (play)", "Lerner and Loewe", "Palm Springs, California", "Internal Revenue Service", "Stephen Sondheim", "amphetamines", "California Gold Rush", "NPR", "musical theatre", "National Academy of Popular Music", "John F. Kennedy", "Paint Your Wagon (film)", "Joseph Stein", "Theodore H. White", "Austria", "The New York Times", "Charles Hart (lyricist)", "Oscar Hammerstein II", "Kennedy Center Honors", "Academy Award for Writing Adapted Screenplay", "My Fair Lady", "Kurt Weill", "bleeding ulcer", "Mike Nichols" ]
3,012	Al Capp	Alfred Gerald Caplin (September 28, 1909 – November 5, 1979), better known as Al Capp, was an American cartoonist and humorist best known for the satirical comic strip Li'l Abner, which he created in 1934 and continued writing and (with help from assistants) drawing until 1977. He also wrote the comic strips Abbie an' Slats (in the years 1937–45) and Long Sam (1954). He won the National Cartoonists Society's Reuben Award in 1947 for Cartoonist of the Year, and their 1979 Elzie Segar Award, posthumously for his "unique and outstanding contribution to the profession of cartooning". Capp's comic strips dealt with urban experiences in the Northern United States until the year he introduced "Li'l Abner". Although Capp was from Connecticut, he spent 43 years writing about the fictional Southern town of Dogpatch, reaching an estimated 60 million readers in more than 900 American newspapers and 100 more papers in 28 countries internationally. M. Thomas Inge says Capp made a large personal fortune through the strip and "had a profound influence on the way the world viewed the American South". ==Early life and education== Capp was born in New Haven, Connecticut, of East European Jewish heritage. He was the eldest child of Otto Philip Caplin (1885–1964) and Matilda (Davidson) Caplin (1884–1948). Otto Caplion was a failed businessman and an amateur cartoonist; Al's brothers Elliot and Jerome were also cartoonists, and his sister Madeline was a publicist. Capp's parents were both natives of Latvia whose families had migrated to New Haven in the 1880s. "My mother and father had been brought to this country from Russia when they were infants", wrote Capp in 1978. "Their fathers had found that the great promise of America was true — it was no crime to be a Jew." The Caplins were indigent; Capp recalled stories of his mother going out in the night to sift through ash barrels for reusable bits of coal. In August 1919, at age nine, Capp was run over by a trolley car and had his left leg amputated above the knee. According to his father Otto's unpublished autobiography, young Capp was not prepared for the amputation beforehand; having been in a coma for days, he suddenly awoke to discover that his leg had been removed. He was eventually given a prosthetic leg but only learned to use it by adopting a slow way of walking which became increasingly painful as he aged. The childhood tragedy of losing a leg likely helped shape Capp's cynical worldview, which was darker and more sardonic than that of most newspaper cartoonists. "I was indignant as hell about that leg," he revealed in a November 1950 interview in Time magazine. The prevailing opinion among his friends was that Capp's Swiftian satire was, to some degree, a creatively channeled, compensatory response to his disability. Capp's father introduced him to drawing as a form of therapy. He became quite proficient, advancing mostly on his own. Among his earliest influences were Punch cartoonist–illustrator Phil May and American comic strip cartoonists Tad Dorgan, Cliff Sterrett, Rube Goldberg, Rudolph Dirks, Fred Opper, Billy DeBeck, George McManus, and Milt Gross. At about this same time, Capp became a voracious reader. According to Capp's brother Elliot, Alfred had finished all of Shakespeare and George Bernard Shaw before he was 13 years old. Among his childhood favorites were Dickens, Smollett, Mark Twain, Booth Tarkington, and later, Robert Benchley and S. J. Perelman. Capp spent five years at Bridgeport High School in Bridgeport, Connecticut, without receiving a diploma. He liked to joke about how he failed geometry for nine straight terms. His formal training came from a series of art schools in the Northeast. Attending three of them in rapid succession, the impoverished Capp was thrown out of each for nonpayment of tuition—the Boston Museum School of Fine Arts, the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, and Designers Art School in Boston—the last before launching his career. Capp already had decided to become a cartoonist. "I heard that Bud Fisher (creator of Mutt and Jeff) got $3,000 a week and was constantly marrying French countesses", Capp said. "I decided that was for me." In early 1932, Capp hitchhiked to New York City. He lived in "airless rat holes" in Greenwich Village and turned out advertising strips at $2 each while scouring the city hunting for jobs. He eventually found work at the Associated Press when he was 23 years old. By March 1932, Capp was drawing Colonel Gilfeather, a single-panel, AP-owned property created in 1930 by Dick Dorgan. Capp changed the focus and title to Mister Gilfeather but soon grew to hate the feature. He left the Associated Press in September 1932. Before leaving, he met Milton Caniff and the two became lifelong friends. Capp moved to Boston and married Catherine Wingate Cameron, whom he had met earlier in art class. She died in 2006 at the age of 96. Leaving his new wife with her parents in Amesbury, Massachusetts, he subsequently returned to New York in 1933, in the midst of the Great Depression. "I was 23, I carried a mass of drawings, and I had nearly five dollars in my pocket. People were sleeping in alleys then, willing to work at anything." There he met Ham Fisher, who hired him to ghost on Joe Palooka. During one of Fisher's extended vacations, Capp's Joe Palooka story arc introduced a stupid, coarse, oafish mountaineer named "Big Leviticus", a crude prototype. (Leviticus was much closer to Capp's later villains Lem and Luke Scragg than to the much more appealing and innocent Li'l Abner.) Also during this period, Capp was working at night on samples for the strip that eventually became Li'l Abner. He based his cast of characters on the authentic mountain-dwellers he met (This would have been before the Tennessee Valley Authority Act of 1933 began the years-long process of bringing basic utilities like electricity and running water to the region.) Leaving Joe Palooka, Capp sold Li'l Abner to United Feature Syndicate (later known as United Media). The feature was launched on Monday, August 13, 1934, in eight North American newspapers—including the New York Mirror—and was an immediate success. Alfred G. Caplin eventually became "Al Capp" because the syndicate felt the original would not fit in a cartoon frame. Capp had his name changed legally in 1949. His younger brother, Elliot Caplin, also became a comic strip writer, best known for co-creating the soap opera strip The Heart of Juliet Jones with artist Stan Drake and conceiving the comic strip character Broom-Hilda with cartoonist Russell Myers. Elliot authored several off-Broadway plays, including A Nickel for Picasso (1981), which was based on and dedicated to his mother and his famous brother. ==Li'l Abner== What began as a hillbilly burlesque soon evolved into one of the most imaginative, popular, and well-drawn strips of the twentieth century. Featuring vividly outlandish characters, bizarre situations, and equal parts suspense, slapstick, irony, satire, black humor, and biting social commentary, Li'l Abner is considered a classic of the genre. The comic strip stars Li'l Abner Yokum—the simple-minded, loutish but good-natured, and eternally innocent hayseed who lives with his parents—scrawny but superhuman Mammy Yokum, and shiftless, childlike Pappy Yokum. "Yokum" was a combination of yokel and hokum, although Capp established a deeper meaning for the name during a series of visits around 1965–1970 with comics historians George E. Turner and Michael H. Price: The Yokums live in the backwater hamlet of Dogpatch, Kentucky. Described by its creator as "an average stone-age community", Dogpatch mostly consists of hopelessly ramshackle log cabins, pine trees, "tarnip" fields, and "hawg" wallows. Whatever energy Abner had went into evading the marital goals of Daisy Mae Scragg, his sexy, well-endowed, but virtuous girlfriend, until Capp finally gave in to reader pressure and allowed the couple to marry. This newsworthy event made the cover of Life on March 31, 1952. Capp peopled his comic strip with an assortment of memorable characters, including Marryin' Sam, Hairless Joe, Lonesome Polecat, Evil-Eye Fleegle, General Bullmoose, Lena the Hyena, Senator Jack S. Phogbound (Capp's caricature of the anti-New Deal Dixiecrats), the (shudder!) Scraggs, Available Jones, Nightmare Alice, Earthquake McGoon, and a host of others. Especially notable, certainly from a G.I. point of view, are the beautiful, full-figured women — Daisy Mae, Wolf Gal, Stupefyin' Jones, and Moonbeam McSwine (a caricature of his wife Catherine, aside from the dirt) — all of whom found their way onto the nose art of bomber planes during World War II and the Korean War. Perhaps Capp's most popular creations were the Shmoos, creatures whose incredible usefulness and generous nature made them a threat to civilization as we know it. Another famous character was Joe Btfsplk, who wants to be a loving friend but is "the world's worst jinx", bringing bad luck to all those nearby. Btfsplk (his name is "pronounced" by simply blowing a "raspberry" or Bronx cheer) always has an iconic dark cloud over his head. Dogpatch residents regularly combat the likes of city slickers, business tycoons, government officials, and intellectuals with their homespun simplicity. Situations often take the characters to other destinations, including New York City, Washington, D.C., Hollywood, tropical islands, the moon, Mars, and some purely fanciful worlds of Capp's invention, including El Passionato, Kigmyland, The Republic of Crumbumbo, Skunk Hollow, The Valley of the Shmoon, Planets Pincus Number 2 and 7, and a miserable frozen wasteland known as Lower Slobbovia, a pointedly political satire of backward nations and foreign diplomacy that remains a contemporary reference. According to cultural historian Anthony Harkins: The strip's popularity grew from an original eight papers to eventually more than 900. At its peak, Li'l Abner was estimated to have been read daily in the United States by 60 to 70 million people (the U.S. population at the time was only 180 million), with adult readers far outnumbering children. Many communities, high schools, and colleges staged Sadie Hawkins dances patterned after the similar annual event in the strip. Li'l Abner has one odd design quirk that has puzzled readers for decades: the part in his hair always faces the viewer, no matter which direction Abner is facing. In response to the question "Which side does Abner part his hair on?", Capp would answer: "Both." Capp said he finally found the right "look" for Li'l Abner with Henry Fonda's character Dave Tolliver in The Trail of the Lonesome Pine (1936). In later years, Capp always claimed to have effectively created the miniskirt, when he first put one on Daisy Mae in the 1930s. ==Parodies, toppers, and alternate strips== Li'l Abner also features a comic strip-within-the-strip: Fearless Fosdick is a parody of Chester Gould's Dick Tracy. It first appeared in 1942, and it proved so popular that it ran intermittently during the next 35 years. Gould was parodied personally in the series as cartoonist "Lester Gooch"—the diminutive, much-harassed and occasionally deranged "creator" of Fosdick. The style of the Fosdick sequences closely mimicks Tracy, including the urban setting, the outrageous villains, the galloping mortality rate, the crosshatched shadows, and even the lettering style. In 1952, Fosdick was the star of his own short-lived puppet show on NBC, featuring the Mary Chase marionettes. Besides Dick Tracy, Capp parodied many other comic strips in Li'l Abner—including Steve Canyon, Superman (at least twice; first as "Jack Jawbreaker" in 1947, and again in 1966 as "Chickensouperman"), Mary Worth as "Mary Worm", Peanuts (in 1968, with "Peewee", a parody of Charlie Brown, and "Croopy", a parody of Snoopy, drawn by "Bedley Damp", a parody of Charles Schulz), Rex Morgan, M.D., Little Annie Rooney, and Little Orphan Annie (in which Punjab became "Punjbag", an oleaginous slob). Fearless Fosdick—and Capp's other spoofs such as "Little Fanny Gooney" (1952) and "Jack Jawbreaker"—were almost certainly an early inspiration for Harvey Kurtzman's Mad Magazine, which began in 1952 as a comic book that specifically parodied other comics in the same distinctive style and subversive manner. Capp also lampooned popular recording idols of the day, including Elvis Presley ("Hawg McCall", 1957), Liberace ("Loverboynik", 1956), the Beatles ("the Beasties", 1964)—and in 1944, Frank Sinatra. "Sinatra was the first great public figure I ever wrote about," Capp once said. "I called him 'Hal Fascinatra.' I remember my news syndicate was so worried about what his reaction might be, and we were all surprised when he telephoned and told me how thrilled he was with it. He always made it a point to send me champagne whenever he happened to see me in a restaurant..." (from Frank Sinatra, My Father by Nancy Sinatra, 1985). On the other hand, Liberace was "cut to the quick" over Loverboynik, according to Capp, and even threatened legal action—as would Joan Baez later, over "Joanie Phoanie" in 1967. Capp was just as likely to parody himself; his self-caricature made frequent, tongue-in-cheek appearances in Li'l Abner. The gag was often at his own expense, as in the above 1951 sequence showing Capp's interaction with "fans" (see excerpt), or in his 1955 Disneyland parody, "Hal Yappland". Just about anything could be a target for Capp's satire—in one storyline Li'l Abner is revealed to be the missing link between ape and man. In another, the search is on in Dogpatch for a pair of missing socks knitted by the first president of the United States. In addition to creating Li'l Abner, Capp also co-created two other newspaper strips: Abbie an' Slats with magazine illustrator Raeburn van Buren in 1937, and Long Sam with cartoonist Bob Lubbers in 1954, as well as the Sunday "topper" strips Washable Jones, Small Fry (a.k.a. Small Change), and Advice fo' Chillun. ==Critical recognition== According to comics historian Coulton Waugh, a 1947 poll of newspaper readers who claimed they ignored the comics page altogether revealed that many confessed to making a single exception: Li'l Abner. "When Li'l Abner made its debut in 1934, the vast majority of comic strips were designed chiefly to amuse or thrill their readers. Capp turned that world upside-down by routinely injecting politics and social commentary into Li'l Abner. The strip was the first to regularly introduce characters and story lines having nothing to do with the nominal stars of the strip. The technique—as invigorating as it was unorthodox—was later adopted by cartoonists such as Walt Kelly [Pogo] and Garry Trudeau [Doonesbury]", wrote comic strip historian Rick Marschall. According to Marschall, Li'l Abner gradually evolved into a broad satire of human nature. In his book America's Great Comic Strip Artists (1989), Marschall's analysis revealed a decidedly misanthropic subtext. Over the years, Li'l Abner has been adapted to radio, animated cartoons, stage production, motion pictures, and television. Capp has been compared, at various times, to Mark Twain, Dostoevski, Jonathan Swift, Lawrence Sterne, and Rabelais. Fans of the strip ranged from novelist John Steinbeck—who called Capp "possibly the best writer in the world today" in 1953 and even earnestly recommended him for the Nobel Prize in literature—to media critic and theorist Marshall McLuhan, who considered Capp "the only robust satirical force in American life". John Updike, comparing Abner to a "hillbilly Candide", added that the strip's "richness of social and philosophical commentary approached the Voltairean". Charlie Chaplin, William F. Buckley, Al Hirschfeld, Harpo Marx, Russ Meyer, John Kenneth Galbraith, Ralph Bakshi, Shel Silverstein, Hugh Downs, Gene Shalit, Frank Cho, Daniel Clowes, and (reportedly) even Queen Elizabeth have confessed to being fans of Li'l Abner. Li'l Abner was also the subject of the first book-length scholarly assessment of an American comic strip ever published. Li'l Abner: A Study in American Satire by Arthur Asa Berger (Twayne, 1969) contained serious analyses of Capp's narrative technique, his use of dialogue, self-caricature, and grotesquerie, the place of Li'l Abner in American satire, and the significance of social criticism and the graphic image. "One of the few strips ever taken seriously by students of American culture," wrote Professor Berger, "Li'l Abner is worth studying ... because of Capp's imagination and artistry, and because of the strip's very obvious social relevance." It was reprinted by the University Press of Mississippi in 1994. ==The 1940s and 1950s== During World War II and for many years afterward, Capp worked tirelessly going to hospitals to entertain patients, especially to cheer recent amputees and explain to them that the loss of a limb did not mean an end to a happy and productive life. Making no secret of his own disability, Capp openly joked about his prosthetic leg his whole life. In 1946, Capp created a special full-color comic book, Al Capp by Li'l Abner, to be distributed by the Red Cross to encourage the thousands of amputee veterans returning from the war. Capp also was involved with the Sister Kenny Foundation, which pioneered new treatments for polio in the 1940s. Serving in his capacity as honorary chairman, Capp made public appearances on its behalf for years, contributed free artwork for its annual fundraising appeals, and entertained disabled and paraplegic children in children's hospitals with inspirational pep talks, humorous stories, and sketches. In 1940, an RKO movie adaptation starred Granville Owen (later known as Jeff York) as Li'l Abner, with Buster Keaton taking the role of Lonesome Polecat, and featuring a title song with lyrics by Milton Berle. A successful musical comedy adaptation of the strip opened on Broadway at the St. James Theater on November 15, 1956, and had a long run of 693 performances, followed by a nationwide tour. The stage musical, with music and lyrics by Gene de Paul and Johnny Mercer, was adapted into a Technicolor motion picture at Paramount in 1959 by producer Norman Panama and director Melvin Frank, with a score by Nelson Riddle. Several performers repeated their Broadway roles in the film, most memorably Julie Newmar as Stupefyin' Jones and Stubby Kaye as Marryin' Sam. Other highlights of that decade included the 1942 debut of Fearless Fosdick as Abner's "ideel" (hero); the 1946 Lena the Hyena Contest, in which a hideous Lower Slobbovian gal was ultimately revealed in the harrowing winning entry (as judged by Frank Sinatra, Boris Karloff, and Salvador Dalí) drawn by noted cartoonist Basil Wolverton; and an ill-fated Sunday parody of Gone With the Wind that aroused anger and legal threats from author Margaret Mitchell, and led to a printed apology within the strip. In October 1947, Li'l Abner met Rockwell P. Squeezeblood, head of the abusive and corrupt Squeezeblood Comic Strip Syndicate. The resulting sequence, "Jack Jawbreaker Fights Crime!", was a devastating satire of Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster's notorious exploitation by DC Comics over Superman. It was later reprinted in The World of Li'l Abner (1953). (Siegel and Shuster had earlier poked fun at Capp in a Superman story in Action Comics #55, December 1942, in which a cartoonist named "Al Hatt" invents a comic strip featuring the hillbilly "Tiny Rufe".) In 1947, Capp earned a Newsweek cover story. That same year the New Yorker's profile on him was so long that it ran in consecutive issues. In 1948, Capp reached a creative peak with the introduction of the Shmoos, lovable and innocent fantasy creatures who reproduced at amazing speed and brought so many benefits that, ironically, the world economy was endangered. The much-copied storyline was a parable that was metaphorically interpreted in many different ways at the outset of the Cold War. Following his close friend Milton Caniff's lead (with Steve Canyon), Capp had recently fought a successful battle with the syndicate to gain complete ownership of his feature when the Shmoos debuted. As a result, he reaped enormous financial rewards from the unexpected (and almost unprecedented) merchandising phenomenon that followed. As in the strip, Shmoos suddenly appeared to be everywhere in 1949 and 1950—including a Time cover story. A paperback collection of the original sequence, The Life and Times of the Shmoo, became a bestseller for Simon & Schuster. Shmoo dolls, clocks, watches, jewelry, earmuffs, wallpaper, fishing lures, air fresheners, soap, ice cream, balloons, ashtrays, comic books, records, sheet music, toys, games, Halloween masks, salt and pepper shakers, decals, pinbacks, tumblers, coin banks, greeting cards, planters, neckties, suspenders, belts, curtains, fountain pens, and other Shmoo paraphernalia were produced. A garment factory in Baltimore turned out a whole line of Shmoo apparel, including "Shmooveralls". The original sequence and its 1959 sequel The Return of the Shmoo have been collected in print many times since, most recently in 2011, always to high sales figures. The Shmoos later had their own animated television series. Capp followed this success with other allegorical fantasy critters, including the aboriginal and masochistic "Kigmies", who craved abuse (a story that began as a veiled comment on racial and religious oppression), the dreaded "Nogoodniks" (or bad shmoos), and the irresistible "Bald Iggle", a guileless creature whose sad-eyed countenance compelled involuntary truthfulness—with predictably disastrous results. Li'l Abner was censored for the first time, but not the last, in September 1947 and was pulled from papers by Scripps-Howard. The controversy, as reported in Time, centered on Capp's portrayal of the United States Senate. Edward Leech of Scripps said, "We don't think it is good editing or sound citizenship to picture the Senate as an assemblage of freaks and crooks ... boobs and undesirables." Capp criticized Senator Joseph McCarthy in 1954, calling him a "poet". "He uses poetic license to try to create the beautifully ordered world of good guys and bad guys that he wants," said Capp. "He seems at his best when terrifying the helpless and naïve." Capp received the National Cartoonists Society's Billy DeBeck Memorial Award in 1947 for Cartoonist of the Year. (When the award name was changed in 1954, Capp also retroactively received a Reuben statuette.) He was an outspoken pioneer in favor of diversifying the NCS by admitting women cartoonists. Originally, the Society had disallowed female members. Capp briefly resigned his membership in 1949 to protest their refusal of admission to Hilda Terry, creator of the comic strip Teena. According to Tom Roberts, author of Alex Raymond: His Life and Art (2007), Capp delivered a stirring speech that was instrumental in changing those rules. The NCS finally accepted female members the following year. In December 1952, Capp published an article in Real magazine entitled "The REAL Powers in America" that further challenged the conventional attitudes of the day: "The real powers in America are women—the wives and sweethearts behind the masculine dummies...." Highlights of the 1950s included the much-heralded marriage of Abner and Daisy Mae in 1952, the birth of their son "Honest Abe" Yokum in 1953, and in 1954 the introduction of Abner's enormous, long-lost kid brother Tiny Yokum, who filled Abner's place as a bachelor in the annual Sadie Hawkins Day race. In 1952, Capp and his characters graced the covers of both Life and TV Guide. The year 1956 saw the debut of Bald Iggle, considered by some Abner enthusiasts to be the creative high point of the strip, as well as Mammy's revelatory encounter with the "Square Eyes" Family—Capp's thinly-veiled appeal for racial tolerance. (This fable-like story was collected into an educational comic book called Mammy Yokum and the Great Dogpatch Mystery! and distributed by the Anti-Defamation League of B'nai B'rith later that year.) Two years later, Capp's studio issued Martin Luther King and the Montgomery Story, a biographical comic book distributed by the Fellowship of Reconciliation. Often, Capp had parodied corporate greed—pork tycoon J. Roaringham Fatback had figured prominently in wiping out the Shmoos. But in 1952, when General Motors president Charles E. Wilson, nominated for a cabinet post, told Congress "...what was good for the country was good for General Motors and vice versa", he inspired one of Capp's greatest satires—the introduction of General Bullmoose, the robust, ruthless, and ageless business tycoon. The blustering Bullmoose, who seemed to own and control nearly everything, justified his far-reaching and mercenary excesses by saying "What's good for General Bullmoose is good for the USA!" Bullmoose's corrupt interests were often pitted against those of the pathetic Lower Slobbovians in a classic mismatch of "haves" versus "have-nots". This character, along with the Shmoos, helped cement Capp's favor with the Left, and increased their outrage a decade later when Capp, a former Franklin D. Roosevelt liberal, switched targets. Nonetheless, General Bullmoose continued to appear, undaunted and unredeemed, during the strip's final right-wing phase and into the 1970s. ==Feud with Ham Fisher== After Capp quit his ghosting job on Ham Fisher's Joe Palooka in 1934 to launch his own strip, Fisher badmouthed him to colleagues and editors, claiming that Capp had "stolen" his idea. For years, Fisher brought the characters back to his strip, billing them as "The ORIGINAL Hillbilly Characters" and advising readers not to be "fooled by imitations". (In fact, Fisher's brutish hillbilly character—Big Leviticus, created by Capp in Fisher's absence—bore little resemblance to Li'l Abner.) According to a November 1950 Time article, "Capp parted from Fisher with a definite impression, (to put it mildly) that he had been underpaid and unappreciated. Fisher, a man of Roman self esteem, considered Capp an ingrate and a whippersnapper, and watched his rise to fame with unfeigned horror." "Fisher repeatedly brought Leviticus and his clan back, claiming their primacy as comics' first hillbilly family – but he was missing the point. It wasn't the setting that made Capp's strip such a huge success. It was Capp's finely tuned sense of the absurd, his ability to milk an outrageous situation for every laugh in it and then, impossibly, to squeeze even more laughs from it, that found such favor with the public," (from Don Markstein's Toonopedia). The Capp-Fisher feud was well known in cartooning circles, and it grew more personal as Capp's strip eclipsed Joe Palooka in popularity. Fisher hired away Capp's top assistant, Moe Leff. After Fisher underwent plastic surgery, Capp included a racehorse in Li'l Abner named "Ham's Nose-Bob". In 1950, Capp introduced a cartoonist character named "Happy Vermin"—a caricature of Fisher—who hired Abner to draw his comic strip in a dimly lit closet (after sacking his previous "temporary" assistant of 20 years, who had been cut off from all his friends in the process). Instead of using Vermin's tired characters, Abner inventively peopled the strip with hillbillies. A bighearted Vermin told his slaving assistant: "I'm proud of having created these characters!! They'll make millions for me!! And if they do – I'll get you a new light bulb!!" Traveling in the same social circles, the two men engaged in a 20-year mutual vendetta, as described by the New York Daily News in 1998: "They crossed paths often, in the midtown watering holes and at National Cartoonists Society banquets, and the city's gossip columns were full of their snarling public donnybrooks." In 1950, Capp wrote a nasty article for The Atlantic, entitled "I Remember Monster". The article recounted Capp's days working for an unnamed "benefactor" with a miserly, swinish personality, who Capp claimed was a never-ending source of inspiration when it came time to create a new unregenerate villain for his comic strip. The thinly-veiled boss was understood to be Ham Fisher. Fisher retaliated, doctoring photostats of Li'l Abner and falsely accusing Capp of sneaking obscenities into his comic strip. Fisher submitted examples of Li'l Abner to Capp's syndicate and to the New York courts, in which Fisher had identified pornographic images that were hidden in the background art. However, the X-rated material had been drawn there by Fisher. Capp was able to refute the accusation by simply showing the original artwork. In 1954, when Capp was applying for a Boston television license, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) received an anonymous packet of pornographic Li'l Abner drawings. The National Cartoonists Society (NCS) convened an ethics hearing, and Fisher was expelled for the forgery from the same organization that he had helped found; Fisher's scheme had backfired in spectacular fashion. Around the same time, his mansion in Wisconsin was destroyed by a storm. On December 27, 1955, Fisher committed suicide in his studio. The feud and Fisher's suicide were used as the basis for a lurid, highly fictionalized murder mystery, Strip for Murder by Max Allan Collins. Another "feud" seemed to be looming when, in one run of Sunday strips in 1957, Capp lampooned the comic strip Mary Worth as "Mary Worm". The title character was depicted as a nosy, interfering busybody. Allen Saunders, the creator of the Mary Worth strip, returned Capp's fire with the introduction of the character "Hal Rapp", a foul-tempered, ill-mannered, and (ironically, as Capp was a teetotaler) inebriated cartoonist. Later, the "feud" was revealed to be a collaborative hoax that Capp and his longtime pal Saunders had cooked up together. The Capp-Saunders "feud" fooled both editors and readers, generated plenty of free publicity for both strips—and Capp and Saunders had a good laugh when all was revealed. ==Production methods== Like many cartoonists, Capp made extensive use of assistants (notably Andy Amato, Harvey Curtis, Walter Johnson, and Frank Frazetta). During the extended peak of the strip, the workload grew to include advertising, merchandising, promotional work, public service comics, and other specialty work—in addition to the regular six dailies and one Sunday strip per week. From the early 1940s to the late 1950s, there were scores of Sunday strip-style magazine ads for Cream of Wheat using the Abner characters, and in the 1950s, Fearless Fosdick became a spokesman for Wildroot Cream-Oil hair tonic in a series of daily strip-style print ads. The characters also sold chainsaws, underwear, ties, detergent, candy, soft drinks—including a licensed version of Capp's moonshine creation, Kickapoo Joy Juice—and General Electric and Procter & Gamble products, all requiring special artwork. No matter how much help he had, Capp insisted on his drawing and inking the characters' faces and hands—especially of Abner and Daisy Mae—and his distinctive touch is often discernible. "He had the touch," Frazetta said of Capp in 2008. "He knew how to take an otherwise ordinary drawing and really make it pop. I'll never knock his talent." As is usual with collaborative efforts in comic strips, his name was the only one credited— although, sensitive to his own experience working on Joe Palooka, Capp frequently drew attention to his assistants in interviews and publicity pieces. A 1950 cover story in Time even included photographs of two of his employees, whose roles in the production were detailed by Capp. Ironically, this highly irregular policy (along with the subsequent fame of Frank Frazetta) has led to the misconception that his strip was "ghosted" by other hands. The production of Li'l Abner has been well documented, however. In point of fact, Capp maintained creative control over every stage of production for virtually the entire run of the strip. Capp originated the stories, wrote the dialogue, designed the major characters, rough penciled the preliminary staging and action of each panel, oversaw the finished pencils, and drew and inked the hands and faces of the characters. Frazetta authority David Winiewicz described the everyday working mode of operation in Li'l Abner Dailies: 1954 Volume 20 (Kitchen Sink, 1994): There was also a separate line of comic book titles published by the Caplin family-owned Toby Press, including Shmoo Comics featuring Washable Jones. Cartoonist Mell Lazarus, creator of Miss Peach and Momma, wrote a comic novel in 1963 entitled The Boss Is Crazy, Too which was partly inspired by his apprenticeship days working with Capp and his brother Elliot at Toby. In a seminar at the Charles Schulz Museum on November 8, 2008, Lazarus called his experience at Toby "the five funniest years of my life". Lazarus went on to cite Capp as one of the "four essentials" in the field of newspaper cartoonists, along with Walt Kelly, Charles Schulz, and Milton Caniff. Capp detailed his approach to writing and drawing the stories in an instructional course book for the Famous Artists School, beginning in 1956. In 1959, Capp recorded and released an album for Folkways Records (now owned by the Smithsonian) on which he identified and described "The Mechanics of the Comic Strip". Frazetta, later famous as a fantasy artist, assisted on the strip from 1954 to December 1961. Fascinated by Frazetta's abilities, Capp initially gave him a free hand in an extended daily sequence (about a biker named "Frankie", a caricature of Frazetta) to experiment with the basic look of the strip by adding a bit more realism and detail (particularly to the inking). After editors complained about the stylistic changes, the strip's previous look was restored. During most of his tenure with Capp, Frazetta's primary responsibility—along with various specialty art, such as a series of Li'l Abner greeting cards—was tight-penciling the Sunday pages from studio roughs. This work was collected by Dark Horse Comics in a four-volume hardcover series entitled Al Capp's Li'l Abner: The Frazetta Years. In 1961, Capp, complaining of declining revenue, wanted to have Frazetta continue with a 50% pay cut. "[Capp] said he would cut the salary in half. Goodbye. That was that. I said goodbye," (from Frazetta: Painting with Fire). However, Frazetta returned briefly a few years later to draw a public service comic book called Li'l Abner and the Creatures from Drop-Outer Space, distributed by the Job Corps in 1965. ==Personality== Although he was often considered a difficult person, some acquaintances of Capp have stressed that the cartoonist also had a sensitive side. In 1973, upon learning that 12-year-old Ted Kennedy Jr., the son of his political rival Ted Kennedy Sr., had his right leg amputated, Capp wrote the boy an encouraging letter that gave candid advice about dealing with the loss of a limb, which Capp himself had experienced as a boy. One of Capp's grandchildren recalls that at one point, tears were streaming down the cartoonist's cheeks while he was watching a documentary about the Jonestown massacre. Capp gave money anonymously to charities and "people in need" at various points in his life. While no firsthand allegation has ever surfaced regarding Kelly, In 1971, investigative journalist Jack Anderson wrote that Capp had exposed his genitals to four female students at the University of Alabama. In 1972, after an incident at the University of Wisconsin–Eau Claire, Capp was arrested. He pleaded guilty to a charge of attempted adultery, while charges of indecent exposure and sodomy were dropped. He was fined US$500 (). In 2019, Jean Kilbourne was inspired by the MeToo movement to publish in Hogan's Alley her own experience of being groped and sexually solicited by Al Capp while doing freelance writing and research work for him in contemplation of a permanent job in 1967. ==Public service works== Capp provided specialty artwork for civic groups, government agencies, and charitable or nonprofit organizations, spanning several decades. The following titles are all single-issue, educational comic books and pamphlets produced for various public services: Al Capp by Li'l Abner— Public service giveaway issued by the Red Cross (1946) Yo' Bets Yo' Life!— Public service giveaway issued by the U.S. Army () Li'l Abner Joins the Navy— Public service giveaway issued by the Dept. of the Navy (1950) Fearless Fosdick and the Case of the Red Feather— Public service giveaway issued by Red Feather Services, a forerunner of United Way (1951) The Youth You Supervise— Public service giveaway issued by the U.S. Department of Labor (1956) Mammy Yokum and the Great Dogpatch Mystery!— Public service giveaway issued by the Anti-Defamation League of B'nai B'rith (1956) Operation: Survival!— Public service giveaway issued by the Dept. of Civil Defense (1957) Natural Disasters!— Public service giveaway issued by the Department of Civil Defense (1957) Martin Luther King and the Montgomery Story— Public service giveaway issued by The Fellowship of Reconciliation (1958) among others. ==Public figure== In the Golden Age of the American comic strip, successful cartoonists received a great deal of attention; their professional and private lives were reported in the press, and their celebrity was often nearly sufficient to rival their creations. As Li'l Abner reached its peak years, and following the success of the Shmoos and other high moments in his work, Al Capp achieved a public profile that is still unparalleled in his profession, and arguably exceeded the fame of his strip. "Capp was the best known, most influential and most controversial cartoonist of his era," writes publisher (and leading Shmoo collector) Denis Kitchen. "His personal celebrity transcended comics, reaching the public and influencing the culture in a variety of media. For many years he simultaneously produced the daily strip, a weekly syndicated newspaper column, and a 500-station radio program..." He ran the Boston Summer Theatre with The Phantom cartoonist Lee Falk, bringing in Hollywood actors such as Mae West, Melvyn Douglas, and Claude Rains to star in their live productions. He even briefly considered running for a Massachusetts Senate seat. Vice President Spiro Agnew urged Capp to run in the Democratic Party Massachusetts primary in 1970 against Ted Kennedy, but Capp ultimately declined. (He did, however, donate his services as a speaker at a $100-a-plate fundraiser for Republican Congressman Jack Kemp.) Besides his use of the comic strip to voice his opinions and display his humor, Capp was a popular guest speaker at universities, and on radio and television. He remains the only cartoonist to be embraced by television; no other comic artist to date has come close to Capp's televised exposure. Capp appeared as a regular on The Author Meets the Critics (1948–'54) and made regular, weekly appearances on Today in 1953. He was also a periodic panelist on ABC and NBC's Who Said That? (1948–'55), and co-hosted DuMont's What's the Story? (1953). Between 1952 and 1972, he hosted at least five television shows–three different talk shows called The Al Capp Show (1952 and 1968) and Al Capp (1971–'72), Al Capp's America (a live "chalk talk", with Capp providing a barbed commentary while sketching cartoons, 1954), and a CBS game show called Anyone Can Win (1953). He also hosted similar vehicles on the radio—and was a familiar celebrity guest on various other broadcast programs, including NBC Radio's long-running Monitor with its famous Monitor Beacon audio signature, as a commentator dubbed "An expert of nothing with opinions on everything." His frequent appearances on NBC's The Tonight Show spanned three emcees (Steve Allen, Jack Paar, and Johnny Carson), from the 1950s to the 1970s. One memorable story, as recounted to Johnny Carson, was about his meeting with then-President Dwight D. Eisenhower. As Capp was ushered into the Oval Office, his prosthetic leg suddenly collapsed into a pile of disengaged parts and hinges on the floor. The President immediately turned to an aide and said, "Call Walter Reed (Hospital), or maybe Bethesda," to which Capp replied, "Hell no, just call a good local mechanic!" (Capp also spoofed Carson in his strip, in a 1970 episode called "The Tommy Wholesome Show".) Capp portrayed himself in a cameo role in the Bob Hope film That Certain Feeling, for which he also provided promotional art. He was interviewed live on Person to Person on November 27, 1959, by host Charles Collingwood. He also appeared as himself on The Ed Sullivan Show, Sid Caesar's Your Show of Shows, The Red Skelton Show, The Merv Griffin Show, The Mike Douglas Show, and guested on Ralph Edwards' This Is Your Life on February 12, 1961, with honoree Peter Palmer (the actor who played Li'l Abner in the Paramount film). Capp also freelanced very successfully as a magazine writer and newspaper columnist, in a wide variety of publications including Life, Show, Pageant, The Atlantic, Esquire, Coronet, and The Saturday Evening Post. Capp was impersonated by comedians Rich Little and David Frye. Although Capp's endorsement activities never rivaled Li'l Abner's or Fearless Fosdick's, he was a celebrity spokesman in print ads for Sheaffer Snorkel fountain pens (along with colleagues and close friends Milton Caniff and Walt Kelly), and—with an irony that became apparent later—a brand of cigarettes (Chesterfield). Capp resumed visiting war amputees during the Korean War and Vietnam War. He toured Vietnam with the USO, entertaining troops along with Art Buchwald and George Plimpton. He served as chairman of the Cartoonists' Committee in President Dwight D. Eisenhower's People-to-People program in 1954 (although Capp had supported Adlai Stevenson for president in 1952 and 1956), which was organized to promote Savings bonds for the U.S. Treasury. Capp had earlier provided the Shmoo for a special Children's Savings Bond in 1949, accompanying President Harry S. Truman at the bond's unveiling ceremony. During the Soviet Union's blockade of West Berlin in 1948, the commanders of the Berlin airlift had cabled Capp, requesting inflatable shmoos as part of "Operation: Little Vittles". Candy-filled shmoos were air-dropped to hungry West Berliners by America's 17th Military Airport Squadron during the humanitarian effort. "When the candy-chocked shmoos were dropped, a near-riot resulted," (reported in Newsweek—October 11, 1948). In addition to his public service work for charitable organizations for disabled people, Capp also served on the National Reading Council, which was organized to combat illiteracy. He published a column ("Wrong Turn Onto Sesame Street") challenging federally funded public television endowments in favor of educational comics—which, according to Capp, "didn't cost a dime in taxes and never had. I pointed out that a kid could enjoy Sesame Street without learning how to read, but he couldn't enjoy comic strips unless he could read; and that a smaller investment in getting kids to read by supplying them with educational matter in such reading form might make better sense." Capp's academic interests included being one of nineteen original "Trustees and Advisors" for "Endicott, Junior College for Young Woman", located in Pride's Crossing (Beverly), Massachusetts, which was founded in 1939. Al Capp is listed in the 1942 Mingotide Yearbook, representing the first graduating class from what is now the 4-year school known as Endicott College. The yearbook entry includes his credential as a "Cartoonist for United Feature Syndicate" and a resident of New York City. "Comics", wrote Capp in 1970, "can be a combination of the highest quality of art and text, and many of them are." Capp produced many giveaway educational comic books and public services pamphlets, spanning several decades, for the Red Cross, the Department of Civil Defense, the Department of the Navy, the U.S. Army, the Anti-Defamation League, the Department of Labor, Community Chest (a forerunner of United Way), and the Job Corps. Capp's studio provided special artwork for various civic groups and nonprofit organizations as well. Dogpatch characters were used in national campaigns for the Cancer Foundation, the March of Dimes, the National Heart Fund, the Boy Scouts of America, Minnesota Tuberculosis and Health Association, the National Amputation Foundation, and Disabled American Veterans, among others. The sequence implicitly labeled Baez a limousine liberal, a charge she took to heart, as detailed years later in her 1987 autobiography, And A Voice To Sing With: A Memoir. Another target was Senator Ted Kennedy, parodied as "Senator O. Noble McGesture", resident of "Hyideelsport". The town name is a play on Hyannisport, Massachusetts, where a number of the Kennedy clan have lived. Capp became a popular public speaker on college campuses, where he reportedly relished hecklers. He attacked militant antiwar demonstrators, both in his personal appearances and in his strip. He also satirized student political groups. The Youth International Party (YIP) and Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) emerged in Li'l Abner as "Students Wildly Indignant about Nearly Everything!" (SWINE). In an April 1969 letter to Time, Capp insisted, "The students I blast are not the dissenters, but the destroyers—the less than 4% who lock up deans in washrooms, who burn manuscripts of unpublished books, who make combination pigpens and playpens of their universities. The remaining 96% detest them as heartily as I do." Capp's increasingly controversial remarks at his campus speeches and during television appearances cost him his semi-regular spot on the Tonight Show. His contentious public persona during this period was captured on a late sixties comedy LP called Al Capp On Campus. The album features his interaction with students at Fresno State College (now California State University, Fresno) on such topics as "sensitivity training", "humanitarianism", "abstract art" (Capp hated it), and "student protest". The cover features a cartoon drawing by Capp of wildly dressed, angry hippies carrying protest signs with slogans like "End Capp Brutality", "Abner and Daisy Mae Smoke Pot", "Capp Is Over [30, 40, 50—all crossed out] the Hill!!", and "If You Like Crap, You'll Like Capp!" Highlights of the strip's final decades include the stories "Boomchik" (1961), in which America's international prestige is saved by Mammy Yokum, "Daisy Mae Steps Out" (1966), a female-empowering tale of Daisy's brazenly audacious "homewrecker gland", "The Lips of Marcia Perkins" (1967), a satirical, thinly-veiled commentary on venereal disease and public health warnings, "Ignoble Savages" (1968), in which the Mob takes over Harvard, and "Corporal Crock" (1973), in which Bullmoose reveals his reactionary cartoon role model, in a tale of obsession and the fanatical world of comic book collecting. The cartoonist visited John Lennon and Yoko Ono at their 1969 Bed-In for Peace in Montreal, and their testy exchange later appeared in the documentary film Imagine: John Lennon (1988). Introducing himself with the words "I'm a dreadful Neanderthal fascist. How do you do?", Capp sardonically congratulated Lennon and Ono on their Two Virgins nude album cover: "I think that everybody owes it to the world to prove they have pubic hair. You've done it, and I tell you that I applaud you for it." Following this exchange, Capp insulted Ono ("Good God, you've gotta live with that?"), and was asked to "get out" by Lennon publicist Derek Taylor. Lennon allowed him to stay, however, but the conversation had soured considerably. On Capp's exit, Lennon sang an impromptu version of his song "The Ballad of John and Yoko" with a slightly revised, but nonetheless prophetic lyric: "Christ, you know it ain't easy / You know how hard it can be / The way things are goin' / They're gonna crucify Capp! " Despite his political conservatism in the last decade of his life, Capp is reported to have been liberal in some particular causes; he supported gay rights, and did not tolerate any attempts at homophobic jokes. In 1968, a theme park called Dogpatch USA opened at Marble Falls, Arkansas, based on Capp's work and with his support. The park was a popular attraction during the 1970s, but was abandoned in 1993 due to financial difficulties. By 2005, the area once devoted to a live-action facsimile of Dogpatch (including a lifesize statue in the town square of Dogpatch "founder" General Jubilation T. Cornpone) had been heavily stripped by vandals and souvenir hunters, and was slowly being reclaimed by the surrounding Arkansas wilderness. On April 22, 1971, syndicated columnist Jack Anderson reported allegations that in February 1968 Capp had made indecent advances to four female students when he was invited to speak at the University of Alabama. Anderson and an associate confirmed that Capp was shown out of town by university police, but that the incident had been hushed up by the university to avoid negative publicity. The following month, Capp was charged in Eau Claire, Wisconsin, in connection with another alleged incident following his April 1 lecture at the University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire. Capp was accused of propositioning a married woman in his hotel room. Although no sexual act was alleged to have resulted, the original charge included "sodomy". As part of a plea agreement, Capp pleaded guilty to the charge of "attempted adultery" (adultery was a felony in Wisconsin), and the other charges were dropped. Capp was fined $500 and court costs. In a December 1992 article for The New Yorker, Seymour Hersh reported that President Richard Nixon and Charles Colson had repeatedly discussed the Capp case in Oval Office recordings that had recently been made available by the National Archives. Nixon and Capp were on friendly terms, Hersh wrote, and Nixon and Colson had worked to find a way for Capp to run against Ted Kennedy for the U.S. Senate. "Nixon was worried about the allegations, fearing that Capp's very close links to the White House would become embarrassingly public", Hersh wrote. "The White House tapes and documents show that he and Colson discussed the issue repeatedly, and that Colson eventually reassured the president by saying that he had, in essence, fixed the case. Specifically, the president was told that one of Colson's people had gone to Wisconsin and tried to talk to the prosecutors." Colson's efforts failed, however. The Eau Claire district attorney, a Republican, refused to dismiss the attempted adultery charge. In passing sentence in February 1972, the judge rejected the D.A.'s motion that Capp agree to undergo psychiatric treatment. The resulting publicity led to hundreds of papers dropping his comic strip, and Capp, already in failing health, withdrew from public speaking. Celebrity biographer James Spada has claimed that similar allegations were made by actress Grace Kelly. However, no firsthand allegation has ever surfaced. "From beginning to end, Capp was acid-tongued toward the targets of his wit, intolerant of hypocrisy, and always wickedly funny. After about 40 years, however, Capp's interest in Abner waned, and this showed in the strip itself," according to Don Markstein's Toonopedia. Although Capp had used assistants on the strip practically since the beginning, in the final years his own involvement in the strip decreased. His health issues made it increasingly difficult for Capp to work, recalled his assistants. On November 13, 1977, Capp retired with an apology to his fans for the recently declining quality of the strip, which he said had been the best he could manage due to declining health. "If you have any sense of humor about your strip—and I had a sense of humor about mine—you knew that for three or four years Abner was wrong. Oh hell, it's like a fighter retiring. I stayed on longer than I should have," he admitted, adding that he couldn't breathe anymore. "When he retired Li'l Abner, newspapers ran expansive articles and television commentators talked about the passing of an era. People magazine ran a substantial feature, and even the comics-free New York Times devoted nearly a full page to the event", wrote publisher Denis Kitchen. Capp's final years were marked by advancing illness and by family tragedy. In October 1977, one of his two daughters died; a few weeks later, a beloved granddaughter was killed in a car accident. A lifelong chain smoker, Capp died in 1979 from emphysema at his home in South Hampton, New Hampshire. Capp is buried in Mount Prospect Cemetery in Amesbury, Massachusetts. Engraved on his headstone is a stanza from Thomas Gray: The plowman homeward plods his weary way / And leaves the world to darkness and to me (from Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard, 1751). ==Legacy== "Neither the strip's shifting political leanings nor the slide of its final few years had any bearing on its status as a classic; and in 1995, it was recognized as such by the U.S. Postal Service", according to Toonopedia. Li'l Abner was one of 20 American comic strips included in the Comic Strip Classics series of USPS commemorative stamps. Al Capp, an inductee into the National Cartoon Museum (formerly the International Museum of Cartoon Art), is one of only 31 artists selected to their Hall of Fame. Capp was also inducted into the Will Eisner Award Hall of Fame in 2004. Sadie Hawkins Day and double whammy are two terms attributed to Al Capp that have entered the English language. Other, less ubiquitous Cappisms include skunk works and Lower Slobbovia. The term shmoo also has entered the lexicon, defining highly technical concepts in no fewer than four separate fields of science, including the variations shmooing (a microbiological term for the "budding" process in yeast reproduction), and shmoo plot (a technical term in the field of electrical engineering). In socioeconomics, a "shmoo" refers to any generic kind of good that reproduces itself, (as opposed to "widgets" which require resources and active production). In the field of particle physics, "shmoo" refers to a high energy survey instrument, as used at the Los Alamos National Laboratory to capture subatomic cosmic ray particles emitted from the Cygnus X-3 constellation. Capp also had a knack for popularizing certain uncommon terms, such as druthers, schmooze, and nogoodnik, neatnik, etc. In his book The American Language, H.L. Mencken credits the postwar mania for adding "-nik" to the ends of adjectives to create nouns as beginning—not with beatnik or Sputnik—but earlier, in the pages of Li'l Abner. Al Capp's life and career are the subjects of a new life-sized mural commemorating the 100th anniversary of his birth. Created by resident artist Jon P. Mooers, the mural was unveiled in downtown Amesbury on May 15, 2010. According to the Boston Globe (as reported on May 18, 2010), the town has renamed its amphitheater in the artist's honor, and is looking to develop an Al Capp Museum. Capp is also the subject of an upcoming WNET-TV American Masters documentary, The Life and Times of Al Capp, produced by his granddaughter, independent filmmaker Caitlin Manning. Since his death in 1979, Al Capp and his work have been the subject of more than 40 books, including three biographies. Underground cartoonist and Li'l Abner expert Denis Kitchen has published, co-published, edited, or otherwise served as consultant on nearly all of them. Kitchen is currently compiling a biographical monograph on Al Capp. At San Diego Comic-Con in July 2009, IDW announced the upcoming publication of Al Capp's Li'l Abner: The Complete Dailies and Color Sundays as part of their ongoing The Library of American Comics series. The comprehensive series, a reprinting of the entire 43-year history of Li'l Abner, spanning a projected 20 volumes, began on April 7, 2010.	[ "Jewish people", "MeToo movement", "Great Depression", "New Yorker magazine", "particle physics", "Stubby Kaye", "West Virginia", "The American Language", "Stan Drake", "Snoopy", "E. C. Segar", "Buster Keaton", "Smithsonian Institution", "Bowling Green State University", "Frederick Burr Opper", "Mary Worth", "hillbilly", "American Red Cross", "Gone with the Wind (novel)", "Jack Paar", "Nelson Riddle", "William Shakespeare", "Hilda Terry", "New York Daily News", "United Media", "off-Broadway", "allegory", "Los Alamos National Laboratory", "Chelsea House", "Northern United States", "irony", "burlesque", "United States Department of the Navy", "Harvard University", "United States Congress", "Salvador Dalí", "Charles Schulz Museum", "Macmillan Publishers", "Misanthropy", "John Steinbeck", "Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom", "The Author Meets the Critics", "Lee Falk", "S. J. Perelman", "cosmic ray", "Bob Hope", "U.S. Treasury", "Chester Gould", "Sunday strip", "Sputnik", "Latvia", "University Press of Mississippi", "National Naval Medical Center", "South Hampton, New Hampshire", "Eau Claire, Wisconsin", "Al Hirschfeld", "Playboy", "U.S. Navy", "Steve Canyon", "G.P. Putnam's Sons", "Ham Fisher", "Johnny Mercer", "Democratic Party (United States)", "Adlai Stevenson II", "Jon P. Mooers", "Your Show of Shows", "WNET-TV", "Pyramid Books", "Bronx cheer (gesture)", "skunk works", "The Red Skelton Show", "George Bernard Shaw", "Univ. Press of Mississippi", "censorship", "mortality rate", "Oval Office", "Far left", "amputation", "Toonopedia", "March of Dimes", "Long Sam", "West Berlin", "Walt Kelly", "Martin Luther King Jr.", "Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease", "Malcolm X", "paraplegic", "Endicott College", "Associated Press", "Thomas Gray", "Russia", "Whitman Publishing", "Folkways Records", "Hebrew language", "Henry Fonda", "Margaret Mitchell", "United States Department of the Treasury", "Richard Dorgan", "Toby Press", "Farrar, Straus and Giroux", "Frank Frazetta", "satirical", "The Tonight Show", "Hogan's Alley (magazine)", "Coulton Waugh", "-nik", "Underground comix", "Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard", "Garry Trudeau", "geometry", "H.L. Mencken", "Daniel Clowes", "prosthetic", "story arc", "The New York Times", "Milt Gross", "Joe Palooka", "Youth International Party", "Dick Tracy", "Mutt and Jeff", "Harry Abrams", "Raeburn van Buren", "Russell Myers", "Jerry Siegel", "Jean Kilbourne", "Alex Raymond", "Students for a Democratic Society (1960 organization)", "Frank Cho", "Bed-In for Peace", "Christmas Seals", "Kentucky", "Maurice Horn", "This Is Your Life (American franchise)", "Ted Kennedy", "Rex Morgan, M.D.", "Transitional fossil", "Chicago Tribune", "venereal disease", "coma", "New York City", "Voltairean", "lexicon", "shmoo", "socioeconomics", "Soviet Union", "Procter & Gamble", "Peanuts", "Max Allan Collins", "Seymour Hersh", "Life Magazine", "nose art", "Harcourt Brace Jovanovich", "satire", "Shel Silverstein", "Charles Erwin Wilson", "Amesbury, Massachusetts", "Mating of yeast", "Job Corps", "Phil May (caricaturist)", "Milton Berle", "Dogpatch USA", "U.S. Army", "Sodomy laws in the United States", "Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts", "Harvey Kurtzman", "The Heart of Juliet Jones", "Gene Shalit", "School of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston", "Alvin Toffler", "Simon & Schuster", "Rich Little", "Boy Scouts of America", "cartoonist", "Basil Wolverton", "monograph", "Sadie Hawkins Day", "Moe Leff", "Boston", "Life (magazine)", "M. Thomas Inge", "Chesterfield cigarettes", "Mell Lazarus", "Holt, Rinehart & Winston", "Kickapoo Joy Juice", "Elvis Presley", "New Deal", "Grace Kelly", "George Plimpton", "counterculture", "electrical engineering", "The Daily Gazette", "Jonathan Swift", "comic strip", "Cliff Sterrett", "Yoko Ono", "Joan Baez", "United States Postal Service", "Cumberland Valley", "General Electric", "Rabelais", "Fearless Fosdick", "widget (economics)", "Lawrence Sterne", "The Library of American Comics", "Character animation", "Smithsonian", "TV Guide", "Korean War", "Milton Caniff", "Overlook Press", "The Trail of the Lonesome Pine (1936 film)", "the Beatles", "Denis Kitchen", "Li'l Abner (1959 film)", "Harry S. Truman", "Northeastern United States", "Scripps-Howard", "Walter Reed Army Medical Center", "Boston Globe", "Hall of Fame", "black humor", "United Way of America", "David Frye", "NBC", "The Grio", "theme park", "Newsweek", "The Atlantic", "USO", "Jeff York", "Vietnam War", "G.I.", "Peter Palmer (actor)", "Ralph Bakshi", "Wildroot Cream-Oil", "Nemo, the Classic Comics Library", "National Cartoonists Society", "miniskirt", "Richard Nixon", "Nancy Sinatra", "IDW Publishing", "plastic surgery", "B'nai B'rith", "Doonesbury", "Art Buchwald", "public television", "Disneyland Park (Anaheim)", "New Haven, Connecticut", "poetic license", "Don Markstein", "William F. Buckley", "Cold War", "schmooze", "Baltimore", "topper (comic strip)", "The Saturday Evening Post", "Kitchen Sink Press", "Franklin D. Roosevelt", "Cygnus X-3", "Crown Publishers", "social commentary", "constellation", "Greenwich Village", "Mad Magazine", "Rudolph Dirks", "radio program", "The Capital Times", "General Motors", "Billy DeBeck", "American Masters", "Bloomsbury Publishing", "Punch (magazine)", "Elliot Caplin", "Halloween", "limousine liberal", "Massachusetts", "Anti-Defamation League", "Jack Anderson (columnist)", "Superman (comic strip)", "Dwight D. Eisenhower", "Person to Person", "Saalfield Publishing", "People magazine", "United Feature Syndicate", "Sid Caesar", "Abbeville Press", "Rick Marschall", "Fawcett Publications", "List of American words not widely used in the United Kingdom", "Technicolor", "University of Alabama", "Saturday Review of Literature", "Community Chest (organization)", "Fellowship of Reconciliation", "Tennessee Valley Authority", "Comic Strip Classics", "Southern United States", "George McManus", "Today (NBC program)", "Eastern European Jewry", "Li'l Abner (musical)", "Federal Communications Commission", "Inkpot Award", "Charlie Chaplin", "Rube Goldberg", "puppet show", "The New Yorker", "Booth Tarkington", "Cambridge, Massachusetts", "polio", "Arkansas", "Paramount Pictures", "Esquire (magazine)", "Robert Benchley", "The Mike Douglas Show", "Action Comics", "Smoking", "Broadway theatre", "slapstick", "autobiography", "newspaper column", "Monitor (NBC radio)", "Mark Twain", "NBC Radio", "public services", "Elizabeth Kenny", "Melvin Frank", "metaphor", "Charles Dickens", "gay rights", "Dixiecrats", "casting couch", "Beacon Press", "Avon (publishers)", "Time (magazine)", "Bob Lubbers", "Hugh Downs", "microbiological", "The Ed Sullivan Show", "Bud Fisher", "Abbie an' Slats", "Lower Slobbovia", "Charles Schulz", "Goldie Hawn", "Celebrity biographer", "Joe Btfsplk", "Miss Peach", "Russ Meyer", "Superman", "Will Eisner Award", "Boris Karloff", "Mae West", "Frank Sinatra", "Pogo (comics)", "Anyone Can Win", "Derek Taylor", "Black Panthers", "Ralph Edwards", "Joachim", "Thomas Aloysius Dorgan", "Melvyn Douglas", "California State University, Fresno", "RKO Pictures", "Charles Collingwood (journalist)", "Arthur Asa Berger", "hippies", "Li'l Abner (1940 film)", "shmoo plot", "Tram", "Shmoo", "Teena (comic strip)", "Christmas Seal & Charity Stamp Society", "Free Press (publisher)", "Liberace", "Steve Allen", "Self-defeating personality disorder", "National Cartoon Museum", "Cartoonist", "United States Senate", "Gene de Paul", "Norman Panama", "Senator Joseph McCarthy", "mural", "human nature", "L'il Abner", "San Diego Comic-Con", "Dostoevski", "DC Comics", "Claude Rains", "Spiro Agnew", "Famous Artists School", "Joe Shuster", "Allen Saunders", "John Kenneth Galbraith", "What's the Story", "Charles Colson", "Civil Defense", "marionette", "beatnik", "Left-wing politics", "United States civil defense", "prototype", "Edward M. Kennedy Jr.", "Jonestown", "Bridgeport, Connecticut", "organized crime", "Li'l Abner", "The Merv Griffin Show", "Candide", "Broom-Hilda", "Tobias Smollett", "Imagine: John Lennon", "New York Mirror", "fantasy art", "Momma", "Little Annie Rooney", "Life magazine", "wikt:double whammy", "Fantagraphics Books", "teetotaler", "commemorative stamp", "Dogpatch", "Journal of Popular Culture", "Prosthesis", "Disabled American Veterans", "Harper & Row", "University of Wisconsin–Eau Claire", "Connecticut", "Jack Kemp", "bomber aircraft", "Cream of Wheat", "Little Orphan Annie", "The Ballad of John and Yoko", "Hyperion Press", "Martin Luther King and the Montgomery Story", "Who Said That?", "Harpo Marx", "John Lennon", "The Fellowship of Reconciliation", "Marshall McLuhan", "John Updike", "Hyannisport, Massachusetts", "The Phantom (comics)", "fable", "U.S. Department of Labor", "National Archives and Records Administration", "Sesame Street", "Unfinished Music No. 1: Two Virgins", "Dell Books", "parable", "United States Department of Labor", "Red Cross", "Savings bond", "Dark Horse Comics", "Sadie Hawkins dance", "Johnny Carson", "Julie Newmar" ]
3,013	Ann Druyan	Ann Druyan ( ;) is an American documentary producer and director specializing in the communication of science. She co-wrote the 1980 PBS documentary series Cosmos, hosted by Carl Sagan, whom she married in 1981. She is the creator, producer, and writer of the 2014 sequel, Cosmos: A Spacetime Odyssey and its sequel series, Cosmos: Possible Worlds, as well as the book of the same name. She directed episodes of both series. In the late 1970s, she became the creative director of NASA's Voyager Interstellar Message Project, which produced the golden discs affixed to both the Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 spacecraft. She also published a novel, A Famous Broken Heart, in 1977, and later co-wrote several best selling non-fiction books with Sagan. == Early life and education == Ann Druyan was born in Queens, New York, the daughter of Pearl A. () and Harry Druyan, who co-owned a knitwear firm. Her family was Jewish. Druyan's early interest in math and science was, in her word, "derailed" when a junior high-school teacher ridiculed a question she asked about the universality of pi\|. "I raised my hand and said, 'You mean this applies to every circle in the universe?', and the teacher told me not to ask stupid questions. And there I was having this religious experience, and she made me feel like such a fool. I was completely flummoxed from then on until after college." Druyan characterized her three years at New York University as "disastrous", and it was only after she left school without graduating that she discovered the pre-Socratic philosophers and began educating herself, thus leading to a renewed interest in science. ==Career== In the late 1970s, Druyan became the creative director of NASA's Voyager Interstellar Message Project. Druyan's role on the project was discussed on the July 8, 2018, 60 Minutes segment "The Little Spacecraft That Could". In the segment, Druyan explained her insistence that Chuck Berry's "Johnny B. Goode" be included on the Golden Record, saying: "...Johnny B. Goode, rock and roll, was the music of motion, of moving, getting to someplace you've never been before, and the odds are against you, but you want to go. That was Voyager." The segment also discussed Sagan's suggestion, in 1990, that Voyager 1 turn its cameras back towards Earth to take a series of photographs showing the planets of our solar system. The shots, showing Earth from a distance of 3.7 billion miles as a small point of bluish light, became the basis for Sagan's famous "Pale Blue Dot" passage, first published in Pale Blue Dot: A Vision of the Human Future in Space (1994). During that time, Druyan also co-wrote (with Carl Sagan and Steven Soter) the 1980 PBS documentary series Cosmos, hosted by Carl Sagan. The thirteen-part series covered a wide range of scientific subjects, including the origin of life and a perspective of humans place in the universe. It was highly acclaimed, and became the most widely watched series in the history of American public television at that time. The series won two Emmys and a Peabody Award, and has since been broadcast in more than 60 countries and seen by over 500 million people. A book was also published to accompany the series. , it is still the most widely watched PBS series in the world. Several revised versions of the series were later broadcast; one version, telecast after Sagan's death, opens with Druyan paying tribute to her late husband and the impact of Cosmos over the years. Druyan wrote and produced the 1987 PBS NOVA episode "Confessions of a Weaponeer" on the life of President Eisenhower's Science Advisor George Kistiakowsky. In 2000, Druyan, together with Steve Soter, co-wrote Passport to the Universe, the inaugural planetarium show for the Rose Center for Earth and Space at the American Natural History Museum's Hayden Planetarium. The attraction is narrated by Tom Hanks. Druyan and Soter also co-wrote The Search for Life: Are We Alone, narrated by Harrison Ford, which also debuted at the Hayden's Rose Center. In 2000, Druyan co-founded Cosmos Studios, Inc, with Joseph Firmage. As CEO of Cosmos Studios, Druyan produces science-based entertainment for all media. In addition to Cosmos: A SpaceTime Odyssey, Cosmos Studios has produced Cosmic Africa, Lost Dinosaurs of Egypt, and the Emmy-nominated documentary Cosmic Journey: The Voyager Interstellar Mission and Message. In 2009, she distributed a series of podcasts called At Home in the Cosmos with Annie Druyan, in which she described her works, the life of her husband, Carl Sagan, and their marriage. Druyan is credited, with Carl Sagan, as the co-creator and co-producer of the 1997 feature film Contact. In 2011, it was announced that Druyan would executive produce, co-write, and be one of the episodic directors for a sequel to Cosmos: A Personal Voyage, to be called Cosmos: A Spacetime Odyssey, which began airing in March 2014. Episodes premiered on Fox and also aired on National Geographic Channel on the following night. At the time of its release, Fox gave the series the largest global rollout of a television series ever, debuting it in 180 countries. The premiere episode was shown across nine of Fox's cable properties in addition to the broadcast network in a "roadblock" style premiere. The series went on to become the most-watched series ever for National Geographic Channel International, with at least some part of the 13-episode series watched by 135 million people, including 45 million in the U.S. In March 2020, a third season of Cosmos, named Cosmos: Possible Worlds, for which Druyan was executive producer, writer, and director, premiered on National Geographic. Druyan also said: "I very much have season four in mind, and I know what it's going to be. And I even know some of the stories that I want to tell in it." Druyan co-wrote six New York Times bestsellers with Carl Sagan, including: Comet, Shadows of Forgotten Ancestors, and The Demon-Haunted World. She is co-author, along with Carl Sagan, F. D. Drake, Timothy Ferris, Jon Lomberg and Linda Salzman Sagan, of Murmurs Of Earth: The Voyager Interstellar Record. She also wrote the updated introduction to Sagan's book The Cosmic Connection and the epilogue of Billions and Billions. She wrote the introduction to, and edited The Varieties of Scientific Experience, published from Sagan's 1985 Gifford lectures. In February 2020, Druyan published Cosmos: Possible Worlds, a companion volume to the television series of the same name, which premiered in March 2020. ===Work in science=== Druyan is a fellow of the Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal (CSICOP). Druyan served as program director of the first solar-sail deep-space mission, Cosmos 1, launched on a Russian ICBM in 2005. Druyan is involved in multiple Breakthrough Initiatives. With Frank Drake, Druyan is the co-chair of Breakthrough Message and also a member of Breakthrough Starshot. She is a member of the advisory board of The Carl Sagan Institute. ==Activism== Druyan has for many years been a vocal advocate for nuclear disarmament. She was arrested three times at the Mercury, Nevada nuclear test site during Mikhail Gorbachev's unilateral moratorium on underground nuclear testing, with which President Ronald Reagan did not cooperate. This included an arrest in June 1986, when she crossed a white painted line indicating the test site's boundary. Sagan, who attended the same protest with Druyan, was not arrested. In the early 1990s, Druyan worked with Sagan and then-Senator Al Gore Jr. and a host of religious and scientific leaders to bring the scientific and religious worlds together in a unified effort to preserve the environment, resulting in the Declaration of the 'Mission to Washington. She was a founding director of the Children's Health Fund until the spring of 2004, a project that provides mobile pediatric care to homeless and disadvantaged children in more than half a dozen cities. She is currently a member of their advisory board. She has been on the board of directors of the National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws (NORML) for over 10 years and was its president from 2006 to 2010. ==Honors== An asteroid discovered in 1988 was named in Druyan's honor by its discoverer Eleanor F. Helin. In a 2020 interview with Skeptical Inquirer, Druyan discussed 4970 Druyan and the asteroid named after her late husband, saying that 4970 Druyan is in a "wedding ring orbit" around the Sun with 2709 Sagan. Druyan was presented with a plaque on Sagan's sixtieth birthday, which is inscribed: "Asteroid 2709 Sagan in eternal companion orbit with asteroid 4970 Druyan, symbolic of their love and admiration for each other." In November 2007, Druyan was awarded the title of "Humanist Laureate" by the International Academy of Humanism. In October 2019, the Center for Inquiry West opened the Carl Sagan–Ann Druyan Theater in Los Angeles. ==Religious and philosophical views== In an interview with Joel Achenbach of The Washington Post, Druyan said that her early interest in science stemmed from a fascination with Karl Marx. Achenbach commented that "She had, at the time, rather vaporous standards of evidence", a reference to her belief in the ancient astronauts of Erich von Däniken and the theories of Immanuel Velikovsky pertaining to the solar system. Concerning the death of her husband she stated: When my husband died, because he was so famous and known for not being a believer, many people would come up to me—it still sometimes happens—and ask me if Carl changed at the end and converted to a belief in an afterlife. They also frequently ask me if I think I will see him again. Carl faced his death with unflagging courage and never sought refuge in illusions. The tragedy was that we knew we would never see each other again. I don't ever expect to be reunited with Carl. ==Personal life== Druyan and Sagan's working and resulting romantic relationship has been the subject of numerous treatments in popular culture, including the Radiolab episode "Carl Sagan and Ann Druyan's Ultimate Mix Tape", a segment of the Comedy Central program Drunk Historys episode "Space", and the song "Sounds of Earth" by Jim Moray. The asteroid 4970 Druyan, which is in a companion orbit with asteroid 2709 Sagan named after Druyan's late husband, is named after Druyan. In 2020, Sagan and Druyan's daughter Sasha Sagan released a book For Small Creatures Such As We: Rituals for Finding Meaning in our Unlikely World, which discusses life with her parents and her father's death when she was fourteen years old. Druyan also gave Sasha a recurring role in Cosmos: Possible Worlds, where she played her own grandmother, including in the episode Man of a Trillion Worlds, which featured the life of Carl Sagan. 2015 Writers Guild Award for "Documentary Script – Other than Current Events" 2017 Harvard Humanist of the Year Award 2020 National Geographic Further Award	[ "Richard Dawkins Award", "Johnny B. Goode", "Producers Guild of America", "Film producer", "Cosmos: A Spacetime Odyssey", "public television", "Radiolab", "The New York Times Best Seller list", "Pale Blue Dot", "Gifford lectures", "pi", "George Kistiakowsky", "Sasha Sagan", "2709 Sagan", "ancient astronauts", "4970 Druyan", "Jon Lomberg", "Erich von Däniken", "Steven Soter", "The Demon-Haunted World", "pre-Socratic philosophers", "Joel Achenbach", "Eleanor F. Helin", "Emmy Awards", "Breakthrough Message", "2007 Sundance Film Festival", "Shadows of Forgotten Ancestors (book)", "Committee for Skeptical Inquiry", "National Geographic (American TV channel)", "afterlife", "Peabody Award", "Beyond Belief: Science, Religion, Reason and Survival", "Activism", "Voyager 1", "Simon & Schuster", "National Geographic Channel", "podcasts", "Comet (book)", "Center for Inquiry", "Cosmos: A Personal Voyage", "Cosmos (Sagan book)", "Solar System", "National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws", "Contact (1997 American film)", "Drunk History", "List of peace activists", "Breakthrough Initiatives", "Cosmos 1", "Nova (American TV series)", "Cosmos: Possible Worlds", "Timothy Ferris", "Frank Drake", "Linda Salzman Sagan", "Karl Marx", "Carl Sagan", "Voyager Golden Record", "Variety (magazine)", "Carl Sagan Institute", "Immanuel Velikovsky", "Documentary film", "President Eisenhower", "origin of life", "Queens, New York", "Jim Moray", "Joseph Firmage", "Sundance Film Festival", "Fox Broadcasting Company", "The Washington Post", "NASA", "PBS", "Alfred P. Sloan Prize", "Breakthrough Starshot", "Billions and Billions", "Voyager 2", "The Cosmic Connection", "USA Today", "F. D. Drake", "The New York Times", "Skeptical Inquirer", "Women in science", "Pale Blue Dot: A Vision of the Human Future in Space", "The Varieties of Scientific Experience", "New York University", "Mercury, Nevada" ]
3,014	Analcime	Analcime (; ) or analcite is a white, gray, or colorless tectosilicate mineral. Analcime consists of hydrated sodium aluminium silicate in cubic crystalline form. Its chemical formula is NaAlSi2O6 · H2O. Minor amounts of potassium and calcium substitute for sodium. A silver-bearing synthetic variety also exists (Ag-analcite). Analcime is usually classified as a zeolite mineral, but structurally and chemically it is more similar to the feldspathoids. Due to the differences between the samples being too slight, there's no merit from having multiple species names, so as a result analcime is a common example for minerals occurring in multiple crystal systems and space groups. It was first described by French geologist Déodat de Dolomieu, who called it zéolithe dure, meaning hard zeolite. It was found in lava in Cyclops, Italy. The mineral is IMA approved, and had been grandfathered, meaning the name analcime is believed to refer to a valid species til this day. == Properties == Analcime crystals always look pseudocubic. The color of the mineral varies due to trace impurities. The mineral is weakly piezoelectric and pyroelectric, meaning it produces a weak electric charge when it's rubbed or heated, hence the name analcime. == Formation and associated minerals == Analcime occurs as a primary mineral in analcime basalt and other alkaline igneous rocks. It also occurs as cavity and vesicle fillings associated with prehnite, calcite, and zeolites. Analcime forms in sedimentary rocks at temperatures below about , and so its presence indicates that the rock has experienced shallow diagenesis. in Canada; and in Iceland, and in Namibia. Siberian samples from Nidym and Toura provide us with white crystals of 18 cm. Samples of the Cyclopean Islands are known for their beautiful and clear crystals, just like the crystals of Kings Valley and Springfield in Oregon, which can reach up to 6 cm. Coleman, Alberta in Canada is known for producing beautiful red crystals.	[ "Tectosilicate", "igneous rocks", "Cyclopean Isles", "pollucite", "Déodat de Dolomieu", "Orthorhombic", "feldspathoid", "natrolite", "Val di Fassa", "calcium", "tectosilicate", "basalt", "Searles Lake", "Quebec", "Nova Scotia", "euhedral", "phonolite", "International Mineralogical Association", "crystal", "minerals", "prehnite", "Leicestershire", "Golden, Colorado", "Coleman (Canada)", "aegyrine", "Cyclopean Islands", "Sicily", "Namibia", "chemical formula", "diagenesis", "Victoria (Australia)", "calcite", "potassium", "sedimentary rocks", "Kerguelen Island", "Indian Ocean", "silver", "serandite", "Nidym", "Water", "Trachybasalt", "Lake Superior", "H-M symbol", "Toura", "Kings Valley, Oregon", "Alberta", "Euhedral and anhedral", "Croft, Leicestershire", "Sodium aluminosilicate", "Mont Saint-Hilaire", "Mineral group", "Trentino", "New Jersey", "Iceland", "Michigan", "Springfield, Oregon", "zeolite" ]
3,017	Alexey Pajitnov	Alexey Leonidovich Pajitnov (born April 16, 1955) is a Russian-American computer engineer and video game designer. After Tetris was released internationally in 1987, he released a sequel in 1989, entitled Welltris. In 1991, he moved to the United States and later became a U.S. citizen. In 1996, Pajitnov founded The Tetris Company alongside Dutch video game designer Henk Rogers. Despite the game's high popularity, Pajitnov did not receive royalties from Tetris prior to this time; the Soviet Union had disintegrated by 1991. ==Early life== Pajitnov was born to Russian parents who were both writers. His father was an art critic and his mother was a journalist who wrote for both newspapers and a film magazine. It was through his parents that Pajitnov gained exposure to the arts, eventually developing a passion for cinema. He accompanied his mother to many film screenings, including the Moscow Film Festival. Pajitnov was also mathematically inclined, enjoying puzzles and problem solving. In 1967, when he was 11 years old, Pajitnov's parents divorced. For several years, he lived with his mother in a one-bedroom apartment owned by the state. The two were eventually able to move into a private apartment at 49 Gertsen Street, when Pajitnov was 17. He later went on to study applied mathematics at the Moscow Aviation Institute. == Career == In 1977, Pajitnov worked as a summer intern at the Soviet Academy of Sciences. Once he graduated in 1979, he accepted a job there working on speech recognition at the academy's Dorodnitsyn Computing Centre. When the Computing Centre received new equipment, its researchers would write a small program for it in order to test its computing capabilities. According to Pajitnov, this "became [his] excuse for making games". Computer games were fascinating to him because they offered a way to bridge the gap between logic and emotion, and Pajitnov held interests in both mathematics and puzzles, as well as the psychology of computing. Using an Electronika 60 in the Computing Centre, he began working on what would become the first version of Tetris. Building the first prototype in two weeks, This primitive version did not have levels or a scoring system, but Pajitnov knew he had a potentially great game, since he could not stop playing it at work. The game attracted the interest of coworkers like fellow programmer Dmitri Pevlovsky, who helped Pajitnov connect with Vadim Gerasimov, a 16-year-old intern at the Soviet Academy. Pajitnov wanted to make a color version of Tetris for the IBM Personal Computer, and enlisted the intern to help. Gerasimov created the PC version in less than three weeks, and with contributions from Pevlovsky, spent an additional month adding new features like scorekeeping and sound effects. Pajitnov created a sequel to Tetris, entitled Welltris, which has the same principle, but in a three-dimensional environment where the player sees the playing area from above. Tetris was licensed and managed by Soviet company ELORG, which had a monopoly on the import and export of computer hardware and software in the Soviet Union, and advertised with the slogan "From Russia with Love" (on NES: "From Russia with Fun!"). Because he was employed by the Soviet Academy of Sciences, Pajitnov did not receive royalties. Pajitnov, together with Vladimir Pokhilko, moved to the United States following the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, and in 1996 founded The Tetris Company with Henk Rogers, which, in combination with the rights reverting to him in 1995 or 1996, finally allowed him to collect royalties from his game. He helped design the puzzles in the Super NES versions of Yoshi's Cookie and designed the game Pandora's Box, which incorporates more traditional jigsaw-style puzzles. Pajitnov and Pokhilko founded the 3D software technology company AnimaTek, which developed the game / screensaver El-Fish. He was employed by Microsoft from October 1996 until 2005. While there, he worked on the Microsoft Entertainment Pack: The Puzzle Collection, MSN Mind Aerobics and MSN Games groups. Pajitnov's new, enhanced version of Hexic, Hexic HD, was included with every new Xbox 360 Premium package. In August 2005, WildSnake Software announced that Pajitnov would be collaborating with them to release a new line of puzzle games. == Personal life == Pajitnov moved to the United States in 1991, was naturalized as a U.S. citizen and now lives in Clyde Hill, Washington. He has a wife, Nina, with whom he had two sons named Peter and Dmitri. === Political views === After the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022, Pajitnov issued a statement condemning the war and stating that he was "sure that Putin and his hateful regime will fall down and the normal peaceful way of living will be restored in Ukraine and, hopefully, in Russia". ==Games== ==Awards and recognition== In 1996, GameSpot named him as the fourth most influential computer game developer of all time. In March 2007, he received the Game Developers Choice Awards First Penguin Award. The award was given for pioneering the casual games market. In June 2009, he received the honorary award at the LARA - Der Deutsche Games Award in Cologne, Germany. In 2012, IGN included Pajitnov on their list of 5 Memorable Video Game Industry One-Hit Wonders, calling him "the ultimate video game one-hit wonder." In 2015, Pajitnov won the Bizkaia Award at the Fun & Serious Game Festival. Pajitnov was portrayed by Russian actor Nikita Yefremov in the 2023 movie Tetris, a dramatised retelling of the licensing bidding war for Tetris in the late 1980s.	[ "Ice & Fire", "Joe Ritchie", "Fun & Serious Game Festival", "Henk Rogers", "Moscow Aviation Institute", "The Tetris Company", "Russians", "Game Boy", "GameSpot", "ClockWerx", "Super Nintendo Entertainment System", "Microsoft Windows", "Joint venture", "Russian invasion of Ukraine", "iOS", "Tetris", "BreakThru! (video game)", "Video game design", "Wordtris", "Hexic 2", "NES", "Nintendo 64", "Knight Moves (video game)", "Knight Move", "Game Boy Color", "Vice Media", "video game design", "PC game", "ELORG", "Xbox 360", "Microsoft", "Clyde Hill, Washington", "Cologne", "Welltris", "Nikita Yefremov", "Tetrisphere", "Russian SFSR", "Vladimir Pokhilko", "Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union", "Score (game)", "Hatris", "MobyGames", "Computer engineering", "Citizenship of the United States", "Faces...tris III", "Gamasutra", "IGN", "Vadim Gerasimov", "Dorodnitsyn Computing Centre", "The Guardian", "Russian Academy of Sciences", "Scientific American Frontiers", "IBM Personal Computer", "DOS", "royalties", "Family Computer Disk System", "Yoshi's Cookie", "Tetris (film)", "Hexic", "pentomino", "MSN Games", "Game Developers Choice Awards", "Heinz Heise", "3D computer graphics", "Dissolution of the Soviet Union", "Electronika 60", "PBS", "Level (video games)", "El-Fish", "jigsaw puzzle", "NPR", "Classic Mac OS", "The New York Times", "Pandora's Box (1999 video game)", "Microsoft Entertainment Pack: The Puzzle Collection", "Japan", "Vladimir Putin", "applied mathematics" ]
3,019	ʻAbdu'l-Bahá	ʻAbdu'l-Bahá (; Persian: , ;, 23 May 1844 – 28 November 1921), born ʻAbbás (, ), was the eldest son of Baháʼu'lláh, founder of the Bahá’í Faith, who designated him to be his successor and head of the Baháʼí Faith from 1892 until 1921. ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was later cited as the last of three "central figures" of the religion, along with Baháʼu'lláh and the Báb, and his writings and authenticated talks are regarded as sources of Baháʼí sacred literature. He was born in Tehran to an aristocratic family. At the age of eight, his father was imprisoned during a government crackdown on the Bábí Faith and the family's possessions were looted, leaving them in virtual poverty. His father was exiled from their native Iran, and the family established their residence in Baghdad in Iraq, where they stayed for ten years. They were later called by the Ottoman state to Istanbul before entering another period of confinement in Edirne and finally the prison-city of ʻAkká (Acre). ʻAbdu'l-Bahá remained a prisoner there until the Young Turk Revolution freed him in 1908 at the age of 64. He then made several journeys to the West to spread the Baháʼí message beyond its middle-eastern roots, but the onset of World War I left him largely confined to Haifa from 1914 to 1918. Following the war, the openly hostile Ottoman authorities were replaced by the British Mandate over Palestine, during which time he was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire for his help in averting famine following the war. In 1892, ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was appointed in his father's will to be his successor and head of the Baháʼí Faith. His Tablets of the Divine Plan galvanized Baháʼís in North America to spread the Baháʼí teachings to new territories, and his Will and Testament laid the foundation for the current Baháʼí administrative order. Many of his writings, prayers and letters are extant, and his discourses with the Western Baháʼís emphasize the growth of the religion by the late 1890s. ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's given name was ʻAbbás. Depending on context, he would have gone by either Mírzá ʻAbbás (Persian) or ʻAbbás Effendi (Turkish), both of which are equivalent to the English Sir ʻAbbás. During most of his time as head of the Bahá'í Faith, he used and preferred the title of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá ("servant of Bahá", a reference to his father). He is commonly referred to in Baháʼí texts as "The Master". ==Early life== ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was born in Tehran, Persia (now Iran) on 23 May 1844 (5th of Jamadiyu'l-Avval, 1260 AH), the eldest son of Baháʼu'lláh and Navváb. He was born on the same night on which the Báb declared his mission. Given the name ʻAbbás at birth, he was named after his grandfather Mírzá ʻAbbás Núrí, a prominent and powerful nobleman. ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's early years were shaped by his father's prominent role within the Bábí community. As a child, he fondly recalled interactions with the Bábí, Táhirih, describing how she would take him on her knee, caress him, and engage in heartfelt conversations, leaving a lasting impression on him. His childhood was characterized by happiness and carefree moments. The family's residences in Tehran and the countryside were not only comfortable but also beautifully adorned. Alongside his younger siblings – a sister, Bahíyyih, and a brother, Mihdí – he experienced a life of privilege, joy, and comfort. Due to a life largely marked by exile and imprisonment, ʻAbdu'l-Bahá had limited opportunities for formal schooling. In his youth, it was customary for children of nobility, including ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, not to attend conventional schools. Instead, noblemen typically received a brief education at home, focusing on subjects such as scripture, rhetoric, calligraphy, and basic mathematics, with an emphasis on preparing for life within royal courts. ʻAbdu'l-Bahá spent only a short period at a traditional preparatory school at the age of seven for a single year. His mother and uncle took on the responsibility of his early education, but the primary source of his learning was his father. In 1890 Edward Granville Browne described ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, saying that "one more eloquent of speech, more ready of argument, more apt of illustration, more intimately acquainted with the sacred books of the Jews, the Christians, and the Muhammadans...could scarcely be found..." According to contemporary accounts ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was an eloquent and charming child. At the age of seven, he faced a severe health challenge when he contracted tuberculosis, and his prognosis suggested death. Though the illness abated, this marked the beginning of a lifelong struggle with recurrent bouts of various illnesses that would persist throughout his life. One event that affected ʻAbdu'l-Bahá greatly during his childhood was the imprisonment of his father when ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was eight years old; this circumstance led to a considerable decline in the family's economic standing, subjecting him to poverty and exposing him to hostility from other children in the streets. ʻAbdu'l-Bahá accompanied his mother to visit Baháʼu'lláh who was then imprisoned in the infamous subterranean dungeon the Síyáh-Chál. of 1853. During the journey ʻAbdu'l-Bahá suffered from frost-bite. After a year of difficulties, Baháʼu'lláh absented himself rather than continuing to face the conflict with Mirza Yahya and secluded himself in the mountains of Sulaymaniyah in April 1854, a month before ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's tenth birthday ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was particularly close to both, and his mother took an active role in his education and upbringing. During the two-year absence of his father ʻAbdu'l-Bahá took up the duty of managing the affairs of the family, before his age of maturity (14 in Middle-Eastern society) and was known to be occupied with reading and, at a time of hand-copied scriptures being the primary means of publishing, was also engaged in copying the writings of the Báb. ʻAbdu'l-Bahá also took an interest in the art of horseback riding, and as he grew, he became a renowned rider. On seeing his father, ʻAbdu'l-Bahá fell to his knees and wept loudly "Why did you leave us?", and his mother and sister did the same. ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was fifteen or sixteen at the time and ʻAlí Shawkat Páshá regarded the more than 11,000-word essay as a remarkable feat for someone of his age. In 1863, in what became known as the Garden of Ridván, his father Baháʼu'lláh announced to a few companions that he was the manifestation of God and He whom God shall make manifest whose coming had been foretold by the Báb. On day eight of the twelve days, it is reported that ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was the first person to whom Baháʼu'lláh revealed his claim. == Istanbul/Adrianople == In 1863, Baháʼu'lláh was summoned to Istanbul, and thus his family, including ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, then eighteen, accompanied him on his 110-day journey. The journey to Constantinople was another wearisome voyage, Bahá’u’lláh and his family were soon exiled to Adrianople, and on this journey ʻAbdu'l-Bahá again suffered from frostbite. In Adrianople ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was regarded as the sole comforter of his family – in particular to his mother. Baháʼu'lláh gave his son many other titles such as G͟husn-i-Aʻzam (meaning "Mightiest Branch" or "Mightier Branch"), the "Branch of Holiness", "the Center of the Covenant" and the apple of his eye. Upon learning of yet another exile of Bahá’u’llah, this time to Palestine, ʻAbdu'l-Bahá ("the Master") was devastated when hearing the news that he and his family were to be exiled separately from Baháʼu'lláh. It was, according to Baháʼís, through his intercession that the idea was reverted and the rest of the family were allowed to be exiled together. Arrival in ʻAkká was distressing for the family and exiles when they were met by a hostile local population. When told that the women were to sit on the shoulders of the men to reach the shore, ʻAbdu'l-Bahá obtained chairs to carry the women to land. all waited to talk and receive ʻAbdu'l-Bahá. With the passage of time ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was able to rent alternative accommodations for the family, and eventually the family moved to the Mansion of Bahjí around 1879 when an epidemic caused its residents to flee. ʻAbdu'l-Bahá undertook a history of the Bábí religion through publication of A Traveller's Narrative (Makála-i-Shakhsí Sayyáh) in 1886, later translated and published in translation in 1891 through Cambridge University through the agency of Edward Granville Browne. ===Marriage and family life=== When ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was a young man, speculation was rife amongst the Baháʼís as to whom he would marry. Several young girls were seen as marriage prospects but ʻAbdu'l-Bahá seemed disinclined to marriage. On 8 March 1873, at the urging of his father, the twenty-eight-year-old ʻAbdu'l-Bahá married Fátimih Nahrí of Isfahán (1847–1938) a twenty-five-year-old from an upper-class family of the city. Her father was Mírzá Muḥammad ʻAlí Nahrí of Isfahan, an eminent Baháʼí with prominent connections. Fátimih was brought from Persia to ʻAkká after both Baháʼu'lláh and his wife Navváb expressed an interest that she marries ʻAbdu'l-Bahá. After a wearisome journey from Isfahán to Akka she finally arrived accompanied by her brother in 1872. The marriage resulted in nine children. The first born was a son Mihdí Effendi who died aged about 3. He was followed by Ḍíyáʼíyyih K͟hánum, Fuʼádíyyih K͟hánum (who dies very young), Rúhangíz Khánum (d. 1893), Túbá Khánum, Husayn Effendi (d. 1887 aged 5), Túbá K͟hánum, Rúhá K͟hánum (mother of Munib Shahid), and Munnavar K͟hánum. The death of his children caused ʻAbdu'l-Bahá immense grief – in particular the death of his son Husayn Effendi came at a difficult time following the death of his mother and uncle. The surviving children (all daughters) were; Ḍíyáʼíyyih K͟hánum (mother of Shoghi Effendi) (d. 1951) Túbá K͟hánum (1880–1959) Rúḥá K͟hánum and Munavvar K͟hánum (d. 1971). Baháʼu'lláh wished that the Baháʼís follow the example of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá and gradually move away from polygamy. The marriage of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá to one woman and his choice to remain monogamous, Muhammad ʻAlí and Mirza Javad began to openly accuse ʻAbdu'l-Bahá of assuming too much authority, suggesting that he believed himself to be a Manifestation of God, equal in status to Baháʼu'lláh. It was at this time that ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, to counter the accusations leveled against him, stated in tablets to the West that he was to be known as "ʻAbdu'l-Bahá" an Arabic phrase meaning the Servant of Bahá to make it clear that he was not a Manifestation of God, and that his station was only servitude. ʻAbdu'l-Bahá left a Will and Testament that established the framework of the administration of the Baháʼí Faith, the two highest institutions of which were the Universal House of Justice, and the Guardianship, for which he appointed his grandson Shoghi Effendi as the Guardian. With the exception of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá and Shoghi Effendi, Muhammad ʻAlí was supported by all of the remaining male relatives of Baháʼu'lláh, including Shoghi Effendi's father, Mírzá Hádí Shírází. However, in general the Bahá’ís experienced very little effect from the propaganda of Muhammad ʻAlí and his allies; in the ʻAkká area, the followers of Muhammad ʻAlí represented six families at most, had no common religious activities, and were almost wholly assimilated into Muslim society. Religions in the past faced schism and doctrinal drift after the death of their prophet founders. ʻAbdu'l-Bahá however managed to preserve the unity and doctrinal integrity of the Baháʼí Faith, even in the face of serious threats from his half-brother’s opposition. His success is especially notable given that even in the midst of these attacks his leadership brought about considerable expansion of the Baháʼí community beyond its initial cultural and geographic roots. === First Western pilgrims === By the end of 1898, Western pilgrims started traveling to Akka on pilgrimage to visit ʻAbdu'l-Bahá; this group of pilgrims, including Phoebe Hearst, was the first time that Baháʼís raised up in the West had met ʻAbdu'l-Bahá. The first group arrived in 1898 and throughout late 1898 to early 1899 Western Baháʼís sporadically visited ʻAbdu'l-Bahá. The group was relatively young containing mainly women from high American society in their 20s. The group of Westerners aroused suspicion for the authorities, and consequently ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's confinement was tightened. During the next decade ʻAbdu'l-Bahá would be in constant communication with Baháʼís around the world, encouraging them to teach the religion; the group included Susan Moody, Lua Getsinger, Laura Clifford Barney, Herbert Hopper and May Ellis Bolles in Paris (all Americans); Englishman Thomas Breakwell; and Frenchman . It was Laura Clifford Barney who, by asking questions of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá over many years and many visits to Haifa, compiled what later became the book Some Answered Questions. ===Ministry, 1901–1912=== During the final years of the 19th century, while ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was still officially a prisoner and confined to ʻAkka, he organized the transfer of the remains of the Báb from Iran to Palestine. He then organized the purchase of land on Mount Carmel that Baháʼu'lláh had instructed should be used to lay the remains of the Báb, and organized for the construction of the Shrine of the Báb. This process took another 10 years. With the increase of pilgrims visiting ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, Muhammad ʻAlí conspired with the Ottoman authorities to re-introduce stricter terms on ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's imprisonment in August 1901. By 1902, however, due to the support of the Governor of ʻAkka, the situation was greatly eased; while pilgrims were able to once again visit ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, he was still confined to the city. In February 1903, two followers of Muhammad ʻAlí, including Badiʻu'llah and Siyyid ʻAliy-i-Afnan, broke with Muhammad ʻAli and wrote books and letters giving details of Muhammad ʻAli's plots and noting that what was circulating about ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was fabrication. From 1902 to 1904, even as ‘Abdu’l-Bahá directed the construction of the Shrine of the Báb, he initiated execution of two additional projects; the restoration of the House of the Báb in Shiraz, Iran and the construction of the first Baháʼí House of Worship in Ashgabat, Turkmenistan. ʻAbdu'l-Bahá asked Aqa Mirza Aqa to coordinate the restoration of the house of the Báb to its state at the time of the Báb's declaration to Mulla Husayn in 1844; he also entrusted the work on the House of Worship to Vakil-u'd-Dawlih. In his role as head of the Bahá’í Faith, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá would occasionally communicate with leaders of thought to offer commentary and guidance based on the Bahá’í teachings, and in defense of the Bahá’í community. During this period, ʻAbdu'l-Bahá communicated with a number of Young Turks, who sought to reform to the reign of Sultan Abdul Hamid II, including Namık Kemal, Ziya Pasha and Midhat Pasha. He emphasized Baháʼís "seek freedom and love liberty, hope for equality, are well-wishers of humanity and ready to sacrifice their lives to unite humanity" but on a more broad approach than the Young Turks. Abdullah Cevdet, one of the founders of the Committee of Union and Progress who considered the Baháʼí Faith an intermediary step between Islam and the ultimate abandonment of religious belief, would go on trial for defense of Baháʼís in a periodical he founded. ‛Abdu'l-Bahá also had contact with military leaders, including such individuals as Bursalı Mehmet Tahir Bey and Hasan Bedreddin. The latter, who in an earlier period was involved in the overthrow of Sultan Abdülaziz in 1876, is commonly known as Bedri Paşa or Bedri Pasha and is referred to in Persian Baháʼí sources as Bedri Bey (Badri Beg). He probably came to know ‘Abdu’l-Baha around 1898 when he served in the Ottoman administration in Akká. Persian sources cite him was a Baháʼí and he who translated ‛Abdu'l-Baha's works into French. ‘Abdu’l-Bahá continued to communicate with him for several years when he was governor of Albania. Rashid Rida asserts that during his visits to Beirut, ʻAbdu'l-Bahá would attend Abduh's study sessions. Regarding the meetings of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá and Muhammad ʻAbduh, Shoghi Effendi asserts that "His several interviews with the well-known Shaykh Muhammad ʻAbdu served to enhance immensely the growing prestige of the community and spread abroad the fame of its most distinguished member." Due to Muhammad ʻAli's accusations against him, a Commission of Inquiry interviewed ʻAbdu'l-Bahá in 1905, almost resulting in exile to Fezzan. In response, ʻAbdu'l-Bahá wrote the sultan a letter protesting that his followers refrain from involvement in partisan politics and that his tariqa had guided many Americans to Islam. The next few years in ʻAkka were relatively free of pressures and pilgrims were able to come and visit ʻAbdu'l-Bahá. By 1909 the mausoleum of the Shrine of the Báb was completed. ==Journeys to the West== The 1908 Young Turks revolution liberated all political and religious prisoners in the Ottoman Empire, and ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was freed from imprisonment. His first action after his liberation was to visit the Shrine of Baháʼu'lláh in Bahji. While ʻAbdu'l-Bahá continued to live in ʻAkka immediately following the revolution, he soon moved to live in Haifa near the Shrine of the Báb. In 1910, with the freedom to leave the country, he embarked on a three-year journey to Egypt, Europe, and North America, spreading the Baháʼí message. From August to December 1911, ʻAbdu'l-Bahá visited cities in Europe, including London, Bristol, and Paris. The purpose of these trips was to support the Baháʼí communities in the west and to further spread his father's teachings. In the following year, he undertook a much more extensive journey to the United States and Canada to once again spread his father's teachings. He arrived in New York City on 11 April 1912, after declining an offer of passage on the RMS Titanic, telling the Baháʼí believers, instead, to "Donate this to charity." He instead travelled on a slower craft, the RMS Cedric, and cited preference of a longer sea journey as the reason. After hearing of the Titanic's sinking on 16 April he was quoted as saying "I was asked to sail upon the Titanic, but my heart did not prompt me to do so." During his talks he proclaimed Baháʼí principles such as the unity of God, unity of the religions, oneness of humanity, equality of women and men, world peace and economic justice. The headlines in those papers included "Persian Teacher to Preach Peace", "Racialism Wrong, Says Eastern Sage, Strife and War Caused by Religious and National Prejudices", and "Apostle of Peace Meets Socialists, Abdul Baha's Novel Scheme for Distribution of Surplus Wealth." The Montreal Standard, which was distributed across Canada, took so much interest that it republished the articles a week later; the Gazette published six articles and Montreal's largest French language newspaper published two articles about him. In Chicago one newspaper headline included "His Holiness Visits Us, Not Pius X but A. Baha," and ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's visit to California was reported in the Palo Altan. Back in Europe, he visited London, Edinburgh, Paris (where he stayed for two months), Stuttgart, Budapest, and Vienna. Finally, on 12 June 1913, he returned to Egypt, where he stayed for six months before returning to Haifa. On 23 February 1914, at the eve of World War I, ʻAbdu'l-Bahá hosted Baron Edmond James de Rothschild, a member of the Rothschild banking family who was a leading advocate and financier of the Zionist movement, during one of his early trips to Palestine. ==Final years (1914–1921)== During World War I (1914–1918) ʻAbdu'l-Bahá stayed in Palestine and was unable to travel. He carried on a limited correspondence, which included the Tablets of the Divine Plan, a collection of fourteen letters addressed to the Baháʼís of North America, later described as one of three "charters" of the Baháʼí Faith. The letters assign a leadership role for the North American Baháʼís in spreading the religion around the planet. Haifa was under real threat of Allied bombardment, enough that ʻAbdu'l-Bahá and other Baháʼís temporarily retreated to the hills east of ʻAkka. ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was also under threats from Cemal Paşa, the Ottoman military chief who at one point expressed his desire to crucify him and destroy Baháʼí properties in Palestine. The swift Megiddo offensive of the British General Allenby swept away the Turkish forces in Palestine before harm was done to the Baháʼís, and the war was over less than two months later. ===Post-war period=== The conclusion of World War I led to the openly hostile Ottoman authorities being replaced by the more friendly British Mandate, allowing for a renewal of correspondence, pilgrims, and development of the Baháʼí World Centre properties. It was during this revival of activity that the Baháʼí Faith saw an expansion and consolidation in places like Egypt, the Caucasus, Iran, Turkmenistan, North America and South Asia under the leadership of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá. The end of the war brought about several political developments on which ʻAbdu'l-Bahá commented. The League of Nations formed in January 1920, representing the first instance of collective security through a worldwide organization. ʻAbdu'l-Bahá had written in 1875 for the need to establish a "Union of the nations of the world", and he praised the attempt through the League of Nations as an important step towards the goal. He also said that it was "incapable of establishing Universal Peace" because it did not represent all nations and had only trivial power over its member states. Around the same time, the British Mandate supported the ongoing immigration of Jews to Palestine. ʻAbdu'l-Bahá mentioned the immigration as a fulfillment of prophecy, and encouraged the Zionists to develop the land and "elevate the country for all its inhabitants... They must not work to separate the Jews from the other Palestinians...If the Zionists will mingle with the other races and live in unity with them, they will succeed. If not, they will meet certain resistance." The war also left the region in famine. In 1901, ʻAbdu'l-Bahá had purchased about 1704 acres of scrubland near the Jordan river and by 1907 many Baháʼís from Iran had begun sharecropping on the land. ʻAbdu'l-Bahá received between 20 and 33% of their harvest (or cash equivalent), which was shipped to Haifa. With the war still raging in 1917, ʻAbdu'l-Bahá received a large amount of wheat from the crops, and also bought other available wheat and shipped it back to Haifa. The wheat arrived just after the British captured Palestine, and as such was widely distributed to allay the famine. For this service in averting a famine in Northern Palestine he received the honour of Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire at a ceremony held in his honor at the home of the British Governor on 27 April 1920. He was later visited by General Allenby, King Faisal (later King of Iraq), Herbert Samuel (High Commissioner for Palestine), and Ronald Storrs (Military Governor of Jerusalem). ===Death and funeral=== ʻAbdu'l-Bahá died on Monday, 28 November 1921, sometime after 1:15 a.m. (27th of Rabi' al-awwal, 1340 AH). Then Colonial Secretary Winston Churchill telegraphed the High Commissioner for Palestine, "convey to the Baháʼí Community, on behalf of His Majesty's Government, their sympathy and condolence." Similar messages came from Viscount Allenby, the Council of Ministers of Iraq, and others. On his funeral, which was held the next day, Esslemont notes: Among the talks delivered at the funeral, Shoghi Effendi records Stewart Symes (Governor of the Palestine North District) giving the following tribute: He was buried in the front room of the Shrine of the Báb on Mount Carmel. His interment there is meant to be temporary, until his own mausoleum can be built in the vicinity of Riḍván Garden, known as the Shrine of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá. ===Legacy=== ʻAbdu'l-Bahá left a Will and Testament that was originally written between 1901 and 1908 and addressed to Shoghi Effendi, who at that time was only 4–11 years old. The will appoints Shoghi Effendi as the first in a line of Guardians of the religion, a hereditary executive role that may provide authoritative interpretations of scripture. ʻAbdu'l-Bahá directed all Baháʼís to turn to him and obey him, and assured him of divine protection and guidance. The will also provided a formal reiteration of his teachings, such as the instructions to teach, manifest spiritual qualities, associate with all people, and shun Covenant-breakers. Many obligations of the Universal House of Justice and the Hands of the Cause were also elaborated. Shoghi Effendi later described the document as one of three "charters" of the Baháʼí Faith. The authenticity and provisions of the will were almost universally accepted by Baháʼís around the world, with the exception of Ruth White and a few other Americans who tried to protest Shoghi Effendi's leadership. In volumes of The Baháʼí World published in 1930 and 1933, Shoghi Effendi named nineteen Baháʼís as disciples of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá and heralds of the Covenant, including Thornton Chase, , John Esslemont, Lua Getsinger, and Robert Turner. No other statements about them have been found in Shoghi Effendi's writings. During his lifetime there was some ambiguity among Baháʼís as to his station relative to Baháʼu'lláh, and later to Shoghi Effendi. Some American newspapers erroneously reported him to be a Baháʼí prophet or the return of Christ. Shoghi Effendi later formalized his legacy as the last of three "Central Figures" of the Baháʼí Faith and the "Perfect exemplar" of the teachings, also claiming that holding him on an equal status to Baháʼu'lláh or Jesus was heretical. Shoghi Effendi also wrote that during the anticipated Baháʼí dispensation of 1000 years there will be no equal to ʻAbdu'l-Bahá. == Appearance and personality == ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was described as handsome, and bore striking resemblance to his mother. As an adult he reached medium height but he gave the impression of being taller. He had dark hair that flowed to his shoulders, grey coloured eyes, a fair complexion and an aquiline nose. In 1890, Orientalist Edward Granville Browne met him and wrote: After the death of Bahá’u’lláh, ʻAbdu'l-Bahá began to visibly age. By the late 1890s his hair had turned snow-white and deep lines set on his face. As a young man he was athletic and enjoyed archery, horseback riding and swimming. Even later in his life ʻAbdu'l-Bahá remained active going for long walks in Haifa and Acre. ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was a major presence for the Bahá’ís during his lifetime, and he continues to influence the Bahá’í community today. Bahá’ís regard ‘Abdu’l-Bahá as the perfect example of the teachings of his father and therefore strive to emulate him. Anecdotes about him are frequently used to illustrate particular points about morality and interpersonal relations. He was remembered for his charisma, compassion, philanthropy and strength in the face of suffering. John Esslemont reflected that "[‘Abdu’l-Bahá] showed that it is still possible, amid the whirl and rush of modern life, amid the self-love and struggle for material prosperity that everywhere prevail, to live the life of entire devotion to God and to the service of one's fellows." Even ardent enemies of the Bahá’í Faith were on occasion taken by meeting him. Mírzá 'Abdu'l-Muḥammad Írání Mu'addibu's-Sulṭán, an Iranian, and Shaykh 'Alí Yúsuf, an Arab, were both newspaper editors in Egypt who had published harsh attacks on the Bahá’í Faith in their papers. They called on ‘Abdu’l-Bahá when he was in Egypt and their attitude changed. Similarly, a Christian clergyman, Rev. J.T. Bixby, who was the author of a hostile article on the Bahá’í Faith in the United States, felt compelled to witness Abdu'l-Bahá's personal qualities. The effect of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá on those who were already committed Bahá’ís was greater still. ʻAbdu'l-Bahá was widely known for his encounters with the poor and dying. His generosity resulted in his own family complaining that they were left with nothing. He was sensitive to people’s feelings, and later expressed his wish to be a beloved figure of the Bahá’ís saying “I am your father...and you must be glad and rejoice, for I love you exceedingly.” According to historical accounts, he had a keen sense of humour and was relaxed and informal. He was open about personal tragedies such as the loss of his children and the sufferings he'd endured as a prisoner, further enhancing his popularity. ‘Abdu’l-Bahá directed the affairs of the Bahá’í community with care. He was inclined to allow a large range of personal interpretations of the Bahá’í teachings as long as these did not obviously contradict fundamental principles. He did, however, expel members of the religion he felt were challenging his leadership and deliberately causing disunity in the community. Outbreaks of persecution of the Bahá’ís affected him deeply. He wrote personally to the families of those who had been martyred. ==Works== The total estimated number of tablets that ʻAbdu'l-Bahá wrote are over 27,000 of which only a fraction have been translated into English. His works fall into two groups including first his direct writings and second his lectures and speeches as noted by others. The first group includes The Secret of Divine Civilization written before 1875, A Traveller's Narrative written around 1886, the Resāla-ye sīāsīya or Sermon on the Art of Governance written in 1893, the Memorials of the Faithful, and a large number of tablets written to various people; including various Western intellectuals such as Auguste Forel which has been translated and published as the Tablet to Auguste-Henri Forel. The Secret of Divine Civilization and the Sermon on the Art of Governance were widely circulated anonymously. The second group includes Some Answered Questions, which is an English translation of a series of table talks with Laura Barney, and Paris Talks, ʻAbdu'l-Baha in London and Promulgation of Universal Peace which are respectively addresses given by ʻAbdu'l-Bahá in Paris, London and the United States. The following is a list of some of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's many books, tablets, and talks: Foundations of World Unity Light of the World: Selected Tablets of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá. Memorials of the Faithful Paris Talks Secret of Divine Civilization Some Answered Questions Tablets of the Divine Plan Tablet to Auguste-Henri Forel Tablet to The Hague Will and Testament of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá Promulgation of Universal Peace Selections from the Writings of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá Divine Philosophy Treatise on Politics / Sermon on the Art of Governance	[ "Baháʼí World Centre", "He whom God shall make manifest", "Munírih Khánum", "Guardian (Baháʼí Faith)", "Montreal", "Stanford University", "Hijri year", "Fezzan", "Istanbul", "La Presse (Canada)", "Allies of World War I", "Disciples of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá", "tablets (religious)", "Ottoman Empire", "Shrine of Baháʼu'lláh", "British Mandate-Palestine", "Edmond James de Rothschild", "The Secret of Divine Civilization", "Aristocracy", "House of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá", "Stuttgart", "King of Iraq", "Rabi' al-awwal", "A Traveller's Narrative", "Manifestation of God (Baháʼí Faith)", "Baháʼí Faith and the unity of religion", "Baháʼu'lláh's family", "RMS Titanic", "Edmund Allenby, 1st Viscount Allenby", "Abdul Hamid II", "given name", "Budapest", "Mírzá Muhammad ʻAlí", "Garden of Ridván, Baghdad", "I was a Hidden Treasure", "Young Turk", "Covenant-breaker", "Namık Kemal", "Edward Granville Browne", "New York City", "Bahji", "Baháʼí Faith", "dysentery", "abdul", "Homa Hoodfar", "Philadelphia", "Isfahan", "New Hampshire", "Caucasus", "The Baháʼí World", "Tablet to Dr. Forel", "Bábism", "League of Nations", "Baghdad", "Los Angeles", "Azalism", "Ibrahim George Kheiralla", "Laura Clifford Barney", "Pittsburgh", "tablet of the Branch", "Jumada al-awwal", "Baháʼí Faith and the unity of humanity", "World War I", "Sinai and Palestine Campaign", "Mirza (noble)", "Green Acre", "Montreal Daily Star", "Vienna", "British Mandate Over Palestine", "Síyáh-Chál", "House of ʻAbbúd", "Jordan river", "Mírzá Músá", "Ethel Jenner Rosenberg", "Ruth White (Baháʼí author)", "Abdullah Cevdet", "Báb", "Islamic Modernism", "Columbia University", "Le Devoir", "Phoebe Hearst", "Sulaymaniyah", "Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire", "Edirne", "Young Turk Revolution", "Shiraz, Iran", "Ziya Pasha", "Midhat Pasha", "Cleveland", "collective security", "Winston Churchill", "Lua Getsinger", "Thornton Chase", "Mulla Husayn", "God in the Baháʼí Faith", "elative (gradation)", "Qajar Iran", "Bahá'í Faith", "Persians", "Mount Carmel", "Bursalı Mehmet Tahir Bey", "May Maxwell", "superlative", "Baháʼí administration", "Aghsán", "RMS Cedric", "Hands of the Cause", "comparative", "Mirza Yahya", "Ronald Storrs", "ayin", "Faisal I of Iraq", "Ashgabat", "tariqa", "Montreal Standard", "August Forel", "Bahíyyih Khánum", "Munirih Khánum", "Encyclopædia Iranica", "Persian language", "Shrine of the Báb", "Stewart Symes", "age of majority", "Zionism", "Foundations of World Unity", "Mandatory Palestine", "Salafi movement", "Muhammad Abduh", "The Montreal Gazette", "Secret of Divine Civilization", "Vakil-u'd-Dawlih", "Maine", "Baháʼí House of Worship", "sharecropping", "Tablets of the Divine Plan", "Rashid Rida", "Aliyah", "Herbert Samuel, 1st Viscount Samuel", "Iraq", "Second Coming", "House of the Báb", "Council of Ministers", "Universal House of Justice", "Baháʼí World Centre buildings", "Paris Talks", "Will and Testament of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá", "Tehran", "Persia", "ʻAbdu'l-Bahá's journeys to the West", "Munib Shahid", "Tablet to The Hague", "Robert Turner (Bahá'í)", "Shrine of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá", "Stephen Leacock", "Rothschild family", "Baháʼu'lláh", "Minneapolis", "Ásíyih Khánum", "Effendi", "Tablets of Baháʼu'lláh", "Baháʼí Faith and gender equality", "Navváb", "Djemal Pasha", "Tablet (religious)", "Táhirih", "Mírzá ʻAbbás Núrí", "Young Turks", "Thomas Breakwell", "Adrianople", "Abdülaziz of the Ottoman Empire", "Arcadian Adventures with the Idle Rich", "Baháʼí Faith in North America", "Afnán", "Shoghi Effendi", "Committee of Union and Progress", "John Esslemont", "Acre, Palestine", "Some Answered Questions", "Mírzá Mihdí", "Haifa", "Hasan Bedreddin" ]
3,020	Ambrose of Alexandria	Ambrose of Alexandria (before 212 – c. 250) was a friend of the Christian theologian Origen. ==Life== Ambrose was attracted by Origen's fame as a teacher, and visited the Catechetical School of Alexandria in 212. At first a gnostic Valentinian and Marcionist, Ambrose, through Origen's teaching, eventually rejected this theology and became Origen's constant companion, and was ordained deacon. He plied Origen with questions, and urged him to write his Commentaries (treating him as "" in Commentary on John V,1) on the books of the Bible, and, as a wealthy nobleman and courtier, He suffered during the persecution under the Roman emperor Maximinus Thrax in 235. He was later released and died a confessor. The last mention of Ambrose in the historical record is in Origen's Contra Celsum, which the latter wrote at the solicitation of Ambrose. Origen often speaks of Ambrose affectionately as a man of education with excellent literary and scholarly tastes. All of Origen's works written after 218 are dedicated to Ambrose, including his On Martyrdom, Contra Celsum, Commentary on St. John's Gospel, and On Prayer. Ambrose's letters to Origen (praised by Jerome) are lost, although part of one exists. ==Veneration== Ambrose is venerated as a saint by some branches of Christianity. His feast day in the Catholic Church falls on 17 March.	[ "Catholic Church", "Origen", "Eusebius", "Valentinus (Gnostic)", "Eastern Orthodox Church", "Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology", "Christians", "Marcionism", "Oriental Orthodox Churches", "theologian", "gnostic", "Jerome's De Viris Illustribus", "Bible", "Eusebius of Caesarea", "Maximinus Thrax", "Contra Celsum", "Catechetical School of Alexandria", "Alexandria", "Jerome", "Little, Brown and Company", "Church History (Eusebius)", "Ambrose", "deacon", "confessor", "Saint" ]
3,022	Autonomous building	An autonomous building is a hypothetical building designed to be operated independently from infrastructural support services such as the electric power grid, gas grid, municipal water systems, sewage treatment systems, storm drains, communication services, and in some cases, public roads. The literature mostly refers to housing, or the autonomous house. Advocates of autonomous building describe advantages that include reduced environmental impacts, increased security, and lower costs of ownership. Some cited advantages satisfy tenets of green building, not independence per se (see below). Off-grid buildings often rely very little on civil services and are therefore safer and more comfortable during civil disaster or military attacks. For example, off-grid buildings would not lose power or water if public supplies were compromised. ==History== ===1970s=== In the 1970s, groups of activists and engineers were inspired by the warnings of imminent resource depletion and starvation. In the United States, a group calling themselves the New Alchemists were famous for the depth of research effort placed in their projects. Using conventional construction techniques, they designed a series of "bioshelter" projects, the most famous of which was The Ark bioshelter community for Prince Edward Island. They published the plans for all of these, with detailed design calculations and blueprints. The Ark used wind-based water pumping and electricity and was self-contained in food production. It had living quarters for people, fish tanks raising tilapia for protein, a greenhouse watered with fish water, and a closed-loop sewage reclamation system that recycled human waste into sanitized fertilizer for the fish tanks. Around 1975–1977, Australian architect and lecturer at University of Sydney School of Architecture, Col James, in collaboration with urban designer, architect, artist, and university tutor Nick Hollo, designed and built an autonomous house on university grounds, in collaboration with students. This taught self-build sustainability to hundreds of students. ===1990s=== The 1990s saw the development of Earthships, similar in intent to the Ark project, but organised as a for-profit venture, with construction details published in a series of three books by American architect Mike Reynolds. The building material is tires filled with earth. This makes a wall that has large amounts of thermal mass (see earth sheltering). Berms are placed on exposed surfaces to further increase the house's temperature stability. The water system starts with rain water, processed for drinking, then washing, then plant watering, then toilet flushing, and finally black water is recycled again for more plant watering. The cisterns are placed and used as thermal masses. Power, including electricity, heat and water heating, is from solar power. Some 1990s architects such as William McDonough and Ken Yeang applied environmentally responsible building design to large commercial buildings, such as office buildings, making them largely self-sufficient in energy production. One major bank building (ING Group's Amsterdam headquarters) in the Netherlands was constructed to be autonomous and artistic as well. ===2000s=== In 2002, British architects Brenda and Robert Vale wrote:It is quite possible in all parts of Australia to construct a 'house with no bills', which would be comfortable without heating and cooling, which would make its own electricity, collect its own water and deal with its own waste...These houses can be built now, using off-the-shelf techniques. It is possible to build a "house with no bills" for the same price as a conventional house, but it would be (25%) smaller. ==Advantages== As an architect or engineer becomes more concerned with the disadvantages of transportation networks, and dependence on distant resources, their designs tend to include more autonomous elements. The historic path to autonomy was a concern for secure sources of heat, power, water and food. A nearly parallel path toward autonomy has been to start with a concern for environmental impacts, which cause disadvantages. Autonomous buildings can increase security and reduce environmental impacts by using on-site resources (such as sunlight and rain) that would otherwise be wasted. Autonomy often dramatically reduces the costs and impacts of networks that serve the building, because autonomy short-circuits the multiplying inefficiencies of collecting and transporting resources. Other impacted resources, such as oil reserves and the retention of the local watershed, can often be cheaply conserved by thoughtful designs. Autonomous buildings are usually energy-efficient in operation, and therefore cost-efficient, for the obvious reason that smaller energy needs are easier to satisfy off-grid. But they may substitute energy production or other techniques to avoid diminishing returns in extreme conservation. An autonomous structure is not always environmentally friendly. The goal of independence from support systems is associated with, but not identical to, other goals of environmentally responsible green building. However, autonomous buildings also usually include some degree of sustainability through the use of renewable energy and other renewable resources, producing no more greenhouse gases than they consume, and other measures. ==Disadvantages== First and fundamentally, independence is a matter of degree. For example, eliminating dependence on the electrical grid is relatively easy. In contrast, running an efficient, reliable food source can be a chore. Living within an autonomous shelter may also require sacrifices in lifestyle or social opportunities. Even the most comfortable and technologically advanced autonomous homes could require alterations of residents' behavior. Some may not welcome the extra chores. The Vails described some clients' experiences as inconvenient, irritating, isolating, or even as an unwanted full-time job. A well-designed building can reduce this issue, but usually at the expense of reduced autonomy. An autonomous house must be custom-built (or extensively retrofitted) to suit the climate and location. Passive solar techniques, alternative toilet and sewage systems, thermal massing designs, basement battery systems, efficient windowing, and the array of other design tactics require some degree of non-standard construction, added expense, ongoing experimentation and maintenance, and also have an effect on the psychology of the space. ==Systems== ===Water=== There are many methods of collecting and conserving water. Use reduction is cost-effective. Greywater systems reuse drained wash water to flush toilets or to water lawns and gardens. Greywater systems can halve the water use of most residential buildings; however, they require the purchase of a sump, greywater pressurization pump, and secondary plumbing. Some builders are installing waterless urinals and even composting toilets that eliminate water usage in sewage disposal. The classic solution with minimal life-style changes is using a well. Once drilled, a well-foot requires substantial power. However, advanced well-foots can reduce power usage by twofold or more from older models. Well water can be contaminated in some areas. The Sono arsenic filter eliminates unhealthy arsenic in well water. However drilling a well is an uncertain activity, with aquifers depleted in some areas. It can also be expensive. In regions with sufficient rainfall, it is often more economical to design a building to use rainwater harvesting, with supplementary water deliveries in a drought. Rain water makes excellent soft washwater, but needs antibacterial treatment. If used for drinking, mineral supplements or mineralization is necessary. Most desert and temperate climates get at least of rain per year. This means that a typical one-story house with a greywater system can supply its year-round water needs from its roof alone. In the driest areas, it might require a cistern of . Many areas average of rain per week, and these can use a cistern as small as . In many areas, it is difficult to keep a roof clean enough for drinking. To reduce dirt and bad tastes, systems use a metal collecting-roof and a "roof cleaner" tank that diverts the first 40 liters. Cistern water is usually chlorinated, though reverse osmosis systems provide even better quality drinking water. In the classic Roman house ("Domus"), household water was provided from a cistern (the "impluvium"), which was a decorative feature of the atrium, the house's main public space. It was fed by downspout tiles from the inward-facing roof-opening (the "compluvium"). Often water lilies were grown in it to purify the water. Wealthy households often supplemented the rain with a small fountain fed from a city's cistern. The impluvium always had an overflow drain so it could not flood the house. Modern cisterns are usually large plastic tanks. Gravity tanks on short towers are reliable, so pump repairs are less urgent. The least expensive bulk cistern is a fenced pond or pool at ground level. Reducing autonomy reduces the size and expense of cisterns. Many autonomous homes can reduce water use below per person per day, so that in a drought a month of water can be delivered inexpensively via truck. Self-delivery is often possible by installing fabric water tanks that fit the bed of a pick-up truck. It can be convenient to use the cistern as a heat sink or trap for a heat pump or air conditioning system; however this can make cold drinking water warm, and in drier years may decrease the efficiency of the HVAC system. Solar stills can efficiently produce drinking water from ditch water or cistern water, especially high-efficiency multiple effect humidification designs, which separate the evaporator(s) and condenser(s). New technologies, like reverse osmosis can create unlimited amounts of pure water from polluted water, ocean water, and even from humid air. Watermakers are available for yachts that convert seawater and electricity into potable water and brine. Atmospheric water generators extract moisture from dry desert air and filter it to pure water. ===Sewage=== ====Resource==== Composting toilets use bacteria to decompose human feces into useful, odourless, sanitary compost. The process is sanitary because soil bacteria eat the human pathogens as well as most of the mass of the waste. Nevertheless, most health authorities forbid direct use of "humanure" for growing food. The risk is microbial and viral contamination, as well as heavy metal toxicity. In a dry composting toilet, the waste is evaporated or digested to gas (mostly carbon dioxide) and vented, so a toilet produces only a few pounds of compost every six months. To control the odor, modern toilets use a small fan to keep the toilet under negative pressure, and exhaust the gasses to a vent pipe. Some home sewage treatment systems use biological treatment, usually beds of plants and aquaria, that absorb nutrients and bacteria and convert greywater and sewage to clear water. This odor- and color-free reclaimed water can be used to flush toilets and water outside plants. When tested, it approaches standards for potable water. In climates that freeze, the plants and aquaria need to be kept in a small greenhouse space. Good systems need about as much care as a large aquarium. Electric incinerating toilets turn excrement into a small amount of ash. They are cool to the touch, have no water and no pipes, and require an air vent in a wall. They are used in remote areas where use of septic tanks is limited, usually to reduce nutrient loads in lakes. NASA's bioreactor is an extremely advanced biological sewage system. It can turn sewage into air and water through microbial action. NASA plans to use it in the crewed Mars mission. Another method is NASA's urine-to-water distillation system. A big disadvantage of complex biological sewage treatment systems is that if the house is empty, the sewage system biota may starve to death. ====Waste==== Sewage handling is essential for public health. Many diseases are transmitted by poorly functioning sewage systems. The standard system is a tiled leach field combined with a septic tank. The basic idea is to provide a small system with primary sewage treatment. Sludge settles to the bottom of the septic tank, is partially reduced by anaerobic digestion, and fluid is dispersed in the leach field. The leach field is usually under a yard growing grass. Septic tanks can operate entirely by gravity, and if well managed, are reasonably safe. Septic tanks have to be pumped periodically by a vacuum truck to eliminate non reducing solids. Failure to pump a septic tank can cause overflow that damages the leach field, and contaminates ground water. Septic tanks may also require some lifestyle changes, such as not using garbage disposals, minimizing fluids flushed into the tank, and minimizing non-digestible solids flushed into the tank. For example, septic safe toilet paper is recommended. However, septic tanks remain popular because they permit standard plumbing fixtures, and require few or no lifestyle sacrifices. Composting or packaging toilets make it economical and sanitary to throw away sewage as part of the normal garbage collection service. They also reduce water use by half, and eliminate the difficulty and expense of septic tanks. However, they require the local landfill to use sanitary practices. Incinerator systems are quite practical. The ashes are biologically safe, and less than 1/10 the volume of the original waste, but like all incinerator waste, are usually classified as hazardous waste. Traditional methods of sewage handling include pit toilets, latrines, and outhouses. These can be safe, inexpensive and practical. They are still used in many regions. ===Storm drains=== Drainage systems are a crucial compromise between human habitability and a secure, sustainable watershed. Paved areas and lawns or turf do not allow much precipitation to filter through the ground to recharge aquifers. They can cause flooding and damage in neighbourhoods, as the water flows over the surface towards a low point. Typically, elaborate, capital-intensive storm sewer networks are engineered to deal with stormwater. In some cities, such as the Victorian era London sewers or much of the old City of Toronto, the storm water system is combined with the sanitary sewer system. In the event of heavy precipitation, the load on the sewage treatment plant at the end of the pipe becomes too great to handle and raw sewage is dumped into holding tanks, and sometimes into surface water. Autonomous buildings can address precipitation in a number of ways. If a water-absorbing swale for each yard is combined with permeable concrete streets, storm drains can be omitted from the neighbourhood. This can save more than $800 per house (1970s) by eliminating storm drains. One way to use the savings is to purchase larger lots, which permits more amenities at the same cost. Permeable concrete is an established product in warm climates, and in development for freezing climates. In freezing climates, the elimination of storm drains can often still pay for enough land to construct swales (shallow water collecting ditches) or water impeding berms instead. This plan provides more land for homeowners and can offer more interesting topography for landscaping. Additionally, a green roof captures precipitation and uses the water to grow plants. It can be built into a new building or used to replace an existing roof. ===Electricity=== Since electricity is an expensive utility, the first step towards autonomy is to design a house and lifestyle to reduce demand. LED lights, laptop computers and gas-powered refrigerators save electricity, although gas-powered refrigerators are not very efficient. There are also superefficient electric refrigerators, such as those produced by the Sun Frost company, some of which use only about half as much electricity as a mass-market energy star-rated refrigerator. Using a solar roof, solar cells can provide electric power. Solar roofs can be more cost-effective than retrofitted solar power, because buildings need roofs anyway. Modern solar cells last about 40 years, which makes them a reasonable investment in some areas. At a sufficient angle, solar cells are cleaned by run-off rain water and therefore have almost no life-style impact. Many areas have long winter nights or dark cloudy days. In these climates, a solar installation might not pay for itself or large battery storage systems are necessary to achieve electric self-sufficiency. In stormy or windy climates, wind turbines can replace or significantly supplement solar power. The average autonomous house needs only one small wind turbine, 5 metres or less in diameter. On a 30-metre (100-foot) tower, this turbine can provide enough power to supplement solar power on cloudy days. Commercially available wind turbines use sealed, one-moving-part AC generators and passive, self-feathering blades for years of operation without service. The main advantage of wind power is that larger wind turbines have a lower per-watt cost than solar cells, provided there is wind. Turbine location is critical: just as some locations lack sun for solar cells, many areas lack enough wind to make a turbine pay for itself. In the Great Plains of the United States, a 10-metre (33-foot) turbine can supply enough energy to heat and cool a well-built all-electric house. Economic use in other areas requires research, and possibly a site survey. Some sites have access to a stream with a change in elevation. These sites can use small hydropower systems to generate electricity. If the difference in elevation is above 30 metres (100 feet), and the stream runs in all seasons, this can provide continuous power with a small, inexpensive installation. Lower changes of elevation require larger installations or dams, and can be less efficient. Clogging at the turbine intake can be a practical problem. The usual solution is a small pool and waterfall (a penstock) to carry away floating debris. Another solution is to utilize a turbine that resists debris, such as a Gorlov helical turbine or Ossberger turbine. During times of low demand, excess power can be stored in batteries for future use. However, batteries need to be replaced every few years. In many areas, battery expenses can be eliminated by attaching the building to the electric power grid and operating the power system with net metering. Utility permission is required, but such cooperative generation is legally mandated in some areas (for example, California). Recent advances in passively stable magnetic bearings may someday permit inexpensive storage of power in a flywheel in a vacuum. Research groups like Canada's Ballard Power Systems are also working to develop a "regenerative fuel cell", a device that can generate hydrogen and oxygen when power is available, and combine these efficiently when power is needed. Earth batteries tap electric currents in the earth called telluric current. They can be installed anywhere in the ground. They provide only low voltages and current. They were used to power telegraphs in the 19th century. As appliance efficiencies increase, they may become practical. Microbial fuel cells and thermoelectric generators allow electricity to be generated from biomass. The plant can be dried, chopped and converted or burned as a whole, or it can be left alive so that waste saps from the plant can be converted by bacteria. ===Heating=== Most autonomous buildings are designed to use insulation, thermal mass and passive solar heating and cooling. Examples of these are trombe walls and other technologies as skylights. Passive solar heating can heat most buildings in even the mild and chilly climates. In colder climates, extra construction costs can be as little as 15% more than new, conventional buildings. In warm climates, those having less than two weeks of frosty nights per year, there is no cost impact. The basic requirement for passive solar heating is that the solar collectors must face the prevailing sunlight (south in the Northern Hemisphere, north in the Southern Hemisphere), and the building must incorporate thermal mass to keep it warm in the night. A recent, somewhat experimental solar heating system "Annualized geo solar heating" is practical even in regions that get little or no sunlight in winter. It uses the ground beneath a building for thermal mass. Precipitation can carry away the heat, so the ground is shielded with skirts of plastic insulation. The thermal mass of this system is sufficiently inexpensive and large that it can store enough summer heat to warm a building for the whole winter, and enough winter cold to cool the building in summer. In annualized geo solar systems, the solar collector is often separate from (and hotter or colder than) the living space. The building may actually be constructed from insulation, for example, straw-bale construction. Some buildings have been aerodynamically designed so that convection via ducts and interior spaces eliminates any need for electric fans. A more modest "daily solar" design is practical. For example, for about a 15% premium in building costs, the Passivhaus building codes in Europe use high performance insulating windows, R-30 insulation, HRV ventilation, and a small thermal mass. With modest changes in the building's position, modern krypton- or argon-insulated windows permit normal-looking windows to provide passive solar heat without compromising insulation or structural strength. If a small heater is available for the coldest nights, a slab or basement cistern can inexpensively provide the required thermal mass. Passivhaus building codes, in particular, bring unusually good interior air quality, because the buildings change the air several times per hour, passing it through a heat exchanger to keep heat inside. In all systems, a small supplementary heater increases personal security and reduces lifestyle impacts for a small reduction of autonomy. The two most popular heaters for ultra-high-efficiency houses are a small heat pump, which also provides air conditioning, or a central hydronic (radiator) air heater with water recirculating from the water heater. Passivhaus designs usually integrate the heater with the ventilation system. Earth sheltering and windbreaks can also reduce the absolute amount of heat needed by a building. Several feet below the earth, temperature ranges from in North Dakota to , Houses designed to cope with interruptions in civil services generally incorporate a wood stove, or heat and power from diesel fuel or bottled gas, regardless of their other heating mechanisms. Electric heaters and electric stoves may provide pollution-free heat (depending on the power source), but use large amounts of electricity. If enough electricity is provided by solar panels, wind turbines, or other means, then electric heaters and stoves become a practical autonomous design. ===Water heating=== Hot water heat recycling units recover heat from water drain lines. They increase a building's autonomy by decreasing the heat or fuel used to heat water. They are attractive because they have no lifestyle changes. Current practical, comfortable domestic water-heating systems combine a solar preheating system with a thermostatic gas-powered flow-through heater, so that the temperature of the water is consistent, and the amount is unlimited. This reduces life-style impacts at some cost in autonomy. Solar water heaters can save large amounts of fuel. Also, small changes in lifestyle, such as doing laundry, dishes and bathing on sunny days, can greatly increase their efficiency. Pure solar heaters are especially useful for laundries, swimming pools and external baths, because these can be scheduled for use on sunny days. The basic trick in a solar water heating system is to use a well-insulated holding tank. Some systems are vacuum- insulated, acting something like large thermos bottles. The tank is filled with hot water on sunny days, and made available at all times. Unlike a conventional tank water heater, the tank is filled only when there is sunlight. Good storage makes a smaller, higher-technology collector feasible. Such collectors can use relatively exotic technologies, such as vacuum insulation, and reflective concentration of sunlight. Cogeneration systems produce hot water from waste heat. They usually get the heat from the exhaust of a generator or fuel cell. Heat recycling, cogeneration and solar pre-heating can save 50–75% of the gas otherwise used. Also, some combinations provide redundant reliability by having several sources of heat. Some authorities advocate replacing bottled gas or natural gas with biogas. However, this is usually impractical unless live-stock are on-site. The wastes of a single family are usually insufficient to produce enough methane for anything more than small amounts of cooking. ===Cooling=== Annualized geo solar buildings often have buried, sloped water-tight skirts of insulation that extend from the foundations, to prevent heat leakage between the earth used as thermal mass, and the surface. Less dramatic improvements are possible. Windows can be shaded in summer. Eaves can be overhung to provide the necessary shade. These also shade the walls of the house, reducing cooling costs. Another trick is to cool the building's thermal mass at night, perhaps with a whole-house fan and then cool the building from the thermal mass during the day. It helps to be able to route cold air from a sky-facing radiator (perhaps an air heating solar collector with an alternate purpose) or evaporative cooler directly through the thermal mass. On clear nights, even in tropical areas, sky-facing radiators can cool below freezing. If a circular building is aerodynamically smooth, and cooler than the ground, it can be passively cooled by the "dome effect." Many installations have reported that a reflective or light-colored dome induces a local vertical heat-driven vortex that sucks cooler overhead air downward into a dome if the dome is vented properly (a single overhead vent, and peripheral vents). Some people have reported a temperature differential as high as () between the inside of the dome and the outside. Buckminster Fuller discovered this effect with a simple house design adapted from a grain silo, and adapted his Dymaxion house and geodesic domes to use it. Refrigerators and air conditioners operating from the waste heat of a diesel engine exhaust, heater flue or solar collector are entering use. These use the same principles as a gas refrigerator. Normally, the heat from a flue powers an "absorptive chiller". The cold water or brine from the chiller is used to cool air or a refrigerated space. Cogeneration is popular in new commercial buildings. In current cogeneration systems small gas turbines or stirling engines powered from natural gas produce electricity and their exhaust drives an absorptive chiller. A truck trailer refrigerator operating from the waste heat of a tractor's diesel exhaust was demonstrated by NRG Solutions, Inc. NRG developed a hydronic ammonia gas heat exchanger and vaporizer, the two essential new, not commercially available components of a waste heat driven refrigerator. A similar scheme (multiphase cooling) can be by a multistage evaporative cooler. The air is passed through a spray of salt solution to dehumidify it, then through a spray of water solution to cool it, then another salt solution to dehumidify it again. The brine has to be regenerated, and that can be done economically with a low-temperature solar still. Multiphase evaporative coolers can lower the air's temperature by 50 °F (28 °C), and still control humidity. If the brine regenerator uses high heat, it also partially sterilises to the air. If enough electric power is available, cooling can be provided by conventional air conditioning using a heat pump. ===Food production=== Food production has often been included in historic autonomous projects to provide security. Skilled, intensive gardening can support an adult from as little as 100 square meters of land per person, possibly requiring the use of organic farming and aeroponics. Some proven intensive, low-effort food-production systems include urban gardening (indoors and outdoors). Indoor cultivation may be set up using hydroponics, while outdoor cultivation may be done using permaculture, forest gardening, no-till farming, and do nothing farming. Greenhouses are also sometimes included. Sometimes they are also outfitted with irrigation systems or heat sink systems which can respectively irrigate the plants or help to store energy from the sun and redistribute it at night (when the greenhouses starts to cool down).	[ "propane", "Cogeneration", "multiple effect humidification", "Solar still", "flywheel", "windbreak", "resource depletion", "Buckminster Fuller", "Ossberger turbine", "aquarium", "reciprocating engine", "Composting toilet", "Atmospheric water generator", "soil", "Northern Hemisphere", "Off-grid", "reclaimed water", "rainwater harvesting", "solar energy", "water chlorination", "tire", "temperate", "net metering", "distributed generation", "passive solar building design", "Toronto", "water heating", "bottled gas", "aquifer", "costs of ownership", "reverse osmosis", "Diesel fuel", "pit toilet", "energy star", "Ken Yeang", "Mars", "biogas", "ING Group", "LED light", "sewage treatment", "wood stove", "humanure", "Earth sheltering", "heavy metal toxicity", "stormwater", "public road", "thermoelectric generator", "storm drain", "absorptive chiller", "Watermaker", "Great Plains", "Telegraphy", "Southern Hemisphere", "telluric current", "hydroponics", "Prince Edward Island", "gas grid", "fish farming", "whole-house fan", "grain silo", "krypton", "engineers", "Civil service", "desert", "Thermal insulation", "brine", "William McDonough", "swale (geographical feature)", "bioshelter", "waterless urinal", "bioreactor", "The Ark (Prince Edward Island)", "passive house", "cistern", "green building", "Amsterdam", "wind power", "no-till farming", "latrine", "distill", "regenerative fuel cell", "garden", "rain", "Hot water heat recycling", "urban agriculture", "protein", "construction", "psychology", "Hunter Lovins", "toilet", "concrete", "climate", "Gorlov helical turbine", "drinking water", "Grow house", "trombe wall", "Tankless water heater", "small wind turbine", "Ballard Power Systems", "Sono arsenic filter", "arsenic", "aeroponics", "Greywater", "Amory Lovins", "packaging toilet", "permaculture", "geodesic dome", "earth sheltering", "Annualized geo solar", "methane", "University of Sydney School of Architecture, Design and Planning", "septic tank", "composting toilet", "green roof", "Brenda and Robert Vale", "absorptive refrigeration", "Green building", "plumbing", "cogeneration", "solar heating", "MALT (electricity system)", "Victorian era", "Micro hydro", "outhouse", "greenhouse gas", "Design and Art Australia Online", "Mike Reynolds (architect)", "diesel fuel", "Earthship", "waste heat", "Thermal energy storage", "bottle wall", "solar water heating", "magnetic levitation", "HVAC", "electric power", "thermal mass", "Paul Hawken", "tilapia", "feces", "ammonia", "environmental impact", "Dymaxion house", "Drilling", "Cesspool emptier", "storm sewer", "autonomous house", "infrastructure", "urine", "diesel exhaust", "forest gardening", "wind turbine", "natural gas", "do nothing farming", "blackwater (waste)", "Recycling", "Earth battery", "electric generator", "house", "vacuum", "Solar water heater", "NASA", "single-wire earth return", "Steve Baer", "straw-bale construction", "Berm", "sustainability", "combined cycle", "renewable energy", "Maintenance (technical)", "drought", "air conditioning", "argon", "Microbial fuel cell", "solar cell", "New Alchemy Institute", "heat pump", "gas turbine", "thermos", "Greenhouse", "Col James (architect)", "water well", "anaerobic digestion", "incinerating toilet", "stirling engine", "greenhouse", "activists" ]
3,027	Anubis	Anubis (; ), also known as Inpu, Inpw, Jnpw, or Anpu in Ancient Egyptian (), is the god of funerary rites, protector of graves, and guide to the underworld, in ancient Egyptian religion, usually depicted as a canine or a man with a canine head. Like many ancient Egyptian deities, Anubis assumed different roles in various contexts. Depicted as a protector of graves as early as the First Dynasty (), Anubis was also an embalmer. By the Middle Kingdom (c. 2055–1650 BC) he was replaced by Osiris in his role as lord of the underworld. One of his prominent roles was as a god who ushered souls into the afterlife. He attended the weighing scale during the "Weighing of the Heart", in which it was determined whether a soul would be allowed to enter the realm of the dead. Anubis is one of the most frequently depicted and mentioned gods in the Egyptian pantheon; however, few major myths involved him. Anubis was depicted in black, a color that symbolized regeneration, life, the soil of the Nile River, and the discoloration of the corpse after embalming. Anubis is associated with Wepwawet, another Egyptian god portrayed with a dog's head or in canine form, but with grey or white fur. Historians assume that the two figures were eventually combined. Anubis' female counterpart is Anput. His daughter is the serpent goddess Kebechet. ==Name== "Anubis" is a Greek rendering of this god's Egyptian name. The positions that he had were also reflected in the titles he held such as "He Who Is upon His Mountain," "Lord of the Sacred Land," "Foremost of the Westerners," and "He Who Is in the Place of Embalming." In the Old Kingdom (), the standard way of writing his name in hieroglyphs was composed of the sound signs inpw followed by a jackal over a ḥtp sign: i-n:p-w-C6 A new form with the jackal on a tall stand appeared in the late Old Kingdom and became common thereafter: i-n:p-w-E16 Anubis' name jnpw was possibly pronounced , based on Coptic Anoup and the Akkadian transcription () in the name "Reanapa" that appears in Amarna letter EA 315. However, this transcription may also be interpreted as rˁ-nfr, a name similar to that of Prince Ranefer of the Fourth Dynasty. ==History== In Egypt's Early Dynastic period (), Anubis was portrayed in full animal form, with a "jackal" head and body. A jackal god, probably Anubis, is depicted in stone inscriptions from the reigns of Hor-Aha, Djer, and other pharaohs of the First Dynasty. Since Predynastic Egypt, when the dead were buried in shallow graves, jackals had been strongly associated with cemeteries because they were scavengers which uncovered human bodies and ate their flesh. In the spirit of "fighting like with like," a jackal was chosen to protect the dead, because "a common problem (and cause of concern) must have been the digging up of bodies, shortly after burial, by jackals and other wild dogs which lived on the margins of the cultivation." In the Old Kingdom, Anubis was the most important god of the dead. He was replaced in that role by Osiris during the Middle Kingdom (2000–1700 BC). In the Roman era, which started in 30 BC, tomb paintings depict him holding the hand of deceased persons to guide them to Osiris. The parentage of Anubis varied between myths, times and sources. In early mythology, he was portrayed as a son of Ra. In the Coffin Texts, which were written in the First Intermediate Period (c. 2181–2055 BC), Anubis is the son of either the cow goddess Hesat or the cat-headed Bastet. Another tradition depicted him as the son of Ra and Nephthys. More commonly, however, he is recognized as the offspring of Osiris and Isis.In later periods, particularly during the Ptolemaic era, Anubis was sometimes described as the son of Isis and Serapis, a Hellenized form of Osiris designed to appeal to Egypt's growing Greek population. The Greek Plutarch (c. 40–120 AD) reported a tradition that Anubis was the illegitimate son of Nephthys and Osiris, but that he was adopted by Osiris's wife Isis: George Hart sees this story as an "attempt to incorporate the independent deity Anubis into the Osirian pantheon." An Egyptian papyrus from the Roman period (30–380 AD) simply called Anubis the "son of Isis." In Nubia, Anubis was seen as the husband of his mother Nephthys. The two gods were considered similar because they both guided souls to the afterlife. The center of this cult was in uten-ha/Sa-ka/ Cynopolis, a place whose Greek name means "city of dogs." In Book XI of The Golden Ass by Apuleius, there is evidence that the worship of this god was continued in Rome through at least the 2nd century. Indeed, Hermanubis also appears in the alchemical and hermetical literature of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Although the Greeks and Romans typically scorned Egyptian animal-headed gods as bizarre and primitive (Anubis was mockingly called "Barker" by the Greeks), Anubis was sometimes associated with Sirius in the heavens and Cerberus and Hades in the underworld. In his dialogues, Plato often has Socrates utter oaths "by the dog" (Greek: kai me ton kuna), "by the dog of Egypt", and "by the dog, the god of the Egyptians", both for emphasis and to appeal to Anubis as an arbiter of truth in the underworld. ==Roles== ===Embalmer=== As jmy-wt (Imiut or the Imiut fetish) "He who is in the place of embalming", Anubis was associated with mummification. He was also called ḫnty zḥ-nṯr "He who presides over the god's booth", in which "booth" could refer either to the place where embalming was carried out or the pharaoh's burial chamber. The Jumilhac papyrus recounts another tale where Anubis protected the body of Osiris from Set. Set attempted to attack the body of Osiris by transforming himself into a leopard. Anubis stopped and subdued Set, however, and he branded Set's skin with a hot iron rod. Anubis then flayed Set and wore his skin as a warning against evil-doers who would desecrate the tombs of the dead. Priests who attended to the dead wore leopard skin in order to commemorate Anubis' victory over Set. The legend of Anubis branding the hide of Set in leopard form was used to explain how the leopard got its spots. Most ancient tombs had prayers to Anubis carved on them. ===Guide of souls=== By the late pharaonic era (664–332 BC), Anubis was often depicted as guiding individuals across the threshold from the world of the living to the afterlife. Though a similar role was sometimes performed by the cow-headed Hathor, Anubis was more commonly chosen to fulfill that function. Greek writers from the Roman period of Egyptian history designated that role as that of "psychopomp", a Greek term meaning "guide of souls" that they used to refer to their own god Hermes, who also played that role in Greek religion. Funerary art from that period represents Anubis guiding either men or women dressed in Greek clothes into the presence of Osiris, who by then had long replaced Anubis as ruler of the underworld. ===Weigher of hearts=== One of the roles of Anubis was as the "Guardian of the Scales." The critical scene depicting the weighing of the heart, in the Book of the Dead, shows Anubis performing a measurement that determined whether the person was worthy of entering the realm of the dead (the underworld, known as Duat). By weighing the heart of a deceased person against ma'at, who was often represented as an ostrich feather, Anubis dictated the fate of souls. Souls heavier than a feather would be devoured by Ammit, and souls lighter than a feather would ascend to a heavenly existence. ==Portrayal in art== Anubis was one of the most frequently represented deities in ancient Egyptian art. He is depicted in royal tombs as early as the First Dynasty. The African jackal was the species depicted and the template of numerous Ancient Egyptian deities, including Anubis. An extremely rare depiction of him in fully human form was found in a chapel of Ramesses II in Abydos. Anubis is often depicted wearing a ribbon and holding a nḫ3ḫ3 "flail" in the crook of his arm. File:Casa degli Amorini Dorati. Fresco. 09.JPG\|Anubis, Harpocrates, Isis and Serapis, antique fresco in Pompeii, Italy File:Stela of Siamun and Taruy worshipping Anubis MET 90.6.128 01.jpg\|Stela of Siamun and Taruy worshipping Anubis File:The King with Anubis, Tomb of Haremhab MET DP234736.jpg\|The king with Anubis, from the tomb of Horemheb; 1323-1295 BC; tempera on paper; Metropolitan Museum of Art File:Anubis Amulet MET DP109371.jpg\|Anubis amulet; 664–30 BC; faience; height: 4.7 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art File:Recumbent Anubis MET DP228716.jpg\|Recumbent Anubis; 664–30 BC; limestone, originally painted black; height: 38.1 cm, length: 64 cm, width: 16.5 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art File:Statuette of Anubis MET 38.5 EGDP022863.jpg\|Statuette of Anubis; 332–30 BC; plastered and painted wood; 42.3 cm; Metropolitan Museum of Art ==Worship== Although he does not appear in many myths, he was extremely popular with Egyptians and those of other cultures. The Greeks linked him to their god Hermes, the god who guided the dead to the afterlife. The pairing was later known as Hermanubis. Anubis was heavily worshipped because, despite modern beliefs, he gave the people hope. People marveled in the guarantee that their body would be respected at death, their soul would be protected and justly judged. Anubis had male priests who sported wood masks with the god's likeness when performing rituals. His cult center was at Cynopolis in Upper Egypt but memorials were built everywhere and he was universally revered in every part of the nation.	[ "Hotep", "Ancient Romans", "Anput", "African golden wolf", "weighing scale", "Bastet", "Harcourt Brace", "Predynastic Egypt", "KV57", "Book of the Dead", "Nile", "History of Roman Egypt", "Khenti-Amentiu", "Ra", "Egyptian hieroglyphs", "Cult (religious practice)", "The Golden Ass", "Coffin Texts", "Greek language", "Greeks in Egypt", "Early Dynastic Period of Egypt", "underworld", "Reanap", "First Intermediate Period", "New Kingdom of Egypt", "Plato", "Bhairava", "Osiris myth", "crook and flail", "natron", "George Hart (Egyptologist)", "Art of ancient Egypt", "mummy", "Upper Egypt", "State University of New York", "Amarna letters", "Hellenistic civilization", "Ramesses II", "The Republic (Plato)", "Cerberus", "Palestine Exploration Fund", "ibis", "Ethiopian wolf", "Asyut", "Hermanubis", "Egyptian language", "nine bows", "Old Kingdom of Egypt", "Hades", "African wolf", "Ammit", "mummification", "coyote", "KV17", "Abatur", "Weighing of the Heart", "Hesat", "Pompeii", "Late Period of ancient Egypt", "Set (deity)", "Canidae", "Jumilhac papyrus", "Osiris", "World History Encyclopedia", "golden jackal", "Thoth", "Ancient Egyptian religion", "Apuleius", "Canis", "leopard", "Middle Kingdom of Egypt", "Hermeticism", "Old Kingdom", "uthra", "Renaissance", "embalming", "Egyptian pantheon", "Anubis Shrine", "cynocephaly", "necropolis", "ancient Greek religion", "Hermes", "Djer", "Duat", "Italy", "Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt", "Maat", "Anubias", "fox", "Wepwawet", "List of Egyptian gods", "Fourth Dynasty of Egypt", "human branding", "anthropomorphism", "Valley of the Kings", "Funerary art", "Hor-Aha", "Wolf", "ancient Egyptian deities", "alchemy", "ancient Egyptian religion", "Abydos, Egypt", "cemeteries", "British Museum", "Imiut fetish", "Plutarch", "Socrates", "grave", "Nephthys", "Ptolemaic Egypt", "Kebechet", "Sirius", "Isis", "Egypt (Roman province)", "Nubia", "hieroglyph", "Ancient Egyptian literature", "Akkadian language", "Embalming", "Ranefer", "psychopomp", "Harpocrates", "imiut fetish", "Cynopolis", "Serapis", "Gorgias (dialogue)", "Saqqara", "Greeks", "silt", "Bata (god)", "First Dynasty of Egypt", "Hunefer", "Greek mythology", "Ancient Rome", "flaying", "Hathor", "Rome", "Middle Ages" ]
3,029	Arthur Jensen	Arthur Robert Jensen (August 24, 1923 – October 22, 2012) was an American psychologist and writer. He was a professor of educational psychology at the University of California, Berkeley. Jensen was known for his work in psychometrics and differential psychology, the study of how and why individuals differ behaviorally from one another. He was a major proponent of the hereditarian position in the nature and nurture debate, the position that genetics play a significant role in behavioral traits, such as intelligence and personality. He was the author of over 400 scientific papers published in refereed journals and sat on the editorial boards of the scientific journals Intelligence and Personality and Individual Differences. Jensen was controversial, largely for his conclusions regarding the causes of race-based differences in IQ. ==Early life and education== Jensen was born August 24, 1923, in San Diego, California, the son of Linda Mary (née Schachtmayer) and Arthur Alfred Jensen, who operated and owned a lumber and building materials company. His paternal grandparents were Danish immigrants and his mother was of half-Polish Jewish and half-German descent. As a child, Jensen was interested in herpetology and classical music, playing clarinet in the San Diego Symphony orchestra. Jensen received a B.A. in psychology from the University of California, Berkeley in 1945 and went on to obtain his M.A. in psychology in 1952 from San Diego State College. He earned his Ph.D. in clinical psychology from Columbia University in 1956 under the supervision of Percival Symonds on the thematic apperception test. From 1956 through 1958, he did postdoctoral research at the University of London, Institute of Psychiatry with Hans Eysenck. Upon returning to the United States, he became a researcher and professor at the University of California, Berkeley, where he focused on individual differences in learning, especially the influences of culture, development, and genetics on intelligence and learning. He received tenure at Berkeley in 1962. He concentrated on the learning difficulties of culturally disadvantaged students. Jensen had a lifelong interest in classical music and was, early in his life, attracted by the idea of becoming a conductor himself. At 14, he conducted a band that won a nationwide contest held in San Francisco. Later, he conducted orchestras and attended a seminar given by Nikolai Sokoloff. Soon after graduating from Berkeley, he moved to New York, mainly to be near the conductor Arturo Toscanini. He was also deeply interested in the life and example of Gandhi, producing an unpublished book-length manuscript on his life. During Jensen's period in San Diego he spent time working as a social worker with the San Diego Department of Public Welfare. ==IQ and academic achievement== Jensen's interest in learning differences directed him to the extensive testing of school children. The results led him to distinguish between two separate types of learning ability. Level I, or associative learning, may be defined as retention of input and rote memorization of simple facts and skills. Level II, or conceptual learning, is roughly equivalent to the ability to manipulate and transform inputs, that is, the ability to solve problems. Later, Jensen was an important advocate in the mainstream acceptance of the general factor of intelligence, a concept which was essentially synonymous with his Level II conceptual learning. The general factor, or g, is an abstraction that stems from the observation that scores on all forms of cognitive tests correlate positively with one another. Jensen claimed, on the basis of his research, that general cognitive ability is essentially an inherited trait, determined predominantly by genetic factors rather than by environmental conditions. He also contended that while associative learning, or memorizing ability, is equally distributed among the races, conceptual learning, or synthesizing ability, occurs with significantly greater frequency in some races than in others. Jensen's most controversial work, published in February 1969 in the Harvard Educational Review, was titled "How Much Can We Boost IQ and Scholastic Achievement?" It concluded, among other things, that Head Start programs designed to boost African-American IQ scores had failed, and that this was likely never to be remedied, largely because, in Jensen's estimation, 80% of the variance in IQ in the population studied was the result of genetic factors and the remainder was due to environmental influences. The paper immediately prompted weeks of violent protest on the Berkley campus, with additional protests occurring throughout the 1970s. The work became one of the most cited papers in the history of psychological testing and intelligence research, although a large number of citations consisted of rebuttals of Jensen's work, or references to it as an example of a controversial paper. Jensen was among the most frequent contributors to the German journal Neue Anthropologie, a publication founded by the neo-Nazi Jürgen Rieger, and served alongside Rieger on this journal's editorial board. In 1994 he was one of 52 signatories on "Mainstream Science on Intelligence," an essay written by Linda Gottfredson and published in The Wall Street Journal, which declared the consensus of the signing scholars on the meaning and significance of IQ following the publication of the book The Bell Curve. Jensen received $1.1 million from the Pioneer Fund, an organization frequently described as racist and white supremacist in nature. The fund contributed a total of $3.5 million to researchers cited in The Bell Curve's most controversial chapter "that suggests some races are naturally smarter than others" with Jensen's works being cited twenty-three times in the book's bibliography. ==Death== He died on October 22, 2012, at his home in Kelseyville, California, at age 89. ==Assessment== According to David Lubinski of Vanderbilt University, the "extent to which [Jensen's] work was either admired or reviled by many distinguished scientists is unparalleled." After Jensen's death, James Flynn of the University of Otago, a prominent advocate of the environmental position, told The New York Times that Jensen was without racial bias and had not initially foreseen that his research would be used to argue for racial supremacy and that his career was "emblematic of the extent to which American scholarship is inhibited by political orthodoxy", though he noted that Jensen shifted towards genetic explanations later in life. Psychologist Sandra Scarr wrote in the journal Intelligence in 1998 that Jensen possessed an "uncompromising personal integrity" and set the standard for "honest psychological science". She described his critics as "politically driven liars, who distort scientific facts in a misguided and condescending effort to protect an impossible myth about human equality". Steven J. Haggbloom, writing for Review of General Psychology in 2002, rated Jensen as one of the 100 most eminent psychologists of the 20th century, based on six different metrics chosen by Haggbloom. In 1980 Jensen published a book in defense of the tests used to measure mental abilities, titled Bias in Mental Testing. Reviewing this book, psychologist Kenneth Kaye endorsed Jensen's distinction between bias and discrimination, saying that he found many of Jensen's opponents to be more politically biased than Jensen was. ===Criticism=== Melvin Konner of Emory University, wrote: Lisa Suzuki and Joshua Aronson of New York University wrote that Jensen had largely ignored evidence which failed to support his position that IQ test score gaps represent genetic racial differences. Paleontologist and evolutionary biologist Stephen Jay Gould criticized Jensen's work in his 1981 book The Mismeasure of Man. Gould writes that Jensen misapplies the concept of "heritability", which is defined as a measure of the variation of a trait due to inheritance within a population (Gould 1981: 127; 156–157). According to Gould, Jensen uses heritability to measure differences between populations. Gould also disagrees with Jensen's belief that IQ tests measure a real variable, g, or "the general factor common to a large number of cognitive abilities" which can be measured along a unilinear scale. This is a claim most closely identified with Charles Spearman. According to Gould, Jensen misunderstood the research of L. L. Thurstone to ultimately support this claim; Gould, however, argues that Thurstone's factor analysis of intelligence revealed g to be an illusion (1981: 159; 13-314). Gould criticizes Jensen's sources including his use of Catharine Cox's 1926 Genetic Studies of Genius, which examines historiometrically the IQs of historic intellectuals after their deaths (Gould 1981: 153–154). ==Books== === Bias in Mental Testing === Bias in Mental Testing (1980) is a book examining the question of test bias in commonly used standardized tests. The book runs almost 800 pages and has been called "exhaustive" by three researchers who reviewed the field 19 years after the book's publication. It reviewed in detail the available evidence about test bias across major US racial/ethnic groups. Jensen concluded that "the currently most widely used standardized tests of mental ability -- IQ, scholastic aptitude, and achievement tests -- are, by and large, not biased against any of the native-born English-speaking minority groups on which the amount of research evidence is sufficient for an objective determination of bias, if the tests were in fact biased. For most nonverbal standardized tests, this generalization is not limited to English-speaking minorities." (p. ix). Jensen also published a summary of the book the same year which was a target article in the journal Behavioral and Brain Sciences to which 27 commentaries were printed along with the author's reply. === Straight Talk about Mental Tests === Straight Talk about Mental Tests (1981) is a book written about psychometrics for the general public. John B. Carroll reviewed it favorably in 1982, saying it was a useful summary of the issues, as did Paul Cline writing for the British Journal of Psychiatry. In 2016, Richard J. Haier called it "a clear examination of all issues surrounding mental testing". ===The g Factor=== The g Factor: The Science of Mental Ability (1998) is a book on the general intelligence factor (g). The book deals with the intellectual history of g and various models of how to conceptualize intelligence, and with the biological correlates of g, its heritability, and its practical predictive power. ===Clocking the Mind=== Clocking the Mind: Mental Chronometry and Individual Differences (2006) deals with mental chronometry (MC), and covers the speed with which the brain processes information and different ways this is measured. Jensen argues mental chronometry represents a true natural science of mental ability, which is in contrast to IQ, which merely represents an interval (ranking) scale and thus possesses no true ratio scale properties. Joseph Glicksohn wrote in a 2007 review for Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology that "The book should be perused with care in order to ensure the further profitable use of [reaction time] in both experimental and differential lines of research." Douglas Detterman reviewed it in 2008 for Intelligence, writing that "the book would make a good introduction to the field of the measurement of individual differences in cognitive tasks for beginning graduate students." Eric-Jan Wagenmakers and Han van der Mass, also writing for Intelligence in 2018, faulted the book for omitting the work by mathematical psychologists, advocating standardization of chronometric methods (which the authors consider problematic because it can hide method variance), and because it does not discuss topics such as the mutualism model of the g-factor and the Flynn effect. They describe the book's breadth as useful, despite its simplistic approach. Jensen was on the editorial board of Intelligence when these reviews were published. ==Awards== In 2003, Jensen was awarded the Kistler Prize for original contributions to the understanding of the connection between the human genome and human society. In 2006, the International Society for Intelligence Research awarded Jensen its Lifetime Achievement Award.	[ "Behavioral and Brain Sciences", "Paul E. Meehl", "James Flynn (academic)", "Southern Poverty Law Center", "thematic apperception test", "University of Chicago Press", "The Skeptics Society", "San Francisco", "Neue Anthropologie", "differential psychology", "British Journal of Psychiatry", "Flynn effect", "General intelligence factor", "standardized test", "L. L. Thurstone", "How Much Can We Boost IQ and Scholastic Achievement?", "clinical psychology", "herpetology", "The Bell Curve", "University of California, Berkeley", "New York City", "Linda Gottfredson", "Harvard Educational Review", "Intelligence (journal)", "Hans Eysenck", "society", "History of the Jews in Poland", "Historiometry", "Joshua Aronson", "Mainstream Science on Intelligence", "Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology", "Head Start (education)", "IQ", "Personality and Individual Differences", "Nikolai Sokoloff", "David Lubinski", "Kelseyville, California", "heritability", "PhD", "Stephen Jay Gould", "Intelligence quotient", "San Diego Symphony", "Melvin Konner", "Columbia University", "Bachelor of Arts", "genome", "Gandhi", "Kenneth Kaye", "nature and nurture", "political correctness", "general factor", "Sandra Scarr", "International Society for Intelligence Research", "psychological testing", "Neo-Nazism", "general intelligence factor", "Bias in Mental Testing", "Richard J. Haier", "San Diego State College", "California", "Genetic diversity", "mental chronometry", "J. Philippe Rushton", "Kistler Prize", "history", "factor analysis", "History of the race and intelligence controversy", "associative learning", "cognition", "African-American", "The Wall Street Journal", "Eric-Jan Wagenmakers", "Heritability of IQ", "personality psychology", "University of London", "Charles Spearman", "Arturo Toscanini", "Pioneer Fund", "psychometrics", "Psychometrics", "San Diego", "genetics", "Jürgen Rieger", "G factor (psychometrics)", "race and intelligence", "Race and intelligence", "Han van der Mass", "educational psychology", "scientific journals", "Jensen box", "Master of Arts", "Douglas K. Detterman", "San Diego State University", "Review of General Psychology", "The Mismeasure of Man", "Catharine Cox", "Educational psychology", "John Bissell Carroll", "Percival Symonds", "The g Factor: The Science of Mental Ability", "The New York Times", "white supremacy", "intelligence (trait)", "behavior genetics", "New York University", "g factor (psychometrics)", "hereditarianism", "intelligence", "Institute of Psychiatry" ]
3,032	A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum	A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum is a musical with music and lyrics by Stephen Sondheim and book by Burt Shevelove and Larry Gelbart. Inspired by the farces of the ancient Roman playwright Plautus (254–184 BC), specifically Curculio, Pseudolus, Miles Gloriosus, and Mostellaria, the musical tells the bawdy story of a slave named Pseudolus and his attempts to win his freedom by helping his young master woo the girl next door. The plot displays many classic elements of farce, including puns, the slamming of doors, cases of mistaken identity (frequently involving characters disguising themselves as one another), and satirical comments on social class. The title derives from a line often used by vaudeville comedians to begin a story: "A funny thing happened on the way to the theater". The musical's original 1962 Broadway run won several Tony Awards, including Best Musical and Best Author (Musical). A Funny Thing has enjoyed several Broadway and West End revivals and was made into a successful film starring the original lead of the stage musical, Zero Mostel. ==Productions== ===Original Broadway=== A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum opened on Broadway on May 8, 1962, at the Alvin Theatre, and then transferred to the Mark Hellinger Theatre and the Majestic Theatre, where the show closed on August 29, 1964, after 964 performances and 8 previews. The show's creators sought Phil Silvers for the lead role of Pseudolus, but he turned them down, allegedly because he would have to perform onstage without his glasses, and his vision was so poor that he feared tripping into the orchestra pit. He is also quoted as turning down the role for being "Sgt. Bilko in a toga". (Silvers eventually played the role – wearing his glasses – in a 1972 revival. In the film, he played Marcus Lycus.) Milton Berle also passed on the role. Eventually, Zero Mostel was cast. During out-of-town tryouts the show attracted little business and did not play well. Jerome Robbins, to whom the show had originally been offered but who turned it down, was called in to give advice and make changes. In the interim, Joshua Logan was invited to direct, but according to Sondheim was rejected "because he wanted too much male nudity." It was then offered to veteran director George Abbott, who found it to be difficult to handle alone. The biggest change Robbins made was adding a new opening number to replace "Love Is in the Air" and introduce the show as a bawdy, wild comedy. Stephen Sondheim wrote the song "Comedy Tonight" for this new opening. and starred Frankie Howerd as Pseudolus and Leon Greene as Miles Gloriosus in both. In the 1963 production, Kenneth Connor appeared as Hysterium, 'Monsewer' Eddie Gray as Senex and Jon Pertwee as Marcus Lycus. In the 1986 revival, Patrick Cargill was Senex with Ronnie Stevens as Hysterium and Derek Royle as Erronius. In 2004 there was a limited-run revival at the Royal National Theatre, starring Desmond Barrit as Pseudolus, Philip Quast as Miles Gloriosus, Hamish McColl as Hysterium and Isla Blair as Domina (who had previously played Philia in the 1963 production). This production was nominated for the 2005 Olivier Award, Outstanding Musical Production. ===Motion picture adaptation=== Both Mostel and Gilford re-created their Broadway roles for the 1966 musical film directed by Richard Lester. Leon Greene reprised his West End role (Miles Gloriosus), while Phil Silvers portrayed Lycus, Michael Crawford portrayed Hero, and Michael Hordern played Senex. Buster Keaton made his final film appearance in the role of Erronius. ===Broadway revivals=== A revival opened on Broadway at the Lunt-Fontanne Theatre on April 4, 1972, and closed on August 12, 1972, after 156 performances. Directed by co-author Burt Shevelove the cast starred Phil Silvers as Pseudolus (later replaced by Tom Poston), Lew Parker as Senex, Carl Ballantine as Lycus and Reginald Owen as Erronius. Larry Blyden, who played Hysterium, the role created by Jack Gilford, also co-produced. "Pretty Little Picture" and "That'll Show Him" were dropped from the show, and were replaced with "Echo Song" (sung by Hero and Philia), and "Farewell" (added for Nancy Walker as Domina, as she and Senex depart for the country). "Echo Song" and "Farewell" had been added to a production staged in Los Angeles the previous year and were composed by Sondheim. They had to close soon after Phil Silvers suffered a stroke. The show won two Tony Awards, Best Leading Actor in a Musical for Silvers, and Best Featured Actor in a Musical for Blyden. Every actor who has opened in the role of Pseudolus on Broadway (Zero Mostel, Phil Silvers, and Nathan Lane) has won a Best Leading Actor Tony Award for his performance. In addition, Jason Alexander, who performed as Pseudolus in one scene in Jerome Robbins' Broadway, also won a Tony for Best Actor in a Musical. ===Other productions=== The original Australian production with American actor Jack Collins as Pseudolus opened at the Theatre Royal in Sydney in July 1964, and toured other Australian cities through 1965. A production was directed by Stephen R. Buss at Boise State University in 1995, starring James B. Fisk, Randy Davison, Karen Wennstrom and Daniel Taylor. In 1998, Jon English starred as Pseudolus in Essgee Entertainment's production that opened New Year's Day at the State Theatre, Melbourne and toured Australia and New Zealand, closing September 1999. The Stephen Sondheim Center for the Performing Arts produced a limited-run revival of the musical from January 11 to 27, 2008. The production was directed by Randal K. West, with Justin Hill as musical director and Adam Cates as choreographer. The cast featured Richard Kind as Pseudolus, Joel Blum as Senex, Stephen DeRosa as Marcus Lycus, Sean McCall as Hysterium, and Steve Wilson as Miles Gloriosus. It also featured Diana Upton-Hill, Ryan Gaffney, Stephen Mark Crisp, Jack Kloppenborg, and Margret Clair. The Chung Ying Theatre Company in Hong Kong staged a Cantonese version of the musical at Kwai Tsing Theatre, to celebrate the company's 30th anniversary. It was directed by Chung King Fai and Ko Tin Lung and ran from March 14 to 21, 2009. The Stratford Shakespeare Festival in Stratford, Ontario, Canada production ran from June 11 to November 7, 2009, with Des McAnuff directing and Wayne Cilento as choreographer. Bruce Dow originally performed the role of Pseudolus, but was forced to withdraw from the entire 2009 season due to an injury, and the role was then performed by Seán Cullen as of September 5, 2009. Stephen Ouimette played Hysterium. Mirvish Productions presented the earlier Stratford production at the Canon Theatre, Toronto, in December 2010 through January 2011. Bruce Dow and Sean Cullen were alternates in the lead role. In October 2012 the play opened at Her Majesty's Theatre, Melbourne, Australia, with Geoffrey Rush as Pseudolus, Magda Szubanski as Domina and Shane Bourne as Senex. A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum was produced at the Two River Theater in Red Bank, New Jersey from November 14, 2015, to December 13, 2015, with an all-male cast (Paul Castree, Eddie Cooper, Kevin Isola, David Josefsberg, Max Kumangai, Graham Rowat, Manny Stark, Bobby Conte Thornton, David Turner, Michael Urie, Tom Deckman, and Christopher Fitzgerald). In March 2024, the musical A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum premiered at Teatro Claro Mais in São Paulo, marking the first official Brazilian production of this Broadway classic. Starring Miguel Falabella as Pseudolus, the show features a prominent cast, including Edgar Bustamante, Ivan Parente, Giovanna Zotti, Carlos Capeletti, Mauricio Xavier, Lucas Colombo, and Luci Salutes. ==Plot== In ancient Rome, some neighbors live in three adjacent houses. In the center is the house of Senex, who lives there with wife Domina, son Hero, and several slaves, including head slave Hysterium and the musical's main character Pseudolus. A slave belonging to Hero, Pseudolus wishes to buy, win, or steal his freedom. One of the neighboring houses is owned by Marcus Lycus, who is a buyer and seller of beautiful women; the other belongs to the ancient Erronius, who is abroad searching for his long-lost children (stolen in infancy by pirates). One day, Senex and Domina go on a trip and leave Pseudolus in charge of Hero. Hero confides in Pseudolus that he is in love with the lovely Philia, one of the courtesans in the House of Lycus who is nevertheless still a virgin. Pseudolus promises to help him win Philia's love in exchange for his own freedom. Unfortunately (as the two find out when they visit Lycus), Philia has been sold to the renowned warrior, Captain Miles Gloriosus, who is expected to claim her very soon. Pseudolus, an excellent liar, uses Philia's cheery disposition to convince Lycus that she has picked up a plague from Crete, which causes its victims to smile endlessly in its terminal stages. By offering to isolate her in Senex's house, he is able to give Philia and Hero some time alone together, and the two fall in love. But Philia insists that, even though she is in love with Hero, she must honor her contract with the captain, for "that is the way of a courtesan." To appease her, he tells her to wait ("that's what virgins do best, isn't it?") inside, and that he will have the captain knock three times when he arrives. Pseudolus comes up with a plan to slip Philia a sleeping potion. He will then tell Lycus that she has died of the Cretan plague and will offer to remove the body. Hero will stow away with Philia on a ship headed for Greece. Pseudolus steals Hysterium's book of potions and has Hero read him the recipe for the sleeping potion; the only ingredient he lacks is a cup of mare's sweat, and Pseudolus goes to search for it. Unexpectedly, Senex returns home early from his trip, and knocks three times on his own door. Philia comes out of the house, and, thinking that Senex is the captain, offers herself up to him. Surprised but game, Senex instructs Philia to wait in the house for him, and she does. Hysterium arrives and nervously tells Senex that Philia is the new maid that he has hired. Pseudolus returns, having procured the mare's sweat; seeing that Senex has returned and grasping the need to keep him out of the way, Pseudolus discreetly sprinkles some of the horse-sweat onto him, then suggests that the road trip has left Senex in dire need of a bath. Taking the bait, Senex instructs Hysterium to draw him a bath in the long-empty house of Erronius. But while this is happening, Erronius returns home, finally having given up the search for his long-lost children. Hysterium, desperate to keep him out of the house where his master is bathing, tells the old man that his house has become haunted – a story seemingly confirmed by the sound of Senex singing in his bath. Erronius immediately determines to have a soothsayer come and banish the spirit from his house, and Pseudolus obligingly poses as one, telling Erronius that, in order to banish the spirit, he must travel seven times around the seven hills of Rome (thus keeping the old man occupied and out of the way for quite a while). When Miles Gloriosus arrives to claim his courtesan-bride, Pseudolus hides Philia on the roof of Senex's house; told that she has "escaped", Lycus is terrified to face the captain's wrath. Pseudolus offers to impersonate Lycus and talk his way out of the mess but, his ingenuity flagging, he ends up merely telling the captain that Philia has disappeared, and that he, "Lycus", will search for her. Displeased and suspicious, Miles insists that his soldiers accompany Pseudolus, but the wily slave loses them in Rome's winding streets. Complicating matters further, Domina returns from her trip early, suspicious that her husband Senex is "up to something low." She disguises herself in virginal white robes and a veil (much like Philia's) to try to catch Senex being unfaithful. Pseudolus convinces Hysterium to help him by dressing in drag and pretending to be Philia, "dead" from the plague. Unfortunately, it turns out that Miles Gloriosus has just returned from Crete, where there is of course no actual plague. With the ruse thus revealed, the main characters run for their lives, resulting in a madcap chase across the stage with both Miles and Senex pursuing all three "Philia"s (Domina, Hysterium, and the actual Philia – all wearing identical white robes and veils). Meanwhile, the courtesans from the house of Marcus Lycus, who had been recruited as mourners at "Philia"'s ersatz funeral, have escaped, and Lycus sends his eunuchs out to bring them all back, adding to the general pandemonium. Finally, the captain's troops are able to round everyone up. His plot thoroughly unraveled, Pseudolus appears to be in deep trouble – but Erronius, completing his third circuit of the Roman hills, shows up fortuitously to discover that Miles Gloriosus and Philia are wearing matching rings which mark them as his long-lost children. Philia's betrothal to the captain is nullified by the unexpected revelation that he is her brother, and, as the daughter of a free-born citizen, she is freed from Marcus Lycus. Philia weds Hero with Erronius' blessing; Pseudolus gets his freedom and the lovely courtesan Gymnasia; Gloriosus receives twin courtesans to replace Philia; and Erronius is reunited with his children. A happy ending prevails for all – except for poor Senex, stuck with his shrewish wife Domina. ==Characters== Pseudolus: A Roman slave, owned by Hero, who seeks to win freedom by helping Hero win the heart of Philia. The slave name Pseudolus means "Faker". While originally written as a male role, it has been performed by female actors as well. Hero: Young son of Senex who falls in love with the virgin, Philia. Philia: (Greek for "love") A virgin in the house of Marcus Lycus, and Hero's love interest. Her name is also a homophone of the Latin word "Filia", which means daughter. This foreshadows her status as the daughter of Erronius. Hysterium: (Latin for "Hysterical", or "Anxious", the suffix "-um" makes the name neuter, and the character's gender is often mistaken throughout the piece) The chief slave in the house of Senex. Senex: (Latin for "old man") A henpecked, sardonic Roman senator living in a less fashionable suburb of Rome. Domina: (Latin for "mistress") The wife of Senex. A manipulative, shrewish woman who is loathed by even her husband. Marcus Lycus: A purveyor of courtesans, who operates from the house to the left of Senex. (Name based on Lycus, the pimp in Plautus's Poenulus.) Miles Gloriosus: (Latin for "boastful soldier", the archetype of the braggart soldier in Roman comedies) A captain in the Roman army to whom Marcus Lycus has promised Philia. Erronius: (Latin for "wandering") Senex's elderly neighbor in the house to the right. He has spent the past twenty years searching for his two children, kidnapped in infancy by pirates. Gymnasia: (Greek for "Athletic", with the connotation of nakedness) A courtesan from the house of Lycus with whom Pseudolus falls in love. Tintinabula: (Latin for "Bells") A jingling, bell-wearing courtesan in the house of Lycus. Vibrata: (Latin for "Vibrant") A wild, vibrant courtesan in the house of Lycus. Geminae: (Latin for "Twins") Twin courtesans in the house of Lycus. Panacea: (Greek for "Cure All") A courtesan in the house of Lycus. Proteans: Choristers who play multiple roles (slaves, citizens, soldiers, and eunuchs). They accompany Pseudolus in "Comedy Tonight". On Broadway, three people played all of these roles. ==Cast== ==Songs== Act I "Comedy Tonight" – Pseudolus and Company "Love, I Hear" – Hero "Free" – Pseudolus and Hero "The House of Marcus Lycus" – Lycus, Pseudolus and Courtesans "Lovely" – Philia and Hero "Pretty Little Picture" – Pseudolus, Hero, and Philia "Everybody Ought to Have a Maid" – Senex, Pseudolus, Hysterium and Lycus "I'm Calm" – Hysterium "Impossible" – Senex and Hero "Bring Me My Bride" – Miles Gloriosus, Pseudolus and Company Act II "That Dirty Old Man" – Domina "That'll Show Him" – Philia "Lovely" (reprise) – Pseudolus and Hysterium "Funeral Sequence" – Pseudolus, Miles Gloriosus and Company "Finale" – Company Cut songs: "Love Is in the Air" – Prologus (Played by Senex) and Proteans (Originally intended as the opening number, replaced with "Comedy Tonight". The song was later featured in the film The Birdcage (1996) where it was performed by Robin Williams and Christine Baranski.) "Invocation and Instructions to the Audience" (Another version of the opening number. Used in subsequent revues of Sondheim songs and was sung by Nathan Lane in the musical The Frogs.) "I Do Like You" – Pseudolus and Hysterium "There's Something About a War" – Miles Gloriosus "Echo Song" – Philia and Hero "Your Eyes Are Blue" – Hero "The Gaggle of Geese" – Erronius "What Do You Do With a Woman?" – Hero Notes: "Pretty Little Picture" is frequently dropped from productions, and one verse of "I'm Calm" is also often trimmed. A song for Domina entitled "Farewell" was added for the 1972 revival as she and Senex depart for the country. "Echo Song" was reinstated in the same revival. ==Awards and honors== ===Original Broadway production=== ===1972 Broadway revival=== ===1996 Broadway revival=== .	[ "Whoopi Goldberg", "Yersinia pestis", "Michael Urie", "The Frogs (musical)", "Tony Award for Best Featured Actor in a Musical", "Desmond Barrit", "Ronald Holgate", "Reginald Owen", "John Carradine", "Magda Szubanski", "Hal Prince", "Tony Award for Best Direction of a Musical", "The Phil Silvers Show", "The Birdcage", "Joshua Logan", "Tony Award for Best Performance by a Leading Actor in a Musical", "Kenneth Connor", "Sam Kelly", "mistaken identity", "Carl Ballantine", "Karen Black", "Richard Lester", "Geoffrey Rush", "Seán Cullen", "Tony Award for Best Revival of a Musical", "Leon Greene", "Jerome Robbins", "Toronto", "Royal National Theatre", "Buster Keaton", "Plautus", "Lew Parker", "Raymond Walburn", "Pompano Beach, Florida", "Drama League Award", "Lewis J. Stadlen", "Theatre Royal, Sydney", "Stephen DeRosa", "George Abbott", "Patricia Jessel", "Tony Award for Best Performance by a Featured Actor in a Musical", "Philip Quast", "Ruth Kobart", "Robertson Hare", "Mark Hellinger Theatre", "Senex", "Larry Blyden", "Richard Kind", "Phil Silvers", "Boise State University", "vaudeville", "Zero Mostel", "Milton Berle", "Pseudolus", "Ronnie Stevens (actor)", "Jerome Robbins' Broadway", "Leigh Zimmerman", "Lorraine Stewart", "Shane Bourne", "Novello Theatre", "Eunuch (court official)", "Tony Walton", "Patrick Cargill", "Stephen Ouimette", "Derek Royle", "Mostellaria", "farce", "Des McAnuff", "Michael Hordern", "Michael Crawford", "Tony Award for Best Performance by a Featured Actress in a Musical", "Frankie Howerd", "Annette Andre", "Drama Desk Award", "Mark Linn-Baker", "Tony Award for Best Actor in a Musical", "Jon English", "Jon Pertwee", "Two River Theater", "Nancy Walker", "Isla Blair", "Red Bank, New Jersey", "Christopher Fitzgerald (actor)", "Her Majesty's Theatre, Melbourne", "David Burns (actor)", "Outer Critics Circle Award", "Jack Gilford", "West End theatre", "Tony Award for Best Book of a Musical", "Cris Groenendaal", "Lunt-Fontanne Theatre", "Wayne Cilento", "Musical theatre", "Senate of the Roman Republic", "Jim Stanek", "Chung King Fai", "Jack Cole (choreographer)", "Jerry Zaks", "Crete", "Rob Marshall", "Hamish McColl", "Tom Deckman", "David Alan Grier", "Jason Alexander", "musical film", "Miles Gloriosus", "Tony Award", "Broadway theatre", "Essgee Entertainment", "Stanley Green (historian)", "Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Actor in a Musical", "Harold Prince", "Curculio (play)", "slave name", "Tony Award for Best Musical", "Tony Award for Best Author", "Jean Rosenthal", "Olivier Award", "Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Revival of a Musical", "Stratford, Ontario", "Bruce Dow", "Majestic Theatre (Broadway)", "Randy Davison", "Drag (clothing)", "Robin Williams", "Burt Shevelove", "Tom Poston", "Stratford Shakespeare Festival", "Mirvish Productions", "Miles Gloriosus (play)", "Playbill", "Mary Testa", "Nathan Lane", "A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum (film)", "Neil Simon Theatre", "Harry Towb", "Jessica Boevers", "Stephen Sondheim", "William Duell", "David Schneider (actor)", "Slavery in ancient Rome", "Christine Baranski", "Larry Gelbart", "Stephen Sondheim Center for the Performing Arts", "Caroline Sheen", "St. James Theatre", "Ancient Rome", "Revival (theatre)", "'Monsewer' Eddie Gray", "Ernie Sabella", "Jack Collins (actor)", "Kwai Tsing Theatre", "Piccadilly Theatre" ]
3,034	Aleuts	{{Infobox ethnic group \| group = Aleuts \| native_name = унаӈан (unangan)унаӈас (unangas) \| image = Greany Attu Woman.jpg \| caption = Attu Aleut mother and child, 1941 \| region1 = United StatesAlaska \| pop1 = 6,752 \| ref1 = \| region2 = RussiaKamchatka Krai \| pop2 = 482 \| ref2 = \| languages = English, Russian, Aleut (west) or (east) ) are the Indigenous people of the Aleutian Islands, which are located between the North Pacific Ocean and the Bering Sea. Both the Aleuts and the islands are politically divided between the US state of Alaska and the Russian administrative division of Kamchatka Krai. This group is also known as the Unangax̂ in Unangam Tunuu, the Aleut language. There are 13 federally recognized Aleut tribes in the Aleut Region of Alaska. In 2000, Aleuts in Russia were recognized by government decree as a small-numbered Indigenous people. == Etymology == In the Aleut language, they are known by the endonyms Unangan (eastern dialect) and Unangas (western dialect); both terms mean "people". The Russian term "Aleut" was a general term used for both the native population of the Aleutian Islands and their neighbors to the east in the Kodiak Archipelago, who were also referred to as "Pacific Eskimos" or Sugpiat/Alutiit. == Language == Aleut people speak Unangam Tunuu, the Aleut language, as well as English and Russian in the United States and Russia respectively. An estimated 150 people in the United States and five people in Russia speak Aleut. The language belongs to the Eskaleut language family and includes three dialects: Eastern Aleut, spoken on the Eastern Aleutian, Shumagin, Fox and Pribilof Islands; Atkan, spoken on Atka and Bering islands; and the now extinct Attuan dialect. The Pribilof Islands has the highest number of active speakers of Unangam Tunuu. Most native elders speak Aleut, but it is rare for common people to speak the language fluently. Beginning in 1829, Aleut was written in the Cyrillic script. From 1870, the language has been written in the Latin script. An Aleut dictionary and grammar have been published, and portions of the Bible were translated into Aleut. Attuan dialect and speaking tribes: Sasignan (in Attuan dialect)/Sasxnan (in Eastern dialect)/Sasxinas (in Western dialect) or Near Islanders: in the Near Islands (Attu, Agattu, Semichi). Kasakam Unangangis (in Aleut, lit. 'Russian Aleut') or Copper Island Aleut: in the Commander Islands of Russian Federation (Bering, Medny). ? Qax̂un or Rat Islanders : in the Buldir Island and Rat Islands (Kiska, Amchitka, Semisopochnoi). Atkan dialect or Western Aleut or Aliguutax̂ (in Aleut) and speaking tribes: Naahmiĝus or Delarof Islanders : in the Delarof Islands (Amatignak) and Andreanof Islands (Tanaga). Niiĝuĝis or Andreanof Islanders : in the Andreanof Islands (Kanaga, Adak, Atka, Amlia, Seguam). Eastern Aleut dialect and speaking tribes: Akuuĝun or Uniiĝun or Islanders of the Four Mountains : in the Islands of Four Mountains (Amukta, Kagamil). Qawalangin or Fox Islanders : in the Fox Islands (Umnak, Samalga, western part of Unalaska). Qigiiĝun or Krenitzen Islanders : in the Krenitzin Islands (eastern part of Unalaska, Akutan, Akun, Tigalda). Qagaan Tayaĝungin or Sanak Islanders : in the Sanak Islands (Unimak, Sanak). Taxtamam Tunuu dialect of Belkofski. Qaĝiiĝun or Shumigan Islanders : in the Shumagin Islands. ==Population and distribution== Aleuts historically lived throughout the Aleutian Islands, the Shumagin Islands, and the far western part of the Alaska Peninsula, with an estimated population of around 25,000 prior to European contact. In the 1820s, the Russian-American Company administered a large portion of the North Pacific during a Russian-led expansion of the fur trade. They resettled many Aleut families to the Commander Islands (within the Aleutsky District of the Kamchatka Krai in Russia) and to the Pribilof Islands (in Alaska). These continue to have majority-Aleut communities. According to the 2000 census, 11,941 people identified as being Aleut, while 17,000 identified as having partial Aleut ancestry. Prior to sustained European contact, approximately 25,000 Aleut lived in the archipelago. The Encyclopædia Britannica Online states that more than 15,000 people have Aleut ancestry in the early 21st century. ====Recorded uprising against the Russians==== In the 18th century, Russia promyshlenniki traders established settlements on the islands. There was high demand for the furs that the Aleuts provided from hunting. In May 1784, local Aleuts revolted on Amchitka against the Russian traders. (The Russians had a small trading post there.) According to the Aleuts, in an account recorded by Japanese castaways and published in 2004, otters were decreasing year by year. The Russians paid the Aleuts less and less in goods in return for the furs they made. The Japanese learned that the Aleuts felt the situation was at crisis. The leading Aleuts negotiated with the Russians, saying they had failed to deliver enough supplies in return for furs. Nezimov, leader of the Russians, ordered two of his men, Stephanov ( ) and Kazhimov ( ) to kill his mistress Oniishin ( ), who was the Aleut chief's daughter, because he doubted that Oniishin had tried to dissuade her father and other leaders from pushing for more goods. After the four leaders had been killed, the Aleuts began to move from Amchitka to neighboring islands. Nezimov, leader of the Russian group, was jailed after the whole incident was reported to Russian officials. (According to , written by Katsuragawa Hoshū after interviewing Daikokuya Kōdayū.) ===Aleut genocide against the Nicoleño Tribe in California=== According to Russian American Company (RAC) records which were translated and published in the Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology, a 200-ton otter hunting ship named Il’mena with a mixed-nationality crew, including a majority Aleut contingent, was involved in conflict resulting in a massacre of the indigenous natives of San Nicolas Island. In 1814, to obtain more of the commercially valuable otter pelts, a Russian company brought a party of conscripted Aleut hunters to the coastal island of San Nicolas, near the Alta California-Baja California border. The locally resident Nicoleño nation sought a payment from the Aleut hunters for the large number of otters being killed in the area. Disagreement arose, turning violent; an Aleut was killed, and in retaliation Aleuts killed a number of Nicoleño (the exact amount is unknown). In 1835, the remaining Nicoleños were removed from the island, except for one woman and possibly her child, who were left behind. In 1853 that woman, later christened Juana Maria, was found and taken to Santa Barbara. She may have been the last living Nicoleñan, as what happened to the others after they were brought to the mainland is unknown (Juana Maria, the Lone Woman of San Nicolas). ===Internment during World War II=== In June 1942, during World War II, Japanese forces occupied Kiska and Attu Islands in the western Aleutians. They later transported captive Attu Islanders to Hokkaido, where they were held as prisoners of war in harsh conditions. Fearing a Japanese attack on other Aleutian Islands and mainland Alaska, the U.S. government evacuated hundreds more Aleuts from the western chain and the Pribilofs, placing them in internment camps in southeast Alaska, where many died of measles, influenza and other infectious diseases which spread quickly in the overcrowded dormitories. In total, about 75 died in American internment and 22died while prisoners of the Japanese. The Aleut Restitution Act of 1988 was an attempt by Congress to compensate the survivors. On June 17, 2017, the U.S. Government formally apologized for the internment of the Unangan people and their treatment in the camps. The World War II campaign by the United States to retake Attu and Kiska was a significant component of the operations in the American and Pacific theaters. ===Population's decline=== Before their way of life was changed by major influences from the outside world, approximately 25,000 Aleuts were located on the archipelago. Foreign diseases, harsh treatment and disruption of aboriginal society soon reduced the population to less than one-tenth this number. The 1910 Census count showed 1,491 Aleuts. In the 2000 Census, 11,941 people identified as being Aleut; nearly 17,000 said Aleuts were among their ancestors. == Culture == ===Housing=== Aleuts constructed partially underground houses called barabara. According to Lillie McGarvey, a 20th-century Aleut leader, s keep "occupants dry from the frequent rains, warm at all times, and snugly sheltered from the high winds common to the area". Aleuts traditionally built houses by digging an oblong square pit in the ground, usually or smaller. The pit was then covered by a roof framed with driftwood, thatched with grass, and then covered with earth for insulation. Inside trenches were dug along the sides, with mats placed on top to keep them clean. The bedrooms were at the back of the lodge, opposite the entrance. Several families would stay in one house, with their own designated areas. Rather than fireplaces or bonfires in the middle, lanterns were hung in the house. ===Subsistence=== Aleuts survived by hunting and gathering. They fished for salmon, crabs, shellfish, and cod, as well as hunting sea mammals such as seal, walrus, and whales. They processed fish and sea mammals in a variety of ways: dried, smoked, or roasted. Caribou, muskoxen, deer, moose, whale, and other types of game were eaten roasted or preserved for later use. They dried berries. They were also processed as , a mixture of berries, fat, and fish. The boiled skin and blubber of a whale is a delicacy, as is that of walrus. Today, many Aleut continue to eat customary and locally sourced foods but also buy processed foods from abroad, which is expensive in Alaska. ===Ethnobotany=== A full list of their ethnobotany has been compiled, with 65 documented plant uses. === Visual arts === Customary arts of the Aleuts include weapon-making, building of baidarkas (special hunting boats), weaving, figurines, clothing, carving, and mask making. Men as well as women often carved ivory and wood. Nineteenth century craftsmen were famed for their ornate wooden hunting hats, which feature elaborate and colorful designs and may be trimmed with sea lion whiskers, feathers, and walrus ivory. Andrew Gronholdt of the Shumagin Islands has played a vital role in reviving the ancient art of building the chagudax or bentwood hunting visors. Aleuts also carve walrus ivory for other uses, such as jewelry and sewing needles. Jewelry is made with designs specific to the region of each people. Each clan would have a specific style to signify their origin. Jewelry ornaments were made for piercing lips (labrum), nose, and ears, as well as for necklaces. Each woman had her own sewing needles, which she made, and that often had detailed end of animal heads. Before the 19th century, piercings and tattoos were very common among Aleuts, especially among women. Piercings, such as the nose pin, were common among both men and women and were usually performed a few days after birth. The ornament was made of various materials, a piece of bark or bone, or an eagle's feather shaft. From time to time, adult women decorated the nose pins by hanging pieces of amber and coral from strings on it; the semi-precious objects dangled down to their chins. Piercing ears was also common. The Aleuts pierced holes around the rim of their ears with dentalium shells (tooth shells or tusk shells), bone, feathers, dried bird wings or skulls and/or amber. Materials associated with birds were important, as birds were considered to defend animals in the spirit world. A male would wear sea lion whiskers in his ears as a trophy of his expertise as a hunter. Worn for decorative reasons, and sometimes to signify social standing, reputation, and the age of the wearer, Aleuts would pierce their lower lips with walrus ivory and wear beads or bones. The individual with the most piercings held the highest respect. Tattooing for women began when they reached physical maturity, after menstruation, at about age 20. Historically, men received their first tattoo after killing their first animal, an important rite of passage. Sometimes tattoos signaled social class. For example, the daughter of a wealthy, famous ancestor or father would work hard at her tattoos to show the accomplishments of that ancestor or father. They would sew, or prick, different designs on the chin, the side of the face, or under the nose. ===Aleut clothing=== Aleuts developed in one of the harshest climates in the world, and learned to create and protect warmth. Both men and women wore parkas that extended below the knees. The women wore the skin of seal or sea-otter, and the men wore bird skin parkas, the feathers turned in or out depending on the weather. When the men were hunting on the water, they wore waterproof parkas made from seal or sea-lion guts, or the entrails of bear, walrus, or whales. Parkas had a hood that could be cinched, as could the wrist openings, so water could not get in. Men wore breeches made from the esophageal skin of seals. Children wore parkas made of downy eagle skin with tanned bird skin caps. Sea-lions, harbor seals, and sea otters are the most abundant marine mammals. The men brought home the skins and prepared them by soaking them in urine and stretching them. The women undertook the sewing. ===Hunting technologies=== ====Boats==== The interior regions of the rough, mountainous Aleutian Islands provided little in terms of natural resources for the Aleutian people. They collected stones for weapons, tools, stoves or lamps. They collected and dried grasses for their woven baskets. For everything else, the Aleuts had learned to use the fish and mammals they caught and processed to satisfy their needs. To hunt sea mammals and to travel between islands, the Aleuts became experts of sailing and navigation. While hunting, they used small watercraft called baidarkas. For regular travel, they used their large s. The (small skin boat) was a small boat covered in sea lion skin. It was developed and used for hunting because of its sturdiness and maneuverability. Aleut resembles that of a Yup'ik kayak, but it is hydrodynamically sleeker and faster. They made the for one or two persons only. The deck was made with a sturdy chamber, the sides of the craft were nearly vertical and the bottom was rounded. Most one-man s were about long and wide, whereas a two-man was on average about long and wide. It was from the that Aleut men would stand on the water to hunt from the sea. Harpoons were also called throwing-arrows when the pointed head fit loosely into the socket of the foreshaft and the head was able to detach from the harpoon when it penetrated an animal, and remain in the wound. There were three main kinds of harpoon that the Aleuts used: a simple harpoon, with a head that kept its original position in the animal after striking, a compound (toggle-head) harpoon in which the head took a horizontal position in the animal after penetration, and the throwing-lance used to kill large animals. The story is about revenge due in part to perceived mistreatment of the Aleuts.	[ "Copper Island Aleut", "prisoner of war", "Pacific Ocean theater of World War II", "Medny Island", "ja:北槎聞略", "Animism", "Eastern Orthodox Church", "Akutan Island", "Hokkaido", "List of Native American peoples in the United States", "Il’mena", "storytelling", "Aleut", "Near Islands", "Russian-American Company", "Maritime Fur Trade", "Katsuragawa Hoshū", "installation art", "Krenitzin Islands", "Hokusa bunryaku", "Unangan hunting headgear", "Kiska Island", "Adak Island", "fourth gender", "guillemot", "Andreanof Islands", "middens", "endonym", "Sadlermiut", "measles", "Encyclopædia Britannica Online", "Aleutian kayak", "Buldir Island", "Yupik peoples", "Amchitka Island", "third gender", "Sergie Sovoroff", "walrus ivory", "Daikokuya Kōdayū", "serigraphy", "United States Congress", "Eskaleut languages", "Aleutian Islands Campaign", "Akun Island", "moose", "clan", "Alaskan Creole people", "Latin script", "walrus", "puffins", "baidarka", "Pacific Ocean", "Kagamil Island", "infectious diseases", "San Nicolas Island", "Aleutian Islands", "mummification", "Eve Tuck", "grave goods", "Attu Island", "kayak", "Carl E. Moses", "Unimak Island", "Sirenik Eskimos", "Aleut language", "Amukta Island", "Russian Orthodox Church", "Andrew Gronholdt", "sea-lyme grass", "promyshlenniki", "Aleutian tradition", "Agattu", "Islands of Four Mountains", "two-spirit", "Snow Crash", "Russian Association of Indigenous Peoples of the North", "Unangan Aleut", "Kodiak Archipelago", "weaving", "Lillie McGarvey", "Belkofski, Alaska", "Common murre", "Bering Sea", "Alaska Natives", "video art", "Lunda cirrhata", "Shumagin Islands", "Tanaga Island", "basketry", "Semisopochnoi Island", "Amlia Island", "Tigalda Island", "Shamanism among Alaska Natives", "Delarof Islands", "Bering Island", "Semichi Islands", "otter", "Kanaga Island", "Aleutsky District", "Alutiiq", "American Theater (World War II)", "List of Alaska Native tribal entities", "Neal Stephenson", "World War II", "Indigenous Amerindian genetics", "English language", "Aleut Restitution Act of 1988", "Atka Island", "missionary", "Anfesia Shapsnikoff", "Pribilof Islands", "National Park Service", "Kamchatka Krai", "ANCSA Regional Association", "Seguam Island", "Umnak Island", "Nicoleño", "Cyrillic script", "Vibrissae", "influenza", "Alaska", "Anorak", "Jacob Netsvetov", "Unalaska Island", "Sanak Island", "Peter the Aleut", "Russian language", "reindeer", "Inuit", "John Hoover (artist)", "Unified list of Indigenous minority peoples of the North, Siberia, and the Far East of Russia", "barabara", "Amatignak Island", "Rat Islands", "Fox Islands (Alaska)", "Brooklyn Museum", "Fratercula corniculata", "Elymus mollis", "muskox", "immunity (medical)", "Aleuts in Russia", "Kiska", "Juana Maria", "Alaska Peninsula", "Sanak Islands", "Commander Islands", "fur trade", "Adamagan", "Seal (mammal)", "Atkan", "Samalga Island", "Olga Michael", "sarcophagi" ]
3,035	Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act	The Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA) was signed into law by President Richard Nixon on December 18, 1971, constituting what is still the largest land claims settlement in United States history. ANCSA was intended to resolve long-standing issues surrounding aboriginal land claims in Alaska, as well as to stimulate economic development throughout Alaska. The settlement established Alaska Native claims to the land by transferring titles to twelve Alaska Native regional corporations and over 200 local village corporations. ==Background== ===Alaskan statehood=== When Alaska became a state in 1959, section 4 of the Alaska Statehood Act provided that any existing Alaska Native land claims would be unaffected by statehood and held in status quo. Yet while section 4 of the act preserved Native land claims until later settlement, section 6 allowed for the state government to claim lands deemed vacant. The state government also attempted to acquire lands under section 6 of the Statehood Act that were subject to Native claims under section 4, and that were currently occupied and used by Alaska Natives. A 9.2-magnitude earthquake struck the state in 1964. Recovery efforts drew the attention of the federal government. ===Founding of the Alaska Federation of Natives (AFN)=== In 1966, Emil Notti called for a statewide meeting inviting numerous leaders around Alaska to gather and create the first meeting of a committee. The historic meeting was held October 18, 1966 - on the 99th anniversary of the transfer of Alaska from Russia. Notti presided over the three-day conference as it discussed matters of land recommendations, claims committees, and political challenges the act would have in getting through congress. Many respected politicians and businessmen attended the meeting and delegates were astonished at the attention which they received from well-known political figures of the state. The growing presence and political importance of Natives was evidenced when members were able to gain election to seven of the sixty seats in the legislature. When the group met a second time early in 1967, it emerged with a new name, The Alaska Federation of Natives (AFN), and a new full-time President, Emil Notti. AFN went on to profoundly change the human rights and economic stability of the Alaska Native population. ===Native Land Claims Task Force=== In 1967, Governor Walter Hickel summoned a group of Indigenous leaders and politicians to work out a settlement that would be satisfactory to Natives.{{#tag:ref\|Among the appointees were politicians Raymond C. Christiansen, Willie Hensley, Carl E. Moses, John C. Sackett, and Jules Wright. Indigenous members included George Attla, Cecil Barnes, Laura Bergt, John Borbridge, Alice Brown, Harry Carter, Jerry Crow, Jeff David, Frank Degnan, Andrew Demonski, Mark Ewan, Richard Frank, Charles Franz, Tom Gregoroff, Eben Hopson, Axel Johnson, Flore Lekanoff, Tony Lewis, Byron Mallott, Emil McCord, Elva Naanes, Hugh Nicholls, Emil Notti, George Olson, Howard Rock, Harvey Samuelson, Walter Soboleff, Seraphim Stephan, Richard Stitt, George Trigg, Donald R. Wright and Lula Young. They proposed receiving 10% of federal mineral lease revenue for ten years, once the freeze which had been placed on land patents to allow oil exploration was lifted. ===Oil=== In 1968, the Atlantic-Richfield Company discovered oil at Prudhoe Bay on the Arctic coast, catapulting the issue of land ownership into headlines. In order to lessen the difficulty of drilling at such a remote location and transporting the oil to the lower 48 states, the oil companies proposed building a pipeline to carry the oil across Alaska to the port of Valdez. At Valdez, the oil would be loaded onto tankers and shipped to the contiguous states. ===Government negotiations and policy=== In 1969, President Nixon appointed Hickel as Secretary of the Interior. The Alaska Federation of Natives (AFN) protested against Hickel's nomination, but he was eventually confirmed. The AFN wanted rights to land, while then-Governor Keith Miller believed Natives did not have legitimate claims to state land in light of the provisions of the Alaska Statehood Act. The following month, he established the National Council on Indian Opportunity, headed by Vice President Spiro Agnew, which included eight Native leaders: Frank Belvin (Choctaw), Bergt (Iñupiat), Betty Mae Jumper (Seminole), Earl Old Person (Blackfeet), John C. Rainer (Taos Pueblo), Martin Seneca Jr. (Seneca), Harold Shunk (Yankton-Sioux), and Joseph C. "Lone Eagle" Vasquez (Apache-Sioux). During the state administration of Governor William A. Egan positions were staked out upon which the AFN and other stakeholders could largely agree. Native leaders, in addition to Alaska's congressional delegation and the state's newly elected Governor Egan, eventually reached the basis for presenting an agreement to Congress. That meeting held on March 12, marked a turning-point in negotiations with the various parties. In 1971, the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act was signed into law by President Nixon. In return, Natives retained up to of land and were paid $963 million. Alaskan officials were originally divided on the bill, though by 1970, with Interior Secretary Walter Hickel, Governor William Egan, Representative Nick Begich & Senators Ted Stevens & Mike Gravel all backing the bill, the opposition died down. Stevens was particularly strongminded, and was key in the bill's passage. Stevens, a freshman Senator for most of the fight, would later remark: ==Effect of land conveyances== In 1971, barely one million acres of land in Alaska were in private hands. When the bill passed in 1971, it included provisions that had never before been attempted in previous United States settlements with Native Americans. The idea originated with the AFN, who believed that the Natives would have to become a part of the capitalist system in order to survive. If the corporations were managed properly, they could make profits that would enable individuals to stay, rather than having to leave Native villages to find better work. ==Native and state land selection== Alaska Natives had three years from passage of ANCSA to make land selections of the granted under the act. In some cases Native corporations received outside aid in surveying the land. The state of Alaska to date has been granted approximately 85% or of the land claims it has made under ANCSA. The state is entitled to a total of under the terms of the Statehood Act. Amendments to ANCSA extended that deadline until 1994, with the expectation that BLM would complete processing of land transfers subject to overlapping Native claims by 2009. Nonetheless, some Native and state selections under ANCSA remained unresolved as late as December 2014. ==Criticism of ANCSA== There was largely positive reaction to ANCSA, although not entirely. The act was supported by Natives as well as non-Natives, and likewise enjoyed bipartisan support. Natives were heavily involved in the legislative process, and the final draft of the act used many AFN ideas. Some Natives have argued that ANCSA has hastened cultural genocide of Alaska Natives. Some Natives critiqued ANCSA as an illegitimate treaty since only tribal leaders were involved and the provisions of the act were not voted on by indigenous populations. Other critics attacked the act as "Native welfare" and such complaints continue to be expressed. But supporters of the system argue that it has provided economic benefits for indigenous peoples that outweigh these problems. ==Selected provisions of ANCSA== Native claims in Alaska were extinguished by means of section 4 of ANCSA. In exchange for abrogating Native claims, approximately one-ninth of the state's land plus $962.5 million were distributed to more than 200 local Alaska Native "village corporations" established under section 8, in addition to 12 land-owning for-profit Alaska Native "regional corporations" and a non-land-owning thirteenth corporation for Alaska Natives who had left the state established under section 6. Of the compensation monies, $462.5 million was to come from the federal treasury and the rest from oil revenue-sharing. Of the approximately 80,000 Natives enrolled under ANCSA, those living in villages (approximately two-thirds of the total) would receive 100 shares in both a village and a regional corporation. The remaining one-third would be "at large" shareholders with 100 shares in a regional corporation with additional rights to revenue from regional mineral and timber resources. Successful applicants would be excluded under ANCSA by section 14(h)(5) from land to be used for a primary residence. The surface rights to the patented land were granted to the village corporations and the subsurface right to the land were granted to the regional corporation, creating a split estate pursuant to section 14(f). These include scholarships for Native students, sponsorship of cultural and artistic events, preservation efforts for Native languages, and protection of sites with historic or religious importance. Below is a representative list of village and urban corporations created under ANCSA: Ukpeaġvik Iñupiat Corporation, village corporation for Utqiaġvik Bethel Native Corporation, village corporation for Bethel Cape Fox Corporation, village corporation for Saxman Deloycheet, Inc., village corporation for Holy Cross Huna Totem Corporation, village corporation for Hoonah Haida Corporation, village corporation for Hydaburg Goldbelt, Inc., urban corporation for Juneau Paug-Vik, Inc. Ltd., village corporation for Naknek Chenega Corporation, village corporation for Chenega Afognak Native Corporation, village corporation for Afognak and Port Lions Kavilco Incorporated, village corporation for Kasaan Klukwan, Inc., village corporation for Klukwan The Kuskokwim Corporation , village corporation for Aniak, Crooked Creek, Georgetown, Kalskag, Lower Kalskag, Napaimute, Red Devil, Russian Mission, Sleetmute and Stony River Natives of Kodiak, Inc., urban corporation for Kodiak Ounalashka Corporation, village corporation for Unalaska Ouzinkie Native Corporation, village corporation for Ouzinkie Shee Atika, Incorporated, urban corporation for Sitka	[ "Pennsylvania", "Kansas City, Missouri", "Richard Nixon", "land ownership", "Ouzinkie", "Port Lions", "Ounalashka Corporation", "Ted Stevens", "Kasaan", "Red Devil, Alaska", "Chenega, Alaska", "Washington (state)", "Russian Mission, Alaska", "Lower Kalskag", "Arctic Ocean", "1964 Alaska earthquake", "Holy Cross, Alaska", "Juneau, Alaska", "Walter Hickel", "Klukwan", "Aniak, Alaska", "University of Oklahoma Press", "Ukpeaġvik Iñupiat Corporation", "Calista Corporation", "Give or Take a Century: An Eskimo Chronicle", "Saxman, Alaska", "Laura Bergt", "Afognak", "New Hampshire", "Prudhoe Bay Oil Field", "Tanana Chiefs Conference", "Alice E. Brown", "Newspaperarchive.com", "Alaska Statehood Act", "Howard Rock", "Indiana University Press", "Bureau of Land Management", "Huna Totem Corporation", "Massachusetts", "Al Ketzler", "Alaska native corporation", "Byron Mallott", "Mike Gravel", "Spiro Agnew", "United States Code", "United States history", "Doyon, Limited", "Art and Eskimo Power: The Life and Times of Alaskan Howard Rock", "Virginia", "John Borbridge Jr", "Upper Kalskag, Alaska", "Village Journey: The Report of the Alaska Native Review Commission", "University of Alaska", "New York (state)", "Sold American: The Story of Alaska Natives and Their Land, 1867-1959", "Carl E. Moses", "Bristol Bay Native Corporation", "Napaimute", "United States House", "Sleetmute", "Betty Mae Jumper", "The Alaska Pipeline: The Politics of Oil and Native Land Claims", "Hoonah, Alaska", "Alaska Native Land Claims", "The 13th Regional Corporation", "Brookings Institution", "Bering Straits Native Corporation", "Georgetown, Alaska", "split estate", "Tundra Times", "Alaska Land Transfer Acceleration Act", "Alaska Federation of Natives", "Newspapers.com", "Crooked Creek, Alaska", "Chugach Alaska Corporation", "lower 48 states", "ARCO", "Henry M. Jackson", "Keith Harvey Miller", "Indian termination policy", "Maryland", "Nick Begich Sr.", "Willie Hensley", "National Council on Indian Opportunity", "Ahtna, Incorporated", "Connecticut", "William A. Egan", "Kodiak, Alaska", "Cook Inlet Region, Inc.", "Delaware", "NANA Regional Corporation", "Maine", "Jules Wright (politician)", "Emil Notti", "Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act", "National Congress of American Indians", "Utqiaġvik", "Koniag, Incorporated", "Don Wright (politician)", "Alaska Native Allotment Act", "Fairbanks Daily News-Miner", "Take My Land Take My Life: The Story of Congress's Historic Settlement of Alaska Native Land Claims, 1960-1971", "United States Secretary of the Interior", "Bethel, Alaska", "Alaska", "George Attla", "The Aleut Corporation", "Self-determination", "Eben Hopson", "Alaska Natives and American Laws", "Alaska Native", "NASA", "Vermont", "Sealaska Corporation", "Walter Soboleff", "Naknek", "Alaska Native Regional Corporations", "Hydaburg, Alaska", "Rhode Island", "The New York Times", "Sitka, Alaska", "U.S. President", "Valdez, Alaska", "Stony River, Alaska", "Arctic Slope Regional Corporation", "New Jersey", "Unalaska", "John Sackett" ]
3,036	Adoptionism	Adoptionism, also called dynamic monarchianism, is an early Christian nontrinitarian theological doctrine, Under adoptionism, Jesus is divine and has been since his adoption although he is not equal to the Father per "my Father is greater than I" and as such is a kind of subordinationism. (However, the quoted scripture can be orthodoxically interpreted as the fact that in the Trinity the Father is the source without origin, while the Son eternally receives the divinity from the Father.) Adoptionism is sometimes but not always related to a denial of the virgin birth of Jesus. == History == ===Early Christianity=== ====Adoptionism and high Christology==== Bart Ehrman claims that the New Testament writings contain two different Christologies, namely a "low" or adoptionist Christology, and a "high" or "incarnation Christology". The "low Christology" or "adoptionist Christology" is the belief "that God exalted Jesus to be his Son by raising him from the dead", thereby raising him to "divine status". The other early Christology is "high Christology," which is "the view that Jesus was a pre-existent divine being who became a human, did the Father's will on earth, and then was taken back up into heaven whence he had originally come," as witnessed in the Gospels. According to the evolutionary model, the earliest Christians believed that Jesus was a human who was exalted, and thus adopted as God's Son, when he was resurrected, signaling the nearness of the Kingdom of God, when all dead would be resurrected and the righteous exalted. Adoptionist concepts can be found in the Gospel of Mark. As Daniel Johansson notes, the majority of scholars hold Mark's Jesus as "an exalted, but merely human figure", especially when read in the apparent context of Jewish beliefs. Later beliefs shifted the exaltation to his baptism, birth, and subsequently to the idea of his eternal existence, as witnessed in the Gospel of John. Quotes from second and third century Christian writers almost always use this variant as well, with many fourth and fifth century writers continuing to use it, if occasionally with embarrassment; Augustine cites the line, for example, but clarifies God meant an eternal "today". Ehrman speculates that Orthodox scribes of the fourth and fifth century changed the passage in Luke to align with the version in Mark as a defense against adoptionists citing the passage in their favor. Since the 1970s, these late datings for the development of a "high Christology" have been contested, and a majority of scholars argue that this "high Christology" existed already before the writings of Paul. According to the "New ", or the Early High Christology Club, According to Ehrman, these two Christologies existed alongside each other, calling the "low Christology" an "adoptionist Christology, and "the "high Christology" an "incarnation Christology". Conversely, Michael Bird has argued that adoptionism did not first emerge until the 2nd century as a result of later theological debates and other socio-religious influences on the reading of certain biblical texts. ====New Testamental epistles==== Adoptionist theology may also be reflected in canonical epistles, the earliest of which pre-date the writing of the gospels. The letters of Paul the Apostle, for example, do not mention a virgin birth of Christ. Paul describes Jesus as "born of a woman, born under the law" and "as to his human nature was a descendant of David" in the Epistle to the Galatians and the Epistle to the Romans. Christian interpreters, however, take his statements in Philippians 2 to imply that Paul believed Jesus to have existed as equal to God before his incarnation. ====Shepherd of Hermas==== The 2nd-century work Shepherd of Hermas may also have taught that Jesus was a virtuous man filled with the Holy Spirit and adopted as the Son. While the Shepherd of Hermas was popular and sometimes bound with the canonical scriptures, it did not retain canonical status, if it ever had it. ====Theodotus of Byzantium==== Theodotus of Byzantium ( late 2nd century), a Valentinian Gnostic, According to Hippolytus of Rome (Philosophumena, VII, xxiii) Theodotus taught that Jesus was a man born of a virgin, according to the Council of Jerusalem, that he lived like other men, and was most pious. At his baptism in the Jordan the "Christ" came down upon the man Jesus, in the likeness of a dove (Philosophumena, VII, xxiii), but Jesus was not himself God until after his resurrection. Adoptionism was declared heresy at the end of the 3rd century and was rejected by the Synods of Antioch and the First Council of Nicaea, which defined the orthodox doctrine of the Trinity and identified the man Jesus with the eternally begotten Son or Word of God in the Nicene Creed. The belief was also declared heretical by Pope Victor I. ====Ebionites==== Adoptionism was also adhered to by the Jewish Christians known as Ebionites, who, according to Epiphanius in the 4th century, believed that Jesus was chosen on account of his sinless devotion to the will of God. The Ebionites were a Jewish Christian movement that existed during the early centuries of the Christian Era. They show strong similarities with the earliest form of Jewish Christianity, and their specific theology may have been a "reaction to the law-free Gentile mission". They regarded Jesus as the Messiah while rejecting his divinity and his virgin birth, and insisted on the necessity of following Jewish law and rites. They used the Gospel of the Ebionites, one of the Jewish–Christian gospels; the Hebrew Book of Matthew starting at chapter 3; revered James the brother of Jesus (James the Just); and rejected Paul the Apostle as an apostate from the Law. Their name (, derived from , meaning or ) suggests that they placed a special value on voluntary poverty. Distinctive features of the Gospel of the Ebionites include the absence of the virgin birth and of the genealogy of Jesus; an Adoptionist Christology, in which Jesus is chosen to be God's Son at the time of his Baptism; the abolition of the Jewish sacrifices by Jesus; and an advocacy of vegetarianism. === Spanish Adoptionism === Iberian Adoptionism was a theological position which was articulated in Umayyad and Christian-held regions of the Iberian Peninsula in the 8th and 9th centuries. The issue seems to have begun with the claim of archbishop Elipandus of Toledo that – in respect to his human nature – Christ was adoptive Son of God. Another leading advocate of this Christology was Felix of Urgel. In the Iberian peninsula, adoptionism was opposed by Beatus of Liebana, and in the Carolingian territories, the Adoptionist position was condemned by Pope Hadrian I, Alcuin of York, Agobard, and officially in Carolingian territory by the Council of Frankfurt (794). Despite the shared name of "adoptionism" the Spanish Adoptionist Christology appears to have differed sharply from the adoptionism of early Christianity. Spanish advocates predicated the term of Christ only in respect to his humanity; once the divine Son "emptied himself" of divinity and "took the form of a servant" (Philippians 2:7), Christ's human nature was "adopted" as divine. Historically, many scholars have followed the Adoptionists' Carolingian opponents in labeling Spanish Adoptionism as a minor revival of "Nestorian" Christology. John C. Cavadini has challenged this notion by attempting to take the Spanish Christology in its own Spanish/North African context in his study, The Last Christology of the West: Adoptionism in Spain and Gaul, 785–820. === Scholastic Neo-adoptionism === A third wave was the revived form ("Neo-adoptionism") of Peter Abelard in the 12th century. Later, various modified and qualified Adoptionist tenets emerged from some theologians in the 14th century. Duns Scotus (1300) and Durandus of Saint-Pourçain (1320) admit the term in a qualified sense. In more recent times the Jesuit Gabriel Vásquez, and the Lutheran divines Georgius Calixtus and Johann Ernst Immanuel Walch, have defended adoptionism as essentially orthodox. === Modern adoptionist groups === A form of adoptionism surfaced in Unitarianism during the 16th and 17th in Polish Brethren and the 18th century as denial of the virgin birth became increasingly common, led by the views of Joseph Priestley and others. A similar form of adoptionism was expressed in the writings of James Strang, a Latter Day Saint leader who founded the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (Strangite) after the death of Joseph Smith in 1844. In his Book of the Law of the Lord, a purported work of ancient scripture found and translated by Strang, he offers an essay entitled "Note on the Sacrifice of Christ" in which he explains his unique (for Mormonism as a whole) doctrines on the subject. Jesus Christ, said Strang, was the natural-born son of Mary and Joseph, who was chosen from before all time to be the Savior of mankind, but who had to be born as an ordinary mortal of two human parents (rather than being begotten by the Father or the Holy Spirit) to be able to truly fulfill his Messianic role. Strang claimed that the earthly Christ was in essence "adopted" as God's son at birth, and fully revealed as such during the Transfiguration. After proving himself to God by living a perfectly sinless life, he was enabled to provide an acceptable sacrifice for the sins of men, prior to his resurrection and ascension. The Christian Community, an esoteric Christian denomination informed by the teachings of Rudolf Steiner, assumes an adoptionist Christology that treats Jesus and the Christ as separate beings until they are joined at baptism. "Steiner's Christology is discussed as a central element of his thought in Johannes Hemleben, Rudolf Steiner: A Documentary Biography, trans. Leo Twyman (East Grinstead, Sussex: Henry Goulden, 1975), pp. 96-100. From the perspective of orthodox Christianity, it may be said that Steiner combined a docetic understanding of Christ's nature with the Adoptionist heresy."	[ "Saint Joseph", "Son of God (Christianity)", "Son of God", "death of Joseph Smith", "Gospel of the Ebionites", "Augustine of Hippo", "floruit", "Adoptionist", "Antinomianism", "Carolingian", "Nicene Creed", "Baptism of Jesus", "Rudolf Steiner", "Gnosticism", "Richard Bauckham", "Transfiguration of Jesus", "Ascension of Jesus Christ", "Durandus of Saint-Pourçain", "Docetism", "Polish Brethren", "heresy", "Christology", "HarperCollins", "Binitarianism", "Trinity", "Jesus in Christianity", "Philip Schaff", "Shepherd of Hermas", "Kingdom of God", "Diversity in early Christian theology", "Codex Bezae", "Paul the Apostle", "Gabriel Vásquez", "human nature", "Halakha", "Kingdom of Asturias", "Unitarianism", "Early Christianity", "Chichester, West Sussex", "resurrection", "New Testament", "Arianism", "virgin birth of Jesus", "Jewish–Christian gospels", "Mary (mother of Jesus)", "monarchianism", "Synods of Antioch", "Vow of poverty", "Christ", "God the Son", "Gospel of Mark", "Paul and Judaism", "Book of the Law of the Lord", "Joseph Priestley", "vegetarianism", "Iberian Peninsula", "Korban", "Logos (Christianity)", "will of God", "Nontrinitarianism", "Nestorianism", "Jewish Christians", "Incarnation (Christianity)", "Larry Hurtado", "Beatus of Liebana", "esoteric Christianity", "Duns Scotus", "divinity", "Pope Victor I", "Virgin birth of Jesus", "Philippians 2", "Peter Abelard", "First Council of Nicaea", "epistle", "N. T. Wright", "epistles of Paul", "hypostatic union", "Latter Day Saint movement", "The Christian Community", "God the Father", "genealogy of Jesus", "baptism of Jesus", "Ebionites", "Epistle to the Galatians", "Pope Hadrian I", "Martin Hengel", "Philosophumena", "Jesus", "Alcuin of York", "Wiley-Blackwell", "Michael Bird (theologian)", "Heresy in Christianity", "Bart Ehrman", "Jewish Christian", "Messiah in Judaism", "Agobard", "modalism", "Valentinianism", "Christophany", "resurrection of Jesus", "James, brother of Jesus", "sinless", "Adoptivi", "Epiphanius of Salamis", "virgin birth of Christ", "Holy Spirit in Christianity", "Law of Moses", "Caliphate of Córdoba", "Resurrection appearances of Jesus", "subordinationism", "Ascension of Jesus", "God", "Elipandus of Toledo", "pre-existence of Christ", "James Strang", "Hippolytus of Rome", "Johann Ernst Immanuel Walch", "Theodotus of Byzantium", "Epistle to the Romans", "Orthodoxy", "denial of the virgin birth of Jesus", "Felix of Urgel", "Georgius Calixtus", "Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (Strangite)" ]
3,037	Apollinarism	Apollinarism or Apollinarianism is a Christological position proposed by Apollinaris of Laodicea that argues that Jesus had a human body and sensitive human soul, but a divine mind and not a human rational mind, the Divine Logos taking the place of the latter. It was deemed heretical by the First Council of Constantinople in 381 and virtually died out within the following decades. ==History== The Trinity had been recognized at the First Council of Nicaea in 325, but debate about exactly what it meant continued. A rival to the more common belief that Jesus Christ had two natures was monophysitism ("one nature"), the doctrine that Christ had only one nature. Apollinarism and Eutychianism were two forms of monophysitism. Apollinaris's rejection of Christ having a human mind was considered an over-reaction to Arianism and its teaching that Christ was a lesser god. Theodoret charged Apollinaris with confounding the persons of the Godhead and giving in to the heretical ways of Sabellius. Basil of Caesarea accused him of abandoning the literal sense of the scripture, and taking it up wholly with the allegorical sense. His views were condemned in a Synod at Alexandria, under Athanasius of Alexandria, in 362, and later subdivided into several different heresies, the main ones of which were the Polemians and the Antidicomarianites. Apollinaris, considering the rational soul and spirit as essentially liable to sin and capable, at its best, of only precarious efforts, saw no way of saving Christ's impeccability and the infinite value of Redemption, except by the elimination of the human spirit from Jesus' humanity, and the substitution of the Divine Logos in its stead. Craig also clarifies "what I called a Neo-Apollinarian Christological model" by stating that	[ "Godhead (Christianity)", "Theodoret", "rationality", "self-consciousness", "image of God", "Apollinaris of Laodicea", "Eutychianism", "Basil of Caesarea", "First Council of Nicaea", "Antidicomarianite", "William Lane Craig", "Arianism", "Synod", "Sabellius", "First Council of Constantinople", "divine", "Christological", "Alexandria", "Jesus", "Alister McGrath", "Athanasius of Alexandria", "Christian heresy", "Dyophysitism", "Trinity", "Logos (Christianity)", "monophysitism" ]

Subsets and Splits

No community queries yet

The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.