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Acid–base reaction
|
In chemistry, an acid–base reaction is a chemical reaction that occurs between an acid and a base. It can be used to determine pH via titration. Several theoretical frameworks provide alternative conceptions of the reaction mechanisms and their application in solving related problems; these are called the acid–base theories, for example, Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory.
Their importance becomes apparent in analyzing acid–base reactions for gaseous or liquid species, or when acid or base character may be somewhat less apparent. The first of these concepts was provided by the French chemist Antoine Lavoisier, around 1776.
It is important to think of the acid–base reaction models as theories that complement each other. For example, the current Lewis model has the broadest definition of what an acid and base are, with the Brønsted–Lowry theory being a subset of what acids and bases are, and the Arrhenius theory being the most restrictive.
==Acid–base definitions==
===Historic development===
The concept of an acid–base reaction was first proposed in 1754 by Guillaume-François Rouelle, who introduced the word "base" into chemistry to mean a substance which reacts with an acid to give it solid form (as a salt). Bases are mostly bitter in nature.
====Lavoisier's oxygen theory of acids====
The first scientific concept of acids and bases was provided by Lavoisier in around 1776. Since Lavoisier's knowledge of strong acids was mainly restricted to oxoacids, such as (nitric acid) and (sulfuric acid), which tend to contain central atoms in high oxidation states surrounded by oxygen, and since he was not aware of the true composition of the hydrohalic acids (HF, HCl, HBr, and HI), he defined acids in terms of their containing oxygen, which in fact he named from Greek words meaning "acid-former" (). The Lavoisier definition held for over 30 years, until the 1810 article and subsequent lectures by Sir Humphry Davy in which he proved the lack of oxygen in hydrogen sulfide (), hydrogen telluride (), and the hydrohalic acids. However, Davy failed to develop a new theory, concluding that "acidity does not depend upon any particular elementary substance, but upon peculiar arrangement of various substances". One notable modification of oxygen theory was provided by Jöns Jacob Berzelius, who stated that acids are oxides of nonmetals while bases are oxides of metals.
====Liebig's hydrogen theory of acids====
In 1838, Justus von Liebig proposed that an acid is a hydrogen-containing compound whose hydrogen can be replaced by a metal. This redefinition was based on his extensive work on the chemical composition of organic acids, finishing the doctrinal shift from oxygen-based acids to hydrogen-based acids started by Davy. Liebig's definition, while completely empirical, remained in use for almost 50 years until the adoption of the Arrhenius definition.
===Arrhenius definition===
The first modern definition of acids and bases in molecular terms was devised by Svante Arrhenius. A hydrogen theory of acids, it followed from his 1884 work with Friedrich Wilhelm Ostwald in establishing the presence of ions in aqueous solution and led to Arrhenius receiving the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1903.
As defined by Arrhenius:
An Arrhenius acid is a substance that ionises in water to form hydrogen ions (); that is, an acid increases the concentration of H+ ions in an aqueous solution.
This causes the protonation of water, or the creation of the hydronium () ion. antimony trichloride into dichloroantimonium and tetrachloroantimonate, and phosgene into chlorocarboxonium and chloride:
\begin{align}
\ce{N2O4} & \ce{\, <=> NO+ + NO3-} \\[4pt]
\ce{2 SbCl3} & \ce{\, <=> SbCl2+ + SbCl4-} \\[4pt]
\ce{COCl2} & \ce{\, <=> COCl+ + Cl-}
\end{align}
A solute that causes an increase in the concentration of the solvonium ions and a decrease in the concentration of solvate ions is defined as an acid. A solute that causes an increase in the concentration of the solvate ions and a decrease in the concentration of the solvonium ions is defined as a base.
Thus, in liquid ammonia, (supplying ) is a strong base, and (supplying ) is a strong acid. In liquid sulfur dioxide (), thionyl compounds (supplying ) behave as acids, and sulfites (supplying ) behave as bases.
The non-aqueous acid–base reactions in liquid ammonia are similar to the reactions in water:
\begin{align}
\underset{\text{base}}{\ce{2 NaNH2}} + \underset{\text{amphiphilic} \atop \text{amide}}{\ce{Zn(NH2)2}} &\longrightarrow \ce{Na2[Zn(NH2)4]} \\[4pt]
\underset{\text{acid}}{\ce{2 NH4I}} \ + \ \ce{Zn(NH2)2} &\longrightarrow \ce{[Zn(NH3)4]I2}
\end{align}
Nitric acid can be a base in liquid sulfuric acid:
\underset{\text{base}}{\ce{HNO3}} + \ce{2 H2SO4 -> NO2+ + H3O+ + 2 HSO4-}
The unique strength of this definition shows in describing the reactions in aprotic solvents; for example, in liquid :
\underset{\text{base}}{\ce{AgNO3}} + \underset{\text{acid}}{\ce{NOCl_{\ }}} \longrightarrow \underset{\text{solvent}}{\ce{N2O4}} + \underset{\text{salt}}{\ce{AgCl_{\ }}}
Because the solvent system definition depends on the solute as well as on the solvent itself, a particular solute can be either an acid or a base depending on the choice of the solvent: is a strong acid in water, a weak acid in acetic acid, and a weak base in fluorosulfonic acid; this characteristic of the theory has been seen as both a strength and a weakness, because some substances (such as and ) have been seen to be acidic or basic on their own right. On the other hand, solvent system theory has been criticized as being too general to be useful. Also, it has been thought that there is something intrinsically acidic about hydrogen compounds, a property not shared by non-hydrogenic solvonium salts. in 1939, further improved by Håkon Flood and is still used in modern geochemistry and electrochemistry of molten salts. This definition describes an acid as an oxide ion () acceptor and a base as an oxide ion donor. For example:
\begin{array}{ccccl}
_\text{(base)} & & _\text{(acid)} \\[4pt]
\ce{MgO} &+& \ce{CO2} &\longrightarrow& \ce{MgCO3} \\[4pt]
\ce{CaO} &+& \ce{SiO2} &\longrightarrow& \ce{CaSiO3} \\[4pt]
\ce{NO3-} &+& \ce{S2O7^2-} \!\! &\longrightarrow& \ce{NO2+ + 2 SO4^2-}
\end{array}
This theory is also useful in the systematisation of the reactions of noble gas compounds, especially the xenon oxides, fluorides, and oxofluorides.
===Usanovich definition===
Mikhail Usanovich developed a general theory that does not restrict acidity to hydrogen-containing compounds, but his approach, published in 1938, was even more general than Lewis theory. later made quantitative with help of Robert Parr in 1984. 'Hard' applies to species that are small, have high charge states, and are weakly polarizable. 'Soft' applies to species that are large, have low charge states and are strongly polarizable. Acids and bases interact, and the most stable interactions are hard–hard and soft–soft. This theory has found use in organic and inorganic chemistry.
===ECW model===
The ECW model created by Russell S. Drago is a quantitative model that describes and predicts the strength of Lewis acid base interactions, . The model assigned and parameters to many Lewis acids and bases. Each acid is characterized by an and a . Each base is likewise characterized by its own and . The and parameters refer, respectively, to the electrostatic and covalent contributions to the strength of the bonds that the acid and base will form. The equation is
-\Delta H = E_{\rm A}E_{\rm B} + C_{\rm A}C_{\rm B} + W
The term represents a constant energy contribution for acid–base reaction such as the cleavage of a dimeric acid or base. The equation predicts reversal of acids and base strengths. The graphical presentations of the equation show that there is no single order of Lewis base strengths or Lewis acid strengths.
==Acid–base equilibrium==
The reaction of a strong acid with a strong base is essentially a quantitative reaction. For example,
\ce{HCl_{(aq)} {} + Na(OH)_{(aq)} -> H2O + NaCl_{(aq)} }
In this reaction both the sodium and chloride ions are spectators as the neutralization reaction,
\ce{H + OH- -> H2O}
does not involve them. With weak bases addition of acid is not quantitative because a solution of a weak base is a buffer solution. A solution of a weak acid is also a buffer solution. When a weak acid reacts with a weak base an equilibrium mixture is produced. For example, adenine, written as AH, can react with a hydrogen phosphate ion, .
\ce{AH + HPO4^2- <=> A- + H2PO4-}
The equilibrium constant for this reaction can be derived from the acid dissociation constants of adenine and of the dihydrogen phosphate ion.
\begin{align}
\left[\ce{A-}\right] \! \left[\ce{H+}\right] &= K_{a1}\bigl[\ce{AH}\bigr] \\[4pt]
\left[\ce{HPO4^2-}\right] \! \left[\ce{H+}\right] &= K_{a2}\left[\ce{H2PO4-}\right]
\end{align}
The notation [X] signifies "concentration of X". When these two equations are combined by eliminating the hydrogen ion concentration, an expression for the equilibrium constant, is obtained.
\left[\ce{A-}\right] \! \left[\ce{H2PO4-}\right] = K \bigl[\ce{AH}\bigr] \! \left[\ce{HPO4^2-}\right]; \quad K = \frac{K_{a1}}{K_{a2}}
==Acid–alkali reaction==
An acid–alkali reaction is a special case of an acid–base reaction, where the base used is also an alkali. When an acid reacts with an alkali salt (a metal hydroxide), the product is a metal salt and water. Acid–alkali reactions are also neutralization reactions.
In general, acid–alkali reactions can be simplified to
\ce{OH_{(aq)}- + H+_{(aq)} -> H2O}
by omitting spectator ions.
Acids are in general pure substances that contain hydrogen cations () or cause them to be produced in solutions. Hydrochloric acid () and sulfuric acid () are common examples. In water, these break apart into ions:
\begin{align}
\ce{HCl} &\longrightarrow \ce{H_{(aq)}+ {} + Cl_{(aq)}- } \\[4pt]
\ce{H2SO4} &\longrightarrow \ce{H_{(aq)}+ {} + HSO4_{\,(aq)}- }
\end{align}
The alkali breaks apart in water, yielding dissolved hydroxide ions:
\ce{NaOH -> Na^+_{(aq)} {} + OH_{(aq)}- }.
|
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"conjugate acid",
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] |
3,040 |
Abu al-Faraj al-Isfahani
|
Ali ibn al-Husayn al-Iṣfahānī (), also known as Abul-Faraj, (full form: Abū al-Faraj ʿAlī ibn al-Ḥusayn ibn Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad ibn al-Ḥaytham al-Umawī al-Iṣfahānī) (897–967CE / 284–356AH) was a writer, historian, genealogist, poet, musicologist and scribe. He was of Arab-Quraysh origin and mainly based in Baghdad. He is best known as the author of Kitab al-Aghani ("The Book of Songs"), which includes information about the earliest attested periods of Arabic music (from the seventh to the ninth centuries) and the lives of poets and musicians from the pre-Islamic period to al-Isfahani's time. Given his contribution to the documentation of the history of Arabic music, al-Isfahani is characterised by George Sawa as "a true prophet of modern ethnomusicology".
== Dates ==
The commonly accepted dates of al-Isfahani's birth and death are 897–898 and 967, based on the dates given by al-Khatib al-Baghdadi which itself based its information on the testimony of al-Isfahani's student, Muhammad ibn Abi al-Fawaris. However, the credibility of these dates is to be treated with caution. No source places his death earlier than 967, but several place it later. These dates are at odds with a reference in the Kitab Adab al-ghuraba ("The Book of the Etiquettes of Strangers"), attributed to al-Isfahani, to his being in the prime of youth (fi ayyam al-shabiba wa-l-siba) in 967. Calculation of the approximate dates of his birth and death through the life spans of his students and his direct informants suggests that he was born before 902 and died after 960.
==Biography==
Abu al-Faraj al-Isfahani was born in Isfahan, Persia (present-day Iran) but spent his youth and undertook his early studies in Baghdad (present-day Iraq). He was a direct descendant of the last of the Umayyad caliphs, Marwan II, and was thus connected with the Umayyad rulers in al-Andalus, and seems to have kept up a correspondence with them and to have sent them some of his works. He became famous for his knowledge of early Arabian antiquities.
His later life was spent in various parts of the Islamic world, including in Aleppo with its Hamdanid governor Sayf ad-Dawlah (to whom he dedicated the Book of Songs), and in Ray with the Buwayhid vizier Ibn 'Abbad.
=== Family ===
The epithet, al-Isfahani, refers to the city, Isfahan, on the Iranian plateau. Instead of indicating al-Isfahani's birthplace, this epithet seems to be common to al-Isfahani's family. Every reference al-Isfahani makes to his paternal relatives includes the attributive, al-Isfahani. According to Ibn Hazm (994–1064), some descendants of the last Umayyad caliph, Marwan b. Muhammad (691–750), al-Isfahani's ancestor, settled in Isfahan. However, it has to be borne in mind that the earliest information available regarding al-Isfahani's family history only dates to the generation of his great-grandfather, Ahmad b. al-Ḥaytham, who settled in Samarra sometime between 835–6 and 847.
Based on al-Isfahani's references in the Kitab al-Aghani (hereafter, the Aghani), Ahmad b. al-Haytham seems to have led a privileged life in Sāmarrāʾ, while his sons were well-connected with the elite of the Abbasid capital at that time. His son, Abd al-Aziz b. Ahmad, was "one of the high ranking scribes in the days of al-Mutawakkil (r. 847–861) (min kibār al-kuttāb fī ayyām al-Mutawakkil)". Another son, Muhammad b. Ahmad (viz. al-Isfahani's grandfather), was associated with Abbasid officials, the vizier Ibn al-Zayyāt (d. 847), the scribe Ibrahim b. al-Abbas al-Ṣūlī (792–857), and the vizier Ubaydallah b. Sulayman (d. 901), along with the Ṭālibid notables, including al-Husayn b. al-Husayn b. Zayd, who was the leader of the Banu Hashim. The close ties with the Abbasid court continued with Muhammad's sons, al-Hasan and al-Husayn (al-Isfahani's father).
In various places in the Aghani, al-Isfahani refers to Yahya b. Muhammad b. Thawaba (from the Al Thawaba) as his grandfather on his mother's side. It is often suggested that the family of Thawaba, being Shi'i, bequeathed their sectarian inclination to al-Isfahani. However, the identification of the Thawaba family as Shi'is is only found in a late source, Yaqut's (1178–1225) work. While many elite families working under the Abbasid caliphate were Shi'i-inclined, indeed allied with Alids or their partisans, there is no evidence that members of the Thawaba family embraced an extreme form of Shi'ism.
In summary, al-Isfahani came from a family well-entrenched in the networks of the Abbasid elite, which included the officials and the Alids. Despite the epithet, al-Isfahani, it does not seem that the Isfahani family had a strong connection with the city of Isfahan. Rather, the family was mainly based in Sāmarrāʾ, from the generation of Ahmad b. al-Ḥaytham, and then Baghdad.
In the seats of the caliphate, a few members of the al-Isfahani family worked as scribes, while maintaining friendship or alliance with other scribes, viziers and notables. Like many of the court elite, al-Isfahani's family maintained an amicable relationship with the offspring of Ali and allied with families, such as the Thawaba family, sharing their veneration of Ali and Alids. However, it is hard to pinpoint such a reverential attitude towards Alids in terms of sectarian alignment, given the scanty information about al-Isfahani's family and the fluidity of sectarian identities at the time.
=== Education and career ===
The Isfahani family's extensive network of contacts is reflected in al-Isfahani's sources. Among the direct informants whom al-Isfahani cites in his works, are members of his own family, who were further connected to other notable families, the Al Thawaba, the Banū Munajjim, the Yazīdīs, the Ṣūlīs, the Banū Ḥamdūn, the Ṭāhirids, the Banū al-Marzubān and the Ṭālibids.
Given that al-Isfahani and his family very likely settled in Baghdad around the beginning of the tenth century, he interacted with a considerable number of the inhabitants of or visitors to that city, including: Jaḥẓa (d. 936), al-Khaffāf, Ali b. Sulaymān al-Akhfash (d. 927/8), and Muhammad b. Jarir al-Ṭabari (d. 922). Like other scholars of his time, al-Isfahani travelled in pursuit of knowledge. Although the details are insufficient to establish the dates of his journeys, based on the chains of transmission (asānīd, sing. isnād) al-Isfahani cites consistently and meticulously in every report, it is certain that he transmitted from ʿAbd al-Malik b. Maslama and ʿĀṣim b. Muhammad in Antakya; ʿAbdallāh b. Muhammad b. Ishaq in Ahwaz; and Yahya b. Aḥmad b. al-Jawn in Raqqa. If we accept the attribution of the Kitab Adab al-ghuraba to al-Isfahani, he once visited Baṣra as well as Ḥiṣn Mahdī, Mattūth, and Bājistrā. Yet, none of these cities seems to have left as much of an impact on al-Isfahani as Kūfa and Baghdad did. While al-Isfahani's Baghdadi informants were wide-ranging in their expertise as well as sectarian and theological tendencies, his Kūfan sources can be characterised as either Shi'i or keen on preserving and disseminating memories that favoured Ali and his family. For example, Ibn ʿUqda (d. 944), mentioned in both the Aghānī and the Maqātil, was invariably cited for the reports about the Alids and their merits.
The journey in search for knowledge taken by al-Isfahani may not be particularly outstanding by the standard of his time, but the diversity of his sources' occupations and expertise is impressive. His informants can be assigned into one or more of the following categories: philologists and grammarians; singers and musicians; booksellers and copyists (sahhafun or warraqun, sing. sahhaf or Warraq); friends; tutors (muʾaddibūn, sing. muʾaddib); scribes (kuttāb, sing. kātib); imams or preachers (khuṭabāʾ, sing. khaṭīb); religious scholars (of the ḥadīth, the Qurʾānic recitations and exegeses, or jurisprudence) and judges; poets; and akhbārīs (transmitters of reports of all sorts, including genealogical, historical, and anecdotal reports). The variety of the narrators and their narrations enriched al-Iṣfahānī's literary output, which covers a wide range of topics from amusing tales to the accounts of the Alids' martyrdom. His erudition is best illustrated by Abu Ali al-Muhassin al-Tanukhi's (941–994) comment: "With his encyclopaedic knowledge of music, musicians, poetry, poets, genealogy, history, and other subjects, al-Iṣfahānī established himself as a learned scholar and teacher."
He was also a scribe and this is not surprising, given his families’ scribal connections, but the details of his kātib activities are rather opaque. Although both al-Tanūkhī and al-Baghdādī refer to al-Isfahani with the attribute, kātib, they mention nothing of where he worked or for whom. The details of his occupation as a scribe only came later, with Yaqut, many of whose reports about al-Isfahani prove problematic. For instance, a report from Yaqut claims that al-Isfahani was the scribe of Rukn al-Dawla (d. 976) and mentions his resentment towards Abū al-Faḍl b. al-ʿAmīd (d. 970). However, the very same report was mentioned by Abū Ḥayyān al-Tawḥīdī (active tenth century) in his Akhlāq al-wazīrayn, where the scribe of Rukn al-Dawla is identified as Abū al-Faraj Ḥamd b. Muhammad, not Abū al-Faraj al-Isfahani. Thus, it is hard to know with certainty how and where al-Isfahani was engaged in his capacity as a kātib. Nevertheless, al-Isfahani's association with the vizier, Abū Muḥammad al-Muhallabī (903–963), is well-documented. The friendship between the two began before al-Muhallabī's became vizier in 950. The firm relationship between them is supported by al-Isfahani's poetry collected by al-Thaʿālibī (961–1038): half of the fourteen poems are panegyrics dedicated to al-Muhallabī. In addition, al-Isfahani's own work, al-Imāʾ al-shawāʿir (“Enslaved Women Who Composed Poetry”), is dedicated to the vizier, presumably, al-Muhallabī. His no longer surviving Manājīb al-khiṣyān (“The Noble Eunuchs”), which addresses two castrated male singers owned by al-Muhallabī, was composed for him. His magnum opus, the Aghānī, was very likely intended for al-Muhallabī, as well. In return for his literary efforts, according to al-Tanūkhī, al-Isfahani frequently received rewards from the vizier. Furthermore, for the sake of their long-term friendship and out of his respect for al-Isfahani's genius, al-Muhallabī exceptionally tolerated al-Isfahani's uncouth manners and poor personal hygiene. The sources say nothing about al-Isfahani's fate after al-Muhallabī's death. In his last years, according to his student, Muhammad b. Abī al-Fawāris, he suffered from senility (khallaṭa).
=== Personality, preferences, and beliefs ===
As a friend, al-Isfahani was unconventional in the sense that he did not seem to have been bothered to observe the social decorum of his time, as noted by a late biographical source: with his uncleanliness and gluttony, he presented a counterexample to elegance (ẓarf), as defined by one of his teachers, Abu al-Ṭayyib al-Washshāʾ (d. 937). His unconformity to the social norms did not hinder him from being part of al-Muhallabī's entourage or participation in the literary assemblies, but, inevitably, it resulted in frictions with other scholars and detraction by his enemies. Although al-Isfahani appeared eccentric to his human associates, he was a caring owner of his cat, named Yaqaq (white): he treated Yaqaq's colic (qulanj) with an enema (al-ḥuqna).
In contrast to his personal habits, al-Isfahani's prose style is lucid, “in clear and simple language, with unusual sincerity and frankness”. Al-Isfahani's capacity as a writer is well illustrated by Abu Deeb, who depicts al-Isfahani as "one of the finest writers of Arabic prose in his time, with a remarkable ability to relate widely different types of aḵbār in a rich, lucid, rhythmic, and precise style, only occasionally exploiting such formal effects as saǰʿ (rhyming prose). He was also a fine poet with an opulent imagination. His poetry displays preoccupations similar to those of other urban poets of his time". His pinpoint documentation of asānīd and meticulous verification of information, provided in all his works, embody a truly scholarly character. Usually, in his treatment of a subject or an event, al-Isfahani lets his sources speak, but, occasionally, he voices his evaluation of poems and songs, as well as their creators. When dealing with conflicting reports, al-Isfahani either leaves his readers to decide or issues his judgement as to the most credible account. Yet, he frankly condemns sources whom he holds to be unreliable, for instance, Ibn Khurdādhbih on musicological information and Ibn al-Kalbī on genealogy. Indeed, al-Isfahani assesses his source material with a critical eye, while striving to present a more balanced view on his biographies, by focusing on their merits instead of elaborating on their flaws.
That said, al-Isfahani's personal preferences and sectarian partisanship are not absent from his works. In terms of music and songs, al-Isfahani favours Ishaq b. Ibrahim al-Mawsili (772–850). In al-Isfahani's view, Ishaq b. Ibrahim was a multi-talented man, who excelled in a number of subjects, but, most importantly, music. Ishaq b. Ibrahim, as a collector of the reports about poets and singers, is an important source in his Aghānī. Besides being a mine of information, Ishaq b. Ibrahim's terminology for the description of the melodic modes is preferred over that of his opponent, Ibrahim ibn al-Mahdi (779–839), and adopted by al-Isfahani in his Aghani. Furthermore, al-Isfahani embarked on the compilation of the Aghānī because he was commissioned by his patron to reconstruct the list of the exquisite songs selected by Ishaq. In other words, the raison d’etre of the Aghānī is partly related to al-Isfahani's idol, Ishaq b. Ibrahim, and its information about singers, songs and performance owes a tremendous amount to him. Al-Isfahani's admiration for scholars or men of letters can be detected from time to time, usually in the passing comments in the chains of transmission. Yet al-Isfahani outspokenly expresses his admiration, in some cases, such as that of Ibn al-Muʿtazz (862–909).
As an Umayyad by ancestry, al-Isfahani's later biographers mention his Shi'i affiliation with surprise. Yet, in the light of the history of the family's connections with the Abbasid elite of Shi'i inclination and the Ṭālibids, and of his learning experience in Kūfa, his Shi'i conviction is understandable. Al-Tusi (995–1067) is the only early source specifying the exact sect to which al-Isfahani belonged in the fluid Shi'i world: he was a Zaydī. Although al-Ṭūsī's view is widely accepted, its veracity is not beyond doubt. Al-Isfahani does not seem to have been informed of the latest Zaydī movements in Yemen and Ṭabaristān during his life, while his association with the Kūfan Zaydī community, which to some degree became less distinguishable from the Sunnīs, is yet to be studied in depth. It is clear, based on examination of how al-Isfahani amended the reports at his disposal, that he honoured Ali, who played a far more prominent role in his works than the first three caliphs, and some of his descendants, including Zaydi Shi'ism's eponym, Zayd ibn Ali (694–740), by presenting them positively, while, in some cases, leaving their enemies’ rectitude in question. In spite of that, al-Isfahani is neither keen to identify the imams in the past, nor discuss the qualities of an imam. As a matter of fact, he hardly uses the word, not even applying it to Zayd b. Ali. Furthermore, he does not unconditionally approve any Alid revolt and seems lukewarm towards the group he refers to as Zaydis. Taken together, al-Isfahani's Shi'i conviction is better characterised as moderate love for Ali without impugning the dignity of the caliphs before him.
== Legacy ==
Al-Isfahani authored a number of works, but only a few survive. Three of them are preserved through quotations: al-Qiyan ("The Singing Girls Enslaved by Men"), al-Diyarat ("The Monasteries"), and Mujarrad al-aghani (“The Abridgement of the Book of Songs”). A fragment of the Mujarrad al-aghani is found in Ibn Abi Uṣaybi'a's ʿUyun al-anba' fi tabaqat al-atibbaʾ, which quotes a poem by the caliph, al-Maʾmūn (r. 813–833), which was arranged as a song by Mutayyam. The first two have been reconstructed and published by al-ʿAtiyya, who collected and collateed the passages from later works that quote from al-Isfahani. The former, al-Qiyān, is a collection of the biographies of the enslaved singing girls. In it, al-Isfahani provided the basic information about the biographical subjects, the men who enslaved them, and their interaction with poets, notables such as caliphs, and their admirers, with illustration of their poetic and/or musical talents. The latter, al-Diyārāt, provides information related to monasteries, with the indication of their geographical locations and, sometimes, history and topographical characteristics. However, it is questionable to what extent the reconstructed editions can represent the original texts, since the passages, which quote al-Isfahani as a source for the given subject and are thus included by the editor, seldom identify the titles of the works.
Four works survive in manuscripts and have been edited and published: Maqātil al-Ṭālibīyīn ("The Ṭālibid Martyrs"), Kitab al-Aghani ("The Book of the Songs"), Adab al-ghuraba ("The Etiquettes of the Strangers"), and al-Ima al-shawair ("The Enslaved Women Who Composed Poetry"). As noted above, al-Isfahani's authorship of the Adab al-ghurabaʾ is disputed. The author, whoever he may have been, mentions in the preface his sufferings from the hardship of time and vicissitude of fate, and the solace which he seeks through the stories of bygone people. Hence, he collects in the Adab al-ghuraba the reports about the experiences of strangers; those away from their homes or their beloved ones. Some of the stories centre on the hardship which strangers, anonymous or not, encountered in their journey or exile, usually shown in the epigrams written on monuments, rocks, or walls. Others relate excursions to the monasteries for drinking.
The al-Imāʾ al-shawāʿir was composed at the order of the vizier al-Muhallabī, al-Isfahani's patron, who demanded the collection of the reports about the enslaved women who composed poetry from the Umayyad to the Abbasid periods. Al-Isfahani confesses that he could not find any noteworthy poetess in the Umayyad period, because the people at that time were not impressed with verses featuring tenderness and softness. Thus, he only records the Abbasid poetesses, with mention of the relevant fine verses or the pleasant tales, and arranges them in chronological order. There are 31 sections, addressing 32 poetesses, most of which are short and usually begin with al-Isfahani's summary of the subject.
The Maqātil al-Ṭālibīyīn is a historical-biographical compilation concerning the descendants of Abu Talib, who died by being killed, poisoned to death in a treacherous way, on the run from the rulers’ persecution, or confined until death. The Maqātil literature was rather common, particularly amongst Shi'is, before al-Isfahani and he used many works of this genre as sources for the Maqātil al-Ṭālibīyīn. Al-Isfahani does not explain the motivation behind this compilation nor mention to whom they were dedicated, but according to the preface of this work, he sets out as a condition to recount the reports about the Ṭālibids who were “praiseworthy in their conduct and rightly guided in their belief (maḥmūd al-ṭarīqa wa-sadīd al-madhhab)”.
Like the al-Imāʾ, the work is structured in chronological order, beginning with the first Ṭālibī martyr, Jaʿfar b. Abī Ṭālib, and ends in the year of its compilation, August 925 (Jumādā I 313). For each biographical entry, al-Isfahani gives the full name, the lineage (sometimes adding the maternal side). Less often, he additionally gives the virtues and personal traits of the subject and other material he thinks noteworthy, for example the prophetic ḥadīth about, or transmitted by, the subject of the biography in question. Then, al-Isfahani gives the account of the death which, more often than not, constitutes the end of the entry. Sometimes poetry for or by the subject is attached. The Maqātil was used as a reliable source of information by many Shi'i and non-Shi'i compilers of the following centuries.
The Kitab al-Aghani, al-Isfahanis best known work, is an immense compilation, including songs provided with musical indications (melodic modes and meters of songs), the biographies of poets and musicians of different periods in addition to historical material. As noted above, al-Isfahani embarks on compiling the Aghani first under the command of a patron, whom he calls ra'is (chief), to reconstruct the list of one hundred fine songs, selected by Ishaq b. Ibrahim. Due to an obscure report in Yaqut's Mu'jam, this raʾīs is often assumed to be Sayf al-Dawla al-Ḥamdānī (r. 945–967), but recent studies suggest that a more plausible candidate for the dedication of the Aghani is the vizier al-Muhallabī.
The Aghani is divided into three parts: first, The Hundred Songs (al-mi'a al-ṣawt al-mukhtara) and other song collections; second, the songs of the caliphs and of their children and grandchildren (aghani al-khulafa wa-awladihim wa-awlad awladihim); and third, al-Isfahanis selection of songs. The articles in each part are arranged based on different patterns, but it is mostly the song which introduces the articles on biographies or events. The Kitab al-Aghani is not the first book or collection of songs in Arabic, but it can be asserted that it is the most important one, for it "is a unique mine of information not only on hundreds of song texts with their modes and meters, but also on the lives of their poets and composers, and on the social context of music making in early Islam and at the courts of the caliphs in Damascus and Baghdad". Because of al-Isfahani's pedantic documentation of his sources, the Kitab al-Aghani can also be used to reconstruct earlier books of songs or biographical dictionaries on musicians that are otherwise lost.
As for the works that did not survive, based on their contents, as implied by their titles, they can be divided into the following categories:
The genealogical works: Nasab Bani Abd Shams ("The Genealogy of the Banu Abd Shams"), Jamharat al-nasab ("The Compendium of Genealogies"), Nasab Bani Shayban ("The Genealogy of the Banu Shayban"), and Nasab al-Mahaliba ("The Genealogy of the Muhallabids"), this last probably dedicated to his patron, the vizier al-Muhallabi.
The reports about specified or unspecified topics, such as Kitab al-Khammarin wa-l-khammarat ("The Book of Tavern-Keepers, Male and Female"), Akhbar al-tufayliyin ("Reports about Party Crashers"), al-Akhbar wa-l-nawadir ("The Reports and Rare Tales"), and Ayyam al-arab ("The Battle-Days of the Arabs"), which mentions 1700 days of the pre-Islamic tribal battles and was in circulation only in Andalusia.
The reports about music, musicians and singers: the aforementioned Manajib al-khisyan ("The Noble Eunuchs"), Akhbzr Jahza al-Barmaki ("The Reports concerning Jahza al-Barmaki"), al-Mamalik al-shu'ara ("The Slave Poets"), Adab al-samz ("The Etiquettes of Listening to Music"), and Risala fi 'ilal al-nagham ("The Treatise on the Rules of Tones").
There are two works, only mentioned by al-Tusi: Kitab ma nazala min al-Qur'an fi amir al-mu'minīn wa-ahl baytih 'alayhim al-salam ("The Book about the Qur'anic Verses Revealed regarding the Commander of the Faithful and the People of His Family, Peace upon Them") and Kitab fihi kalam Fatima alayha al-salam fi Fadak ("The Book concerning the Statements of Fāṭima, Peace upon Her, regarding Fadak"). Should the attribution of these two works to al-Isfahani be correct, together with the Maqatil al-Talibiyin, they reveal al-Isfahani's Shi'i partisanship.
===Works===
Al-Isfahani is best known as the author of Kitab al-Aghani ("The Book of Songs"), an encyclopaedia of over 20 volumes and editions. However, he additionally wrote poetry, an anthology of verses on the monasteries of Mesopotamia and Egypt, and a genealogical work. Abu ‘l-Faraj employs the classical Arabic genealogical device, or isnad, (chain of transmission), to relate the biographical accounts of the authors and composers. Although originally the poems were put to music, the musical signs are no longer legible. Abu ‘l-Faraj spent in total 50 years creating this work, which remains an important historical source.
The first printed edition, published in 1868, contained 20 volumes. In 1888 Rudolf Ernst Brünnow published a 21st volume being a collection of biographies not contained in the Bulāq edition, edited from manuscripts in the Royal Library of Munich.
Maqātil aṭ-Ṭālibīyīn (), Tālibid Fights, a collection of more than 200 biographies of the descendants of Abu Talib ibn Abd al-Muttalib, from the time of Muhammad to the writing of the book in 925/6, who died in an unnatural way. As Abul-Faraj said in the foreword to his work, he included only those Tālibids who rebelled against the government and were killed, slaughtered, executed or poisoned, lived underground, fled or died in captivity. The work is a major source for the Umayyad and Abbāsid Alid uprisings and the main source for the Hashimite meeting that took place after the assassination of the Umayyad Caliph al-Walīd II in the village of al-Abwā' between Mecca and Medina. At this meeting, al-'Abdallah made the Hashimites pledge an oath of allegiance to his son Muhammad al-Nafs al-Zakiyya as the new Mahdi.
Kitāb al-Imā'āš-šawā'ir () 'The Book of the Poet-slaves', a collection of accounts of poetic slaves of the Abbasid period.
|
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"Banu Hashim",
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"Zaidiyyah",
"Yaqut al-Hamawi",
"List of Iranian scientists and scholars",
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"Raqqa",
"Islamic calendar",
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"Iran",
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"Samarra"
] |
3,041 |
Acamthocephala
|
Redirect Acanthocephala
|
[
"Acanthocephala"
] |
3,043 |
Alcobaça, Portugal
|
Alcobaça () is a Portuguese city and municipality in the intermunicipal community Oeste and the region Oeste e Vale do Tejo, in the historical province of Estremadura, and in the Leiria District. The city grew along the valleys of the rivers Alcoa and Baça, from which it derives its name. The municipality population in 2011 was 56,693, in an area of . The city proper has a population of 15,800 inhabitants.
The city of Alcobaça became notable after the first king of Portugal, Afonso Henriques, decided to build a church to commemorate the Conquest of Santarém from the Moors in 1147. The church later evolved into the Monastery of Alcobaça, one of the most magnificent Gothic monuments in the country. In the church are the tombs of Pedro I of Portugal and his murdered mistress Inês de Castro. Over the centuries this monastery played an important role in shaping Portuguese culture.
A few kilometers to the north of Alcobaça is the Monastery of Batalha, another Gothic building constructed in memory of a different important battle, that of Aljubarrota. To the west of Alcobaça is the fishing village of Nazaré, now a popular resort town. To the south is the city of Caldas da Rainha and the medieval town of Óbidos. To the northeast is the town of Porto de Mós with its rebuilt castle.
== History ==
Alcobaça became notable in the 12th century, when it was chosen as the future site of Portugal's largest church. In March 1147, the young King Dom Afonso Henriques defeated the Moors by capturing the city of Santarém. As a tribute to his victory, he vowed to build a magnificent home for the Order of Cistercians. It took another 76 years before this task was completed. The monarchy continued to carry out further construction and 60 years later King Dinis built the main cloister. The monastery was consecrated in 1262.
The church contains the tombs of Pedro I of Portugal and his murdered mistress Inês de Castro. Pedro had married Constanza, the Infanta (princess) of Castile, but escaped with his mistress Inês and later lived in the city of Coimbra. His father, King Afonso IV, believing that the family of Inês was a threat to his kingdom, had her murdered. Shortly after the death of his father, Pedro declared that he had married Inês in a prior secret ceremony in Bragança, and took a gruesome revenge on the killers and exhumed her body. He presented the embalmed corpse at the court with a crown on her head and demanded that all his courtiers kneel and individually pay homage to her decomposed hand. Today, their ornate tombs face each other so that on Judgment Day his first sight would be of Inês.
During the following centuries, the monks from this monastery had a major influence on the development of Portuguese culture. Notably, in 1269 they were the first to give public lessons to their congregation, and later they produced the first authoritative history on Portugal in a series of books. In 1810, the invading French pillaged the abbey, taking with them most of its most important treasures, including the noteworthy library. The items that remained were later stolen in 1834 during an anti-clerical riot and the banning of religious orders in Portugal.
==Climate==
Alcobaça has a Mediterranean climate (Köppen:Csb) with warm, dry summers and mild, wet winters.
==Parishes==
Administratively, the municipality is divided into 13 civil parishes (freguesias):
Alcobaça e Vestiaria
Alfeizerão
Aljubarrota
Bárrio
Benedita
Cela
Coz, Alpedriz e Montes
Évora de Alcobaça
Maiorga
Pataias e Martingança
São Martinho do Porto
Turquel
Vimeiro
== City information==
The main feature of the city is essentially the monastery that proudly presents a long and sombre façade with 18th-century embellishments. This austerity is further emphasized in the cloisters with its apt name of "Cloister of Silence". In contrast within the Abbey is the massive kitchen with a running stream specially diverted to pass through as a supply of fresh water. The open area of the kitchen chimney is large enough to take a whole ox for roasting. The surround to the sacristy doorway is an outstanding example of Manueline decoration. In 1794, Lord Beckford visited the Abbey and commented that he found some 300 monks "living in a very splendid manner"!
Alcobaça - panoramio (1).jpg|Alcobaça, panoramio
Alcobaça Praça da República.jpg|Square in Alcobaça
== Nearby locations ==
A few kilometers to the north of Alcobaça is another wondrous building constructed in memory of a different important battle, that of Aljubarrota in 1385, when King John I of Portugal defeated the Castilians and ensuring two hundred years of independence from the Castilian invaders. The construction of the Abbey at Batalha commenced in 1388 and was added to by various Portuguese Kings over these next two centuries. To the east of Batalha is the world-famous location of Fátima and a point of pilgrimage for the Roman Catholic religion due to the vision of the Virgin Mary in 1917 by three young children whilst tending their flock. To the west of Alcobaça is the well-known fishing village of Nazaré. Today, the village is now a small town and a popular holiday resort with most of its past and traditions having rapidly evaporated in the course of time. A very successful Portuguese feature film was made in the early 20th century that dramatically captured the primitive and dangerous life of these fishermen. Stoutly Catholic, the inhabitants have retained some of their past as can be still seen in their own particular style of costume. To the south is Caldas da Rainha and the quaint medieval town of Óbidos that is an attraction for any tourists that enjoys a true glimpse of the past. Also to the south is the town of Porto de Mós with its fanciful rebuilt castle. This town borders the Nature Reserve Parque Natural das Serras de Aire e Candeeiros. These 390 square kilometres of limestone-covered landscape is also known for its caverns. The best known being the Grutas de Mira de Aire can be visited and consists of tunnels, caverns with stalactites, stalagmites, lakes, and a music and light finale.
== Major events ==
Market days – Every Monday
Carnaval de Alcobaça – February/March
Cistermúsica – classical music festival – June / July
Saint Bernard's fair – August 20
Municipal holiday – August 20
Marionetas na Cidade – puppetry festival – mid-October
Saint Simon's fair – 4th week of October
International display of Sweets and Conventual Liqueurs – November
== Notable people from Alcobaça==
Joaquim Ferreira Bogalho (1889–1977) the 20th president of S.L. Benfica
Virgínia Vitorino (1895–1967) a teacher, poet and playwright.
Joaquim Vieira de Natividade, (Wiki PT) (1899–1968) an agricultural engineer
Valdemar José Correia Barbosa Rodrigues, (Wiki PT) (b. 1965) an environmental engineer, ensaist and poet
José Aurélio, (Wiki PT) (born 1938) a sculptor, works in stone, wood and bronze
João Lourenço (born 1942) a former footballer with 207 club caps
Alberto Costa (born 1947) politician, Minister of Justice, 2005–2009.
Nuno Gonçalves, a Portuguese musician, founder of The Gift.
João Traquina (born 1988) a Portuguese footballer with over 350 club caps
João Pedro Silva (born 1989) a Portuguese professional triathlete, competed at the 2012 Summer Olympics
The Gift (formed 1994) a Portuguese alternative rock band
Loto (formed 2002) an electro-pop-rock-dance music band
Spartak! (2006–2008) a musical collective from Alcobaça
JÜRA Popular pop artist based in Lisbon
==International relations==
Alcobaça is twinned with:
Aubergenville, France
Bełchatów, Poland
Cacuaco, Angola
Chicopee, United States
|
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"Virgínia Vitorino",
"Bełchatów",
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"Alcoa River",
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"The Gift (band)"
] |
3,044 |
Amphisbaena
|
The amphisbaena (, , or , plural: amphisbaenae; ) is a mythological, ant-eating serpent with a head at each end. The name of the creature is alternatively written amphisbaina, amphisbene, amphisboena, amphisbona, amphista, amfivena, amphivena, or anphivena (the last two being feminine), and is also known as the "Mother of Ants". Its name comes from the Greek words ', meaning "both ways", and ', meaning "to go".
==Mythology==
According to Lucan, the amphisbaena was spawned from the blood that dripped from the Gorgon Medusa's head as Perseus flew over the Libyan Desert with her head in his hand: in "Pharsalia" (IX, 719), the Roman poet names it along with other serpents that Cato's army encountered in Libya. Amphisbaena fed on the corpses left behind. Although it is a legendary creature, it has been referred to by various Greek and Latin authors, scientists as well as poets: Nicander, Lucan, Pliny the Elder, Isidore of Seville, and later Thomas Browne, the last of whom debunked its existence ( book three chapter XV). Modern poets are John Milton, Alexander Pope, Percy Bysshe Shelley, Alfred Tennyson, Aimé Césaire, A. E. Housman and Allen Mandelbaum.
== Appearance ==
These early descriptions of the amphisbaena depict a venomous, dual-headed snakelike creature. However, medieval and later drawings often show it with two or more scaled feet, particularly chicken feet, and feathered wings. Some even depict it as a horned, dragon-like creature with a serpent-headed tail and small, round ears, while others have both "necks" of equal size so that it cannot be determined which is the rear head. Many descriptions of the amphisbaena say its eyes glow like candles or lightning, but the poet Nicander, the first to speak about it, described it as "always dull of eye". He also wrote: "From either end protrudes a blunt chin; each is far from each other." Nicander's account seems to be referring to a group of real lizards what is today called the Amphisbaenia, after the legendary creature, because their tail truncates in a manner that vaguely resembles the head.
== Habitat ==
The amphisbaena is said to make its home in the desert.
== Folk medicine ==
In ancient times, the supposedly dangerous amphisbaena had many uses in the art of folk medicine and other magical remedies. Pliny notes that expecting women wearing a live amphisbaena around their necks would have safe pregnancies (Naturalis historia XXX, 128); however, if one's goal was to cure ailments such as arthritis or the common cold, one should wear only its skin (Naturalis historia XXX, 85): lumberjacks suffering from cold weather on the job could nail its carcass or skin to a tree to keep warm, while in the process allowing the tree to be felled more easily.
By eating the meat of the amphisbaena, one could supposedly attract many lovers of the opposite sex, and slaying one during the full moon could give power to one who is pure of heart and mind. [primary reference needed]
== Origins ==
In The Book of Beasts, T.H. White suggests that the creature derives from sightings of the worm lizards of the same name. But it is the other way around. These creatures are found in the Mediterranean countries where many of these legends originated.
The Códice Casanatense (), a Portuguese book describing the areas the Portuguese had visited, includes an illustration of the flora and fauna of India. One of the animals shown is a two-headed snake (conjoined twin snakes), with one head on each end, much like an amphisbaena. The image is captioned, "two headed snakes of India are harmless". It is possible a sighting of an animal like this was the origin of the amphisbaena, or that the Greek mythological creature is used, as well as others, to literarily embellish the description of an exotic country.
== In literature and other media ==
In Dante's Inferno, the amphisbaena is listed as one of the types of reptiles that torment thieves in the seventh bolgia.
In John Milton's Paradise Lost, after the Fall and the return of Satan to Hell, some of the fallen angelic host are transformed into the amphisbaena, to represent the animal by which the Fall was caused, i.e. a snake.
Amphisbaena appears in some editions of the tabletop roleplaying game Dungeons & Dragons.
Amphisbaena has appeared in several video games as an enemy or boss monster, including La-Mulana and Bravely Second: End Layer. A creature called Amphisbaena appears in the games Castlevania: Symphony of the Night and Portrait of Ruin but bears little resemblance to other renditions of the creature, appearing as an eyeless 4-legged reptile with the upper body of a human woman sprouting from its long tail instead of a double-headed serpent.
In the 1984 animated film Gallavants, an amphisbaena (called a 'Vanterviper' in the film) appears as a minor antagonist. The two heads, a red one named Edil and a blue one called Fice, frequently disagree and argue, and sing a song about their miserable plight.
The amphisbaena is mentioned in The Last Wish, from The Witcher series by Andrzej Sapkowski, while protagonist Geralt of Rivia recalls past events. The amphisbaena was endangering the region of Kovir until the beast was slain by Geralt's hand.
Amphisbaena is referenced in RWBY, an animated web series created by Monty Oum, in the form of an evil creature called Grimm. Of the different Grimm, the amphisbaena appears to be the King Taijitu, a two-headed snake or serpent. The king's name references the taijitu, a symbol or diagram in Chinese philosophy representing Taiji in both its monist and dualist aspects. The Grimm's coloration visually symbolizes the taijitu, with one head and body section black and the opposite side white.
The amphisbaena appears in the Rise of the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles episode "Battle Nexus: New York." This version is one of the known champions of the Battle Nexus. Big Mama had Michelangelo and Meat Sweats compete to feed each of its heads in order to satisfy the amphisbaena. They managed to work together to pull it off.
Brandon Sanderson's novel Skyward has a character whose name is Arturo Mendez. His call sign is amphisbaena.
In Beyblade has a character named Enrique whose bit beast (ancient spirits contained within spinning tops) named Amphilyon. It takes the form of a medieval amphisbaena with bat wings.
The primary antagonist of Elden Ring: Shadow of the Erdtree, Messmer the Impaler, is conjoined with a winged amphisbaena.
== Use as a Proverb ==
The amphisbaena appears also in the saying "to the amphisbaena, Perseus is good" which can have various meanings depending in the connotation in which it is used. However, one main meaning lies in the connection between Perseus and the creation of the amphisbaena. Though created out of the violent murder of Medusa by Perseus, it shows that the creation will always see the creator in a positive light.
|
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"Malebolge",
"RWBY",
"Dungeons & Dragons",
"Rise of the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles",
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"Cato the Younger",
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"List of Doctor Dolittle characters",
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"A. E. Housman",
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"Ouroboros",
"lumberjacks",
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"full moon",
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"Allen Mandelbaum",
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"medieval",
"Monty Oum",
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"Thomas Browne",
"Claudius Aelianus",
"Gallavants",
"Michelangelo (Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles)",
"taijitu",
"T.H. White",
"Alfred Tennyson",
"Paradise Lost",
"Beyblade",
"common cold",
"The Last Wish (book)"
] |
3,045 |
Amyl alcohol
|
Amyl alcohols are alcohols with the formula C5H11OH. Eight are known. A mixture of amyl alcohols (also called amyl alcohol) can be obtained from fusel alcohol. Amyl alcohol is used as a solvent and in esterification, by which is produced amyl acetate and other products. The name amyl alcohol without further specification applies to the normal (straight-chain) form, 1-pentanol.
Three of these alcohols, 2-methyl-1-butanol, 2-pentanol, and 3-methyl-2-butanol (methyl isopropyl carbinol), contain stereocenters, and are therefore chiral and optically active.
The most important amyl alcohol is isoamyl alcohol, the chief one generated by fermentation in the production of alcoholic beverages and a constituent of fusel oil. The other amyl alcohols may be obtained synthetically.
|
[
"2,2-Dimethylpropan-1-ol",
"ChemSpider",
"fusel oil",
"Pentan-3-ol",
"Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary",
"2-Methylbutan-1-ol",
"isoamyl alcohol",
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"2-Methylbutan-2-ol",
"esterification",
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"Pentan-2-ol",
"1-Pentanol",
"alcohols",
"optical isomerism",
"Systematic name",
"amyl acetate",
"fusel alcohol",
"pentyl"
] |
3,046 |
Amyl nitrite
|
Amyl nitrite is a chemical compound with the formula C5H11ONO. A variety of isomers are known, but they all feature an amyl group attached to the nitrite functional group. The alkyl group (the amyl in this case) is unreactive and the chemical and biological properties are mainly due to the nitrite group. Like other alkyl nitrites, amyl nitrite is bioactive in mammals, being a vasodilator, which is the basis of its use as a prescription medicine. As an inhalant, it also has a psychoactive effect, which has led to its recreational use, with its smell being described as that of old socks or dirty feet.
It was first documented in 1844 and came into medical use in 1867.
==Uses==
Amyl nitrite was historically employed medically to treat heart diseases as well as angina.
Amyl nitrite was sometimes used as an antidote for cyanide poisoning. It was thought to act as an oxidant, to induce the formation of methemoglobin. Methemoglobin in turn can sequester cyanide as cyanomethemoglobin. However, it has been replaced by hydroxocobalamin which had better efficacy, and the use of amyl nitrite has been found to be ineffective and unscientific.
Trace amounts are added to some perfumes.
It is also used recreationally as an inhalant drug that induces a brief euphoric state, and when combined with other intoxicant stimulant drugs such as cocaine or MDMA, the euphoric state intensifies and is prolonged. Once some stimulative drugs wear off, a common side effect is a period of depression or anxiety, colloquially called a "come down"; amyl nitrite is sometimes used to combat these negative after-effects. This effect, combined with its dissociative effects, has led to its use as a recreational drug .
==Nomenclature==
The term "amyl nitrite" encompasses several isomers. In older literature, the common non-systematic name amyl was often used for the pentyl group, where the amyl group is a linear or normal (n) alkyl group, and the resulting amyl nitrite would have the structural formula CH3(CH2)3CH2ONO, also referred to as n-amyl nitrite.
A common form of amyl nitrite is the isomer with the formula (CH3)2CHCH2CH2ONO, which may be more specifically referred to as isoamyl nitrite.
The similarly named amyl nitrate has very different properties. At the same time, isopropyl nitrite has a similar structure and similar uses (also called 'poppers') but with worse side-effects.
Amyl nitrite is sometimes referred to colloquially as banapple gas.
==Synthesis and reactions==
Alkyl nitrites are prepared by the reaction of alcohols with nitrous acid:
ROH + HONO → RONO + H2O, where R = alkyl group
The reaction is called esterification. Synthesis of alkyl nitrites is, in general, straightforward and can be accomplished in home laboratories. A common procedure includes the dropwise addition of concentrated sulfuric acid to a cooled mixture of an aqueous sodium nitrite solution and an alcohol. The intermediately-formed stoichiometric mixture of nitrogen dioxide and nitric oxide then converts the alcohol to the alkyl nitrite, which, due to its low density, will form an upper layer that can be easily decanted from the reaction mixture.
Isoamyl nitrite decomposes in the presence of base to give nitrite salts and the isoamyl alcohol:
C5H11ONO + NaOH → C5H11OH + NaNO2
Amyl nitrite, like other alkyl nitrites, reacts with carbanions to give oximes.
Amyl nitrites are also useful as reagents in a modification of the Sandmeyer reaction. The reaction of the alkyl nitrite with an aromatic amine in a halogenated solvent produces a radical aromatic species, this then frees a halogen atom from the solvent. For the synthesis of aryl iodides diiodomethane is used, whereas bromoform is the solvent of choice for the synthesis of aryl bromides.
==Physiological effects==
Amyl nitrite, in common with other alkyl nitrites, is a potent vasodilator; it expands blood vessels, resulting in lowering of the blood pressure. Amyl nitrite may be used during cardiovascular stress testing in patients with suspected hypertrophic cardiomyopathy to cause vasodilation and thereby reduce afterload and provoke obstruction of blood flow towards the aorta from the ventricle by increasing the pressure gradient, thereby causing left ventricular outflow obstruction. Alkyl nitrites are a source of nitric oxide, which signals for relaxation of the involuntary muscles. Physical effects include decrease in blood pressure, headache, flushing of the face, increased heart rate, dizziness, and relaxation of involuntary muscles, especially the blood vessel walls and the internal and external anal sphincter. There are no withdrawal symptoms. Overdose symptoms include nausea, vomiting, hypotension, hypoventilation, shortness of breath, and fainting. The effects set in very quickly, typically within a few seconds and disappear within a few minutes. Amyl nitrite may also intensify the experience of synesthesia. Amyl nitrite, when given as a medication for patients with angina, can also be administered as an ampule. The ampule is put in a gauze pad and then inhaled by the patient during an angina attack and repeated every fifteen minutes. However, oral dosing of amyl nitrite is ineffective due to poor absorption and extensive hepatic metabolism. Amyl nitrite has been widely replaced by nitroglycerin for the treatment of acute angina.
== Toxicity ==
Although there are case reports of life-threatening toxicity involving unusually large amounts, typical inhaled doses of amyl nitrite are considered relatively safe. However, liquid amyl nitrite is highly toxic when ingested because of the unsafely high concentration it causes in blood. Regardless of the form or route of administration, acute toxicity principally results when the nitrite oxidizes a significant proportion of hemoglobin in the blood without oxygen, forming methemoglobin, which cannot carry oxygen. Severe poisoning cases will progress to methemoglobinemia, characterized by a blue-brown discoloration under the skin which could be mistaken for cyanosis.
The 1978 Derek Jarman film Jubilee features a character named Amyl Nitrate (a misspelled reference to amyl nitrite).
The title of the 1993 song "Animal Nitrate" by English band Suede is a pun on amyl nitrite, referencing its recreational use, although singer Brett Anderson has said the song has more to do with other drugs like ecstasy and cocaine.
In the 1999 film Fight Club, the character Chloe, a terminally ill woman, mentions having a collection of amyl nitrite while openly discussing her unfulfilled desires at a cancer support group.
The punk band Amyl and the Sniffers reference recreational use of amyl nitrite in their name.
The Hunter S. Thompson book Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas sees amyl nitrite as one of the many drugs Raoul Duke packs for the trip to Las Vegas, taking about two dozen ampules of it with him and usually justifying its usage by him and Dr. Gonzo to other people around them by claiming it is for angina.
In Season 1, Episode 9 of Bob's Burgers, "Spaghetti Western and Meatballs", Gene guesses amyl nitrite for the A in the ABS program near the end of the episode.
|
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"pentyl group",
"hydroxocobalamin",
"Suede (band)",
"Brett Anderson"
] |
3,049 |
Autumn
|
Autumn, also known as fall (especially in US & Canada), is one of the four temperate seasons on Earth. Outside the tropics, autumn marks the transition from summer to winter, in September (Northern Hemisphere) or March (Southern Hemisphere). Autumn is the season when the duration of daylight becomes noticeably shorter and the temperature cools considerably. Day length decreases and night length increases as the season progresses until the winter solstice in December (Northern Hemisphere) and June (Southern Hemisphere). One of its main features in temperate climates is the striking change in colour of the leaves of deciduous trees as they prepare to shed.
==Date definitions==
Some cultures regard the autumnal equinox as "mid-autumn", while others with a longer temperature lag treat the equinox as the start of autumn. In the English-speaking world of high latitude countries, autumn traditionally began with Lammas Day and ended around Hallowe'en, the approximate mid-points between midsummer, the autumnal equinox, and midwinter. Meteorologists (and Australia and most of the temperate countries in the southern hemisphere) use a definition based on Gregorian calendar months, with autumn being September, October, and November in the northern hemisphere, and March, April, and May in the southern hemisphere.
In the higher latitude countries in the Northern Hemisphere, autumn traditionally starts with the September equinox (21 to 24 September) and ends with the winter solstice (21 or 22 December). Popular culture in the United States associates Labor Day, the first Monday in September, as the end of summer and the start of autumn. Certain summer traditions, such as wearing white, are discouraged after that date. As daytime and nighttime temperatures decrease, trees change colour and then shed their leaves. Persians celebrate the beginning of the autumn on Mehregan.
Under the traditional East Asian solar term system, autumn starts on or around 8 August and ends on or about 7 November. In Ireland, the autumn months according to the national meteorological service, Met Éireann, are September, October, and November. However, according to the Irish Calendar, which is based on ancient Gaelic traditions, autumn lasts throughout the months of August, September, and October, or possibly a few days later, depending on tradition. In the Irish language, September is known as ("middle of autumn") and October as ("end of autumn"). Late Roman Republic scholar Marcus Terentius Varro defined autumn as lasting from the third day before the Ides of Sextilis (August 11) to the fifth day before the Ides of November (November 9).
==Etymology==
The word autumn () is derived from Latin autumnus, archaic auctumnus, possibly from the ancient Etruscan root autu- and has within it connotations of the passing of the year. Alternative etymologies include ) or ('dry').
After the Greek era, the word continued to be used as the Old French word ( in modern French) or in Middle English, and was later normalised to the original Latin. In the Medieval period, there are rare examples of its use as early as the 12th century, but by the 16th century, it was in common use.
Before the 16th century, harvest was the term usually used to refer to the season, as it is common in other West Germanic languages to this day (cf. Dutch , German , and Scots ). However, as more people gradually moved from working the land to living in towns, the word harvest lost its reference to the time of year and came to refer only to the actual activity of reaping, and autumn, as well as fall, began to replace it as a reference to the season.
The alternative word fall for the season traces its origins to old Germanic languages. The exact derivation is unclear, with the Old English or and the Old Norse all being possible candidates. However, these words all have the meaning "to fall from a height" and are clearly derived either from a common root or from each other. The term came to denote the season in 16th-century England, a contraction of Middle English expressions like "fall of the leaf" and "fall of the year". Compare the origin of spring from "spring of the leaf" and "spring of the year".
During the 17th century, English settlers began emigrating to the new North American colonies, and took the English language with them. While the term fall gradually became nearly obsolete in Britain, it became the more common term in North America.
The name backend, a once common name for the season in Northern England, has today been largely replaced by the name autumn.
==Associations==
===Harvest===
Association with the transition from warm to cold weather, and its related status as the season of the primary harvest, has dominated its themes and popular images. In Western cultures, personifications of autumn are usually pretty, well-fed females adorned with fruits, vegetables and grains that ripen at this time. Many cultures feature autumnal harvest festivals, often the most important on their calendars.
Still-extant echoes of these celebrations are found in the autumn Thanksgiving holiday of the United States and Canada, and the Jewish Sukkot holiday with its roots as a full-moon harvest festival of "tabernacles" (living in outdoor huts around the time of harvest). There are also the many festivals celebrated by indigenous peoples of the Americas tied to the harvest of ripe foods gathered in the wild, the Chinese Mid-Autumn or Moon festival, and many others. The predominant mood of these autumnal celebrations is a gladness for the fruits of the earth mixed with a certain melancholy linked to the imminent arrival of harsh weather.
This view is presented in English poet John Keats' poem To Autumn, where he describes the season as a time of bounteous fecundity, a time of "mellow fruitfulness".
In North America, while most foods are harvested during the autumn, foods usually associated with the season include pumpkins (which are integral parts of both Thanksgiving and Halloween) and apples, which are used to make the seasonal beverage apple cider.
===Melancholia===
Autumn, especially in poetry, has often been associated with melancholia. The possibilities and opportunities of summer are gone, and the chill of winter is on the horizon. Skies turn grey, the amount of usable daylight drops rapidly, and many people turn inward, both physically and mentally. It has been referred to as an unhealthy season.
Similar examples may be found in Irish poet W.B. Yeats' poem The Wild Swans at Coole where the maturing season that the poet observes symbolically represents his own ageing self. Like the natural world that he observes, he too has reached his prime and now must look forward to the inevitability of old age and death. French poet Paul Verlaine's "Chanson d'automne" ("Autumn Song") is likewise characterised by strong, painful feelings of sorrow. Keats' To Autumn, written in September 1819, echoes this sense of melancholic reflection but also emphasises the lush abundance of the season. The song "Autumn Leaves", based on the French song "Les Feuilles mortes", uses the melancholic atmosphere of the season and the end of summer as a metaphor for the mood of being separated from a loved one.
===Halloween===
Autumn is associated with Halloween (influenced by Samhain, a Celtic autumn festival), and with it a widespread marketing campaign that promotes it. The Celtic people also used this time to celebrate the harvest with a time of feasting. At the same time though, it was a celebration of death as well. Crops were harvested, livestock were butchered, and Winter was coming.
Halloween, 31 October, is in autumn in the northern hemisphere. Television, film, book, costume, home decoration, and confectionery businesses use this time of year to promote products closely associated with such a holiday, with promotions going from late August or early September to 31 October, since their themes rapidly lose strength once the holiday ends, and advertising starts concentrating on Christmas.
In the southern hemisphere Halloween takes place in Spring.
===Other associations===
In some parts of the northern hemisphere, autumn has a strong association with the end of summer holiday and the start of a new school year, particularly for children in primary and secondary education. "Back to School" advertising and preparations usually occurs in the weeks leading to the beginning of autumn.
Thanksgiving Day is a national holiday celebrated in Canada, in the United States, in some of the Caribbean islands and in Liberia. Thanksgiving is celebrated on the second Monday of October in Canada, on the fourth Thursday of November in the United States (where it is commonly regarded as the start of the Christmas and holiday season), and around the same part of the year in other places. Similarly named festival holidays occur in Germany and Japan.
Television stations and networks, particularly in North America, traditionally begin their regular seasons in their autumn, with new series and new episodes of existing series debuting mostly during late September or early October (series that debut outside the autumn season are usually known as mid-season replacements). A sweeps period takes place in November to measure Nielsen Ratings.
American football is played almost exclusively in the autumn months; at the high school level, seasons run from late August through early November, with some playoff games and holiday rivalry contests being played as late as Thanksgiving. In many American states, the championship games take place in early December. College football's regular season runs from September through November, while the main professional circuit, the National Football League, plays from September through to early January.
Summer sports, such as association football (in Northern America, East Asia and South Africa), Canadian football, stock car racing, tennis, golf, cricket, and professional baseball, wrap up their seasons in early to late autumn; Major League Baseball's championship World Series is popularly known as the "Fall Classic". (Amateur baseball is usually finished by August.) Likewise, professional winter sports, such as ice hockey and basketball, and most leagues of association football in Europe, are in the early stages of their seasons during autumn; American college basketball and college ice hockey play teams outside their athletic conferences during the late autumn before their in-conference schedules begin in winter.
The Christian religious holidays of All Saints' Day and All Souls' Day are observed in autumn in the Northern hemisphere. Easter falls in autumn in the southern hemisphere.
The secular celebration of International Workers' Day also falls in autumn in the southern hemisphere.
Since 1997, Autumn has been one of the top 100 names for girls in the United States.
In Indian mythology, autumn is considered to be the preferred season for the goddess of learning Saraswati, who is also known by the name of "goddess of autumn" (Sharada).
In Asian mysticism, Autumn is associated with the element of metal, and subsequently with the colour white, the White Tiger of the West, and death and mourning.
==Tourism==
Although colour change in leaves occurs wherever deciduous trees are found, coloured autumn foliage is noted in various regions of the world: most of North America, Eastern Asia (including China, Korea, and Japan), Europe, southeast, south, and part of the midwest of Brazil, the forest of Patagonia, eastern Australia and New Zealand's South Island.
Eastern Canada and New England are famous for their autumnal foliage, and this attracts major tourism (worth billions of US dollars) for the regions.
==Views of autumn==
File:Acer saccharum Equinox Mountain Vermont.jpg|Autumn foliage in Vermont, US
File:Maple Trees by Creek.jpg|Maple leaves changing colour by a creek.
File:Pumpkin-Pie-Whole-Slice.jpg|Pumpkin pie is commonly served on and around Thanksgiving in North America
File:01259 All Saints Day Sanok, 2011.jpg|All Saints' Day at a cemetery in Sanok, Poland—flowers and lit candles are placed to honour the memory of deceased relatives.
File:Autumnleavesfalling-kanagawa-2022Dec5.webm|Falling autumn leaves in Kanagawa, Japan
File:Harvest Straw Bales in Schleswig-Holstein.jpg|Harvest straw bales in a field of Schleswig-Holstein, Germany
File:Pumpkins-2009.jpg|Halloween pumpkins
File:Чарівна мить жовтневого світанку.jpg|Autumn in Sedniv, Ukraine
File:Autumn in Arrowtown, New Zealand.jpg|Autumn colours in Arrowtown, New Zealand
File:Autumn in Spanish park.jpg|Autumn seen in a park in Madrid, Spain
==Allegories of autumn in art==
File:Allegory_of_Autumn_-_sala_di_Prometeo.jpg|Autumn, by Giuseppe Collignon
File:Autumn_Legros_Louvre_MR1981.jpg|Autumn, by Pierre Le Gros the Elder
File:Giuseppe Arcimboldo - Autumn, 1573.jpg|Autumn (1573), by Giuseppe Arcimboldo
File:Alfons_Mucha_-_1896_-_Autumn.jpg|Autumn (1896), by Art Nouveau artist Alphonse Mucha
File:Autumn_LCCN90708855.jpg|Autumn (1871), by Currier & Ives
File:Maxfield_Parrish_-_Autumn_(1905).jpg|This 1905 print by Maxfield Frederick Parrish illustrated John Keats' poem To Autumn
|
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3,052 |
Alameda, California
|
Alameda ( ; ; Spanish for "tree-lined path") is a city in Alameda County, California, United States, located in the East Bay region of the Bay Area. The city is built on an informal archipelago in San Francisco Bay, consisting of Alameda Island, Bay Farm Island and Coast Guard Island, along with other smaller islands. As of the 2020 census, the city's population was 78,280. The area was low-lying and marshy, while higher ground was part of one of the largest coastal oak forests in the world. A local band of the Ohlone tribe inhabited the region for more than 3,000 years. They were present at the time of the arrival of the Spanish in the late 18th century. The Ohlone created numerous oyster shell mounds across the peninsula, some as large as 14 feet tall.
===Spanish and Mexican eras===
Spanish colonists called the area Encinal, meaning "forest of evergreen oak". What is now Alameda, and much of the East Bay was included in the vast Rancho San Antonio granted to Don Luis María Peralta by the Spanish king who claimed California. The grant was later confirmed by the Republic of Mexico after its independence in 1821 from Spain. Over time, the place became known as Bolsa de Encinal or Encinal de San Antonio.
===Early California era===
The city of Alameda was founded on June 6, 1853, following the Mexican–American War of 1848 and the subsequent acquisition of California by the U.S.
The name Alameda is Spanish for "grove of poplar trees" or "tree-lined avenue" and was chosen in 1853 as city's official name by popular vote.
At the time, Alameda comprised three small settlements:
Alameda — a village at Encinal and High streets
Hibbardsville — located at the North Shore ferry and shipping terminal, and
Woodstock — on the west near the ferry piers of the South Pacific Coast and the Central Pacific Railroads. Eventually, the Central Pacific's ferry pier became the Alameda Mole.
The borders of Alameda were expanded to include the entire island in 1872, incorporating Woodstock into Alameda.
The first post office opened in 1854. Encinal's own post office opened in 1876, was renamed West End in 1877, and closed in 1891. marking the first coast to coast transcontinental railroad in North America.
The Croll Building, on the corner of Webster Street and Central Avenue, was the site of Croll's Gardens and Hotel, used as training quarters for some of the most popular fighters in boxing from 1883 to 1914. Jack Johnson and several other champions all stayed and trained here.
The need for expanded shipping facilities and increased flow of current through the estuary led to the dredging of a tidal canal through the marshland between Oakland and Alameda. Construction started in 1874, but it was not completed until 1902, resulting in Alameda becoming an island.
===Modern era===
In 1917, a private entertainment park called Neptune Beach was built in the area now known as Crab Cove, which became a major recreation destination in the 1920s and 1930s. Both the American snow cone and the popsicle were first sold at Neptune Beach. The Kewpie doll became the original prize for winning games of chance at the beach, another Neptune Beach innovation. The park closed down in 1939.
The Alameda Works Shipyard was one of the largest and best-equipped shipyards in the country. Together with other industrial facilities, it became part of the defense industry buildup before and during World War II, which attracted many migrants from other parts of the United States for the high-paying jobs. In the 1950s, Alameda's industrial and shipbuilding industries thrived along the Alameda Estuary.
In the early 21st century, the Port of Oakland, across the estuary, has become one of the largest ports on the West Coast. Its operators use shipping technologies originally experimented within Alameda. As of April 2006, Alameda is a "Coast Guard City", one of six then designated in the country (as of 2025, it is one of 34).
In addition to the regular trains running to the Alameda Mole, Alameda was also served by local steam commuter lines of the Southern Pacific (initially, the Central Pacific). Alameda was the site of the Southern Pacific's West Alameda Shops, where all the electric trains were maintained and repaired. These were later adapted as the East Bay Electric Lines. The trains ran to both the Oakland Mole and the Alameda Mole.
In the 1930s Pan American Airways established a seaplane port along with the fill that led to the Alameda Mole, the original home base for the China Clipper flying boat. In 1929, the University of California established the San Francisco Airdrome located near the current Webster Street tube as a public airport. The Bay Airdrome had its gala christening party in 1930. The Airdrome was closed in 1941 when its air traffic interfered with the newly built Naval Air Station Alameda (NAS Alameda).
In the late 1950s, the Utah Construction Company began a landfill beyond the Old Sea Wall and created South Shore.
On February 7, 1973, a USN Vought A-7E Corsair II fighter jet on a routine training mission from Lemoore Naval Air Station suddenly caught fire above the San Francisco Bay, crashing into the Tahoe Apartments in Alameda. Eleven people including the pilot died in the crash and fire.
==Geography==
Alameda's nickname is "The Island". Today, the city consists of three major sections:
Alameda Island – The main original section created by dredging a channel between Oakland to the north, with the former Naval Air Station Alameda (NAS Alameda) at the west end of Alameda Island, South Shore along the southern side of Alameda Island,
Bay Farm Island – Part of the mainland proper, and attached to Oakland.
Coast Guard Island – A small island between Alameda Island and Oakland, home of Integrated Support Command Alameda.
The area of the former NAS is now known as "Alameda Point." The South Shore area is separated from the main part of Alameda Island by a lagoon; the north shore of the lagoon is located approximately where the original south shore of the island was. Alameda Point, Bay Farm Island, and South Shore are largely built on bay fill.
Not all of Alameda Island is part of the City of Alameda; a small portion of a dump site west of the former runway at Alameda Naval Air Station extends far enough into San Francisco Bay that it is over the county line and therefore part of the City and County of San Francisco. Ballena Isle, an even smaller island, is also part of Alameda.
===Climate===
This region experiences warm (but not hot), dry summers, and cool (but not cold), wet winters. According to the Köppen climate classification system, Alameda has a warm-summer Mediterranean climate, abbreviated "Csb" on climate maps. Annual precipitation is about , all rain (snow is extremely rare at sea level in the San Francisco Bay Area).
=== Hazards ===
The low-lying island has seen sea-level and groundwater level rise threaten its infrastructure and people not just through flooding events, but through the increased liquefaction risk from more saturated soils. The locations of increasing groundwater-induced risks and flooding risks may be most precise in private insurance company maps.
==Demographics==
===2020===
===2010===
The 2010 United States census reported that Alameda had a population of 73,812. (2015 census estimates place the population at 78,630)
The population density was . The racial makeup of Alameda was 37,460 (50.8%) White, 23,058 (31.2%) Asian, 4,759 (6.4%) African American, 426 (0.6%) Native American, 381 (0.5%) Pacific Islander, 2,463 (3.3%) from other races, and 5,265 (7.1%) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 8,092 persons (11.0%).
The Census reported that 72,316 people (98.0% of the population) lived in households, 857 (1.2%) lived in non-institutionalized group quarters, and 639 (0.9%) were institutionalized.
There were 30,123 households, out of which 9,144 (30.4%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 13,440 (44.6%) were opposite-sex married couples living together, 3,623 (12.0%) had a female householder with no husband present, 1,228 (4.1%) had a male householder with no wife present. There were 1,681 (5.6%) unmarried opposite-sex partnerships, and 459 (1.5%) same-sex married couples or same-sex partnerships. 9,347 households (31.0%) were made up of individuals, and 2,874 (9.5%) had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.40. There were 18,291 families (60.7% of all households); the average family size was 3.06.
The age distribution of the population shows 15,304 people (20.7%) under the age of 18, 5,489 people (7.4%) aged 18 to 24, 21,000 people (28.5%) aged 25 to 44, 22,044 people (29.9%) aged 45 to 64, and 9,975 people (13.5%) who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40.7 years. For every 100 females, there were 91.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 88.5 males.
Per capita annual income (in 2013 dollars) in 2009–2013 was $41,340 per the US Census. Median household income in 2009–2013 was $74,606 per the US Census.
There were 32,351 housing units at an average density of , of which 30,123 were occupied, of which 14,488 (48.1%) were owner-occupied, and 15,635 (51.9%) were occupied by renters. The homeowner vacancy rate was 1.1%; the rental vacancy rate was 5.7%. 37,042 people (50.2% of the population) lived in owner-occupied housing units and 35,274 people (47.8%) lived in rental housing units.
===2000===
As of the census of 2000, there were 72,259 people, 30,226 households, and 17,863 families residing in the city. The population density was 2,583.3/km (6,693.4/mi2). There were 31,644 housing units at an average density of 1,131.3/km (2,931.2/mi2). The racial makeup of the city was 56.95% White, 6.21% Black or African American, 0.67% Native American, 26.15% Asian, 0.60% Pacific Islander, 3.29% from other races, and 6.13% from two or more races. 9.31% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.
There were 30,226 households, out of which 27.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 43.7% were married couples living together, 11.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 40.9% were non-families. Of all households, 32.2% were made up of individuals, and 9.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.35 and the average family size was 3.04.
In the city, the age distribution of the population shows 21.5% under the age of 18, 7.0% from 18 to 24, 33.6% from 25 to 44, 24.6% from 45 to 64, and 13.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 38 years. For every 100 females, there were 92.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 89.5 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $56,285, and the median income for a family was $68,625. Males had a median income of $49,174 versus $40,165 for females. The per capita income for the city was $30,982. About 6.0% of families and 8.2% of the population were below the poverty line, including 11.4% of those under age 18 and 6.1% of those age 65 or over.
There is a large Filipino community; and also a major Portuguese community, from which Tom Hanks' mother came and where Lyndsy Fonseca was raised for some time. Alameda also has a historic Japanese American community and had a small Japanese business district on a portion of Park Street before World War II, when the city's Japanese population was interned. A Japanese Buddhist church is one of the few remaining buildings left of Alameda's pre-war Japanese American community.
== Economy ==
Top employers
According to the city's 2020 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, the top employers in the city are:
Naval Air Station Alameda (NAS), decommissioned in 1997, was turned over to the City of Alameda for civilian development, today known as Alameda Point.
A cluster of artisan distilleries, wineries, breweries and tasting rooms along Monarch Street at Alameda Point is now referred to by the City of Alameda as "Spirits Alley". Admiral Maltings also sits in this area, supplying craft brewers and whisky producers, and is the first craft malting house in California.
==Arts and culture==
=== Arts ===
Photo-realist Robert Bechtle has painted numerous Alameda subjects, including Alameda Gran Torino, which was acquired by SFMOMA in 1974 and remains one of Bechtle's most famous works.
===Theaters===
The landmark Alameda Theatre is an Art Deco movie theatre designed by architect Timothy L. Pflueger and opened up in 1932. The city restored and expand it to include a theater multiplex. The public opening was May 21, 2008.
The Altarena Playhouse, which performs comedies, dramas, and musicals, was founded in 1938 and is the longest continuously operating community theater in the San Francisco Bay Area.
Radium is a planned performing arts complex at the former naval air station and has seasonal shows in an outdoor theater.
=== Festivals ===
The Fourth of July parade is advertised as the longest in the United States. It features homemade floats, classic cars, motorized living room furniture, fire-breathing dragons, and marching bands.
There are multiple major events when streets in Alameda's historic downtown district are closed to vehicular traffic. Park Street Art and Wine Faire is the biggest and takes place the last weekend of every July with more than 200 artists and vendors. Seasonal events like the spring and winter markets, as well as themed rum, whiskey and hot cocoa strolls are spread out through the year.
The annual Sand Castle and Sculpture Contest takes place in June at the Robert Crown Memorial State Beach, attracting hundreds of participants. The first contest was held in 1967.
Alameda Point Antiques Faire is held on the first Sunday of every month at the former Naval Air Station runways. It is the largest antiques and collectibles show in Northern California, attracting upwards of 10,000 visitors and featuring 800 dealer booths. The faire specializes in items 20 years or older, including furniture, decorations, clothing, jewelry, art, pottery, books, and collectibles.
=== Museums ===
Alameda Museum – includes exhibits about the history and culture the city with old dioramas, model ships, toys, Native American culture, and Neptune Beach.
Alameda Naval Air Museum – is focused on the history of Naval Air Station Alameda and aviation.
California Historical Radio Society Museum – set in a 125 year old telephone building, the museum covers electronic communication with artifacts from the late 1800’s on display.
Pacific Pinball Museum – an interactive museum/arcade with a chronological and historical selection of rare and early pinball games including a rotating set of more than 100 playable pinball machines ranging in era from the 1940s to present day located on Webster Street.
USS Hornet Museum – a museum ship of the aircraft carrier . It has been moored at the former Naval Air Station as since 1998.
== Government ==
Alameda is a charter city governed by a five-member City Council, including the Mayor, who are all elected at large. The City operates under a council-manager system defined by the City Charter, with a professional City Manager overseeing daily administration. The City Manager is responsible for city operations, budget administration, and implementing council policies, distinguishing Alameda from strong-mayor systems often in bigger cities. The City Attorney and City Clerk report directly to the Council.
The budget for the city is greater than $310 million a year as of the 2023-25 biannual budgets planning cycle. The City Treasurer and City Auditor are independently elected.
Alameda's government is responsible for a range of municipal services, including public safety, transportation, parks, and land use planning. Rare to a city of its size, it operates its own city-wide electricity utility, Alameda Municipal Power, which has 100% clean electricity and as much as a 48% savings over comparable PG&E rates.
===Alameda Free Library===
There are three library locations: the Main Library in downtown Alameda, the Bay Farm Island Library and the West End Library. Beyond books, services at the library include events and author talks, computer labs, home delivery of books, as well as e-book, streaming digital media, and audio book catalogs. Historical resources of Alameda's past include local newspaper and magazine archives, high school yearbooks, books by local authors and maps.
In 2000 voters authorized a bond measure to construct a new main library to replace the city's Carnegie Library, damaged during the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake. The city also received state funds for the new main library and opened the doors to the new facility in November 2006.
== Education ==
Public primary and secondary education in Alameda is the responsibility of the Alameda Unified School District (AUSD), which is legally separate from the City of Alameda government (as is common throughout California). More than 9,000 students are enrolled in the AUSD system across nine elementary, four middle, four high schools. The California Department of Education School Dashboard reports student performance is "green" and above state standards for English, math and college/career preparation.
The College of Alameda, a two-year community college is part of the Peralta Community College District. The city has numerous private primary schools, and one private high school, St. Joseph Notre Dame High School, a Catholic school.
==Media==
The community is currently served by a non-profit online news outlet called the Alameda Post. Additionally, a weekly newspaper section of the East Bay Times, the Alameda Journal, is published by the Bay Area News Group, based in Walnut Creek, CA.
Alameda's first newspaper, the Encinal, appeared in the 1860s. Following the Encinal, several other papers appeared along geographic lines, and the Daily Argus eventually rose to prominence. Around 1900, the Daily Argus began to fade in importance and east and west papers The Times and The Star combined to take the leading role as the Alameda Times-Star in the 1930s. The Times-Star was sold to the Alameda Newspaper Group in the 1970s. In 1997, the Hills Newspaper chain was bought by Knight Ridder. Between 2001 and 2023, the Alameda Sun ran a local weekly print newspaper.
== Transportation ==
Alameda is well connected to the region via road, ferries and nearby rail and air connections.
Vehicle access to Alameda Island is via three bridges from Oakland (Park Street, Fruitvale Avenue, and High Street Bridges), as well as the two one-way Posey and Webster Street Tubes leading into Oakland's Chinatown. Alameda and Bay Farm Islands are connected via the Bay Farm Island Bridge, and the Bay Farm Island Bicycle Bridge (the only pedestrian/bicycle-only drawbridge in the United States).
California State Route 61 runs down city streets from the Posey and Webster Street Tubes, across the Bay Farm Island Bridge, and south to the Oakland Airport. The island is just minutes off Interstate 880 in Oakland. The speed limit for the city is 25 mph (40 km/h) on almost every road.
Transportation options include:
Bus – AC Transit connects the island to Oakland and Berkeley, and express service to downtown San Francisco's Salesforce Transit Center.
Ferry – San Francisco Bay Ferry connects Alameda with San Francisco across four routes; three on the main island's west end Alameda Main St./Oakland Ferry, Alameda Seaplane Lagoon Ferry, Alameda/South San Francisco and from Bay Farm Island via the Alameda Harbor Bay Ferry routes.
Water Shuttle – The Oakland Alameda Water Shuttle is pedestrian/bike boat that connects Alameda Landing and Oakland's Jack London Square runs five days a week for free.
BART and Rail – The closest BART stations are Lake Merritt and 12th Street, near the exit to the Posey Tube, and Fruitvale, near the Fruitvale Bridge. BART's long-term plans for a second tunnel include Alameda as a candidate for the first stop on a new East Bay line. The closest Amtrak rail station is Oakland-Jack London Square.
Air – Oakland International Airport abuts the eastern border of Alameda's Bay Farm Island, and includes passenger, freight and private aircraft flights.
== Notable buildings ==
Alameda City Hall; NRHP-listed
Alameda High School; NRHP-listed
Croll Building; NRHP-listed and a California Historical Landmark
Masonic Temple and Lodge; NRHP-listed, and part of the Park Street Historic Commercial District
John Baker, MLB catcher for San Diego Padres and Chicago Cubs, was born in Alameda.
Clinton Ballou (1923–2021), biochemist, died in Alameda.
Hester A. Benedict (1838–1921), president, Pacific Coast Women's Press Association
Mike Brisiel, an offensive guard for Oakland Raiders.
Virginia Lee Burton, Caldecott-winning children's author and illustrator.
Harold Camping, television and radio personality, president and general manager of Family Stations, Inc.
Phyllis Diller, television comedian, attended Sunday school at First Presbyterian, married and lived in Alameda at the start of her comedy career in San Francisco in the 1950s.
Garrett Eckbo, landscape architect who lived in Alameda as a child, later forming the Bay Area firm of Eckbo, Royston, Williams with Robert Royston and Edward Williams.
Leif Erickson, actor, born in Alameda in 1911.
Larry Eustachy, college basketball coach, born in Alameda.
Debbi Fields, founder of Mrs. Fields Cookies, attended Alameda High School, where she was a cheerleader.
Albert Ghiorso, nuclear scientist, co-discoverer of 12 chemical elements on the periodic table; in Guinness Book of World Records for Most Elements Discovered.
Brad Gillis, guitarist with Night Ranger, a San Francisco rock band formed in the 1980s.
Katharine Graham, the late publisher of The Washington Post, lived in Alameda as a child, according to Personal History, her autobiography.
Tim Hardaway Jr., a professional basketball player, was born in Alameda.
Horace Heidt, bandleader and radio personality, born in Alameda on May 21, 1901.
Emily Heller, comedian
Marielle Heller, actress and director
Bruce Henderson, author, grew up in Alameda, according to his book Hero Found: The Greatest POW Escape of the Vietnam War.
Benjamin Jealous, former President of the NAACP, lived in Alameda.
Joseph R. Knowland, congressman and Alameda native, was editor and publisher of the Oakland Tribune.
William Fife Knowland, U.S. Senator, was student body president at Alameda High School.
Robert L. Lippert, theater chain owner and film producer, was an Alameda native.
Paul Mantz, air racer and Hollywood stunt pilot, was born in Alameda in 1903.
Louis A. McCall Sr., drummer and musician known as the co-founder of Con Funk Shun.
Margaret McNamara, founder of Reading is Fundamental, and wife of Robert McNamara, grew up in Alameda.
George P. Miller, a congressman from 1945 to 1973.
Jack Mingo, author
Hugo Wilhelm Arthur Nahl, designer of the Seal of California.
Don Perata, former President Pro Tempore of California State Senate, lives in Alameda; once taught at Saint Joseph Notre Dame High, Encinal High, and Alameda High, among other Alameda schools.
Emily Browne Powell (1847-1938), writer; president, Pacific Coast Women's Press Association
Carl Ravazza, bandleader, born in Alameda, 1910.
Bill Rigney, Major League Baseball player and manager, was born in Alameda.
Dutch Ruether, pitcher for 1927 New York Yankees, was born in Alameda.
Jane Sibbett, actress and comedian, grew up in Alameda.
Operatic mezzo-soprano Frederica Von Stade has lived in Alameda since 1992.
Sharon Tate, actress, resident in early to late-1960s.
Charles Lee Tilden, for whom Tilden Regional Park is named, was a longtime resident of Alameda; Tilden Way at the southeast end of the city is named for him.
Baseball Hall of Famer Willie Stargell, MLB player Tommy Harper, MLB player Curtell Howard Motton, 2003 National League Rookie of the Year Dontrelle Willis, 2007 National League Most Valuable Player Jimmy Rollins, NBA player J.R. Rider, and NFL players Melvin Carver and Junior Tautalatasi all attended Encinal High School.
Jason Kidd (NBA player and coach) and Joe Nelson (MLB pitcher) attended St. Joseph Notre Dame High School in Alameda.
MLB players Ray French, Johnny Vergez, Andy Carey, Bill Serena, Erik Schullstrom, Dick Bartell, Duffy Lewis, Chris Speier, and Bryan Woo all attended Alameda High School.
Many people from naval families, including celebrities such as Ann Curry, Brigette Lundy-Paine, Tom Hanks, and Jim Morrison of The Doors, have lived in Alameda.
==Sister cities==
The city has four active and formal sister city relations as well as inactive ones.
Dumaguete, Philippines (2015)
Jiangyin, China (2008)
Varazze, Italy (2019)
Yeongdong-gun, South Korea (2017)
===Friendship city===
Wuxi, China
A Friendship city since 2004, because the diplomacy organization Sister Cities International does not recognize the relationship.
=== Inactive cities ===
Arita, Japan
Lidingö, Sweden
Initiated in 1959 as part of President Eisenhower's people-to-people-movement, whose purpose was to develop better understanding among people from different countries after World War II. Both Alameda and Lidingö are islands with a bridge connecting them to a big city.
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"Non-Hispanic or Latino African Americans",
"Chinatown, Oakland",
"Native Americans in the United States",
"Non-Hispanic or Latino whites",
"St. Joseph Notre Dame High School",
"Tilden Regional Park",
"Charles Lee Tilden",
"The Washington Post",
"Dutch Ruether",
"San Francisco and Alameda Railroad",
"Emily Heller",
"Alaska Native",
"1989 Loma Prieta earthquake",
"Alameda Terminal",
"Area codes 510 and 341",
"Virginia Lee Burton",
"Asian Americans",
"Alameda Municipal Power",
"Paul Mantz",
"Luis María Peralta",
"Mike Brisiel",
"Croll Building",
"12th Street Oakland City Center station",
"List of ships built in Alameda, California",
"African Americans",
"Joseph R. Knowland",
"aircraft carrier",
"Bryan Woo",
"Jason Kidd",
"Albert Arents",
"Alameda Harbor Bay Ferry",
"IMDb",
"Horace Heidt",
"New York Yankees",
"Ann Curry",
"The New York Times",
"Art Deco",
"Jimmy Rollins",
"United States Census Bureau",
"Salesforce Transit Center",
"National Football League",
"Lyndsy Fonseca",
"Alameda Theatre",
"Harold Camping",
"Con Funk Shun",
"model ship",
"Jim Morrison",
"SFGATE",
"National Basketball Association",
"Wuxi",
"Louis A. McCall Sr.",
"Abandoned & Little-Known Airfields",
"J.R. Rider",
"Pacific Coast Women's Press Association",
"Hester A. Benedict",
"Municipal corporation"
] |
3,054 |
Alpha helix
|
An alpha helix (or α-helix) is a sequence of amino acids in a protein that are twisted into a coil (a helix).
The alpha helix is the most common structural arrangement in the secondary structure of proteins. It is also the most extreme type of local structure, and it is the local structure that is most easily predicted from a sequence of amino acids.
The alpha helix has a right-handed helix conformation in which every backbone N−H group hydrogen bonds to the backbone C=O group of the amino acid that is four residues earlier in the protein sequence.
== Other names ==
The alpha helix is also commonly called a:
Pauling–Corey–Branson α-helix (from the names of three scientists who described its structure)
3.613-helix because there are 3.6 amino acids in one ring, with 13 atoms being involved in the ring formed by the hydrogen bond (starting with amidic hydrogen and ending with carbonyl oxygen)
== Discovery ==
In the early 1930s, William Astbury showed that there were drastic changes in the X-ray fiber diffraction of moist wool or hair fibers upon significant stretching. The data suggested that the unstretched fibers had a coiled molecular structure with a characteristic repeat of ≈.
Astbury initially proposed a linked-chain structure for the fibers. He later joined other researchers (notably the American chemist Maurice Huggins) in proposing that:
the unstretched protein molecules formed a helix (which he called the α-form)
the stretching caused the helix to uncoil, forming an extended state (which he called the β-form).
Although incorrect in their details, Astbury's models of these forms were correct in essence and correspond to modern elements of secondary structure, the α-helix and the β-strand (Astbury's nomenclature was kept), which were developed by Linus Pauling, Robert Corey and Herman Branson in 1951 (see below); that paper showed both right- and left-handed helices, although in 1960 the crystal structure of myoglobin showed that the right-handed form is the common one. Hans Neurath was the first to show that Astbury's models could not be correct in detail, because they involved clashes of atoms. Neurath's paper and Astbury's data inspired H. S. Taylor, Maurice Huggins and Bragg and collaborators to propose models of keratin that somewhat resemble the modern α-helix.
Two key developments in the modeling of the modern α-helix were: the correct bond geometry, thanks to the crystal structure determinations of amino acids and peptides and Pauling's prediction of planar peptide bonds; and his relinquishing of the assumption of an integral number of residues per turn of the helix. The pivotal moment came in the early spring of 1948, when Pauling caught a cold and went to bed. Being bored, he drew a polypeptide chain of roughly correct dimensions on a strip of paper and folded it into a helix, being careful to maintain the planar peptide bonds. After a few attempts, he produced a model with physically plausible hydrogen bonds. Pauling then worked with Corey and Branson to confirm his model before publication. In 1954, Pauling was awarded his first Nobel Prize "for his research into the nature of the chemical bond and its application to the elucidation of the structure of complex substances" (such as proteins), prominently including the structure of the α-helix.
== Structure ==
=== Geometry and hydrogen bonding ===
The amino acids in an α-helix are arranged in a right-handed helical structure where each amino acid residue corresponds to a 100° turn in the helix (i.e., the helix has 3.6 residues per turn), and a translation of along the helical axis. Dunitz describes how Pauling's first article on the theme in fact shows a left-handed helix, the enantiomer of the true structure. Short pieces of left-handed helix sometimes occur with a large content of achiral glycine amino acids, but are unfavorable for the other normal, biological -amino acids. The pitch of the alpha-helix (the vertical distance between consecutive turns of the helix) is , which is the product of 1.5 and 3.6. The most important thing is that the N-H group of one amino acid forms a hydrogen bond with the C=O group of the amino acid four residues earlier; this repeated i + 4 → i hydrogen bonding is the most prominent characteristic of an α-helix. Official international nomenclature specifies two ways of defining α-helices, rule 6.2 in terms of repeating φ, ψ torsion angles (see below) and rule 6.3 in terms of the combined pattern of pitch and hydrogen bonding. The α-helices can be identified in protein structure using several computational methods, such as DSSP (Define Secondary Structure of Protein).
Similar structures include the 310 helix (i + 3 → i hydrogen bonding) and the π-helix (i + 5 → i hydrogen bonding). The α-helix can be described as a 3.613 helix, since the i + 4 spacing adds three more atoms to the H-bonded loop compared to the tighter 310 helix, and on average, 3.6 amino acids are involved in one ring of α-helix. The subscripts refer to the number of atoms (including the hydrogen) in the closed loop formed by the hydrogen bond.
Residues in α-helices typically adopt backbone (φ, ψ) dihedral angles around (−60°, −45°), as shown in the image at right. In more general terms, they adopt dihedral angles such that the ψ dihedral angle of one residue and the φ dihedral angle of the next residue sum to roughly −105°. As a consequence, α-helical dihedral angles, in general, fall on a diagonal stripe on the Ramachandran diagram (of slope −1), ranging from (−90°, −15°) to (−70°, −35°). For comparison, the sum of the dihedral angles for a 310 helix is roughly −75°, whereas that for the π-helix is roughly −130°. The general formula for the rotation angle Ω per residue of any polypeptide helix with trans isomers is given by the equation
The α-helix is tightly packed; there is almost no free space within the helix. The amino-acid side-chains are on the outside of the helix, and point roughly "downward" (i.e., toward the N-terminus), like the branches of an evergreen tree (Christmas tree effect). This directionality is sometimes used in preliminary, low-resolution electron-density maps to determine the direction of the protein backbone.
=== Stability ===
Helices observed in proteins can range from four to over forty residues long, but a typical helix contains about ten amino acids (about three turns). In general, short polypeptides do not exhibit much α-helical structure in solution, since the entropic cost associated with the folding of the polypeptide chain is not compensated for by a sufficient amount of stabilizing interactions. In general, the backbone hydrogen bonds of α-helices are considered slightly weaker than those found in β-sheets, and are readily attacked by the ambient water molecules. However, in more hydrophobic environments such as the plasma membrane, or in the presence of co-solvents such as trifluoroethanol (TFE), or isolated from solvent in the gas phase, oligopeptides readily adopt stable α-helical structure. Furthermore, crosslinks can be incorporated into peptides to conformationally stabilize helical folds. Crosslinks stabilize the helical state by entropically destabilizing the unfolded state and by removing enthalpically stabilized "decoy" folds that compete with the fully helical state. It has been shown that α-helices are more stable, robust to mutations and designable than β-strands in natural proteins, and also in artificially designed proteins.
=== Visualization ===
The three most popular ways of visualizing the alpha-helical secondary structure of oligopeptide sequences are (1) a helical wheel, (2) a wenxiang diagram, and (3) a helical net. Each of these can be visualized with various software packages and web servers. To generate a small number of diagrams, Heliquest can be used for helical wheels, and NetWheels can be used for helical wheels and helical nets. To programmatically generate a large number of diagrams, helixvis can be used to draw helical wheels and wenxiang diagrams in the R and Python programming languages.
== Experimental determination ==
Since the α-helix is defined by its hydrogen bonds and backbone conformation, the most detailed experimental evidence for α-helical structure comes from atomic-resolution X-ray crystallography such as the example shown at right. It is clear that all the backbone carbonyl oxygens point downward (toward the C-terminus) but splay out slightly, and the H-bonds are approximately parallel to the helix axis. Protein structures from NMR spectroscopy also show helices well, with characteristic observations of nuclear Overhauser effect (NOE) couplings between atoms on adjacent helical turns. In some cases, the individual hydrogen bonds can be observed directly as a small scalar coupling in NMR.
There are several lower-resolution methods for assigning general helical structure. The NMR chemical shifts (in particular of the Cα, Cβ and C′) and residual dipolar couplings are often characteristic of helices. The far-UV (170–250 nm) circular dichroism spectrum of helices is also idiosyncratic, exhibiting a pronounced double minimum at around 208 and 222 nm. Infrared spectroscopy is rarely used, since the α-helical spectrum resembles that of a random coil (although these might be discerned by, e.g., hydrogen-deuterium exchange). Finally, cryo electron microscopy is now capable of discerning individual α-helices within a protein, although their assignment to residues is still an active area of research.
Long homopolymers of amino acids often form helices if soluble. Such long, isolated helices can also be detected by other methods, such as dielectric relaxation, flow birefringence, and measurements of the diffusion constant. In stricter terms, these methods detect only the characteristic prolate (long cigar-like) hydrodynamic shape of a helix, or its large dipole moment.
== Amino-acid propensities ==
Different amino-acid sequences have different propensities for forming α-helical structure. Alanine, uncharged glutamate, leucine, charged arginine, methionine and charged lysine have especially high helix-forming propensities, whereas proline and glycine have poor helix-forming propensities. Proline either breaks or kinks a helix, both because it cannot donate an amide hydrogen bond (because it has none) and because its sidechain interferes sterically with the backbone of the preceding turn inside a helix, which forces a bend of about 30° in the helix's axis.
!rowspan=2| Amino acid
!rowspan=2 class="unsortable"| 3-letter
!rowspan=2 class="unsortable"| 1-letter
!colspan=2| Helical penalty
|-
!kcal/mol
!kJ/mol
|-
| Alanine
| Ala
| A
|
|-
| Arginine
| Arg
| R
|
|-
| Asparagine
| Asn
| N
|
|-
| Aspartic acid
| Asp
| D
|
|-
| Cysteine
| Cys
| C
|
|-
| Glutamic acid
| Glu
| E
|
|-
| Glutamine
| Gln
| Q
|
|-
| Glycine
| Gly
| G
|
|-
| Histidine
| His
| H
|
|-
| Isoleucine
| Ile
| I
|
|-
| Leucine
| Leu
| L
|
|-
| Lysine
| Lys
| K
|
|-
| Methionine
| Met
| M
|
|-
| Phenylalanine
| Phe
| F
|
|-
| Proline
| Pro
| P
|
|-
| Serine
| Ser
| S
|
|-
| Threonine
| Thr
| T
|
|-
| Tryptophan
| Trp
| W
|
|-
| Tyrosine
| Tyr
| Y
|
|-
| Valine
| Val
| V
|
|}
== Dipole moment ==
A helix has an overall dipole moment due to the aggregate effect of the individual microdipoles from the carbonyl groups of the peptide bond pointing along the helix axis. The effects of this macrodipole are a matter of some controversy. α-helices often occur with the N-terminal end bound by a negatively charged group, sometimes an amino acid side chain such as glutamate or aspartate, or sometimes a phosphate ion. Some regard the helix macrodipole as interacting electrostatically with such groups. Others feel that this is misleading and it is more realistic to say that the hydrogen bond potential of the free NH groups at the N-terminus of an α-helix can be satisfied by hydrogen bonding; this can also be regarded as set of interactions between local microdipoles such as .
== Coiled coils ==
Coiled-coil α helices are highly stable forms in which two or more helices wrap around each other in a "supercoil" structure. Coiled coils contain a highly characteristic sequence motif known as a heptad repeat, in which the motif repeats itself every seven residues along the sequence (amino acid residues, not DNA base-pairs). The first and especially the fourth residues (known as the a and d positions) are almost always hydrophobic; the fourth residue is typically leucine this gives rise to the name of the structural motif called a leucine zipper, which is a type of coiled-coil. These hydrophobic residues pack together in the interior of the helix bundle. In general, the fifth and seventh residues (the e and g positions) have opposing charges and form a salt bridge stabilized by electrostatic interactions. Fibrous proteins such as keratin or the "stalks" of myosin or kinesin often adopt coiled-coil structures, as do several dimerizing proteins. A pair of coiled-coils a four-helix bundle is a very common structural motif in proteins. For example, it occurs in human growth hormone and several varieties of cytochrome. The Rop protein, which promotes plasmid replication in bacteria, is an interesting case in which a single polypeptide forms a coiled-coil and two monomers assemble to form a four-helix bundle.
== Facial arrangements ==
The amino acids that make up a particular helix can be plotted on a helical wheel, a representation that illustrates the orientations of the constituent amino acids (see the article for leucine zipper for such a diagram). Often in globular proteins, as well as in specialized structures such as coiled-coils and leucine zippers, an α-helix will exhibit two "faces" one containing predominantly hydrophobic amino acids oriented toward the interior of the protein, in the hydrophobic core, and one containing predominantly polar amino acids oriented toward the solvent-exposed surface of the protein.
Changes in binding orientation also occur for facially-organized oligopeptides. This pattern is especially common in antimicrobial peptides, and many models have been devised to describe how this relates to their function. Common to many of them is that the hydrophobic face of the antimicrobial peptide forms pores in the plasma membrane after associating with the fatty chains at the membrane core.
== Larger-scale assemblies ==
Myoglobin and hemoglobin, the first two proteins whose structures were solved by X-ray crystallography, have very similar folds made up of about 70% α-helix, with the rest being non-repetitive regions, or "loops" that connect the helices. In classifying proteins by their dominant fold, the Structural Classification of Proteins database maintains a large category specifically for all-α proteins.
Hemoglobin then has an even larger-scale quaternary structure, in which the functional oxygen-binding molecule is made up of four subunits.
== Functional roles ==
=== DNA binding ===
α-Helices have particular significance in DNA binding motifs, including helix-turn-helix motifs, leucine zipper motifs and zinc finger motifs. This is because of the convenient structural fact that the diameter of an α-helix is about including an average set of sidechains, about the same as the width of the major groove in B-form DNA, and also because coiled-coil (or leucine zipper) dimers of helices can readily position a pair of interaction surfaces to contact the sort of symmetrical repeat common in double-helical DNA. An example of both aspects is the transcription factor Max (see image at left), which uses a helical coiled coil to dimerize, positioning another pair of helices for interaction in two successive turns of the DNA major groove.
=== Membrane spanning ===
α-Helices are also the most common protein structure element that crosses biological membranes (transmembrane protein), presumably because the helical structure can satisfy all backbone hydrogen-bonds internally, leaving no polar groups exposed to the membrane if the sidechains are hydrophobic. Proteins are sometimes anchored by a single membrane-spanning helix, sometimes by a pair, and sometimes by a helix bundle, most classically consisting of seven helices arranged up-and-down in a ring such as for rhodopsins (see image at right) and other G protein–coupled receptors (GPCRs). The structural stability between pairs of α-Helical transmembrane domains rely on conserved membrane interhelical packing motifs, for example, the Glycine-xxx-Glycine (or small-xxx-small) motif.
=== Mechanical properties ===
α-Helices under axial tensile deformation, a characteristic loading condition that appears in many alpha-helix-rich filaments and tissues, results in a characteristic three-phase behavior of stiff-soft-stiff tangent modulus. Phase I corresponds to the small-deformation regime during which the helix is stretched homogeneously, followed by phase II, in which alpha-helical turns break mediated by the rupture of groups of H-bonds. Phase III is typically associated with large-deformation covalent bond stretching.
== Dynamical features ==
Alpha-helices in proteins may have low-frequency accordion-like motion as observed by the Raman spectroscopy and analyzed via the quasi-continuum model. Helices not stabilized by tertiary interactions show dynamic behavior, which can be mainly attributed to helix fraying from the ends.
== Helix–coil transition ==
Homopolymers of amino acids (such as polylysine) can adopt α-helical structure at low temperature that is "melted out" at high temperatures. This helix–coil transition was once thought to be analogous to protein denaturation. The statistical mechanics of this transition can be modeled using an elegant transfer matrix method, characterized by two parameters: the propensity to initiate a helix and the propensity to extend a helix.
== In art ==
At least five artists have made explicit reference to the α-helix in their work: Julie Newdoll in painting and Julian Voss-Andreae, Bathsheba Grossman, Byron Rubin, and Mike Tyka in sculpture.
San Francisco area artist Julie Newdoll, who holds a degree in microbiology with a minor in art, has specialized in paintings inspired by microscopic images and molecules since 1990. Her painting "Rise of the Alpha Helix" (2003) features human figures arranged in an α helical arrangement. According to the artist, "the flowers reflect the various types of sidechains that each amino acid holds out to the world". based on protein structure with the α-helix being one of his preferred objects. Voss-Andreae has made α-helix sculptures from diverse materials including bamboo and whole trees. A monument Voss-Andreae created in 2004 to celebrate the memory of Linus Pauling, the discoverer of the α-helix, is fashioned from a large steel beam rearranged in the structure of the α-helix. The , bright-red sculpture stands in front of Pauling's childhood home in Portland, Oregon.
Ribbon diagrams of α-helices are a prominent element in the laser-etched crystal sculptures of protein structures created by artist Bathsheba Grossman, such as those of insulin, hemoglobin, and DNA polymerase. Byron Rubin is a former protein crystallographer now professional sculptor in metal of proteins, nucleic acids, and drug molecules many of which featuring α-helices, such as subtilisin, human growth hormone, and phospholipase A2.
Mike Tyka is a computational biochemist at the University of Washington working with David Baker. Tyka has been making sculptures of protein molecules since 2010 from copper and steel, including ubiquitin and a potassium channel tetramer.
|
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"protein dimer",
"Ribbon diagrams",
"residue (biochemistry)",
"hydrogen bonds",
"Phenylalanine",
"hydrophobic",
"myosin",
"helical wheel",
"fiber diffraction",
"hydrogen bond",
"Alanine",
"structural motif",
"Proline",
"Raman spectroscopy",
"heptad repeat",
"dihedral angle",
"methionine",
"Gibbs free energy",
"Glycine",
"Linus Pauling",
"Histidine",
"Myoglobin",
"Glutamic acid",
"transmembrane protein",
"rhodopsin",
"amine",
"Prolate spheroid",
"Aspartic acid",
"polylysine",
"transcription factor",
"G protein–coupled receptor",
"chemical shift",
"helix bundle",
"MAX (gene)",
"University of Washington",
"Folding (chemistry)",
"Ramachandran diagram",
"aspartate",
"atom",
"310 helix",
"potassium channel",
"Screw thread",
"residual dipolar coupling",
"Fibrous protein",
"quaternary structure",
"Kilojoule per mole",
"nuclear Overhauser effect",
"Threonine",
"Protein secondary structure",
"William Astbury",
"Rop protein",
"kinesin",
"solvent",
"Herman Branson",
"globular protein",
"amino acids",
"transfer matrix",
"Portland, Oregon",
"Maurice Loyal Huggins",
"DNA",
"Secondary structure",
"Cysteine",
"DSSP (algorithm)",
"Molecular dipole moment",
"X-ray crystallography",
"William Lawrence Bragg",
"leucine zipper",
"Tyrosine",
"Tryptophan",
"protein",
"antimicrobial peptides",
"hemoglobin",
"CRC Press",
"Lysine",
"Knobs into holes packing",
"keratin",
"glycine",
"hydrogen-deuterium exchange",
"Hugh Stott Taylor",
"Isoleucine",
"polypeptide",
"Glutamine",
"arginine",
"coiled-coil",
"Julian Voss-Andreae",
"N-terminus",
"low-frequency collective motion in proteins and DNA",
"kcal/mol",
"cytochrome",
"diffusion constant",
"Denaturation (biochemistry)",
"Protein Data Bank",
"dielectric relaxation",
"Pi helix",
"Methionine",
"phospholipase A2",
"proline",
"amino acid",
"myoglobin",
"beta sheet",
"protein NMR",
"Infrared",
"Arginine",
"Kilocalorie per mole",
"Christmas tree",
"X-ray",
"crystallography",
"trifluoroethanol",
"insulin",
"flow birefringence",
"DNA polymerase",
"ubiquitin",
"statistical mechanics",
"glutamate",
"Bathsheba Grossman",
"Serine",
"electron microscopy",
"polarity (chemistry)",
"helix",
"Hans Neurath",
"sequence motif",
"carbonyl",
"Asparagine",
"secondary structure",
"lysine",
"circular dichroism",
"peptide",
"peptide bond",
"cellular membrane",
"entropy",
"alanine",
"Valine",
"Robert Corey",
"growth hormone",
"zinc finger",
"human growth hormone",
"amino",
"leucine",
"Leucine",
"Coiled coil",
"David Baker (biochemist)",
"Beta sheet",
"Davydov soliton",
"electrostatic",
"subtilisin",
"random coil",
"hydrophobic core",
"helix-turn-helix"
] |
3,055 |
Accrington
|
Accrington is a town in the Hyndburn borough of Lancashire, England. It lies about east of Blackburn, west of Burnley, east of Preston, north of Manchester and is situated on the culverted River Hyndburn. Commonly abbreviated by locals to "Accy", the town has a population of 35,456 according to the 2011 census. Accrington is the largest settlement and the seat of the Hyndburn borough council.
Accrington is a former centre of the cotton and textile machinery industries. The town is famed for manufacturing the hardest and densest building bricks in the world, "The Accrington NORI" (iron), which were used in the construction of the Empire State Building and for the foundations of Blackpool Tower and the Haworth Art Gallery which holds Europe's largest collection of Tiffany glass. The club is home to EFL club Accrington Stanley. The town played a part in the founding of the football league system, with a defunct club(Accrington F.C.) being one of the twelve original clubs of the English Football League.
==History==
===Etymology===
The name "Accrington" likely has Anglo-Saxon origins. The earliest known recording of the name is found in the Parish of Whalley records from 850, where it is written as "Akeringastun". In subsequent records, the name appears in various forms, including "Akarinton" in 1194, "Akerunton", "Akerinton", and "Akerynton" in 1258, "Acrinton" in 1292, "Ackryngton" in 1311, and "Acryngton" in 1324. The name may derive from the Old English words "æcern", meaning "acorn", and "tun", meaning "farmstead" or "village", thus possibly meaning "acorn farmstead". However, some sources argue that this interpretation is not definitive and that alternative explanations may exist.
New Accrington, the southern part of the town, was historically part of the Forest of Blackburnshire. The area's abundance of oak trees can be inferred from local place names such as Broad Oak and Oak Hill. Acorns, a product of oak trees, were once a crucial food source for swine, which may have led to the naming of a farmstead after this resource. In the Lancashire dialect, "acorn" is pronounced "akran", which might have influenced the name's development.
No known Old English personal name corresponds to the first element in "Accrington". Nevertheless, the Frisian names "Akkrum" and "Akkeringa", as well as the Dutch name "Akkerghem", are believed to derive from the personal name "Akker". This finding suggests the possibility of a related Old English name from which "Accrington" could have originated. who seems to have founded Waddington, Paddington (Padiham) and Akeringastun (Accrington). Descendants of the Wada held much of the lands until the sixteenth century. In 1442, the Waddingtons' hold leases on Berefeld (Bellfield), and in 1517 it is recorded that Thomas Waddington transferred the lands Scaytcliff (Scaitcliffe) and Peneworth (Pennyworth) to Nicholas Rishton and to his Son Geoffrey.
Accrington covers two townships which were established in 1507 following disafforestation; those of Old Accrington and New Accrington; which were merged in 1878 with the incorporation of the borough council. The William Yates map of The county Palatine of Lancaster printed in 1786 shows Old Accrington included the area of Oaklea and also the intersection of the Winburn River (now the River Hyndburn) and Warmden Brook. New Accrington included the area of Green Haworth and Broadfield. There have been settlements there since the medieval period, likely in the Grange Lane and Black Abbey area, and the King's Highway which passes above the town was at one time used by the kings and queens of England when they used the area for hunting when the Forest of Accrington was one of the four forests of the hundred of Blackburnshire.
Robert de Lacy gave the manor of Accrington to the monks of Kirkstall in the 12th century. The monks built a grange there; removing the inhabitants to make room for it. The locals got their revenge by setting fire to the new building, destroying its contents and in the process killing the three lay brothers who occupied it. with the population increasing from 3,266 in 1811 to 10,376 in 1851 to 43,211 in 1901
This fast population growth and slow response from the established church allowed non-conformism to flourish in the town. By the mid-19th century, there were Wesleyan, Primitive Methodist, United Free Methodist, Congregationalist, Baptist, Swedenborgian, Unitarian, Roman Catholic and Catholic Apostolic churches in the town.
In 1842 'plug riots' a general strike spread from town to town due to conditions in the town. In a population of 9,000 people as few as 100 were fully employed. From 15 August 1842 the situation boiled over and bands of men entered the mills which were running and stopped the machinery by knocking out the boiler plugs. This allowed the water and steam to escape shutting down the mill machinery. Thousands of strikers walked over the hills from one town to another to persuade people to join the strike in civil disturbances that lasted about a week. The strike was associated with the Chartist movement but eventually proved unsuccessful in its aims.
In the early 1860s the Lancashire cotton famine badly affected Accrington, although less so than the wider area due to its more diverse economy, with as many as half of the town's mill employees out of work at one time.
Conditions were such that a Local Board of Health was constituted in 1853 and the town itself incorporated in 1878 allowing the enforcement of local laws to improve the town.
The Pals' first day of action, 1 July 1916, took place in Serre, near Montauban in the north of France. It was part of the 'Big Push' (later known as the Battle of the Somme) that was intended to force the German Army into a retreat from the Western Front, a line they had held since late 1914. The German defences in Serre were supposed to have been obliterated by sustained, heavy, British shelling during the preceding week; however, as the battalion advanced it met with fierce resistance. 235 men were killed and a further 350 wounded – more than half of the battalion – within half an hour. Similarly, desperate losses were suffered elsewhere on the front, in a disastrous day for the British Army (approximately 19,000 British soldiers were killed in a single day).
Later in the year, the East Lancashire Regiment was rebuilt with new volunteers – in all, 865 Accrington men were killed during World War I. All of these names are recorded on a war memorial, an imposing white stone cenotaph, which stands in Oak Hill Park in the south of the town. The cenotaph also lists the names of 173 local fatalities from World War II. The trenches from which the Accrington Pals advanced on 1 July 1916 are still visible in John Copse west of the village of Serre, and there is a memorial there made of Accrington brick.
After the war and until 1986, Accrington Corporation buses were painted in the regimental colours of red and blue with gold lining. The mudguards were painted black as a sign of mourning.
==Demography==
The 2001 census gave the population of Accrington town as 35,200. The figure for the urban area was 71,220, increased from 70,442 in 1991. This total includes Accrington, Church, Clayton-le-Moors, Great Harwood and Oswaldtwistle.
The 2011 census gave a population of 35,456 for the Accrington built-up area subdivision (which includes Huncoat, Baxenden and Rising Bridge in Rossendale) and a population of 125,000 for the wider Accrington/Rossendale Built-up area. The area in 2001 was listed as , whereas in 2011 it was . This includes Accrington Urban Area and other outlying towns and villages such as; Altham, Rishton, part of Belthorn, and Knuzden and Whitebirk (considered suburbs of Blackburn).
==Economy==
Historically, cotton and textile machinery were important industries in Accrington, with many mills and factories operating in the town during the 19th and early 20th centuries. The town was renowned for its production of cotton cloth, and several of its mills became famous for their high-quality fabrics, including the Victoria and Jubilee mills. However, like many other towns in Lancashire, the decline of the cotton industry in the mid-20th century led to a significant reduction in manufacturing activity in Accrington.
One notable industrial product associated with Accrington is NORI bricks, a type of iron-hard engineering brick that was produced in nearby Huncoat. The NORI brickworks were established in the 1860s, and their products were widely used in the construction of mills, factories, and other industrial buildings throughout the north of England, as well as Blackpool Tower and the Empire State Building. The brickworks closed in 2013 due to declining demand, but reopened in 2015 after being acquired by a local businessman.
Today, the town's economy is more diverse, with a range of businesses and services operating in the area. Many of the old mill and factory buildings have been repurposed as offices, workshops, and other facilities, providing space for a variety of enterprises. The town also has a number of retail and commercial areas, including the Arndale Centre and the Peel Centre, which are home to a range of shops, restaurants, and other businesses.
Accrington power station was a coal and refuse-fired electricity generating station that operated on Argyle Street adjacent to the gasworks between 1900 and 1958. The power station supplied electricity to Accrington, Haslingden, and the Altham and Clayton-le-Moors areas. The site is now a residential area.
In recent years, the town has seen investment in new development projects, including the £60 million "Civic Quarter" regeneration scheme, which aims to revitalize the town center and create new jobs and opportunities for local people. The project includes the construction of a new public square, a state-of-the-art leisure center, and new office and retail spaces, as well as the refurbishment of existing buildings.
In addition to its commercial and industrial activities, Accrington is also home to a number of cultural and recreational amenities. The town has a rich sporting heritage, with Accrington Stanley Football Club, founded in 1968, representing the town in the English Football League. The town also has a strong tradition of brass band music, with several local bands competing at regional and national level. Other cultural attractions in the town include the Haworth Art Gallery, which houses a collection of British art and decorative arts, and the Accrington Market Hall, which runs events and activities.
===Poverty, regeneration and investment===
Some areas of Accrington have high levels of poverty and deprivation. In one area of the town in 2020, 77% of children were living in poverty. The Accrington Town Centre Investment Plan 2022-2032 states "Accrington has severe pockets of deprivation – particularly around employment, income and living environment - which has been getting worse during the last 20 years".
The council has a regeneration plan in place, which will, according to the council, boost the local economy. The plan is to upgrade old shops and to build a bus station. A memorial for the Accrington Pals may be built outside the town hall.
The Hyndburn Borough Council plans to spend £10 million to refurbish the town centre, including:
Revitalising the town square to attract visitors. The bus station was completed during and officially opened on 11 July 2016. The new station was criticised by traders as the old station was closer and easier to get to.
Half of Blackburn Road is being refurbished and is now being made into a more attractive shopping street, upgrading shops, adding more trees, and repaving the pavements.
As of 2014, two new phases were being built: the first one called the Acorn Park, where new houses were being built with balconies and greener spaces, and Project Phoenix, which will also include new housing.
==Geography==
Accrington is a hill town located at between the Pennines and the West Pennine Moors, within a bowl and largely encircled by surrounding hills to rising to a height of in the case of Hameldon Hill to the east. The River Hyndburn or Accrington Brook flows through the centre of the town. Hill settlements origins were as the economic foci of the district engaging in the spinning and weaving of woollen cloth. Wool, lead and coal were other local industries.
Geographical coordinates: 53° 46' 0" North, 2° 21' 0" West. Height above sea level: there is a spot height outside the Market Hall which is the benchmark on the side of the neighbouring Town Hall is . The highest height in the town is which is in Baxenden and the lowest at the town hall which is at . Accrington is lowering in elevation travelling northwards towards the Hyndburn. North of the river the elevation rises again, crossing over the watershed between Hyndburn and River Calder, both eventually leading into River Ribble via separate routes. The Hyndburn district further north eventually falls to the modest elevation of the Calder river banks.
==Transport==
===Railway===
Accrington railway station, located on the East Lancashire Line, provides strong local travel links. The station runs trains locally and from Blackpool to York. However, recent changes to the train timetables have increased the journey time to Preston by up to 1.5 hours, a vital link to London or Scotland. In 2015, a train service to Manchester via the Todmorden Curve opened, providing a new rail link south to Manchester.
===Roads===
The town is served by junction seven of the M65 motorway and the A680 road, which runs from Rochdale to Whalley. The town is also linked from the A56 dual carriageway which briefly merges with the A680, connecting to the M66 motorway heading towards Manchester. The closest airports are Manchester Airport, Blackpool Airport, and Leeds Bradford Airport, all within 30 miles. Regular bus services connect Accrington to other towns in East Lancashire, including Blackburn, Oswaldtwistle, Rishton, Burnley, and Clitheroe. M&M Coaches provided services in the area until the company ceased business suddenly on 21 September 2016.
===Cycleways and footpaths===
The trackbed from Accrington to Baxenden, which was once a rail link south to Manchester, is now a linear treelined cycleway/footpath. The cycleway/footpath is a popular route for cycling and walking, offering views
==Public services==
Accrington Library, on St James Street was built in 1908 as a Carnegie library. It has a stained glass window by Gustav Hiller and was a place of inspiration for the young Jeanette Winterson.
Near the Tesco supermarket, there is Accrington Skate Park which is popular during the school holidays. On Broadway, Accrington Police Station serves the Borough of Hyndburn. In April 2003, Hyndburn Community Fire Station opened, also serving the Borough of Hyndburn.
==Police services==
The town is served by the Lancashire Constabulary Police station on Broadway after moving into town from its previous location on Manchester Road as an effort to save money due to rising expenses and decreasing funding by the government. Crime is very low in Accrington compared to nearby towns.
Policing of the Railway station and railway-owned properties are served by the British Transport Police, nearest post in Preston.
==Social==
===Governance===
Accrington is represented in parliament as a part of the constituency of Hyndburn. The constituency boundaries do not align exactly with those of the district of the same name.
Accrington was first represented nationally after the Redistribution of Seats Act 1885 after the 1885 general election by Accrington (UK Parliament constituency). This seat was abolished in the 1983 general election and replaced with the present constituency of Hyndburn (UK Parliament constituency).
Accrington became incorporated as a municipal borough in 1878. Under the Local Government Act 1972, since 1974, the town has formed part of the larger Borough of Hyndburn including the former Urban Districts of Oswaldtwistle, Church, Clayton-le-Moors, Great Harwood and Rishton.
Hyndburn consists of 16 wards, electing a total of 35 councillors. Due to its size Accrington is represented by a number of wards in the Borough of Hyndburn. The town largely consists of the Milnshaw, Peel, Central, Barnfield and Spring Hill wards, although some parts of those wards are in other towns in the borough.
===Health===
The local hospital is Accrington Victoria Hospital however, as it only deals with minor issues, Accident and Emergency is provided by the Royal Blackburn Hospital. Other services are provided at the Accrington Pals Primary Health Care Centre and the Accrington Acorn Primary Health Care Centre.
==Media==
Local radio stations are BBC Radio Lancashire on 95.5 FM, Heart North West on 96.9 FM, Smooth North West on 100.4 FM, Greatest Hits Radio Lancashire on 96.5 FM, Capital Manchester and Lancashire (formerly 2BR) on 99.8 FM, and Central Radio North West.
Local news and television programmes are provided by BBC North West and ITV Granada. Television signals are received from the Winter Hill TV transmitter and one of the three local relay transmitters (Woodnook, Pendle Forest and Haslingden).
The town is served by the local newspaper, Accrington Observer, which publishes on Fridays, and by the Lancashire Post and Lancashire Telegraph.
==Accrington dialect==
The dialect spoken in Accrington is part of the broader Lancashire dialect, which belongs to the larger category of Northern English dialects. This dialect has its roots in the Old English and Middle English languages, with influences from Old Norse due to the Viking invasions in the region. Features of the Accrington dialect include pronunciations, vocabulary, and grammatical structures that distinguish it from other dialects in the Lancashire region.
Vocabulary specific to the Accrington dialect may include words such as "ginnel" (a narrow passage between buildings) or "snap" (referring to a packed lunch or a meal taken to work).
In terms of grammar, the Accrington dialect may exhibit features common to other Northern English dialects, such as the use of "thee" and "thou" for "you" and "were" instead of "was" in certain contexts. Additionally, the Accrington dialect might display non-standard verb conjugations and a preference for certain sentence structures or word order.
The Accrington dialect, like many local dialects, is subject to change and variation over time due to factors such as increased mobility, urbanization, and exposure to other dialects and languages. This may lead to a gradual loss or modification of certain dialect features and an increased convergence with more standardised forms of English.
===History of Accrington dialect===
The history of the Accrington dialect is intertwined with the broader history of the Lancashire dialect, as well as the linguistic influences that have shaped the region over time. Although specific information about the Accrington dialect's history is limited, it is reasonable to assume that it has been impacted by similar historical events and linguistic developments as the wider Lancashire area.
====Influence of Old English and Middle English====
The Accrington dialect has its roots in the Old English and Middle English languages that were spoken in England during the early and late medieval periods, respectively.
Mither - A verb meaning to bother or annoy someone, or to be fussy or worried about something.
=== Industry and occupation-related terminology ===
Tackler - A term referring to a skilled worker responsible for setting up and maintaining looms in the textile industry, which was used in Accrington during the 19th and early 20th centuries.
=== Landscape and geography-related vocabulary ===
Clough - A term used in Accrington and other parts of Lancashire to describe a steep-sided, wooded valley or ravine, as in the case of Woodnook Clough.
Brook - A small stream or watercourse, such as the Hyndburn Brook, which runs through Accrington.
== Ancient customs and traditions of Accrington ==
Accrington, as a historic town, has been home to several ancient customs and traditions that have shaped its local culture and identity. While some of these customs may no longer be practised, they offer valuable insights into the town's past.
=== Rush-Bearing Festival ===
One of the most notable ancient customs in Accrington was the rush-bearing festival. This annual event involved the gathering of rushes from nearby marshlands and meadows to be used as fresh flooring material in local churches. The rushes were then transported to the churches in decorative carts or wagons, accompanied by a festive procession, music, and dancing. This event was once widespread across Lancashire and the North of England, but its prevalence in Accrington is particularly noteworthy.
=== Wakes Week ===
Another significant custom in Accrington was Wakes Week, a holiday period that took place in the town and surrounding areas. Typically, it occurred during the summer months and lasted for one week. During this time, local mills and factories closed, allowing workers to enjoy a much-needed break from their labor-intensive occupations. Wakes Week often featured various festivities, such as fairs, carnivals, and other communal events, which brought the community together in celebration.
=== Local sports and games ===
In the past, Accrington was known for hosting traditional sports and games, which were enjoyed by the local community. Some of these sports included football, cricket, and quoits. These games not only provided entertainment but also fostered a sense of community spirit and camaraderie.
==Sport==
===Football team===
Accrington Stanley F.C., entered the Football League in 1921 with the formation of the old Third Division (North); after haunting the lower reaches of English football for forty years, they eventually resigned from the League in 1962, due to financial problems, and folded in 1965. The club was reformed three years later and then worked its way through the non-league divisions to reach the Nationwide Conference in 2003. In the 2005–06 season, Stanley, after winning against Woking with three matches to spare, secured a place back in the Football League and the town celebrated with a small parade and honours placed on senior executives of the team. One of the teams relegated— and thus being replaced by Stanley—were Oxford United, who was voted into the Football League to replace the previous Accrington Stanley. The football stadium is called the Crown Ground. Until the 2012–13 season, when Fleetwood Town entered the league, Accrington was the smallest town in England and Wales with a Football League club.
Accrington Stanley Football Club has had its own pub in the town, the Crown, since July 2007.
====Team history====
An earlier club, Accrington F.C., was one of the twelve founder members of the Football League in 1888. However, their time in league football was even less successful and considerably briefer than that of Accrington Stanley: they dropped out of the league in 1893 and folded shortly afterwards due to financial problems. The town of Accrington thus has the unique "distinction" of having lost two separate clubs from league football. Accrington Stanley F.C. are currently placed in EFL League Two after being relegated from EFL League One in the 2022/23 season, having finished 23rd.
===Cricket===
Accrington Cricket Club plays at Thorneyholme Road in the Lancashire League. Cricket is also played in parks. Schools nearby have shown major interest in cricket and have held cricket training and tournaments.
===Other sports===
There are two sports centres, the main one being the Hyndburn Sports Centre, which recently renovated its swimming pool area and is situated near Lidl.
==Education==
Accrington has the following primary schools:
St Mary's RC Primary School, Clayton le Moors
Hyndburn Park Primary School,
Peel Park Primary School,
Sacred Heart Primary School,
Benjamin Hargreaves CE Primary School,
Springhill County Primary School,
Accrington Huncoat Primary School,
St Johns and St Augustines CE Primary School,
St Mary Magdalen's CE Primary School,
St Nicholas' CE Primary School,
Woodnook Primary School,
St James CE Primary School, Altham,
St Johns CE Primary School, Baxenden,
All Saints CE Primary School,
Mount Pleasant Primary School,
Green Haworth CE Primary School,
Stonefold CE Primary School,
St Peters CE Primary School.
St Mary's RC Primary School, Oswaldtwistle.
St Anne's and St Joseph's RC Primary School
St Oswald's RC Primary School
Hippings Methodist Primary School Oswaldtwistle
St Andrews CoE Primary School Oswaldtwistle
St Oswalds CoE Primary School Knuzden
West End Primary School Oswaldtwistle
Moor End Community Primary School Oswaldtwistle
St Paul's CoE Primary School Oswaldtwistle
The secondary schools serving Accrington are:
Accrington Academy
Heathland School
The Hollins
The Hyndburn Academy
Mount Carmel Roman Catholic High School
Rhyddings
St Christopher's Church of England High School
The college in the town centre is Accrington and Rossendale College; nearby universities include University Centre at Blackburn College, and the University of Central Lancashire in Preston.
==Landmarks==
===Haworth Art Gallery===
The Haworth Art Gallery is an art museum located in Accrington, Lancashire, England. The gallery is housed in a Tudor-style mansion, originally known as Hollins Hill, which was built in 1909 by William Haworth, a local cotton manufacturer. Upon his death in 1913, William Haworth bequeathed the mansion and its surrounding parkland to the people of Accrington. The gallery opened in 1921.
The Haworth Art Gallery holds the largest public collection of Tiffany glass in Europe, known as the Tiffany Glass Collection. The collection was donated by Joseph Briggs, an Accrington native who worked for the famous American artist and designer Louis Comfort Tiffany. In addition to the Tiffany Glass Collection, the gallery holds a range of artwork, including 19th and 20th-century oil paintings, watercolours, prints, and sculptures.
The Haworth Art Gallery also holds temporary exhibitions showing contemporary art by local and national artists.
===The Viaduct===
The Viaduct is a bridge which has a railway line on it, it goes through the town and has many storage units and shop on sale by National Rail. The Viaduct ends at the Accrington Eco Station.
===Town Hall===
Accrington Town Hall was built in memory of Sir Robert Peel and opened as the Peel Institute in 1858; it is also listed.
===The Arcade===
The Arcade is a Victorian shopping centre with about 10-15 shops and restaurants.
===Oak Hill Park===
Oak Hill Park is a large and old park with a view of Accrington. It has won awards, such as the Green Flag Award in 2024-25. It has also been awarded an Eco Award. It is on Manchester Road.
===Haworth Park===
Haworth Park can be accessed from Manchester Road and is off Hollins Lane at the top of Harcourt Road. The Park was originally William Haworth's private residence. The Haworth Art Gallery holds the Tiffany Glass collection.
==The Coppice and Peel Park==
Peel Park is a green space in the centre of Accrington. The park was opened by William Peel on 29 September 1909 and was originally called the Corporation Park. The park was renamed in honour of William Peel, the grandson of Sir Robert Peel, in recognition of his service as a Liberal MP for the town. The park covers an area of approximately 18 acres and includes a wide range of features, including a lake, flower gardens, a bandstand, and a bowling green.
The Coppice is a hill in the park, and provides a 2.2-mile scenic walk around the park, offering visitors views of the surrounding area. The Coppice has been part of the park since it was first opened, and there have been refurbishments to the paths and monuments at the top of the hill over the years.
In 2009, the people of Accrington celebrated the centenary of the Coppice being handed over to the town. The occasion was marked with a series of events and activities, including a refurbishment of the paths and monument at the top of the hill. Since then, there have been several revamps to the playground area of the park.
Events and festivals are held in the park throughout the year, including the annual Accrington Food and Drink Festival, which takes place in the summer.
== Early landowners==
This section outlines the contributions of landowning families, including the de Lacy, Walmsley, Peel, Hargreaves and Haworth families, to the development of Accrington.
=== De Lacy family ===
The de Lacy family were the first recorded landowners in Accrington, instrumental in the town's establishment as a regional center for agriculture and trade.
=== Walmsley family ===
The Walmsley family acquired the manor of Accrington in the 16th century and owned several mills, contributing to the expansion of Accrington's textile industry.
=== Peel family ===
The Peel family were key figures in the 18th and 19th centuries, with Sir Robert Peel, 1st Baronet, establishing textile mills in the area, significantly boosting Accrington's economy.
=== Hargreaves family ===
The Hargreaves family built the Broad Oak Print Works in 1778, which became one of the largest textile printing establishments in the region.
=== Haworth family ===
The Haworth family were prominent landowners in Accrington, with James Haworth establishing Haworth Mill in the early 1800s. The family's investments in local industry contributed to the town's economic development.
=== Peel, Yates and Co. ===
Peel, Yates and Co. was a partnership between the Peel family and the Yates family. The Peel family, led by Robert Peel (1750–1830), and the Yates family, led by William Yates (1769–1849), established Peel, Yates and Co. in 1795. The company owned and operated several cotton mills in Accrington, including the Woodnook Mill, which employed around 800 people during its peak operation.
=== Duckworth family ===
The Duckworth family were landowners and industrialists in Accrington during the 19th century. They invested in the local textile industry, owning several mills, such as the Broad Oak Mill and the Spring Hill Mill. The Duckworth family's mills employed hundreds of workers.
=== Birtwistle family ===
The Birtwistle family were involved in the cotton industry in Accrington, owning and operating cotton mills during the 19th century.
=== Holden family ===
The Holden family contributed to Accrington's development through their involvement in various industries, such as coal mining and brick manufacturing. The family-owned Accrington Brick and Tile Company, established by Joseph Holden
==Notable residents==
Alan Ramsbottom, professional cyclist
Andy Hargreaves, academic
Andy Kanavan, rock drummer with Dire Straits and Level 9 was born in the town
Jenny (Jane) Kenney, sister of suffragette Annie Kenney who taught at Montessori school in the 1900s
Anthony Rushton, tech entrepreneur
Barry Stanton (actor), actor for RSC and films such as The Madness of King George
David Lloyd, cricketer, now a pundit for Sky Sports
Diana Vickers, singer-songwriter, stage actress and fashion designer
Edward Ormerod, mining engineer and inventor of the Ormerod safety link for use in coal mines
Sir Frank Kenyon Roberts, British Ambassador to Yugoslavia (1954-57), the Soviet Union (1960-62) and the Federal Republic of Germany (1962-68); Permanent Representative to NATO (1957-60).
Frederick Higginbottom, journalist and newspaper editor
Graeme Fowler, cricketer, former England batsman, cricket coach and occasional pundit on BBC Radio's Test Match Special
Harrison Birtwistle, composer
Hollie Steel, Britain's Got Talent finalist of 2009
Jeanette Winterson, author; Oranges Are Not the Only Fruit is an account of her childhood in the town
John Rex Whinfield, chemist, inventor of Terylene (polyester), the first completely synthetic fibre invented in UK
John Virtue, artist
Jon Anderson, singer with rock band Yes, was born in the town
Jonathan Slinger, RADA trained actor
Julie Hesmondhalgh, actor, Hayley Cropper in the TV Soap Coronation Street
Mick O'Shea, author and scriptwriter
Mike Duxbury, footballer, was born in the town
Mystic Meg, astrologer, was born in the town as Margaret Anne Lake in 1942
Netherwood Hughes, World War I veteran, died in 2009, aged 108
Nicholas Freeston (1907–1978), Award-winning Lancashire poet
Pauline Aitken, artist
Paul Manning, undercover police officer and whistleblower
Reece Bibby, member of Stereo Kicks and 2014 finalist of The X Factor. Now a member of the band New Hope Club
Ron Hill, long-distance and marathon runner
Thomas Birtwistle, trade unionist
Vicky Entwistle, actor, Janice Battersby in the TV Soap Coronation Street
William Macrorie bishop of Maritzburg
Stephen Heys, footballer
Val Robinson, footballer and field hockey player
|
[
"Accrington F.C.",
"Heart North West",
"Winter Hill transmitting station",
"Andy Hargreaves (academic)",
"Accident and Emergency",
"Reece Bibby",
"The Hyndburn Academy",
"Carnegie library",
"Harrison Birtwistle",
"Stephen Heys",
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"Accrington railway station",
"Green Flag Award",
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"Ron Hill",
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"Monastic grange",
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"Netherwood Hughes",
"Accrington Academy",
"Chartism",
"Hollie Steel",
"Accrington Stanley F.C.",
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"Blackburn College (Blackburn with Darwen)",
"Royal Academy of Dramatic Art",
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"Redistribution of Seats Act 1885",
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"106.5 Central Radio",
"Accrington (UK Parliament constituency)",
"de Lacy",
"Graeme Fowler",
"Yes (band)",
"The New Church (Swedenborgian)",
"stained glass",
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"Mick O'Shea",
"Annie Kenney",
"Frederick Higginbottom",
"National Rail",
"The Madness of King George",
"Hundred (administrative division)",
"Industrial Revolution",
"Waddington (surname)",
"Hayley Cropper",
"Fleetwood Town F.C.",
"Thomas Birtwistle",
"Barry Stanton (actor)",
"Oswaldtwistle",
"Lancashire League (cricket)",
"Smooth North West",
"Robert Peel",
"Paul Manning (police officer, born 1973)",
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"culvert",
"World War I",
"Robert de Lacy",
"Preston, Lancashire",
"Serre-lès-Puisieux",
"Poverty in the United Kingdom",
"Tesco",
"Pauline Aitken",
"River Hyndburn",
"Rhyddings",
"Public house",
"ITV Granada",
"Football Conference",
"Manorialism",
"Julie Hesmondhalgh",
"Diana Vickers",
"Terylene",
"Whitebirk",
"Mystic Meg",
"University of Central Lancashire",
"dye",
"EFL League One",
"Lancashire cotton famine",
"Battle of the Somme (1916)",
"Royal forest",
"William Macrorie",
"cenotaph",
"Hyndburn (UK Parliament constituency)",
"Empire State Building",
"Andy Kanavan",
"Capital Manchester and Lancashire",
"Mike Duxbury",
"Montauban-de-Picardie",
"Tiffany glass",
"Britain's Got Talent",
"First day on the Somme",
"Hameldon Hill",
"drainage divide",
"John Virtue",
"Oranges Are Not the Only Fruit",
"2011 United Kingdom census",
"BBC Radio Lancashire",
"Accrington Observer",
"English Football League",
"municipal borough",
"1885 United Kingdom general election",
"Stereo Kicks",
"Kirkstall Abbey",
"spot height",
"1842 General Strike",
"Pals battalion",
"German Army (German Empire)",
"Manchester",
"Accrington Library",
"Rishton",
"Clayton-le-Moors",
"magistrates' court",
"Lancashire Post",
"Edward Ormerod",
"The Hollins",
"Western Front (World War I)",
"Urban district (England and Wales)",
"East Lancashire Regiment",
"Church, Lancashire",
"Accrington/Rossendale Built-up area",
"Jonathan Slinger",
"Horatio Kitchener, 1st Earl Kitchener of Khartoum",
"Burnley",
"World War II",
"Baxenden",
"Lancashire Telegraph",
"Greatest Hits Radio Lancashire",
"Accrington and Rossendale College",
"Vicky Entwistle",
"West Pennine Moors",
"Borough of Rossendale",
"2BR",
"battalion",
"Lidl",
"Listed buildings in Accrington",
"Val Robinson (field hockey)",
"River Ribble",
"Mount Carmel Roman Catholic High School",
"River Calder, Lancashire",
"Alan Ramsbottom",
"Accrington brick",
"Cotton mills",
"Haworth Art Gallery",
"Chorley",
"Township (England)",
"The X Factor (UK TV series)",
"Third Division (North)",
"Blackburn",
"Altham, Lancashire",
"BBC North West",
"Local Government Act 1972",
"hospital",
"secondary school",
"Nonconformist (Protestantism)",
"Lancashire",
"Football League",
"Woking F.C.",
"Pennines",
"Jeanette Winterson",
"Thorneyholme Road",
"Accrington Pals",
"New Hope Club",
"Coronation Street",
"primary school",
"Dire Straits",
"Janice Battersby",
"general strike",
"Level 9 (band)",
"Jenny (Jane) Kenney",
"Blackburnshire",
"Jon Anderson",
"Oxford United F.C.",
"North West England",
"Sky Sports",
"Benchmark (surveying)",
"Heathland School",
"Church of England",
"David Lloyd (cricketer)",
"St Christopher's Church of England High School, Accrington"
] |
3,058 |
Armageddon
|
According to the Book of Revelation in the New Testament of the Christian Bible, Armageddon ( ; ; ; from ) is the prophesied location of a gathering of armies for a battle during the end times, which is variously interpreted as either a literal or a symbolic location. The term is also used in a generic sense to refer to any end-of-the-world scenario. In Islamic theology, Armageddon is also mentioned in Hadith as the Greatest Armageddon or Al-Malhama Al-Kubra (the great battle).
The "mount" of Megiddo in northern Israel is not actually a mountain, but a tell (a mound or hill created by many generations of people living and rebuilding at the same spot) on which ancient forts were built to guard the Via Maris, an ancient trade route linking Egypt with the northern empires of Syria, Anatolia and Mesopotamia. Megiddo was the location of various ancient battles, including one in the 15th century BC and one in 609 BC. The nearby modern Megiddo is a kibbutz in the Kishon River area.
==Etymology==
The word Armageddon appears only once in the Greek New Testament, in Revelation 16:16. The word is a Greek transliteration of the Hebrew har məgīddō (). Har means "a mountain" or "a range of hills". This is a shortened form of harar meaning "to loom up; a mountain". Məgīddō refers to a fortification made by King Ahab that dominated the Plain of Jezreel. Its name means "place of crowds".
Adam Clarke wrote in his Bible commentary (1817) on Revelation 16:16:Armageddon – The original of this word has been variously formed, and variously translated. It is har-megiddon, "the mount of the assembly;" or chormah gedehon, "the destruction of their army;" or it is har-megiddo, "Mount Megiddo."
==Christianity==
Megiddo is mentioned twelve times in the Old Testament, ten times in reference to the ancient city of Megiddo, and twice with reference to "the plain of Megiddo", most probably simply meaning "the plain next to the city". None of these Old Testament passages describes the city of Megiddo as being associated with any particular prophetic beliefs. The one New Testament reference to the city of Armageddon found in makes no specific mention of any armies being predicted to one day gather in this city, either, but instead seems to predict only that "they (will gather) the kings together to ... Armageddon". The text does however seem to imply, based on the text from the earlier passage of Revelation 16:14, that the purpose of this gathering of kings in the "place called Armageddon" is "for the war of the great day of God, the Almighty". Because of the seemingly highly symbolic and even cryptic language of this one New Testament passage, some Christian scholars conclude that Mount Armageddon must be an idealized location. R. J. Rushdoony says, "There are no mountains of Megiddo, only the Plains of Megiddo. This is a deliberate destruction of the vision of any literal reference to the place." Other scholars, including C. C. Torrey, Kline and Jordan, argue that the word is derived from the Hebrew moed (), meaning "assembly". Thus, "Armageddon" would mean "Mountain of Assembly", which Jordan says is "a reference to the assembly at Mount Sinai, and to its replacement, Mount Zion". 'Armageddon' is the symbolic name given to this event based on scripture references regarding divine obliteration of God's enemies. The hermeneutical method supports this position by referencing Judges 4 and 5 where God miraculously destroys the enemy of their elect, Israel, at Megiddo.
Christian scholar William Hendriksen writes:
===Dispensationalism===
In his discussion of Armageddon, J. Dwight Pentecost has devoted a chapter to the subject, "The Campaign of Armageddon", in which he discusses it as a campaign and not a specific battle, which will be fought in the Middle East. Pentecost writes:
Pentecost then discusses the location of this campaign, and mentions the "hill of Megiddo" and other geographic locations such as "the valley of Jehoshaphat" and "the valley of the passengers", "Lord coming from Edom or Idumea, south of Jerusalem, when he returns from the judgment"; and Jerusalem itself.
Pentecost further describes the area involved:
Pentecost then outlines the biblical time period for this campaign to occur and with further arguments concludes that it must take place with the 70th week of Daniel. The invasion of Israel by the Northern Confederacy "will bring the Beast and his armies to the defense of Israel as her protector". He then uses Daniel to further clarify his thinking.
Again, events are listed by Pentecost in his book:
"The movement of the campaign begins when the King of the South moves against the Beast–False Prophet coalition, which takes place 'at the time of the end'."
The King of the South gets in battle with the North King and the Northern Confederacy. Jerusalem is destroyed as a result of this attack, and, in turn, the armies of the Northern Confederacy are destroyed.
"The full armies of the Beast move into Israel and shall conquer all that territory. Edom, Moab, and Ammon alone escape."
"... a report that causes alarm is brought to the Beast"
"The Beast moves his headquarters into the land of Israel and assembles his armies there."
"It is there that his destruction will come."
After the destruction of the Beast at the Second Coming of Jesus, the promised Kingdom is set up, in which Jesus and the saints will rule for a thousand years. Satan is then loosed "for a season" and goes out to deceive the nations, specifically Gog and Magog. The army mentioned attacks the saints in the New Jerusalem, they are defeated by a judgment of fire coming down from heaven, and then comes the Great White Throne judgment, which includes all of those through the ages and these are cast into the Lake of Fire, which event is also known as the "second death" and Gehenna, not to be confused with Hell, which is Satan's domain. Pentecost describes this as follows:
===Jehovah's Witnesses===
Jehovah's Witnesses believe that Armageddon is the means by which God will fulfill his purpose for the Earth to be populated with happy healthy humans who will be free from sin and death. They teach that the armies of heaven will eradicate all who oppose the Kingdom of God, wiping out all wicked humans on Earth, only leaving righteous mankind.
They believe that the gathering of all of the nations of the earth refers to the uniting of the world's political powers, as a gradual process which began in 1914 and was later seen in manifestations such as the League of Nations and the United Nations following the First and Second World Wars. These political powers are said to be influenced by Satan and they are disgusting in that they stand in the place of God's kingdom before men as the only hope of mankind. Witnesses believe that after all other religions have been destroyed, the governments of the world will turn their attention to destroying Jehovah’s Witnesses, provoking God to intervene and precipitating Armageddon.
Jehovah's Witnesses teach that the armies of heaven, led by Jesus, will then destroy all forms of human government and then Jesus, along with a selected 144,000 humans, will rule Earth for 1,000 years. They believe that Satan and his demons will be bound for that period, unable to influence mankind. After the 1,000 years are ended, and the second resurrection has taken place, Satan is released and allowed to tempt the perfect human race one last time. Those who follow Satan will be destroyed, along with him, leaving the earth, and humankind at peace with God forever, free from sin and death.
The religion's current teaching on Armageddon originated in 1925 with former Watch Tower Society president J. F. Rutherford, who based his interpretations on passages that are found in the books of Exodus, Jeremiah, Ezekiel and Psalms as well as additional passages that are found in the books of Samuel, Kings and Chronicles. The doctrine marked a further break from the teachings of the Watch Tower Society's founder Charles Taze Russell, who for decades had taught that the final war would be an anarchistic struggle for domination on earth. Tony Wills, the author of a historical study of Jehovah's Witnesses, wrote that Rutherford seemed to relish his descriptions of how completely the wicked would be destroyed at Armageddon, dwelling at great length on prophecies of destruction. He stated that towards the close of his ministry, Rutherford allocated about half the space that was available in The Watchtower magazines to discussions about Armageddon.
===Seventh-day Adventist===
The teachings of the Seventh-day Adventist Church state that the terms "Armageddon", "Day of the Lord" and "The Second Coming of Christ" all describe the same event. Seventh-day Adventists further teach that the current religious movements taking place in the world are setting the stage for Armageddon, and they are concerned by an anticipated unity between spiritualism, American Protestantism and Roman Catholicism. A further teaching in Seventh-day Adventist theology is that the events of Armageddon will leave the earth desolate for the duration of the millennium. They teach that the righteous will be taken to heaven while the rest of humanity will be destroyed, leaving Satan with no one to tempt and effectively "bound". The final re-creation of a "new heaven and a new earth"; then follows the millennium.
===Christadelphians===
For Christadelphians, Armageddon marks the "great climax of history when the nations would be gathered together 'into a place called in the Hebrew tongue Armageddon', and the judgment on them would herald the setting up of the Kingdom of God."
==Baháʼí Faith==
From Baháʼí literature, a number of interpretations of the expectations surrounding the Battle of Armageddon may be inferred, three of them being associated with events surrounding the World Wars.
The first interpretation deals with a series of tablets written by Bahá'u'lláh, founder of the Baháʼí Faith, to be sent to various kings and rulers. A third interpretation reviews the overall progress of the World Wars, and the situation in the world before and after.
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] |
3,060 |
Athlon
|
AMD Athlon is the brand name applied to a series of x86-compatible microprocessors designed and manufactured by Advanced Micro Devices. The original Athlon (now called Athlon Classic) was the first seventh-generation x86 processor and the first desktop processor to reach speeds of one gigahertz (GHz). It made its debut as AMD's high-end processor brand on June 23, 1999. The modern Zen-based Athlon with a Radeon Graphics processor was introduced in 2019 as AMD's highest-performance entry-level processor.
== Brand history ==
=== K7 design and development===
The first Athlon processor was a result of AMD's development of K7 processors in the 1990s. AMD founder and then-CEO Jerry Sanders One major partnership announced in 1998 paired AMD with semiconductor giant Motorola to co-develop copper-based semiconductor technology, resulting in the K7 project being the first commercial processor to utilize copper fabrication technology. In the announcement, Sanders referred to the partnership as creating a "virtual gorilla" that would enable AMD to compete with Intel on fabrication capacity while limiting AMD's financial outlay for new facilities.
=== Original release===
The AMD Athlon processor launched on June 23, 1999, with general availability by August 1999. Subsequently, from August 1999 until January 2002, this initial K7 processor was the fastest x86 chip in the world. A number of features helped the chips compete with Intel. By working with Motorola, AMD had been able to refine copper interconnect manufacturing about one year before Intel, with the revised process permitting 180-nanometer processor production. The accompanying die-shrink resulted in lower power consumption, permitting AMD to increase Athlon clock speeds to the 1 GHz range. The Athlon architecture also used the EV6 bus licensed from DEC as its main system bus, allowing AMD to develop its own products without needing to license Intel's GTL+ bus. By the summer of 2000, AMD was shipping Athlons at high volume, and the chips were being used in systems by Gateway, Hewlett-Packard, and Fujitsu Siemens Computers among others.
===Later Athlon iterations===
The second-generation Athlon, the Thunderbird, debuted in 2000. AMD released the Athlon XP the following year, The Athlon 64 X2 was released in 2005 as the first native dual-core desktop CPU designed by AMD, With the release, AMD began using the Athlon brand name to refer to "low-cost, high-volume products", in a situation similar to both Intel's Celeron and Pentium Gold.
== Generations ==
===Athlon Classic (1999)===
The AMD Athlon processor launched on June 23, 1999, with general availability by August 1999. Subsequently, from August 1999 until January 2002, this initial K7 processor was the fastest x86 chip in the world. At launch it was, on average, 10% faster than the Pentium III at the same clock for business applications and 20% faster for gaming workloads. In commercial terms, the Athlon "Classic" was an enormous success.
The Argon-based Athlon contained 22 million transistors and measured 184 mm2. It was fabricated by AMD in a version of their CS44E process, a 250 nm complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor (CMOS) process with six levels of aluminium interconnect. "Pluto" and "Orion" Athlons were fabricated in a 180 nm process. split level-1 cache; a 2-way associative cache separated into 2×64 KB for data and instructions (a concept from Harvard architecture). With later Athlon models, AMD would integrate the L2 cache onto the processor itself, removing dependence on external cache chips. The Slot-A Athlons were the first multiplier-locked CPUs from AMD, preventing users from setting their own desired clock speed. This was done by AMD in part to hinder CPU remarking and overclocking by resellers, which could result in inconsistent performance. Eventually a product called the "Goldfingers device" was created that could unlock the CPU.
AMD designed the CPU with more robust x86 instruction decoding capabilities than that of K6, to enhance its ability to keep more data in-flight at once. The critical branch-predictor unit was enhanced compared to the K6. Deeper pipelining with more stages allowed higher clock speeds to be attained. Like the AMD K5 and K6, the Athlon dynamically buffered internal micro-instructions at runtime resulting from parallel x86 instruction decoding. The CPU is an out-of-order design, again like previous post-5x86 AMD CPUs. The Athlon utilizes the Alpha 21264's EV6 bus architecture with double data rate (DDR) technology.
AMD ended its long-time handicap with floating point x87 performance by designing a super-pipelined, out-of-order, triple-issue floating-point unit (FPU). The 3DNow! floating-point SIMD technology, again present, received some revisions and was renamed "Enhanced 3DNow!" Additions included DSP instructions and the extended MMX subset of Intel SSE.
Specifications
L1-cache: 64 + 64 KB (data + instructions)
L2-cache: 512 KB, external chips on CPU module with 50%, 40% or 33% of CPU speed
MMX, 3DNow!
Slot A (EV6)
Front-side bus:100 MHz (200MT/s)
Vcore: 1.6 V (K7), 1.6–1.8 V (K75)
First release: June 23, 1999 (K7), November 29, 1999 (K75)
Clock-rate: 500–700 MHz (K7), 550–1000 MHz (K75)
===Athlon Thunderbird (2000–2001)===
The second-generation Athlon, the Thunderbird or T-Bird, debuted on June 4, 2000. making the L2 cache into basically a victim cache. With the new cache design, need for high L2 performance and size was lessened, and the simpler L2 cache was less likely to cause clock scaling and yield issues. Thunderbird also moved to a 16-way associative layout.
The Thunderbird was "cherished by many for its overclockability" and proved commercially successful, AMD's new fab facility in Dresden increased production for AMD overall and put out Thunderbirds at a fast rate, with the process technology improved by a switch to copper interconnects. After several versions were released in 2000 and 2001 of the Thunderbird, the last Athlon processor using the Thunderbird core was released in 2001 in the summer, at which point speeds were at 1.4 GHz. Palomino's design used 180 nm fabrication process size. Among other changes, Palomino consumed 20% less power than the Thunderbird, comparatively reducing heat output, and was roughly 10% faster than Thunderbird. Palomino also had enhanced K7's TLB architecture and included a hardware data prefetch mechanism to take better advantage of memory bandwidth. Palomino was the first K7 core to include the full SSE instruction set from the Intel Pentium III, as well as AMD's 3DNow! Professional. Palomino was also the first socketed Athlon officially supporting dual processing, with chips certified for that purpose branded as the Athlon MP (multi processing), which had different specifications. According to HardwareZone, it was possible to modify the Athlon XP to function as an MP.
Specifications
L1-cache: 64 + 64 KB (data + instructions)
L2-cache: 256 KB, full speed
MMX, 3DNow!, SSE
Socket A (EV6)
Front-side bus: 133 MHz (266 MT/s)
Vcore: 1.50 to 1.75 V
Power consumption: 68 W
First release: October 9, 2001
Clock-rate:
Athlon 4: 850–1400 MHz
Athlon XP: 1333–1733 MHz (1500+ to 2100+)
Athlon MP: 1000–1733 MHz
====Thoroughbred====
The fourth-generation of Athlon was introduced with the Thoroughbred core, or T-Bred, on April 17, 2002. The Thoroughbred core marked AMD's first production 130 nm silicon, with smaller die size than its predecessor.
Specifications
L1-cache: 64 + 64 KB (data + instructions)
L2-cache: 256 KB, full speed
MMX, 3DNow!, SSE
Socket A (EV6)
Front-side bus: 133/166 MHz (266/333 MT/s)
Vcore: 1.50–1.65 V
First release: June 10, 2002 (A), August 21, 2002 (B)
Clock-rate:
Thoroughbred "A": 1400–1800 MHz (1600+ to 2200+)
Thoroughbred "B": 1400–2250 MHz (1600+ to 2800+)
133 MHz FSB: 1400–2133 MHz (1600+ to 2600+)
166 MHz FSB: 2083–2250 MHz (2600+ to 2800+)
====Barton / Thorton====
Fifth-generation Athlon Barton-core processors were released in early 2003. While not operating at higher clock rates than Thoroughbred-core processors, they featured an increased L2 cache, and later models had an increased 200 MHz (400 MT/s) front side bus. The Thorton core, a blend of Thoroughbred and Barton, was a later variant of the Barton with half of the L2 cache disabled. The Barton was used to officially introduce a higher 400 MT/s bus clock for the Socket A platform, which was used to gain some Barton models more efficiency. and Barton only saw a small performance increase over the Thoroughbred-B it derived from,
Notably, the 2500+ Barton with 11× multiplier was effectively identical to the 3200+ part other than the FSB speed it was binned for, meaning that seamless overclocking was possible more often than not. Early Thortons could be restored to the full Barton specification with the enabling of the other half of the L2 cache from a slight CPU surface modification, but the result was not always reliable.
Specifications:
Barton (130 nm)
L1-cache: 64 + 64 KB (data + instructions)
L2-cache: 512 KB, full speed
MMX, 3DNow!, SSE
Socket A (EV6)
Front-side bus: 166/200 MHz (333/400 MT/s)
Vcore: 1.65 V
First release: February 10, 2003
Clock rate: 1833–2333 MHz (2500+ to 3200+)
133 MHz FSB: 1867–2133 MHz (2500+ to 2800+); uncommon
166 MHz FSB: 1833–2333 MHz (2500+ to 3200+)
200 MHz FSB: 2100, 2200 MHz (3000+, 3200+)
Thorton (130 nm)
L1-cache: 64 + 64 KB (Data + Instructions)
L2-cache: 256 KB, full speed
MMX, 3DNow!, SSE
Socket A (EV6)
Front-side bus: 133/166/200 MHz (266/333/400 MT/s)
Vcore: 1.50–1.65 V
First release: September 2003
Clock rate: 1667–2200 MHz (2000+ to 3100+)
133 MHz FSB: 1600–2133 MHz (2000+ to 2600+)
166 MHz FSB: 2083 MHz (2600+)
200 MHz FSB: 2200 MHz (3100+)
====Mobile Athlon XP====
The Palomino core debuted in the mobile market before the PC market in May 2001, where it was branded as Mobile Athlon 4 with the codename "Corvette". It distinctively used a ceramic interposer much like the Thunderbird instead of the organic pin grid array package used on all later Palomino processors. The Mobile Athlon 4 processors included the PowerNow! function, which controlled a laptop's "level of processor performance by dynamically adjusting its operating frequency and voltage according to the task at hand", thus extending "battery life by reducing processor power when it isn't needed by applications". Duron chips also included PowerNow!
In 2002 the Athlon XP-M (Mobile Athlon XP) replaced the Mobile Athlon 4 using the newer Thoroughbred core, with Barton cores for full-size notebooks. The Athlon XP-M was also offered in a compact microPGA socket 563 version. Mobile XPs were not multiplier-locked, making them popular with desktop overclockers.
===Athlon 64 (2003–2009)===
The immediate successor to the Athlon XP, the Athlon 64 is an AMD64-architecture microprocessor produced by AMD, released on September 23, 2003. A number of variations, all named after cities, were released with 90 nm architecture in 2004 and 2005. Versions released in 2007 and 2009 utilized 65 nm architecture.
===Athlon 64 X2 (2005–2009)===
The Athlon 64 X2 was released in 2005 as the first native dual-core desktop CPU designed by AMD using an Athlon 64. The Athlon X2 was a subsequent family of microprocessors based on the Athlon 64 X2. The original Brisbane Athlon X2 models used 65 nm architecture and were released in 2007.
===Athlon II (2009–2012) ===
Athlon II is a family of central processing units. Initially a dual-core version of the Athlon II, the K-10-based Regor was released in June 2009 with 45-nanometer architecture. This was followed by a single-core version Sargas, followed by the quad-core Propus, the triple-core Rana in November 2009, and the Llano 32 nm version released in 2011.
=== Piledriver and Steamroller-based Athlon X4 (2013–2016) ===
Various Steamroller-based Athlon X4 and X2 FM2+ socketed processors were released in 2014 and the years after. The preceding Piledriver-based Athlon X4 and X2 processors were released before 2014, and are socket compatible with both FM2+ and FM2 mainboards.
=== Excavator-based Athlon X4 (2017) ===
The Bristol Ridge Athlon X4 lineup was released in 2017. It is based on the Excavator microarchitecture and uses 2 Excavator modules totalling 4 cores. It has a dual-channel DDR4-2400 memory controller with clock speeds up to 4.0 GHz. It runs on the new Socket AM4 platform that was later used for Zen 1 to Zen 3 CPUs.
===Zen-based Athlon (2018–present)===
The Zen-based Athlon with Radeon graphics processors was launched in September 2018 with the Athlon 200GE. Based on AMD's Raven Ridge core previously used in variants of the Ryzen 3 and Ryzen 5, and the chip was multiplier-locked. Despite its limitations, the Athlon 200GE performed competitively against the 5000-series Intel Pentium-G, displaying similar CPU performance but an advantage in GPU performance.
On November 19, 2019, AMD released the Athlon 3000G, with a higher 3.5 GHz core clock and 1100 MHz graphics clock compared to the Athlon 200GE,
Zen 2-based Athlon with Radeon Graphics processors, codenamed "Mendocino", were released on September 20, 2022, for the entry-level laptop market, alongside the more powerful quad-core Ryzen 7020 mobile series under the same codename. Featuring two processing cores, with two threads on Athlon Silver and four threads on Athlon Gold models, Athlon 7020 series mobile processors are equipped with two compute units (CUs) of RDNA 2 graphics. These 7020U series models were followed by the release of Ryzen/Athlon 7020C series for Chromebooks on May 23, 2023. Unlike prior Athlon generations, AMD has not released desktop variants of Mendocino.
Specifications
Raven Ridge (14 nm), Picasso (12 nm) (see the list article for more details)
L1 cache: 192 KiB (2×64 KiB + 2×32 KiB)
L2 cache: 1 MiB (2×512 KiB)
L3 cache: 4 MiB
Memory: dual-channel DDR4-2666, 64 GiB max.
Socket AM4
TDP: 35 W
First release: September 6, 2018
CPU clock rate: 3.2 to 3.5 GHz
GPU clock rate: 1000 to 1100 MHz
Mendocino (6 nm) (see the list article for more details)
L1 cache: 128 KiB (2×32 KiB + 2×32 KiB)
L2 cache: 1 MiB (2×512 KiB)
L3 cache: 4 MiB
Memory: dual-channel LPDDR5-5500, 16 GiB max.
TDP: 15 W
First release: September 20, 2022
CPU clock rate: 2.4 GHz
GPU clock rate: 1900 MHz
==Supercomputers==
A number of supercomputers have been built using Athlon chips, largely at universities. Among them:
In 2000, several American students claimed to have built the world's least expensive supercomputer by clustering 64 AMD Athlon chips together, also marking the first time Athlons had been clustered in a supercomputer.
The PRESTO III, a Beowulf cluster of 78 AMD Athlon processors, was built in 2001 by the Tokyo Institute of Technology. That year it ranked 439 on the TOP500 list of supercomputers.
In 2002, a "128-Node 256-Processor AMD Athlon Supercomputer Cluster" was installed at the Ohio Supercomputer Center at the University of Toledo.
Rutgers University, Department of Physics & Astronomy. Machine: NOW Cluster—AMD Athlon. CPU: 512 AthlonMP (1.65 GHz). Rmax: 794 GFLOPS.
|
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3,065 |
Amnon
|
Amnon ( ’Amnōn, "faithful") was, in the Hebrew Bible, the oldest son of King David and his second wife, Ahinoam of Jezreel. He was born in Hebron during his father's reign in Judah. He was the heir apparent to the throne of Israel until he was assassinated by his half-brother Absalom to avenge the rape of Absalom's sister Tamar.
==Biblical account==
===Amnon's background===
Amnon was born in Hebron to Ahinoam and King David. As the presumptive heir to the throne of Israel, Amnon enjoyed a life of power and privilege.
===Rape of Tamar===
Although he was the heir-apparent to David's throne, Amnon is best remembered for the rape of his paternal half-sister Tamar, daughter of David and Maachah. Despite the biblical prohibition on sexual relations between half siblings, Amnon had an overwhelming desire for her. He acted on advice from his cousin, Jonadab son of Shimeah, David's brother, to lure Tamar into his quarters by pretending to be sick and desiring her to cook a special meal for him. While in his quarters, and over her protests, he raped her, then had her expelled from his house. While King David was angry about the incident, he could not bring himself to punish his eldest son, while Absalom, Amnon's half-brother and Tamar's full brother, nursed a bitter grudge against Amnon for the rape of his sister.
According to the Babylonian Talmud: "And Thou should not associate with a sinner:.... And so we find with Amnon, who associated with Jonadab, the son of Shim'ah, David's brother; and Jonadab was a very sensible man—sensible in wickedness, as it is written [Jer. Iv .22]: Wise are they to do evil." According to others, it is meant that one shall not associate with the wicked, even to study the Torah."
According to Rav, Tamar was not, by Biblical law, David's daughter, nor Amnon's sister. Tamar, was the earlier born daughter of David's wife, and thus not biologically related to David, nor Amnon. According to Michael D. Coogan's claims, however, it would have been perfectly all right for Amnon to have married his sister (he claims that the Bible was incoherent about prohibiting incest). According to the Torah, per Leviticus 18, "the children of Israel"—Israelite men and women alike—are forbidden from sexual relations between people who are "near of kin" (cf. verse 6). Siblings and half siblings (cf. verses 9 and 11). Relationships between these are particularly singled out for a curse in Deuteronomy 27, and they are of the only two kinds incestuous relationships that are among the particularly-singled-out relationships—with the other particularly-singled-out relationships, being ones of non-incestuous family betrayal (cf. verse 20) and bestiality (cf. verse 21). Incestuous relationships are considered so severe among chillul hashem, acts which bring shame to the name of God, as to be, along with the other forbidden relationships that are mentioned in Leviticus 18, punishable by death as specified in Leviticus 20. Those who committed incest were subject to two curses—one for committing incest and the second for breaking the Torah law. [27 Deuteronomy 22 and 26] and also the punishment of kareth.
Two years later, to avenge Tamar, Absalom invited all of David's sons to a feast at sheep-shearing time, then had his servants kill Amnon after he had become drunk with wine. As a result, Absalom fled to Geshur.
records that in time David came to terms with the death of Amnon, his first-born. Methodist founder John Wesley is critical of David: "He can almost find in his heart to receive into favour the murderer of his brother. How can we excuse David from the sin of Eli, who honoured his sons more than God?"
==In rabbinic literature==
The sages of the Mishnah point out that Amnon's love for Tamar, his half-sister, did not arise from true affection, but from passion and lust, on which account, after having attained his desire, he immediately "hated her exceedingly." "All love which depends upon some particular thing ceases when that thing ceases; thus was the love of Amnon for Tamar" (Ab. v. 16). Amnon's love for Tamar was not, however, such a transgression as is usually supposed: for, although she was a daughter of David, her mother was a prisoner of war, who had not yet become a Jewess; consequently, Tamar also had not entered the Jewish community (Sanh. 21a). The incident of Amnon and Tamar was utilized by the sages as affording justification for their rule that a man must on no account remain alone in the company of a woman, not even of an unmarried one (Sanh. l.c. et seq.).
According to the Babylonian Talmud, Amnon hated Tamar because, as he raped her, Tamar tied one of her hairs around Amnon's penis and used it to castrate him. The Babylonian Talmud also asserts that Amnon's death was a punishment from the Lord for Amnon's "lewdness" and for his actions. As noted above those who committed incest are subject to two curses in the Torah and kareth; Amnon was said to be possibly consigned to the 2nd circle of Gehenna. For reasons of propriety, the Mishnah excludes the story from public reading in synagogue, whether in the original or in Aramaic translation (Meg. 4:10).
==Literary references==
The Spanish poet Federico García Lorca wrote a poem about Amnon's rape of his sister Tamar, included in Lorca's 1928 poetry collection Romancero Gitano (translated as Gypsy Ballads). Lorca's version is considerably different from the Biblical original – Amnon is depicted as being overcome by a sudden uncontrollable passion, with none of the cynical planning and premeditation of the original story. He assaults and rapes Tamar and then flees into the night on his horse, with archers shooting at him from the walls – whereupon King David cuts the strings of his harp.
The Rape of Tamar, novel by Dan Jacobson ()
The Death of Amnon poem by Elizabeth Hands
|
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] |
3,067 |
Amu Darya
|
The Amu Darya ( ),() also shortened to Amu and historically known as the Oxus ( ), is a major river in Central Asia, which flows through Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Afghanistan. Rising in the Pamir Mountains, north of the Hindu Kush, the Amu Darya is formed by the confluence of the Vakhsh and Panj rivers, in the Tigrovaya Balka Nature Reserve on the border between Afghanistan and Tajikistan, and flows from there north-westwards into the southern remnants of the Aral Sea. In its upper course, the river forms part of Afghanistan's northern border with Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, and Turkmenistan. In ancient history, the river was regarded as the boundary of Greater Iran with Turan, which roughly corresponded to present-day Central Asia. The Amu Darya has a flow of about 70 cubic kilometres per year on average.
==Names==
In classical antiquity, the river was known as the in Latin and () in Greek — a clear derivative of Vakhsh, the name of the largest tributary of the river. In Sanskrit texts, the river is also referred to as (). The Brahmanda Purana refers to the river as which means 'an eye'. The Avestan texts too refer to the river as Yakhsha/Vakhsha (and Yakhsha Arta ('Upper Yakhsha'), referring to the Jaxartes/Syr Darya twin river to Amu Darya). In Middle Persian sources of the Sasanian period the river is known as The Amu Darya passes through one of the world's highest deserts.
===As the river Gozan===
Western travelers in the 19th century mentioned that one of the names by which the river was known in Afghanistan was Gozan, and that this name was used by Greek, Mongol, Chinese, Persian, Jewish, and Afghan historians. However, this name is no longer used.
"Hara (Bokhara) and to the river of Gozan (that is to say, the Amu, (called the Oxus by Europeans )) ..."
"the Gozan River is the River Balkh, i.e. the Oxus or the Amu Darya ..."
"... and were brought into Halah (modern day Balkh), and Habor (which is Pesh Habor or Peshawar), and Hara (which is Herat), and to the river Gozan (which is the Ammoo, also called Jehoon) ..."
==Description==
The river's total length is and its drainage basin totals in area, providing a mean discharge of around Bill Colegrave's expedition to Wakhan in 2007 found that both claimants 2 and 3 had the same source, the Chelab stream, which bifurcates on the watershed of the Little Pamir, half flowing into Lake Chamaktin and half into the parent stream of the Little Pamir/Sarhad River. Therefore, the Chelab stream may be properly considered the true source or parent stream of the Oxus. The Panj River forms the border of Afghanistan and Tajikistan. It flows west to Ishkashim where it turns north and then north-west through the Pamirs passing the Tajikistan–Afghanistan Friendship Bridge. It subsequently forms the border of Afghanistan and Uzbekistan for about , passing Termez and the Afghanistan–Uzbekistan Friendship Bridge. It delineates the border of Afghanistan and Turkmenistan for another before it flows into Turkmenistan at Atamurat. It flows across Turkmenistan south to north, passing Türkmenabat, and forms the border of Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan from Halkabat. It is then split by the Tuyamuyun Hydro Complex into many waterways that used to form the river delta joining the Aral Sea, passing Urgench, Daşoguz, and other cities, but it does not reach what is left of the sea any more and is lost in the desert. Use of water from the Amu Darya for irrigation has been a major contributing factor to the shrinking of the Aral Sea since the late 1950s. Historical records state that in different periods, the river flowed into the Aral Sea (from the south), into the Caspian Sea (from the east), or both, similar to the Syr Darya (Jaxartes, in Ancient Greek). Partly based on such records, first Tsarist and later Soviet engineers proposed to divert the Amu Darya to the Caspian Sea by constructing the Transcaspian Canal.
==Watershed==
The of the Amu Darya drainage basin include most of Tajikistan, the southwest corner of Kyrgyzstan, the northeast corner of Afghanistan, a narrow portion of eastern Turkmenistan and the western half of Uzbekistan. Part of the Amu Darya basin divide in Tajikistan forms that country's border with China (in the east) and Pakistan (to the south). About 61% of the drainage lies within Tajikistan, Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan, while 39% is in Afghanistan.
The abundant water flowing in the Amu Darya comes almost entirely from glaciers in the Pamir Mountains and Tian Shan,
which, standing above the surrounding arid plain, collect atmospheric moisture which otherwise would probably escape elsewhere. Without its mountain water sources, the Amu Darya would not exist—because it rarely rains in the lowlands through which most of the river flows. Of the total drainage area, only about actively contribute water to the river.
This is because many of the river's major tributaries (especially the Zeravshan River) have been diverted, and much of the river's drainage is arid. Throughout most of the steppe, the annual rainfall is about .
==History==
The ancient Greeks called the Amu Darya the Oxus. In ancient times, the river was regarded as the boundary between Greater Iran and Ṫūrān (). One southern route of the Silk Road ran along part of the Amu Darya northwestward from Termez before going westwards to the Caspian Sea.
According to the Quaternary International, it is possible that the Amu Darya's course across the Karakum Desert has gone through several major shifts in the past few thousand years. Much of the time – most recently from the 13th century to the late 16th century – the Amu Darya emptied into both the Aral and the Caspian Seas, reaching the latter via a large distributary called the Uzboy River. The Uzboy splits off from the main channel just south of the river's delta. Sometimes the flow through the two branches was more or less equal, but often most of the Amu Darya's flow split to the west and flowed into the Caspian.
People began to settle along the lower Amu Darya and the Uzboy in the 5th century, establishing a thriving chain of agricultural lands, towns, and cities. In about AD 985, the massive Gurganj Dam at the bifurcation of the forks started to divert water to the Aral. Genghis Khan's troops destroyed the dam in 1221, and the Amu Darya shifted to distributing its flow more or less equally between the main stem and the Uzboy. But in the 18th century, the river again turned north, flowing into the Aral Sea, a path it has taken since. Less and less water flowed down the Uzboy. When Russian explorer Bekovich-Cherkasski surveyed the region in 1720, the Amu Darya did not flow into the Caspian Sea anymore.
By the 1800s, the ethnographic makeup of the region was described by Peter Kropotkin as the communities of "the vassal Khanates of Maimene, Khulm, Kunduz, and even the Badakshan and Wahkran." An Englishman, William Moorcroft, visited the Oxus around 1824 during the Great Game period. Another Englishman, a naval officer called John Wood, came with an expedition to find the source of the river in 1839. He found modern-day Lake Zorkul, called it Lake Victoria, and proclaimed he had found the source. Then, the French explorer and geographer Thibaut Viné collected a lot of information about this area during five expeditions between 1856 and 1862.
The question of finding a route between the Oxus valley and India has been of concern historically. A direct route crosses extremely high mountain passes in the Hindu Kush and isolated areas like Kafiristan. Some in Britain feared that the Empire of Russia, which at the time wielded great influence over the Oxus area, would overcome these obstacles and find a suitable route through which to invade British India – but this never came to pass. The area was taken over by Russia during the Russian conquest of Turkestan.
The Soviet Union became the ruling power in the early 1920s and expelled Mohammed Alim Khan. It later put down the Basmachi movement and killed Ibrahim Bek. A large refugee population of Central Asians, including Turkmen, Tajiks, and Uzbeks, fled to northern Afghanistan. In the 1960s and 1970s the Soviets started using the Amu Darya and the Syr Darya to irrigate extensive cotton fields in the Central Asian plain. Before this time, water from the rivers was already being used for agriculture, but not on this massive scale. The Qaraqum Canal, Karshi Canal, and Bukhara Canal were among the largest of the irrigation diversions built. However, the Main Turkmen Canal, which would have diverted water along the dry Uzboy River bed into central Turkmenistan, was never built. In the course of the Soviet–Afghan War in the 1970s, Soviet forces used the valley to invade Afghanistan through Termez. The Soviet Union fell in the 1990s and Central Asia split up into the many smaller countries that lie within or partially within the Amu Darya basin.
During the Soviet era, a resource-sharing system was instated in which Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan shared water originating from the Amu and Syr Daryas with Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan in summer. In return, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan received Kazakh, Turkmen, and Uzbek coal, gas, and electricity in winter. After the fall of the Soviet Union this system disintegrated and the Central Asian nations have failed to reinstate it. Inadequate infrastructure, poor water management, and outdated irrigation methods all exacerbate the issue.
===Siberian Tiger Introduction Project===
The Caspian tiger used to occur along the river's banks. After its extirpation, the Darya's delta was suggested as a potential site for the introduction of its closest surviving relative, the Siberian tiger. A feasibility study was initiated to investigate if the area is suitable and if such an initiative would receive support from relevant decision makers. A viable tiger population of about 100 animals would require at least of large tracts of contiguous habitat with rich prey populations. Such habitat is not available at this stage and cannot be provided in the short term. The proposed region is therefore unsuitable for the reintroduction, at least at this stage.
===Resource extraction===
Since March 2022, the building of the 285 km Qosh Tepa Canal has been underway in northern Afghanistan to divert water from the Amu Darya. Uzbekistan has expressed concern that the canal will have an adverse effect on its agriculture. The canal is also expected to make the Aral Sea disaster worse, and in 2023 Uzbek officials held talks on the canal with the Taliban. The Taliban has made the canal a priority, with images supplied by Planet Labs demonstrate that from April 2022 to February 2023, more than 100 km of canal was excavated.
In January 2023, the Xinjiang Central Asia Petroleum and Gas Company (aka CAPEIC) signed a $720 million four-year investment deal with the Taliban government of Afghanistan for extraction on its side of the Amu Darya basin. The deal will see a 15% royalty given to the Afghan government over the course of its 25-year term. The Chinese see this basin as the third-largest potential gas field in the world.}}
The Oxus river, and Arnold's poem, fire the imaginations of the children who adventure with ponies over the moors of the West Country in the 1930s children's book The Far-Distant Oxus. There were two sequels, Escape to Persia and Oxus in Summer.
Robert Byron's 1937 travelogue, The Road to Oxiana, describes its author's journey from the Levant through Persia to Afghanistan, with the Oxus as his stated goal, "to see certain famous monuments, chiefly the Gonbad-e Qabus, a tower built as a mausoleum for an ancient king."
George MacDonald Fraser's Flashman at the Charge (1973), places Flashman on the Amu Darya and the Aral Sea during the (fictitious) Russian advance on India during The Great Game period.
|
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"Pakistan"
] |
3,068 |
Muslim conquests of Afghanistan
|
The Muslim conquests of Afghanistan began during the Muslim conquest of Persia as the Arab Muslims expanded eastwards to Khorasan, Sistan and Transoxiana. Fifteen years after the battle of Nahāvand in 642 AD, they controlled all Sasanian domains except in Afghanistan.
Khorasan and Sistan, where Zoroastrianism was well-established, were conquered. The Arabs had begun to move towards the lands east of Persia in the 7th century. The Muslim frontier in modern Afghanistan had become stabilized after the first century of the Lunar Hijri calendar as the relative importance of the Afghan areas diminished. Buddhism and Hinduism held sway over the region until the Muslim conquest. Kabul and Zabulistan which housed Buddhism and other Indian religions, offered stiff resistance to the early Muslim advance.
The expeditions of Caliph Al-Ma'mun (r. 813–833 AD) were the last by the Arabs on Kabul and Zabul. The last Zunbil was killed by Ya'qub bin al-Layth along with his former overlord Salih b. al-Nadr in 865. The Pashtuns later began settling westward from Sulaiman Mountains in the south, and displaced or subjugated the indigenous populations such as Tajiks, Hazaras, the Farsiwanis, Nuristanis and Pashayi people before or during 16th and 17th centuries. Nancy Dupree states that advancing Arabs carrying the religion of Islam easily took over Herat and Sistan, but the other areas often revolted and converted back to their old faiths whenever the Arab armies withdrew. The harshness of the Arab rule caused the native dynasties to revolt after the Arab power weakened like the Saffarids founded by the zealous Yaqub who conquered many cities of the region. Historian Cameron A. Petrie states that while the Arab expansion had both social and religious motives, it was their extraction of taxes from the subjugated people that invited the numerous local rebellions.
Medieval Islamic scholars divided modern-day Afghanistan into two regions – the provinces of Khorasan and Sistan. Khorasan was the eastern satrapy of the Sasanian Empire, containing Balkh and Herat. Sistan included a number of Afghan cities and regions including Ghazni, Zarang, Bost, Qandahar (also called al-Rukhkhaj or Zamindawar), Kabul, Kabulistan and Zabulistan.
Before Muslim rule, the regions of Balkh (Bactria or Tokharistan), Herat and Sistan were under Sasanian rule. Further south in Balkh region, in Bamiyan, indication of Sasanian authority diminishes, with a local dynasty apparently ruling from the late antiquity, probably Hepthalites subject to the Yabgu of Western Turks. While Herat was controlled by Sasanians, its hinterlands were controlled by northern Hepthalites who continued to rule the Ghurid mountains and river valleys. The Arab Umayyads regularly claimed nominal overlordship over the Zunbils and Kabul Shahis, and in 711 Qutayba ibn Muslim managed to force them to pay tribute.
===Sistan===
The earlier Arabs called Sistan as Sijistan, from the Persian word Sagestan. It is a lowland region, lying round and eastwards from the Zarah lake, which includes deltas of Helmand and other rivers which drain into it. The Muslim conquest of Sistan began in 23 AH (643-644 AD) when Asim bin Amr and Abdallah ibn Amir invaded the region and besieged Zaranj. The Sistanis concluded a treaty with Muslims, mandating them to pay the kharaj.
The cash-strapped Sasanian king Yazdegerd III who had a large retinue, had fled to Kerman in 650. He had to flee from Kerman to Sistan after his arrogance angered the marzban of the place, eluding an Arab force from Basra which defeated and killed the marzban. Yazdegerd lost the support of governor of Sistan after demanding taxes from him and had to leave for Merv.
Rabi crossed the desert between Kirman and Sistan, reaching the fortress of Zilaq which was within five farsangs of the Sistan frontier. The fort was surrendered by its dihqan. The tribute imposed on Zarang was 2 million dirhams and 2,000 slaves.
During the period of the first civil war in the Arab caliphate (656–661), rebels in Zarang imprisoned their governor while Arab bandits started raiding remote towns in Sistan to enslave people. 'Abdallah b. Amir was made the governor of Basra and its eastern dependencies again from 661 to 664. Samura was sent back to Sistan in 661. An expedition to Khorasan was sent under him that included reputed leaders like Umar b. 'Ubaydillah b. Ma'mar, 'Abdullah b. Khazim, Qatariyy b. al-Fuja'a and Al-Muhallab ibn Abi Sufra.
Ziyad ibn Abihi was appointed governor of Basra in 664 and was also made governor of Kufa and its dependencies in 670, making him the viceroy of the entire eastern half of the Islamic empire. He sent his kinsman Ubaydallah b. Abi Bakra to destroy the Zoroastrian fire temples in Fars and Sistan, confiscate their property and kill their priests. While the fire temple of Kariyan was destroyed, the one at Karkuya survived along with its herbad. Ziyad's son Abbad was appointed governor of Sijistan by Mu'awiya I in 673 and served until 681. During the course of his governorship, the province apparently remained stable and Abbad led an eastward expedition which brought Kandahar to the caliphate.
The conquest of southern Persia was completed by 23 AH with Khorasan remaining the only region remaining unconquered. Since the Muslims did not want any Persian land to remain under Persian rule, Umar ordered Ahnaf b. Qais to march upon it. After capturing the towns of Tabas and Tun, he attacked the region's easternmost city Herat. The Persians put up stiff resistance but were defeated and surrendered. A garrison was deployed in the city, while a column was detached which subjugated Nishapur and Tus. Umar had dispatched Ahnaf with 12,000 men from Kufa and Basra after Yazdegerd who had fled to Merv. After the Arabs arrived there, Yazdegerd fled to Marw al-Rudh from where he sent ambassadors to the Khakan of the Turks, the ruler of Soghd and the Chinese emperor, asking for their assistance. Yazdegerd later fled to Balkh, where he was defeated by the Arabs and fled across Oxus River.
Abdullah b. Amir went to Khorasan from Kerman in 650 and set out along with a vanguard of Tamimi Arabs and 1,000 asawira via Quhistan. The people of Tabasayn had broken their peace treaty and had allied with the Hepthalites of Herat. al-Ahnaf reconquered Quhistan and defeated Herat's Hepthalites at Nishapur. The kanarang or marzban of Tus asked the Arabs for assistance against the raiding Hepthalites of Herat and Badghis. He agreed to a peace agreement for 600,000 dinars.
The Hepthalite action prompted the Muslims undertaking military operation to secure their positions in Khorasan. After the fall of Tus, Ibn Amir sent out an army against Herat. The ruler (marzaban or azim) of the place agreed to a peace treaty for Herat, Badghis and Pushang for a tribute of 1 million dirhams. The Rashidun Caliphs followed the earlier rule of Muhammad of imposing jizya on several bodies jointly and in some cases also imposed the condition that they host Muslims. This rule was followed in most Iranian towns, with the jizya not specified on per capita basis, but being left to the local rulers, though some Muslim commanders stressed the amount on the ability of the ruler to pay. The same wording can be seen in Ibn Amir's treaty.
In 652, Ibn Amir sent al-Ahnaf to invade Tokharistan with 4,000 Arabs and 1,000 Iranian Muslims (evidently the Tamimis and asawira), probably because of assistance of its ruler to Yazdegerd's son Peroz. While Marw al-Rudh's garrison agreed to a peace term for the entire district under 300,000 dirhams, the town itself remained besieged.
The permanent pacification of Khorasan was a protracted affair with the local potentates often rebelling and appealing to outside powers like the Hepthalites, Western Turks or Turgesh, Sogdians and the imperial Chinese who claimed a degree of suzerainty over Central Asia, for help. It was expected that the recently subjugated people would revolt. However, in Khorasan, no all-out effort seems to have been undertaken to the expel the Arabs after Qarin's rebellion. Chinese sources state that there was an attempt to restore Peroz by Tokharistan's army, however this episode is not confirmed by Arab sources.
Peroz had settled among the Turks, took a local wife and had received troops from the king of Tokharistan. In 661, he established himself as king of Po-szu (Persia) with Chinese help in a place the Chinese called Ja-ling (Chi-ling), which is assumed to be Zarang. His campaigns are reflected in Muslim sources, which mention revolts in Zarang, Balkh, Badghis, Herat, Bushanj and also in Khorasan during the First Fitna period in reigns of Ali and Mu'awiya I. Though they do not mention Peroz, they do state that Ali's newly appointed governor of Khorasan had heard in Nishapur that governors of the Sasanian king had come back from Kabul and Khorasan had rebelled. However, the region was reconquered under Mu'awiya. Piroz went back to the Tang Empire's capital and was given a grandiose title as well as permission to build a fire temple in 677.
Yazid ibn al-Muhallab succeeded his father as governor of Khorasan in 702 and campaigned in Central Asia, but achieved little success apart from Nezak Tarkhan's submission at Badghis.
===Tokharistan===
Tokharistan, roughly ancient Bactria, is today divided between Afghanistan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. According to the most general usage of the name, Tokharistan is the wide valley around the upper Oxus river surrounded by mountains on three sides before the river moves into open plains. The major city was Balkh, one of the greatest urban centers of northeastern Iran. It was located upon crossroads and conduits of trade in many directions, enabling control of these routes if it was conquered. During the governorship of Abu 'l Abbas 'Abdallah b. Tahir (r. 828–845), a list of districts (kuwar) of the region exists, including as far as Saghaniyan in the north and Kabul in the south. Other places listed are Tirmidh, Juzjan, Bamiyan, Rūb and Samanjan. Some Arab geographers used the name only for the southern part of Oxus valley.
Balkh was also a part of Khorasan along with other areas through varying extensions of time. Per al-Tabari, Yazdegerd fled from Marw-al Rudh to Balkh during Ahnaf's conquest of Khorasan in 643. He fortified himself but was defeated by the Arabs and fled across the Oxus River.
Qutayba ibn Muslim led the final conquest of Balkh. He was tasked with subduing the revolt in Lower Tokharistan. His army was assembled in the spring of 705 and marched through Marw al-Rudh and Talqan to Balkh. Per one version in Tarikh al-Tabari, the city was surrendered peacefully. Another version, probably to promote a Bahilite claim on the Barmakids, speaks of a revolt among the residents. The latter may be the correct version as Tabari describes the city as ruined four years later. The wife of Barmak, a physician of Balkh, was taken captive during the war and given to 'Abdullah, Qutayba's brother. She was later restored to her lawful husband after spending a period in 'Abdullah's harem. Khalid was thus born in 706 and Abdallah accepted the implications of paternity without disturbing Barmak's conventional responsibilities or affecting Khalid's upbringing.
In 708–709, the Ispahbadh, who was a local ruler, received a letter from the Hepthalite rebel Nezak Tarkhan, who was trying to unite the aristocracy of Tokharistan against Qutayba. The Arabs built a new military encampment called Baruqan two farsangs away from the city. In 725, the governor Asad ibn Abdallah al-Qasri had the city restored after a feud among Arab troops, with Barmak being employed as his agent for the task.
Early Arabs tended to treat Iran as a single cultural unit, however it was a land of many countries with distinct populations and cultures. From historical evidence, it appears that Tokharistan was the only area heavily colonized by Arabs where Buddhism flourished, and the only area incorporated into the Arab empire where Sanskrit studies were pursued up to the conquest. The grandson of Barmak was the vizier of the Arab empire and took personal interest in Sanskrit works and Indian religions. He visited the area around 726, mentioning that the true king of Balkh was still alive and in exile. He also describes all the inhabitants of the regions as Buddhists under Arab rule. Other sources indicate however that the Bactrians practiced many different religions.
Among Balkh's Buddhist monasteries, the largest was Nava Vihara, later Persianized to Naw Bahara after the Islamic conquest of Balkh. It is not known how long it continued to serve as a place of worship after the conquest. Accounts of early Arabs offer contradictory narratives. Per al-Baladhuri, its stupa-vihara complex was destroyed under Mu'awiya in 650s. Tabari while reporting about the expedition in 650s, does not mention any tension around the temple, stating that Balkh was conquered by Rabi peacefully. He also states that Nizak went to pray at the site during his revolt against Qutayba in 709, implying it may not have been destroyed. Also, the tenth-century geographical treatise Hudud al-'Alam describes remaining royal buildings and Naw Bahara's decorations including painted image and wonderful works, probably secco or fresco murals and carvings on the temple's walls that survived into the author's time.
Sanskrit, Greek, Latin and Chinese sources from the 2nd century BC to the 7th century AD, identify a people called "Tukharas", in the country later called Tukharistan. Badakhshan was earlier the seat of the Tukharas. There is no precise date for the Arab conquest of Badakhshan nor any record of how Islam was introduced there. Al-Tabari too mentions this region only once. In 736, Asad ibn Abdallah al-Qasri sent an expedition into Upper Tokharistan and Badakhshan against the rebel Al-Harith ibn Surayj who had occupied the fortress of Tabushkhan. Juday' b. 'Ali al-Kirmani, who was sent on the expedition against al-Harith, captured Tabushkhan. Juday also had its captive defenders killed while its women and children were enslaved and sold in Balkh despite being of Arab origin. al-Harith later allied with the Turgesh and continued his rebellion until being pardoned by Caliph Yazid b. Walid in 744.
Taking advantage of the factional fighting among the Arabs, Transoxiana started rebelling and Asad b. 'Abdallah in response attacked Khuttal in 737. Armed forces of Soghd, Chach and many Turks, led by the Turkish Khagan Sulu, arrived to assist them. Asad fled leaving behind the baggage of plunder from Khuttal. When he returned with the main body of his troops, the Turks retired to Tokharistan and he returned to Balkh. In December 737, the Turgesh attacked Khulm but were repelled by the Arabs. Bypassing Balkh, they captured Guzgan's capital and sent out raiding parties. Asad mounted a surprise attack on the Turks at Kharistan, who only had 4,000 troops. The Turgesh suffered a devastating defeat and lost almost whole of their army. Sulu and al-Harith fled to the territory of Tokharistan's Yabghu, with Sulu returning to his territory in winter of 737–738.
===The Zunbils===
The Zunbils in the pre-Saffarid period ruled in Zabulistan and Zamindawar, stretching between Ghazni and Bost, and had acted as a barrier against Muslim expansion for a long time. Zamindawar is known to have a shrine dedicated to the god Zun. It has been linked with the Hindu god Aditya at Multan, pre-Buddhist religious and kingship practices of Tibet, as well as Shaivism. The followers of the Zunbils were called Turks by the Arabic sources, however they applied the name to all their enemies in eastern fringes of Iran. They are described as having Turkish troops in their service by sources like Tabari and Tarikh-e-Sistan.
The first time the title of Zunbil appears in Arabic sources, it does so along with that of the Kabul Shah and according to Tabari was the title of the brother of Kabul's king (either Barha Tegin or Tegin Shah). The Zunbil apparently broke away from the overlordship of Kabul around 680 AD and established his own kingdom in Zabulistan and al-Rukhkhaj.
The kingdom of Zabulistan (ar-Rukhkhaj) with its capital at Ghazni, where the king Zunbil or Rutbil resided, is mentioned by Chinese sources under the suzerainty of Jabghu of Turkestan. The significance for Arabs of the realm of Zun and its rulers was them preventing their early campaigns from invading the Indus Valley through eastern and southern Afghanistan. It was only under the early Saffarids that mass-Islamization took place unlike the plunder-raids or tribute levies of Arab rule. The expeditions under Caliph al-Ma'mun against Kabul and Zabul were the last ones and the long conflict ended with the dissolution of the Arab empire following soon thereafter.
====7th century====
After appearing at Zarang, Abd al-Rahman ibn Samura and his force of 6,000 Arabs penetrated to the shrine of Zun in 653–654. He broke off a hand from the idol of Zun and plucked out the rubies used as its eyes to demonstrate to the marzban of Sistan that the idol could neither hurt nor benefit anyone. He also took Zabul by treaty by 656. Samura explained to the marzbān: "my intention was to show you that this idol can do neither any harm nor good." Bost and Zabul submitted to the Arab invader by treaty in 656 CE. The Muslims soon lost these territories during the First Civil War (656–661). Ziyad b. Abi Sufyan was appointed governor of Basra in 665, with Khorasan and Sistan coming under his mandate as well. He had first appointed Rabi to Sistan but replaced him later with 'Ubaydallah b. Abi Bakra. During this period, Zunbil's fierce resistance continued until he finally agreed to pay one million dirhams per Baladhuri and Tarikh-e-Sistan. The Zunbil also negotiated for a peace treaty for both Zabul and Kabul. The city was ruled by Arab Muslims and Zunbils, and then later Saffarids and Ghaznavids. It is infrequently mentioned in the early Islamic sources.
In 681, Salm b. Ziyad was appointed the governor of Khorasan and Sistan by Yazid I. He appointed his brother Yazid b. Ziyad, apparently to lead a military expedition against the Zunbil of Zabulistan. The expedition however was disastrous, with Yazid being killed, his brother Abu-'Ubayda captured, while Arabs received heavy casualties. Salm sent an expedition by Talha b. 'Abdillah al-Khuzai to rescue his brother and pacify the region. The Arab captives were ransomed for half million dirhams and the region was pacified more through diplomacy than force.
After Talha's death in 683–684, a virtual anarchy was unleashed amongst Sistan's Arabs. His army refused allegiance to Yazid or Mu'awiya II and his son 'Abadallah had to abandon Zarang, which was left without any in charge. Many Arabs took over various quarters of Zarang and areas of Sistan. This prompted the Zunbil and his allies, who had already inflicted a humiliating defeat on the Arabs earlier, to intervene in the Arab affairs at Sistan and Bust. Baladhuri says of this period:
{{Quote box
|quote=He [ Talha ] appointed as his successor as his man from the Banu Yashkur [ scions of Bakr ], but the Mudari group expelled him; factional strife ('assabiya) broke out, each group seizing a town for itself, so that the Zunbil became tempted to intervene there.
|source=Futuh al-Buldan
====Under Al-Hajjaj====
Al-Hajjaj, who had become governor of Iraq and the East in 78 AH (697–98 AD), had appointed Ubaidallah, who was a mawla, as his deputy in Sistan. The Zunbils, who had been left unchecked, had completely stopped paying the tribute. This provided a pretext to terminate the peace treaty between the two sides. Ubaidallah was appointed for an expedition against them in 698 and was ordered by Al-Hajjaj to "attack until he laid waste to Zunbil's territories, destroyed his strongholds, killed all his fighting men and enslaved his progeny". The ensuing campaign was called the "Army of Destruction" (Jaish al-Fana'). However, it ended disastrously for the Arabs.
Al-Baladhuri's account on the authority of Al-Mada'ini in Futuh al-Buldan and Ansab al-Ashraf, is the fullest documentation of the campaign. Tabari's account runs parallel but is based on Abu Mikhnaf and does not include the poem of A'sha Hamdan included in Ansab al-Ashraf. Ibn Qutaybah's Kitab al-Ma'arif only makes a bare mention. Ta'rikh al-khulafa' has a more detailed account and epitomises accounts of Tabari and Baladhuri. Tarikh-e-Sistan confuses the campaign with another one against the Khwarij of Zarang. The army consisted of Iraqis from Basra and Kufa, though Baladhuri mentions presence of some Syrians. Ubaidallah himself led the Basrans while the Tabi Shuraih b. Hani' al-Harithi ad-Dabbi led the Kufans.
They marched to Zamindawar or al-Rukhkhaj (the classical Arachosia) but found it barren and foodless. Their advance probably happened in summer of 698, as A'sha Hamdan's poem refers to the scorching heat they had to endure. In Zabulistan's regions of Ghazni and Gardiz, they plundered a significant amount of cattle and other animals, in addition to destroying various strongholds. The Zunbils, who were devastating the countryside whilst retreating, were luring the Arabs into a trap to an inhospitable and foodless terrain. Futuh al-Buldan states that the Muslims almost penetrated Kabul. Tabari meanwhile says that they came within 18 farsakhs of the summer capital of Zunbils in the Qandahar region.
The Arabs advanced east into Zabulistan and won several victories. However the troops did not want to fight in this inhospitable region and started becoming restive. Al-Hajjaj instructed them to continue the advance into Zabulistan's heart no matter what it took, making it clear to them he wanted them to return to their homes. The troops mutinied against Hajjaj's enforced emigration and returned to Iraq but were crushed by the Syrian troops. They fled back to the east while Ibn al-Ash'ath fled to Sistan where he died in 704 AD. The Zunbil was however persuaded by Al-Hajjaj's representative to surrender him. His fate is however unclear. Per some accounts, he committed suicide, while according to others he was killed by the Zunbil, who sent his head to the Umayyads in Sistan. Following this, a truce was declared between Al-Hajjaj and the Zunbil, in return for the latter paying tribute in kind and in return, Al-Hajjaj promised not to attack him.
====From 8th century====
Qutayba b. Muslim, the conqueror of Transoxiana, called Sijistan an "ill-omened front", and forced the Zunbils to pay tribute.
The new governor of Sistan, al-Asfah b. 'Abd Allah al-Kalbi, a Syrian, embarked on an ambitious policy of campaigning against the Zunbils. The first one was carried out in 726. During the second one in late 727–728, he was warned by the Sijistanis who were with him to not campaign in winter, especially in the mountain defiles. Per Ya'qubi, his army was completely annihilated by the Zunbils. Per Tarikh al-Sistani, al-Asfah managed to get back to Sistan where he died. The next two governors did not undertake any campaigns. The Zunbil was unable to take advantage of the annihilation of al-Asfah's army, but the defeat was a heavy one. It would become one in a series of blows for the caliphate.
The Sistan front remained quiet in the latter part of Abd al-Malik's reign except perhaps the Kharjite activity, with long tenures and blank records of 'Abd Allah b. Abi Baruda and Ibrahim b. 'Asim al-'Uqayli suggesting that the instability in the region had been controlled to an extent. It appears this was only possible because no more campaigns were undertaken against the Zunbils.
Al-Mansur sent Ma'n b. Zaida ash-Shabani to Sistan in response to the disturbances there. Ma'n along with his nephew Yazid b. Ziyad undertook an expedition against the Zunbil for making him obedient and restoring the tribute not paid since the time of al-Hajjaj. It is especially well-documented by al-Baladhuri. He ordered the Zunbil to pay the tribute and was offered camels, Turkish tents and slaves, but this did not placate him. Per al-Baldahuri, under the reign of al-Mansur, Hisham b. 'Amr al-Taghlibi after conquering Kandahar, destroyed its idol-temple and built a mosque in its place.
Ma'n and Yazid advanced into Zamindawar but the Zunbil had fled to Zabulistan. They nonetheless pursued and defeated him, taking 30,000 as captives, including Faraj al-Rukhkhaji, who would later become a secretary of the department of private estates of the Caliph under al-Ma'mun. Zunbil's deputy Mawand (who is recorded as his son-in-law Mawld in Tarikh-e-Sistan) offered submission, which was requested, and was sent with 5,000 of their soldiers to Baghdad, where he was treated kindly and given pensions along with his chieftains per Baladhuri. When the Caliph Al-Ma'mun (r. 813–833 AD) visited Khorasan, he was paid double the tribute by Rutbil, but was evidently left unmolested and the Arabs later subdued Kabul.
Al-Ma'mun's expeditions were the last Arab conflict against Kabul and Zabul and the long-drawn conflict ended with the dissolution of the empire.
During the caliphate of Uthman, new popular uprisings had broken out in Persia and continued for five years from 644 to 649. The revolts were suppressed and Abdullah b. Amir, who was appointed governor of Basra, had captured many cities including Balkh, Herat and Kabul.
After Mu'awiya became the Caliph, he prepared an expedition under 'Abd ar-Rahman b. Samura to Khorasan. Per Baladhuri, after recapturing Zarang as well as conquering other cities, the Arabs besieged Kabul for a few months and finally entered it. The historian Firishta states that while capturing Kabul in 664 AD, Samura had made converts of some 12,000 people.
The new king of Kabul Barha Tegin and the Zunbil campaigned against the Arabs after Samura's departure, recapturing Kabul, Zabulistan and al-Rukhkhaj. Rabi b. Ziyad attacked the Zunbil after becoming governor in 671 AD. His successor Ubayd Allah b. Abi Bakra continued the campaign in 673 AD, with the Zunbil negotiating for both Zabul and Kabul soon afterwards.
In about 680–683, the kingdom split into two with the Zunbil fleeing from his brother, the king of Kabul, and approaching Salm b. Ziyad at Amul in Khorasan. In return for him agreeing to acknowledge Salm as his overlord, the Zunbil was allowed to settle down in Amul. Soon he drove his brother out and established himself in Amul. The location of Amul mentioned by Tabari is not certain, Josef Markwart identified it with Zabul. Tabari however claims the Kabul Shah fled instead from the Zunbil and established himself as an independent king during the reign of Mu'awiya.
Abdur Rehman, who studied the descriptions of Tabari however stated that these events should be seen as having happened in Yazid's time since Salm was governor under his reign. In 152 AH (769 AD), Humayd ibn Qahtaba, the governor of Khorasan, raided Kabul. According to Ibn al-Athir, al-'Abbas b. Ja'far led an expedition against Kabul sent by his father Ja'far b. Muhamamad in 787–78, which Bosworth claims is the one attributed to Ibrahim b. Jibril by Al-Ya'qubi.
The only record of an event in early Abbasid period obviously related to the area south of the Hindu Kush, is the expedition against Kabul in 792-793 ordered by Al-Fadl ibn Yahya and led by Ibrahim b. Jibril. It is mentioned by al-Tabari's chronicle, the tenth century Kitāb al-Wuzarā'wa al-Kuttāb of al-Jahshiyari and by al-Ya'qubi. Per al-Jahshiyari, he conquered Kabul and acquired a lot of wealth. Al-Ya'qubi states that rulers and landlords of Tukharistan, including Bamiyan's king, joined this army, implying it crossed the Hindu Kush from the north. It also mentions the subjugation of "Ghurwand" (present-day Ghorband). He also mentions the "Pass of Ghurwand", which judging by the itinerary of the expedition from Tukharistan to Bamiyan to Ghorband valley, is identical to Shibar Pass. They then marched to Shah Bahar where an idol venerated by the locals was destroyed. The inhabitants of various towns then concluded peace treaties with Fadl, one of which was identified by Josef Markwart as Kapisa.
===Qutayba's campaigns===
Qutayba b. Muslim was appointed the governor of Khorasan in 705 by al-Hajjaj b. Yusuf, the governor of Iraq and the East. He began his rule with the reconquest of western Tokharistan in the same year. Qutayba, who was tasked with subduing the revolt in Lower Tokharistan, led the final conquest of Balkh. His army was assembled in spring of 705 and marched to Balkh. Per one version of al-Tabari, the city was surrendered peacefully. Another version, speaks of a revolt among the residents.
According to Baldhuri, when Qutayba became the governor of Khorasan and Sistan, he appointed his brother 'Amr to Sistan. 'Amr asked the Zunbil to pay tribute in cash but he refused, prompting Qutayba to march against him. The campaign was also partially encouraged by his desire to eliminate the support of the southern Hepthalites, the Zabulites, for their northern brethren to revolt. Zunbil, who was surprised by this unexpected move and scared of Qutayba's reputation, quickly capitulated. Qutayba, realizing the real strength of the Zunbils, accepted it and returned to Merv, leaving only an Arab representative in Sistan.
Nizak wrote to the Zunblis asking for help. In addition, he also forced the weak Jābghū of Tokharistan to join his cause to persuade all princes of the Principalities of Tukharistan to do the same. His plan to stage the revolt in spring of 710 was however spoilt by Qutayba. Bādām fled when Qutayba advanced on Marw al-Rudh which was the only place in his campaign where the inhabitants were not given a complete amnesty, concerning which H.A.R. Gibb states the "traditions are hopelessly confused". Per one account, he executed and crucified a band of bandits there, though it is possible it was selected for this severity as it was the only place where there was an open revolt.
Faryab and Guzgan both submitted and their inhabitants were not harmed. From there, Qutayba went on to receive the submission of people of Balkh. Almost all of Nizak's princely allies had reconciled themselves with Qutayba and there were Arab governors in all towns of Tokharistan, spoiling his plans. He fled south to the Hindu Kush, hoping to reach Kabul Nizak fled along the modern road that leads from the Oxus valley to Salang Pass and holed up in an unidentified mountain refuge in a site of Baghlan Province. Qutayba caught up with him and besieged him for two months. Qutayba then went in pursuit of Juzjan's king, who requested amnesty and called for exchange of hostages as a precautionary measure. This was agreed upon and Habib b. 'Abd Allah, a Bahilite, was sent as prisoner by Qutayba while the king sent some of his family members in return. The peace treaty was agreed but the king died in Taloqan on his return journey. His subjects accused the Muslims of poisoning him and killed Habib, with Qutayba retaliating by executing Juzjan's hostages.
===Other regions===
====Ghur====
Tabari records that in 667 AD, Ziyad b. Abihi had sent Hakam b. 'Amr al-Ghafri to Khorasan as Amir. Hakam raided Ghur and Farawanda, bringing them to submission through force of arms and conquered them. He obtained captives and a large amount of plunder from them. A larger expedition was undertaken under Asad ibn Abdallah al-Qasri, the governor of Khorasan, who raided Gharchistan in 725, receiving its submission as well as the conversion of its king to Islam. He next attacked Ghur whose residents hid their valuables in an inaccessible cave, but he was able to plunder the wealth by lowering his men in crates.
Asad's success prompted him to undertake a second expedition in 108-109 AH against Ghur. The poet Thabit Qutna's eulogical poem of Asad recorded by Tabari called it a campaign against the Turks saying, "Groups of the Turks who live between Kabul and Ghur came to you, since there was no place in which they might find refuge from you." Bosworth states that this campaign may have actually taken place in Guzgan or Bamiyan rather than the purely-Iranian Ghur. He also states that no doubt further sporadic raids continued throughout the Umayyad rule, though not noted by historians. It is known that Nasr ibn Sayyar's commander Sulaiman b. Sul had raided Gharchistan and Ghur some time before 739 AD. He also recounts a legend about a dispute between two prominent families of the area. They sought the intercession of the Abbasids and the ancestor of the Shansabi family, Amir Banji, was subsequently confirmed as the ruler by Harun al-Rashid. In all sources it is cited as supplying slaves to slave markets in Khorasan, indicating it had a mostly "infidel" population. Istakhari called it a land of infidels (dar al-kufr) annexed to Islamic domain because of its Muslim minority. However Hudud al-'Alam stated it had a mostly-Muslim population.
====Ghazni====
The pre-Ghaznavid royal dynasty of Ghazni were the Lawiks. Afghan historian 'Abd al-Hayy Habibi Qandahari, who in 1957 examined a manuscript containing tales about miracles (karamat) of Shaikh Sakhi Surur of Multan, who lived in the 12th century, concluded it dated to 1500. He recorded one of its anecdotes which records the history of Ghazni by the Indian traditionalist and lexicographer Radi ad-Din Hasan b. Muhammad al-Saghani (died 1252) from Abu Hamid az-Zawuli. According to it, a great mosque at Ghazni was earlier a great idol-temple built in honor of the Rutbils and Kabul-Shahs by Wujwir Lawik. His son Khanan converted to Islam and was sent a poem by the Kabul-Shah saying, "Alas! The idol of Lawik has been interred beneath the earth of Ghazni, and the Lawiyan family have given away [the embodiment of] their kingly power. I am going to send my own army; do not yourself follow the same way of the Arabs [ie., Islam]."
Habibi continues stating that Khanan later reconverted to the faith of the Hindu-Shahis. His grandson Aflah however upon assuming power demolished the idol-temple and built a mosque in its place. When the saint Surur arrived at the mosque, he is said to have found the idol of Lawik and destroyed it. The Siyasatnama of Nizam al-Mulk, the Tabaqat-i Nasiri of Juzjani and the Majma' al-ansāb fī't-tawārīkh of Muhammad Shabankara'i (14th century) mention Lawik. Juzjani gives the Lawik who was defeated by Alp-tegin the Islamic kunya of Abu Bakr, though Shabankara'i claims he was a pagan. A variant of his name appears as Anuk in Tabaqat-i Nasiri.
The Buddhist monastery of Tepe Sardar existed near Ghazni during the time Arabs were threatening the Ghazni region, and was destroyed by a fire possibly due to the first Muslim invasion of the region in 671–672 CE. It may have been the "Šāh Bahār" (temple of the king) mentioned as having been destroyed by Muslims in 795 CE in the Kitab al-Buldan.
====Bamyan====
Ya'qubi states that the lord of Bamyan called the Shēr, was converted to Islam under Caliph Al-Mansur (d.775) by Muzahim b. Bistam, who married his son Abu Harb Muhammad to his daughter. However, in his history he changes it to the rule of Al-Mahdi (r. 775–785). Ya'qubi also states that Al-Fadl ibn Yahya made Hasn, Abu Harb Muhammad's son, as the new Shēr after his successful campaign in Ghorband. Ya'qubi states that the ruler of Bamiyan had accompanied an expedition dispatched by Al-Fadl ibn Yahya in 792–793 against the Kabul Shahi.
==Post-Arab rule==
===Tahirids===
Khurasan was the base for early recruitment of Abbasid armies, especially the Abbasid takeover received support from Arab settlers aiming to undermine the important sections of non-Muslim aristocracy. The Abbasids succeeded in integrating Khorasan and the East into the central Islamic lands. The state was gradually Persianized through political influence and financial support of the dihqans. Al-Ma'mun emerged as the victor in the Fourth Fitna with the help of Khorasani forces and appointed Tahir ibn Husayn as the governor. Later, he appointed Talha as the governor in 822 and Abdallah in 828. But after the Abbasid decline, Khorasan ended up turning into a virtually independent state under a Persian mawla who rose to favour under Al-Ma'mun.
According to Ibn Khordadbeh, the Shah of Kabul had to send 2,000 Oghuz slaves worth 600,000 dirhams as annual tribute to the governor of Khorasan Abdallah ibn Tahir (r. 828–845). In addition to the Oghuz slaves, he also had to pay an annual tribute of 1.5 million dirhams. Mid-9th century, one of their tributaries Abu Da'udid or the Banijurid Amir Da'ud b. Abu Da'ud Abbas, undertook an obscure campaign into eastern Afghanistan and Zabulistan that was profitable. It is recorded that in 864 Muhammad ibn Tahir sent two elephants captured at Kabul, idols and aromatic substances to the caliph.
===Saffarids===
====Ya'qub b. al-Layth====
The Tahirid rule was overthrown by Ya'qub ibn al-Layth al-Saffar of Sistan, the first independent Iranian ruler in the post-Islamic era. He also fought against the Abbasid Caliphate. He joined the 'ayyar band of Salih b. al-Nadr/Nasr, who was recognised as Bust's amir in 852. al-Nasr aimed at taking over whole of Sistan and drove out the Tahirid governor in 854, with Sistan ceasing to be under the direct control of the Caliphate. al-Nasr himself was overthrown by Dirham b. Nasr who was overthrown by Ya'qub in 861. Ya'qub and his brother Amr advanced as far as Baghdad and to Kabul itself in eastern Afghanistan with their dynamism, advancing along the historic route taken by the modern Lashkargah-Qandahar-Ghazni-Kabul road. Their eastern campaigns are documented by Arabic sources of Al-Masudi's Murūj adh-dhahab, Ibn al-Athir's al-Kāmil fi't-tā'rīkh and Tarikh-e-Sistan. The Persian historian Gardizi's Zain al-akhbār also mentions the Saffarid campaigns.
Salih fled to ar-Rukhkhaj or Arachosia, where he received the help of the Zunbil. Both Salih and the Zunbil were killed by Ya'qub in 865.
Muhammad Aufi's Jawami ul-Hikayat meanwhile states that during his invasion of Zabul, Yaqub employed a ruse to surrender after being allowed to pay homage to the ruler along with his troops, lest they disperse and become dangerous to both sides. Yaqub's troops "carried their lances concealed behind their horses and were wearing coats of mail under their garments. The Almighty made the army of Rusal (probably Rutbil), blind, so that they did not see the lances. When Yaqub drew near Rusal, he bowed his head as if to do homage, but raised a lance and thrust it in the back of Rusal so that he died on the spot. His people also fell like lightning upon the enemy, cutting them down with their swords and staining the earth with the blood of the enemies of the religion. The infidels when they saw the head of Rusal upon the point of a spear took to flight and great bloodshed ensued. This victory, which he achieved, was the result of treachery and deception, such as no one had ever committed."
Ashirbadi Lal Srivastava states that after this victory by Yaqub over Zabul, the position of Lallya alias Kallar, the Brahmin minister who had overthrown the last Kshatriya king of Kabul Lagaturman, seems to have become untenable. He shifted his capital to Udhaband in 870 AD. Lallya, credited as an able and strong ruler by Kalhana in Rajatarangini, was driven out by Ya'qub from Kabul within a year of his usurpation according to Srivastava. Salih b. al-Hujr, described as a cousin of the Zunbil, was appointed as the Saffarid governor of ar-Rukhkhaj, but rebelled two years after Zunbil's death and committed suicide to avoid capture. Per Gardizi, Ya'qub undertook another expedition in 870 which advanced as far as Kabul and Bamiyan. In 871, Ya'qub sent 50 gold and silver idols he gained by campaigning from Kabul to Caliph Al-Mu'tamid, who sent them to Mecca.
According to Tabaqat-i-Nasiri, Ghor, which was ruled by Amir Suri in the 9th century, entered into a war against Ya'qub, but escaped conquest due to its difficult and mountainous terrain. The caliph however announced divesting him of all his governorships in 885 and reappointed Muhammad b. Tahir as the governor of Khorasan. He was reappointed governor of Khorasan in 892 by Al-Mu'tadid.
Amr led an expedition as far as Sakawand in the Logar Valley, between Ghazni and Kabul, described as a Hindu pilgrimage-centre. In 896, he sent idols captured from Zamindawar and the Indian frontier, including a female copper idol with four arms and two girdles of silver set with jewels and pulled on a trolley by camels, to Baghdad.
Aufi states that Amr had sent Fardaghan as the prefect over Ghazni and he launched the raid on Sakawand, which was a part of the territory of Kabul Shahi and had a temple frequented by Hindus. The Shah of Kabul at this time was Kamaluka, called "Kamalu" in Persian literature. Fardaghan entered it and succeeded in surprising Sakawand. Sakawand was plundered, and its temple destroyed.
Kamalu counter-attacked Fardaghan, who realising his forces were no match for his, resorted to spreading a false rumour that he knew his intentions and had organised a formidable army against him with 'Amr on the way to join him. The rumour had the desired effect and the opposing army slowed its advance, knowing that they could be ambushed and slaughtered if they advanced impetuously into the narrow defiles. Meanwhile, Fardaghan received reinforcements from Khorasan according to Aufi. According to Aufi, he cleverly averted the danger. The Turks were highly noted for their martial prowess by the Muslim sources and were in high demand as slave-soldiers (ghulam, mamluk) by the Caliphate in Baghdad and the provincial emirs. The slaves were acquired either in military campaigns or through trade. The Samanids were heavily involved in this trade of Turkish slaves from lands to the north and east of their state. As the enslavement was limited to non-Muslims and with the Turks increasingly adopting Islam beyond Samanid borders, they also entered Transoxiana as free men due to various causes.
The Ghaznavids arose indirectly from the atmosphere of disintegration, palace revolutions and succession putsches of the Samanid Empire. Abu-Mansur Sabuktigin was one of the Samanid slave guards who rose from the ranks to come under the patronage of the Chief Hajib Alp-Tegin.
Alp-Tegin proceeded with his small force of ghulams and ghazis (200 ghulams and 800 ghazis according to Siyasatnama, while Majma al-ansab of Muhammad b. Ali al-Shabankara'i (d. 1358) states 700 ghulams and 2,500 Tajiks). En route, he subdued the Iranian Sher of Bamiyan and the Hindu-Shahi king of Kabul. He then came to Ghazni, whose citadel he besieged for four months and wrested the town from its ruler, Abu 'Ali or Abu Bakr Lawik or Anuk. The origin of this chief was Turkic, though it is not known if he was a Samanid vassal or an independent ruler. Josef Markwart suggests he was a late representative of the Zunbils.
Minhaj al-Siraj Juzjani states that Alp-Tegin had his position regularised by Amir Mansur b. Nuh through an investiture, however Siyasatnama mentions an expedition against Alp-Tegin from Bukhara which was defeated outside Ghazni. His ambiguous, semi-rebel status seems to be reflected in his coins, with two of his coins minted at Parwan mentioning his authority from the Samanids to mint coins only in an indirect way.
Alp-Tegin's ghulams were reconciled with the Samanids in 965 but maintained their autonomy. After Ibrahim's death in 966, Bilge-Tigin was made the successor and he acknowledged the Samanids as his overlords. He died in 364 AH (974–975 AD) while besieging Gardez and was succeeded by Böritigin or Piri.
Piri's misrule led to resentment among the people who invited Abu Ali to take back the throne. The Kabul Shahis allied with him and the king, most likely Jayapala, sent his son to assist Lawik in the invasion. According to the Majba al-Ansab, Sabuktigin managed to convince the Muslim Turks living in Ghazni, Gardez and Bamyan to participate in a jihad against the Hindus. When the allied forces reached near Charkh on Logar River, they were attacked by Sabuktigin who killed and captured many of them, while also capturing ten elephants. Lawik as well his ally were both killed in the battle. Piri was expelled and Sabuktigin became governor in 977 AD. The accession was endorsed by the Samanid ruler Nuh II. He was able to conquer eastern Ghur after initial set-backs and was acknowledged as a sovereign by Muhammad ibn Suri. He crossed the Khyber Pass many times and raided the territory of Jaipala.
Jayapala appointed Sheikh Hamid Khan Lodi as ruler over Multan and Lamghan, but Sabuktigin broke up this alliance after his accession through diplomatic means, convincing Lodi to acknowledge him as an overlord. Although Ferishta had identified Lodi and his family as Afghans, historian Yogendra Mishra pointed out that this was an error, since they were descended from the Qurayshite Usama ibn Lawi ibn Ghalib.
Sabuktigin plundered the forts in the outlying provinces of the Kabul Shahi and captured many cities, acquiring huge booty.
=====Second war against Jayapala=====
After making peace with Sabuktigin, Jayapala returned to Waihind but broke the treaty and mistreated the amirs sent to collect the tribute. Sabuktigin launched another invasion in retaliation. While the mamluks remained the core of his army, he also hired the Afghans, especially the Ghilji tribe, in his dominion. According to al-Utbi, Sabuktigin attacked Lamghan, conquering it and burning the residences of the "infidels", while also demolishing its idol-temples and establishing Islam. He proceeded to slaughter the non-Muslims, destroyed their temples and plundered their shrines. It is said that his forces even risked frostbite on their hands while counting the large booty.
To avenge the savage attack of Sabuktigin, Jayapala, who had earlier taken his envoys as hostage, decided to go to war again in revenge. According to al-Utbi, he assembled an army of 100,000 against Sabuktigin. The much later account of Ferishta states that it included troops from Kanauj, Ajmer, Delhi and Kalinjar. The two sides fought on an open battlefield in Laghman. Sabuktigin divided his army into packs of 500 who attacked the Indians in succession. After sensing that they were weakened, his forces mounted a concerted attack. The forces of Kabul Shahi were routed and those still alive were killed in the forest or drowned in the river.
The second battle that took place between Sabuktigin and Jayapala in 988 AD, resulted in the former capturing territory between Lamghan and Peshawar. Al-Utbi also states that the Afghans and Khaljis, living there as nomads, took the oath of allegiance to him and were recruited into his army. He helped Nuh II in expelling the rebel and heretic Abu Ali Simjur from Khorasan, resulting in its governorship being given to Sabuktigin who appointed Mahmud as his deputy there. He also appointed Ismail as the successor to his kingdom and died in 997. A succession war erupted between Ismail and Mahmud, with the latter gaining the throne in 998.
====Mahmud====
The Samanid amir Mansur II appointed Bektuzun as Khorasan's governor after Sabuktigin's death. Mahmud however wished to reacquire the governorship after defeating his brother Ismail and his allies. Bektuzun and Fa'iq, the de facto power behind the Samanid throne, toppled Mansur II as they did not trust him, and replaced him with Abu'l Fawaris 'Abd al-Malik. Their forces were however defeated in 999 by Mahmud, who acquired all the lands south of Oxus, with even those to the north of the river submitting to him. The Samanid dynasty was later ended by the Karakhanids. In 1002, Mahmud also defeated the Saffarid Amir Khalaf ibn Ahmad and annexed Sistan.
=====Wars against Kabul Shahi=====
Mahmud systemized plunder raids into India as a long-term policy of the Ghaznavids. The first raid was undertaken in September 1000, but was meant for reconnaissance and identifying the possible terrain and roads that could be used for future raids. He reached Peshawar by September 1001 and was attacked by Jayapala. The two sides clashed on 27–28 November 1001 and Jayapala was captured. Anandapala who was at Waihind, had to pay a heavy ransom to have his father and others released. Jayapala later self-immolated out of shame and Anandpala succeeded him. Mahmud attacked Anandpala later over his refusal to allow him passage during his attack on Multan, which was controlled by Fateh Daud. The two sides clashed in 1009 in the eastern side of Indus at Chhachh, with Mahmud defeating Anandapala and capturing the fort of Bhimnagar. He was allowed to rule as a feudatory in Punjab for some time. During the warfare from 990–91 to 1015, Afghanistan, and later Punjab and Multan were lost to the Ghaznavids. He was killed in 1021 AD by his mutinous troops and succeeded by Bhimapala, who became the last ruler of the Kabul Shahi and was killed fighting the Ghaznavids in 1026 AD. The remnants of the royal family sought refuge with the Lohara dynasty of Kashmir and Punjab passed under the control of Muslim conquerors.
Mahmud used his plundered wealth to finance his armies which included mercenaries. The Indian soldiers, presumably Hindus, who were one of the components of the army, with their commander called sipahsalar-i-Hinduwan, lived in their quarter of Ghazni while practicing their own religion. Indian soldiers under their commander Suvendhray remained loyal to Mahmud. They were also used against a Turkic rebel, with the command given to a Hindu named Tilak according to Baihaki.
The renowned 14th-century Moroccan Muslim scholar Ibn Battuta remarked that the Hindu Kush meant the "slayer of Indians", because the slaves brought from India who had to pass through there died in large numbers due to the extreme cold and quantity of snow. He states:
=====Invasions of Ghur=====
The conversion of Ghur occurred over a long period and it was mostly pagan until the 10th century, which Mohammad Habib and Khaliq Ahmad Nizami say was probably a result of the missionary activities by the Karramiyya movement established in the region in 10th–11th centuries. Its imperfect conversion is visible by the fact that while the people of Ghur had Muslim names, they led the life of pagans. Muhammad b. Suri, who had acknowledged Sabuktigin as his sovereign, withheld tribute after his death, started plundering caravans and harassed the subjects of Mahmud.
In 1011, Mahmud dispatched an expedition to conquer Ghur under Altuntash, governor of Herat, and Arslan Hajib, governor of Tus. Muhammad b. Suri, the king, placed himself in inaccessible hills and ravines. The Ghurids were however defeated and Suri was captured along with his son Shith. Abu Ali, who had remained on good terms with the Sultan, was made the ruler of Ghur by him. Eastern Ghur was brought under Ghaznavid control. In 1015, Mahmud attacked Ghur's southwestern district of Khwabin and captured some forts.
In 1020, Mahmud's son Ma'sud was dispatched to take Ghur's northwestern part called Tab. He was helped by Abul Hasan Khalaf and Shirwan, chieftains of the south-western and north-eastern regions respectively. He captured many forts, bringing the entire region of Ghur, except maybe the inaccessible interior, under Ghaznavid control. Minhaj al-Siraj Juzjani praises Abu Ali for firmly establishing Islamic institutions in Ghur. The progress of Islam in this divided region after his death is however unknown.
Ghur remained a pagan enclave until the 11th century. Mahmud who raided it, left Muslim precepts to teach Islam to the local population. The region became Muslim by 12th century, though the historian Satish Chandra states that Mahayana Buddhism is believed to have existed until the end of the century. Neither Mahmud nor Ma'sud conquered the interior. Habib and Nizami say that the Ghurids were gradually converted by propagandists of new mystic movements. The Shansabani eventually succeeded in establishing their seniority in Ghor, if not its unification. By the time of Sultan Bahram, Ghur was converted and politically unified. According to Minhaj, both Ghiyasuddin and Mu'izzuddin were Karamis who later converted to Shafi‘i and Hanafi Islam respectively. Tarikh-i guzida however says that the Ghorids were only converted to Islam by Mahmud.
==Conversion of Pashtuns==
The name Afghanistan was first used in a political sense by Saifi Herawi in the 14th century. It was even used during the height of the Durrani Empire. Only after the Durand line was fixed, did its modern usage for the land between it and the Oxus river became usual. The people who were mostly responsible for establishing the Afghan kingdom are referred to as Pashtun, who were also called "Afghans". The name Pashtun (or Pakthun) is the original and oldest name.
The tenth-century Persian geography Hudud al-'Alam is the earliest known mention of the Afghans. In Discourse on the Country of Hindistan and Its Towns, it states that, "Saul, a pleasant village on a mountain. In it live Afghans." Ibn Battuta described Saul as being situated between Gardez and Husaynan along a common trade route, the exact location of Husaynan is unknown. Akhund Darweza states that their original homeland was Qandahar from where they immigrated in 11th century upon the request of Mahmud of Ghazni to assist him in his conquests gradually expanding Pashtun settlements. Afghan tradition considers "Kase Ghar" in Sulayman range as the homeland. Hudud al-'Alam also mentions that the king of Ninhar (Nangarhar) had many wives including "Moslem, Afghan and Hindu". Qais Abdur Rashid, the presumed ancestor of the Afghans, is said to have led a delegation to Mecca from Ghor after being summoned by Khalid b. Walid and converted to Islam while also distinguishing himself in the service of Muhammad. He adopted the name Abdul Rashid, and his three sons – Saraban, Ghurghust, Baitan, and an adopted son Karlanri linked to Saranban, are considered to be the progenitors of the major Afghan divisions.
Ni'matullah's Makhzan-i-Afghani traces their history to an Israelite called Afghana who constructed the al-Aqsa mosque. Per it, under the time of King Suleiman, a figure named Bokhtnasser was responsible for "carrying away the Israelites, whom he settled in the mountainous districts of Ghor, Ghazneen, Kabul, Candahar, Koh Firozeh, and the parts lying within the fifth and sixth climates; where they, especially those descended of Asif and Afghana, fixed their habitations, continually increasing in number, and incessantly making war on the infidels around them." Qais traveled to Medina to receive Mohammed's blessings and fought against the Meccans. Muhammad himself conferred the title of Pashtun upon Qais and his people according to the tradition. They returned to Ghor to spread Islam and pledged loyalty to Mahmud. Per Ni'matullah, the Ghurid ruler Mu'izz al-Din had initiated their eastward migration (or settlements) into present-day north-west Pakistan, in course of his military campaigns.
The Arabs, at war with the Kabul Shah, had directed their campaigns in direction of Gandhara. By the time of Mu'awiya, Sistan's governorship was separated from Khorasan, with the governor looking after the region and keeping a check on Kabul Shah. Ahmed Hassan Dani considered that the Arab activities may have led to conversion of Afghans as well, and it may have been wholesale because of their tribal nature, i.e., all the Afghan tribes adopted Islam at once.
Al-Utbi in Tarikh-i-Yamini states that the Afghans were enlisted by Sabuktigin and also Mahmud. During this period, the Afghan habitat was in the Sulaiman Mountains. After defeating Jayapala in 988 AD, Sabuktigin had acquired the territory between Laghman and Peshawar. Al-Utbi states that the Afghans and Khaljis, living there as nomads, took the oath of allegiance to him and were recruited into his army.
Writing in the 11th century AD, Al-Biruni in his Tarikh al Hind stated that the Afghan tribes lived in mountains west of India. He notes, "In the western frontier mountains of India there live various tribes of the Afghans and extend up to the neighbourhood of the Sindu valley." He earlier also noted about the mountains, "In marching from our country to Sindh we start from the country of Nimroz, i.e. the country of Sijistan, whilst marching to Hind or India proper we start from the side of Kabul... In the mountains which form the frontier of India towards the west there are tribes of the Hindus, or of people near akin to them – rebellious savage races – which extend as far as the farthermost frontiers of the Hindu race."
Mahmud had gone to war against pagan Afghans while campaigning in the Sulayman mountains. Firishta states that Afghans fought on both sides during the war between Mu'izz al-Din and Pithorai in 1192 AD, which Encyclopaedia of Islam says probably indicates that they were not completely converted yet.
In 1519, Babur mounted an attack on the fort of Bajaur and sent a Dilazak Afghan as an ambassador to the Gibri Sultan of Bajaur, Mir Haidar 'Ali, to surrender and enter his services. Gibri, a Dardic language of Bajaur, was also spoken by the royal family and nobility of the Swat Valley. The Gibris decided to resist and Babur's forces stormed it in two days. He ordered a general massacre of its inhabitants on the pretext that they had rebelled against Kabul's regime and were infidels who had forsaken Islam.
The westward movement of Pashtuns from Sulaiman mountains to Qandahar and Herat is thought to have begun in the 15th century. In the 16th century, the area around Qandahar formed a bone of contention between the Ghilzais and Abdalis. The latter gave in and moved towards Herat during the reign of Safavid Shah Abbas I. Their settlements displaced or subjugated the indigenous populations, especially the Tajiks who were also the dominant population in Kabul, Nangarhar and Laghman in east Afghanistan. Before the advent of Ghilzais of the Ahmadzai division in the late 16th century, Logar River was also a Tajik stronghold. The Pashtuns also displaced the original Kafirs and Pashayi people in Kunar Valley and Laghman Valley, located south of Kabul in east Afghanistan, to the infertile mountains. Regions to the south and east of Ghazni were the strongholds of Hazaras before the 16th century. They also lost Wardak to the tribe of the same name when the latter invaded in the 17th century. In Qandahar, the Farsiwanis, Hazaras, Kakars and Baloch people were subjugated.
== Conquests of Kafiristan ==
Kafiristan is a mountainous region of the Hindu Kush that was isolated and politically independent until the Afghan conquest of 1896.
Kafiristan proper from west to east comprises basins of Alishang, Alingar, Pech or Prasun, Waigal and Bashgal. The region became a refuge of an old group of Indo-European people, probably mixed with an older substratum, as well as a refuge of a distinct Kafiri group of Indo-Iranian languages, forming part of the wider Dardic languages. The inhabitants were known as "kafirs" due to their enduring paganism, while other regions around them became Muslim. However, the influence from district names in Kafiristan of Katwar or Kator and the ethnic name Kati has also been suggested. The Kafirs were divided into Siyah-Posh, comprising five sub-tribes who spoke the Kamkata-vari language; while the others were called Safed-Posh, comprising Prasungeli, Waigeli, Wamai and Ashkun.
The Kafirs called themselves "Balor", a term that appeared in Chinese sources as early as the fifth century AD. In both the Chinese sources and Muslim sources like the 16th-century work of Kashmir's conqueror Mirza Muhammad Haidar Dughlat, the terms "Bolor" and "Boloristan" denote the area from the Kabul valley to Kashmir, Yarkand and Kashgar. The country is the most inaccessible part of Hindu Kush. The Muslim conquerors could not achieve a lasting success here.
The vast area extending from modern Nuristan to Kashmir contained a host of "Kafir" cultures and Indo-European languages that became Islamized over a long period. Earlier, it was surrounded by Buddhist areas. The Islamization of the nearby Badakhshan began in the 8th century and Kafiristan was completely surrounded by Muslim states in the 16th century with the Islamization of Baltistan. The Buddhist states temporarily brought literacy and state rule into the region. The decline of Buddhism resulted in it becoming heavily isolated.
There have been varying theories about the origins of the Kafirs. Oral traditions of some Nuristanis place themselves to be at confluence of Kabul and Kunar River a millennium ago, being driven off from Kandahar to Kabul to Kapisa to Kama with the Muslim invasion. They identify themselves as late arrivals here, being driven by Mahmud of Ghazni, who after establishing his empire, forced the unsubmissive population to flee. The theory of Kators being related to the Turki Shahis is based on the information of Jami- ut-Tawarikh and Tarikh-i-Binakiti. The region was also named after its ruling elite. The royal usage may be the origin behind the name of Kator.
===Mahmud of Ghazni===
In 1020–21, Mahmud of Ghazni led a campaign against Kafiristan and the people of the "pleasant valleys of Nur and Qirat" according to Gardizi. The Persian chronicles speak of Qirat and Nur (or Nardin), which H. M. Elliot on authority of Al-Biruni identifies with Nur and Kira tributaries of Kabul river. Ferishta wrongly calls these two valleys as "Nardin" and Qirat and confuses this conquest with the one against "Nardin" or Nandana. He also wrongly mentions that it took place after 412 AH. Alexander Cunningham identifies the places conquered as "Bairath" and "Narayanpura".
These people worshipped the lion. While Clifford Edmund Bosworth considers that Mahmud attacked "pagan Afghans", Joseph Theodore Arlinghaus of Duke University does not consider it correct because his source Gardizi simply calls them "pagan (kafiran)" and not "pagan Afghans", as they were not known to be pagan or live on borders of Nuristan in the 11th century. Mohammad Habib however considers that they might have been worshipping Buddha in the form of a lion (Sakya Sinha). Ram Sharan Sharma meanwhile states that they may have been Buddhist. According to Firshta, the rulers of both of them submitted and accepted Islam in 1022. He adds, "On breaking a great temple situated there, the ornamented figure of a lion came out of it, which according to the belief of the Hindus was four thousand years old." Iqbal namah-i-Jahangiri stated that Kafirs still lived in Darrah-i-Nur which Mahmud of Ghazni had claimed to have converted. The Mughal Emperor Jahangir had received a delegation of these pure Kafirs in Jalalabad and had honoured them with gifts. On his way to India, Timur attacked the Siyah-Posh in 1398 AD after receiving complaints from the trading city of Andarab about the raids by the Kafirs. He penetrated Kafiristan from Khawak pass and restored an old fortress there. He personally proceeded against the Kator region, which extended from Kabul to Kashmir.
The Timurid Sultan Mahmud Mirza is said to have raided Kafiristan twice by Baburnama, which earned him the title of ghazi.
Rashid Khan (r. 1533–1560) undertook further expeditions against Bolor (Kafiristan), which are recorded by Tarikh-i-Kashgar and Bahr al-asar of Mahmud b. Amir Wali. The Kashgari author mentions it briefly, though Wali goes into detail. The first campaign failed with a number of Kashgari captured and enslaved by the people of Bolor. A second invasion was successful and forced them to submit. Tarikh-i-Kashgar states that Bolor was governed by Shah Babur after Abdullah Khan's successful campaign in 1640.
===Mughals===
Babur himself came to the region in the winter of 1507–1508 and had an inscription carved commemorating his transit.
While writing in his memoirs, Babur noted that when he captured Chigha Sarai in 1514, the "Kafirs of Pech came to their assistance."
The relationship between the Siahposh and the residents of Panjshir and Andarab remained the same even more than a century after Timur's expedition. Babur records about Panjshir that, "It lies upon the road, and is in the immediate vicinity of Kafiristan. The inroads of the robbers of Kafiristan are made through Panjshir. In consequence of their vicinity of the Kafirs – the inhabitants of this district are happy to pay them a fixed contribution. Since I last invaded Hindustan, and subdued it (in 1527), the Kafirs have descended into Panjshir, and returned after slaying a great number of people and committing extensive damages." The Sifat-nama-yi Darviš Muhammad Hān-i Ğāzī of Kadi Muhammad Salim who accompanied the expedition mentions its details
The conquest does not seem to have had a lasting effect, as Henry George Raverty mentions that Kafirs still lived in upper part of Alishang and Tagau. Khulasat al-ansab of Hafiz Rahmat Khan stated that the Afghans and Kafirs of Lamghan were still fighting each other during the time of Jahangir. Some parts of Kafiristan were already following Islam before its conquest. Amir Abdul Rahman Khan tried to persuade them to convert to Islam by deputing Kafir elders. The Kafirs were meanwhile poorly armed as compared to Afghans and numbered only 60,000. By 1895, the demarcation of nearby Chitral under indirect British rule, and the conquest of Pamirs by Russia, worried him about the endangerment of integration of Afghanistan through the independent Kafiristan. Afghan tribes meanwhile undertook slave raids in places like Kafiristan, Hazarajat, Badakhshan and Chitral.
The territory between Afghanistan and British India was demarcated between 1894 and 1896. Part of the frontier lying between Nawa Kotal in outskirts of Mohmand country and Bashgal Valley on outskirts of Kafiristan were demarcated by 1895 with an agreement reached on 9 April 1895. Abdur Rahman wanted to force every community and tribal confederation with his single interpretation of Islam due to it being the only uniting factor. After the subjugation of the Hazaras, Kafiristan was the last remaining autonomous part. Field marshal Ghulam Hayder Khan sent a message to Kafirs of Barikut which stated, "It is not the duty of the government to compel, force or impose on them to accept, or take the path of the religion of Islam. The obligation that does exist is this: they render obedience and pay their taxes. As long as they do not disobey their command, they will not incinerate themselves with the fire of padishah's [king's] wrath. In addition, they are not to block the building of the road [that was planned through their territory]." Other residents also converted to avoid the jizya. About 60,000 of the Kafirs became converts. Mullahs were deployed after the conquest to teach them about fundamentals of Islam. The large-scale conversion proved difficult however and complete Islamization took some time. Kafir elders are known to have offered sacrifices in their shrines upon hearing rumours of Rahman's death in 1901.
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] |
3,070 |
Durrani Empire
|
The Durrani Empire, colloquially known as the Afghan Empire, or the Sadozai Kingdom, was an Afghan empire founded by the Durrani tribe of Pashtuns under Ahmad Shah Durrani in 1747, which spanned parts of Central Asia, the Iranian plateau, and the Indian subcontinent. At its peak, it ruled over present-day Afghanistan, much of Pakistan, parts of northeastern and southeastern Iran, eastern Turkmenistan, and northwestern India.
Ahmad was the son of Muhammad Zaman Khan (an Afghan chieftain of the Abdali tribe) and the commander of Nader Shah Afshar. Following Afshar's death in June 1747, Ahmad secured Afghanistan by taking Kandahar, Ghazni, Kabul, and Peshawar. After his accession as the nation's king, he changed his tribal name from Abdali to Durrani. In 1749, the Mughal Empire had ceded sovereignty over much of northwestern India to the Afghans; Ahmad then set out westward to take possession of Mashhad, which was ruled by the Afsharid dynasty under Shahrokh Shah, who also acknowledged Afghan suzerainty. Subsequently, Ahmad sent an army to subdue the areas north of the Hindu Kush down to the Amu Darya, and in short order, all of the different Afghan tribes began to join his cause. Under Ahmad, the Afghans invaded India on eight occasions, subjugating parts of Kashmir and the majority of Punjab. In early 1757, he sacked Delhi, but permitted Mughal emperor Alamgir II to remain in nominal control as long as he acknowledged Afghan suzerainty over the regions south of the Indus River, till Sutlej river.
Following Ahmad's death in 1772, his son Timur Shah Durrani became the next ruler of the Durrani dynasty. Under Timur, the city of Kabul became the new capital of the Durrani Empire while Peshawar served as its winter capital. However, the empire had begun to crumble by this time, and faced territorial losses of Peshawar, Multan and Kashmir to the Sikh Empire in the early 19th century. The dynasty would become heirs of Afghanistan for generations, up until Dost Muhammad Khan and the Barakzai dynasty deposed the Durrani dynasty in Kabul, leading to its supersession by the Emirate of Afghanistan. The Durrani Empire is considered to be the foundational polity of the modern nation-state of Afghanistan, with Ahmad being credited as its Father of the Nation.
==History==
===Reign of Ahmad Shah Durrani (1747–1772)===
====Foundation of the Afghan state====
In 1709, Mirwais Hotak chief of the Ghilji tribe of Kandahar Province, gained independence from the Safavid Persians. From 1722 to 1725, his son Mahmud Hotak briefly ruled large parts of Iran and declared himself as Shah of Persia. However, the Hotak dynasty came to a complete end in 1738 after being toppled and banished by the Afsharids who were led by Nader Shah Afshar of Persia.
The year 1747 marks the definitive appearance of an Afghan political entity independent of both the Persian and Mughal empires. In June of that year a loya jirga (grand council) was called into session. The jirga lasted for nine days and two chief contestants emerged: Hajji Jamal Khan of the Mohammadzai lineage and Ahmad Khan of the Sadozai. Mohammad Sabir Khan, a noted darwish (holy man), who had earlier predicted that Ahmad Khan would be the leader of the Afghans, rose in the jirga and said
Ahmad Khan reputedly hesitated to accept the open decision of the jirga, so Sabir Khan again intervened. He placed some wheat or barley sheaves in Ahmad Khan's turban, and crowned him Badshah, Durr-i-Dauran (Shah, Pearl of the Age). The jirga concluded near the city of Kandahar with Ahmad Shah Durrani being selected as the new leader of the Afghans, thus the Durrani dynasty was founded. Despite being younger than the other contenders, Ahmad Shah had several overriding factors in his favor. He belonged to a respectable family of political background, especially since his father had served as Governor of Herat who died in a battle defending the Afghans.
====Early victories====
One of Ahmad Shah's first military actions was to capture Qalati Ghilji and Ghazni from the Ghilji, and wrest Kabul and Peshawar from Mughal-appointed governor Nasir Khan. In 1749, the Mughal Emperor Ahmad Shah Bahadur was induced to cede Sindh, the Punjab region and the important trans Indus River to Ahmad Shah Durrani in order to save his capital from Afghan attack. Having thus gained substantial territories to the east without a fight, Ahmad Shah turned westward to take possession of Mashhad, which was ruled by Nader Shah Afshar's grandson, Shahrukh Afshar. Ahmad Shah next sent an army to subdue the areas north of the Hindu Kush mountains. In short order, the powerful army brought under its control the Tajik, Hazara, Uzbek, Turkmen, and other tribes of northern Afghanistan. Ahmad Shah invaded the remnants of the Mughal Empire a third time, and then a fourth, consolidating control over the Kashmir and Punjab regions, with Lahore being governed by Afghans. He sacked Delhi in 1757 but permitted the Mughal dynasty to remain in nominal control of the city as long as the ruler acknowledged Ahmad Shah's suzerainty over Punjab, Sindh, and Kashmir. Leaving his second son Timur Shah to safeguard his interests, Ahmad Shah left India to return to Afghanistan.
====Relations with China====
Alarmed by the expansion of China's Qing dynasty up to the eastern border of Kazakhstan, Ahmad Shah attempted to rally neighboring Muslim khanates and the Kazakhs to unite and attack China, ostensibly to liberate its western Muslim subjects. Ahmad Shah halted trade with Qing China and dispatched troops to Kokand. However, with his campaigns in India exhausting the state treasury, and with his troops stretched thin throughout Central Asia, Ahmad Shah lacked sufficient resources to do anything except to send envoys to Beijing for unsuccessful talks.
====Third Battle of Panipat====
The Mughal power in northern India had been declining after the death of Emperor Aurangzeb, who died in 1707. In 1751–52, the Ahamdiya treaty was signed between the Marathas and Mughals, when Balaji Bajirao was the Peshwa. Through this treaty, the Marathas controlled virtually the whole of India from their capital at Pune and the Mughal rule was restricted only to Delhi (the Mughals remained the nominal heads of Delhi). Marathas were now straining to expand their area of control towards the Northwest of India. Ahmad Shah sacked the Mughal capital and withdrew with the booty he coveted. To counter the Afghans, Peshwa Balaji Bajirao sent Raghunathrao. He defeated the Rohillas and Afghan garrisons in Punjab and succeeded in ousting Timur Shah and his court from India and brought Lahore, Multan, Kashmir and other subahs on the Indian side of Attock under Maratha rule. Thus, upon his return to Kandahar in 1757, Ahmad was forced to return to India and face the formidable attacks of the Maratha Confederacy.
Ahmad Shah declared a jihad (or Islamic holy war) against the Marathas, and warriors from various Afghan tribes joined his army, including the Baloch people under the command of Khan of Kalat Mir Nasir I of Kalat. Suba Khan Tanoli (Zabardast Khan) was selected as army chief of all military forces. Early skirmishes were followed by victory for the Afghans against the much larger Maratha garrisons in Northwest India and by 1759 Ahmad Shah and his army had reached Lahore and were poised to confront the Marathas. Ahmad Shah Durrani was famous for winning wars much larger than his army. By 1760, the Maratha groups had coalesced into a big enough army under the command of Sadashivrao Bhau. Once again, Panipat was the scene of a confrontation between two warring contenders for control of northern India. The Third Battle of Panipat (14 January 1761), fought between largely Muslim and largely Hindu armies was waged along a twelve-kilometer front. There were rebellions in the north in the region of Bukhara. The Durranis decisively defeated the Marathas in the Third Battle of Panipat on 14 January 1761. The defeat at Panipat resulted in heavy losses for the Marathas, and was a huge setback for Peshwa Balaji Rao. He received the news of the defeat of Panipat on 24 January 1761 at Bhilsa, while leading a reinforcement force. Besides several important generals, he had lost his own son Vishwasrao in the Battle of Panipat. He died on 23 June 1761, and was succeeded by his younger son Madhav Rao I.
====Final years====
The victory at Panipat was the high point of Ahmad Shah's—and Afghan—power. However, even prior to his death, the empire began to unravel. In 1762, Ahmad Shah crossed the passes from Afghanistan for the sixth time to subdue the Sikhs. From this time and on, the domination and control of the Empire began to loosen, and by the time of Durrani's death he had lost parts of Punjab to the Sikhs, as well as earlier losses of northern territories to the Uzbeks, necessitating a compromise with them. Within two years, the Sikhs rebelled again and rebuilt their holy city of Amritsar. Ahmad Shah tried several more times to subjugate the Sikhs permanently, but failed. Durrani's forces instigated the Vaḍḍā Ghallūghārā when they killed thousands of Sikhs in the Punjab in 1762. He had succeeded to a remarkable degree in balancing tribal alliances and hostilities, and in directing tribal energies away from rebellion. He earned recognition as Ahmad Shah Baba, or "Father" of Afghanistan.
When Ahmad Shah was on his death bed, Sardar Jahan Khan had capitalized on Timur Shah's far proximity with him ruling over Herat, and poisoned the ear of the Shah. This had worked as Timur Shah was denied an by Ahmad Shah on his deathbed, as a result, Timur Shah had begun mobilizing his forces for the inevitable conflict with his brother. Timur Shah's plans were stalled, however, as a rebellion by Darwish Ali Khan under the Sunni Hazaras, likely instigated by the Sulaiman faction had risen up. Timur Shah had crushed this revolt quickly and Darwish Khan was imprisoned; however, he later escaped. Timur Shah had then lured him into Herat, offering pardon, where then Timur Shah had ordered his execution where his nephew, Muhammad Khan would be appointed in his place.
During the revolt of Darwish, Ahmad Shah had died of his illness in 1772. Shah Wali Khan and Sardar Jahan Khan kept the Shah's death a secret by placing the body on a palanquin covered by thick curtains. They had then left the King's mountain, taking as much treasure as they could and marched to Kandahar. Shah Wali Khan had also announced to everyone that the king was ill and had given orders to not disturb him except his trusted officials. To make the deception more believable, Ahmad Shah's chief eunuch, Yaqut Khan had brought food for the "Sick" Ruler. Shah wali Khan had then notified Sulaiman that Ahmad Shah was dead and proclaimed Sulaiman as king. However, many of the Amirs including Mahadad Khan had disliked Shah Wali's ambitions, and thus had fled to Timur's side, also notifying him of the ongoing situation at Kandahar. Timur Shah had then marched toward Kandahar to face Shah Humayun. Shah Wali, fearing of Timur's march had consulted with Shah Humayun, and had agreed on him marching out to Prince Timur Shah to welcome him. He left Kandahar with over 150 horsemen and had arrived at Prince Timur's force at Farah. Having not sent word, once Shah Wali had dismounted, Timur Shah ordered the killing of Shah Wali. Angu Khan Bamiza'i assassinated Shah Wali Khan and his two sons, including 2 of his sisters children. Shah Sulayman surrendered the throne to Timur Shah following this, and became a loyal follower of him according to the depiction of Amir Habibullah Khan. Timur Shah ascended the throne in November 1772.
====Timur Shah (1772–1793)====
After his father, Ahmad Shah Durrani's death, he fought his brother Humayun Mirza for the throne, with Humayun supported by Shah Wali Khan. Shah Wali was killed by Timur Shah as he attempted to ride into his camp and beg for peace and mercy. Timur Shah then marched to Kandahar, forcing Humayun to either flee or stay as a devout supporter for Timur Shah. With his throne secured, he began consolidating his power, with efforts to drive power away from the Durrani Pashtuns, and more toward the growing influential Qizilbash and Mongol guards consisted in his army. Timur Shah would also move the capital of the Durrani Realm from Kandahar to Kabul, as a better base of operation to combat any threat arriving from anywhere, as Kabul was essentially the heart of the empire. After consolidating his power, Timur Shah marched against the Sikh's in 1780 in a Jihad, and decisively defeated the Sikhs, forcing them to return Multan toward Durrani Suzerainty after it was seized after the death of Ahmad Shah Durrani. Timur Shah, having secured Punjab, also faced recurring rebellions against him, including an assassination attempt early in his reign at Peshawar. Timur Shah would encounter harsh resistance and rebellion, prominently those of Fayz Allah Khan, Azad Khan, and Arsalan Khan. Timur Shah in his reign also fought against Shah Murad, the ruler of Bukhara who attempted raids into Afghan Turkestan and Khorasan, often harassing the Durrani vassal of the Afsharid dynasty centred in Mashhad. In conclusion, Timur Shah spent most of his reign consolidating the empire, while also fighting off rebellion, he prove himself as a competent leader from holding the unstable empire apart. Timur Shah died on 20 May 1793, succeeded by his son, Zaman Shah Durrani
====Zaman Shah (1793–1801)====
After the death of Timur Shah, three of his sons, the governors of Kandahar, Herat and Kabul, contended for the succession. Zaman Shah, governor of Kabul, held the field by virtue of being in control of the capital, and became shah at the age of twenty-three. Many of his half-brothers were imprisoned on their arrival in the capital for the purpose, ironically, of electing a new shah. The quarrels among Timur's descendants that threw Afghanistan into turmoil also provided the pretext for the interventions of outside forces.
The efforts of the Sadozai heirs of Timur to impose a true monarchy on the truculent Pashtun tribes, and their efforts to rule absolutely and without the advice of the other major Pashtun tribal leaders, were ultimately unsuccessful. The Sikhs started to rise under the command of Sikh chief, Ranjit Singh, who succeeded in wresting power from Zaman's forces. Later, when Zaman was blinded by his brother, Ranjit Singh gave him asylum in Punjab.
Zaman's downfall was triggered by his attempts to consolidate power. Although it had been through the support of the Barakzai chief, Painda Khan Barakzai, that he had come to the throne, Zaman soon began to remove prominent Barakzai leaders from positions of power and replace them with men of his own lineage, the Sadozai. This upset the delicate balance of Durrani tribal politics that Ahmad Shah had established and may have prompted Painda Khan and other Durrani chiefs to plot against the shah. Painda Khan and the chiefs of the Nurzai and the Alizai Durrani clans were executed, as was the chief of the Qizilbash clan. Painda Khan's son fled to Iran and pledged the substantial support of his Barakzai followers to a rival claimant to the throne, Zaman's younger brother, Mahmud Shah. The clans of the chiefs Zaman had executed joined forces with the rebels, and they took Kandahar without bloodshed. Mahmud Shah had then proceeded to march to Kabul, where he met Zaman Shah and his army on the way from Ghanzi to Kabul, Zaman Shah was decisively defeated, including portions of his army fleeing to Mahmud Shah's cause. Mahmud Shah ordered the lancing of Zaman Shah's eyes, and had succeeded Zaman Shah on the throne of the Durrani Empire.
====Mahmud Shah (first reign, 1801–1803)====
Zaman Shah's overthrow in 1801 was not the end of civil strife in Afghanistan, but the beginning of even greater violence. Mahmud Shah's first reign lasted for only two years before he was replaced by Shuja Shah.
====Shuja Shah (1803–1809 and 1839–1842)====
Yet another of Timur Shah's sons, Shuja Shah (or Shah Shuja), ruled for only six years. On June 7, 1809, Shuja Shah signed a treaty with the British, which included a clause stating that he would oppose the passage of foreign troops through his territories. This agreement, the first Afghan pact with a European power, stipulated joint action in case of Franco-Persian aggression against Afghan or British dominions. Only a few weeks after signing the agreement, Shuja was deposed by his predecessor, Mahmud. Much later, he was reinstated by the British, ruling during 1839–1842. Two of his sons also ruled for a brief period in 1842.
====Mahmud Shah (second reign, 1809–1818)====
Mahmud's second reign lasted 9 years, where he had further attempted to consolidate power, but was deposed by his brother in 1818, Mahmud's reign was also disputed in 1810, while he was campaigning, another one of Timur Shah Durrani's sons had seized the throne, but was defeated by Shah Mahmud in 1810.
====Abbas Mirza (1810)====
While Mahmud Shah was campaigning in 1810, another one of Timur Shah's sons placed himself in rule at Kabul. Abbas Mirza ruled for a short period of time before being defeated by Mahmud Shah once he returned from campaign.
====Sultan Ali Shah (1818–1819)====
Ali Shah was another son of Timur Shah. He seized power for a brief period in 1818–1819. in 1818 or 1819, He was strangled by his brother, Isma'il.
====Ayub Shah (1819–1823)====
Ayub Shah was another son of Timur Shah, who took control of the Durrani Empire after the death of Ali Shah Durrani. The Durrani Empire lost its control over Kashmir to the Sikh Empire in the Battle of Shopian in 1819. Ayub Shah was himself later deposed, and presumably killed in 1823.
===Durrani Herat (1793–1863)===
===Shah Shuja and the First Anglo Afghan War (1839–1842)===
In the 19th century as a whole, Britain and Russia were interlocked in a battle for influence in South Asia. Russian advance was trudging through Central Asia, while the British were landing in the masses on the Indian subcontinent. The "Army of the Indus", full of both British and Indian infantrymen and cavalrymen, was intent on restoring Shah Shuja Durrani, the deposed monarch to the throne of Afghanistan. By March 1839, the British had already crossed into the Emirate of Afghanistan.
==Military==
The Durrani military was based on cavalry armed with flintlocks who performed hit-and-run attacks, combining new technology in firearms with Turco-Mongol tactics. The core of the Durrani army were the 10,000 sher-bacha (blunderbuss)-carrying mounted ghulams (slave-soldiers) of which a third were previously Shia soldiers (Qizilbash) of Nader Shah. Many others were also former troops of Nader Shah. The bulk of the army were Afghan irregular tribal cavalry armed with lance and broadsword. Mounted archers were still used but were uncommon due to the difficulty of training them. Infantry played a very small role in the Durrani army and, with the exception of light swivel guns mounted on camels, the Zamburak, so did artillery.
|
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"Hazara people",
"Nurzai",
"Kandahar Province",
"Dost Mohammad Khan",
"Hotak dynasty",
"Persia",
"Bukhara",
"Ahmad Shah Durrani",
"Jahan Khan (Afghan general)",
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"Zamburak",
"Turkmen people",
"Hindu Kush",
"Mahmud Hotak",
"Peshwa",
"Ahmed Shah Abdali",
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"Sadozai (Pastun tribe)",
"Amritsar",
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"Aurangzeb",
"Flag of Afghanistan",
"swivel gun",
"Raghunathrao",
"Indian subcontinent",
"Kushan Empire",
"Vishwasrao",
"British East India Company",
"Ghilji",
"Mashhad",
"Nasir I of Kalat",
"Lahore",
"Pakistan"
] |
3,071 |
Aimaq people
|
The Aimaq, Aimaq Persians (), or Chahar Aimaq (), also transliterated as Aymaq, Aimagh, Aimak, and Aymak, are a collection of Sunni and mostly Persian-speaking nomadic and semi-nomadic tribes. They live mainly in the central and western highlands of Afghanistan, especially in Ghor and Badghis. Aimaqs were originally known as chahar ("four") Aymaqs: Jamshidi, Aimaq Hazara, Firozkohi, and Taymani. The Timuri, which is a separate tribe but is sometimes included among Aimaqs, which is known as Aimaq-e digar ("another Aimaq").
The Aimaq speak several subdialects of the Aimaq dialect of the Persian language, but some southern groups of Taymani, Firozkohi, and northeastern Timuri Aimaqs have adopted the Pashto language.
== Etymology ==
The word "Aimaq" is derived from the Turkic-Mongolic word "Oymaq" that means "tribe" and "group of tribes". The Taymani and Firozkohi claim descent from Pashtun tribes.
== Culture and society ==
The Aimaq are largely nomadic to semi-nomadic goat and sheep herders. They also trade with villages and farmers during migrations for pastures for their livestock. The material culture and foodstuffs of the Aimaq include skins, carpets, milk, dairy products and more. They trade these products to settled peoples in return for vegetables, grains, fruits, nuts, and other types of foods and goods.
== Demographics ==
In 2021, the Aimaq made up 4% of Afghanistan’s population.
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] |
3,072 |
Arcturus
|
{{Starbox observe
| epoch =J2000
| constell =Boötes
| pronounce =
| ra = ultimately from ἄρκτος (arktos), "bear" and οὖρος (ouros), "watcher, guardian".
The designation of Arcturus as α Boötis (Latinised to Alpha Boötis) was made by Johann Bayer in 1603. In 2016, the International Astronomical Union organized a Working Group on Star Names (WGSN) to catalog and standardize proper names for stars. The WGSN's first bulletin of July 2016 included a table of the first two batches of names approved by the WGSN, which included Arcturus for α Boötis. From the northern hemisphere, an easy way to find Arcturus is to follow the arc of the handle of the Big Dipper (or Plough in the UK). By continuing in this path, one can find Spica, "Arc to Arcturus, then spike (or speed on) to Spica".
==Cultural significance==
As one of the brightest stars in the sky, Arcturus has been significant to observers since antiquity.
In ancient Mesopotamia, it was linked to the god Enlil, and also known as Shudun, "yoke", It fell out of use in favour of Arabic names until it was revived in the Renaissance.
In Arabic, Arcturus is one of two stars called al-simāk "the uplifted ones" (the other is Spica). Arcturus is specified as السماك الرامح as-simāk ar-rāmiħ "the uplifted one of the lancer". The term Al Simak Al Ramih has appeared in Al Achsasi Al Mouakket catalogue (translated into Latin as Al Simak Lanceator).
In Chinese astronomy, Arcturus is called Da Jiao (), because it is the brightest star in the Chinese constellation called Jiao Xiu (). Later it became a part of another constellation Kang Xiu ().
The Wotjobaluk Koori people of southeastern Australia knew Arcturus as Marpean-kurrk, mother of Djuit (Antares) and another star in Boötes, Weet-kurrk
In the Middle Ages, Arcturus was considered a Behenian fixed star and attributed to the stone jasper and the plantain herb. Cornelius Agrippa listed its kabbalistic sign under the alternate name Alchameth.
An Anacondrai general from Ninjago (TV series) is also named Arcturus.
In the Fallout 4 DLC Nuka-World, an in-game location which was built by Vault-Tec to demonstrate how Vaults might be used for space colonisation uses the name “Arcturus I”.
|
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"Weilwan",
"apparent visual magnitude",
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"emission line",
"Middle Ages"
] |
3,074 |
Androphagi
|
The Androphagi were an ancient Scythian tribe whose existence was recorded by ancient Greco-Roman authors.
The Androphagi were closely related to the Melanchlaeni and the Budini.
==Name==
The name is a Latinisation of the ancient Greek name (), which meant "Man-Eaters." This name is a descriptive one based on this tribe's practice of cannibalism, and their own tribal name is unknown.
==Location==
The Androphagi lived in the region to the east of the middle Dnipro river, especially in the valley of the Sula and some smaller rivers.
The neighbours of the Androphagi were the Neuri to the west and the Scythians to the south.
==History==
===Origin===
The Scythians originated in the region of the Volga-Ural steppes of Central Asia, possibly around the 9th century BC, as a section of the population of the Srubnaya culture containing a significant element originating from the Siberian Andronovo culture. The population of the Srubnaya culture was among the first truly nomadic pastoralist groups, who themselves emerged in the Central Asian and Siberian steppes during the 9th century BC as a result of the cold and dry climate then prevailing in these regions.
During the 9th to 8th centuries BC, a significant movement of the nomadic peoples of the Eurasian Steppe started when another nomadic Iranic tribe closely related to the Scythians from eastern Central Asia, either the Massagetae or the Issedones, migrated westwards, forcing the early Scythians to the west across the Araxes river.
Over the course of the 8th and 7th centuries BC, the Scythians migrated into the Caucasian and Caspian Steppes in several waves, becoming the dominant population of the region, where they assimilated most of the Cimmerians and conquered their territory, with this absorption of the Cimmerians by the Scythians being facilitated by their similar ethnic backgrounds and lifestyles, after which the Scythians settled in the area between the Araxes, the Caucasus and the Lake Maeotis. The section of the Scythians from whom the Androphagi originated participated in this migration, and had established itself in Ciscaucasia around .
From their base in the Caucasian Steppe, during the period of the 8th to 7th centuries BC itself, the Scythians conquered the Pontic and Crimean Steppes to the north of the Black Sea up to the Danube river, which formed the western boundary of Scythian territory onwards, with this process of Scythian takeover of the Pontic Steppe becoming fully complete by the 7th century BC.
Archaeologically, the westwards migration of the Early Scythians from Central Asia into the Caspian Steppe constituted the latest of the two to three waves of expansion of the Srubnaya culture to the west of the Volga. The last and third wave corresponding to the Scythian migration has been dated to the 9th century BC. The expansion of the Scythians into the Pontic Steppe is attested through the westward movement of the Srubnaya-Khvalynsk culture into Ukraine. The Srubnaya-Khvalynsk culture in Ukraine is referred to in scholarship as the "Late Srubnaya" culture.
===Migration towards the forest steppe===
From the Caucasian steppe, the tribe of the Royal Scythians expanded to the south, following the coast of the Caspian Sea and arrived in the Ciscaucasian steppes, from where they settled in eastern Transcaucasia until the early 6th century BC.
The Royal Scythians were finally expelled from West Asia in the , after which, beginning in the later 7th and lasting throughout much of the 6th century BC, the majority of the Scythians migrated from Ciscaucasia into the Pontic Steppe, which became the centre of Scythian power.
The retreat of the Royal Scythians from West Asia into the Pontic steppe pushed a Scythian splinter group to the north, into the region of Donets-Kramatorsk, where they formed the Vorskla and Sula-Donets groups of the Scythian culture, of which the Donets group corresponded to the Melanchlaeni, the Sula group to the Androphagi, and the Vorskla group to the Budini, with all of these groups remaining independent from the Scythians proper. This splinter group arrived in the forest-steppe region in part from the Kuban region, but for the most from northern Ciscaucasia.
Of these groups, the Androphagi and the Melanchlaeni were closely related tribes.
===The Persian invasion===
When the Persian Achaemenid king Darius I attacked the Scythians in 513 BC, the Scythian king Idanthyrsus summoned the kings of the peoples surrounding his kingdom to a meeting to decide how to deal with the Persian invasion. The kings of the Budini, Gelonians, and Sarmatians accepted to help the Scythians against the Persian attack, while the kings of the Agathyrsi, Androphagi, Melanchlaeni, Neuri, and Tauri refused to support the Scythians.
During the campaign, the Scythians and the Persian army pursuing them passed through the territories of the Melanchlaeni, Androphagi, and Neuri, before they reached the borders of the Agathyrsi, who refused to let the Scythian divisions to pass into their territories and find refuge there, thus forcing the Scythians to return to Scythia with the Persians pursuing them.
==Society and culture==
The ancient Greek author Herodotus of Halicarnassus described the Androphagi as wearing Scythian-type clothing, and speaking a "peculiar language."
===Lifestyle===
The Androphagi were largely engaged in agriculture and farming, and hunting was of lesser importance among them.
===Language===
The "peculiar language" of the Androphagi might have been a dialect of Iranic language different from that of the Pontic Scythians. The Sula group of the Scythian culture which corresponded to the Androphagi was part of an area of Iranic toponymy and hydronymy.
===Ritual cannibalism===
Herodotus of Halicarnassus claimed that the Androphagi were the only ones who practised cannibalism among the peoples living near Scythia, which seems to be confirmed by the intact and unbroken human bones of seventeen individuals which were found along with cut and broken animal bones in the kitchen refuse of seven Androphagi earthworks. However, traces of similar ritual cannibalism are recorded from seven earthworks of the Melanchlaeni and Budini, as well as in the Smiela kurgan 15, which was one of the earliest burials of the Tiasmyn group of the Scythian culture.
The Sauromatians who lived in the Urals and the lower Volga, and Massagetae and Issedones to the east of the Urals, practised similar ritual cannibalism, suggesting that the early Scythic peoples of the Central Asian steppe had customs and beliefs connected to ritual cannibalism.
===Trade===
Trade relations between the Androphagi and the ancient Greek colonies on the northern shores of the Black Sea had been established in the 6th century BC.
==Archaeology==
The Androphagi archaeologically belonged to the Scythian culture, and they corresponded to its Sula group, which was the largest Scythian culture group of the eastern European forest steppe zone.
The Donets, Sula and Vorskla groups of the Scythian culture, respectively corresponding to the Melanchlaeni, Androphagi, and Budini, are sometimes grouped the Zolnichnaya (that is "Ash-Mounds") culture because of the presence of several (), that is ash mounds containing refuse from kitchens and other sources, near dwellings. The three groups of the Zolnichnaya culture were closely related to each other, with the Vorskla group nevertheless exhibiting enough significant differences from the Sula and Donets groups that the latter two are sometimes grouped together as a Sula-Donets group distinct from the Vorskla group.
The earliest Scythians had belonged to the Srubnaya culture culture, and, like the Donets group of the Scythian culture which corresponds to the Melanchlaeni, the Sula group of the Scythian culture contained an important element of the Srubnaya culture in its substratum, although there were some differences between the Donets and Sula groups.
|
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] |
3,075 |
Albert Brooks
|
Albert Brooks (born Albert Lawrence Einstein; July 22, 1947) is an American actor, director and screenwriter. He received an Academy Award nomination for Best Supporting Actor for his performance in the 1987 comedy-drama film Broadcast News and was widely praised for his performance in the 2011 action drama film Drive. Brooks has also acted in films such as Taxi Driver (1976), Private Benjamin (1980), Unfaithfully Yours (1984), Out of Sight (1998) and My First Mister (2001). He has written, directed, and starred in several comedy films, such as Modern Romance (1981), Lost in America (1985), and Defending Your Life (1991). He is also the author of 2030: The Real Story of What Happens to America (2011).
Brooks has also voiced several characters in animated films and television shows. His voice acting roles include Marlin in Finding Nemo (2003) and its sequel Finding Dory (2016), Tiberius in The Secret Life of Pets (2016), and several one-time characters in The Simpsons, including Hank Scorpio in "You Only Move Twice" (1996) and Russ Cargill in The Simpsons Movie (2007).
==Early life==
Brooks was born Albert Lawrence Einstein on July 22, 1947, into a Jewish show business family in Beverly Hills, California,
==Career==
Brooks attended Carnegie Institute of Technology (now Carnegie Mellon University) in Pittsburgh (where his classmates included Michael McKean and David L. Lander), but dropped out after one year to focus on his comedy career. By the age of 19, he had changed his professional name to Albert Brooks, joking that "the real Albert Einstein changed his name to sound more intelligent". He quickly became a regular on variety and talk shows during the late 1960s and early 1970s, and was on the writing staff for the ill-fated ABC show Turn-On, which was cancelled after one episode. In 1970–71, he also worked with college friends McKean and Lander (alongside Harry Shearer) as a writer/guest performer on some early material by radio and LP record comedy group The Credibility Gap. Brooks led a new generation of self-reflective baby-boomer comics appearing on NBC's The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson. His on-stage persona, that of an egotistical, narcissistic, nervous comic, an ironic showbiz insider who punctured himself before an audience by disassembling his mastery of comedic stagecraft, influenced other post-modern comedians of the 1970s, including Steve Martin, Martin Mull, and Andy Kaufman.
After two successful comedy albums, Comedy Minus One (1973) and the Grammy Award-nominated A Star Is Bought (1975), Brooks left the stand-up circuit to try his hand as a filmmaker. He had already made his first short film, The Famous Comedians School, a satiric short and an early example of the mockumentary subgenre that was aired in 1972 on the PBS show The Great American Dream Machine.
In 1975, Brooks directed six short films for the first season of NBC's Saturday Night Live. In 1976, he appeared in his first mainstream film role, in Martin Scorsese's landmark Taxi Driver; Scorsese allowed Brooks to improvise much of his dialogue.
Brooks directed his first feature film, Real Life, in 1979, which he co-wrote with Harry Shearer and Monica Johnson. The film, in which Brooks (playing a version of himself) films a typical suburban family in an effort to win both an Oscar and a Nobel Prize, was a sendup of PBS's An American Family documentary. It has also been viewed as foretelling the emergence of reality television. Brooks also appeared in the film Private Benjamin (1980), starring Goldie Hawn.
Through the 1980s and 1990s, Brooks co-wrote (with long-time collaborator Monica Johnson), directed and starred in a series of well-received comedies, playing variants on his standard neurotic and self-obsessed character. These include 1981's Modern Romance, where Brooks played a film editor desperate to win back his ex-girlfriend (Kathryn Harrold). The film received a limited release and ultimately grossed under $3 million domestically. His best-received film, the satirical road movie Lost in America (1985), featured Brooks and Julie Hagerty as a couple who leave their yuppie lifestyle and drop out of society to live in a motor home as they have always dreamed of doing, meeting disappointment.
Brooks's Defending Your Life (1991) placed his lead character in the afterlife, put on trial to justify his human fears and determine his cosmic fate. Critics responded to the off-beat premise and the chemistry between Brooks and Meryl Streep, as his post-death love interest. His later efforts did not find large audiences, but still retained Brooks's touch as a filmmaker. He garnered positive reviews for Mother (1996), which starred Brooks as a middle-aged writer moving back home to resolve tensions between himself and his mother (Debbie Reynolds). 1999's The Muse featured Brooks as a Hollywood screenwriter who has "lost his edge", using the services of an authentic muse (Sharon Stone) for inspiration. In an interview with Brooks with regard to The Muse, Gavin Smith wrote, "Brooks's distinctive film making style is remarkably discreet and unemphatic; he has a light, deft touch, with a classical precision and economy, shooting and cutting his scenes in smooth, seamless successions of medium shots, with clean, high-key lighting."
Brooks has appeared as a guest voice on The Simpsons seven times during its run (always under the name A. Brooks). He is described as the best guest star in the show's history by IGN, particularly for his role as supervillain Hank Scorpio in the episode "You Only Move Twice".
Brooks also acted in other writers' and directors' films during the 1980s and 1990s. He had a cameo in the opening scene of Twilight Zone: The Movie, playing a driver whose passenger (Dan Aykroyd) has a shocking secret. In James L. Brooks's hit Broadcast News (1987), Albert Brooks was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for playing an insecure, supremely ethical television news reporter, who offers the rhetorical question, "Wouldn't this be a great world if insecurity and desperation made us more attractive?" He also won positive notices for his role in 1998's Out of Sight, playing an untrustworthy banker and ex-convict.
Brooks received positive reviews for his portrayal of a dying retail store owner who befriends a disillusioned teenager (played by Leelee Sobieski) in My First Mister (2001). Brooks continued his voiceover work in Pixar's Finding Nemo (2003), as the voice of Marlin, one of the film's protagonists.
His 2005 film Looking for Comedy in the Muslim World was dropped by Sony Pictures due to their desire to change the title. Warner Independent Pictures purchased the film and gave it a limited release in January 2006; the film received mixed reviews and a low box office gross. As with Real Life, Brooks plays a fictionalized "Albert Brooks", a filmmaker ostensibly commissioned by the US government to see what makes the Muslim people laugh, and sending him on a tour of India and Pakistan.
In 2006 he appeared in the documentary film Wanderlust as David Howard from Lost in America. In 2007, he continued his long-term collaboration with The Simpsons by voicing Russ Cargill, the central antagonist of The Simpsons Movie. He portrayed Lenny Botwin, Nancy Botwin's estranged father-in-law, during the 2008 season of the Showtime series Weeds.
2030: The Real Story of What Happens to America, his first novel, was published by St. Martin's Press on May 10, 2011.
Brooks co-starred as the vicious gangster Bernie Rose, the main antagonist in the 2011 film Drive, alongside Ryan Gosling and Carey Mulligan. His performance received much critical praise and positive reviews. After receiving awards and nominations from several film festivals and critic groups, but not an Academy Award nomination, Brooks responded humorously on Twitter, "And to the Academy: 'You don't like me. You really don't like me'."
Brooks voiced Tiberius, a curmudgeonly red-tailed hawk, in the 2016 film The Secret Life of Pets, and reprised the role of Marlin in Finding Dory the same year. In 2019, Brooks did not return to do the voice of Tiberius in The Secret Life of Pets 2, because he was not available.
In early November 2023, a documentary about the comedian/filmmaker, Albert Brooks: Defending My Life, directed by his friend Rob Reiner, was released on Max. The documentary includes interviews from David Letterman, Sharon Stone, Larry David, James L Brooks, Conan O'Brien, Sarah Silverman, Ben Stiller, and others. Later that month, on the podcast WTF with Marc Maron, Brooks supplemented the biographical information in the documentary with additional stories from his life.
==Personal life==
In 1997, Brooks married artist Kimberly Shlain, daughter of surgeon and writer Leonard Shlain.
==Works==
===As director===
=== Comedy albums ===
=== Literature ===
== Filmography ==
===Film===
===Television===
==Awards and nominations==
|
[
"African-American Film Critics Association Awards 2011",
"postmodernism",
"Private Benjamin (1980 film)",
"Kimberly Brooks (artist)",
"Hot Wheels (TV series)",
"Harry Einstein",
"Critical Care (film)",
"I'll Do Anything",
"Satellite Award for Best Supporting Actor – Motion Picture",
"narcissistic",
"Twilight Zone: The Movie",
"The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson",
"Sony Pictures",
"Warner Independent Pictures",
"The New Dick Van Dyke Show",
"Sharon Stone",
"London Film Critics Circle Awards 2011",
"The Buffalo News",
"The Simpsons Movie",
"Defending Your Life",
"Hank Scorpio",
"The In-Laws (2003 film)",
"Ella McCay",
"Modern Romance (film)",
"1999 in film",
"New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Screenplay",
"People (magazine)",
"Out of Sight",
"Saturday Night Live",
"Michael McKean",
"Mother (1996 film)",
"Warner Bros.",
"Unfaithfully Yours (1984 film)",
"Thelma Leeds",
"On Point",
"David Letterman",
"yuppie",
"Box Office Mojo",
"Lost in America",
"The Credibility Gap",
"short film",
"Toronto Star",
"Showtime (TV network)",
"Boston Society of Film Critics Award for Best Supporting Actor",
"Julie Hagerty",
"Cyril Wecht",
"Finding Nemo",
"Albert Einstein",
"Public Broadcasting Service",
"Eddie Cantor",
"Pixar",
"Boston Society of Film Critics Award for Best Actor",
"Houston Film Critics Society",
"Pittsburgh",
"2030 (novel)",
"Broadcast News (film)",
"Beverly Hills",
"afterlife",
"Kathryn Harrold",
"Martin Mull",
"Drive (2011 film)",
"Dan Aykroyd",
"The Little Prince (2015 film)",
"Weeds (TV series)",
"American Comedy Award",
"Bob Einstein",
"The Muse (1999 film)",
"This Is 40",
"National Society of Film Critics Awards 1987",
"Carey Mulligan",
"A Most Violent Year",
"Concussion (2015 film)",
"Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor",
"St. Martin's Press",
"Nancy Botwin",
"Santa Monica, California",
"October Films",
"Finding Dory",
"Leelee Sobieski",
"Nobel Prize",
"muse",
"The Scout (1994 film)",
"Jewish",
"reality television",
"Turn-On",
"Real Life (1979 film)",
"Curb Your Enthusiasm",
"Leonard Shlain",
"California",
"The Times-Picayune",
"Steve Martin",
"Max (streaming service)",
"My First Mister",
"Harry Shearer",
"Academy Awards",
"Twitter",
"IGN",
"Beverly Hills, California",
"Playhouse 90",
"Debbie Reynolds",
"Love, American Style",
"Vanity Fair (magazine)",
"Paramount Pictures",
"Carnegie Mellon University",
"An American Family",
"Washington D.C. Area Film Critics Association Award for Best Supporting Actor",
"San Diego Film Critics Society Award for Best Supporting Actor",
"Entertainment Weekly",
"New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Supporting Actor",
"Grammy Award",
"Columbia Pictures",
"David L. Lander",
"Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor – Motion Picture",
"Toronto International Film Festival",
"egotistical",
"Out of Sight (1998 film)",
"Ben Stiller",
"Taxi Driver",
"I Love You, Daddy",
"Andy Kaufman",
"Lou Grant (TV series)",
"National Society of Film Critics Award for Best Screenplay",
"TV Guide",
"Exploring the Reef with Jean-Michel Cousteau",
"National Society of Film Critics Award for Best Supporting Actor",
"Monica Johnson",
"You Only Move Twice",
"Austin Film Critics Association",
"mockumentary",
"Discogs",
"The Odd Couple (1970 TV series)",
"Dr. Dolittle (1998 film)",
"Sarah Silverman",
"Broadcast Film Critics Association Award for Best Supporting Actor",
"Online Film Critics Society Award for Best Supporting Actor",
"Independent Spirit Award for Best Supporting Male",
"Conan O'Brien",
"The Secret Life of Pets",
"Detroit Film Critics Society",
"Ryan Gosling",
"Larry David",
"The Washington Post",
"The Simpsons",
"Wanderlust (2006 film)",
"WTF with Marc Maron",
"Village Voice Film Poll",
"Meryl Streep",
"Albert Brooks: Defending My Life",
"PBS",
"James L Brooks",
"St. Louis Gateway Film Critics Association Award for Best Supporting Actor",
"Martin Scorsese",
"Goldie Hawn",
"New York Film Critics Online Awards 2011",
"IMDb",
"A Star Is Bought",
"The Great American Dream Machine",
"Charles Einstein",
"James L. Brooks",
"Looking for Comedy in the Muslim World",
"The New York Times",
"The Secret Life of Pets 2",
"Rob Reiner",
"The Muse (film)",
"NBC",
"Terms of Endearment",
"Chicago Film Critics Association Award for Best Supporting Actor",
"Beverly Hills High School",
"Florida Film Critics Circle Award for Best Supporting Actor",
"Richard Dreyfuss"
] |
3,076 |
Antares
|
{{Starbox observe
| epoch = J2000
| constell = Scorpius
| ra = Massive stars like Antares are expected to explode as supernovae. Antares is now known to be somewhat larger; for instance, the Hipparcos satellite's trigonometric parallax of
Antares B is normally difficult to see in small telescopes due to glare from Antares, but can sometimes be seen in apertures over . The Wotjobaluk Koori people of Victoria, Australia, knew Antares as Djuit, son of Marpean-kurrk (Arcturus); the stars on each side represented his wives. The Kulin Kooris saw Antares (Balayang) as the brother of Bunjil (Altair).
Antares is one of the medieval Behenian fixed stars.
|
[
"Orion (constellation)",
"red giant",
"Hipparcos",
"concept car",
"supergiant star",
"Sigma Scorpii",
"blue loop",
"Shang dynasty",
"Oldsmobile Antares",
"AAVSO",
"Francis G. Pease",
"Matariki",
"Behenian fixed star",
"semi-major axis",
"Stellar association",
"Northern Hemisphere",
"calque",
"list of brightest stars",
"Solar mass",
"slow irregular variable",
"white dwarf",
"reflection nebula",
"Mars",
"William Rutter Dawes",
"royal stars",
"red",
"lunar node",
"Washington Double Star Catalog",
"apparent magnitude",
"Minute and second of arc",
"star",
"celestial latitude",
"parallax",
"constellation",
"Ormsby M. Mitchel",
"Southern Hemisphere",
"Sun",
"variable star designation",
"stellar classification",
"General Catalogue of Variable Stars",
"Acrux",
"Mesopotamia",
"Betelgeuse",
"Mu Cephei",
"spectroscopic binary",
"Limb darkening",
"Māori people",
"ecliptic",
"Red supergiant",
"main sequence",
"supernova",
"red supergiant",
"Moon",
"night sky",
"MUL.APIN",
"Mount Wilson Observatory",
"lunar mansion",
"Ancient Greek",
"binary system",
"Antarah ibn Shaddad",
"Scorpius–Centaurus association",
"astronomical unit",
"bolometric luminosity",
"Mu'allaqat",
"James William Grant (astronomer)",
"Spica",
"Flamsteed designation",
"Occultation",
"States of Brazil",
"Scorpius",
"India",
"Tau Scorpii",
"Absolute magnitude",
"Egypt",
"Solar System",
"Centre de Données astronomiques de Strasbourg",
"sigma Scorpii",
"Regulus",
"Heart (Chinese constellation)",
"electromagnetic spectrum",
"Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer",
"Serket",
"KY Cygni",
"occultation",
"projected separation",
"Babylonian astronomy",
"asteroid belt",
"interferometry",
"American Association of Variable Star Observers",
"first magnitude star",
"Enki",
"Kepler's Law",
"IAU Working Group on Star Names",
"double star",
"Almagest",
"List of largest known stars",
"Henry Draper catalogue",
"nakshatra",
"Arcturus",
"Altair",
"Rigel",
"Catalog of Components of Double and Multiple Stars",
"radial velocity",
"J2000",
"Antarctica",
"Išḫara",
"Radial velocity",
"Bayer designation",
"flag of Brazil",
"Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh",
"contrast effect",
"binary star",
"Jyeshtha (nakshatra)",
"Latin",
"Conjunction (astronomy and astrology)",
"Johann Tobias Bürg",
"List of largest stars",
"Venus",
"B-type main-sequence star",
"Babylonian star catalogues",
"Two Micron All-Sky Survey",
"Ares",
"Persia",
"Arabs",
"Sirius",
"IRAS",
"Isis",
"South Australia",
"infrared",
"Stellar classification",
"Ancient Greek language",
"Aldebaran",
"VY Canis Majoris",
"The Times of India",
"Hindu",
"Koori",
"RW Cephei",
"Henry Draper Catalogue",
"effective temperature",
"Slow irregular variable",
"Ngarrindjeri",
"Bright Star Catalogue",
"Lisin",
"Latinisation of names",
"Piauí",
"apparent visual magnitude",
"Rho Ophiuchi cloud complex",
"International Astronomical Union",
"opposition (astronomy and astrology)"
] |
3,077 |
Aldebaran
|
{{Starbox observe
| epoch = J2000.0
| constell = Taurus
| pronounce =
It is best seen at midnight between late November and early December.
The star is, by chance, in the line of sight between the Earth and the Hyades, so it has the appearance of being the brightest member of the open cluster, but the cluster that forms the bull's-head-shaped asterism is more than twice as far away, at about 150 light years.
Aldebaran is 5.47 degrees south of the ecliptic and so can be occulted by the Moon. Such occultations occur when the Moon's ascending node is near the autumnal equinox. A series of 49 occultations occurred starting on 29 January 2015 and ending at 3 September 2018. peaking in brightness 320,000 years ago with an apparent magnitude of . support the physical association of Alpha Tauri B, and a 2019 survey lists it as a binary companion, with a physical separation of . A spectral type of M2.5 has been published for Alpha Tauri B. A variety of transliterated spellings have been used, with the current Aldebaran becoming standard relatively recently.
In Biblical Hebrew, עָשׁ (ʿāš) in Job 9:9 and עַ֫יִשׁ (ʿayiš) in Job 38:32 have been identified with it and translated accordingly in English versions such as NJPS and REB.
===In modern culture===
As the brightest star in a Zodiac constellation, it is given great significance within astrology.
Irish singer and composer Enya has a piece released on her eponymous album in 1986, which lyricist Roma Ryan titled Aldebaran after the star in Taurus.
The name Aldebaran or Alpha Tauri has been adopted many times, including
Aldebaran Rock in Antarctica
United States Navy stores ship and
proposed micro-satellite launch vehicle Aldebaran
French company Aldebaran Robotics
Fashion brand AlphaTauri
Formula 1 team Scuderia AlphaTauri, active from to , previously known as Toro Rosso
One of the chariot race horses owned by Sheikh Ilderim in the movie Ben-Hur
The star also appears in works of fiction such as Far from the Madding Crowd (1874) and Down and Out in Paris and London (1933). It is frequently seen in science fiction, including the Lensman series (1948–1954), Fallen Dragon (2001) and passingly in Kim Stanley Robinson's "Blue Mars" (1996). Aldebaran is associated with Hastur, also known as The King in Yellow, in the horror stories of Robert W. Chambers.
In the Star Trek: The Next Generation episode 'Relics', Montgomery Scott and Captain Jean-Luc Picard drinnk "Aldebaran whisky".
Aldebaran regularly features in conspiracy theories as one of the origins of extraterrestrial aliens,
|
[
"Hubble Space Telescope",
"carbon",
"42 Draconis",
"Athens",
"red giant",
"Hipparcos",
"Position angle",
"The Astronomical Journal",
"K-type giant",
"Seri people",
"Down and Out in Paris and London",
"New South Wales",
"astrology",
"Chandra",
"rare earth element",
"calcium",
"substellar companion",
"stellar spectrum",
"giant star",
"habitable zone",
"red giant branch",
"Northern Hemisphere",
"list of brightest stars",
"J2000.0",
"List of alleged extraterrestrial beings",
"sodium",
"J band (infrared)",
"solar luminosity",
"slow irregular variable",
"nitrogen",
"Pollux (star)",
"Aldebaran Rock",
"William Herschel",
"Gaia DR2",
"iron",
"hydrogen",
"Struve Double Star Catalog",
"Apparent magnitude",
"Rohini (goddess)",
"absorption line",
"Sherburne Wesley Burnham",
"solar radius",
"royal stars",
"Solar and Heliospheric Observatory",
"Stellar core",
"Washington Double Star Catalog",
"Jupiter",
"71 Tauri",
"ascending node",
"star",
"List of nearest bright stars",
"Greece",
"parallax",
"constellation",
"Convection zone",
"asteroseismic",
"Indian astronomy",
"Sun",
"Astronomy & Astrophysics",
"variable star designation",
"Asikni (goddess)",
"General Catalogue of Variable Stars",
"stellar classification",
"termination shock",
"Gaia DR3",
"Chinese astronomy",
"photosphere",
"stellar wind",
"Aryan",
"Betelgeuse",
"angular separation",
"Stellar evolution",
"ecliptic",
"Gaia mission",
"main sequence",
"dredge-up",
"Gamma Tauri",
"Moon",
"Montgomery Scott",
"night sky",
"R Doradus",
"Enya",
"Mount Wilson Observatory",
"Ancient Greek",
"Historical brightest stars",
"right ascension",
"Daksha",
"Edward Charles Pickering",
"astrosphere",
"Hyades (star cluster)",
"Flamsteed designation",
"Occultation",
"Delta3 Tauri",
"Job 9",
"AlphaTauri (fashion brand)",
"Hertzsprung–Russell diagram",
"Latin-script alphabet",
"Fallen Dragon",
"Hermann Carl Vogel",
"Local Bubble",
"Biblical Hebrew",
"Taurus (Chinese astronomy)",
"Parallax",
"Herschel Catalogue of Double Stars",
"Centre de Données astronomiques de Strasbourg",
"Axel Stoll",
"equinox (celestial coordinates)",
"Equinox (celestial coordinates)",
"England",
"proper motion",
"Delta1 Tauri",
"Roma Ryan",
"Captain Jean-Luc Picard",
"Far from the Madding Crowd",
"Job 38",
"Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society",
"helium",
"Gamma Draconis",
"Indigenous Australian",
"variable star",
"Aldebaran Robotics",
"Toro Rosso",
"William Huggins",
"occultation",
"oxygen",
"Orion's Belt",
"Revised English Bible",
"Star Trek: The Next Generation",
"The Encyclopedia Cthulhiana",
"Lambda Tauri",
"angular diameter",
"Hindu mythology",
"Potsdam Observatory",
"Hawaiian language",
"IAU Working Group on Star Names",
"double star",
"List of brightest stars",
"Arcturus",
"stellar corona",
"Aitken Double Star Catalogue",
"radial velocity",
"Eccentricity (orbit)",
"Net (Chinese constellation)",
"full moon",
"open cluster",
"Solar radius",
"Stars in astrology",
"carbon monoxide",
"Bayer designation",
"Epsilon Tauri",
"Aldebaran (rocket)",
"Pioneer 10",
"The Astrophysical Journal",
"Ben-Hur (1959 film)",
"Hastur",
"Stellar magnetic field",
"Large Angle and Spectrometric Coronagraph",
"Lists of stars",
"science fiction",
"Hooker Telescope",
"Robert W. Chambers",
"red dwarf",
"The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series",
"binary star",
"Pleiades",
"Magnitude (astronomy)",
"New Jewish Publication Society of America Tanakh",
"Dynamo theory",
"Earth mass",
"light-year",
"Conjunction (astronomy and astrology)",
"Scuderia AlphaTauri",
"Carl Auer von Welsbach",
"historical brightest stars",
"South Africa",
"arc second",
"Persia",
"Tulse Hill",
"Conspiracy theory",
"Sirius",
"magnesium",
"Taurus (constellation)",
"asterism (astronomy)",
"metallicity",
"Edmund Halley",
"infrared",
"titanium oxide",
"ytterbium",
"Angular separation",
"water",
"X-ray astronomy",
"Chinese star names",
"Lensman series",
"equator",
"Henry Draper Catalogue",
"Wehrmacht",
"effective temperature",
"Jupiter mass",
"Slow irregular variable",
"Red giant branch",
"zodiac",
"Bright Star Catalogue",
"Nazi UFOs",
"Kopp Verlag",
"Formula 1",
"Burnham Double Star Catalogue",
"precession of the equinoxes",
"lunar station",
"Latinisation of names",
"Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific",
"interstellar medium",
"Asterism (astronomy)",
"HIPPARCOS",
"apparent visual magnitude",
"International Astronomical Union",
"Julius Scheiner",
"Doppler shift",
"chromosphere",
"Harvard College Observatory"
] |
3,078 |
Altair
|
{{Starbox character
| type=Main sequence
| class = A7Vn It is located at a distance of from the Sun. Altair is currently in the G-cloud—a nearby interstellar cloud formed from an accumulation of gas and dust.
Altair rotates rapidly, with a velocity at the equator of approximately 286 km/s. Other interferometric studies with multiple telescopes, operating in the infrared, have imaged and confirmed this phenomenon.
==Nomenclature==
α Aquilae (Latinised to Alpha Aquilae) is the star's Bayer designation. The traditional name Altair has been used since medieval times. It is an abbreviation of the Arabic phrase Al-Nisr Al-Ṭa'ir, "".
In 2016, the International Astronomical Union organized a Working Group on Star Names (WGSN) to catalog and standardize proper names for stars. The WGSN's first bulletin of July 2016 included a table of the first two batches of names approved by the WGSN, which included Altair for this star. It is now so entered in the IAU Catalog of Star Names.
==Physical characteristics==
Along with β Aquilae and γ Aquilae, Altair forms the well-known line of stars sometimes referred to as the Family of Aquila or Shaft of Aquila. It is a weak source of coronal X-ray emission, with the most active sources of emission being located near the star's equator. This activity may be due to convection cells forming at the cooler equator. Although Hanbury Brown et al. realized that Altair would be rotationally flattened, they had insufficient data to experimentally observe its oblateness. Later, using infrared interferometric measurements made by the Palomar Testbed Interferometer in 1999 and 2000, Altair was found to be flattened. This work was published by G. T. van Belle, David R. Ciardi and their co-authors in 2001. Also, A. Domiciano de Souza et al. (2005) verified gravity darkening using the measurements made by the Palomar and Navy interferometers, together with new measurements made by the VINCI instrument at the VLTI.
Altair is one of the few stars for which a resolved image has been obtained. In 2006 and 2007, J. D. Monnier and his coworkers produced an image of Altair's surface from 2006 infrared observations made with the MIRC instrument on the CHARA array interferometer; this was the first time the surface of any main-sequence star, apart from the Sun, had been imaged. This name was applied by the Arabs to the asterism of Altair, β Aquilae and γ Aquilae and probably goes back to the ancient Babylonians and Sumerians, who called Altair "the eagle star". Medieval astrolabes of England and Western Europe depicted Altair and Vega as birds.
The Koori people of Victoria also knew Altair as Bunjil, the wedge-tailed eagle, and β and γ Aquilae are his two wives the black swans. The people of the Murray River knew the star as Totyerguil. The Murray River was formed when Totyerguil the hunter speared Otjout, a giant Murray cod, who, when wounded, churned a channel across southern Australia before entering the sky as the constellation Delphinus. However, Altair is better known by its other names: Qiān Niú Xīng ( / ) or Niú Láng Xīng (), translated as the cowherd star. These names are an allusion to a love story, The Cowherd and the Weaver Girl, in which Niulang (represented by Altair) and his two children (represented by β Aquilae and γ Aquilae) are separated from respectively their wife and mother Zhinu (represented by Vega) by the Milky Way. They are only permitted to meet once a year, when magpies form a bridge to allow them to cross the Milky Way.
The people of Micronesia called Altair Mai-lapa, meaning "big/old breadfruit", while the Māori people called this star Poutu-te-rangi, meaning "pillar of heaven".
In Western astrology, the star was ill-omened, portending danger from reptiles.
A group of Japanese scientists sent a radio signal to Altair in 1983 with the hopes of contacting extraterrestrial life.
NASA announced Altair as the name of the Lunar Surface Access Module (LSAM) on December 13, 2007. The Russian-made Beriev Be-200 Altair seaplane is also named after the star.
==Visual companions==
The bright primary star has the multiple star designation WDS 19508+0852A and has several faint visual companion stars, WDS 19508+0852B, C, D, E, F and G.
|
[
"Working Group on Star Names",
"astrology",
"black swan",
"β Aquilae",
"list of brightest stars",
"gravity darkening",
"J2000.0",
"astrolabe",
"mass of the Sun",
"Washington Double Star Catalog",
"Palomar Testbed Interferometer",
"Jupiter",
"National Science Foundation",
"star",
"solar radii",
"List of nearest bright stars",
"Wide Field Infrared Explorer",
"constellation",
"Convection zone",
"List of stars with resolved images",
"Beriev Be-200",
"wedge-tailed eagle",
"Sun",
"Astronomy & Astrophysics",
"interstellar cloud",
"Murray River",
"Micronesia",
"Māori people",
"Saturn",
"Murray cod",
"interferometric",
"von Zeipel effect",
"interferometrically",
"night sky",
"A-type main-sequence star",
"γ Aquilae",
"Historical brightest stars",
"Delta Scuti variable",
"David Ciardi",
"oblate spheroid",
"CHARA array",
"Narrabri Stellar Intensity Interferometer",
"Centre de Données astronomiques de Strasbourg",
"Beriev Aircraft Company",
"Michigan Infrared Combiner",
"Aladin Sky Atlas",
"Deneb",
"List of most luminous stars",
"Lunar Surface Access Module",
"United States Naval Observatory",
"multiple star",
"Type-A star",
"List of brightest stars",
"stellar corona",
"Main sequence",
"Aquila (constellation)",
"milliarcseconds",
"Bayer designation",
"main-sequence star",
"Summer Triangle",
"VLTI",
"Bugis",
"Lists of stars",
"The Cowherd and the Weaver Girl",
"surface gravity",
"Gerard van Belle",
"International Celestial Reference System",
"R. Hanbury Brown",
"Navy Precision Optical Interferometer",
"Vega",
"reptile",
"Arabic",
"Latin",
"Delphinus",
"G-cloud",
"Solar luminosity",
"asterism (astronomy)",
"infrared",
"Al Achsasi al Mouakket",
"NASA",
"X-ray astronomy",
"Koori",
"Chinese star names",
"equator",
"effective temperature",
"Victoria (Australia)",
"light curve",
"SIMBAD",
"Latinisation of names",
"sine wave",
"Milky Way",
"zero age main sequence",
"Asterism (astronomy)",
"Japan",
"apparent visual magnitude",
"International Astronomical Union"
] |
3,079 |
Australian Broadcasting Corporation
|
The Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC) is Australia’s principal public service broadcaster. It is funded by grants from the federal government and is administered by a government-appointed board. The ABC is a state-owned corporation that is politically independent and accountable; for example, through its production of annual reports, and is bound by provisions contained within the Public Interest Disclosure Act 2013 and the Public Governance, Performance and Accountability Act 2013, with its charter enshrined in legislation, the Australian Broadcasting Corporation Act 1983. ABC Commercial, a profit-making division of the corporation, also helps to generate funding for content provision.
The ABC was established as the Australian Broadcasting Commission on 1 July 1932 by an Act of Federal Parliament. It effectively replaced the Australian Broadcasting Company, a private company established in 1924 to provide programming for A-class radio stations. The ABC was given statutory powers that reinforced its independence from the government and enhanced its news-gathering role. Modelled after the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), which is funded by a television licence, the ABC was originally financed by licence fees on households with a broadcast receiver. However, the licence fees soon proved to be insufficient due to Australia's small population and the vast area to be serviced. In 1947 a proposal to increase the fee for a broadcast listeners' licence from £1 to £1/5/ was scotched, and in 1949 the Chifley government decided that the ABC would be directly funded by the taxpayer, with licence fees subsumed into general revenue. Later funding was supplemented with commercial activities related to its core broadcasting mission. The Australian Broadcasting Commission became the Australian Broadcasting Corporation in 1983.
The ABC provides radio, television, online, and mobile services throughout metropolitan and regional Australia. ABC Radio operates four national networks, a large number of ABC Local Radio stations, several digital stations, and the international service Radio Australia. ABC Television operates five free-to-air channels, as well as the ABC iview streaming service and the ABC Australia satellite channel. News and current affairs content across all platforms is produced by the news division.
The postal address of the ABC in every Australian capital city is PO Box 9994, as a tribute to the record-breaking Test batting average of Australian cricketer Sir Donald Bradman.
==History==
===Origins===
After public radio stations were established independently in the state capitals from 1924, a licensing scheme administered by the Postmaster-General's Department was established, allowing certain stations (with "Class A" licences") government funding, albeit with restrictions placed on their advertising content. In 1928, the government established the National Broadcasting Service to take over the 12 A-Class licences as they came up for renewal, and contracted the Australian Broadcasting Company, a private company established in 1924, to supply programs to the new national broadcaster.
After it became politically unpopular to continue to allow the Postmaster-General to run the National Broadcasting Service, the government established the Australian Broadcasting Commission (ABC) on 1 July 1932, under the Australian Broadcasting Commission Act 1932. to take over the Australian Broadcasting Company and run the National Broadcasting Service.
The ABC became informally referred to as "Aunty", originally in imitation of the British Broadcasting Corporation's nickname. The structure and programming was broadly modelled on the British Broadcasting Corporation, and programs not created in Australia were mostly bought in from the BBC.), and remained chair until his retirement in 1961. He was determined to maintain the autonomy of the ABC.
===1950–2000===
The ABC commenced television broadcasting in 1956. ABN-2 in Sydney was inaugurated by prime minister Robert Menzies on 5 November 1956, with the first broadcast presented by Michael Charlton, and James Dibble reading the first television news bulletin. Television relay facilities were not in place until the early 1960s, so news bulletins had to be sent to each capital city by teleprinter, to be prepared and presented separately in each city. In 1975, colour television was permanently introduced into Australia, and within a decade, the ABC had moved into satellite broadcasting, greatly enhancing its ability to distribute content nationally.
ABC budget cuts began in 1976 and continued until 1998, the largest cuts (calculated by the ABC as 25% in real terms) coming between 1985 and 1996.
The Australian Broadcasting Corporation Act 1983 changed the organisation's name to the Australian Broadcasting Corporation, effective 1 July 1983. Although funded and owned by the government, the ABC remains editorially independent as ensured by the 1983 Act. At the same time, the newly formed corporation underwent significant restructuring, including a split into separate television and radio divisions, and ABC Radio was restructured significantly again in 1985. Following his resignation in 1986, David Hill (at the time chair of the ABC Board) took over his position
Live television broadcasts of selected parliamentary sessions started in 1990, and by the early 1990s, all major ABC broadcasting outlets operated 24 hours a day.
In 1991 the ABC helped launch Australian children's music band The Wiggles, under the ABC music label.
In 1991 the corporation's Sydney radio and orchestral operations moved to a new building, in the inner-city suburb of Ultimo. In Melbourne, the ABC Southbank Centre was completed in 1994.
In 1992 Australian children's television series Bananas in Pyjamas first aired.
International television service ABC Australia was established in 1993, while at the same time Radio Australia increased its international reach. Reduced funding in 1997 for Radio Australia resulted in staff and programming cuts.
In 2002 the ABC launched ABC Asia Pacific, the replacement for the defunct Australia Television International operated previously by the Seven Network. A new online video-on-demand service launched in July of the same year, titled ABC iview.
ABC News 24, now known as ABC News, a channel dedicated to news, launched on 22 July 2010. On 20 July 2014, ABC1 reverted to its original name of ABC TV.
In November 2014 a cut of $254 million (4.6%) to funding over the following five years together with the additional unfunded cost of the news channel meant that the ABC would have to shed about 10% of its staff, around 400 people. There were several programming changes, with regional and local programming losing out to national programs, and the Adelaide TV production studio had to close.
In November 2016 the ABC announced that ABC News 24, ABC NewsRadio, as well as its online and digital news brands, would be rebranded under a unified ABC News brand, which was launched on 10 April 2017.
Michelle Guthrie took over from managing director Mark Scott, whose second five-year contract finished in April 2016. Between July 2017 and June 2018, the whole of the ABC underwent an organisational restructure, after which the Radio and Television Divisions were no longer separate entities each under a director, instead being split across several functional divisions, with different teams producing different genres of content for television, radio and digital platforms. The Entertainment & Specialist (E&S) team focussed on comedy, kids' programs, drama, Indigenous-related programs, music, other entertainment and factual content; the new ABC Specialist team created content across the arts, science, religion & ethics, education and society & culture; while the Regional & Local team focussed on regional and local content.
Around 23 September 2018 Guthrie was fired. A leadership crisis ensued after allegations arose that Chair, Justin Milne, had, according to the MEAA, engaged in "overt political interference in the running of the ABC that is in clear breach of the ABC charter and the role of the chairperson" by interfering in editorial and staffing matters. After pressure for an independent inquiry or statement from Milne, or his resignation, following meetings by ABC staff in various locations, on 27 September Milne resigned.
In February 2019, after the roles of ABC chair and managing director had been vacant for more than four months, Ita Buttrose was named chair. Buttrose named David Anderson as managing director in May 2019.
On 5 June 2019 Australian Federal Police (AFP) raided the headquarters of the ABC looking for articles written in 2017 about alleged misconduct by Australian special forces in Afghanistan, later dubbed the Afghan Files. The raid was countered by lawyers for the ABC in litigation against the AFP, challenging the examination of over 9,200 documents, including internal emails. In February 2020 the case was dismissed by the federal court. In June 2020, the AFP sent a brief of evidence to the Commonwealth Director of Public Prosecutions (CDPP), the federal public prosecutor, recommending charges be laid against journalist Dan Oakes for breaking the Afghan Files story, but in October 2020, the CDPP dropped the case.
===2020s===
In June 2020 the ABC announced it needed to cut 229 jobs, a number of programs, and reduce its travel and production budgets after the Turnbull government's announcement of a freeze to indexation of its budget in 2018 this was estimated at the time to cost the ABC over three years, however the actual appropriation did not decrease and the ABC chair was quoted as saying it would actually increase "but by a reduced amount".
In all, over a five-year period, there were 737 redundancies, a further 866 resignations, and 203 retirements; but the total number of staff only fell by 313 due to the ABC hiring 650 staff over that period.
In June 2021 the ABC announced its plan to move around 300 staff to offices in Parramatta, in a plan which would see 75% of journalists and producers moving out of the Ultimo building by 2025 to reduce costs. Rental from some of the vacant space in the city centre would earn additional income to offset the ongoing effects of the significant funding cuts since 2014 and the recent indexation freeze.
In December 2021 the ABC announced that, in addition to the 83 additional positions already established, it was to create an additional "50-plus" new jobs in regional Australia as a result of commercial agreements with digital platforms flowing from the Morrison government's News Media Bargaining Code.
In May 2024 the ABC started moving from its Ultimo office to a new Parramatta office. The first program to be broadcast from the new studio in Parramatta was ABC Radio Sydney Mornings.
==Lissajous curve logo==
The ABC logo is one of the most recognisable logos in Australia. In the early years of television, the ABC had been using Lissajous curves as fillers between programmes.
In 1961, prior to the adoption of an official corporate logo, the ABC commissioned Tasmanian artist George Davis to create a large mosaic mural for its new Hobart studios at 5–7 Sandy Bay Road. The abstract design, composed of more than 150,000 glass tiles and spanning , was prominently displayed on the building’s façade. Observers and later commentators have noted similarities between the mural’s sinuous linework and the ABC's eventual logo, with some suggesting it may have served as a visual influence.
In July 1963, the ABC conducted a staff competition to create a new logo for use on television, stationery, publications, microphone badges and ABC vehicles. In 1965, ABC graphics designer Bill Kennard submitted a design representing a Lissajous display, as generated when a sine wave signal is applied to the "X" input of an oscilloscope and another at three times the frequency at the "Y" input. The letters "ABC" were added to the design and it was adopted as the ABC's official logo. Kennard was presented with £25 (about AU$850 in 2024) for his design. The most recent change happened in February 2018, with a new logotype and brand positioning under its tagline, Yours. The 2002 silver logo is no longer in use by the corporation.
==Governance and structure==
The operations of the ABC are governed by a board of directors, consisting of a managing director, five to seven directors, The managing director is appointed by the board for a period of up to five years, but is eligible for renewal. The authority and guidelines for the appointment of directors is provided for in the Australian Broadcasting Corporation Act 1983.
Appointments to the ABC Board made by successive governments have often resulted in criticism of the appointees' political affiliation, background, and relative merit. Past appointments have associated directly with political parties – five of fourteen appointed chairmen have been accused of political affiliation or friendship, include Richard Downing and Ken Myer (both of whom publicly endorsed the Australian Labor Party at the 1972 election), Ron Brunton, and Keith Windschuttle.
During their 2007 federal election campaign Labor announced plans to introduce a new system, similar to that of the BBC, for appointing members to the board. Under the new system, candidates for the ABC Board would be considered by an independent panel established "at arm's length" from the Communications Minister. If the minister chose someone not on the panel's shortlist, they would be required to justify this to parliament. The ABC chairman would be nominated by the prime minister and endorsed by the leader of the opposition.
A new merit-based appointment system was announced on 16 October 2008, in advance of the new triennial funding period starting in 2009.
In 2013 the Coalition government introduced a merit-based system for appointing the board based on the recommendations of a nominations panel. However, the panel was ultimately only advisory, with almost all of the board members in 2018 directly appointed by the Communications minister, despite some being rejected by the panel or not being considered at all.
board members include:
==Funding==
The ABC is primarily funded by the Australian government, in addition to some revenue received from commercial offerings and its retail outlets. The ABC's funding system is set and reviewed every three years.
=== Background to licence fees ===
In the early 1920s there existed two forms of radio licences A and B. Those with 'A' licences were funded by listener fees and those with 'B' by commercial advertising. It was tied to 'sealed set' system in which listeners would purchase a radio receiver and then pay a subscription to continue to listen to it; its implementation was a cross between the BBC's licence fee and more commercially supported radio, such as those found in the US. This continued until the Report of the Royal Commission on Wireless together with appendices was published on the 5th of October, 1927, which recommended in its summary that it should issue no further A radio licences alongside pooling resources to improve programmes and secure an efficient service to the public.
The Australian government – also known as the Commonwealth government – decided in July 1928 against the recommendations in the Royal Commission and nationalised stations with A licences. By 1929 the government had nationalised the provision of transmission and contracted the delivery of programming to the conglomerate Australian Broadcasting Company. By 1932, 12 stations had been nationalised and in May of that year the Commonwealth government passed the Australian Broadcasting Commission Act 1932. Under the act a new public broadcaster was created, it was funded directly by listener fees until 1948 and run by a five-member commission with the Postmaster-General’s Department responsible for the technical aspects. Amendments were also made to the Australian Broadcasting Act 1983 which meant the ABC would receive its funding directly from the federal government.
=== Proposed combined TV and radio licence ===
From 1956 to 1974 a combined licence for TV and radio was required.
=== Abolition of licence fees ===
Licence fees remained until 18 September 1974, when they were abolished by the Whitlam Labor government, on the basis that the licence fee represented a poll tax and in turn cost more for the less affluent. Its abolishment was introduced by Frank Crean in his 1974 budget speech.
It was also considered too costly to monitor compliance.
=== Attempt to reinstate the TV licence ===
In a letter to The Canberra Times on 16 January 1976, reader R. O. MEE Flynn wrote:
"Now it is rumoured that that the TV licence fee might be introduced again, just as I was in the act of writing to the PMG (Postmaster General) to ask if it was possible for us to get paid for watching the box. I have no intention of wasting money on a colour TV until the programs improve or more overseas content is allowed. We have been brainwashed with the advertisement that Australia waited and chose the best colour system; it's a pity they did not choose the programs to go with it."
The Sydney Morning Herald reported on 10 February 1976, the federal cabinet was considering reintroducing the TV licence but not for radios.
The debate and its discussion continued, with one reader on 23 July 1978 to the Canberra Times stating "Sir, - The rumour is that reintroduction of TV licences is to occur shortly (no smoke without fire). Once again the ordinary hard-working people are expected to be able to pay - if as rumoured - S120 for a colour television set and S80 for a black-and-white set each year." they went onto to say "...People such as pensioners, the unemployed etc, who are not in any position to pay licences and need some form of entertainment or stimulation will be the hardest hit. As usual they bear the brunt of this Government's crushing tactics on them."
In 2014 the ABC absorbed $254 million in federal budget deficits.
In the 2018–19 budget handed down by then-Treasurer Scott Morrison, the ABC was subject to a pause of indexation of operation funding, saving the federal government a total of $83.7 million over 3 years. In fiscal year 2016–17, the ABC received $861 million in federal funding, which increased to $865 million per year from 2017 to 2018 to 2018–19, representing a cut in funding of $43 million over three years when accounting for inflation. was $44 million over three years as of the 2019–20 budget, a reduction of $28 million per year since the 2016 Australian federal election. This came after speculation that the fund would be removed, to which Acting managing director David Anderson wrote to Communications Minister Mitch Fifield expressing concerns.
In 2023, fulfilling one of Labor's election pledges, the ABC moved into a five instead of three-year funding term.
The term "where your 8 cents a day goes", coined in the late 1980s during funding negotiations, is often used in reference to the services provided by the ABC. It was estimated that the cost of the ABC per head of population per day was 7.1 cents a day, based on the corporation's 2007–08 "base funding" of .
==Services==
===Radio===
The ABC operates 54 local radio stations, in addition to four national networks and international service Radio Australia. In addition, DiG Radio (rebranded to Double J in 2014)) launched on digital platforms in 2002, and later spinning off ABC Country and ABC Jazz.
ABC Local Radio is the corporation's flagship radio station in each broadcast area. There are 54 individual stations, each with a similar format consisting of locally presented light entertainment, news, talk back, music, sport and interviews, in addition to some national programming such as AM, PM, The World Today, sporting events and Nightlife.
the ABC operates 15 radio networks, variously available on AM and FM as well as on digital platforms and the internet.
Radio National – A generalist station, also known as RN, broadcasting more than 60 special interest programmes per week covering a range of topics including music, comedy, book readings, radio dramas, poetry, science, health, the arts, religion, social history and current affairs.
ABC NewsRadio – A news based service, also known as ABC News on Radio, broadcasting federal parliamentary sittings and news on a 24/7 format with updates on the quarter-hour. Broadcast's news content produced by the ABC itself, as well as programmes relayed from ABC Radio Australia, the BBC World Service, NPR, Deutsche Welle, Radio Netherlands and CNN Radio.
ABC Classic – A classical music based station, formerly known as ABC Classic FM. It also plays some jazz and world music. ABC Classic was the ABC's first FM radio service. It was originally known simply as "ABC FM", and for a short time "ABC Fine Music".
Triple J – A youth-oriented radio network, with a strong focus on alternative and independent music (especially Australian artists); it is targeted at people aged 18–35.
The ABC also operates several stations only available online and on digital platforms:
ABC Classic 2 – a sister station to ABC Classic, focussing on performances by Australian artists. Only available on streaming platforms.
Double J – a Triple J sister station, focussed on an older audience to Triple J.
Triple J Unearthed – a Triple J sister station, playing unsigned and independent Australian talent.
Triple j Hottest – a Triple J sister station, playing tracks from the past 30 years of Triple J Hottest 100 countdowns.
ABC Jazz – A station exclusively dedicated to Jazz from Australia and the world.
ABC Country – An exclusively country music station, mainly focussing on Australian country music.
ABC Grandstand – Since November 2020 merged to ABC Sport.
ABC Extra – A temporary special events station.
ABC Kids – Children's based programming, and a sister station to the ABC Kids television channel.
There is also ABC Radio Australia, the international radio station of the ABC (see below).
=== ABC Listen app ===
The ABC Radio app was launched in 2012. This was replaced by the ABC Listen app in September 2017, which included 45 ABC radio stations and audio networks.
===Television===
The ABC operates five national television channels:
ABC TV (formerly ABC1 from 2008 to 2014), the corporation's original television service, receives the bulk of funding for television and shows first-run comedy, drama, documentaries, and news and current affairs. In each state and territory a local news bulletin is shown at 7pm nightly.
ABC Family (formerly ABC2 and ABC Comedy and ABC TV Plus), launched in 2005, shows comedic content in addition to some repeats from ABC TV of which the amount has decreased gradually since ABC TV Plus's inception. It is not a 24-hour channel, but is broadcast daily from 7:30pm to around 3am the following night. The channel shares airspace with the ABC Kids programming block from 5am to 7:30pm.
ABC Entertains (originally ABC3 and ABC Me) became a fully fledged channel on 4 December 2009, but has been part of the electronic guide line-up since 2008, broadcasting an ABC1 simulcast until 4 December 2009, then an ABC Radio simulcast and teaser graphic until its official launch. It is broadcast from 6am to around 10pm on weekdays and 6am to 2am the next day on weekends, and consists of a broad range programmes aimed at a young audience aged 6–15, with a core demographic of 8–12.
ABC Kids (formerly ABC For Kids on 2 and ABC 4 Kids) is a preschool children's block featuring children's programming aimed at the 0 to 5 age groups. ABC Kids broadcasts during ABC Family downtime, from 4am to 7:30pm daily.
ABC News (originally ABC News 24), a 24-hour news channel, featuring the programming from ABC News and Current Affairs, selected programs from the BBC World News channel, coverage of the Federal Parliament's Question Time, documentaries and factual, arts programming and state or national election coverage.
Although the ABC's headquarters in Sydney serve as a base for program distribution nationally, ABC Television network is composed of eight state and territory based stations, each based in their respective state capital and augmented by repeaters:
ABN (Sydney)
ABV (Melbourne)
ABQ (Brisbane)
ABS (Adelaide)
ABW (Perth)
ABT (Hobart)
ABC (Canberra)
ABD (Darwin)
The eight ABC stations carry opt outs for local programming. In addition to the nightly 7pm news, the stations also broadcast weekly state editions of 7.30 on Friday evenings (until 5 December 2014), state election coverage and in most areas, live sport on Saturday afternoons.
There is also ABC Australia, the international TV service of the ABC (see below).
===Online and digital===
ABC Online is the name given to the online services of the ABC, which have evolved to cover a large network of websites including those for ABC News, its various television channels, ABC radio; podcasts; SMS, mobile apps and other mobile phone services; vodcasts and video-on-demand through ABC iView.
The official launch of ABC Online, then part of the ABC's Multimedia Unit, was on 14 August 1995,
ABC TV Plus, a digital-only free-to-air television channel, launched on 7 March 2005, as ABC2. Unlike its predecessors the new service was not dependent on government funding, instead running on a budget of per year. Minister for Communications Helen Coonan inaugurated the channel at Parliament House three days later. Genre restrictions limiting the types of programming the channel could carry were lifted in October 2006 – ABC TV Plus (then ABC2) was henceforth able to carry programming classified as comedy, drama, national news, sport, and entertainment.
In conjunction with the ABC's radio division, New Media and Digital Services implemented the ABC's first podcasts in December 2004. By mid-2006 the ABC had become an international leader in podcasting with over fifty podcast programmes delivering hundreds of thousands of downloads per week, including trial video podcasts of The Chaser's War on Everything and jtv.
In February 2007 the New Media & Digital Services division was dissolved and divided up among other areas of the ABC. It was replaced by a new Innovation division, to manage ABC Online and investigate new technologies for the ABC.
In 2008 Crikey reported that certain ABC Online mobile sites in development were planned to carry commercial advertising. Screenshots, developed in-house, of an ABC Radio Grandstand sport page include advertising for two private companies. Media Watch later revealed that the websites were to be operated by ABC Commercial and distinguished from the main, advertising-free, mobile website by a distinct logo.
In 2015 the Innovation Division was replaced with the Digital Network Division. Angela Clark was head from 2012 until at least the end of financial year 2015/6, but by 2017 she was gone, and the Digital Network fell into the Technology division under the Chief Technology Officer. She retired from this role in 2022
In December 2019 a refreshed ABC homepage was launched. ABC News is one of Australia's largest and most-visited web sites; from its position as 11th most popular in the country in 2008, in recent years up to 2021 it has maintained its top position in the rankings.
In June 2023 the broadcaster released its five-year plan, outlining that it would move its resources away from radio and television, and instead dedicate these resources to improving and promoting its digital platforms.
===International===
ABC International is responsible for its international operations, which include the internationally broadcast Radio Australia, the Asia-Pacific TV channel ABC Australia,
In June 2012 Lynley Marshall, former head of ABC Commercial, was appointed CEO of ABC International, filling a role left empty by the retirement of Murray Green. At the time, it was intended that Radio Australia, ABC Australia and ABC News would work together more closely ABC International was at this time a division of the ABC, but it has not been represented as a separate division in the organisational structure of the ABC since 2016,
There were fears of job losses in the division after the huge budget cuts in 2014, as well as an earlier termination of a contract with the Department of Foreign Affairs, one year into the 10-year contract.
On 24 May 2021 Claire Gorman was appointed to an expanded role to manage both the International Strategy and the International Development teams.
ABC Australia is an international satellite television service operated by the Australian Broadcasting Corporation, funded by advertising and grants from the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade. Aimed at the Asia-Pacific region, the service broadcasts a mixture of English language programming, including general entertainment, sport, and current affairs.
Radio Australia is an international satellite and internet radio service with transmissions aimed at South-East Asia and the Pacific Islands, although its signals are also audible in many other parts of the world. It features programmes in various languages spoken in these regions, including Mandarin, Indonesian, Vietnamese, Khmer and Tok Pisin. Before 31 January 2017 Radio Australia broadcast short-wave radio signals. Radio Australia bulletins are also carried on WRN Broadcast, available via satellite in Europe and North America.
ABC International Development, or ABCID, is a media development unit that promotes public interest journalism and connects with local media in the region. ABCID employs local people in Papua New Guinea and many Pacific countries. The team "provides expertise, training, technical and program support to partner organisations", by working with a variety of organisations, including international development donors,
==Independence and impartiality==
Under the Australian Broadcasting Corporation Act 1983, the ABC Board is bound to "maintain the independence and integrity of the Corporation" and to ensure that "the gathering and presentation by the Corporation of news and information is accurate and impartial according to the recognised standards of objective journalism".
The ABC's editorial policy on impartiality requires it to take "no editorial stance other than its commitment to fundamental democratic principles including the rule of law, freedom of speech and religion, parliamentary democracy and non-discrimination". The ABC follows the following "hallmarks of impartiality": "a balance that follows the weight of evidence, fair treatment, open-mindedness and opportunities over time for principal relevant perspectives on matters of contention to be expressed".
ABC Commercial was registered as a business name under Australian Broadcasting Corporation in April 2007 and continues to exist . It includes ABC Music, a leading independent record label; ABC Events, which stages concerts and other events; and publishing and licensing activities by ABC Books, ABC Audio, ABC Magazines and ABC Licensing. In early 2019, ABC Commercial split from the Finance division and became an independent business unit of the ABC.
In the financial year 2018–2019, ABC Commercial turned a profit of , which was invested in content production.
The ABC Studios and Media Production hires out some of the ABC studios and sound stages, operating as part of ABC Commercial. The studios for hire are in Sydney (Studios 21, 22, 16), Melbourne (31), Adelaide (51B) and Perth (61).
==Orchestras==
Up until the installation of disc recording equipment in 1935, all content broadcast on the ABC was produced live, including music. For this purpose the ABC established broadcasting orchestras in each state, and in some centres also employed choruses and dance bands. This became known as the ABC Concert Music Division, which was controlled by the Federal Director of Music – the first of whom was W. G. James.
In 1997 the ABC divested all ABC orchestras from the Concerts Department of the ABC into separate subsidiary companies, allied to a service company known as Symphony Australia, The six state orchestras are:
Adelaide Symphony Orchestra
Melbourne Symphony Orchestra
Queensland Symphony Orchestra
Sydney Symphony Orchestra
Tasmanian Symphony Orchestra
West Australian Symphony Orchestra
==ABC Friends==
ABC Friends, formerly Friends of the ABC (FABC), consists of independent organisations in each state and territory, under an umbrella organisation established in December 2016, ABC Friends National Inc. In 1976 three independent groups were formed: Aunty's Nieces and Nephews in Melbourne, Friends of the ABC (NSW) Inc. (now ABC Friends NSW & ACT) and Friends of the ABC (SA) (since 2007/2008, ABC Friends SA/NT). The groups were formed by citizens who were concerned about government threats to make deep cuts to the ABC's budget. Historian Ken Inglis wrote that "The Friends were in the line of those people who had affirmed over the years that the ABC was essential to the nation". Over the years, independent state organisations were established, run by committees, and in January 2014 the name of each was changed to ABC Friends.
In the landmark ruling Justice Lee awarded Russell $390,000 in addition to interest and damages. Estimates of legal expenses ranged between $1.2 million and $3 million. The broadcaster did not take up an earlier settlement offer of $99,000 and removal of the published articles. The ABC managing director, David Anderson, who took home a six-figure pay rise shortly after the defamation case loss, outlined in senate estimates that he would not apologise to Russell for the false reporting.
Recordings of Mark Willacy's interviews that formed part of the defamation case were garnished as part of the legal discovery process. They were made available to Ben Fordham's 2GB radio program.
In December 2023 Antoinette Lattouf was hired for five days to fill in for Sarah Macdonald on ABC Radio Sydney and then sacked three days later due to her outspoken activism on the Israel-Gaza conflict by reposting a Human Rights Watch story covering alleged actions taken by Israeli soldiers in Gaza. Two days later Lattouf initiated law action with the Fair Work Commission against the ABC for alleged racial discrimination. ABC members of the Media, Entertainment and Arts Alliance voted no confidence in Anderson partly due to WhatsApp messages that had come to light from a pro-Israel lobby group known as "Lawyers for Israel". The next day the ABC Board voted unanimous confidence in Anderson.
In March 2024 the ABC aired a documentary titled "Ukraine's War: The Other Side," by Sean Langan which has been criticised by Ukrainian ambassador Vasyl Myroshnychenko as the "journalistic equivalent of a bowl of vomit" and seemed to repeat Russian justification for the War in Ukraine and structured in a way that seems to favor the Russian side. The ABC has defended its position with a spokesperson stating "we believe Australian audiences also have the right to watch it and make up their own minds."
===Perceived bias===
External critics have complained in particular of left-wing political bias at the broadcaster, Gerard Henderson has argued that the ABC is supportive of diversity in areas such as identity, race, gender and ethnicity, but not so strong on diversity of views.
In December 2013 former judge and ABC chair James Spigelman announced that four independent audits would be conducted each year in response to the allegations of bias in the reporting of news and current affairs. ABC Friends have observed that: "Most of the complaints about bias in the ABC have come from the government of the day – Labor or Liberal. Significantly both parties have been far less hostile to the ABC when in opposition".
Both internal and external research has been conducted on the question of bias at the ABC. These include the following:
A 2004 Roy Morgan media credibility survey found that journalists regarded ABC Radio as the most accurate news source in the country and the ABC as the second "most politically biased media organisation in Australia".
A 2013 University of the Sunshine Coast study of the voting intentions of journalists found that 73.6% of ABC journalists supported Labor or the Greens – with 41% supporting the Greens (whereas only around 10% of people in the general population voted for the Greens).
At the 2016 federal election, a study commissioned by the ABC's Election Coverage Review Committee and conducted by Isentia compiled share-of-voice data and found that the ABC devoted 42.6% of election coverage to the Coalition government (this compares to the 42.04% primary (first-preference) vote received by the Coalition in the House of Representatives (HOR)), 35.9% to the Labor opposition (34.73% HOR), 8% to the Greens (10.23% HOR), 3.1% to independents (1.85% HOR), 2.2% to the Nick Xenophon Team (1.85% HOR) and 8.1% to others. However, the ABC itself notes the "significant limitations around the value of share of voice data" as "duration says nothing about tone or context".
In December 2020, the Board commissioned its 19th editorial review by an independent reviewer, which found that the ABC's news coverage of lead-up to the 2019 Australian election was "overwhelmingly positive and unbiased", although it also found that specific episodes of The Drum and Insiders reflected too narrow a range of viewpoints. The government forced the publication of the report after Coalition senator James McGrath raised a motion in the Senate, which led to ABC Chair Ita Buttrose and managing director David Anderson writing to the president of the Senate, Scott Ryan, to express their concerns about the use of the such powers, which went against the public interest.
The ABC has an Election Coverage Review Committee that supervises the allocation of available broadcasting time to political parties and checks broadcast content against their editorial policies. The ABC also has a Referendum Coverage Review Committee which performs similar functions to the Election Coverage Review Committee. These committees are convened when an electoral event is announced.
===Relationships with government===
Labor prime minister Bob Hawke considered the ABC's coverage of the 1991 Gulf War to be biased. In 1996, conservative opposition leader John Howard refused to have Kerry O'Brien of the ABC moderate the television debates with Labor prime minister Paul Keating because Howard saw O'Brien as biased against the Coalition.
Liberal Prime Minister Tony Abbott perceived the ABC to be left wing and hostile to his government, while Malcolm Turnbull enjoyed better relations with the national broadcaster. Turnbull's successor, Scott Morrison, once again presided over "strained" relations between the government and the ABC. Under Morrison's leadership, an investigation was launched into the ABC and its complaints-handling process—a decision which was criticised by Ita Buttrose as "political interference".
===Specific topics===
====The Catholic Church and George Pell====
The ABC's coverage of the issue of sexual abuse in the Catholic Church received praise and criticism. The Melbourne Press Club presented the 2016 Quill for Coverage of an Issue or Event for the report George Pell and Sexual Abuse in the Catholic Church, and the 2016 Golden Quill award to Louise Milligan and Andy Burns for their extensive coverage of Cardinal George Pell's evidence given at the Royal Commission into Institutional Responses to Child Sexual Abuse.
The ABC Media Watch program of 20 April 2020 noted that the ABC had been accused of leading a "witch hunt" against Cardinal Pell. Media Watch reported that, following his acquittal, Pell said the ABC gave an "overwhelming presentation of one view and only one view". Media Watch also canvassed other criticisms including from The Australian newspaper's editor-at-large Paul Kelly, who charged the ABC with having run a "sustained campaign against Pell". Media Watch also offered criticism of its own, noting Louise Milligan and the Four Corners program had failed to canvass any of Pell's defence from the trial and "lined up witnesses condemning Pell", while social media commentary by Barrie Cassidy and Quentin Dempster had undermined the presumption of innocence. Margaret Simons similarly noted in The Guardian that "there has been some social media activity by ABC journalists that looks very much like lobbying against Pell..."
====Environmentalism====
Planet Slayer was an ABC website run by scientist Bernie Hobbs to teach children about the environment in around 2008/09. It included a "Greenhouse Calculator" which aimed to help children to work out their carbon footprint by providing an estimate of the age a person needs to die if they are not to use more than their fair share of the Earth's resources. Victorian Liberal senator Mitch Fifield criticised a cartoon series on the site for portraying those who eat meat, loggers, and workers in the nuclear industry as "evil". ABC managing director Mark Scott said the site was not designed to offend anyone, but instead have children think about environmental issues.
|
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] |
3,080 |
Alexandria
|
Alexandria ( ; ;) is the second largest city in Egypt and the largest city on the Mediterranean coast. It lies at the western edge of the Nile River delta. Founded in 331 BC by Alexander the Great, Alexandria grew rapidly and became a major centre of Hellenic civilisation, eventually replacing Memphis, in present-day Greater Cairo, as Egypt's capital. Called the "Bride of the Mediterranean" and "Pearl of the Mediterranean Coast" internationally, Alexandria is a popular tourist destination and an important industrial centre due to its natural gas and oil pipelines from Suez.
The city extends about along the northern coast of Egypt and is the largest city on the Mediterranean, the second-largest in Egypt (after Cairo), the fourth-largest city in the Arab world, the ninth-largest city in Africa, and the ninth-largest urban area in Africa.
The city was founded originally in the vicinity of an Egyptian settlement named Rhacotis (that became the Egyptian quarter of the city). Alexandria grew rapidly, becoming a major centre of Hellenic civilisation and replacing Memphis as Egypt's capital during the reign of the Ptolemaic pharaohs who succeeded Alexander. It retained this status for almost a millennium, through the period of Roman and Eastern Roman rule until the Muslim conquest of Egypt in 641 AD, when a new capital was founded at Fustat (later absorbed into Cairo).
Alexandria was best known for the Lighthouse of Alexandria (Pharos), one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World; its Great Library, the largest in the ancient world; and the Catacombs of Kom El Shoqafa, one of the Seven Wonders of the Middle Ages. Alexandria was the intellectual and cultural centre of the ancient Mediterranean for much of the Hellenistic age and late antiquity. From the late 18th century, Alexandria became a major centre of the international shipping industry and one of the most important trading centres in the world, both because it profited from the easy overland connection between the Mediterranean and Red Seas and the lucrative trade in Egyptian cotton.
== Name ==
Alexandria was located on the earlier Egyptian settlement, which was called Rhacotis (), the Hellenised form of Egyptian r-ꜥ-qd(y)t. As one of many settlements founded by Alexander the Great, the city he founded on Rhacotis was called (), which some sources translated as "Alexandria by Egypt", as the city was, at that time, in the periphery of Egypt proper (the area beside the Nile). Some of the Alexandrian and Greek populaces, e.g., Hypsicles, also referred to the city as (, "Alexandria near Egypt"). In the course of Roman rule in Egypt, the city's name was Latinised as .
After the capture of Alexandria by the Rashiduns in AD 641, the name was Arabicised: initial Al- was re-analysed into the definite article; metathesis occurred on x, from to ; and the suffix -eia was assimilated into the feminine adjectival suffix -iyya ().
==History==
===Ancient era===
Radiocarbon dating of seashell fragments and lead contamination show human activity at the location during the period of the Old Kingdom (27th–21st centuries BC) and again in the period 1000–800 BC, followed by the absence of activity after that. From ancient sources it is known there existed a trading post at this location during the time of Rameses the Great for trade with Crete, but it had long been lost by the time of Alexander's arrival. Ptolemy at first ruled from the old Egyptian capital of Memphis. In 322/321 BC he had Cleomenes executed. Finally, in 305 BC, Ptolemy declared himself Pharaoh as Ptolemy I Soter ("Savior") and moved his capital to Alexandria.
Although Cleomenes was mainly in charge of overseeing Alexandria's early development, the and the mainland quarters seem to have been primarily Ptolemaic work. Inheriting the trade of ruined Tyre and becoming the centre of the new commerce between Europe and the Arabian and Indian East, the city grew in less than a generation to be larger than Carthage. In one century, Alexandria had become the largest city in the world and, for some centuries more, was second only to Rome. It became Egypt's main Greek city, with Greek people from diverse backgrounds.
The Septuagint, a Greek version of the Tanakh, was produced there. The early Ptolemies kept it in order and fostered the development of its museum into the leading Hellenistic centre of learning (Library of Alexandria, which faced destruction during Caesar's siege of Alexandria in 47 BC), but were careful to maintain the distinction of its population's three largest ethnicities: Greek, Egyptian and Jewish. By the time of Augustus, the city grid encompassed an area of , and the total population during the Roman principate was around 500,000–600,000, which would wax and wane in the course of the next four centuries under Roman rule.
According to Philo of Alexandria, in the year 38 AD, disturbances erupted between Jews and Greek citizens of Alexandria during a visit paid by King Agrippa I to Alexandria, principally over the respect paid by the Herodian nation to the Roman emperor, which quickly escalated to open affronts and violence between the two ethnic groups and the desecration of Alexandrian synagogues. This event has been called the Alexandrian pogroms. The violence was quelled after Caligula intervened and had the Roman governor, Flaccus, removed from the city.
In 115 AD, large parts of Alexandria were destroyed during the Diaspora revolt, which gave Hadrian and his architect, Decriannus, an opportunity to rebuild it. In 215 AD, the emperor Caracalla visited the city and, because of some insulting satires that the inhabitants had directed at him, abruptly commanded his troops to put to death all youths capable of bearing arms. On 21 July 365 AD, Alexandria was devastated by a tsunami (365 Crete earthquake), an event annually commemorated years later as a "day of horror".
===Islamic era===
In 619, Alexandria fell to the Sassanid Persians. The city was mostly uninjured by the conquest and a new palace called Tarawus was erected in the eastern part of the city, later known as Qasr Faris, "fort of the Persians". Although the Byzantine emperor Heraclius recovered it in 629, in 641 the Arabs under the general 'Amr ibn al-'As invaded it during the Muslim conquest of Egypt, after a siege that lasted 14 months. The first Arab governor of Egypt recorded to have visited Alexandria was Utba ibn Abi Sufyan, who strengthened the Arab presence and built a governor's palace in the city in 664–665.
In reference to Alexandria, Ibn Battuta speaks of a number of Muslim saints that resided in the city. One such saint was Imam Borhan Oddin El Aaraj, who was said to perform miracles. Another notable figure was Yaqut al-'Arshi, a disciple of Abu Abbas El Mursi. Ibn Battuta also writes about Abu 'Abdallah al-Murshidi, a saint that lived in the Minyat of Ibn Murshed. Although al-Murshidi lived in seclusion, Ibn Battuta writes that he was regularly visited by crowds, high state officials, and even by the Sultan of Egypt at the time, al-Nasir Muhammad.During the Middle Ages, the Mamluk Sultanate provided amenities for European merchants to stay in the port cities of Alexandria and Damietta, so hotels were built and placed at the merchants' disposal so that they could live according to the pattern they were accustomed to in their country. Alexandria lost much of its importance in international trade after Portuguese navigators discovered a new sea route to India in the late 15th century. This reduced the amount of goods that needed to be transported through the Alexandrian port, as well as the Mamluks' political power. After the Battle of Ridaniya in 1517, the city was conquered by the Ottoman Turks and remained under Ottoman rule until 1798. Alexandria lost much of its former importance to the Egyptian port city of Rosetta during the 9th to 18th centuries, and it only regained its former prominence with the construction of the Mahmoudiyah Canal in 1820.
Alexandria figured prominently in the military operations of Napoleon's expedition to Egypt in 1798. French troops stormed the city on 2 July 1798, and it remained in their hands until the arrival of a British expedition in 1801. The British won a considerable victory over the French at the Battle of Alexandria on 21 March 1801, following which they besieged the city, which fell to them on 2 September 1801. Muhammad Ali, the Ottoman governor of Egypt, began rebuilding and redevelopment around 1810 and, by 1850, Alexandria had returned to something akin to its former glory. Egypt turned to Europe in their effort to modernise the country. Greeks, followed by other Europeans and others, began moving to the city. In the early 20th century, the city became a home for novelists and poets.
In July 1954, the city was a target of an Israeli bombing campaign that later became known as the Lavon Affair. On 26 October 1954, Alexandria's Mansheya Square was the site of a failed assassination attempt on Gamal Abdel Nasser.
Europeans began leaving Alexandria following the 1956 Suez Crisis that led to an outburst of Arab nationalism. The nationalisation of property by Nasser, which reached its highest point in 1961, drove out nearly all the rest. It is a densely populated city; its core areas belie its large administrative area.
Notes: 2020 CAPMAS projection based on 2017 revised census figures, may differ significantly from 2017 census preliminary tabulations. The 14 kisms were reported simply as Alexandria city by CAPMAS in 2006 but given explosive growth definitions, likely informal, may have changed or may be set to change. Same area with 12 kisms existed in 1996. Kisms are considered 'fully urbanised'
===Climate===
Alexandria has a hot steppe climate (Köppen climate classification: BSh), Rafah and Alexandria are the wettest places in Egypt; the other wettest places are Rosetta, Baltim, Kafr el-Dawwar, and Mersa Matruh. The city's climate is influenced by the Mediterranean Sea, moderating its temperatures, causing variable rainy winters and moderately hot and slightly prolonged summers that, at times, can be very humid; January and February are the coolest months, with daily maximum temperatures typically ranging from and minimum temperatures that could reach .
Alexandria experiences violent storms, rain and sometimes sleet and hail during the cooler months; these events, combined with a poor drainage system, have been responsible for occasional flooding in the city in the past though they rarely occur anymore. July and August are the hottest and driest months of the year, with an average daily maximum temperature of . The average annual rainfall is around but has been as high as
Port Said, Kosseir, Baltim, Damietta and Alexandria have the least temperature variation in Egypt.
The highest recorded temperature was on 30 May 1961, and the coldest recorded temperature was on 31 January 1994.
==== Climate change ====
A 2019 paper published in PLOS One estimated that under Representative Concentration Pathway 4.5, a "moderate" scenario of climate change where global warming reaches ~ by 2100, the climate of Alexandria in the year 2050 would most closely resemble the current climate of Gaza City. The annual temperature would increase by , and the temperature of the warmest and the coldest month by and . According to Climate Action Tracker, the current warming trajectory appears consistent with , which closely matches RCP 4.5.
Due to its location on a Nile river delta, Alexandria is one of the most vulnerable cities to sea level rise in the entire world. According to some estimates, hundreds of thousands of people in its low-lying areas may already have to be relocated before 2030. The 2022 IPCC Sixth Assessment Report estimates that by 2050, Alexandria and 11 other major African cities (Abidjan, Algiers, Cape Town, Casablanca, Dakar, Dar es Salaam, Durban, Lagos, Lomé, Luanda and Maputo) would collectively sustain cumulative damages of US$65 billion for the "moderate" climate change scenario RCP 4.5 and US$86.5 billion for the high-emission scenario RCP 8.5, while RCP 8.5 combined with the hypothetical impact from marine ice sheet instability at high levels of warming would involve up to US$137.5 billion in damages. Additional accounting for the "low-probability, high-damage events" may increase aggregate risks to US$187 billion for the "moderate" RCP4.5, US$206 billion for RCP8.5 and US$397 billion under the high-end ice sheet instability scenario. In every single estimate, Alexandria alone bears around half of these costs. Since sea level rise would continue for about 10,000 years under every scenario of climate change, future costs of sea level rise would only increase, especially without adaptation measures. Recent studies published in Earth's Future by the American Geophysical Union indicate that rising sea levels are causing increases in coastal aquifer levels, reaching building foundations and accelerating their corrosion and potential collapse. The study predicts that in 2025, more than 7000 buildings in Alexandria will be at risk of collapse due to these groundwater processes.
==Ancient layout==
Greek Alexandria was divided into three regions:
Rhakotis
Rhakotis (from Coptic , "Alexandria") was the old city that was absorbed into Alexandria. It was occupied chiefly by Egyptians.
Brucheum
Brucheum was the Royal or Greek quarter and formed the most magnificent portion of the city. In Roman times, Brucheum was enlarged by the addition of an official quarter, making four regions in all. The city was laid out as a grid of parallel streets, each of which had an attendant subterranean canal.
Jewish quarter
The Jewish quarter was the northeast portion of the city.
Two main streets, lined with colonnades and said to have been each about wide, intersected in the centre of the city, close to the point where the Sema (or Soma) of Alexander (his Mausoleum) rose. This point is very near the present mosque of Nebi Daniel; the line of the great East–West "Canopic" street is also present in modern-day Alexandria, having only slightly diverged from the line of the modern Boulevard de Rosette (now Sharae Fouad). Traces of its pavement and canal have been found near the Rosetta Gate, but remnants of streets and canals were exposed in 1899 by German excavators outside the east fortifications, which lie well within the area of the ancient city.Alexandria consisted originally of little more than the island of Pharos, which was joined to the mainland by a mole and called the ("seven stadia"—a stadium was a Greek unit of length measuring approximately ). The end of this abutted on the land at the head of the present Grand Square, where the "Moon Gate" rose. All that now lies between that point and the modern "Ras al-Tin" quarter is built on the silt which gradually widened and obliterated this mole. The Ras al-Tin quarter represents all that is left of the island of Pharos, the site of the actual lighthouse having been weathered away by the sea. On the east of the mole was the Great Harbour, now an open bay; on the west lay the port of Eunostos, with its inner basin Kibotos, now vastly enlarged to form the modern harbour.
In Strabo's time (latter half of the 1st century BC), the principal buildings were as follows, enumerated as they were to be seen from a ship entering the Great Harbour.
The Royal Palaces, filling the northeast angle of the town and occupying the promontory of Lochias, which shut in the Great Harbour on the east. Lochias (the modern Pharillon) has almost entirely disappeared into the sea, together with the palaces, the "Private Port", and the island of Antirrhodus. There has been a land subsidence here, as throughout the northeast coast of Africa.
The Great Theater, on the modern Hospital Hill near the Ramleh station. This was used by Julius Caesar as a fortress, where he withstood a siege from the city mob after he took Egypt after the battle of Pharsalus.
The Poseidon, or Temple of the Sea God, close to the theater
The Timonium built by Marc Antony
The Emporium (Exchange)
The Apostases (Magazines)
The Navalia (Docks), lying west of the Timonium, along the seafront as far as the mole
Behind the Emporium rose the Great Caesareum, by which stood the two great obelisks which became known as "Cleopatra's Needles" and were transported to New York City and London. This temple became, in time, the Patriarchal Church, though some ancient remains of the temple have been discovered. The actual Caesareum, the parts not eroded by the waves, lies under the houses lining the new seawall.
The Gymnasium and the Palaestra are both inland, near the Boulevard de Rosette in the eastern half of the town; sites unknown.
The Temple of Saturn; site unknown.
The Mausolea of Alexander (Soma) and the Ptolemies in one ring-fence, near the point of intersection of the two main streets.
The Musaeum with its famous Library and theater in the same region; site unknown.
The Serapeum of Alexandria, the most famous of all Alexandrian temples. Strabo tells that this stood in the west of the city; and recent discoveries go far as to place it near "Pompey's Pillar", which was an independent monument erected to commemorate Diocletian's siege of the city.
The names of a few other public buildings on the mainland are known, but there is little information as to their actual position. None, however, are as famous as the building that stood on the eastern point of Pharos island. There, The Great Lighthouse, one of the Seven Wonders of the World, reputed to be high, was situated. The first Ptolemy began the project, and the second Ptolemy (Ptolemy II Philadelphus) completed it, at a total cost of 800 talents. It took 12 years to complete and served as a prototype for all later lighthouses in the world. The light was produced by a furnace at the top and the tower was built mostly with solid blocks of limestone. The Pharos lighthouse was destroyed by an earthquake in the 14th century, making it the second longest surviving ancient wonder, after the Great Pyramid of Giza. A temple of Hephaestus also stood on Pharos at the head of the mole.
In the 1st century, the population of Alexandria contained over 180,000 adult male citizens, according to a census dated from 32 AD, in addition to a large number of freedmen, women, children and slaves. Estimates of the total population range from 216,000 to 500,000, making it one of the largest cities ever built before the Industrial Revolution and the largest pre-industrial city that was not an imperial capital.
==Cityscape==
Due to the constant presence of war in Alexandria in ancient times, very little of the ancient city has survived into the present day. Much of the royal and civic quarters sank beneath the harbour and the rest has been built over in modern times.
=== Pompey's Pillar ===
"Pompey's Pillar", a Roman triumphal column, is one of the best-known ancient monuments still standing in Alexandria today. It is located on Alexandria's ancient acropolis—a modest hill located adjacent to the city's Arab cemetery—and was originally part of a temple colonnade. Including its pedestal, it is 30 m (99 ft) high; the shaft is of polished red granite, in diameter at the base, tapering to at the top. The shaft is high and made out of a single piece of granite. Its volume is and weight approximately 396 tons. Pompey's Pillar may have been erected using the same methods that were used to erect the ancient obelisks. The Romans had cranes, but they were not strong enough to lift something this heavy. Roger Hopkins and Mark Lehrner conducted several obelisk erecting experiments including a successful attempt to erect a 25-ton obelisk in 1999. This followed two experiments to erect smaller obelisks and two failed attempts to erect a 25-ton obelisk.
"Pompey's Pillar" is a misnomer, as it has nothing to do with Pompey, having been erected in 293 for Diocletian, possibly in memory of the rebellion of Domitius Domitianus. The structure was plundered and demolished in the 4th century when a bishop decreed that Paganism must be eradicated. Beneath the acropolis itself are the subterranean remains of the Serapeum, where the mysteries of the god Serapis were enacted and whose carved wall niches are believed to have provided overflow storage space for the ancient Library. In more recent years, many ancient artifacts have been discovered from the surrounding sea, mostly pieces of old pottery.
=== Catacombs of Kom El Shoqafa ===
Alexandria's catacombs, known as Kom El Shoqafa, are a short distance southwest of the pillar, consist of a multi-level labyrinth, reached via a large spiral staircase and featuring dozens of chambers adorned with sculpted pillars, statues, and other syncretic Romano-Egyptian religious symbols, burial niches, and sarcophagi, as well as a large Roman-style banquet room, where memorial meals were conducted by relatives of the deceased. The catacombs were long forgotten by the citizens until they were discovered by accident in 1900.
=== Kom El Deka ===
The most extensive ancient excavation currently being conducted in Alexandria is known as Kom El Deka. It has revealed the ancient city's well-preserved theater, and the remains of its Roman-era baths.
===Temple of Taposiris Magna===
The temple was built in the Ptolemy era and dedicated to Osiris, which finished the construction of Alexandria. It is located in Abusir, the western suburb of Alexandria in Borg el Arab city. Only the outer wall and the pylons remain from the temple. There is evidence to prove that sacred animals were worshiped there. Archaeologists found an animal necropolis near the temple. Remains of a Christian church show that the temple was used as a church in later centuries. Also found in the same area are remains of public baths built by the emperor Justinian, a seawall, quays and a bridge. Near the beach side of the area, there are the remains of a tower built by Ptolemy II Philadelphus. The tower was an exact scale replica of the destroyed Alexandrine Pharos Lighthouse.
=== Citadel of Qaitbay ===
Citadel of Qaitbay is a defensive fortress located on the Mediterranean sea coast. It was established in 1477 AD (882 AH) by the mamluk Sultan Al-Ashraf Sayf al-Din Qa'it Bay. The Citadel is located on the eastern side of the northern tip of Pharos Island at the mouth of the Eastern Harbour. It was erected on the exact site of the famous Lighthouse of Alexandria, which was one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. It was built on an area of 17,550 square metres.
== Excavation ==
Persistent efforts have been made to explore the antiquities of Alexandria. Encouragement and help have been given by the local Archaeological Society and by many individuals. Excavations were performed in the city by Greeks seeking the tomb of Alexander the Great without success.
The past and present directors of the museum have been enabled from time to time to carry out systematic excavations whenever opportunity is offered; D. G. Hogarth made tentative researches on behalf of the Egypt Exploration Fund and the Society for the Promotion of Hellenic Studies in 1895; and a German expedition worked for two years (1898–1899). But two difficulties face the would-be excavator in Alexandria: lack of space for excavation and the underwater location of some areas of interest.
Since the great and growing modern city stands immediately over the ancient one, it is almost impossible to find any considerable space in which to dig, except at enormous cost. Cleopatra VII's royal quarters were inundated by earthquakes and tsunami, leading to gradual subsidence in the 4th century AD. This underwater section, containing many of the most interesting sections of the Hellenistic city, including the palace quarter, was explored in 1992 and is still being extensively investigated by the French underwater archaeologist Franck Goddio and his team. It raised a noted head of Caesarion. These are being opened up to tourists, to some controversy. The spaces that are most open are the low grounds to northeast and southwest, where it is practically impossible to get below the Roman strata.
The most important results were those achieved by Dr. G. Botti, late director of the museum, in the neighbourhood of "Pompey's Pillar", where there is a good deal of open ground. Here, substructures of a large building or group of buildings have been exposed, which are perhaps part of the Serapeum. Nearby, immense catacombs and columbaria have been opened which may have been appendages of the temple. These contain one very remarkable vault with curious painted reliefs, now artificially lit and open to visitors.
The objects found in these researches are in the museum, the most notable being a great basalt bull, probably once an object of cult in the Serapeum. Other catacombs and tombs have been opened in Kom El Shoqafa (Roman) and Ras El Tin (painted).
The German excavation team found remains of a Ptolemaic colonnade and streets in the north-east of the city, but little else. Hogarth explored part of an immense brick structure under the mound of Kom El Deka, which may have been part of the Paneum, the Mausolea, or a Roman fortress.
The making of the new foreshore led to the dredging up of remains of the Patriarchal Church; and the foundations of modern buildings are seldom laid without some objects of antiquity being discovered.
==Places of worship==
===Islam===
The most famous mosque in Alexandria is Abu al-Abbas al-Mursi Mosque in Bahary. Other notable mosques in the city include Ali ibn Abi Talib mosque in Somouha, Bilal mosque, al-Gamaa al-Bahari in Mandara, Hatem mosque in Somouha, Hoda el-Islam mosque in Sidi Bishr, al-Mowasah mosque in Hadara, Sharq al-Madina mosque in Miami, al-Shohadaa mosque in Mostafa Kamel, Al Qa'ed Ibrahim Mosque, Yehia mosque in Zizinia, Sidi Gaber mosque in Sidi Gaber, Sidi Besher mosque, Rokay el-Islam mosque in Elessway, Elsadaka Mosque in Sidibesher Qebly, Elshatbi mosque and Sultan mosque.
Alexandria is the base of the Salafi movements in Egypt. Al-Nour Party, which is based in the city and overwhelmingly won most of the Salafi votes in the 2011–12 parliamentary election, supports the president Abdel Fattah el-Sisi. (today mainly remembered as a Christian heresy).
===Judaism===
Alexandria’s Jewish community declined rapidly following the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, after which negative reactions towards Zionism among Egyptians led to Jewish residents in the city, and elsewhere in Egypt, being perceived as Zionist collaborators. Most Jewish residents of Egypt moved to the newly settled Israel, France, Brazil and other countries in the 1950s and 1960s. The community once numbered 50,000 but is now estimated at below 50. The most important synagogue in Alexandria is the Eliyahu Hanavi Synagogue.
==Education==
===Colleges and universities===
Alexandria has a number of higher education institutions. Alexandria University is a public university that follows the Egyptian system of higher education. Many of its faculties are internationally renowned, most notably its Faculty of Medicine & Faculty of Engineering. In addition, the Egypt-Japan University of Science and Technology in New Borg El Arab city is a research university set up in collaboration between the Japanese and Egyptian governments in 2010. The Arab Academy for Science, Technology & Maritime Transport is a semi-private educational institution that offers courses for high school, undergraduate level, and postgraduate students. It is considered the most reputable university in Egypt after the AUC American University in Cairo because of its worldwide recognition from board of engineers at UK & ABET in US. Université Senghor is a private French university that focuses on the teaching of humanities, politics and international relations, which mainly recruits students from the African continent. Other institutions of higher education in Alexandria include Alexandria Institute of Technology (AIT) and Pharos University in Alexandria.
In September 2023, The Greek University of Patras announced that it is opening a branch in Alexandria, in a first-of-its-kind move by a Greek higher education institution. The Greek university of Patras branch will operate two departments, one Greek-speaking and one English-speaking in the subjects of Greek culture, Greek language and Greek philosophy.
===Schools===
Alexandria has a long history of foreign educational institutions. The first foreign schools date to the early 19th century, when French missionaries began establishing French charitable schools to educate the Egyptians. Today, the most important French schools in Alexandria run by Catholic missionaries include Collège de la Mère de Dieu, Collège Notre Dame de Sion, Collège Saint Marc, Écoles des Soeurs Franciscaines (four different schools), École Girard, École Saint Gabriel, École Saint-Vincent de Paul, École Saint Joseph, École Sainte Catherine, and Institution Sainte Jeanne-Antide. As a reaction to the establishment of French religious institutions, a secular (laic) mission established Lycée el-Horreya, which initially followed a French system of education, but is currently run by the Egyptian government. The only school in Alexandria that completely follows the French educational system is Lycée Français d'Alexandrie (École Champollion). It is usually frequented by the children of French expatriates and diplomats in Alexandria. The Italian school is the Istituto "Don Bosco".
English-language schools in Alexandria are the most popular; those in the city include: Riada American School, Riada Language School, Forsan American School, Forsan International School, Alexandria Language School, Future Language School, Future International Schools (Future IGCSE, Future American School and Future German school), Alexandria American School, British School of Alexandria, Egyptian American School, Pioneers Language School, Egyptian English Language School, Princesses Girls' School, Sidi Gaber Language School, Zahran Language School, Taymour English School, Sacred Heart Girls' School, Schutz American School, Victoria College, El Manar Language School for Girls (previously called Scottish School for Girls), Kawmeya Language School, El Nasr Boys' School (previously called British Boys' School), and El Nasr Girls' College (previously called English Girls' College).
There are only two German schools in Alexandria which are Deutsche Schule der Borromärinnen (DSB of Saint Charles Borromé) and Neue Deutsche Schule Alexandria, which is run by Frau Sally Hammam.
The Montessori educational system was first introduced in Alexandria in 2009 at Alexandria Montessori.
===Women===
Around the 1890s, twice the percentage of women in Alexandria knew how to read compared to Cairo. As a result, specialist women's publications like al-Fatāh by Hind Nawal, the country's first women's journal, appeared.
==Transport==
===Airports===
The city's principal airport is currently Borg El Arab Airport, which is located about away from the city centre.
From late 2011, El Nouzha Airport (Alexandria International Airport) was to be closed to commercial operations for two years as it underwent expansion, with all airlines operating out of Borg El Arab Airport from then onwards, where a brand new terminal was completed there in February 2010. In 2017, the government announced that Alexandria International Airport will shut down permanently and will no longer reopen.
===Port===
Alexandria has four ports; namely the Western Port also known as Alexandria Port, which is the main port of the country that handles about 60% of the country's exports and imports, Dekhela Port west of the Western Port, the Eastern Port which is a yachting harbour, and Abu Qir Port at the northern east of the governorate. It is a commercial port for general cargo and phosphates.
===Highways===
International Coastal Road (Mersa Matruh – Alexandria – Port Said)
Cairo–Alexandria desert road (Alexandria – Cairo – , 6–8 lanes)
Cairo-Alexandria Agriculture Road (Alexandria – Cairo)
Mehwar El Ta'meer – (Alexandria – Borg El Arab)
===Rail===
Alexandria's intracity commuter rail system extends from Misr Station (Alexandria's primary intercity railway station) to Abu Qir, parallel to the tram line. The commuter line's locomotives operate on diesel, as opposed to the overhead-electric tram.
Alexandria plays host to two intercity railway stations: the aforementioned Misr Station (in the older Manshia district in the western part of the city) and Sidi Gaber railway station (in the district of Sidi Gaber in the centre of the eastern expansion in which most Alexandrines reside), both of which also serve the commuter rail line. Intercity passenger service is operated by Egyptian National Railways.
===Trams===
An extensive tramway network was built in 1860 and is the oldest in Africa. The network begins at the El Raml district in the west and ends in the Victoria district in the east.
===Metro===
Construction of the Alexandria Metro was due to begin in 2020 at a cost of $1.05 billion.
==Culture==
===Libraries===
The Royal Library of Alexandria, in Alexandria, Egypt, was once the largest library in the world. It is generally thought to have been founded at the beginning of the 3rd century BC, during the reign of Ptolemy II of Egypt. It was likely created after his father had built what would become the first part of the library complex, the temple of the Muses—the Museion, Greek Μουσείον (from which the Modern English word museum is derived).
It has been reasonably established that the library, or parts of the collection, were destroyed by fire on a number of occasions (library fires were common and replacement of handwritten manuscripts was very difficult, expensive, and time-consuming). To this day, the details of the destruction (or destructions) remain a lively source of controversy.
The Bibliotheca Alexandrina was inaugurated in 2002, near the site of the old Library.
===Museums===
The Alexandria National Museum was inaugurated 31 December 2003. It is located in a restored Italian style palace in Tariq El Horreya Street (formerly Rue Fouad), near the centre of the city. It contains about 1,800 artifacts that narrate the story of Alexandria and Egypt. Most of these pieces came from other Egyptian museums. The museum is housed in the old Al-Saad Bassili Pasha Palace, who was one of the wealthiest wood merchants in Alexandria. Construction on the site was first undertaken in 1926.
The Graeco-Roman Museum was the city's main archeological museum, focused on artifacts from its Greco-Roman period. It was opened in 1892 and was closed in 2005 for extensive renovations and expansion. The museum re-opened to the public in October 2023.
Other museums in the city include the Cavafy Museum, the Museum of Fine Arts, and the Royal Jewelry Museum.
===Theaters===
Alexandria Opera House hosts performances of classical music, Arabic music, ballet, and opera.
===Poetry===
During the Hellenistic period, poets evolving in the court of Ptolemy II Philadelphus (Philiscus of Corcyra, Lycophron, Alexander Aetolus, Sositheus,…) are currently known as the Alexandrian Pleiad.
In modern times, Constantine P. Cavafy, a major Greek poet who was born and lived in Alexandria used several themes associated with this city in his work: "Alexandrian Kings", "In Alexandria, 31 B.C.", "Myres: Alexandria 340 A.D", "Kaisarion" and "The God Abandons Antony". In the latter, Alexandria becomes the symbol of the life whose forthcoming loss must be faced with dignity.
==Sports==
The main sport that interests Alexandrians is football, as is the case in the rest of Egypt and Africa. Alexandria Stadium is a multi-purpose stadium in Alexandria, Egypt. It is currently used mostly for football matches and was used for the 2006 African Cup of Nations. The stadium is the oldest stadium in Egypt, being built in 1929. The stadium holds 20,000 people. Alexandria was one of three cities that participated in hosting the African Cup of Nations in January 2006, which Egypt won. Sea sports such as surfing, jet-skiing and water polo are practiced on a lower scale. The Skateboarding culture in Egypt started in this city. The city is also home to the Alexandria Sporting Club, which is especially known for its basketball team, which traditionally provides the country's national team with key players. The city hosted the AfroBasket, the continent's most prestigious basketball tournament, on four occasions (1970, 1975, 1983, 2003).
Alexandria has four stadiums:
Alexandria Stadium
Borg El Arab Stadium
El Krom Stadium
Harras El Hodoud Stadium
Other less popular sports like tennis and squash are usually played in private social and sports clubs, like:
Alexandria Sporting Club – in "Sporting"
Smouha Sporting Club – in "Smouha"
Al Ittihad Alexandria Club
Olympic Club
Haras El Hodoud SC Club
Koroum Club
Lagoon Resort Courts
Alexandria Country club
Alexandria is also known as the yearly starting point of Cross Egypt Challenge and a huge celebration is conducted the night before the rally starts after all the international participants arrive to the city. Cross Egypt Challenge is an international cross-country motorcycle and scooter rally conducted throughout the most difficult tracks and roads of Egypt.
==Twin towns and sister cities==
Alexandria is twinned with:
Almaty, Kazakhstan
Baltimore, United States
Bratislava, Slovakia
Catania, Italy
Cleveland, United States
Constanța, Romania
Durban, South Africa
Incheon, South Korea
Kazanlak, Bulgaria
Limassol, Cyprus
Novi Sad, Serbia
Odesa, Ukraine
Paphos, Cyprus
Port Louis, Mauritius
Saint Petersburg, Russia
Shanghai, China
Thessaloniki, Greece
==Notable people==
Soheir Bakhoum (1947-2003) - numismatist
Constantine P. Cavafy (1863-1933) - poet
Rachel Maccabi (1915-2003) - writer and Palmach member
|
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] |
3,082 |
Alexandria, Indiana
|
Alexandria is a city in Monroe Township, Madison County, Indiana, United States. It is about northeast of Indianapolis. According to the 2020 census, its population was 5,149, It was incorporated as a town in 1898.
In 1898, Indiana's first Interurban railway line began operating between Alexandria and Anderson.
==Geography==
Alexandria is located in northern Madison County. Indiana State Road 9 passes through the east side of the city, leading south to Anderson, the county seat, and north to Marion. State Road 28 crosses the northern tip of Alexandria, leading west to Elwood and east to Albany.
According to the U.S. Census Bureau, Alexandria has a total area of , all land.
|footnote=U.S. Decennial Census
}}
Alexandria is part of the Indianapolis–Carmel–Anderson metropolitan statistical area.
===2010 census===
As of the census of 2010, there were 5,145 people, 2,113 households, and 1,362 families living in the city. The population density was . There were 2,507 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 97.4% White, 0.3% African American, 0.1% Native American, 0.2% Asian, 0.8% from other races, and 1.1% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino people of any race were 1.7% of the population.
Of the 2,113 households 33.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 42.2% were married couples living together, 15.7% had a female householder with no husband present, 6.6% had a male householder with no wife present, and 35.5% were non-families. 30.1% of households were one person and 12.8% were one person aged 65 or older. The average household size was 2.41 and the average family size was 2.95.
The median age was 38.2 years. 25.6% of residents were under the age of 18; 8.8% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 24.8% were from 25 to 44; 25.1% were from 45 to 64; and 15.6% were 65 or older. The gender makeup of the city was 47.8% male and 52.2% female.
===2000 census===
As of the census of 2000, there were 6,260 people, 2,481 households, and 1,654 families living in the city. The population density was . There were 2,704 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 98.10% White, 0.46% Black or African American, 0.08% Native American, 0.11% Asian, 0.02% Pacific Islander, 0.43% from other races, and 0.80% from two or more races. 0.99% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.
Of the 2,481 households 33.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 49.0% were married couples living together, 12.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 33.3% were non-families. 28.9% of households were one person and 13.1% were one person aged 65 or older. The average household size was 2.48 and the average family size was 3.04.
The age distribution was 27.8% under the age of 18, 8.9% from 18 to 24, 28.0% from 25 to 44, 19.5% from 45 to 64, and 15.9% 65 or older. The median age was 35 years. For every 100 females, there were 91.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 87.4 males.
The median household income was $35,359 and the median family income was $42,731. Males had a median income of $30,529 versus $23,384 for females. The per capita income for the city was $15,578. About 4.2% of families and 7.0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 4.1% of those under age 18 and 15.0% of those age 65 or over.
==Government==
The city council consists of seven members. Five members are elected from individual districts, and two are elected at large. The city is governed by a "strong" mayor system that appoints two council members and/or city residents to serve at the mayor's pleasure on the board of public works and safety. The chief financial officer is the clerk-treasurer. The clerk-treasurer and mayor are full-time elected officials.
==Transportation==
===Airport===
Alexandria Airport is a public use airport located southeast of the central business district of Alexandria.
==Education==
Alexandria Community School Corporation operates the public schools.
The town has a lending library, the Alexandria-Monroe Public Library.
==Notable people==
Joey Feek, country singer
Bill Gaither, gospel singer/songwriter
Danny Gaither, gospel singer
Gloria Gaither, author/lyricist, gospel singer
Robert L. Rock, politician
==Gallery==
File:Clock in Alexandria, Indiana.jpg|Clock in Alexandria, Indiana
File:Fountain in park in Alexandria.jpg|Fountain in park in Alexandria
File:The Commons Theatre in Alexandria Indiana.jpg|The Commons Theatre in Alexandria Indiana
File:Harrison Street, Alexandria, Indiana (74009).jpg|Harrison Street in Alexandria, circa 1930–1945
File:Beulah Park Swimming Pool, Alexandria, Indiana (74010).jpg|Beulah Park Swimming Pool in Alexandria, circa 1930–1945
File:Welcome to Alexandria.jpg|Welcome to Alexandria
|
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3,083 |
Alexandria, Louisiana
|
Alexandria is the ninth-largest city in the state of Louisiana and is the parish seat and largest city of Rapides Parish, Louisiana, United States. It lies on the south bank of the Red River in almost the exact geographic center of the state. It is the principal city of the Alexandria metropolitan area (population 153,922) which encompasses all of Rapides and Grant parishes. Its neighboring city is Pineville. In 2010, the population was 47,723, an increase of 3 percent from the 2000 census.
== History ==
Located along the Red River, the city of Alexandria was originally home to a community which supported activities of the adjacent French trader outpost of Post du Rapides. The area developed as an assemblage of traders, Caddo people, and merchants in the agricultural lands bordering the mostly unsettled areas to the north and providing a link from the south to the El Camino Real and then larger settlement of Natchitoches, the oldest permanent settlement in the Louisiana Purchase.
Alexander Fulton, a businessman from Washington County, near Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, received a land grant from Spain in 1762, and the first organized settlement was made at some point in the 1780s. In 1805, Fulton and business partner Thomas Harris Maddox laid out the town plan and named the town in Fulton's honor. The earliest deed that survives for an Alexandria resident is from June 24, 1801, when a William Cochren, who identifies himself as "Slave master of the Southern Americas", sold a tract of land across the Red River to a William Murrey.
That same year, Fulton was appointed coroner in Rapides Parish by territorial Governor William C.C. Claiborne. Alexandria was incorporated as a town in 1818 and received a city charter in 1832.
In 1942, Alexandria was the site of the Lee Street Riot, an incident of racial violence that occurred between mostly civilians and military police. Witnesses state that as many as 20 people may have been killed, however the official report indicates that 3 soldiers were critically injured, and does not mention any deaths.
== Geography and climate ==
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which 26.4 square miles (68.4 km2) is land and 0.6 square mile (1.5 km2) (2.15%) is water.
Alexandria is on a level plain in the center of the Louisiana Longleaf Pine forests, in which pine is interspersed with various hardwoods. A number of small bayous, such as Bayou Rapides, Bayou Robert, and Hynson Bayou, meander throughout the city. In the immediate vicinity of the city, cotton, sugar, alfalfa, and garden vegetables are cultivated.
The climate is humid subtropical with some continental influence in the winter. Summers are consistently hot and humid, whereas winters are mild, with occasional cold snaps. On average, the first freeze occurs in early to mid November and the last freeze occurs in early to mid March. The area receives plentiful rainfall year-round, with thunderstorms possible throughout the year. Some storms can be severe, especially during the spring months. According to 'Cities Ranked and Rated' (Bert Sperling and Peter Sander), Alexandria reports an average of 69 days per year with thunder reported, which is nearly double the national average. Snowfall is rare, with measurable snow having occurred 27 times since 1895. The heaviest snowfall event took place February 12–13, 1960, when 9.1" of snow fell.
Tropical storms and hurricanes affect Alexandria from time to time, but rarely cause severe damage, unlike areas closer to the coast. In September 2005, Hurricane Rita moved inland and affected Alexandria and surrounding areas, causing widespread power outages and damaging the roofs of some structures. The most recent hurricane, Gustav in 2008, caused widespread flooding, knocked over trees and power lines leading to power outages, and damaged structures. Some low-lying Alexandria neighborhoods had substantial flooding from Gustav, leaving several feet of water in houses.
==Demographics==
===2020 census===
As of the 2020 United States census, there were 45,275 people, 17,920 households, and 10,933 families residing in the city.
===2010 census===
As of the census of 2010, there were 47,723 people, 17,816 households, and 11,722 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,754.6/sq mi (677.5/km2). There were 19,806 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 38.32% White, 57.25% a result of the large Catholic Acadian French population which resides in and around Alexandria, many from neighboring Avoyelles Parish. Alexandria is the headquarters for the Diocese of Alexandria.
Alexandria has a small, though active Jewish community which dates back to the mid-19th century. Jews have held positions in local government, civic organizations, education, and medicine. At one time, many large businesses in the downtown were Jewish-owned. The Jewish community in Alexandria maintains two synagogues, which are approximately two blocks apart: Congregation Gemiluth Chassodim (Reform) and B'nai Israel Traditional Synagogue (Conservative).
==Annual cultural events and festivals==
===Mardi Gras===
Though Alexandria is north of the Cajun cultural area, the city recognizes Mardi Gras as an official holiday. The annual Mardi Gras Krewes Parade – occurring on the Sunday before Mardi Gras – on Texas Avenue is a major cultural festivity in the area. It is featured as a family-oriented event, and parade goers can enjoy over 20 New Orleans style floats, high school and college marching bands, as well as appearances by local celebrities. In addition to the main Sunday parade, the College Cheerleaders & Classic Cars Parade, which was established in 2008, takes place downtown on the Friday before Mardi Gras, the Children's Parade takes place downtown on the Saturday before Mardi Gras, and the Krewe of Provine Parade is held on Fat Tuesday, processing along Coliseum Boulevard. All the events are organized by the Alexandria Mardi Gras Association (AMGA). The Krewe Parade can attract from 120,000 to 150,000; the Children's parade, up to 40,000 to 50,000, and the College Cheerleaders & Classic Cars, about 5,000 to 15,000 people.
===Alex River Fête===
An annual three-day festival is held in downtown Alexandria around late April and early May. The festival, established in 2013, was created around a former successful stand-alone event, the Louisiana Dragon Boat Races. It features the race and other former stand-alone events such as Dinner on the Bricks and the ArtWalk (now Art Fête) along with various booth venues, food, and live music, as well as the Kids Fête and Classic Car Fête.
===Alex Winter Fête===
An annual three day festival held in downtown Alexandria around early December. Launched in 2015, the festival first year drew about double the anticipated crowd of 15,000.
===Former events===
====Cenlabration====
Begun in the late 1980s, Cenlabration was one of the largest festivals in Central Louisiana (Cenla). The name comes from Central Louisiana ("LA") Celebration, and reflects local culture and heritage, as well as serving as a means of celebrating Labor Day as the end of summer.
As many as three stages support a particular type of music, including Cajun and zydeco, blues and jazz, and Country music. In addition there are arts and crafts booths for local artists to sell their wares. In the Children's Village, children can participate in arts and crafts, listen to storytellers, play games with clowns, or watch a play. The festival has plenty of carnival rides available as well. Cenlabration ends with a large fireworks display.
The festival ran for 20 years until cancellation due to finances. The city ended its annual support of $40,000 because of budget constraints.
The Hearn Stage is a black box theater for smaller productions. The Arts Council provides day-to-day management of both the Coughlin-Saunders Center and the Hearn Stage.
The Riverfront Amphitheater hosts each April a "Jazz on the River" music festival, sponsored by the Arna Bontemps African American Museum. The Rapides Symphony holds an annual fall Pops concert in the amphitheater. In recent years, the amphitheater has welcomed musical guests in conjunction with the springtime Dragonboat Races sponsored by the Alexandria Museum of Art.
The spring and fall seasons also feature Downtown Rocks, a free outdoor concert series in nearby Fulton Park.
==Sports==
Alexandria was home to the Alexandria Aces, a summer college league baseball team. The Aces were champions in various leagues in 1997, 1998, 2006, and 2007. They played their home games at Bringhurst Field. Due to lack of repairs on the stadium, combined with the aging of it caused interest in the team to drop, with much of the wooden stands being barricaded. The remaining games of the 2013 season were canceled in mid-July because of low attendance, which averaged fewer than two hundred per game. The stadium's office and clubhouse were destroyed by a fire in 2014 and were subsequently torn down. In 2017, it was decided that the stadium would become a green space, open to the public and welcome news to those concerned about the building's future. The scoreboard and outfield walls have been removed, but most of the stadium is still intact. In 1974, a Little League team from Alexandria won the Louisiana state championship.
Alexandria had a minor league ice hockey team, the Alexandria Warthogs. They played their home games at the Rapides Parish Coliseum.
A professional indoor football team, the Louisiana Rangers, played their home games at the Rapides Parish Coliseum. They played in the Central District of the Southern American Football League, and the Southern Conference of the National Indoor Football League (NIFL). The team was owned by a Lafayette business group before moving in 2003 to Beaumont, Texas.
Soccer has also become a growing interest in the area. The Crossroads Soccer Association has had multiple youth teams achieve success in various travel soccer leagues. One of the earliest teams to do so was the then- U-14 Crossroads Pride soccer team, winning the 2012 Louisiana Soccer Association State Cup.
Also run by Crossroads is Alexandria's first amateur soccer team, Central Louisiana FC (formerly called Pool Boys FC and Alexandria Pool Boys FC). They are a founding member of the Gulf Coast Premier League, playing their games at Johnny Downs Sports Complex and Louisiana Christian University's Wildcat Stadium in neighboring Pineville. Central Louisiana FC runs both men's and women's amateur teams, as well as a developmental team that competes in the GCL2, the Gulf Coast Premier League's second division.
Nearby is Bringhurst Golf Course, popularly known as "the nation's oldest par-three course." A full-scale renovation was completed in mid-2010. In addition to Bringhurst, named for the late industrialist R.W. Bringhurst, Alexandria is home to four other golf courses: Oak Wing, The Links on the Bayou, at LSUA, and Alexandria Golf and Country Club.
Alexandria was also home to the Cenla Derby Dames, a roller derby team that operates under the Women's Flat Track Derby Association. The Dames played their home games at the Rapides Parish Coliseum.
==Notable people==
Anna Margaret – singer, actress
Emmanuel Arceneaux – Canadian football player
Jay Aldrich – Major League Baseball player
John Ardoin – music critic for The Dallas Morning News
Louis Berry – first African-American to practice law in Alexandria
Chris Boniol - American football player
Arna Bontemps – African American poet and member of Harlem Renaissance
Thomas "Bud" Brady – state representative (1976–1988)
Bubby Brister – Quarterback for several teams
Markel Brown – guard in the Israeli Basketball Premier League
Arthur H. Butler – Marine Corps Major General and Navy Cross recipient
D. J. Chark - American football player
Carl B. Close – state representative (1944–1947)
Luther F. Cole – associate justice of the Louisiana Supreme Court
Clifford Ann Creed – golfer; winner of eleven LPGA Tour events
Israel "Bo" Curtis – African-American Democratic member of the Louisiana House of Representatives
Bryan Dauzat – NASCAR driver
Cleveland Dear – U.S. representative and state district court judge
Demar Dotson - American football player
C. H. "Sammy" Downs – attorney and politician
James R. Eubank – Alexandria lawyer; member of the Louisiana House of Representatives
Steve Gainer – Cinematographer and Director
H. N. Goff – state representative from Rapides Parish, 1952–1956; insurance agent in Alexandria
Layon Gray – Playwright and director of the Off-Broadway hit play Black Angels Over Tuskegee.
Lawrence Preston Joseph Graves – Roman Catholic bishop of Alexandria from 1973 to 1982
Charles Pasquale Greco – Roman Catholic bishop of Alexandria from 1946 to 1973
Jeff Hall – first African-American mayor of Alexandria
Eric Johanson – blues rock musician
Josh Johnson – comedian.
Catherine D. Kimball – former Chief Justice of the Louisiana Supreme Court
Maxie Lambright – football coach for Louisiana Tech University, 1967–1978
D.L. Lang - Poet Laureate of Vallejo, California
John Leglue - NFL player
F.A. Little, Jr. – retired judge of the United States District Court for the Western District of Louisiana
George S. Long – former U.S. representative
Gillis William Long – former U.S. representative
Jay Luneau – lawyer and state senator, effective January 2016
J. Clifford MacDonald – businessman and recipient of the Presidential Medal of Freedom
Gerald Archie Mangun – pastor of the Pentecostal Church
Rod Masterson – actor
Terry Alan "Tet" Mathews – former Major League Pitcher
Warren Morris – Major League Baseball player
Craig Nall – National Football League player
J. Tinsley Oden – mathematician
Jewel Prestage – first African-American woman to earn a Ph.D. in political science.
Juan Pierre – Major League Baseball player
Ed Rand – state representative from 1960 to 1964
Joe Ray – contemporary visual artist
Joseph E. Ransdell – U.S. Senator from Louisiana, 1913–1931
Slater Rhea – Singer and TV personality on national TV in China.
Jalen Richard - NFL player
Sterling Ridge – Arizona legislator
Alvin Benjamin Rubin – federal judge, 1966–1991
Bill Schroll – National Football League player
Gustav Anton von Seckendorff – author, actor and declaimer
William Tecumseh Sherman – first superintendent; Louisiana State Seminary of Learning & Military Academy
Russ Springer – Major League Baseball player for 18 years
Grove Stafford, Sr. – Alexandria lawyer and state senator from 1940 to 1948
Leroy Augustus Stafford – planter and Confederate brigadier general
Lloyd George Teekell – 9th Judicial District Court judge from 1979 to 1990
Jeff R. Thompson – judge of the 26th Judicial District Court since 2015
Cullen Washington Jr. – contemporary abstract painter.
Muse Watson – actor
James Madison Wells – 19th century governor of Louisiana
Rebecca Wells – author best known for Divine Secrets of the Ya-Ya Sisterhood
Joanne Lyles White – founder and first president of the Louisiana Speech League
J. Robert Wooley – Louisiana insurance commissioner was reared in Alexandria.
==Media==
===Newspapers===
Established March 17, 1883, The Alexandria Town Talk is a daily newspaper for Alexandria-Pineville and the thirteen parishes which comprise central Louisiana. The newspaper was owned by the family of the late Jane Wilson Smith and Joe D. Smith, Jr., until March 1996, when it was sold to Central Newspapers. In August 2000, the Gannett Company acquired the Central Newspapers properties, including The Town Talk. The name of the paper on its inaugural issue was the Alexandria Daily Town Talk. Although it has since been shorted to the current The Town Talk, it is still frequently referred to by long-time residents as the Daily Town Talk.
===Television===
Alexandria is served by local television stations KALB-TV (NBC / CBS/ The CW), WNTZ (Fox), KLAX-TV (ABC), KLPA (PBS/LPB), and KBCA (Heroes & Icons). KALB is the oldest television station in central Louisiana.
=== Radio ===
==Parks and outdoor attractions==
===Alexandria Zoological Park===
The Alexandria Zoological Park is a zoo first opened to the public in 1926. Owned by the City of Alexandria and operated by the Division of Public Works, it is home to about 500 animals and includes an award-winning Louisiana Habitat exhibit. The zoo is accredited by the Association of Zoos and Aquariums (AZA) and takes part in about 20 Species Survival Plans (SSP) as part of its conservation efforts.
=== Cotile Lake Recreation Area ===
Cotile Lake is a man-made impoundment located in the uplands approximately west-northwest of Alexandria, Louisiana. The lake is approximately in size and was completed in October 1965. The Louisiana Wild Life and Fisheries Commission stocked this impoundment with the proper species and number of game fish in 1965–66 shortly after its completion date. The recreational facilities include a large area cleared and zoned for swimming with complete bath house facilities nearby. There is a water skiing area that is cleared and snagged for safety of the skiers. The picnic and camping areas are modern and complete. There is also space available for campers.
=== Indian Creek Lake and Recreation Area ===
Encompasses a lake, of developed recreation facilities and a primitive camping area all within the Alexander State Forest. The lake, located in central Louisiana, was constructed as a joint venture of the Louisiana Forestry Commission, the Rapides Parish Police Jury, and the Lower West Red River Soil and Water Conservation District as a reservoir for agricultural irrigation in times of need and for recreation purposes.
The recreation area camping area contains 109 campsites with conventional full utility hookups, 3 beaches for swimming, bath houses, a boat launch, and 75 picnic sites. A covered pavilion within the developed area provides for groups up to 100 people. The recreation area is open year-round and operates on user fees.
=== Kisatchie National Forest ===
Alexandria sits in the middle of the Kisatchie National Forest. Ranger districts are north, northwest, west and southwest of the city. An abundance of large timberlands and forest nurseries, as well as lake and recreation areas, are within a short driving distance.
==Other points of interest==
Alexandria Memorial Gardens – large cemetery on U.S. Highway 165 south. Other cemeteries are also available in Pineville.
Alexandria Levee Park – a park located downtown, adjacent to the Red River, that serves as the grounds for some local festivals. It contains an amphitheatre that is used for concerts.
Alexandria Mall – the local shopping mall located on Masonic Drive, established 1973
Alexandria Riverfront Center – convention center located downtown
Bringhurst Field – home of the Alexandria Aces
Bringhurst Park – contains the Alexandria Zoo, Bringhurst Field, a playground, a golf course and tennis courts
Hotel Bentley – historic hotel built in 1908
Inglewood Plantation – plantation located south of Alexandria
Kent Plantation House – French colonial plantation house
Masonic Home – a now defunct orphanage in south Alexandria completed in 1924.
Rapides Parish Coliseum – a multi-purpose arena used for sporting events, conventions and other events
== Military ==
=== Louisiana National Guard ===
Alexandria is home to both Headquarters and Company B of the 199th Brigade Support Battalion (BSB). The 199th BSB is the logistical component of the 256th Infantry Brigade that served in Operation Iraqi Freedom from October 2004 until September 2005. The 199th BSB provides supply and transportation (Company A), medical (Company C) and maintenance (Company B) support and services that keep the 256th Brigade operational. The battalion also has units located in Jonesboro, Winnfield, Colfax, and St. Martinville, Louisiana.
=== England Air Force Base ===
Alexandria served as the home of England Air Force Base from its origins as an emergency airstrip for Esler Regional Airport until its closure. England AFB was officially closed on December 15, 1992, pursuant to the Defense Base Closure and Realignment Act (Public Law 101–510) and recommendations of the Defense Secretary's Commission on Base Realignment and Closure. The base now serves as Alexandria International Airport (see below).
==Economy==
According to Census ACS 1-year survey for 2016, the per capita income of Alexandria was $23,962. This is $1,702 lower than the Louisiana average for per capita income in the same period. That figure is at $31,128 nationally. The Alexandria workforce consists of about 55,000 residents. Union Tank Car Company has recently located a plant northwest of Alexandria near the airport creating hundreds of jobs. Expansions at the Procter & Gamble plant and the construction of a PlastiPak plant in nearby Pineville have also created a number of new jobs for the area. Sundrop Fuels Inc., a Colorado-based biofuels start-up, plans to construct an over 1,200 acre plant just southwest of Alexandria in Rapides Station area. The facility will serve as the headquarters for the company because aside from the plant itself, Sundrop has also bought Cowboy Town, an abandon entertainment venue that sits inside the surrounding land that was purchased, to house their offices and their maintenance and fabrication operations.
In 2007, Inc. Magazine rated Alexandria as the 77th best place in which to conduct business out of the 393 U.S. cities ranked, a significant increase from its ranking as No. 276 in 2006. Among other Louisiana cities, Alexandria ranked second, following only Baton Rouge, which ranked 59th nationally.
===Healthcare===
Alexandria is home to two major hospitals: Rapides Regional Medical Center, a former Baptist hospital is located downtown. Christus St. Frances Cabrini Hospital was opened in 1950 and is located at the corner of Masonic Drive and Texas Avenue. Both hospitals have undergone expansion.
Additionally, located just across the Red River in Pineville, the Veteran's Affairs Medical Center at Alexandria serves central Louisiana and surrounding areas.
Meanwhile, in 2013, the state allocated $15 million to move the medical services long provided at no or minimal charge at the Huey P. Long Medical Center in Pineville to the former hospital at England Park at the site of the closed England Air Force Base.
===Port of Alexandria===
In the early 19th century, the Port of Alexandria brought goods to the area and shipped cotton and other local products to the rest of the country. A ferry connected the cities of Alexandria and Pineville until a bridge was built across the Red in 1900.
Today, Port facilities include: a 40-ton crane for off-loading, a warehouse, 13,600-ton bulk fertilizer warehouse, a 3,400-ton bulk fertilizer dome structure and a 5,000-ton dome which was added in January 2005.
The petroleum off-loading facility includes two tanks, one tank capable of handling two barges and five truck off-loading simultaneously. There is also a general cargo dock with access to rail and a hopper barge unloading dock with conveyor system.
Today's modern facilities and the Port's central location with its connection to the Mississippi River provide excellent opportunities for importers and exporters.
===Alexandria International Airport===
Alexandria International Airport (AEX) is a regional airport, providing flights to Atlanta, Dallas/Ft. Worth, and Houston. In 2006 a new-state-of-the-art passenger terminal was dedicated. Alexandria is served by American and Delta.
====Current military use====
Formerly known as England AFB until 1992, Alexandria International Airport additionally has numerous international charter airlines using the airport in the transport of military personnel attached to the United States Army base at Fort Johnson. A new military personnel terminal opened in 2007.
== Government and politics ==
=== Local government ===
==== History ====
Following the Civil War, all public records in Alexandria had been destroyed. On September 29, 1868, the city was granted a new charter with a government consisting of a Mayor, Treasurer, and Justice of the Peace. Nine aldermen represented the four wards of the city – two from each ward and one elected at-large.
In 1912, the Lawrason Act established Alexandria municipal government in a strong mayor format, where the mayor was also the Commissioner of Public Health and Safety (Police, Fire, Sanitation). There were separate Commissioners of Streets and Parks and Finance and Utilities, elected citywide. Those positions were discontinued in 1977.
==== Today ====
Alexandria has a mayoral-council system of government. The Mayor serves as the executive branch of the local government.
The City Council serves as the legislative branch. The five districts of the city are represented on the council; in addition there are two council members elected to serve as at-large representatives of the city.
The Alexandria Court has a limited jurisdiction, consisting of the citizens of Wards 1, 2 and 8 in Rapides Parish. Within those boundaries the court has the power to hear and decide both criminal and civil cases, rule in civil cases and hand down judgment for punishment in criminal cases.
=== United States Congressional district ===
From 1913 to 1993, Alexandria served as the seat of Louisiana's Eighth Congressional district. A Democratic seat, it was held by the Long family for nearly half of its existence, from 1953 to 1987, broken only by the two terms of Harold B. McSween and three terms of Republican Clyde Holloway of Forest Hill. The seat was removed after the 1990 census indicated Louisiana no longer had the population to support it. The district was split among the Fourth, Fifth and Sixth Congressional districts. Alexandria is now in the Fifth district and was represented from 2003 to 2013 by Rodney Alexander, a Democrat-turned-Republican. From November 2013 to January 2015 the representative is Vance McAllister of Ouachita Parish. Since March 2021, the Fifth has been represented by Julia Letlow of Start in Richland Parish.
==Education==
===Colleges and universities===
Situated south of the city, Louisiana State University at Alexandria (or LSUA) is a regional campus of the state's flagship university system, Louisiana State University. From its establishment in 1959, the campus offered only two-year degrees; students seeking baccalaureate degrees had to commute or move to the main campus in Baton Rouge in order to gain a four-year degree. After 1976, students could either commute or telecommute in order to attend upper-level courses, including graduate classes. In 2002, following approval by the Louisiana State University Board of Supervisors and the Louisiana Board of Regents the Louisiana Legislature passed legislation allowing LSUA to offer baccalaureate degrees.
A four-year degree is also attainable through Southern Baptist-affiliated Louisiana Christian University in Pineville, founded in 1906.
Two of Central Louisiana Technical Community College's campuses, including its main campus and administration, are located in Alexandria.
=== Primary and secondary schools ===
Rapides Parish School Board operates public schools.
Alexandria has three public high schools: Bolton High School, Alexandria Senior High School, and Peabody Magnet High School. In addition, there are two private high schools: the Roman Catholic Holy Savior Menard Central High School, and Grace Christian.
== Transportation ==
=== Roads ===
Alexandria serves as the crossroads of Louisiana. To reach either Shreveport or Monroe from the southern portion of the state, the easiest method of travel takes the driver through Alexandria. Likewise, if a visitor is to head from the northern portion of the state to the Cajun portions of the state (Lake Charles and Lafayette), or the greater metropolitan areas of either Baton Rouge or New Orleans, the easiest method of travel involves driving down Interstate 49 through Alexandria.
In addition to I-49, travelers can follow Louisiana 1 up to Alexandria from Baton Rouge and points south. Also, Highway 167 could be taken from Opelousas north to Ruston, crossing through Alexandria at one of the few bridges over the Red River in central Louisiana. Highways 165 and 71 also link Alexandria and points south with the northern and southern portions of the state via the Curtis-Coleman bridge.
There are talks about a 50-80 mile, 4 lane beltway to encircle Alexandria and Pineville, and an East-West Interstate (I14) connecting Natchez, MS and Jasper, TX called the Gulf Coast Strategic Highway. As of now, they are in the planning stages of development.
=== Bridges ===
Three road bridges cross the Red River in the Alexandria area. They are:
The Purple Heart Memorial Bridge. Part of the Alexandria-Pineville Expressway (also referred to as the Cottingham Expressway), it connects Interstate 49 to Highway 167 by crossing the Red River from downtown Alexandria to Pineville. It replaced the Fulton Street Bridge and has six lanes of traffic. Designed by the Louisiana Department of Transportation and Development (LADOTD), the bridge cost $15.9 million in federal and state funds. The northbound portion was completed in 1995, the southbound in 1998.
The U.S. 165 Business Bridge (alternatively, the Gillis Long Bridge, the Red River Bridge or the Jackson Street Bridge) connecting downtown Pineville with the business district in Alexandria. It is a two-lane vertical-lift bridge with a sidewalk/bikepath on either side. The bridge is named after U.S. Representative Gillis Long, who represented Louisiana's Eighth Congressional District. It was built in 1985 to replace the Murray Street Bridge.
The Curtis-Coleman (Fort Buhlow) Bridge A new four-lane (two lanes in each direction) bridge was built beside the aging OK Allen Bridge and opened in May, 2016. At that time US 165 will be completely four-laned for most of its traverse of Louisiana. It was demolished on September 26, 2015.
Former bridges include:
The Murray Street Bridge. One of the first bridges in Alexandria. A two-lane steel truss swing bridge, it decayed over time, finally being demolished in 1983. The approach on the Alexandria side was turned into a river overlook as part of the Alexandria Levee Park.
The Fulton Street Bridge. Named after Fulton Street which it connected with Highway 167. Technically part of the Alexandria-Pineville Expressway, it was a four-lane steel vertical-lift bridge. It was demolished in 1994 to make way for the Purple Heart Memorial Bridge.
The Oscar K. Allen Bridge connected Highway 165/71 on both sides of the Red River. It was a two-lane K-truss type bridge, named after Governor Oscar K. Allen. It was built in 1936 to connect Alexandria to the (former) Fort Buhlow. It was replaced by the Curtis-Coleman (Fort Buhlow) Bridge next to it.
There are two railroad bridges over the Red River in Alexandria. One is located near the Buhlow area north of the OK Allen bridge. The other is south of the Purple Heart Memorial Bridge.
=== Mass transit ===
Regional mass transit is handled by ATRANS (Alexandria Transportation Authority).
For those leaving or arriving at the city by bus, Greyhound Lines has a terminal downtown.
=== Airports ===
Alexandria is served by the Alexandria International Airport and the Esler Regional Airport in Pineville.
=== Rail ===
Alexandria does not have Amtrak service, nor a commuter rail system. The Kansas City Southern (Southern Belle) and the Missouri Pacific (since absorbed by Union Pacific) (Louisiana Eagle and Louisiana Daylight) operated train stations in the area in the early part of the 20th century but passenger services ended in the 1960s and the stations have closed.
== Surrounding cities and towns ==
Rapides Parish
Ball
Boyce
Cheneyville
Deville
Forest Hill
Lecompte
Pineville
Tioga
Woodworth
Grant Parish
Colfax
Creola
Dry Prong
Pollock
Prospect
== Gallery ==
File:Red River at Alexandria, LA IMG 1134.JPG|Scenic view of the Red River of the South taken from levee in Alexandria
File:Downtown Third Street in Alexandria, LA IMG_4316.JPG|Another view of Third Street in Alexandria
File:Christmas chapel, Alexandria, LA IMG_4311.JPG|Christmas chapel is a seasonal exhibit near Alexandria City Hall.
File:Louisiana State Office Building, Alexandria, LA IMG_4267.JPG|Louisiana State Office Building in Alexandria
File:Health and Human Services, Alexandria, LA IMG_4317.JPG|Human Services in Alexandria occupies a former financial institution building at 429 Murray Street downtown.
File:Missouri Pacific station, Alexandria, LA IMG 1138.JPG|Former Missouri Pacific Railroad depot in downtown historic district
File:Rapides Parish Courthouse (lower view) IMG 1142.JPG|Lower view of Rapides Parish Courthouse in Alexandria
File:Alexandria LA watertower.png|Water tower of Alexandria, LA
|
[
"J. Clifford MacDonald",
"Catholic Church",
"Cullen Washington Jr.",
"James Madison Wells",
"Jacques Roy",
"Russ Springer",
"United States House of Representatives",
"New Orleans",
"Presidential Medal of Freedom",
"racial violence",
"Alexandria Aces",
"levee",
"Canadian Football League",
"Jeff Hall (Louisiana politician)",
"Leroy Augustus Stafford",
"Oscar K. Allen",
"CBS",
"U.S. Highway 165",
"Amtrak",
"Emmanuel Baptist Church (Alexandria, Louisiana)",
"Lake Charles, Louisiana",
"Louisiana Baptist Convention",
"Josh Johnson (comedian)",
"Louisiana Public Broadcasting",
"Episcopal Church in the United States of America",
"Joe D. Smith, Jr.",
"Area code 318",
"Cleveland Dear",
"Holy Savior Menard Central High School",
"Shreveport, Louisiana",
"Louisiana History Museum",
"Jalen Richard",
"KLAX-TV",
"Louisiana Eagle",
"per capita income",
"Bubby Brister",
"Anna Margaret",
"Confederate States of America",
"Luther F. Cole",
"petroleum",
"Boyce, Louisiana",
"forest",
"U.S. Highway 71",
"Forest Hill, Louisiana",
"Republican Party (United States)",
"Jeff R. Thompson",
"Harold B. McSween",
"Bryan Dauzat",
"Woodworth, Louisiana",
"Geographic Names Information System",
"Methodism",
"Country music",
"Alexandria International Airport (Louisiana)",
"Joseph E. Ransdell",
"Baton Rouge",
"Demar Dotson",
"Interstate 49",
"Gerald Archie Mangun",
"Alexandria metropolitan area, Louisiana",
"Lafayette, Louisiana",
"Bentley Hotel",
"Natchitoches, Louisiana",
"Israel \"Bo\" Curtis",
"Winnfield, Louisiana",
"Association of Zoos and Aquariums",
"ferry",
"Louisiana's 8th congressional district",
"Hurricane Gustav",
"Avoyelles Parish, Louisiana",
"George S. Long",
"Mardi Gras",
"Union Pacific Railroad",
"Dry Prong, Louisiana",
"Arthur H. Butler",
"Baton Rouge, Louisiana",
"Procter & Gamble",
"cotton",
"Beaumont, Texas",
"Heroes & Icons",
"Gannett Company",
"William Tecumseh Sherman",
"PlastiPak",
"Monroe, Louisiana",
"Hispanic and Latino Americans",
"Missouri Pacific Railroad",
"Steve Gainer",
"Prospect, Louisiana",
"Louisiana Rangers",
"J. Tinsley Oden",
"Terry Mathews",
"Labor Day",
"Kent Plantation House",
"The CW",
"Inglewood Plantation Historic District",
"American Airlines",
"Louisiana's 6th congressional district",
"Markel Brown",
"KBCA",
"William C.C. Claiborne",
"Southern Baptist",
"Louisiana's 5th congressional district",
"United States",
"Louisiana State University at Alexandria",
"Inc. Magazine",
"Women's Flat Track Derby Association",
"Cheneyville, Louisiana",
"parish seat",
"business",
"census",
"The Dallas Morning News",
"Clyde Holloway",
"J. Robert Wooley",
"Louisiana's 4th congressional district",
"2020 United States census",
"Sundrop Fuels Inc.",
"Clifford Ann Creed",
"Bolton High School (Louisiana)",
"Cajun",
"Louisiana Christian University",
"Lecompte, Louisiana",
"fertilizer",
"List of municipalities in Louisiana",
"Jay Luneau",
"Craig Nall",
"Jewel Prestage",
"KALB-TV",
"Alexandria Museum of Art",
"The Advocate (Louisiana)",
"Warren Morris",
"Lawrason Act",
"Brigadier General (United States)",
"Southern Belle (KCS train)",
"Divine Secrets of the Ya-Ya Sisterhood",
"Alexandria Zoological Park",
"Rod Masterson",
"Carl B. Close",
"Juan Pierre",
"Pollock, Louisiana",
"Charles Pasquale Greco",
"Ed Rand",
"Pacific Islander Americans",
"Natchez, Mississippi",
"Rebecca Wells",
"B'nai Israel Traditional Synagogue",
"Israeli Basketball Premier League",
"St. Martinville, Louisiana",
"The Advocate (Baton Rouge)",
"American football",
"James R. Eubank",
"Huey P. Long",
"F.A. Little, Jr.",
"Louisiana Territory",
"H. N. Goff",
"Gustav Anton von Seckendorff",
"Joanne Lyles White",
"Louisiana Highway 28",
"American Broadcasting Company",
"Pineville, Louisiana",
"Slater Rhea",
"Jay Aldrich",
"Alexandria Mall",
"Catherine D. Kimball",
"Reservoir",
"Grant Parish",
"Pentecostalism",
"Joe Ray (artist)",
"Democratic Party (United States)",
"Grant Parish, Louisiana",
"Chris Boniol",
"Maxie Lambright",
"LPGA Tour",
"Harlem Renaissance",
"Alexandria Senior High School (Louisiana)",
"sugar",
"Masonic Home for Children",
"Greyhound Lines",
"John Leglue",
"Fort Johnson",
"Start, Louisiana",
"D. J. Chark",
"city charter",
"bayou",
"The Town Talk (Alexandria)",
"John Ardoin",
"North American Central Time Zone",
"United States District Court for the Western District of Louisiana",
"Ruston, Louisiana",
"Battle of Mansfield",
"D.L. Lang",
"Bill Schroll",
"Presbyterianism",
"Louisiana Purchase",
"water skiing",
"Texas",
"Grove Stafford",
"Federal Information Processing Standards",
"Alvin Benjamin Rubin",
"Rodney Alexander",
"blacksmith",
"256th Infantry Brigade",
"Interstate 49 in Louisiana",
"Board of Regents",
"Virginia (U.S. state)",
"McLean, Virginia",
"Lloyd George Teekell",
"Hurricane Rita",
"NOAA",
"Bringhurst Field",
"Louisiana State University",
"Christmas",
"Delta Air Lines",
"Louisiana",
"Richland Parish, Louisiana",
"Rapides Parish, Louisiana",
"Esler Regional Airport",
"city",
"railroad station",
"Rapides Parish Coliseum",
"England AFB",
"WNTZ",
"Longleaf Pine",
"Deville, Louisiana",
"Old San Antonio Road",
"Kisatchie National Forest",
"Julia Letlow",
"coroner",
"Major League Baseball",
"governor of Louisiana",
"Species Survival Plan",
"Creola, Louisiana",
"Red River of the South",
"White Americans",
"United States Department of Defense",
"Vance McAllister",
"Union Tank Car Company",
"Louisiana Supreme Court",
"Roman Catholic Diocese of Alexandria in Louisiana",
"poverty line",
"hardwood",
"Washington County, Pennsylvania",
"Ouachita Parish, Louisiana",
"Fat Tuesday",
"De Ridder, Louisiana",
"Emmanuel Arceneaux",
"Native Americans in the United States",
"humid subtropical",
"Louis Berry",
"Fox Broadcasting Company",
"Alexander Fulton (Louisiana)",
"Sterling Ridge",
"Tioga, Louisiana",
"Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania",
"Gillis William Long",
"Judaism",
"National Register of Historic Places",
"DeSoto Parish, Louisiana",
"ice hockey",
"Navy Cross",
"NASCAR",
"C. H. \"Sammy\" Downs",
"Arna Bontemps",
"England Air Force Base",
"hospital",
"Base Realignment and Closure",
"PBS",
"Caddo people",
"Rapides Parish",
"Muse Watson",
"Colfax, Louisiana",
"swimming (sport)",
"Eric Johanson",
"Peabody Magnet High School",
"African Americans",
"historic",
"IMDb",
"orphanage",
"Kansas City Southern Railway",
"Ball, Louisiana",
"Leesville, Louisiana",
"Congregation Gemiluth Chassodim",
"Layon Gray",
"alfalfa",
"United States Census Bureau",
"Insurance commissioner",
"Central Louisiana Technical Community College",
"population density",
"National Football League",
"Lawrence Preston Joseph Graves",
"NBC",
"Gulf Coast Premier League",
"US 165",
"synagogue",
"Thomas \"Bud\" Brady",
"Alexandria Warthogs",
"Jonesboro, Louisiana"
] |
3,085 |
Alexandria Troas
|
Alexandria Troas ("Alexandria of the Troad"; ; , "Old Istanbul") is the site of an ancient Greek city situated on the Aegean Sea near the northern tip of Turkey's western coast, the area known historically as Troad, a little south of Tenedos (modern Bozcaada). It is located southeast of modern Dalyan, a village in the Ezine district of Çanakkale Province. The site sprawls over an estimated ; among the few structures remaining today are a ruined bath, an odeon, a theatre, gymnasium complex and a recently uncovered stadion. around 306 BC Antigonus refounded the city as the much-expanded Antigonia Troas by settling the people of five other towns in Sigia, including the once influential city of Neandreia. It did not receive its name until its name was changed by Lysimachus to Alexandria Troas, in 301 BC, in memory of Alexander the Great of Macedon (Pliny merely states that the name changed from Antigonia to Alexandria). The city continued being called Alexandria Troas, as is stated in the 4th-5th c. AD Tabula Peutingeriana. As the chief port of north-west Asia Minor, the place prospered greatly in Roman times, becoming a "free and autonomous city" as early as 188 BC,
===Roman===
In Roman times, it was a significant port for travelling between Anatolia and Europe. According to the account in the Acts of the Apostles, Paul of Tarsus sailed for Europe for the first time from Alexandria Troas and returned there from Europe (it was there that the episode of the raising of Eutychus occurred). Ignatius of Antioch also paused at this city before continuing to his martyrdom at Rome.
===Byzantine===
Several of its later bishops are known: Marinus in 325; Niconius in 344; Sylvanus at the beginning of the 5th century; Pionius in 451; Leo in 787; Peter, friend of the Patriarch Ignatius, and adversary to Michael, in the ninth century. In the 10th century Troas is given as a suffragan of Cyzicus and distinct from the famous Troy (Heinrich Gelzer, Ungedruckte ... Texte der Notitiae episcopatuum, 552; Georgii Cyprii descriptio orbis romani, 64); it is not known when the city was destroyed and the diocese disappeared. The bishopric remains a titular see of the Catholic Church under the name Troas, vacant since 1971.
Troas is also a titular see of the Eastern Orthodox Church under the Ecumenical Patriarchate. Bishop Savas (Zembillas) of Troas served as hierarch from 2002 to 2011, and then became Metropolitan Savas (Zembillas) of Pittsburgh in the Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America.
===Ottoman===
Karasid Turkomans settled in the area of the Troad in the 14th century. Their beylik was conquered by the Ottomans in 1336. The ruins of Alexandria Troas came to be known among the Turks as Eski Stambul, the "Old City".
===Modern===
By 1911, the site had been overgrown with Vallonea oaks and much plundered, but the circuit of the old walls could still be traced, and in several places they were fairly well preserved.
They had a circumference of about ten kilometres, and were fortified with towers at regular intervals.
Remains of an ancient bath and gymnasium complex can be found within this area; this building is locally known as Bal Saray (Honey Palace) and was originally endowed by Herodes Atticus in the year 135.
|
[
"Theatre of ancient Greece",
"Mehmed IV",
"Eutychus",
"Troy",
"Alexander the Great",
"Catholic Church",
"Georgii Cyprii descriptio orbis romani",
"Lysimachus",
"Neandreia",
"Pliny the Elder",
"Colonia (Roman)",
"Eastern Orthodox Church",
"Oghuz Turks",
"Odeon (building)",
"Paul the Apostle",
"Apollo Smintheus",
"Istanbul",
"titular see",
"Herodes Atticus",
"List of ancient Greek cities",
"Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America",
"Constantine I",
"Antigonus I Monophthalmus",
"Heinrich Gelzer",
"Trajan",
"Bozcaada",
"Gymnasium (ancient Greece)",
"Cyzicus",
"Ezine, Çanakkale",
"Troad",
"Acts of the Apostles",
"Roman Empire",
"Augustus",
"Metropolitan Savas (Zembillas) of Pittsburgh",
"patera",
"Anatolian Turkish Beyliks",
"Ancient Greece",
"Julius Caesar",
"Tarsus (city)",
"Tabula Peutingeriana",
"Turkey",
"Çanakkale Province",
"Macedon",
"bishop",
"Aegean Sea",
"Ignatius of Antioch",
"Yeni Valide Mosque",
"quiver",
"Patriarch Ignatius of Constantinople",
"Karasids",
"Thermae",
"John Freely",
"Anatolia",
"Ecumenical Patriarchate",
"Vallonea oak",
"Tenedos",
"Stadion (running race)",
"Strabo",
"Hadrian"
] |
3,087 |
Alexandria, West Dunbartonshire
|
Alexandria (, ) is a town in West Dunbartonshire, Scotland. The town is on the River Leven, north of Dumbarton and north-west of Glasgow.
==Demographics==
In 2016, the estimated population of the town was 6,860. It is one of five towns in the Vale of Leven, the others being Balloch, Bonhill, Jamestown and Renton; their combined population is over 20,000.
==Economy==
The town's traditional industries, most importantly cotton manufacturing, bleaching and printing, have been phased out. In the 1970s Alexandria was redeveloped, with a new town centre layout and traffic system. Local landmarks include Christie Park and the Category B listed Smollett Fountain in the town centre. Lomond Galleries on North Main Street is a former car factory with an impressive dome and an even more impressive marble entrance hall and staircase. It was originally built in 1906 as the Argyll Motor Works, for Argyll Motors Ltd. A carving above the entrance shows one of the company's cars. After the car production ceased in 1914, it was used by the Admiralty for the manufacture of torpedoes, which were test-fired in Loch Long, and in the early 1970s was the scene of the Plessey sit-in. The building now hosts a shopping mall but has retained many of its striking architectural features.
Major employers in the area were Westclox and Polaroid, both based in the Leven Industrial Estate; Aggreko based a major purpose-built factory in the estate from 2000 to 2010. The Ballantine's whisky distillery continues to operate in the estate.
==Transport==
Alexandria sits on the former A82 main road between Glasgow and Loch Lomond. There are regular bus services on the route, and the town has a railway station on the rail line between Balloch and Glasgow Queen Street.
Alexandria is reputed to be the only town in the UK with a railway station, carnival (periodically Codona's travelling fair sets up in the car park) and a pub in the middle of a roundabout. A. J. Cronin's uncle owned a pub in Bridge Street. Alexandria Library is located on Gilmour Street.
==Sport==
The town is home to Vale of Leven football club, who play at Millburn Park. The club was a dominant force in early Scottish football history, winning the Scottish Cup in 1877, 1878 and 1879, and were founder members of the Scottish Football League.
Gordon Reid, born in Alexandria, has won the Wimbledon Tennis Men's Wheelchair Doubles, with his partner Alfie Hewett, three times.
== ROC Bunker ==
Between 1961 and 1991, the village was the location of a Royal Observer Corps Master bunker, to be used in the event of a nuclear attack. It remains mostly intact.
==Notable natives and residents==
Stuart David, writer and musician (Belle and Sebastian)
Zander Diamond, Scottish professional footballer
John Miller "Ian" McColl, Scottish footballer and manager of the Scotland national team
Morgan McMichaels, Scottish-American drag queen and reality television personality
Dawn O'Porter, British writer, director and television presenter
Bobby Kerr, Scottish professional footballer, captain of Sunderland A.F.C.'s 1973 FA Cup-winning team
|
[
"Jamestown, Dunbartonshire",
"Cotton mill",
"Dawn O'Porter",
"Dumbarton",
"Millburn Park",
"Alexandria railway station",
"Alfie Hewett",
"Ian McColl",
"Loch Long",
"Listed buildings in Scotland",
"West Dunbartonshire",
"Morgan McMichaels",
"Argyll (car)",
"Scottish Cup",
"Scottish Football League",
"Zander Diamond",
"Bobby Kerr (footballer, born 1947)",
"Westclox",
"Glasgow Queen Street railway station",
"Loch Lomond",
"Scotland",
"River Leven, Dunbartonshire",
"Glasgow",
"Aggreko",
"Dumbarton (Scottish Parliament constituency)",
"West Dunbartonshire (UK Parliament constituency)",
"Vale of Leven",
"Balloch railway station",
"1878–79 Scottish Cup",
"Argyll Motor Works",
"Stuart David",
"Ballantine's",
"torpedo",
"British Admiralty",
"Polaroid Corporation",
"Vale of Leven F.C.",
"1876–77 Scottish Cup",
"A. J. Cronin",
"Balloch, Dunbartonshire",
"Royal Observer Corps",
"Belle and Sebastian",
"Renton, Scotland",
"Gordon Reid (tennis)",
"public house",
"1877–78 Scottish Cup",
"Plessey",
"Wimbledon tennis",
"Bonhill",
"A82 road"
] |
3,088 |
Alexandria, Romania
|
Alexandria () is the capital city of the Teleorman County, Muntenia, Romania. It is located south-west of Bucharest, towards the Bulgarian border, and has over 40,000 inhabitants. The 44th parallel north passes just north of the city.
==Geography==
Alexandria is situated in the middle of the Wallachian Plain, on the banks of the Vedea River. It is located in the central part of Teleorman County, at a distance of from Giurgiu and from Bucharest.
The city is traversed by the national road DN6, which links Bucharest to the Banat region in western Romania; the road is part of European route E70. The Alexandria train station serves the CFR Line 909, with service towards Roșiorii de Vede (to the northwest) and Zimnicea (to the south, on the Danube).
==History==
Alexandria was named after its founder, Alexandru D. Ghica, Prince of Wallachia from April 1834 to 7 October 1842. Its population in 1900 was 1,675. Grain, which was Alexandria's main trade at the time, was dispatched both by rail to the Danubian port of Zimnicea and by river to Giurgiu.
In 1989, the city had over 63,000 inhabitants and more than six large factories. The 2021 census puts the population at 40,390.
==Education==
There are four high schools in Alexandria: the Alexandru D. Ghica National College, the Alexandru Ioan Cuza Theoretical High School, the Mircea Scarlat National Pedagogical College and the Constantin Noica Theoretical High School.
In 1897, the Ștefan cel Mare School moved from its former location to 310 Libertății Street; a local entrepreneur, M. Frangulea, obtained the plot and hired renowned architect Alexandru Săvulescu to build the new boys' primary school for the city.
==Religion==
The Diocese of Alexandria and Teleorman is a diocese of the Romanian Orthodox Church. Its see is in Alexandria and its ecclesiastical territory covers Teleorman County.
==Sports==
CSM Alexandria is a football club founded in 1948; it plays in the Romanian Liga III. CS Universitatea Alexandria is a women's football club founded in 2012. Stadionul Municipal, which holds 5,000 people, is the home ground for both clubs; the stadium is currently undergoing reconstruction. The Alexandria women's basketball team plays in the Liga Națională.
==Natives==
Valentin Badea (b. 1982), footballer
Dan Balauru (b. 1980), footballer
Adrian Bădulescu (b. 1967), politician
(b. 1966), fashion creator
(1899–1976), mayor, lawyer, writer
Anghel Demetriescu (1847–1903), historian
Gheorghe Mihăilescu (1888–?), World War I pilot
Ciprian Manolescu (b. 1978), mathematician
Andreea Ogrăzeanu (b. 1990), sprinter
Florin Olteanu (b. 1981), footballer
Sorin Paraschiv (b. 1981), footballer
Alin Pencea (b. 1992), footballer
Marin Stan (b. 1950), sports shooter
Alina Tecșor (b. 1979), tennis player
Alin Toșca (b. 1992), footballer
Daniel Tudor (b. 1974), footballer
Mihai Verbițchi (b. 1957), actor
Ionuț Voicu (b. 1984), footballer
==Gallery==
|
[
"Căile Ferate Române",
"association football",
"Daniel Tudor (footballer)",
"Alin Pencea",
"Teleorman County",
"Roads in Romania",
"Wallachian Plain",
"Romanian Orthodox Church",
"CSM Alexandria",
"Muntenia",
"Roșiorii de Vede",
"Căile Ferate Române Line 900",
"Zimnicea",
"Marin Stan",
"List of rulers of Wallachia",
"Dan Balauru",
"Anghel Demetriescu",
"Ciprian Manolescu",
"Liga III",
"Ionuț Voicu",
"Bucharest",
"European route E70",
"Alexandru Săvulescu (architect)",
"National Institute of Statistics (Romania)",
"Valentin Badea",
"Giurgiu",
"Liga Națională (women's basketball)",
"Alin Toșca",
"Vedea",
"Alexandru II Ghica",
"44th parallel north",
"Wallachia",
"Adrian Bădulescu",
"Sorin Paraschiv",
"Florin Olteanu (footballer)",
"Andreea Ogrăzeanu",
"Mihai Verbițchi",
"Diocese of Alexandria and Teleorman",
"DN6",
"European route",
"CSM Alexandria (women's basketball)",
"Gheorghe Mihăilescu",
"Stadionul Municipal (Alexandria)",
"CS Universitatea Alexandria",
"Romania",
"Banat",
"Alina Tecșor",
"Alexandru D. Ghica National College"
] |
3,089 |
Angela Vincent
|
{{Infobox scientist
| name = Angela Vincent
| honorific_suffix =
| image =
| alt =
| caption =
| birth_name = Angela Carmen Vincent
| birth_date =
| birth_place = Woking,
==Career and research==
Angela Vincent was born in 1942, the third child of Carmen and Joseph Molony (later KCVO). After St Mary's Convent, Ascot, she studied medicine at King's College London and Westminster Hospital School of Medicine (now merged with Imperial College School of Medicine). After one year as a junior doctor at St Steven's and St Charles' hospitals in London (1966–1967), she obtained an MSc in biochemistry from University College London. In 1967 she married Philip Morse Vincent and they have four children.
After the MSc, she spent three frustrating years trying to fractionate rat brain synaptosomes, until she was taken on by Ricardo Miledi FRS in the biophysics department to work on acetylcholine receptors. During her five years with Miledi, her medical background helped to establish a collaboration on myasthenia gravis with John Newsom-Davis (later FRS); together at the Royal Free Hospital, London, they created a neuroimmunology group that subsequently moved with Newsom-Davis to Oxford when he was appointed action research professor of neurology. After his retirement in 1998, Vincent led the group until 2016. During this time she was head of the department of clinical neurology (2005–2008) at the University of Oxford, president of the International Society of Neuroimmunology (2001–2004), and an associate editor of Brain (2004–2013). Her research group was initially located in the Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine at the John Radcliffe Hospital, working on a wide range of biological disciplines encompassing molecular biology, biochemistry, cellular immunology and intracellular neurophysiology. The group's research focused on autoimmune and genetic disorders of the neuromuscular junction, peripheral nerves and more recently the exciting field of central nervous system diseases. The principal autoimmune diseases studied were myasthenia gravis, the Lambert–Eaton myasthenic syndrome, limbic encephalitis, other types of autoimmune encephalitis and acquired neuromyotonia.
Her contributions have been on the roles of antibodies directed against acetylcholine receptors and muscle specific kinase (MuSK) in myasthenia gravis, and glycine receptors or potassium channel-associated proteins LGI1, CASPR2 and Contactin-2 in CNS diseases.
She demonstrated that transfer of antibodies across the placenta from the pregnant woman to the fetus in utero can cause both acute and longer-term neuromuscular and neurodevelopmental abnormalities.
Since 2016 she has been emeritus Professor at Oxford University, emeritus Fellow of Somerville College, and holds an honorary appointment at UCL; she continues to work on neuromuscular disorders and advise young researchers. Her work in Oxford on brain disorders continues under Associate Professor Sarosh Irani and Dr Patrick Waters.
She is a strong supporter of Freedom from Torture (formerly The Medical Foundation for Treatment of Torture Victims) and a Patron of British Pugwash (that brings together scientists and others concerned with international affairs and disarmament).
===Awards and honours===
In 2009, she presented the Leslie Oliver Oration at Queen's Hospital. In 2009, she received the medal of the Association of British Neurologists and in 2017, the World Federation of Neurology Scientific Contributions to Neurology award. In 2015, she was awarded the British Neuroscience Association Award for Outstanding Contribution to Neuroscience. In Cologne 2018, she was awarded with J Posner and J Dalmau, the International Prize for Translational Neuroscience of the Gertrud Reemtsma Foundation (formerly the Klaus Joachim Zülch Prize), and in Washington in 2019, the America Epilepsy Society Clinical Science Research Award (with J Dalmau). She received the Inaugural Distinguished Alumni Award, Imperial College, London, 2020 and the Life-time Award of the German Neurological Society (DGN) in 2021.
In 2002, she was elected a Fellow of the Academy of Medical Sciences (FMedSci) and in 2011, a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS).
|
[
"molecular biology",
"Freedom from Torture",
"Fellow of the Academy of Medical Sciences",
"Joseph Molony",
"neuromyotonia",
"fetus",
"biochemistry",
"woman",
"neurophysiology",
"Queen's Hospital",
"placenta",
"Nature Medicine",
"British Neuroscience Association",
"autoimmune encephalitis",
"antibody",
"Oxford University Press",
"University of Oxford",
"Fellow of the Royal Society",
"University of London",
"Woking",
"Pregnancy",
"Uterus",
"Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs",
"immunology",
"limbic encephalitis",
"myasthenia gravis",
"University College London",
"Lambert–Eaton myasthenic syndrome",
"Somerville College, Oxford",
"Leslie Oliver Oration",
"biology",
"Fellow",
"genetic disorder"
] |
3,090 |
Arithmetic–geometric mean
|
In mathematics, the arithmetic–geometric mean (AGM or agM
==Example==
To find the arithmetic–geometric mean of and , iterate as follows:\begin{array}{rcccl}
a_1 & = & \tfrac12(24 + 6) & = & 15\\
g_1 & = & \sqrt{24 \cdot 6} & = & 12\\
a_2 & = & \tfrac12(15 + 12) & = & 13.5\\
g_2 & = & \sqrt{15 \cdot 12} & = & 13.416\ 407\ 8649\dots\\
& & \vdots & &
\end{array}The first five iterations give the following values:
The number of digits in which and agree (underlined) approximately doubles with each iteration. The arithmetic–geometric mean of 24 and 6 is the common limit of these two sequences, which is approximately .
== History ==
The first algorithm based on this sequence pair appeared in the works of Lagrange. Its properties were further analyzed by Gauss. So the geometric means are an increasing sequence ; the arithmetic means are a decreasing sequence ; and for any . These are strict inequalities if .
is thus a number between and ; it is also between the geometric and arithmetic mean of and .
If then .
There is an integral-form expression for :\begin{align}
M(x,y) &= \frac{\pi}{2} \left( \int_0^\frac{\pi}{2}\frac{d\theta}{\sqrt{x^2\cos^2\theta+y^2\sin^2\theta}} \right)^{-1}\\
&=\pi\left(\int_0^\infty \frac{dt}{\sqrt{t(t+x^2)(t+y^2)}}\right)^{-1}\\
&= \frac{\pi}{4} \cdot \frac{x + y}{K\left( \frac{x - y}{x + y} \right)}
\end{align}where is the complete elliptic integral of the first kind:K(k) = \int_0^\frac{\pi}{2}\frac{d\theta}{\sqrt{1 - k^2\sin^2\theta}} Since the arithmetic–geometric process converges so quickly, it provides an efficient way to compute elliptic integrals, which are used, for example, in elliptic filter design.
The arithmetic–geometric mean is connected to the Jacobi theta function \theta_3 byM(1,x)=\theta_3^{-2}\left(\exp \left(-\pi \frac{M(1,x)}{M\left(1,\sqrt{1-x^2}\right)}\right)\right)=\left(\sum_{n\in\mathbb{Z}}\exp \left(-n^2 \pi \frac{M(1,x)}{M\left(1,\sqrt{1-x^2}\right)}\right)\right)^{-2},which upon setting x=1/\sqrt{2} givesM(1,1/\sqrt{2})=\left(\sum_{n\in\mathbb{Z}}e^{-n^2\pi}\right)^{-2}.
== Related concepts ==
The reciprocal of the arithmetic–geometric mean of 1 and the square root of 2 is Gauss's constant.\frac{1}{M(1, \sqrt{2})} = G = 0.8346268\dotsIn 1799, Gauss proved thatM(1,\sqrt{2})=\frac{\pi}{\varpi}where \varpi is the lemniscate constant.
In 1941, M(1,\sqrt{2}) (and hence G) was proved transcendental by Theodor Schneider. The set \{\pi,M(1,1/\sqrt{2})\} is algebraically independent over \mathbb{Q}, but the set \{\pi,M(1,1/\sqrt{2}),M'(1,1/\sqrt{2})\} (where the prime denotes the derivative with respect to the second variable) is not algebraically independent over \mathbb{Q}. In fact,\pi=2\sqrt{2}\frac{M^3(1,1/\sqrt{2})}{M'(1,1/\sqrt{2})}.The geometric–harmonic mean GH can be calculated using analogous sequences of geometric and harmonic means, and in fact .
The arithmetic–harmonic mean is equivalent to the geometric mean.
The arithmetic–geometric mean can be used to compute – among others – logarithms, complete and incomplete elliptic integrals of the first and second kind, and Jacobi elliptic functions.
==Proof of existence==
The inequality of arithmetic and geometric means implies thatg_n \leq a_nand thusg_{n + 1} = \sqrt{g_n \cdot a_n} \geq \sqrt{g_n \cdot g_n} = g_nthat is, the sequence is nondecreasing and bounded above by the larger of and . By the monotone convergence theorem, the sequence is convergent, so there exists a such that:\lim_{n\to \infty}g_n = gHowever, we can also see that:a_n = \frac{g_{n + 1}^2}{g_n}
and so:
\lim_{n\to \infty}a_n = \lim_{n\to \infty}\frac{g_{n + 1}^2}{g_{n}} = \frac{g^2}{g} = g
Q.E.D.
==Proof of the integral-form expression==
This proof is given by Gauss.
\pi = \frac{4\,M(1,1/\sqrt{2})^2} {1 - \displaystyle\sum_{j=1}^\infty 2^{j+1} c_j^2} ,
where
c_j = \frac{1}{2}\left(a_{j-1}-g_{j-1}\right) ,
with a_0=1 and g_0=1/\sqrt{2}, which can be computed without loss of precision using
c_j = \frac{c_{j-1}^2}{4a_j} .
===Complete elliptic integral K(sinα)===
Taking a_0 = 1 and g_0 = \cos\alpha yields the AGM
M(1,\cos\alpha) = \frac{\pi}{2K(\sin \alpha)} ,
where is a complete elliptic integral of the first kind:
K(k) = \int_0^{\pi/2}(1 - k^2 \sin^2\theta)^{-1/2} \, d\theta.
That is to say that this quarter period may be efficiently computed through the AGM,
K(k) = \frac{\pi}{2M(1,\sqrt{1-k^2})} .
===Other applications===
Using this property of the AGM along with the ascending transformations of John Landen, Richard P. Brent suggested the first AGM algorithms for the fast evaluation of elementary transcendental functions (, , ). Subsequently, many authors went on to study the use of the AGM algorithms.
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] |
3,092 |
Akira Toriyama
|
was a Japanese manga artist and character designer. He came to be regarded as one of the most influential and important authors in the history of manga, authoring highly influential and popular series, particularly Dragon Ball.
Toriyama first achieved mainstream recognition for creating the manga series Dr. Slump, for which he earned the 1981 Shogakukan Manga Award for best shōnen/shōjo. Dr. Slump went on to sell over 35 million copies in Japan. It was adapted into an anime, with a second series created in 1997, 13 years after the manga ended.
From 1984 to 1995 he wrote and illustrated the Dragon Ball manga, serialized in Weekly Shōnen Jump. It became one of the best-selling manga series of all time, with 260 million copies sold worldwide, and is considered a key work in increasing manga circulation to its peak in the mid-1980s and mid-1990s. Overseas, Dragon Balls anime adaptations have been more successful than the manga and similarly boosted anime's general popularity.
Beside his manga works, Toriyama acted as a character designer for several video games such as the Dragon Quest series, Chrono Trigger, and Blue Dragon.
In 2019, Toriyama was decorated a Chevalier of the French Ordre des Arts et des Lettres for his contributions to the arts. In October 2024, Toriyama was posthumously inducted into the Harvey Awards Hall of Fame.
== Early life ==
Akira Toriyama was born in the town of Kiyosu, Aichi Prefecture, Japan. He had a younger sister. Toriyama drew pictures since a young age, mainly of the animals and vehicles that he was fond of. He related being blown away after seeing One Hundred and One Dalmatians (1961), and said he was drawn deeper into the world of illustration by hoping to draw pictures that good. He was shocked again in elementary school when he saw the manga collection of a classmate's older brother, and again when he saw a television set for the first time at a neighbor's house. Toriyama recalled that when he was in elementary school all of his classmates drew imitating anime and manga, as a result of not having many forms of entertainment. He believed that he began to advance above everyone else when he started drawing pictures of his friends.
Toriyama said it was a "no-brainer" that he would attend a high school focused on creative design, but admitted he was more interested in having fun with friends. The timing did not line up for that contest, but another manga magazine, Weekly Shōnen Jump, accepted submissions for their Newcomer Award every month. Kazuhiko Torishima, who would become his editor, read and enjoyed Toriyama's manga, but it was not eligible to compete because it was a parody of Star Wars instead of an original work. Torishima sent the artist a telegram and encouraged him to keep drawing and sending him manga. This resulted in Wonder Island, which became Toriyama's first published work when it appeared in Weekly Shōnen Jump in 1978. It finished last place in the readers survey. In 1981, Dr. Slump earned Toriyama the Shogakukan Manga Award for best shōnen or shōjo manga series of the year. An anime adaptation began airing that same year, during the prime time Wednesday 19:00 slot on Fuji TV. Adaptations of Toriyama's work would occupy this time slot continuously for 18 years—through Dr. Slumps original run, Dragon Ball and its two sequels, and finally a rebooted Dr. Slump concluding in 1999. By 2008, the Dr. Slump manga had sold over 35 million copies in Japan.
Although Dr. Slump was popular, Toriyama wanted to end the series within roughly six months of creating it, but publisher Shueisha would only allow him to do so if he agreed to start another serial for them shortly after. So he worked with Torishima on several one-shots for Weekly Shōnen Jump and the monthly Fresh Jump. In 1981, Toriyama was one of ten artists selected to create a 45-page work for Weekly Shōnen Jumps Reader's Choice contest. His manga Pola & Roid took first place. Selected to participate in Weekly Shōnen Jumps Reader's Choice contest for a third time, Toriyama had the bad luck of drawing the first slot and had to work over New Year's on 1983's Chobit. Angry that it was unpopular, he decided to try again and created Chobit 2 (1983). Toriyama founded Bird Studio in the early 1980s, which is a play on his name; meaning "bird". He began employing an assistant, mostly to work on backgrounds.
=== Dragon Ball and international success (1983–1997) ===
Torishima suggested that, as Toriyama enjoyed kung fu films, he should create a kung fu shōnen manga. This led to the two-part Dragon Boy, published in the August and October 1983 issues of Fresh Jump. But before that, The Adventure of Tongpoo was published in Weekly Shōnen Jumps 52nd issue of 1983 and also contained elements that would be included in Dragon Ball. Dragon Ball is one of the best-selling manga series of all time. It began as an adventure/gag manga but later turned into a martial arts fighting series, considered by many to be the "most influential shōnen manga". At the series' end, Toriyama said that he asked everyone involved to let him end the manga, so he could "take some new steps in life". During that near-11-year period, he produced 519 chapters that were collected into 42 volumes. Moreover, the success of the manga led to five anime adaptations, several animated films, numerous video games, and mega-merchandise. Aside from its popularity in Japan, Dragon Ball was successful internationally as well, including Asia, Europe, and the Americas, with 300–350million copies of the manga sold worldwide.
While Toriyama was serializing Dragon Ball weekly, he continued to create the occasional one-shot manga. In 1986, Mr. Ho was published in the 49th issue of Weekly Shōnen Jump.
The September 23, 1988, festival film Kosuke & Rikimaru: The Dragon of Konpei Island marked the first time Toriyama made substantial contributions to an animation. He came up with the original story idea, co-wrote the screenplay with its director Toyoo Ashida, and designed the characters. It was screened at the Jump Anime Carnival, which was held to commemorate the 20th anniversary of Weekly Shōnen Jump.
=== Short stories and other projects (1996–2011) ===
A third anime adaptation based on Dragon Ball, entitled Dragon Ball GT, began airing in 1996, though this was not based on Toriyama's manga directly. He was involved in some overarching elements, including the name of the series and designs for the main cast. Toriyama continued drawing manga in this period, predominantly one-shots and short (100–200-page) pieces, including Cowa! (1997–1998), Kajika (1998), and Sand Land (2000). On December 6, 2002, Toriyama made his only promotional appearance in the United States at the launch of Weekly Shōnen Jumps North American counterpart, Shonen Jump, in New York City. Toriyama's Dragon Ball and Sand Land were published in the magazine in the first issue, which also included an in-depth interview with him. Toriyama also wrote a short self-parody of Dragon Ball entitled Neko Majin, in the form of eight one-shots released sporadically from 1999 to 2005. The eight chapters were collected into a single volume and published in April 2005.
On March 27, 2005, CQ Motors began selling an electric car designed by Toriyama. The one-person QVOLT is part of the company's Choro-Q series of small electric cars, with only 9 being produced. It cost 1,990,000 yen (about $19,000 US), has a top speed of and was available in five colors. At the time, Toriyama felt the 2007 Blue Dragon anime might potentially be his final work in animation.
In 2008, he collaborated with Masakazu Katsura, his good friend and creator of I"s and Zetman, for the Jump SQ one-shot Sachie-chan Good!!. It was later published in North America in the free SJ Alpha Yearbook 2013, which was mailed out to annual subscribers of the digital manga magazine Shonen Jump Alpha in December 2012. The two worked together again in 2009, for the three-chapter one-shot Jiya in Weekly Young Jump.
Toriyama was engaged by 20th Century Fox as a creative consultant on Dragonball Evolution, an American live-action film adaptation of Dragon Ball. The film was released in 2009 and failed both critically and financially. Toriyama later stated in 2013 that he had felt the script did not "capture the world or the characteristics" of his series and was "bland" and not interesting, so he cautioned them and gave suggestions for changes. But the Hollywood producers did not heed his advice, "And just as I thought, the result was a movie I cannot call Dragon Ball." Avex Trax commissioned Toriyama to draw a portrait of pop singer Ayumi Hamasaki, and it was printed on the CD of her 2009 single "Rule", which was used as the theme song to the film.
Toriyama drew a 2009 manga titled Delicious Island's Mr. U for Anjō's Rural Society Project, a nonprofit environmental organization that teaches the importance of agriculture and nature to young children. They originally asked him to do the illustrations for a pamphlet, but Toriyama liked the project and decided to expand it into a story. It is included in a booklet about environmental awareness that is distributed by the Anjō city government. He collaborated with Weekly Shōnen Jump to create a video to raise awareness and support for those affected by the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami on March 11, 2011.
=== Return to Dragon Ball (2012–2024) ===
In 2012, Dragon Ball Z: Battle of Gods was announced to be in development, with Toriyama involved in its creation. The film marked the series' first theatrical film in 17 years, and the first time Toriyama had been involved in one as early as the screenwriting stages. The film opened on March 30, 2013. A special "dual ticket" that could be used to see both Battle of Gods and One Piece Film: Z was created with new art by both Toriyama and Eiichiro Oda.
On March 27, 2013, the "Akira Toriyama: The World of Dragon Ball" exhibit opened at the Takashimaya department store in Nihonbashi, garnering 72,000 visitors in its first nineteen days. The exhibit was separated into seven areas. The first provided a look at the series' history, the second showed the 400-plus characters from the series, the third displayed Toriyama's manga manuscripts from memorable scenes, the fourth showed special color illustrations, the fifth displayed rare Dragon Ball-related materials, the sixth included design sketches and animation cels from the anime, and the seventh screened Dragon Ball-related videos.
To celebrate the 45th anniversary of Weekly Shōnen Jump, Toriyama launched a new manga series in its July 13, 2013, issue titled Jaco the Galactic Patrolman. Viz Media began serializing it in English in their digital Weekly Shonen Jump magazine, beginning just two days later. The final chapter reveals that the story is set before the events of Dragon Ball and features some of its characters. It would become the final manga that Toriyama wrote and illustrated himself.
The follow-up film to Battle of Gods, Resurrection 'F', released on April 18, 2015, features even more contributions from Toriyama, who personally wrote its original script. Toriyama provided the basic story outline and some character designs for Dragon Ball Super, which began serialization in V Jump in June 2015 with an anime counterpart following in July. Although the anime ended in 2018, he continued to provide story ideas for the manga while Toyotarou illustrated it. Dragon Ball Super: Broly, released in theaters on December 14, 2018, and Dragon Ball Super: Super Hero, released on June 11, 2022, continued Toriyama's deep involvement with the films, the latter being his final complete work on the Dragon Ball franchise.
In January 2024, a logo Toriyama designed to celebrate the 20th anniversary of his hometown of Kiyosu was unveiled. Toriyama created a new story arc for the 2024 original net animation adaptation of his manga Sand Land. He also created the story and character designs for the upcoming Dragon Ball Daima anime series. Toriyama's final contribution to Dragon Ball was directing Toyotarou to redraw the end of chapter 103 of Dragon Ball Super, so that a departing Piccolo appears to wave back at the reader. A short tribute was included at the bottom of the page when it was published on March 28, 2024.
On October 11, 2024, the Harvey Awards announced that Toriyama was one of five comics creators to be inducted into the Harvey Awards Hall of Fame at the 36th annual Harvey Awards ceremony on October 18 at the New York Comic Con. Acknowledging the accolade for Toriyama, Bird Studio Co., Ltd. and Capsule Corporation Tokyo issued a statement saying, "We are very honored to receive the news that Akira Toriyama has been selected for the prestigious Harvey Award Hall of Fame. As a creator, he had always said that his work says it all. We are especially grateful to the American fans for their long-standing enthusiasm and dedicated support. We hope you will continue to support his work for many years to come as we continue to develop and expand upon his masterpieces."
== Personal life ==
Toriyama married Yoshimi Katō on May 2, 1982. She is a former manga artist from Nagoya under the pen name Nachi Mikami, and occasionally helped Toriyama and his assistant on Dr. Slump when they were short on time. They had two children: a son named Sasuke (born 1987) and a daughter named Kikka (born 1990). Toriyama lived in his home studio in Kiyosu. He was a well-known recluse, who avoided appearing in public or media. In an extension to his shyness, Toriyama had used an avatar called "Tori-Bot" since 1980 to represent himself in manga and interviews.
Toriyama had a love of cars and motorcycles, something he inherited from his father who used to race motorbikes and operated an auto repair business for a brief time, although he did not understand the mechanics himself. He was an animal lover, and had kept birds, dogs, cats, fish, lizards, and bugs as pets since childhood.
=== Death ===
On March 1, 2024, Toriyama died of an acute subdural hematoma, at the age of 68. A funeral was held privately with only his family in attendance. His death was announced by his production company Bird Studio one week later on March 8. According to sources close to Toriyama, he had planned to undergo surgery for a brain tumor in February 2024. The news of his death caused an outpouring of grief among admirers of his works, who took to social media to express their condolences and celebrate his legacy. On Twitter, the trending topics of Akira Toriyama and Dragon Ball surpassed United States President Joe Biden's State of the Union address, which was held at the same time the news of Toriyama's death was announced. Tributes to the artist were given by One Piece creator Eiichiro Oda, Naruto creator Masashi Kishimoto, Bleach creator Tite Kubo, My Hero Academia creator Kōhei Horikoshi, Yu Yu Hakusho and Hunter × Hunter creator Yoshihiro Togashi, Video Girl Ai creator Masakazu Katsura, and video game designer Yuji Horii, who worked with Toriyama on Dragon Quest and Chrono Trigger. In Tokyo, fans publicly mourned while visiting a life-sized statue of Dragon Ball protagonist Goku located outside the headquarters of toy manufacturer Bandai. Japan's Chief Cabinet Secretary Yoshimasa Hayashi credited Toriyama and his work with playing an "extremely important role in demonstrating Japan's soft power" around the world.
French President Emmanuel Macron shared a photo of an autographed illustration Toriyama gave him as a gift and paid tribute to him and his fans on social media. French Prime Minister Gabriel Attal also paid tribute and lamented that not even "the [Dragon Balls] and Shenron" could revive him. The foreign ministries of China and El Salvador issued statements of condolences over Toriyama's death. Justin Chatwin, who portrayed Goku in the live-action film Dragonball Evolution, apologized for the quality of the film by posting on his Instagram story, "sorry we messed up that adaptation so badly". Several Mexican voice actors who dubbed Dragon Ball characters in Spanish for Latin America also lamented Toriyama's death via social media. A large gathering was held at the Plaza de la Constitución in Mexico City, where hundreds of fans did the Genki-dama hand motion (arms up, palm facing the zenith, pooling energy together) to honor the artist. During the 18th Seiyu Awards on March 9, a moment of silence was held for Toriyama and voice actress Tarako, who died on March 4, in recognition of their contributions to the anime industry. On March 10, in Argentina, thousands of fans gathered at the Obelisco monument to remember Toriyama. In Lima, Peru, over 40 artists led by "Peko" painted a mural tribute to Toriyama, which showcases characters from Dragon Ball as well as Toriyama himself, spanning six meters high and over 110 meters long.
== Style ==
Toriyama admired Osamu Tezuka's Astro Boy and was impressed by Walt Disney's One Hundred and One Dalmatians, which he remembered for its high-quality animation. He was a fan of Hong Kong martial arts films, especially Bruce Lee films such as Enter the Dragon (1973) and Jackie Chan films such as Drunken Master (1978), which went on to have a large influence on his later work. He also cited the science fiction films Alien (1979) and Galaxy Quest (1999) as influences. Toriyama stated he was influenced by animator Toyoo Ashida and the anime television series adaptation of his own Dragon Ball, from which he learned that separating colors instead of blending them makes the art cleaner and coloring illustrations easier. Torishima has stated that Toriyama aimed to be a gag manga artist because the competitions that he submitted to early on required entries in the gag category to only be 15 pages long, compared to story manga entries which had to be 31. nor did he get much inspiration from other comics, as he chose not to re-read previous works or read manga made by other artists, a practice that Torishima supported. Furthermore, the book A History of Modern Manga (2023) describes Toriyama as "a perfectionist at heart" who "didn't hesitate to redraw entire panels under the worried eye of his editor at Jump".
Dr. Slump is mainly a comedy series, filled with puns, toilet humor, and sexual innuendos. But it also contained many science fiction elements: aliens, anthropomorphic characters, time travel, and parodies of works such as Godzilla, Star Wars, and Star Trek. A running gag in Dr. Slump that utilizes feces has been reported as an inspiration for the Pile of Poo emoji.
When Dragon Ball began, it was loosely based on the classic Chinese novel Journey to the West, with Goku being Sun Wukong and Bulma as Tang Sanzang. It was also inspired by Hong Kong martial arts films, particularly those of Jackie Chan, and was set in a fictional world based on Asia, taking inspiration from several Asian cultures including Japanese, Chinese, Indian, Central Asian, Arabic, and Indonesian cultures. Toriyama continued to use his characteristic comedic style in the beginning, but over the course of serialization this slowly changed, with him turning the series into a "nearly-pure fighting manga" later on. He worked on every installment in the series until he died. For each game Yuji Horii first sends rough sketches of the characters with their background information to Toriyama, who then re-draws them. Lastly, Horii approves the finished work. Toriyama explained in 1995 that for video games, because the sprites are so small, as long as they have a distinguishing feature so people can tell which character it is, he can make complex designs without concern of having to reproduce it like he usually would in manga. Besides the character and monster designs, Toriyama also does the games' packaging art and, for Dragon Quest VIII, the boats and ships.
Manga critic Jason Thompson declared Toriyama's art influential, saying that his "extremely personal and recognizable style" was a reason for Dragon Ball's popularity. Thompson concluded his analysis by saying that only Akira Toriyama drew like this at the time and that Dragon Ball is "an action manga drawn by a gag manga artist."
== Legacy and accolades ==
{{Quote box
| quote = The role of my manga is to be a work of entertainment through and through. I dare say I don't care even if [my works] have left nothing behind, as long as they have entertained their readers.
| source = —Akira Toriyama, 2013 Speaking of Dragon Ball, David Brothers of ComicsAlliance wrote that: "Like Osamu Tezuka and Jack Kirby before him, Toriyama created a story with his own two hands that seeped deep into the hearts of his readers, creating a love for both the cast and the medium at the same time." Thompson stated in 2011 that "Dragon Ball is by far the most influential shonen manga of the last 30 years, and today, almost every Shōnen Jump artist lists it as one of their favorites and lifts from it in various ways." He had previously stated in 2010, "The truth is, I didn't like being a manga artist very much. It wasn't until relatively recently that I realized it's a wonderful job." Naruto creator Masashi Kishimoto, Fairy Tail and Rave author Hiro Mashima, Boruto: Naruto Next Generations illustrator Mikio Ikemoto, Venus Versus Virus author Atsushi Suzumi, Bleach creator Tite Kubo, Black Cat author Kentaro Yabuki, and Mr. Fullswing author Shinya Suzuki. German comic book artist Hans Steinbach was strongly influenced by Toriyama, and Thai cartoonist Wisut Ponnimit cited Toriyama as one of his favorite cartoonists. St. Michel wrote that the impact Toriyama and Dragon Ball had extends beyond inspiring newer artists, "he influenced the style of anime as a whole and revealed new economic potential, as the comic series mutated into an anime, video games and infinite merchandise." French director Pierre Perifel cited Toriyama and Dragon Ball as influences on his DreamWorks Animation film The Bad Guys.
In 2008, Oricon conducted a poll of people's favorite manga artists, with Toriyama coming in second, behind only Nana author Ai Yazawa. He was number one among male respondents and among those over 30 years of age. They held a poll on the Mangaka that Changed the History of Manga in 2010, mangaka being the Japanese word for a manga artist. Toriyama came in second, after only Osamu Tezuka, due to his works being highly influential and popular worldwide. Toriyama won the Special 40th Anniversary Festival Award at the 2013 Angoulême International Comics Festival, honoring his years in cartooning. He actually received the most votes for the festival's Grand Prix de la ville d'Angoulême award that year, though the selection committee chose Willem as the recipient. In a 2014 NTT Docomo poll for the manga artist that best represents Japan, Toriyama came in third place. That same year, entomologist Enio B. Cano named a new species of beetle, Ogyges toriyamai, after Toriyama, and another, Ogyges mutenroshii, after the Dragon Ball character Muten Roshi. Toriyama was decorated a Chevalier or "Knight" of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres by the French government on May 30, 2019, for his contributions to the arts. He was also a 2019 nominee for entry into the Will Eisner Hall of Fame. Toriyama was honored with a Lifetime Achievement Award at the 2024 Tokyo Anime Awards Festival. Due to his video game design work, IGN named Toriyama number 74 on their list of the Top 100 Game Creators of All Time. to produce one-shots and crossover shorts.
Toriyama also created many character designs for various video games such as the Dragon Quest series (1986–2023), Chrono Trigger (1995), Blue Dragon (2006), and some Dragon Ball video games. He also designed several characters and mascots for various manga magazines property of Shueisha, his career-long employer and Japan's largest publishing company.
Besides manga-related works, Toriyama also created various illustrations, album and book covers, model kits, mascots and logos. For example, he sketched several versions of the Dragon Ball Z logo, which Toei Animation then refined into a definitive design.
== Explanatory notes ==
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"NHK",
"time travel",
"Akira Toriyama's Manga Theater",
"history of manga",
"Monthly Starlog",
"Mr. Ho",
"Xbox 360",
"Nihonbashi",
"Venus Versus Virus",
"Ordre des Arts et des Lettres",
"List of Dragon Ball films",
"Mr. Fullswing",
"Central Asia",
"fighting game",
"Product (business)",
"Gustines, George Gene",
"Dragon Ball Z: Battle of Gods",
"Google Books",
"Model sheet",
"Penguin Books",
"Osamu Tezuka",
"advertising agency",
"Wisut Ponnimit",
"Hong Kong martial arts films",
"Toyotarou",
"pun",
"Comic Book Resources",
"Weekly Young Jump",
"Forbes",
"Culture of Japan",
"City Hunter",
"Oricon",
"Tokyo Anime Awards Festival",
"Muten Roshi",
"Journey to the West",
"Astro Boy",
"Dragon Ball Daima",
"Black Cat (manga)",
"ABC-CLIO",
"Zetman",
"Intercompany crossover",
"List of Dragon Ball manga volumes",
"Mad Matic",
"Culture of India",
"Hindustan Times",
"Shueisha",
"Aichi Prefecture",
"Yudetamago",
"LA Weekly",
"Dragon Ball Z",
"cel",
"Kajika",
"katakana",
"ComicsAlliance",
"Blue Dragon (video game)",
"Jack Kirby",
"Beerus",
"Steven Universe",
"Masakazu Katsura",
"Today's Highlight Island",
"ComicBook.com",
"Play (US magazine)",
"Kōhei Horikoshi",
"DreamWorks Animation",
"NTT Docomo",
"Dragon Ball GT",
"Twitter",
"Stan Lee",
"Toyoo Ashida",
"IGN",
"anime",
"Dragon Ball Super",
"Shonen Jump (magazine)",
"Infobae",
"Roman alphabet",
"Bruce Lee",
"20th Century Fox",
"Off-color humor",
"shōjo manga",
"Masculinity",
"subdural hematoma",
"The Guardian",
"Shogakukan Manga Award",
"Masashi Kishimoto",
"AlloCiné",
"Sports Nippon",
"electric car",
"Mainichi Shimbun",
"Hisashi Eguchi",
"jidaigeki",
"Yomiuri Shimbun",
"brain tumor",
"Yu Yu Hakusho",
"Bernard Willem Holtrop",
"HuffPost",
"kaiju",
"Karin (Dragon Ball)",
"science fiction",
"Future US",
"Wonder Island 2",
"The British Museum",
"Bleach (manga)",
"Enter the Dragon",
"My Hero Academia",
"Cross Epoch (manga)",
"kung fu films",
"Shonen Jump Alpha",
"Emmanuel Macron",
"Naruto",
"Bandai",
"Screen Daily",
"Tang Sanzang",
"Blue Dragon (TV series)",
"Dragon Ball Z: Resurrection 'F'",
"Ai Yazawa",
"Manga artist",
"Mistwalker",
"Ian Jones-Quartey",
"Eiichiro Oda",
"Yahoo! Finance",
"role-playing video game",
"Gabriel Attal",
"Toei Animation",
"Thames & Hudson",
"PlayStation (console)",
"J.C.Staff",
"Comics Beat",
"manga magazines",
"Chrono Trigger",
"1UP.com",
"Arale Norimaki",
"Harvey Awards",
"Natalie (website)",
"2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami",
"Chinese culture",
"Culture of Asia",
"Jump Square",
"Ayumi Hamasaki",
"environmental awareness",
"Dragonball Evolution",
"Dragon Ball Super: Broly",
"original net animation",
"Anthropomorphism",
"Atsushi Suzumi",
"Grand Prix de la ville d'Angoulême",
"Instagram",
"Walt Disney",
"Weekly Shōnen Magazine",
"Viz Media",
"Yuji Horii",
"prime time",
"Peasuke Soramame",
"Zootaxa",
"Tomato the Cutesy Gumshoe",
"Cowa!",
"Fist of the North Star",
"tokusatsu",
"Reuters",
"Gamera",
"Kiyosu",
"Shogakukan",
"Mitteldeutscher Rundfunk",
"USA Today",
"Asahi Shimbun",
"Stone Bridge Press",
"The New York Times",
"The Adventure of Tongpoo",
"Video Girl Ai",
"Alien (film)",
"Star Trek",
"Jackie Chan",
"Takashimaya",
"Chobit 2",
"Polygon (website)",
"New York Comic Con",
"The Elder (manga)",
"Justin Chatwin",
"Senshu University",
"Hans Steinbach",
"Hiro Mashima",
"The Bad Guys (film)",
"One-shot (comics)"
] |
3,093 |
Alioth
|
{{Starbox observe
| epoch = J2000
| ra = Despite being designated "ε" (epsilon), it is the brightest star in the constellation and at magnitude 1.77 is the thirty-third brightest star in the sky.
It is the star in the tail of the bear closest to its body, and thus the star in the handle of the Big Dipper (or Plough) closest to the bowl. It is also a member of the large and diffuse Ursa Major moving group. Historically, the star was frequently used in celestial navigation in the maritime trade, because it is listed as one of the 57 navigational stars.
==Physical characteristics==
thumb|left|A [[light curve for Epsilon Ursae Majoris, plotted from TESS data to catalog and standardize proper names for stars. The WGSN's first bulletin of July 2016 included a table of the first two batches of names approved by the WGSN; which included Alioth for this star.
This star was known to the Hindus as Añgiras, one of the Seven Rishis.
In Chinese, (), meaning Northern Dipper, refers to an asterism equivalent to the Big Dipper. Consequently, the Chinese name for Epsilon Ursae Majoris itself is (, ) and (, ).
==Namesakes==
The United States Navy's Crater class cargo ship was named after the star.
|
[
"Earth's magnetic field",
"Sun",
"Peculiar star",
"Hipparcos",
"Chinese astronomy",
"Ursa Major",
"spectral type",
"Angiras (sage)",
"Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society: Letters",
"spectral line",
"Working Group on Star Names",
"calcium",
"Ap and Bp stars",
"spectroscopic binary",
"α Canum Venaticorum",
"stellar spectrum",
"Crater class cargo ship",
"magnetic field",
"United States Navy",
"List of brightest stars",
"Alpha² Canum Venaticorum variable",
"list of brightest stars",
"Alpha2 Canum Venaticorum variable",
"chromium",
"Jupiter masses",
"Hindu",
"Saptarishi",
"Chinese star names",
"celestial navigation",
"Historical brightest stars",
"epsilon",
"TESS",
"astronomical unit",
"hydrogen",
"Bayer designation",
"Ursa Major moving group",
"Latinisation of names",
"apparent magnitude",
"Big Dipper",
"Lists of stars",
"star",
"Asterism (astronomy)",
"List of nearest bright stars",
"Purple Forbidden enclosure",
"navigational stars",
"constellation",
"International Astronomical Union",
"Navy Precision Optical Interferometer",
"Arabic"
] |
3,095 |
Amiga 500
|
{{Infobox computer
| name = Amiga 500
| logo = Commodore Amiga 500 logo.svg
| image = Amiga500 system.jpg
| caption = A500 with 1084S monitor and Amiga 1010 external second floppy drive
| developer = Commodore International
| family = Amiga
| type = Home computer
| release date = April 1987 (Netherlands)May 1987 (Europe)October 1987 (US/UK)
| unitssold = 2.6 million It contains the same Motorola 68000 as the Amiga 1000, as well as the same graphics and sound coprocessors, but is in a smaller case similar to that of the Commodore 128.
Commodore announced the Amiga 500 at the January 1987 winter Consumer Electronics Showat the same time as the high-end Amiga 2000. It was initially available in the Netherlands in April 1987, then the rest of Europe in May. In North America and the UK it was released in October 1987 with a list price. It competed directly against models in the Atari ST line.
The Amiga 500 was sold in the same retail outlets as the Commodore 64, as opposed to the computer store-only Amiga 1000. It proved to be Commodore's best-selling model, particularly in Europe. Although popular with hobbyists, arguably its most widespread use was as a gaming machine, where its graphics and sound were of significant benefit. It was followed by a revised version of the computer, the Amiga 500 Plus, and the 500 series was discontinued in 1992.
== Releases ==
In mid-1988, the Amiga 500 dropped its price from £499 to £399 (https://amr.abime.net/issue_535_pages page 7), and it was later bundled with the Batman Pack in the United Kingdom (from October 1989 to September 1990) which included the games Batman, F/A-18 Interceptor, The New Zealand Story and the bitmap graphics editor Deluxe Paint 2. Also included was the Amiga video connector which allows the A500 to be used with a conventional CRT television.
In November 1991, the enhanced Amiga 500 Plus replaced the 500 in some markets. It was bundled with the Cartoon Classics pack in the United Kingdom at £399, although many stores still advertised it as an 'A500'. The Amiga 500 Plus was virtually identical except for its new operating system, integrated 1MB of Chip memory, different 'trap-door' expansion slot and slightly different keyboard, and in mid-1992, the two were discontinued and effectively replaced by the Amiga 600. In late 1992, Commodore released the Amiga 1200, a machine closer in concept to the original Amiga 500, but with significant technical improvements. Despite this, neither the A1200 nor the A600 replicated the commercial success of its predecessor. By this time, the home market was strongly shifting to IBM PC compatibles with VGA graphics and the low-cost Macintosh Classic, LC, and IIsi models.
== Description ==
Outwardly resembling the Commodore 128 and codenamed "Rock Lobster" during development, the Amiga 500's base houses a keyboard and a CPU in one shell, unlike the Amiga 1000. The keyboard for Amiga 500s sold in the United States contains 94 keys, including ten function keys, four cursor keys, and a number pad. All European versions the keyboard have an additional two keys, except for the British variety, which still uses 94 keys. It uses a Motorola 68000 microprocessor running at in NTSC regions and in PAL regions. The CPU implements a 32-bit model and has 32-bit registers, but it has a 16-bit main ALU and uses a 16-bit external data bus and a 24-bit address bus, providing a maximum of 16 MB of address space. Also built in to the base of the computer is a -inch floppy disk drive. The user can also install up to three external floppy drives, either - or -inch, via the disk drive port. The second and third additional drives are installed by daisy-chaining them. Supported by these drives are double-sided disks with a capacity of 901,120 bytes, as well as 360- and 720-KB disks formatted for IBM PC compatibles.
The earliest Amiga 500 models use nearly the same Original Amiga chipset as the Amiga 1000. So graphics can be displayed in multiple resolutions and color depths, even on the same screen. Resolutions vary from 320×200 (up to 32 colors) to 640×400 (up to 16 colors) for NTSC (704×484 overscan) and 320×256 to 640×512 for PAL (704×576 overscan.) The system uses planar graphics, with up to five bitplanes (four in high resolution) allowing 2-, 4-, 8-, 16-, and 32-color screens, from a palette of 4096 colors. Two special graphics modes are also available: Extra HalfBrite, which uses a sixth bitplane as a mask to cut the brightness of any pixel in half (resulting in 32 arbitrary colors plus 32 more colors set at half the value of the first 32), and Hold-And-Modify (HAM) which allows all 4096 colors to be used on screen simultaneously. Later revisions of the chipset are PAL/NTSC switchable in software.
The sound chip produces four hardware-mixed channels, two to the left and two to the right, of 8-bit PCM at a sampling frequency up to . Each hardware channel has its own independent volume level and sampling rate, and can be designated to another channel where it can modulate both volume and frequency using its own output. With DMA disabled it's possible to output with a sampling frequency up to . There is a common trick to output sound with 14-bit precision that can be combined to output 14-bit sound.
The stock system comes with AmigaOS version 1.2 or 1.3 and of chip RAM (150 ns access time), one built-in double-density standard floppy disk drive that is completely programmable and can read IBM PC disks, standard Amiga disks, and up to using custom-formatting drivers.
Despite the lack of Amiga 2000-compatible internal expansion slots, there are many ports and expansion options. There are two DE9M Atari joystick ports for joysticks or mice, and stereo audio RCA connectors (1 V p-p). There is a floppy drive port for daisy-chaining up to three extra floppy disk drives via a DB23F connector. The then-standard RS-232 serial port (DB25M) and Centronics parallel port (DB25F) are also included. The power supply is (, ).
The system displays video in analog RGB PAL or NTSC through a proprietary DB23M connector and in NTSC mode the line frequency is HSync for standard video modes, which is compatible with NTSC television and CVBS/RGB video, but out of range for most VGA-compatible monitors, while a multisync monitor is required for some of the higher resolutions. This connection can also be genlocked to an external video signal. The system was bundled with an RF adapter to provide output on televisions with a coaxial RF input, while monochrome video is available via an RCA connector (also coaxial). On the left side, behind a plastic cover, there is a Zorro (Zorro I) bus expansion external edge connector with 86 pins. Peripherals such as a hard disk drive can be added via the expansion slot and are configured automatically by the Amiga's AutoConfig standard, so that multiple devices do not conflict with each other. Up to of so-called "fast RAM" (memory that can be accessed by the CPU only) can be added using the side expansion slot. This connector is electronically identical with the Amiga 1000's, but swapped on the other side.
The Amiga 500 has a "trap-door" slot on the underside for a RAM upgrade (typically ). This extra RAM is classified as "fast" RAM, but is sometimes referred to as "slow" RAM: due to the design of the expansion bus, it is actually on the chipset bus. Such upgrades usually include a battery-backed real-time clock. All versions of the A500 can have the additional RAM configured as chip RAM by a simple hardware modification, which involves fitting a later model (8372A) Agnus chip. Likewise, all versions of the A500 can be upgraded to chip RAM by fitting the chip and adding additional memory.
The Amiga 500 also sports an unusual feature for a budget machine, socketed chips, which allow easy replacement of defective chips. The CPU can be directly upgraded on the motherboard to a 68010; or to a 68020, 68030, or 68040 via the side expansion slot; or by removing the CPU and plugging a CPU expansion card into the CPU socket (this requires opening the computer and thus voided any remaining warranty). In fact, all the custom chips can be upgraded to the Amiga Enhanced Chip Set (ECS) versions.
The plastic case is made of acrylonitrile butadiene styrene, or ABS. ABS degrades with time due to exposure to oxygen, causing a yellowing of the case. Other factors contributing to the degradation and yellowing include heat, shear, and ultraviolet light. The yellowing can be reversed by using an optical brightener, though without stabilizing agents or antioxidants to block oxygen, the yellowing will return.
== Technical specifications ==
OCS (1.2 and 1.3 models) or ECS (1.3 and 500+ 2.04 models) chipset. ECS revisions of the chipset made PAL/NTSC mode switchable in software.
Sound: 4 hardware-mixed channels of 8-bit sound at up to . The hardware channels have independent volumes (65 levels) and sampling rates, and are mixed down to two fully left and fully right stereo outputs. A software controllable low-pass audio filter is also included.
512 KB of chip RAM (150 ns access time)
AmigaOS 1.2 or 1.3 (upgradeable up to 3.1.4 if 2 MB of RAM are installed)
One 3.5" double-density floppy disk drive is built in, which is completely programmable and thus can read IBM PC disks, standard Amiga disks, and up to with custom formatting (such as Klaus Deppich's diskspare.device). Uses (5 rotations/second) and .
Built-in keyboard
A two-button mouse is included.
=== Graphics ===
PAL mode: 768×580 maximum (overscan interlaced if viewed on composite monitor/TV). Typical resolutions: 320×256, 640×256 or 640×512 (all displayed with borders).
NTSC mode: 768×484 maximum (overscan interlaced if viewed on composite monitor/TV). Typical resolutions: 320×200, 640×200 or 640×400 (all displayed with borders).
|-
! Address || Size in KB || Description
|-
|align="right"| 0x00 0000
|align="right"| 256 || Chip RAM
|-
|align="right"| 0x04 0000
|align="right"| 256 || Chip RAM (A1000 option card)
|-
|align="right"| 0x08 0000
|align="right"| 512 || Chip RAM expansion
|-
|align="right"| 0x10 0000
|align="right"| 1024 || Extended Chip RAM for ECS/AGA
|-
|align="right"| 0x20 0000
|align="right"| 8192 || Primary auto-config space (Fast RAM)
|-
|align="right"| 0xA0 0000
|align="right"| 1984 || Reserved
|-
|align="right"| 0xBF D000
|align="right"| 3.8 || 8520-B (even-byte addresses)
|-
|align="right"| 0xBF E001
|align="right"| 3.8 || 8520-A (odd-byte addresses)
|-
|align="right"| 0xC0 0000
|align="right"| 1536 || Internal expansion memory (pseudo-fast, "slow" RAM on Amiga 500)
|-
|align="right"| 0xD8 0000
|align="right"| 256 || Reserved
|-
|align="right"| 0xDC 0000
|align="right"| 64 || Real time clock
|-
|align="right"| 0xDD 0000
|align="right"| 188 || Reserved
|-
|align="right"| 0xDF F000
|align="right"| 4 || Custom chip registers
|-
|align="right"| 0xE0 0000
|align="right"| 512 || Reserved
|-
|align="right"| 0xE8 0000
|align="right"| 64 || Zorro II auto-config space (before relocation)
|-
|align="right"| 0xE9 0000
|align="right"| 448 || Secondary auto-config space (usually 64K I/O boards)
|-
|align="right"| 0xF0 0000
|align="right"| 512 || 512K System ROM (reserved for extended ROM image e.g. CDTV or CD32)
|-
|align="right"| 0xF8 0000
|align="right"| 256 || 256K System ROM (Kickstart 2.04 or higher)
|-
|align="right"| 0xFC 0000
|align="right"| 256 || 256K System ROM
|}
=== Connectors ===
Two Atari joystick ports for joysticks or mice
Stereo audio RCA connectors ( p-p)
A floppy drive port (DB23F), for daisy-chaining up to 3 extra floppy disk drives via a DB23F connector
Blue means a custom chip problem (Denise, Paula, or Agnus).
Light green means CIA problem.
Light gray means that the CIA might be defective.
mean there is a ROM or CIA problem.
Black-only (no video) means there is no video output.
The keyboard LED uses blink codes:
One blink means the keyboard ROM has a checksum error.
Two blinks means RAM failure.
Three blinks means watchdog timer failure.
== Trap-door expansion 501 ==
A popular expansion for the Amiga 500 was the Amiga 501 circuit board that can be installed underneath the computer behind a plastic cover. The expansion contains RAM configured by default as "Slow RAM" or "trap-door RAM" and a battery-backed real-time clock (RTC).
The 512 KB trap-door RAM and 512 KB of original chip RAM will result in 1 MB of total memory. The added memory is known as "Slow RAM", as its access is impacted by chip-bus bandwidth contention, while the chipset is not actually able to address it.
Later revisions of the motherboard provide solder-jumpers to relocate the trap-door RAM to the chip memory pool, given the Agnus chip is the newer ECS version, shipped in later A500 motherboards. Newest (rev 8) A500s would share motherboard with A500+, and configure the expansion memory as CHIP by default.
== Software ==
Each time the Amiga 500 is booted, it executes code from the Kickstart ROM. The Amiga 500 initially came shipped with AmigaOS 1.2, but units since October 1988 had version 1.3 installed.
== Reception and sales ==
The Amiga 500 was the best-selling model in the Amiga family of computers. The German computer magazine Chip awarded the model the annual "Home Computer of the Year" title three consecutive times. At the European Computer Trade Show 1991, it also won the Leisure Award for the similar "Home Computer of the Year" title.
Owing to the inexpensive cost of the Amiga 500 in then price-sensitive Europe, sales of the Amiga family of computers were strongest there, constituting 85 percent of Commodore's total sales in the fourth quarter of 1990. The Amiga 500 was widely perceived as a gaming machine and the Amiga 2000 a computer for artists and hobbyists.
It has been claimed that Commodore sold as many as six million units worldwide. However, Commodore UK refuted that figure and said that the entire Amiga line sold between four and five million computers. Indeed, Ars Technica provides a year-by-year graph of the sales of all Amiga computers.
The machine is reported to have sold 1,160,500 units in Germany (including Amiga 500 Plus sales).
== Amiga 500 Plus ==
The Amiga 500 Plus (often A500 Plus or simply A500+) is a revised version of the original Amiga 500 computer. The A500+ featured minor changes to the motherboard to make it cheaper to produce than the original A500. It was notable for introducing new versions of Kickstart and Workbench, and for some minor improvements in the custom chips, known as the Enhanced Chip Set (or ECS).
Although officially introduced in 1992, some Amiga 500 units sold in late 1991 actually featured the revised motherboard used in the A500+. Although the Amiga 500+ was an improvement to the Amiga 500, it was minor. It was discontinued and replaced by the Amiga 600 in summer 1992, making it the shortest-lived Amiga model.
=== Compatibility problems ===
Due to the new Kickstart v2.04, quite a few popular games (such as Treasure Island Dizzy, Lotus Esprit Turbo Challenge, and SWIV) failed to work on the Amiga 500+, and some people took them back to dealers demanding an original Kickstart 1.3 Amiga 500. This problem was largely solved by third parties who produced Kickstart ROM switching boards, that could allow the Amiga 500+ to be downgraded to Kickstart 1.2 or 1.3. It also encouraged game developers to use better programming habits, which was important since Commodore already had plans for the introduction of the next-generation Amiga 1200 computer. A program, Relokick, was also released (and included with an issue of CU Amiga) which loaded a Kickstart 1.3 ROM image into memory and booted the machine into Kickstart 1.3, allowing most incompatible software to run (the software did take up 512 KB of system memory, meaning that some 1 MB only games would now fail for lack of available memory). In some cases, updated compatible versions of games were later released, such as budget versions of Lotus 1 and SWIV, and an update to Bubble Bobble. Double Dragon 2 by Binary Design received an update for ECS machines with the "Amiga phase-alternated linescan version 4.01/ECS". This solved compatibility issues with the graphics which appeared garbled on ECS machines, and it also slashed the in-game loading times from around 20 seconds to just over 6.
=== Technical specifications ===
Motorola 68000 CPU running at (PAL) / (NTSC), like its predecessor
1 MB of Chip RAM (very early versions came with 512 KB)
Kickstart 2.04 (v37.175)
Workbench 37.67 (release 2.04)
Built-in battery backed RTC (Real Time Clock)
Full ECS chipset including new version of the Agnus chip and Denise chip
|
[
"Lotus Esprit Turbo Challenge",
"pixel",
"Deluxe Paint",
"parallel port",
"Hold-And-Modify",
"MIT Press",
"Interlaced video",
"RF modulator",
"synchronization",
"Compute!",
"IBM PC",
"Denise (computer chip)",
"megabyte",
"Color depth",
"random-access memory",
"Lotus (video game series)",
"Mouse (computing)",
"binary prefix",
"Amiga Zorro II",
"field-programmable gate array",
"Commodore 128",
"genlock",
"Frame rate",
"Atari joystick port",
"Commodore International",
"Netherlands",
"floppy disk drive",
"Read-only memory",
"Macintosh IIsi",
"Amiga Chip RAM",
"Motorola 68040",
"Kibibyte",
"Amiga 600",
"Motorola 68000",
"video graphics array",
"DB23",
"MOS Technology Agnus",
"mouse (computing)",
"Rock Lobster",
"Original Amiga chipset",
"MOS Technology CIA",
"open-source hardware",
"AutoConfig",
"Batman (1989 video game)",
"Original Chip Set",
"RS-232",
"Real-time clock",
"Surface Mount Device",
"Motorola 68020",
"Amiga 500 Plus",
"Zorro II",
"Arithmetic logic unit",
"Direct memory access",
"composite video",
"light-emitting diode",
"Daisy chain (electrical engineering)",
"Peak-to-peak",
"Minimig",
"Through-hole technology",
"Springer Science+Business Media",
"Centronics",
"Pound sterling",
"Hardware acceleration",
"Planar (computer graphics)",
"Extended chip set",
"European Computer Trade Show",
"IBM PC compatible",
"Amiga Halfbrite mode",
"Commodore 64",
"Motorola 68030",
"Amiga models and variants",
"Kilobyte",
"Bubble Bobble",
"ROM",
"Home computer",
"SWIV",
"Double Dragon 2",
"planar (computer graphics)",
"Amiga 1000",
"expansion card",
"Ars Technica",
"Future Publishing",
"Amiga 2000",
"Eurogamer",
"Atari ST",
"Paula (computer chip)",
"Pulse-code modulation",
"The Guardian",
"Kickstart (Amiga)",
"address space",
"F/A-18 Interceptor",
"The NewZealand Story",
"Amiga 1200",
"NTSC",
"RGB color model",
"Stabilizer (chemistry)",
"overscan",
"acrylonitrile butadiene styrene",
"Addison Wesley",
"Treasure Island Dizzy",
"kHz",
"Macintosh Classic",
"Addison-Wesley",
"Enhanced Chip Set",
"composite monitor",
"Markt & Technik",
"joystick",
"RCA connector",
"component video",
"Amiga",
"Chip (magazine)",
"function key",
"peak-to-peak",
"kilobyte",
"Amiga video connector",
"Consumer Electronics Show",
"Amiga custom chips",
"Denise (OCS)",
"Fat Agnus",
"D-subminiature",
"CU Amiga",
"real-time clock",
"Macintosh LC",
"Amiga Advanced Graphics Architecture",
"Video Graphics Array",
"Amiga 3000",
"central processing unit",
"Motorola 68010",
"Horizontal sync",
"multisync monitor",
"Multisync monitor",
"optical brightener",
"AmigaOS",
"Chip RAM",
"Amiga Enhanced Chip Set",
"PAL"
] |
3,100 |
Aga
|
Aga or AGA may refer to:
==Business==
Architectural Glass and Aluminum (AGA), a glazing contractor, established in 1970
AGA (automobile), , 1920s German car company
AGA AB, , a Swedish company, the originator of the AGA cooker
AGA Rangemaster Group, British manufacturer
AGA cooker, an oven and cooker
Abellio Greater Anglia, former name of Greater Anglia, a train company in the United Kingdom
==People==
Aga Khan (disambiguation)
Ağa (Ottoman Empire), an Ottoman Turkish military and administrative rank
Alejandro G. Abadilla (1906–1969), Filipino poet
Aga vom Hagen (1872-1949), German painter, author, and art patron
Aga Radwańska, Polish tennis player
AGA (singer), Hong Kong singer
===Given name===
Aga of Kish, Ensi of Kish and King of Sumer
Ağa Aşurov (1880–1936), Azerbaijani statesman
Aga Muhlach (born 1969), Filipino actor and producer
Aga Zaryan (born 1976), Polish vocalist
Aga, a diminutive of the Russian female first name Agafa
Aga, a diminutive of the Russian male first name Agafangel
Aga, a diminutive of the Russian male first name Agafon
Aga, a diminutive of the Russian male first name Agafonik
Aga, a diminutive of the Russian male first name Agap
Aga, a diminutive of the Russian female first name Agapa
Aga, a diminutive of the Russian male first name Agapit
Aga, a diminutive of the Russian female first name Agapiya
Aga, a diminutive of the Russian female first name Agata (a variant of Agatha)
Aga, a diminutive of the Russian male first name Agav
Aga, a diminutive of the Russian male first name Agavva
Aga, a diminutive of the Russian female first name Avgusta
=== Surname ===
Ağa, a Turkish surname
Alemu Aga (born 1950), Ethiopian musician
Anu Aga (born 1942), Indian businesswoman
Maria-Laura Aga (born 1994), Belgian footballer
Patrick Aga, Nigerian politician
Ragheb Aga (born 1984), Kenyan cricketer
Selim Aga (–1875), Sudanese writer
==Groups==
American Gaming Association
American Gas Association
American Gastroenterological Association
American Go Association, organization to promote the board game of Go
American Grandprix Association
Assemblies of God in Australia, a Pentecostal denomination
Association of Government Accountants, government accounting professional organization that issues the Certified Government Financial Manager
Australian Go Association, governing body for the board game Go
==Medicine==
Androgenetic alopecia
Anti-gliadin antibodies
Aspartylglucosaminidase
Appropriate for gestational age, referring to prenatal growth rate
==Places==
Aga, Egypt
Aga, Niigata, Japan
Aga Point, Guam
Al Massira Airport, Agadir, Morocco
Brestovăț, Timiș County, Romania, called in Hungarian
Monte Aga, mountain in Italy
Aga (river), a tributary of the Onon in Zabaykalsky Krai, Russia
==Other==
Aga (bird), Chamorro language name of Corvus kubaryi, the Mariana crow
Aga (bug), a genus of assassin bugs in the tribe Harpactorini
Ága (film), a 2018 Bulgarian film
Aga is the word for Karuka in the Kewa language
Aga saga
Aguano language
Alcohol and Gaming Authority, government body in Nova Scotia, Canada
Alte Gesamt-Ausgabe, 19th century publication of compositions by Franz Schubert
Amiga Advanced Graphics Architecture, a Commodore Amiga graphics chipset
Art Gallery of Alberta, an art museum in Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
AGA, a codon for the amino acid arginine
Attorney General of Alabama
Attorney General of Alaska
Attorney General of Alberta
Attorney General of Anguilla
Attorney General of Argentina
Attorney General of Arizona
Attorney General of Arkansas
Attorney-General of Australia
Auditor-General for Australia
|
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"Monte Aga",
"Agavva",
"AGA (singer)",
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"Agafonik",
"Al Massira Airport",
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"Attorney General of Alberta",
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"Ağa",
"Aga vom Hagen",
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"Attorney General of Alabama",
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"Alcohol and Gaming Authority",
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"Attorney General of Anguilla",
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"Attorney General of Arkansas",
"Agafa",
"Aga Ashurov",
"arginine",
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"Australian Go Association",
"AGA cooker",
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"Agapiya",
"Attorney General of Alaska",
"American Gastroenterological Association",
"prenatal growth rate",
"Anti-gliadin antibodies",
"Aga of Kish",
"Art Gallery of Alberta",
"Aga Radwańska",
"Agafangel",
"Aga Khan (disambiguation)",
"Alemu Aga",
"Anu Aga",
"Patrick Aga",
"Agha (disambiguation)",
"Attorney General of Arizona",
"Alte Gesamt-Ausgabe",
"Greater Anglia",
"Aga Point",
"Amiga Advanced Graphics Architecture",
"Aga Muhlach",
"Aguano language",
"AGA (Architectural Glass and Aluminum)",
"Aga (Ottoman Empire)",
"Aga (bug)",
"Ága (film)",
"Selim Aga",
"Agatha (given name)",
"Agga (disambiguation)"
] |
3,104 |
Amiga 1000
|
The Amiga 1000, also known as the A1000, is the first personal computer released by Commodore International in the Amiga line. It combines the 16/32-bit Motorola 68000 CPU which was powerful by 1985 standards with one of the most advanced graphics and sound systems in its class. It runs a preemptive multitasking operating system that fits into of read-only memory and was shipped with 256 KB of RAM. The primary memory can be expanded internally with a manufacturer-supplied 256 KB module for a total of 512 KB of RAM. Using the external slot the primary memory can be expanded up to As Senior Industrial Designer at Commodore, Stolz was the mechanical lead and primary interface with Sanyo in Japan, the contract manufacturer for the A1000 casing.
The Amiga 1000 was manufactured in two variations: One uses the NTSC television standard and the other uses the PAL television standard. The NTSC variant was the initial model manufactured and sold in North America. The later PAL model was manufactured in Germany and sold in countries using the PAL television standard. The first NTSC systems lack the EHB video mode which is present in all later Amiga models.
Because AmigaOS was rather buggy at the time of the A1000's release, the OS was not placed in ROM then. Instead, the A1000 includes a daughterboard with 256 KB of RAM, dubbed the "writable control store" (WCS), into which the core of the operating system is loaded from floppy disk (this portion of the operating system is known as the "Kickstart"). The WCS is write-protected after loading, and system resets do not require a reload of the WCS. In Europe, the WCS was often referred to as WOM (Write Once Memory), a play on the more conventional term "ROM" (read-only memory).
== Technical information ==
The preproduction Amiga (which was codenamed "Velvet") released to developers in early 1985 contained of RAM with an option to expand it to Commodore later increased the system memory to due to objections by the Amiga development team. The names of the custom chips were different; Denise and Paula were called Daphne and Portia respectively. The casing of the preproduction Amiga was almost identical to the production version: the main difference being an embossed Commodore logo in the top left corner. It did not have the developer signatures.
The Amiga 1000 has a Motorola 68000 CPU running at 7.15909 MHz on NTSC systems RAM may also be upgraded via official and third-party upgrades, with a practical upper limit of about 9 MB of "fast RAM" due to the 68000's 24-bit address bus. This memory is accessible only by the CPU permitting faster code execution as DMA cycles are not shared with the chipset.
The Amiga 1000 features an 86-pin expansion port (electrically identical to the later Amiga 500 expansion port, though the A500's connector is inverted). This port is used by third-party expansions such as memory upgrades and SCSI adapters. These resources are handled by the Amiga Autoconfig standard. Other expansion options are available including a bus expander which provides two Zorro-II slots.
=== Specifications ===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Attribute
! Specification at Lincoln Center in New York City, machines began shipping in September with a base configuration of 256 KB of RAM at the retail price of . A analog RGB monitor was available for around , bringing the price of a complete Amiga system to US$1,595 (). Before the release of the Amiga 500 and Amiga 2000 models in 1987, the A1000 was marketed as simply the Amiga, although the model number was there from the beginning, as the original box indicates.
In the US, the A1000 was marketed as The Amiga from Commodore, with the Commodore logo omitted from the case. The Commodore branding was retained for the international versions.
Additionally, the Amiga 1000 was sold exclusively in computer stores in the US rather than the various non computer-dedicated department and toy stores through which the VIC-20 and Commodore 64 were retailed. These measures were an effort to avoid Commodore's "toy-store" computer image created during the Tramiel era.
Along with the operating system, the machine came bundled with a version of AmigaBASIC developed by Microsoft and a speech synthesis library developed by Softvoice, Inc.
== Aftermarket upgrades ==
Many A1000 owners remained attached to their machines long after newer models rendered the units technically obsolete, and it attracted numerous aftermarket upgrades. Many CPU upgrades that plugged into the Motorola 68000 socket functioned in the A1000. Additionally, a line of products called the Rejuvenator series allowed the use of newer chipsets in the A1000, and an Australian-designed replacement A1000 motherboard called The Phoenix utilized the same chipset as the A3000 and added an A2000-compatible video slot and on-board SCSI controller.
== Reception and impact ==
In its product preview, Byte magazine was impressed by the computer's multitasking capabilities and the quality of its graphics and sound systems. It also praised its text-to-speech library for voice output, and predicted that the Amiga would be successful enough to influence the personal computer industry. Computer Gaming World praised the machine's versatility without any obvious hardware shortcomings and stressed that it was ideal for game designers demanding fewer system constraints. Creative Computing magazine had only minor criticisms for what they otherwise called a "dream machine." These criticisms were directed toward its case quality, the disk drives slowing during certain operations, and not finding an AUTOEXEC command in AmigaDOS, though the marketing vice president of Commodore, Clive Smith, assured the magazine that later production units would address most of its complaints. Months after the Amiga 1000 was released, InfoWorld offered a mixed review. It praised Intuition and the customizability of Workbench, but took issue with the operating system's bugs such as memory overflow and screen flickering of single lines as a result of their being interleaved when displayed in high resolution mode. It also criticized the sparseness of the software library preventing the publication from fully realizing the computer's potential.
In 1994, as Commodore filed for bankruptcy, Byte magazine called the Amiga 1000 "the first multimedia computer... so far ahead of its time that almost nobody—including Commodore's marketing department—could fully articulate what it was all about". In 2006, PC World rated the Amiga 1000 as the 7th greatest PC of all time. In 2007, it was rated by the same magazine as the 37th best tech product of all time. Also that year, IDG Sweden ranked it the 10th best computer of all time.
== Joe Pillow ==
"Joe Pillow" was the name given on the ticket for the extra airline seat purchased to hold the first Amiga prototype while on the way to the January 1984 Consumer Electronics Show. The airlines required a name for the airline ticket and Joe Pillow was born. The engineers (RJ Mical and Dale Luck) who flew with the Amiga prototype (codenamed Lorraine) drew a happy face on the front of the pillowcase and even added a tie.
Joe Pillow extended his fifteen minutes of fame when the Amiga went to production. All fifty-three Amiga team members who worked on the project signed the Amiga case. This included Joe Pillow and Jay Miner's dog Michy who each got to "sign" the case in their own unique way.
|
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"Computer monitor",
"daughterboard",
"parallel port",
"Hold-And-Modify",
"Sampling (signal processing)",
"Interlaced video",
"Personal computer",
"Compute!",
"InfoWorld",
"random-access memory",
"Byte (magazine)",
"SCSI",
"Amiga Zorro II",
"AUTOEXEC",
"Autoconfig",
"Commodore International",
"New York City",
"VIC-20",
"RJ Mical",
"Workbench (AmigaOS)",
"Amiga Chip RAM",
"carrier frequency",
"Motorola 68000",
"crystal oscillator",
"Computer Gaming World",
"Howard Stolz",
"Floppy disk",
"speech synthesis",
"Megabyte",
"Original Chip Set",
"RS-232",
"serial port",
"Dynamic random-access memory",
"color depth",
"floppy disk",
"PC World",
"Andy Warhol",
"Motorola 68020",
"OS/2",
"Central processing unit",
"composite video",
"Stereophonic sound",
"Direct memory access",
"Microsoft",
"Vivian Beaumont Theater",
"Hertz",
"Amiga Halfbrite mode",
"Jack Tramiel",
"Commodore 64",
"Motorola 68030",
"Amiga models and variants",
"Kilobyte",
"Intel 8088",
"Computer data storage",
"address bus",
"Softvoice, Inc",
"Windows NT",
"multimedia computer",
"International Data Group",
"Lincoln Center",
"Amiga 2000",
"airline seat",
"IDG",
"MS-DOS",
"Bootstrapping",
"AmigaBASIC",
"Pulse-code modulation",
"preemptive multitasking",
"Amiga Sidecar",
"Kickstart (Amiga)",
"Signal-to-noise ratio",
"read-only memory",
"NTSC",
"personal computer",
"RGB color model",
"Double density",
"Amiga 500",
"Jay Miner",
"RCA connector",
"Amiga",
"Motorola 68881",
"Australia",
"Computer multitasking",
"Software bug",
"kilobyte",
"Floating-point unit",
"Consumer Electronics Show",
"direct memory access",
"Debbie Harry",
"fifteen minutes of fame",
"glue logic",
"Sanyo",
"RJ10",
"operating system",
"D-subminiature",
"Macintosh 128K",
"central processing unit",
"Creative Computing (magazine)",
"Motorola 68010",
"AmigaOS",
"North America",
"PAL",
"Operating system"
] |
3,107 |
Asymptote
|
In analytic geometry, an asymptote () of a curve is a line such that the distance between the curve and the line approaches zero as one or both of the x or y coordinates tends to infinity. In projective geometry and related contexts, an asymptote of a curve is a line which is tangent to the curve at a point at infinity.
The word asymptote is derived from the Greek ἀσύμπτωτος (asumptōtos) which means "not falling together", from ἀ priv. + σύν "together" + πτωτ-ός "fallen". The term was introduced by Apollonius of Perga in his work on conic sections, but in contrast to its modern meaning, he used it to mean any line that does not intersect the given curve.
There are three kinds of asymptotes: horizontal, vertical and oblique. For curves given by the graph of a function , horizontal asymptotes are horizontal lines that the graph of the function approaches as x tends to Vertical asymptotes are vertical lines near which the function grows without bound. An oblique asymptote has a slope that is non-zero but finite, such that the graph of the function approaches it as x tends to
More generally, one curve is a curvilinear asymptote of another (as opposed to a linear asymptote) if the distance between the two curves tends to zero as they tend to infinity, although the term asymptote by itself is usually reserved for linear asymptotes.
Asymptotes convey information about the behavior of curves in the large, and determining the asymptotes of a function is an important step in sketching its graph. The study of asymptotes of functions, construed in a broad sense, forms a part of the subject of asymptotic analysis.
==Introduction==
The idea that a curve may come arbitrarily close to a line without actually becoming the same may seem to counter everyday experience. The representations of a line and a curve as marks on a piece of paper or as pixels on a computer screen have a positive width. So if they were to be extended far enough they would seem to merge, at least as far as the eye could discern. But these are physical representations of the corresponding mathematical entities; the line and the curve are idealized concepts whose width is 0 (see Line). Therefore, the understanding of the idea of an asymptote requires an effort of reason rather than experience.
Consider the graph of the function f(x) = \frac{1}{x} shown in this section. The coordinates of the points on the curve are of the form \left(x, \frac{1}{x}\right) where x is a number other than 0. For example, the graph contains the points (1, 1), (2, 0.5), (5, 0.2), (10, 0.1), ... As the values of x become larger and larger, say 100, 1,000, 10,000 ..., putting them far to the right of the illustration, the corresponding values of y, .01, .001, .0001, ..., become infinitesimal relative to the scale shown. But no matter how large x becomes, its reciprocal \frac{1}{x} is never 0, so the curve never actually touches the x-axis. Similarly, as the values of x become smaller and smaller, say .01, .001, .0001, ..., making them infinitesimal relative to the scale shown, the corresponding values of y, 100, 1,000, 10,000 ..., become larger and larger. So the curve extends further and further upward as it comes closer and closer to the y-axis. Thus, both the x and y-axis are asymptotes of the curve. These ideas are part of the basis of concept of a limit in mathematics, and this connection is explained more fully below.
==Asymptotes of functions==
The asymptotes most commonly encountered in the study of calculus are of curves of the form . These can be computed using limits and classified into horizontal, vertical and oblique asymptotes depending on their orientation. Horizontal asymptotes are horizontal lines that the graph of the function approaches as x tends to +∞ or −∞. As the name indicates they are parallel to the x-axis. Vertical asymptotes are vertical lines (perpendicular to the x-axis) near which the function grows without bound. Oblique asymptotes are diagonal lines such that the difference between the curve and the line approaches 0 as x tends to +∞ or −∞.
===Vertical asymptotes===
The line x = a is a vertical asymptote of the graph of the function if at least one of the following statements is true:
\lim_{x \to a^{-}} f(x)=\pm\infty,
\lim_{x \to a^{+}} f(x)=\pm\infty,
where \lim_{x\to a^-} is the limit as x approaches the value a from the left (from lesser values), and \lim_{x\to a^+} is the limit as x approaches a from the right.
For example, if ƒ(x) = x/(x–1), the numerator approaches 1 and the denominator approaches 0 as x approaches 1. So
\lim_{x\to 1^{+}}\frac{x}{x-1}=+\infty
\lim_{x\to 1^{-}}\frac{x}{x-1}=-\infty
and the curve has a vertical asymptote x = 1.
The function ƒ(x) may or may not be defined at a, and its precise value at the point x = a does not affect the asymptote. For example, for the function
f(x) = \begin{cases} \frac{1}{x} & \text{if } x > 0, \\ 5 & \text{if } x \le 0. \end{cases}
has a limit of +∞ as , ƒ(x) has the vertical asymptote , even though ƒ(0) = 5. The graph of this function does intersect the vertical asymptote once, at (0, 5). It is impossible for the graph of a function to intersect a vertical asymptote (or a vertical line in general) in more than one point. Moreover, if a function is continuous at each point where it is defined, it is impossible that its graph does intersect any vertical asymptote.
A common example of a vertical asymptote is the case of a rational function at a point x such that the denominator is zero and the numerator is non-zero.
If a function has a vertical asymptote, then it isn't necessarily true that the derivative of the function has a vertical asymptote at the same place. An example is
f(x) = \tfrac 1x + \sin(\tfrac 1x)\quad at \quad x=0.
This function has a vertical asymptote at x=0, because
\lim_{x\to0^+} f(x) = \lim_{x\to0^+}\left(\tfrac 1x + \sin\left(\tfrac 1x\right)\right) = +\infty,
and
\lim_{x\to0^-} f(x) = \lim_{x\to0^-}\left(\tfrac 1x + \sin\left(\tfrac 1x\right)\right) = -\infty.
The derivative of f is the function
f'(x)=\frac{-(\cos(\tfrac 1x) + 1)}{x^2}.
For the sequence of points
x_n=\frac{(-1)^n}{(2n+1)\pi},\quad for \quad n=0,1,2,\ldots
that approaches x=0 both from the left and from the right, the values f'(x_n) are constantly 0. Therefore, both one-sided limits of f' at 0 can be neither +\infty nor -\infty. Hence f'(x) doesn't have a vertical asymptote at x=0.
===Horizontal asymptotes===
Horizontal asymptotes are horizontal lines that the graph of the function approaches as . The horizontal line y = c is a horizontal asymptote of the function y = ƒ(x) if
\lim_{x\rightarrow -\infty}f(x)=c or \lim_{x\rightarrow +\infty}f(x)=c.
In the first case, ƒ(x) has y = c as asymptote when x tends to , and in the second ƒ(x) has y = c as an asymptote as x tends to .
For example, the arctangent function satisfies
\lim_{x\rightarrow -\infty}\arctan(x)=-\frac{\pi}{2} and \lim_{x\rightarrow+\infty}\arctan(x)=\frac{\pi}{2}.
So the line is a horizontal asymptote for the arctangent when x tends to , and is a horizontal asymptote for the arctangent when x tends to .
Functions may lack horizontal asymptotes on either or both sides, or may have one horizontal asymptote that is the same in both directions. For example, the function has a horizontal asymptote at y = 0 when x tends both to and because, respectively,
\lim_{x\to -\infty}\frac{1}{x^2+1}=\lim_{x\to +\infty}\frac{1}{x^2+1}=0.
Other common functions that have one or two horizontal asymptotes include (that has an hyperbola as it graph), the Gaussian function x\mapsto \exp(-x^2), the error function, and the logistic function.
===Oblique asymptotes===
When a linear asymptote is not parallel to the x- or y-axis, it is called an oblique asymptote or slant asymptote. A function ƒ(x) is asymptotic to the straight line (m ≠ 0) if
\lim_{x \to +\infty}\left[ f(x)-(mx+n)\right] = 0 \, \mbox{ or } \lim_{x \to -\infty}\left[ f(x)-(mx+n)\right] = 0.
In the first case the line is an oblique asymptote of ƒ(x) when x tends to +∞, and in the second case the line is an oblique asymptote of ƒ(x) when x tends to −∞.
An example is ƒ(x) = x + 1/x, which has the oblique asymptote y = x (that is m = 1, n = 0) as seen in the limits
\lim_{x\to\pm\infty}\left[f(x)-x\right]
=\lim_{x\to\pm\infty}\left[\left(x+\frac{1}{x}\right)-x\right]
=\lim_{x\to\pm\infty}\frac{1}{x}=0.
== Elementary methods for identifying asymptotes ==
The asymptotes of many elementary functions can be found without the explicit use of limits (although the derivations of such methods typically use limits).
===General computation of oblique asymptotes for functions===
The oblique asymptote, for the function f(x), will be given by the equation y = mx + n. The value for m is computed first and is given by
m\;\stackrel{\text{def}}{=}\,\lim_{x\rightarrow a}f(x)/x
where a is either -\infty or +\infty depending on the case being studied. It is good practice to treat the two cases separately. If this limit doesn't exist then there is no oblique asymptote in that direction.
Having m then the value for n can be computed by
n\;\stackrel{\text{def}}{=}\,\lim_{x\rightarrow a}(f(x)-mx)
where a should be the same value used before. If this limit fails to exist then there is no oblique asymptote in that direction, even should the limit defining m exist. Otherwise is the oblique asymptote of ƒ(x) as x tends to a.
For example, the function has
m=\lim_{x\rightarrow+\infty}f(x)/x=\lim_{x\rightarrow+\infty}\frac{2x^2+3x+1}{x^2}=2 and then
n=\lim_{x\rightarrow+\infty}(f(x)-mx)=\lim_{x\rightarrow+\infty}\left(\frac{2x^2+3x+1}{x}-2x\right)=3
so that is the asymptote of ƒ(x) when x tends to +∞.
The function has
m=\lim_{x\rightarrow+\infty}f(x)/x=\lim_{x\rightarrow+\infty}\frac{\ln x}{x}=0 and then
n=\lim_{x\rightarrow+\infty}(f(x)-mx)=\lim_{x\rightarrow+\infty}\ln x, which does not exist.
So does not have an asymptote when x tends to +∞.
=== Asymptotes for rational functions ===
A rational function has at most one horizontal asymptote or oblique (slant) asymptote, and possibly many vertical asymptotes.
The degree of the numerator and degree of the denominator determine whether or not there are any horizontal or oblique asymptotes. The cases are tabulated below, where deg(numerator) is the degree of the numerator, and deg(denominator) is the degree of the denominator.
The vertical asymptotes occur only when the denominator is zero (If both the numerator and denominator are zero, the multiplicities of the zero are compared). For example, the following function has vertical asymptotes at x = 0, and x = 1, but not at x = 2.
f(x)=\frac{x^2-5x+6}{x^3-3x^2+2x}=\frac{(x-2)(x-3)}{x(x-1)(x-2)}
==== Oblique asymptotes of rational functions ====
When the numerator of a rational function has degree exactly one greater than the denominator, the function has an oblique (slant) asymptote. The asymptote is the polynomial term after dividing the numerator and denominator. This phenomenon occurs because when dividing the fraction, there will be a linear term, and a remainder. For example, consider the function
f(x)=\frac{x^2+x+1}{x+1}=x+\frac{1}{x+1}
shown to the right. As the value of x increases, f approaches the asymptote y = x. This is because the other term, 1/(x+1), approaches 0.
If the degree of the numerator is more than 1 larger than the degree of the denominator, and the denominator does not divide the numerator, there will be a nonzero remainder that goes to zero as x increases, but the quotient will not be linear, and the function does not have an oblique asymptote.
=== Transformations of known functions ===
If a known function has an asymptote (such as y=0 for f(x)=ex), then the translations of it also have an asymptote.
If x=a is a vertical asymptote of f(x), then x=a+h is a vertical asymptote of f(x-h)
If y=c is a horizontal asymptote of f(x), then y=c+k is a horizontal asymptote of f(x)+k
If a known function has an asymptote, then the scaling of the function also have an asymptote.
If y=ax+b is an asymptote of f(x), then y=cax+cb is an asymptote of cf(x)
For example, f(x)=ex-1+2 has horizontal asymptote y=0+2=2, and no vertical or oblique asymptotes.
== General definition ==
Let be a parametric plane curve, in coordinates A(t) = (x(t),y(t)). Suppose that the curve tends to infinity, that is:
\lim_{t\rightarrow b}(x^2(t)+y^2(t))=\infty.
A line ℓ is an asymptote of A if the distance from the point A(t) to ℓ tends to zero as t → b. From the definition, only open curves that have some infinite branch can have an asymptote. No closed curve can have an asymptote.
For example, the upper right branch of the curve y = 1/x can be defined parametrically as x = t, y = 1/t (where t > 0). First, x → ∞ as t → ∞ and the distance from the curve to the x-axis is 1/t which approaches 0 as t → ∞. Therefore, the x-axis is an asymptote of the curve. Also, y → ∞ as t → 0 from the right, and the distance between the curve and the y-axis is t which approaches 0 as t → 0. So the y-axis is also an asymptote. A similar argument shows that the lower left branch of the curve also has the same two lines as asymptotes.
Although the definition here uses a parameterization of the curve, the notion of asymptote does not depend on the parameterization. In fact, if the equation of the line is ax+by+c=0 then the distance from the point A(t) = (x(t),y(t)) to the line is given by
\frac{\sqrt{a^2+b^2}}
if γ(t) is a change of parameterization then the distance becomes
\frac{\sqrt{a^2+b^2}}
which tends to zero simultaneously as the previous expression.
An important case is when the curve is the graph of a real function (a function of one real variable and returning real values). The graph of the function y = ƒ(x) is the set of points of the plane with coordinates (x,ƒ(x)). For this, a parameterization is
t\mapsto (t,f(t)).
This parameterization is to be considered over the open intervals (a,b), where a can be −∞ and b can be +∞.
An asymptote can be either vertical or non-vertical (oblique or horizontal). In the first case its equation is x = c, for some real number c. The non-vertical case has equation , where m and n are real numbers. All three types of asymptotes can be present at the same time in specific examples. Unlike asymptotes for curves that are graphs of functions, a general curve may have more than two non-vertical asymptotes, and may cross its vertical asymptotes more than once.
==Curvilinear asymptotes==
Let be a parametric plane curve, in coordinates A(t) = (x(t),y(t)), and B be another (unparameterized) curve. Suppose, as before, that the curve A tends to infinity. The curve B is a curvilinear asymptote of A if the shortest distance from the point A(t) to a point on B tends to zero as t → b. Sometimes B is simply referred to as an asymptote of A, when there is no risk of confusion with linear asymptotes.
For example, the function
y = \frac{x^3+2x^2+3x+4}{x}
has a curvilinear asymptote , which is known as a parabolic asymptote because it is a parabola rather than a straight line.
==Asymptotes and curve sketching==
Asymptotes are used in procedures of curve sketching. An asymptote serves as a guide line to show the behavior of the curve towards infinity. In order to get better approximations of the curve, curvilinear asymptotes have also been used although the term asymptotic curve seems to be preferred.
==Algebraic curves==
The asymptotes of an algebraic curve in the affine plane are the lines that are tangent to the projectivized curve through a point at infinity. For example, one may identify the asymptotes to the unit hyperbola in this manner. Asymptotes are often considered only for real curves, although they also make sense when defined in this way for curves over an arbitrary field.
A plane curve of degree n intersects its asymptote at most at n−2 other points, by Bézout's theorem, as the intersection at infinity is of multiplicity at least two. For a conic, there are a pair of lines that do not intersect the conic at any complex point: these are the two asymptotes of the conic.
A plane algebraic curve is defined by an equation of the form P(x,y) = 0 where P is a polynomial of degree n
P(x,y) = P_n(x,y) + P_{n-1}(x,y) + \cdots + P_1(x,y) + P_0
where Pk is homogeneous of degree k. Vanishing of the linear factors of the highest degree term Pn defines the asymptotes of the curve: setting , if , then the line
Q'_x(b,a)x+Q'_y(b,a)y + P_{n-1}(b,a)=0
is an asymptote if Q'_x(b,a) and Q'_y(b,a) are not both zero. If Q'_x(b,a)=Q'_y(b,a)=0 and P_{n-1}(b,a)\neq 0, there is no asymptote, but the curve has a branch that looks like a branch of parabola. Such a branch is called a , even when it does not have any parabola that is a curvilinear asymptote. If Q'_x(b,a)=Q'_y(b,a)=P_{n-1}(b,a)=0, the curve has a singular point at infinity which may have several asymptotes or parabolic branches.
Over the complex numbers, Pn splits into linear factors, each of which defines an asymptote (or several for multiple factors). Over the reals, Pn splits in factors that are linear or quadratic factors. Only the linear factors correspond to infinite (real) branches of the curve, but if a linear factor has multiplicity greater than one, the curve may have several asymptotes or parabolic branches. It may also occur that such a multiple linear factor corresponds to two complex conjugate branches, and does not corresponds to any infinite branch of the real curve. For example, the curve has no real points outside the square |x|\leq 1, |y|\leq 1, but its highest order term gives the linear factor x with multiplicity 4, leading to the unique asymptote x=0.
==Asymptotic cone==
The hyperbola
\frac{x^2}{a^2}-\frac{y^2}{b^2}= 1
has the two asymptotes
y=\pm\frac{b}{a}x.
The equation for the union of these two lines is
\frac{x^2}{a^2}-\frac{y^2}{b^2}=0.
Similarly, the hyperboloid
\frac{x^2}{a^2}-\frac{y^2}{b^2}-\frac{z^2}{c^2}=1
is said to have the asymptotic cone
\frac{x^2}{a^2}-\frac{y^2}{b^2}-\frac{z^2}{c^2}=0.
The distance between the hyperboloid and cone approaches 0 as the distance from the origin approaches infinity.
More generally, consider a surface that has an implicit equation
P_d(x,y,z)+P_{d-2}(x,y,z) + \cdots P_0=0,
where the P_i are homogeneous polynomials of degree i and P_{d-1}=0. Then the equation P_d(x,y,z)=0 defines a cone which is centered at the origin. It is called an asymptotic cone, because the distance to the cone of a point of the surface tends to zero when the point on the surface tends to infinity.
|
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"algebraic curve",
"error function",
"Bézout's theorem",
"logistic function",
"rational function",
"Homothetic transformation",
"Dover Publications",
"field (mathematics)",
"parabola",
"Privative alpha",
"affine space",
"projective geometry",
"one-sided limit",
"real function",
"asymptotic curve",
"hyperboloid",
"conic sections",
"cone",
"conic",
"arctangent",
"continuous function",
"analytic geometry",
"asymptotic analysis",
"Limit of a function",
"homogeneous polynomial",
"calculus",
"Apollonius of Perga",
"hyperbola",
"Graph of a function",
"unit hyperbola",
"parametric curve",
"Gaussian function",
"point at infinity",
"graph of a function",
"Penny Cyclopædia",
"curve",
"Degree of a polynomial",
"Euclidean division of polynomials",
"Greek language",
"Cambridge University Press",
"Polynomial long division",
"Science Museum (London)",
"Line (geometry)",
"John Wiley & Sons",
"limit (mathematics)",
"function (mathematics)",
"tangent",
"vertical line test",
"Folium of descartes",
"Big O notation",
"curve sketching"
] |
3,110 |
Andrew S. Tanenbaum
|
Andrew Stuart Tanenbaum (born March 16, 1944), sometimes referred to by the handle AST, is an American-born Dutch computer scientist and retired professor emeritus of computer science at the Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam in the Netherlands.
He is the author of MINIX, a free Unix-like operating system for teaching purposes, and has written multiple computer science textbooks regarded as standard texts in the field. He regards his teaching job as his most important work. Since 2004 he has operated Electoral-vote.com, a website dedicated to analysis of polling data in federal elections in the United States.
==Biography==
Tanenbaum was born in New York City and grew up in suburban White Plains, New York, where he attended the White Plains High School. His paternal grandfather was born in Khorostkiv in the Austro-Hungarian empire. He taught courses on Computer Organization and Operating Systems and supervised the work of PhD candidates at the VU University Amsterdam. On July 9, 2014, he announced his retirement. He is married to a Dutch woman, but retains his American citizenship.
==Teaching==
===Books===
Tanenbaum's textbooks on computer science include:
(1981, with David J. Wetherall and Nickolas Feamster)
Operating Systems: Design and Implementation, co-authored with Albert Woodhull
Modern Operating Systems (1992, 2001, 2007, 2014, 2022)
(with Maarten van Steen)
His book, Operating Systems: Design and Implementation and MINIX were Linus Torvalds' inspiration for the Linux kernel. In his autobiography Just for Fun, Torvalds describes it as "the book that launched me to new heights".
===Doctoral students===
Tanenbaum has had a number of PhD students who themselves have gone on to become widely known computer science researchers.
These include:
Henri Bal, professor at the Vrije Universiteit in Amsterdam
Frans Kaashoek, professor at MIT
Werner Vogels, Chief Technology Officer at Amazon.com
===MINIX===
In 1987, Tanenbaum wrote a clone of UNIX, called MINIX (MINi-unIX), for the IBM PC. It was targeted at students and others who wanted to learn how an operating system worked. Consequently, he wrote a book that listed the source code in an appendix and described it in detail in the text. The source code itself was available on a set of floppy disks. Within three months, a Usenet newsgroup, comp.os.minix, had sprung up with over 40,000 subscribers discussing and improving the system. One of these subscribers was Linus Torvalds, who began adding new features to MINIX and tailoring it to his own needs. On October 5, 1991, Torvalds announced his own (POSIX-like) kernel, called Linux, which originally used the MINIX file system but is not based on MINIX code.
===Electoral-vote.com===
In 2004, Tanenbaum created Electoral-vote.com, a web site analyzing opinion polls for the 2004 U.S. presidential election, using them to project the outcome in the Electoral College. He stated that he created the site as an American who "knows first hand what the world thinks of America and it is not a pretty picture at the moment. I want people to think of America as the land of freedom and democracy, not the land of arrogance and blind revenge. I want to be proud of America again." The site provided a color-coded map, updated each day with projections for each state's electoral votes. Through most of the campaign period Tanenbaum kept his identity secret, referring to himself as "the Votemaster" and acknowledging only that he personally preferred John Kerry. Mentioning that he supported the Democrats, he revealed his identity on November 1, 2004, the day before the election, and also stating his reasons and qualifications for running the website. Clinton however, won the popular vote, but lost the electoral vote.
==Tanenbaum–Torvalds debate==
The Tanenbaum–Torvalds debate was a famous debate between Tanenbaum and Linus Torvalds regarding kernel design on Usenet in 1992.
==Awards==
Fellow of the ACM
Fellow of the IEEE for outstanding contributions to research and education in computer networks and operating systems.
Member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences
ACM Software System Award, 2023
IEEE TCDP Outstanding Technical Achievement Award, 2022
ACM EUROSYS Lifetime Achievement Award, 2015
Winner of the TAA McGuffey award for classic textbooks for Modern Operating Systems, 3rd ed., 2010
USENIX Flame Award for Lifetime Achievement, 2008
NLUUG Lifetime Achievement Award, 2008
Winner of the IEEE James H. Mulligan, Jr. Education Medal, 2007
TAA Texty Award winner, 2003
ACM Karl V. Karlstrom Educator of the Year Award, 1994
===Honorary doctorates===
On May 12, 2008, Tanenbaum received an honorary doctorate from Universitatea Politehnica din București.
On October 7, 2011, Universitatea Petru Maior din Târgu Mureș (Petru Maior University of Târgu Mureș) granted Tanenbaum the Doctor Honoris Causa (honorary doctorate) title for his work in the field of computer science and achievements in education.
|
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"physics",
"Unix-like",
"John M. Wilcox",
"Amazon.com",
"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers",
"VU University Amsterdam",
"Linux",
"Microkernel",
"IBM PC",
"Operating Systems: Design and Implementation",
"West Virginia",
"UNIX",
"Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences",
"Amsterdam Compiler Kit",
"Alexis de Tocqueville Institution",
"Netherlands",
"University of California, Berkeley",
"New York City",
"opinion polls",
"federal elections in the United States",
"Frans Kaashoek",
"MIT",
"Petru Maior University of Târgu Mureș",
"Massachusetts Institute of Technology",
"Hillary Clinton",
"Vrije Universiteit",
"Distributed computing",
"Usenet",
"United States",
"computer science",
"PhD",
"computer programming",
"Amsterdam",
"Leiden University",
"Bachelor of Science",
"United States elections, 2008",
"Association for Computing Machinery",
"2004 U.S. presidential election",
"Khorostkiv",
"astrophysics",
"American citizenship",
"PhD candidacy",
"U.S. Electoral College",
"United States Democratic Party",
"POSIX",
"Norm Coleman",
"MINIX",
"computer scientist",
"William Holmes McGuffey",
"O'Reilly Media",
"Henri Bal",
"Doctor of Philosophy",
"Politehnica University of Bucharest",
"Linus Torvalds",
"Tanenbaum–Torvalds debate",
"website",
"Colorado",
"parallel computing",
"United States general elections, 2006",
"Modern Operating Systems",
"Nevada",
"Austro-Hungarian empire",
"Just for Fun (book)",
"Electoral-vote.com",
"Al Franken",
"honorary doctorate",
"White Plains High School",
"University of Amsterdam",
"National Radio Astronomy Observatory",
"IEEE James H. Mulligan, Jr. Education Medal",
"operating system",
"Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam",
"Amsterdam, Netherlands",
"White Plains, New York",
"Delft University of Technology",
"John Kerry",
"ACM Software System Award",
"2016 United States presidential election",
"Werner Vogels",
"Operating system"
] |
3,111 |
Ariane 5
|
| family = Ariane
| comparable =
|status = Retired
| sites = Guiana Space Centre, ELA-3
| launches = 117 (G: 16, G+: 3, GS: 6, ES: 8, ECA: 72, ECA+: 12)
| success = 112 (G: 13, G+: 3, GS: 6, ES: 8, ECA: 70, ECA+: 12)
| fail = 2 (G: 1, ECA: 1)
| partial = 3 (G: 2, ECA: 1)
| first =
| last =
| payloads =
|stagedata =
}}
Ariane 5 is a retired European heavy-lift space launch vehicle operated by Arianespace for the European Space Agency (ESA). It was launched from the Guiana Space Centre (CSG) in French Guiana. It was used to deliver payloads into geostationary transfer orbit (GTO), low Earth orbit (LEO) or further into space. The launch vehicle had a streak of 82 consecutive successful launches between 9 April 2003 and 12 December 2017. Since 2014, Ariane 6, a direct successor system, first launched in 2024.
The system was designed as an expendable launch vehicle by the Centre national d'études spatiales (CNES), the French government's space agency, in cooperation with various European partners. Despite not being a direct derivative of its predecessor launch vehicle program, it was classified as part of the Ariane rocket family. Aérospatiale, and later ArianeGroup, was the prime contractor for the manufacturing of the vehicles, leading a multi-country consortium of other European contractors. Ariane 5 was originally intended to launch the Hermes spacecraft, and thus it was rated for human space launches.
Since its first launch, Ariane 5 was refined in successive versions: "G", "G+", "GS", "ECA", and finally, "ES". The system had a commonly used dual-launch capability, where up to two large geostationary belt communication satellites can be mounted using a SYLDA (Système de Lancement Double Ariane, meaning "Ariane Double-Launch System") carrier system. Up to three, somewhat smaller, main satellites are possible depending on size using a SPELTRA (Structure Porteuse Externe Lancement Triple Ariane, which translates to "Ariane Triple-Launch External Carrier Structure"). Up to eight secondary payloads, usually small experiment packages or minisatellites, could be carried with an ASAP (Ariane Structure for Auxiliary Payloads) platform.
Following the launch of 15 August 2020, Arianespace signed the contracts for the last eight Ariane 5 launches, before it was succeeded by the new Ariane 6 launcher, according to Daniel Neuenschwander, director of space transportation at the ESA.
== Vehicle description ==
=== Cryogenic main stage ===
Ariane 5's cryogenic H173 main stage (H158 for Ariane 5G, G+, and GS) was called the EPC (Étage Principal Cryotechnique — Cryotechnic Main Stage). It consisted of a diameter by high tank with two compartments, one for liquid oxygen and one for liquid hydrogen, and a Vulcain 2 engine at the base with a vacuum thrust of . The H173 EPC weighed about , including of propellant. After the main cryogenic stage runs out of fuel, it re-entered the atmosphere for an ocean splashdown.
=== Solid boosters ===
Attached to the sides were two P241 (P238 for Ariane 5G and G+) solid rocket boosters (SRBs or EAPs from the French Étages d'Accélération à Poudre), each weighing about full and delivering a thrust of about . They were fueled by a mix of ammonium perchlorate (68%) and aluminium fuel (18%) and HTPB (14%). They each burned for 130 seconds before being dropped into the ocean. The SRBs were usually allowed to sink to the bottom of the ocean, but, like the Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Boosters, they could be recovered with parachutes, and this was occasionally done for post-flight analysis. Unlike Space Shuttle SRBs, Ariane 5 boosters were not reused. The most recent attempt was for the first Ariane 5 ECA mission in 2009. One of the two boosters was successfully recovered and returned to the Guiana Space Center for analysis. Prior to that mission, the last such recovery and testing was done in 2003.
The French M51 submarine-launched ballistic missile (SLBM) shared a substantial amount of technology with these boosters.
In February 2000, the suspected nose cone of an Ariane 5 booster washed ashore on the South Texas coast, and was recovered by beachcombers before the government could get to it.
=== Second stage ===
The second stage was on top of the main stage and below the payload. The original Ariane — Ariane 5G — used the EPS (Étage à Propergols Stockables — Storable Propellant Stage), which was fueled by monomethylhydrazine (MMH) and nitrogen tetroxide, containing of storable propellant. The EPS was subsequently improved for use on the Ariane 5G+, GS, and ES.
The EPS upper stage was capable of repeated ignition, first demonstrated during flight V26 which was launched on 5 October 2007. This was purely to test the engine, and occurred after the payloads had been deployed. The first operational use of restart capability as part of a mission came on 9 March 2008, when two burns were made to deploy the first Automated Transfer Vehicle (ATV) into a circular parking orbit, followed by a third burn after ATV deployment to de-orbit the stage. This procedure was repeated for all subsequent ATV flights.
Ariane 5ECA used the ESC (Étage Supérieur Cryotechnique — Cryogenic Upper Stage), which was fueled by liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen. The ESC used the HM7B engine previously used in the Ariane 4 third stage. The propellent load of 14.7 tonne allowed the engine to burn for 945 seconds while providing 6.5 tonne of thrust. The ESC provided roll control during powered flight and full attitude control during payload separation using hydrogen gas thrusters. Oxygen gas thrusters allowed longitudinal acceleration after engine cutoff. The flight assembly included the Vehicle Equipment Bay, with flight electronics for the entire rocket, and the payload interface and structural support.
=== Fairing ===
The payload and all upper stages were covered at launch by a fairing for aerodynamic stability and protection from heating during supersonic flight and acoustic loads. It was jettisoned once sufficient altitude has been reached, typically above . It was made by Ruag Space and since flight VA-238 it was composed of 4 panels.
== Variants ==
== Launch pricing and market competition ==
, the Ariane 5 commercial launch price for launching a "midsize satellite in the lower position" was approximately €50 million, competing for commercial launches in an increasingly competitive market.
The heavier satellite was launched in the upper position on a typical dual-satellite Ariane 5 launch and was priced higher than the lower satellite, on the order of €90 million .
== Cancelled plans for future developments ==
=== Ariane 5 ME ===
The Ariane 5 ME (Mid-life Evolution) was in development into early 2015, and was seen as a stopgap between Ariane 5ECA/Ariane 5ES and the new Ariane 6. With first flight planned for 2018, it would have become ESA's principal launcher until the arrival of the new Ariane 6 version. ESA halted funding for the development of Ariane 5ME in late 2014 to prioritize development of Ariane 6. Development of the Vinci engine continued, though at a lower pace. The ESA Council of Ministers agreed to fund development of the new upper stage in November 2008.
In 2009, EADS Astrium was awarded a €200 million contract, and on 10 April 2012 received another €112 million contract to continue development of the Ariane 5ME with total development effort expected to cost €1 billion.
On 21 November 2012, ESA agreed to continue with the Ariane 5ME to meet the challenge of lower priced competitors. It was agreed the Vinci upper stage would also be used as the second stage of a new Ariane 6, and further commonality would be sought.
=== Solid propellant stage ===
Work on the Ariane 5 EAP motors was continued in the Vega programme. The Vega 1st stage engine – the P80 engine – was a shorter derivation of the EAP. The P80 booster casing was made of filament wound graphite epoxy, much lighter than the current stainless steel casing. A new composite steerable nozzle was developed while new thermal insulation material and a narrower throat improved the expansion ratio and subsequently the overall performance. Additionally, the nozzle had electromechanical actuators which replaced the heavier hydraulic ones used for thrust vector control.
These developments could maybe have made their way back into the Ariane programme, but this was most likely an inference based on early blueprints of the Ariane 6 having a central P80 booster and 2-4 around the main one. The incorporation of the ESC-B with the improvements to the solid motor casing and an uprated Vulcain engine would have delivered to LEO. This would have been developed for any lunar missions but the performance of such a design might not have been possible if the higher Max-Q for the launch of this launch vehicle would have posed a constraint on the mass delivered to orbit.
== Ariane 6 ==
The design brief of the next generation launch vehicle Ariane 6 called for a lower-cost and smaller launch vehicle capable of launching a single satellite of up to to GTO. However, after several permutations the finalized design was nearly identical in performance to the Ariane 5, focusing instead on lowering fabrication costs and launch prices. , Ariane 6 was projected to be launched for about €70 million per flight, about half of the Ariane 5 price. In 2017, the ESA set 16 July 2020 as the deadline for the first flight. The Ariane 6 successfully completed its maiden flight on 9 July 2024.
== Notable launches ==
Ariane 5's first test flight (Ariane 5 Flight 501) on 4 June 1996 failed, with the rocket self-destructing 37 seconds after launch because of a malfunction in the control software. A data conversion from 64-bit floating-point value to 16-bit signed integer value to be stored in a variable representing horizontal bias caused a processor trap (operand error)
Another partial failure occurred on 12 July 2001, with the delivery of two satellites into an incorrect orbit, at only half the height of the intended GTO. The ESA Artemis telecommunications satellite was able to reach its intended orbit on 31 January 2003, through the use of its experimental ion propulsion system.
The next launch did not occur until 1 March 2002, when the Envisat environmental satellite successfully reached an orbit of above the Earth in the 11th launch. At , it was the heaviest single payload until the launch of the first ATV on 9 March 2008, at .
The first launch of the ECA variant on 11 December 2002 ended in failure when a main booster problem caused the rocket to veer off-course, forcing its self-destruction three minutes into the flight. Its payload of two communications satellites (STENTOR and Hot Bird 7), valued at about €630 million, was lost in the Atlantic Ocean. The fault was determined to have been caused by a leak in coolant pipes allowing the nozzle to overheat. After this failure, Arianespace SA delayed the expected January 2003 launch for the Rosetta mission to 26 February 2004, but this was again delayed to early March 2004 due to a minor fault in the foam that protects the cryogenic tanks on the Ariane 5. The failure of the first ECA launch was the last failure of an Ariane 5 until flight 240 in January 2018.
On 27 September 2003, the last Ariane 5G boosted three satellites (including the first European lunar probe, SMART-1), in Flight 162. On 18 July 2004, an Ariane 5G+ boosted what was at the time the heaviest telecommunication satellite ever, Anik F2, weighing almost .
The first successful launch of the Ariane 5ECA took place on 12 February 2005. The payload consisted of the XTAR-EUR military communications satellite, a 'SLOSHSAT' small scientific satellite and a MaqSat B2 payload simulator. The launch had been scheduled for October 2004, but additional testing and a military launch (of a Helios 2A observation satellite) delayed the attempt.
On 11 August 2005, the first Ariane 5GS (featuring the Ariane 5ECA's improved solid motors) boosted Thaicom 4, the heaviest telecommunications satellite to date at , into orbit.
On 16 November 2005, the third Ariane 5ECA launch (the second successful ECA launch) took place. It carried a dual payload consisting of Spaceway F2 for DirecTV and Telkom-2 for PT Telekomunikasi of Indonesia. This was the launch vehicle's heaviest dual payload to date, at more than .
On 27 May 2006, an Ariane 5ECA launch vehicle set a new commercial payload lifting record of . The dual-payload consisted of the Thaicom 5 and Satmex 6 satellites.
On 4 May 2007, the Ariane 5ECA set another new commercial record, lifting into transfer orbit the Astra 1L and Galaxy 17 communication satellites with a combined weight of , and a total payload weight of . This record was again broken by another Ariane 5ECA, launching the Skynet 5B and Star One C1 satellites, on 11 November 2007. The total payload weight for this launch was of .
On 9 March 2008, the first Ariane 5ES-ATV was launched to deliver the first ATV called Jules Verne to the International Space Station (ISS). The ATV was the heaviest payload ever launched by a European launch vehicle, providing supplies to the space station with necessary propellant, water, air and dry cargo. This was the first operational Ariane mission which involved an engine restart in the upper stage. The ES-ATV Aestus EPS upper stage was restartable while the ECA HM7-B engine was not.
On 1 July 2009, an Ariane 5ECA launched TerreStar-1 (now EchoStar T1), which was then, at , the largest and most massive commercial telecommunication satellite ever built at that time until being overtaken by Telstar 19 Vantage, at , launched aboard Falcon 9. The satellite was launched into a lower-energy orbit than a usual GTO, with its initial apogee at roughly .
On 28 October 2010, an Ariane 5ECA launched Eutelsat's W3B (part of its W Series of satellites) and Broadcasting Satellite System Corporation (B-SAT)'s BSAT-3b satellites into orbit. But the W3B satellite failed to operate shortly after the successful launch and was written off as a total loss due to an oxidizer leak in the satellite's main propulsion system. The BSAT-3b satellite, however, is operating normally.
The VA253 launch on 15 August 2020 introduced two small changes that increased lift capacity by about ; these were a lighter avionics and guidance-equipment bay, and modified pressure vents on the payload fairing, which were required for the subsequent launch of the James Webb Space Telescope. It also debuted a location system using Galileo navigation satellites.
On 25 December 2021, VA256 launched the James Webb Space Telescope towards a Sun–Earth L2 halo orbit. The precision of trajectory following launch led to fuel savings credited with potentially doubling the lifetime of the telescope by leaving more hydrazine propellant on board for station-keeping than was expected. According to Rudiger Albat, the program manager for Ariane 5, efforts had been made to select components for this flight that had performed especially well during pre-flight testing, including "one of the best Vulcain engines that we've ever built." This record was later broken again during the launch of Ariane 5ECA flight VA-208 on 2 August 2012, lifting a total of into the planned geosynchronous transfer orbit, which was broken again 6 months later on flight VA-212 with sent towards geosynchronous transfer orbit. In June 2016, the GTO record was raised to , on the first rocket in history that carried a satellite dedicated to financial institutions. The payload record was pushed a further , up to on 24 August 2016 with the launch of Intelsat 33e and Intelsat 36. On 1 June 2017, the payload record was broken again to carrying ViaSat-2 and Eutelsat-172B. In 2021 VA-255 put 11,210 kg into GTO.
=== VA241 anomaly ===
On 25 January 2018, an Ariane 5ECA launched SES-14 and Al Yah 3 satellites. About 9 minutes and 28 seconds after launch, a telemetry loss occurred between the launch vehicle and the ground controllers. It was later confirmed, about 1 hour and 20 minutes after launch, that both satellites were successfully separated from the upper stage and were in contact with their respective ground controllers, but that their orbital inclinations were incorrect as the guidance systems might have been compromised. Therefore, both satellites conducted orbital procedures, extending commissioning time. SES-14 needed about 8 weeks longer than planned commissioning time, meaning that entry into service was reported early September instead of July. Nevertheless, SES-14 is still expected to be able to meet the designed lifetime. This satellite was originally to be launched with more propellant reserve on a Falcon 9 launch vehicle since the Falcon 9, in this specific case, was intended to deploy this satellite into a high inclination orbit that would require more work from the satellite to reach its final geostationary orbit. The Al Yah 3 was also confirmed healthy after more than 12 hours without further statement, and like SES-14, Al Yah 3's maneuvering plan was also revised to still fulfill the original mission. As of 16 February 2018, Al Yah 3 was approaching the intended geostationary orbit, after series of recovery maneuvers had been performed. The investigation showed that invalid inertial units' azimuth value had sent the vehicle 17° off course but to the intended altitude, they had been programmed for the standard geostationary transfer orbit of 90° when the payloads were intended to be 70° for this supersynchronous transfer orbit mission, 20° off norme. This mission anomaly marked the end of 82nd consecutive success streak since 2003.
== Launch history ==
=== Launch statistics ===
Ariane 5 launch vehicles had accumulated 117 launches, 112 of which were successful, yielding a success rate. Between April 2003 and December 2017, Ariane 5 flew 83 consecutive missions without failure, but the launch vehicle suffered a partial failure in January 2018.
=== Rocket configurations ===
=== Launch outcomes ===
=== List of launches ===
All launches are from Guiana Space Centre, ELA-3.
|
[
"Anik (satellite)",
"Spaceway-3",
"RUAG Space",
"Ariane flight VA245",
"M51 (missile)",
"eBird-1",
"Star One C3",
"Space Telescope Science Institute",
"EADS Astrium",
"Eutelsat Quantum",
"MEASAT Satellite Systems",
"Vinci (rocket engine)",
"MaqSat 3",
"PARASOL",
"Mission Extension Vehicle",
"MEASAT-3b",
"LEROS",
"Ariane flight VA242",
"Stentor (satellite)",
"Galaxy 17",
"Intelsat",
"Ariane flight VA244",
"Eutelsat 33E",
"storable propellant",
"XTAR-EUR",
"European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites",
"Jules Verne ATV",
"Global-scale Observations of the Limb and Disk",
"Geostationary transfer orbit",
"Regional African Satellite Communication Organization",
"Star One C4",
"Politics of Egypt",
"European Space Agency",
"Optus D3",
"Hellas Sat",
"Arab Satellite Communications Organization",
"INSAT",
"ARSAT-2",
"Artemis (satellite)",
"GSAT-24",
"Human-rating certification",
"BSAT-2c",
"GSAT-7",
"Eutelsat",
"Stellat 5",
"Ariane flight VA248",
"James Webb Space Telescope",
"Star One (satellite operator)",
"GSAT-30",
"ViaSat-2",
"SES-14",
"Ariane 6",
"Telkom-2",
"Arabsat-5A",
"AT&T satellite fleet",
"Hermes (spacecraft)",
"Philae (spacecraft)",
"INSAT-4A",
"SES-2",
"N-STAR c",
"BSAT-2b",
"INSAT-3A",
"Astrium",
"Galileo (satellite navigation)",
"Monomethylhydrazine",
"SpaceNews",
"JSAT (satellite constellation)",
"communication satellite",
"GEO-KOMPSAT 2A",
"GSAT-8",
"Spainsat",
"Vulcain (rocket engine)",
"LDREX",
"Space launch market competition",
"Meteosat",
"MEASAT",
"INSAT-4B",
"Modular Fitting Dummy",
"BepiColombo",
"Nilesat",
"COMSATBw-1",
"Supersynchronous orbit",
"Ariane flight VA253",
"GSAT-31",
"Albert Einstein ATV",
"T14 (satellite)",
"Orbital station-keeping",
"Johannes Kepler ATV",
"ARSAT",
"Optus C1",
"MSG-2",
"Astra 5B",
"Long March 5",
"Astra 2F",
"Sloshsat-FLEVO",
"AMC-8",
"Astra 1L",
"Skynet 5C",
"Amazonas 3",
"OSCAR 40",
"Viasat (American company)",
"Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer",
"Delta IV Heavy",
"Meteosat 8",
"Price",
"Intelsat 1R",
"Centre national d'études spatiales",
"Yahsat 1A",
"Spain",
"Koreasat 6",
"Government of France",
"Rocket propellant",
"Max Q",
"National Broadband Network",
"Sky México",
"Hot Bird 7",
"Ariane (rocket family)",
"JCSAT-10",
"Direction générale de l'armement",
"Intelsat 29e",
"BSAT-4a",
"Eutelsat 25B/Es'hail 1",
"Nilesat 201",
"Singtel",
"Korea Aerospace Research Institute",
"Eutelsat 21B",
"Optus D1",
"Astra 2B",
"Chollian",
"Space Technology Research Vehicle",
"Ariane 5 Flight 501",
"Hydroxyl-terminated polybutadiene",
"GSAT-15",
"Indonesia",
"ammonium perchlorate",
"Ariane flight VA241",
"Astra 3B",
"Arianespace",
"Ariane flight VA251",
"STENTOR (satellite)",
"Hellas Sat 3",
"French Armed Forces",
"Switzerland",
"List of Ariane launches",
"P80 (stage)",
"Star One D1",
"DirecTV",
"Mexican Satellite System",
"Intelsat 11",
"Planck (spacecraft)",
"Aérospatiale",
"BSAT-3c",
"BSAT-3a",
"Falcon 9",
"NASA",
"NSIL",
"SKY Brasil",
"ABS (satellite operator)",
"Star One D2",
"Inmarsat",
"Falcon 9 Block 5",
"Young Engineers' Satellite",
"AMC-21",
"Vinasat-1",
"Earth",
"liquid oxygen",
"Ariane 4",
"Ariane flight VA252",
"Astra 2D",
"Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster",
"Sun-synchronous orbit",
"Heliocentric orbit",
"France",
"Syracuse 3A",
"ST-2",
"List of Galileo satellites",
"Ariane flight VA249",
"Medium-Earth orbit",
"bit",
"Sky Muster",
"Essaim (satellite)",
"Ariane flight V88",
"INSAT-3B",
"Spaceway-2",
"XMM-Newton",
"European Data Relay System",
"INSAT-3E",
"GSAT-10",
"Lagrange point",
"British Satellite Broadcasting",
"Nitrogen tetroxide",
"Galaxy 15",
"Eutelsat W3B",
"graveyard orbit",
"Hispasat",
"Athena-Fidus",
"Guiana Space Centre",
"W series (satellites)",
"Georges Lemaître ATV",
"Alphabus",
"Skynet 5B",
"Aluminium",
"Hydrazine",
"Comparison of orbital launch systems",
"Al Yah Satellite Communications",
"INSAT-3D",
"ion propulsion",
"Intelsat 36",
"Intelsat 33e",
"Intelsat 28",
"SaudiGeoSat-1/HellasSat-4",
"floating-point arithmetic",
"Ada (programming language)",
"HM-7B",
"integer",
"French Guiana",
"Intelsat 20",
"Broadcasting Satellite System Corporation",
"Cryogenics",
"Intelsat 34",
"Ars Technica",
"GSLV Mark III",
"miniaturized satellite",
"LOX",
"Viasat, Inc.",
"Geosynchronous transfer orbit",
"Vietnam Posts and Telecommunications Group",
"Ammonium perchlorate",
"Cluster (spacecraft)",
"Skynet 5D",
"Eutelsat 33C",
"H-IIB",
"Atlantic Ocean",
"KT Corporation",
"Atlas V",
"Ariane flight VA247",
"DIRISI",
"Star One C1",
"Optus (satellite)",
"Mexsat-3",
"Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt",
"SES-17",
"Türksat 3A",
"ELA-3",
"Helios 2A",
"Indian Space Research Organisation",
"Atlantic Bird 1",
"Helios 2 (satellite)",
"AMC-18",
"Ariane flight VA246",
"BSAT-4b",
"GSAT-17",
"SMART-1",
"Avanti Communications",
"Sweden",
"Ariane flight VA255",
"MaqSat-B",
"BRISat",
"Syracuse (satellite)",
"Canadian Space Agency",
"Skynet 5A",
"Bank Rakyat Indonesia",
"Tata Play",
"NSS-9",
"Afghansat 1",
"Heavy-lift launch vehicle",
"ABS-2",
"BSAT-3b",
"Vrio Corp.",
"signedness",
"ARSAT-1",
"GSAT-11",
"Northrop Grumman",
"Ariane flight VA256",
"range safety",
"JCSAT-15",
"Star One C2",
"New Dawn (satellite)",
"Ariane flight VA240",
"BBC News",
"Atmospheric Reentry Demonstrator",
"SKY Perfect JSAT",
"halo orbit",
"Highly elliptical orbit",
"Ministry of Defense (Japan)",
"Astra 1N",
"Germany",
"Belgium",
"Coordinated Universal Time",
"Azerspace-2",
"AsiaStar",
"International Space Station",
"GEO-KOMPSAT 2B",
"Vega (launcher)",
"nose cone",
"Ariane flight VA254",
"Exception handling",
"GSAT-18",
"ProtoStar",
"TerreStar-1",
"Hot Bird 13C",
"Automated Transfer Vehicle",
"hydroxyl-terminated polybutadiene",
"Medium Earth orbit",
"telecommunications satellite",
"HYLAS-4",
"Telstar 19V",
"Ariane flight VA257",
"geostationary transfer orbit",
"SES (company)",
"HM7B",
"EchoStar",
"ArianeGroup",
"Ariane flight VA250",
"Herschel Space Observatory",
"HYLAS-1",
"Envisat",
"TEAMSAT",
"EchoStar XVII",
"Optus",
"Eurostar E3000",
"JAXA",
"nitrogen tetroxide",
"monomethylhydrazine",
"Aestus",
"Horizons-2",
"Vinasat-2",
"Proton-M",
"Rosetta (spacecraft)",
"GSAT-16",
"solid rocket booster",
"Spirale",
"Superbird-B3",
"Beachcombing",
"Boeing 702",
"Comparison of orbital launchers families",
"Amazonas 4A",
"Italy",
"liquid hydrogen",
"Maqsat",
"Edoardo Amaldi ATV",
"BSAT-2a",
"low Earth orbit",
"Submarine-launched ballistic missile",
"Thaicom 5",
"HYLAS 2",
"GE-7",
"Ariane flight VA243",
"Azercosmos",
"Galaxy (satellite)",
"COMSATBw-2",
"Thaicom 4",
"Rosetta space probe",
"List of SES satellites",
"Syracuse 3B",
"RADARSAT Constellation",
"Future Launchers Preparatory Programme",
"JCSAT-17",
"Eutelsat 113 West A",
"Superbird-8",
"Hot Bird 7A",
"South Texas",
"Azerspace-1/Africasat-1a",
"environmental satellite",
"Eutelsat 65 West A",
"Nanosat 01",
"Low Earth orbit",
"Eutelsat Konnect",
"Horizons-3e",
"LH2",
"MaqSat-H",
"Telkom Indonesia",
"Thor (satellite)",
"LDREX-2",
"List of Intelsat satellites",
"Brazilian space program"
] |
3,112 |
Arianespace
|
Arianespace SA is a French company founded in March 1980 as the world's first commercial launch service provider. It operates two launch vehicles: Vega C, a small-lift rocket, and Ariane 6, a medium-to-heavy-lift rocket. Arianespace is a subsidiary of ArianeGroup, a joint venture between Airbus and Safran.
European space launches are carried out as a collaborative effort between private companies and government agencies. The role of Arianespace is to market Ariane 6 launch services, prepare missions, and manage customer relations. At the Guiana Space Centre (CSG) in French Guiana, the company oversees the team responsible for integrating and preparing launch vehicles.
The rockets themselves are designed and manufactured by other companies: ArianeGroup for the Ariane 6 and Avio for the Vega. The launch infrastructure at the CSG is owned by the European Space Agency, while the land itself belongs to and is managed by CNES, the French national space agency.
, Arianespace had launched more than 850 satellites in 287 missions spanning 41 years. The company's first commercial launch was Spacenet 1, which took place on 23 May 1984. In addition to its facilities at the CSG, the company's main offices are in Évry-Courcouronnes, a suburb of Paris.
== History ==
The formation of Arianespace SA is closely associated with the desire of several European nations to pursue joint collaboration in the field of space exploration and the formation of a pan-national organisation, the European Space Agency (ESA), to oversee such undertaking during 1973. Prior to the ESA's formation, France had been lobbying for the development of a new European expendable launch system to serve as a replacement for the Europa rocket. The express purpose of this launcher was to facilitate the delivery of commercial satellites into geosynchronous orbit.
France was the largest stakeholder in the Ariane development programme. French aerospace manufacturer Aérospatiale served as the prime contractor and held responsibility for performing the integration of all sections of the vehicle, while French engine manufacturer Société Européenne de Propulsion (SEP) provided the first, second and third stage engines (the third stage engines were produced in partnership with German aerospace manufacturer MBB). Other major companies involved included the French firms Air Liquide and Matra, Swedish manufacturer Volvo, and German aircraft producer Dornier Flugzeugwerke.
Immediately following the successful first test launch of an Ariane 1 on 24 December 1979, the French space agency Centre national d'études spatiales (CNES) and the ESA created a new company, Arianespace, for the purpose of promoting, marketing, and managing Ariane operations. According to Arianespace, at the time of its establishment, it was the world's first launch services company. Following a further three test launches, the first commercial launch took place on 10 September 1982, which ended in failure as a result of a turbopump having failed in the third stage. The six remaining flights of the Ariane 1 were successful, with the final flight occurring during February 1986. As a result of these repeated successes, orders for the Ariane launcher quickly mounted up; by early 1984, a total of 27 satellites had been booked to use Ariane, which was estimated to be half of the world's market at that time. As a result of the commercial success, after the tenth Ariane mission was flown, the ESA formally transferred responsibility for Ariane over to Arianespace. The Ariane 2 and Ariane 3 were short-lived platforms while the more extensive Ariane 4 was being developed; it was a considerably larger and more flexible launcher that the earlier members of its family, having been intended from the onset to compete with the upper end of launchers worldwide. In comparison, while the Ariane 1 had a typical weight of 207 tonnes and could launch payloads of up to 1.7 tonnes into orbit; the larger Ariane 4 had a typical weight of 470 tonnes and could orbit payloads of up to 4.2 tonnes. Despite this, the Ariane 4 was actually 15 per cent smaller than the Ariane 3.
On 15 June 1988, the first successful launch of the Ariane 4 was conducted.
Even prior to the first flight of the Ariane 4 in 1988, development of a successor, designated as the Ariane 5, had already commenced. In January 1985, the Ariane 5 was officially adopted as an ESA programme, and began an eleven-year development and test program to the first launch in 1996. It lacked the high levels of commonality that the Ariane 4 had with its predecessors, and had been designed not only for launching heavier payloads of up to 5.2 tonnes and at a 20 per cent cost reduction over the Ariane 4, but for a higher margin of safety due to the fact that the Ariane 5 was designed to conduct crewed space launches as well, being intended to transport astronauts using the proposed Hermes space vehicle. Development of the Ariane 5 was not without controversy as some ESA members considered the mature Ariane 4 platform to be more suited for meeting established needs for such launchers; it was reportedly for this reason that Britain chose not to participate in the Ariane 5 programme. For several years, Ariane 4 and Ariane 5 launchers were operated interchangeably; however, it was eventually decided to terminate all Ariane 4 operations in favour of concentrating on the newer Ariane 5.
During the mid-1990s, French firms Aérospatiale and SEP, along with Italian firm Bombrini-Parodi-Delfino (BPD), held discussions on the development of a proposed Ariane Complementary Launcher (ACL). Simultaneously, Italy championed the concept of a new solid-propellant satellite launcher, referred to as Vega. During March 2003, contracts for Vega's development were signed by the ESA and CNES; Italy provided 65 per cent of funding while six additional nations contributed the remainder. In May 2004, it was reported that a contract was signed between commercial operator Arianespace and prime contractor ELV to perform vehicle integration at Kourou, French Guiana. On 13 February 2012, the first launch of the Vega took place; it was reported as being an "apparently perfect flight". Since entering commercial service, Arianespace markets Vega as a launch system tailored for missions to polar and Sun-synchronous orbits.
During 2002, the ESA announced the Arianespace Soyuz programme in cooperation with Russia; a launch site for Soyuz was constructed as the Guiana Space Centre, while the Soyuz launch vehicle was modified for use at the site. On 4 February 2005, both funding and final approval for the initiative were granted. Arianespace had offered launch services on the modified Soyuz ST-B to its clients. On 21 October 2011, Arianespace launched the first Soyuz rocket ever from outside former Soviet territory. The payload consisted of two Galileo navigation satellites. Since 2011, Arianespace has ordered a total of 23 Soyuz rockets, enough to cover its needs until 2019 at a pace of three to four launches per year.
On 21 January 2019, ArianeGroup and Arianespace announced that it had signed a one-year contract with the ESA to study and prepare for a mission to the Moon to mine regolith.
In 2020, Arianespace suspended operations for nearly two months due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Operations were suspended on 18 March and are, as of 29 April, expected to resume on 11 May. The return to operations will observe a number of new health and safety guidelines including social distancing in the workplace.—to directly commercialize Vega C and seek non-governmental customers. Arianespace had handled marketing of Vega launches prior to that time. The transition is anticipated to be complete by the end of 2025.
== Company and infrastructure ==
Arianespace "is the marketing and sales organization for the European space industry and various component suppliers."
The primary shareholders of Arianespace are its suppliers, in various European nations. Arianespace had 24 shareholders in 2008, 21 in 2014, and just 17 .
In 2015, Arianespace shareholding was restructured due to the creation of Airbus Safran Launchers (later renamed ArianeGroup), which is tasked with developing and manufacturing the Ariane 6 carrier rocket. Industrial groups Airbus and Safran pooled their shares along with the French government's CNES stake to form a partnership company holding just under 74% of Arianespace shares, while the remaining 26% is spread across suppliers in nine countries including further Airbus subsidiaries.
==Competition and pricing==
By 2004, Arianespace reportedly held more than 50% of the world market for boosting satellites to geostationary transfer orbit (GTO).
During the 2010s, the disruptive force represented by the new sector entrant SpaceX forced Arianespace to cut back on its workforce and focus on cost-cutting to decrease costs to remain competitive against the new low-cost entrant in the launch sector. In the midst of pricing pressure from such companies, during November 2013, Arianespace announced that it was enacting pricing flexibility for the "lighter satellites" that it carries to Geostationary orbits aboard its Ariane 5. According to Arianespace's managing director: "It's quite clear there's a very significant challenge coming from SpaceX (...) therefore things have to change (...) and the whole European industry is being restructured, consolidated, rationalised and streamlined."
During early 2014, Arianespace was considering requesting additional subsidies from European governments to face competition from SpaceX and unfavorable changes in the Euro-Dollar exchange rate. The company had halved subsidy support by €100m per year since 2002 but the fall in the value of the US Dollar meant Arianespace was losing €60m per year due to currency fluctuations on launch contracts. SpaceX had reportedly begun to take market share from Arianespace, However, since 2017, Arianespace's market share has been passed by SpaceX in commercial launches.
== Launch vehicles ==
Currently, Arianespace operates three launch vehicles:
===Ariane launch vehicles===
Since the first launch in 1979, there have been several versions of the Ariane launch vehicle:
Ariane 1, first successful launch on 24 December 1979
Ariane 2, first successful launch on 20 November 1987 (the first launch on 30 May 1986, failed)
Ariane 3, first successful launch on 4 August 1984
Ariane 4, first successful launch on 15 June 1988
Ariane 5, first successful launch on 30 October 1997 (the first launch on 4 June 1996, failed).
Ariane 6, It has a similar payload capacity to that of Ariane 5 but considerably lower costs. Its first flight took place on 9 July 2024.
Ariane Next, in early development. It will be a partially reusable launcher that should succeed Ariane 6 from the 2030s. The objective of this reusable launcher is to halve the launch costs.
|
[
"Ariane 4",
"The Sydney Morning Herald",
"Heavy-lift launch vehicle",
"Le Monde",
"Airbus",
"Sun-synchronous orbit",
"economies of scale",
"RUAG Space",
"expendable launch system",
"Polar orbit",
"maiden flight",
"Airbus Defence and Space",
"Snecma",
"Ariane 3",
"Ariane 5",
"CNES",
"Europe",
"turbopump",
"Thales Alenia Space",
"French space program",
"regolith",
"Subsidiary",
"Messerschmitt-Bölkow-Blohm",
"Soyuz at the Guiana Space Centre",
"SABCA",
"Soviet Union",
"Ariane 62",
"Safran",
"United Launch Alliance",
"Government of France",
"Guiana Space Centre",
"launch service provider",
"Soyuz-2",
"COVID-19",
"Ariane (rocket family)",
"Kongsberg Defence & Aerospace",
"Europa rocket",
"geosynchronous orbit",
"geostationary transfer orbit",
"Geostationary transfer orbit",
"Avio",
"New York Post",
"ArianeGroup",
"International Launch Services",
"European Space Agency",
"Airbus Safran Launchers",
"Ariane 1",
"Forbes",
"Évry-Courcouronnes",
"Spacenet",
"French Guiana",
"competition (economics)",
"Dornier Flugzeugwerke",
"CRISA",
"Bombrini-Parodi-Delfino",
"Westview Press",
"Eutelsat",
"Michel de Rosen",
"new product development",
"NewSpace",
"Commercial use of space",
"GKN Aerospace",
"Ariane 5 SYLDA",
"Ariane 6",
"Antrix Corporation",
"Hermes (spacecraft)",
"social distancing",
"Supply (economics)",
"Ariane Next",
"Ariane 2",
"Russia",
"Medium-lift launch vehicle",
"Air Liquide",
"astronaut",
"Galileo (satellite navigation)",
"Aérospatiale",
"Small-lift launch vehicle",
"aerospace manufacturer",
"CASBAA",
"Vega C",
"Space industry",
"SpaceX",
"Ariane 64",
"Europa (rocket)",
"Chief Executive Officer",
"Matra",
"Low Earth orbit",
"Paris",
"Vega (rocket)",
"Volvo",
"launch vehicle",
"General contractor",
"Kourou",
"David Cavaillolès"
] |
3,116 |
Accumulator (computing)
|
In a computer's central processing unit (CPU), the accumulator is a register in which intermediate arithmetic logic unit results are stored.
Without a register like an accumulator, it would be necessary to write the result of each calculation (addition, multiplication, shift, etc.) to cache or main memory, perhaps only to be read right back again for use in the next operation.
Accessing memory is slower than accessing a register like an accumulator because the technology used for the large main memory is slower (but cheaper) than that used for a register. Early electronic computer systems were often split into two groups, those with accumulators and those without.
Modern computer systems often have multiple general-purpose registers that can operate as accumulators, and the term is no longer as common as it once was. However, to simplify their design, a number of special-purpose processors still use a single accumulator.
== Basic concept ==
Mathematical operations often take place in a stepwise fashion, using the results from one operation as the input to the next. For instance, a manual calculation of a worker's weekly payroll might look something like:
look up the number of hours worked from the employee's time card
look up the pay rate for that employee from a table
multiply the hours by the pay rate to get their basic weekly pay
multiply their basic pay by a fixed percentage to account for income tax
subtract that number from their basic pay to get their weekly pay after tax
multiply that result by another fixed percentage to account for retirement plans
subtract that number from their basic pay to get their weekly pay after all deductions
A computer program carrying out the same task would follow the same basic sequence of operations, although the values being looked up would all be stored in computer memory. In early computers, the number of hours would likely be held on a punch card and the pay rate in some other form of memory, perhaps a magnetic drum. Once the multiplication is complete, the result needs to be placed somewhere. On a "drum machine" this would likely be back to the drum, an operation that takes considerable time. Then the very next operation has to read that value back in, which introduces another considerable delay.
Accumulators dramatically improve performance in systems like these by providing a scratchpad area where the results of one operation can be fed to the next one for little or no performance penalty. In the example above, the basic weekly pay would be calculated and placed in the accumulator, which could then immediately be used by the income tax calculation. This removes one save and one read operation from the sequence, operations that generally took tens to hundreds of times as long as the multiplication itself.
==Accumulator machines==
An accumulator machine, also called a 1-operand machine, or a CPU with accumulator-based architecture, is a kind of CPU where, although it may have several registers, the CPU mostly stores the results of calculations in one special register, typically called "the accumulator". Almost all computers were accumulator machines with only the high-performance "supercomputers" having multiple registers. Then as mainframe systems gave way to microcomputers, accumulator architectures were again popular with the MOS 6502 being a notable example. Many 8-bit microcontrollers that are still popular , such as the PICmicro and 8051, are accumulator-based machines.
Modern CPUs are typically 2-operand or 3-operand machines. The additional operands specify which one of many general-purpose registers (also called "general-purpose accumulators") are used as the source and destination for calculations. These CPUs are not considered "accumulator machines".
The characteristic that distinguishes one register as being the accumulator of a computer architecture is that the accumulator (if the architecture were to have one) would be used as an implicit operand for arithmetic instructions. For instance, a CPU might have an instruction like: ADD memaddress that adds the value read from memory location memaddress to the value in the accumulator, placing the result back in the accumulator. The accumulator is not identified in the instruction by a register number; it is implicit in the instruction and no other register can be specified in the instruction. Some architectures use a particular register as an accumulator in some instructions, but other instructions use register numbers for explicit operand specification.
== History of the computer accumulator ==
Any system that uses a single "memory" to store the result of multiple operations can be considered an accumulator. J. Presper Eckert refers to even the earliest adding machines of Gottfried Leibniz and Blaise Pascal as accumulator-based systems. Percy Ludgate was the first to conceive a multiplier-accumulator (MAC) in his Analytical Machine of 1909.
Historical convention dedicates a register to "the accumulator", an "arithmetic organ" that literally accumulates its number during a sequence of arithmetic operations:
"The first part of our arithmetic organ ... should be a parallel storage organ which can receive a number and add it to the one already in it, which is also able to clear its contents and which can store what it contains. We will call such an organ an Accumulator. It is quite conventional in principle in past and present computing machines of the most varied types, e.g. desk multipliers, standard IBM counters, more modern relay machines, the ENIAC" (Goldstine and von Neumann, 1946; p. 98 in Bell and Newell 1971).
Just a few of the instructions are, for example (with some modern interpretation):
Clear accumulator and add number from memory location X
Clear accumulator and subtract number from memory location X
Add number copied from memory location X to the contents of the accumulator
Subtract number copied from memory location X from the contents of the accumulator
Clear accumulator and shift contents of register into accumulator
No convention exists regarding the names for operations from registers to accumulator and from accumulator to registers. Tradition (e.g. Donald Knuth's (1973) hypothetical MIX computer), for example, uses two instructions called load accumulator from register/memory (e.g. "LDA r") and store accumulator to register/memory (e.g. "STA r"). Knuth's model has many other instructions as well.
== Notable accumulator-based computers ==
The 1945 configuration of ENIAC had 20 accumulators, which could operate in parallel. Each one could store an eight decimal digit number and add to it (or subtract from it) a number it received. The PDP-8 had but one accumulator. The HP 2100 and Data General Nova had 2 and 4 accumulators. The Nova was created when this follow-on to the PDP-8 was rejected in favor of what would become the PDP-11. The Nova provided four accumulators, AC0-AC3, although AC2 and AC3 could also be used to provide offset addresses, tending towards more generality of usage for the registers. The PDP-11 had 8 general-purpose registers, along the lines of the System/360 and PDP-10; most later CISC and RISC machines provided multiple general-purpose registers.
Early 4-bit and 8-bit microprocessors such as the 4004, 8008 and numerous others, typically had single accumulators. The 8051 microcontroller has two, a primary accumulator and a secondary accumulator, where the second is used by instructions only when multiplying (MUL AB) or dividing (DIV AB); the former splits the 16-bit result between the two 8-bit accumulators, whereas the latter stores the quotient on the primary accumulator A and the remainder in the secondary accumulator B. As a direct descendant of the 8008, the 8080, and the 8086, the modern ubiquitous Intel x86 processors still uses the primary accumulator EAX and the secondary accumulator EDX for multiplication and division of large numbers. For instance, MUL ECX will multiply the 32-bit registers ECX and EAX and split the 64-bit result between EAX and EDX. However, MUL and DIV are special cases; other arithmetic-logical instructions (ADD, SUB, CMP, AND, OR, XOR, TEST) may specify any of the eight registers EAX, ECX, EDX, EBX, ESP, EBP, ESI, EDI as the accumulator (i.e. left operand and destination). This is also supported for multiply if the upper half of the result is not required. x86 is thus a fairly general register architecture, despite being based on an accumulator model. The 64-bit extension of x86, x86-64, has been further generalized to 16 instead of 8 general registers.
|
[
"HP 2100",
"4-bit computing",
"Institute for Advanced Study",
"instruction (computer science)",
"Intel 8080",
"PDP-8",
"Intel 8008",
"x86-64",
"MIX (abstract machine)",
"main memory",
"computer architecture",
"MOS Technology 6502",
"Digital Equipment Corporation",
"Blaise Pascal",
"IBM System/360",
"PDP-11",
"PIC microcontrollers",
"x86",
"Intel 8051",
"8-bit computing",
"magnetic drum",
"Donald Knuth",
"12-bit computing",
"adding machine",
"PDP-10",
"supercomputer",
"addressing mode",
"computer",
"Data General Nova",
"arithmetic logic unit",
"64-bit computing",
"IBM 7070",
"PDP-6",
"Cache (computing)",
"microcomputer",
"J. Presper Eckert",
"Maynard, Massachusetts",
"IBM 701",
"Intel 4004",
"Instruction set architecture",
"microcontroller",
"general-purpose register",
"central processing unit",
"memory address",
"Percy Ludgate",
"IBM 650",
"Bitwise operation",
"32-bit computing",
"mainframe computer",
"Gottfried Leibniz",
"16-bit computing",
"Intel 8086",
"36-bit computing",
"ENIAC",
"operand",
"punched card",
"processor register"
] |
3,117 |
Abu Zubaydah
|
Abu Zubaydah ( ; , Abū Zubaydah; born March 12, 1971, as Zayn al-Abidin Muhammad Husayn) is a Saudi citizen and alleged terrorist born in Saudi Arabia currently held by the U.S. in the Guantanamo Bay detention camp in Cuba. He is held under the authority of Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Terrorists (AUMF).
Zubaydah was captured in Pakistan in March 2002 and has been in United States custody ever since, including years in the secret prison network of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). He was transferred among prisons in various countries including a year in Poland, as part of a United States extraordinary rendition program. During his time in CIA custody, Zubaydah was extensively interrogated; he was waterboarded 83 times and subjected to numerous other torture techniques including forced nudity, sleep deprivation, confinement in small dark boxes, deprivation of solid food, stress positions, and physical assaults. Videotapes of some of Zubaydah's interrogations are allegedly amongst those destroyed by the CIA in 2005.
Zubaydah and ten other "high-value detainees" were transferred to Guantanamo in September 2006. He and other former CIA detainees are held in Camp 7, where conditions are the most isolating.
On July 24, 2014, the European Court of Human Rights ordered the Polish government to pay Zubaydah damages. Zubaydah stated through his US lawyer that he would be donating the awarded funds to victims of torture.
== Biography and early activities ==
According to his younger brother Hesham, they had eight siblings. Hesham remembers his older brother "as a happy-go-lucky guy, and something of a womanizer". In 1991 he joined the mujahideen and fought against Afghan Communist Government forces during the Afghan Civil War, perhaps serving under Mohamad Kamal Elzahabi. In 1992, Zubaydah was injured in an Afghan mortar attack, which left shrapnel in his head and caused severe memory loss, as well as the loss of the ability to speak for over one year.
Zubaydah eventually became involved in the training camp known as the Khalden training camp, where he oversaw the flow of recruits and obtained passports and paperwork for men transferring out of Khalden. He may also have worked as an instructor there. and the camp may have shut its doors in 2001 in response to an ideological division with al-Qaeda. By March 2000, United States officials were reporting that Zubaydah was a "senior bin Laden official", the "former head of Egypt-based Islamic Jihad", a "trusted aide" to bin Laden with "growing power", who had "played a key role in the East Africa embassy attacks". Zubaydah was convicted in absentia in Jordan and sentenced to death by a Jordanian court for his role in plots to bomb U.S. and Israeli targets there. A senior Middle East security official said Zubaydah had directed the Jordanian cell and was part of "bin Laden's inner circle".
In August 2001, the classified FBI report, "Bin Ladin Determined To Strike in US", said that the foiled millennium bomber, Ahmed Ressam, had confessed that Zubaydah had encouraged him to blow up the Los Angeles airport and facilitated his mission. The report said that Zubaydah was also planning his own attack on the U.S. After the trial, Ressam recanted his confession, saying he had been coerced into giving it.
According to a psychological evaluation conducted upon his capture, Zubaydah allegedly served as Osama bin Laden's senior lieutenant and counter-intelligence officer (i.e. third or fourth highest-ranking member of al Qaeda), managed a network of training camps, was involved in every major terrorist operation carried out by al Qaeda (including the planning of 9/11), and was engaged in planning future terrorist attacks against U.S. interests. These statements were widely echoed by members of the George W. Bush administration and other US officials. Zubaydah's perceived "value" as a detainee would later be used by George W. Bush to justify the use of "enhanced interrogation techniques" and Zubaydah's detention in secret CIA prisons around the world. However, Zubaydah's connection to al Qaeda is now often said to have beenaccording to Rebecca Gordon writing about "The al Qaeda Leader Who Wasn't"a fictitious charge. Others have said instead that it is merely overstated, and in response to his habeas corpus petition, the U.S. Government stated in 2009 that it did not contend Zubaydah had any involvement with the 9/11 attacks, or that he had even been a member of al Qaeda, simply because they did not have to: "In simple terms, the issue in this habeas corpus action is Petitioner's conduct", rather than membership or inclination: "Petitioner's personal philosophy is not relevant except to the extent that it is reflected in his actions".
== Capture ==
On March 28, 2002, CIA and FBI agents, in conjunction with Pakistani intelligence, raided several safe houses in Pakistan searching for Zubaydah. Zubaydah was apprehended from one of the targeted safe houses in Faisalabad, Pakistan. The Pakistani intelligence service had paid a small amount for a tip on his whereabouts. The United States paid far more to Pakistan for its assistance; a CIA source later said: "We paid $10 million for Zubaydah."
During the raid, Zubaydah was shot in the thigh, the testicle, and the stomach with rounds from a Kalashnikov assault rifle.
His pocket litter supposedly contained two bank cards, which showed that he had access to Saudi and Kuwaiti bank accounts; most al-Qaeda members used the preferred, untraceable hawala banking. According to James Risen: "It is not clear whether an investigation of the cards simply fell through the cracks, or whether they were ignored because no one wanted to know the answers about connections between al Qaeda and important figures in the Middle East—particularly in Saudi Arabia."
Zubaydah was handed to the CIA. Reports later alleged that he was transferred to secret CIA-operated prisons, known as black sites, in Pakistan, Thailand, Afghanistan, Poland, Northern Africa, and Diego Garcia. Historically, renditions of prisoners to countries which commit torture have been illegal. A memo written by John Yoo and signed by Jay Bybee of the Office of the Legal Counsel, DOJ, days before Zubaydah's capture, provided a legal opinion providing for CIA renditions of detainees to places such as Thailand. In March 2009, the U.S. Senate Intelligence Committee launched a year-long study on how the CIA operated the secret prisons, or black sites, around the world.
== Top U.S. officials approved torture techniques ==
In the spring of 2002, immediately following the capture of Zubaydah, top Bush administration officials, Vice President Dick Cheney, Secretary of State Colin Powell, CIA Director George Tenet, National Security Adviser Condoleezza Rice, Secretary of Defense Rumsfeld, and US Attorney General John Ashcroft discussed at length whether or not the CIA could legally use harsh techniques against him. Condoleezza Rice specifically mentioned the SERE program during the meeting, saying, "I recall being told that U.S. military personnel were subjected to training to certain physical and psychological interrogation techniques". These congressional leaders included Nancy Pelosi, the future Speaker of the House, and Representative Jane Harman. and Dick Cheney stated, "I signed off on it; so did others." During the discussions, US Attorney General John Ashcroft is reported as saying, "Why are we talking about this in the White House? History will not judge this kindly." and asserts that Zubaydah was never a member of Al Qaeda. In the article Zubaydah gives gruesome details of numerous types of torture including being locked up inside a small box called "the dog box" for "countless hours", which caused muscle contractions. "The very strong pain", he said, "made me scream unconsciously". According to the Senate Intelligence Committee report on CIA torture, over a single 20 day period, Zubaydah spent over 11 days locked in a "coffin size" box, and 29 hours in a box measuring 21 inches wide, 2 feet deep, and 2 feet high (). On May 9, 2023, Zubaydah's former attorney, Mark Denbeaux of Seton Hall Law School, published a detailed report annotating the drawings.
== Interrogation of Zubaydah ==
Zubaydah was interrogated by two separate interrogation teams: the first from the FBI and one from the CIA. Ali Soufan, one of the FBI interrogators, later testified in 2009 on these issues to the Senate Committee that was investigating detainee treatment. The International Committee of the Red Cross and others later reached the same conclusion. While in CIA custody, Zubaydah's previously damaged left eye was surgically removed.
Because of the urgency felt about the interrogation of Zubaydah, the CIA had consulted with the president about how to proceed. The General Counsel of the CIA asked for a legal opinion from the Office of Legal Counsel, Department of Justice about what was permissible during interrogation.
== August 2002 memo ==
In early July 2002, the Associate General Counsel CTC/Legal Group started drafting a memo to the Attorney General requesting the approval of "aggressive" interrogation methods, which otherwise would be prohibited under the provisions of Section 2340-2340B, Title 18, United States Code, on Abu Zubaydah. This memo, drafted by Office of Legal Counsel, Jay Bybee and his assistant John Yoo, is also referred to as the first Torture Memo. Addressed to CIA acting General Counsel John A. Rizzo at his request, the purpose of the memo was to describe and authorize specific "enhanced interrogation techniques" to be used on Zubaydah. On July 26, 2002, Deputy Assistant Attorney General John Yoo informed the CIA that Attorney General John Ashcroft had approved waterboarding of Abu Zubaydah.
Journalists including Jane Mayer, Joby Warrick and Peter Finn, and Alex Koppelman have reported the CIA was already using these harsh tactics before the memo authorizing their use was written, and that it was used to provide after-the-fact legal support for harsh interrogation techniques. A Department of Justice 2009 report regarding prisoner abuses reportedly stated the memos were prepared one month after Zubaydah had already been subjected to the specific techniques authorized in an August 1, 2002, memo. John Kiriakou stated in July 2009 that Zubaydah was waterboarded in the early summer of 2002, months before the August 1, 2002, memo was written.
The memo described ten techniques which the interrogators wanted to use: "(1) attention grasp, (2) walling, (3) facial hold, (4) facial slap (insult slap), (5) cramped confinement, (6) wall standing, (7) stress positions, (8) sleep deprivation, (9) insects placed in a confinement box, and (10) the waterboard." Many of the techniques were, until then, generally considered illegal. For instance, the United States had prosecuted Japanese military officials after World War II and American soldiers after the Vietnam War for waterboarding. Many other techniques developed by the CIA constitute inhuman and degrading treatment and torture under the United Nations Convention against Torture, and Article 3 of the European Convention on Human Rights. Zubaydah was subjected to various forms of increasingly harsh interrogation techniques, including temperature extremes, music played at debilitating volumes, and sexual humiliation. Zubaydah was also subjected to beatings, isolation, waterboarding, long-time standing, continuous cramped confinement, and sleep deprivation.
Former CIA analyst and case officer John Kiriakou asserted that while Zubaydah was in CIA custody, a box of cockroaches was poured on him inside of a coffin he was confined to for two weeks, because of an irrational fear Zubaydah has of cockroaches.
During Zubaydah's interrogation, Bush learned he was on painkillers for his wounds and was proving resistant. He said to the CIA director George Tenet, "Who authorized putting him on pain medication?"
== Waterboarding ==
Zubaydah was one of three or more high-value detainees to be waterboarded. John Kiriakou, a CIA officer who had seen the cables regarding Zubaydah's interrogation, publicly said in 2009 that Zubaydah was waterboarded once for 35 seconds before he started talking.
Intelligence sources claimed as early as 2008 that Zubaydah had been waterboarded no less than ten times in the span of one week. In January 2010, Kiriakou, in a memoir, said, "Now we know that Zubaydah was waterboarded eighty-three times in a single month, raising questions about how much useful information he actually supplied."
== 2003 transfer to Guantanamo ==
In August 2010, the Associated Press reported that the CIA, having concluded its agents had gotten most of the information from Zubaydah, in September 2003 transferred him and three other high-value detainees to Guantanamo. They were held at what was informally known as "Strawberry Fields", a secret camp within the complex built especially for former CIA detainees. Concerned that a pending Supreme Court decision, Rasul v. Bush (2004), might go against the Bush administration and require providing the prisoners with counsel and having to reveal data about them, on March 27, 2004, the CIA took the four men back into custody and transported them out of Guantanamo to one of their secret sites. At the time, the moves were all kept secret.
== International Committee of the Red Cross report ==
{{Quote box
|quote = I struggled against the straps, trying to breathe, but it was hopeless. I thought I was going to die.), prolonged stress standing position, beatings by use of a collar, beating and kicking, confinement in a box, prolonged nudity, sleep deprivation, exposure to cold temperature, prolonged shackling, threats of ill-treatment, forced shaving, and deprivation/restricted provision of solid food. Soufan, when asked in 2009 by Senator Sheldon Whitehouse during a Congressional hearing if the memo was incorrect, testified that it was. The memo noted that not all of the waterboarding sessions were necessary for Zubaydah, since the on-scene interrogation team determined he had stopped producing actionable intelligence.
In his 2007 memoir, former CIA Director George Tenet writes:
A published report in 2006 contended that Zubaydah was mentally unstable and that the administration had overstated his importance. Baloney. Zubaydah had been at the crossroads of many al-Qa'ida operations and was in position to—and did—share critical information with his interrogators. Apparently, the source of the rumor that Zubaydah was unbalanced was his personal diary, in which he adopted various personas. From that shaky perch, some junior Freudians leapt to the conclusion that Zubaydah had multiple personalities. In fact, Agency psychiatrists eventually determined that in his diary he was using a sophisticated literary device to express himself.
== Intelligence obtained from Zubaydah and its after effects ==
Zubaydah's capture was touted as the biggest of the War on Terror until that of Khalid Sheikh Mohammed. The director of the FBI stated Zubaydah's capture would help deter future attacks.
In a speech in 2006, Bush claimed that Zubaydah revealed useful intelligence when enhanced interrogation was used, including identification of two important suspects and information that allegedly helped foil a terrorist attack on American soil. The officials noted there was no independent verification of his claims. According to a Senate Intelligence Committee report of 2004, Zubaydah said that "he had heard that an important al Qaeda associate, Abu Musab al Zarqawi, and others had good relationships with Iraqi intelligence." However, the year before, in June 2003, Zubaydah and Khalid Sheikh Mohammed were reported as saying there was no link between Saddam Hussein and al Qaeda.
In the Senate Armed Services Committee 2008 report on the abuses of detainees, the Bush administration was described as having applied pressure to interrogators to find a link between Iraq and al Qaeda prior to the Iraq War. Major Paul Burney, a psychiatrist with the United States Army, said to the committee, "while we were [at Guantanamo] a large part of the time we were focused on trying to establish a link between al Qaeda and Iraq and we were not being successful." He said that higher-ups were "frustrated" and applied "more and more pressure to resort to measures that might produce more immediate results."
Colonel Lawrence B. Wilkerson, the former chief of staff for former Secretary of State Colin Powell said:
Likewise, what I have learned is that as the administration authorized harsh interrogation in April and May 2002—well before the Justice Department had rendered any legal opinion—its principal priority for intelligence was not aimed at pre-empting another terrorist attack on the U.S. but discovering a smoking gun linking Iraq and al-Qa'ida.
So furious was this effort that on one particular detainee, even when the interrogation team had reported to Cheney's office that their detainee "was compliant" (meaning the team recommended no more torture), the VP's office ordered them to continue the enhanced methods. The detainee had not revealed any al-Qa'ida-Baghdad contacts yet. This ceased only after Ibn al-Shaykh al-Libi, under waterboarding in Egypt, "revealed" such contacts. Of course, later we learned that al-Libi revealed these contacts only to get the torture to stop. In February 2005, the CIA was reported as uncomfortable keeping Zubaydah in indefinite custody. Less than 18 months later, Zubaydah and the thirteen other high-value detainees who had been in secret CIA custody were transferred to the Guantanamo Bay detention camp.
After his transfer, the CIA denied access to Zubaydah. In 2008, the Office of the Inspector General, Department of Justice, complained that it had been prevented from seeing him, although it was conducting a study of the US treatment of its detainees.
== Zubaydah's mental health ==
Some people are concerned about Zubaydah's mental stability and how that has affected information he has given to interrogators. Ron Suskind noted in his book, The One Percent Doctrine: Deep Inside America's Pursuit of Its Enemies Since 9/11 (2006), that Zubaydah was mentally ill or disabled due to a severe head injury. He described Zubaydah as keeping a diary "in the voice of three people: Hani 1, Hani 2, and Hani 3"—a boy, a young man and a middle-aged alter ego.
== Legal status ==
President Bush referred to Zubaydah in a speech to Congress September 2006 requesting a bill to authorize military commissions, following the U.S. Supreme Court ruling in Hamdan v. Rumsfeld (2006) that held the tribunals as formulated by the executive branch were unconstitutional. Congress rapidly passed legislation that was signed by the president.
Less than one month after Zubaydah's capture, Justice Department officials said Zubaydah was "a near-ideal candidate for a tribunal trial". Several months later in 2002, US officials said there was "no rush" to try Zubaydah via military commission.
At his Combatant Status Review Tribunal in 2007, Zubaydah said he was told that the CIA realized he was not significant.
"They told me, 'Sorry, we discover that you are not Number 3, not a partner, not even a fighter, said Zubaydah, speaking in broken English, according to the new transcript of a Combatant Status Review Tribunal held at the U.S. military prison in Guantanamo Bay, Cuba.
Abu Zubaydah's lawyers, including Joseph Margulies and George Brent Mickum IV, filed a lawsuit in July 2008 challenging his detention at Guantanamo Bay detention camps after the Boumediene v. Bush ruling. The judge overseeing the case, Richard W. Roberts, failed to rule on any motions related to the case, even the preliminary ones. This led Zubaydah's lawyers to file a motion asking Judge Roberts to recuse himself for nonfeasance in January 2015. On March 16, 2016, Roberts retired early from the federal bench, citing unspecified health issues.
The U.S. government has not officially charged Zubaydah with any crimes. The Senate Intelligence Committee report on CIA torture reported that Zubaydah's CIA interrogators wanted him to "remain in isolation and incommunicado for the remainder of his life."
== Joint Review Task Force ==
When he assumed Presidential office in January 2009, Barack Obama made a number of promises about the future of Guantanamo.
He promised the use of torture would cease at the camp and to institute a new review system composed of officials from six departments, where the OARDEC reviews were conducted entirely by the Department of Defense. When it reported back, a year later, the Joint Review Task Force classified some individuals as too dangerous to be transferred from Guantanamo, even though there was no evidence to justify laying charges against them. On April 9, 2013, that document was made public after a Freedom of Information Act request.
Zayn al-lbidin Muhammed Husayn was one of the 71 individuals deemed too innocent to charge but too dangerous to release. Although Obama promised that those deemed too innocent to charge but too dangerous to release would start to receive reviews from a Periodic Review Board, less than a quarter of men have received a review. Husayn was denied approval for transfer on September 22, 2016.
== European Court of Human Rights decision ==
On 24 July 2014, the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) ruled that Poland had violated the European Convention on Human Rights when it cooperated with US allowing the CIA to hold and torture Zubaydah and Abd al-Rahim al-Nashiri on its territory in 2002–2003. The court ordered the Polish government to pay each of the men €100,000 in damages. It also awarded Zubaydah €30,000 to cover his costs.
On 31 May 2018, the ECHR ruled that Romania and Lithuania also violated the rights of Abu Zubaydah and Abd al-Rahim al-Nashiri in 2003–2005 and in 2005–2006 respectively, and Lithuania and Romania were ordered to pay €100,000 in damages each to Abu Zubaydah and Abd al-Nashiri.
== U.S. Supreme Court decision ==
In connection with the European Court of Human Rights proceedings, Zubaydah filed suit in the U.S. seeking disclosure of information related to the matter. The U.S. government intervened, seeking to assert a state secrets privilege. The U.S. district court decided in favor of the government and dismissed the case. On appeal, the dismissal was reversed on a ruling that the state secrets privilege did not apply to information that was already publicly known. The Supreme Court reversed the appeal ruling in United States v. Zubaydah, explaining that the state secrets privilege applies to the existence (or nonexistence) of a secret CIA facility and that revelation by government would confirm or deny that state secret.
|
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Arithmetic
|
Arithmetic is an elementary branch of mathematics that deals with numerical operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. In a wider sense, it also includes exponentiation, extraction of roots, and taking logarithms.
Arithmetic systems can be distinguished based on the type of numbers they operate on. Integer arithmetic is about calculations with positive and negative integers. Rational number arithmetic involves operations on fractions of integers. Real number arithmetic is about calculations with real numbers, which include both rational and irrational numbers.
Another distinction is based on the numeral system employed to perform calculations. Decimal arithmetic is the most common. It uses the basic numerals from 0 to 9 and their combinations to express numbers. Binary arithmetic, by contrast, is used by most computers and represents numbers as combinations of the basic numerals 0 and 1. Computer arithmetic deals with the specificities of the implementation of binary arithmetic on computers. Some arithmetic systems operate on mathematical objects other than numbers, such as interval arithmetic and matrix arithmetic.
Arithmetic operations form the basis of many branches of mathematics, such as algebra, calculus, and statistics. They play a similar role in the sciences, like physics and economics. Arithmetic is present in many aspects of daily life, for example, to calculate change while shopping or to manage personal finances. It is one of the earliest forms of mathematics education that students encounter. Its cognitive and conceptual foundations are studied by psychology and philosophy.
The practice of arithmetic is at least thousands and possibly tens of thousands of years old. Ancient civilizations like the Egyptians and the Sumerians invented numeral systems to solve practical arithmetic problems in about 3000 BCE. Starting in the 7th and 6th centuries BCE, the ancient Greeks initiated a more abstract study of numbers and introduced the method of rigorous mathematical proofs. The ancient Indians developed the concept of zero and the decimal system, which Arab mathematicians further refined and spread to the Western world during the medieval period. The first mechanical calculators were invented in the 17th century. The 18th and 19th centuries saw the development of modern number theory and the formulation of axiomatic foundations of arithmetic. In the 20th century, the emergence of electronic calculators and computers revolutionized the accuracy and speed with which arithmetic calculations could be performed.
== Definition, etymology, and related fields ==
Arithmetic is the fundamental branch of mathematics that studies numbers and their operations. In particular, it deals with numerical calculations using the arithmetic operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. In a wider sense, it also includes exponentiation, extraction of roots, and logarithm. The term arithmetic has its root in the Latin term which derives from the Ancient Greek words (arithmos), meaning , and (arithmetike tekhne), meaning .
There are disagreements about its precise definition. According to a narrow characterization, arithmetic deals only with natural numbers. However, the more common view is to include operations on integers, rational numbers, real numbers, and sometimes also complex numbers in its scope. Some definitions restrict arithmetic to the field of numerical calculations. When understood in a wider sense, it also includes the study of how the concept of numbers developed, the analysis of properties of and relations between numbers, and the examination of the axiomatic structure of arithmetic operations.
Arithmetic is closely related to number theory and some authors use the terms as synonyms. However, in a more specific sense, number theory is restricted to the study of integers and focuses on their properties and relationships such as divisibility, factorization, and primality. Traditionally, it is known as higher arithmetic.
== Numbers ==
Numbers are mathematical objects used to count quantities and measure magnitudes. They are fundamental elements in arithmetic since all arithmetic operations are performed on numbers. There are different kinds of numbers and different numeral systems to represent them.
=== Kinds ===
The main kinds of numbers employed in arithmetic are natural numbers, whole numbers, integers, rational numbers, and real numbers. The natural numbers are whole numbers that start from 1 and go to infinity. They exclude 0 and negative numbers. They are also known as counting numbers and can be expressed as \{1, 2, 3, 4, ...\}. The symbol of the natural numbers is \N. The whole numbers are identical to the natural numbers with the only difference being that they include 0. They can be represented as \{0, 1, 2, 3, 4, ...\} and have the symbol \N_0. Some mathematicians do not draw the distinction between the natural and the whole numbers by including 0 in the set of natural numbers. The set of integers encompasses both positive and negative whole numbers. It has the symbol \Z and can be expressed as \{..., -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, ...\}.
Based on how natural and whole numbers are used, they can be distinguished into cardinal and ordinal numbers. Cardinal numbers, like one, two, and three, are numbers that express the quantity of objects. They answer the question "how many?". Ordinal numbers, such as first, second, and third, indicate order or placement in a series. They answer the question "what position?".
A number is rational if it can be represented as the ratio of two integers. For instance, the rational number \tfrac{1}{2} is formed by dividing the integer 1, called the numerator, by the integer 2, called the denominator. Other examples are \tfrac{3}{4} and \tfrac{281}{3}. The set of rational numbers includes all integers, which are fractions with a denominator of 1. The symbol of the rational numbers is \Q. Decimal fractions like 0.3 and 25.12 are a special type of rational numbers since their denominator is a power of 10. For instance, 0.3 is equal to \tfrac{3}{10}, and 25.12 is equal to \tfrac{2512}{100}. Every rational number corresponds to a finite or a repeating decimal.
Irrational numbers are numbers that cannot be expressed through the ratio of two integers. They are often required to describe geometric magnitudes. For example, if a right triangle has legs of the length 1 then the length of its hypotenuse is given by the irrational number \sqrt 2. Pi| is another irrational number and describes the ratio of a circle's circumference to its diameter. The decimal representation of an irrational number is infinite without repeating decimals. The set of rational numbers together with the set of irrational numbers makes up the set of real numbers. The symbol of the real numbers is \R. Even wider classes of numbers include complex numbers and quaternions.
=== Numeral systems ===
A numeral is a symbol to represent a number and numeral systems are representational frameworks. They usually have a limited amount of basic numerals, which directly refer to certain numbers. The system governs how these basic numerals may be combined to express any number. Numeral systems are either positional or non-positional. All early numeral systems were non-positional. For non-positional numeral systems, the value of a digit does not depend on its position in the numeral.
The simplest non-positional system is the unary numeral system. It relies on one symbol for the number 1. All higher numbers are written by repeating this symbol. For example, the number 7 can be represented by repeating the symbol for 1 seven times. This system makes it cumbersome to write large numbers, which is why many non-positional systems include additional symbols to directly represent larger numbers. Variations of the unary numeral systems are employed in tally sticks using dents and in tally marks.
Egyptian hieroglyphics had a more complex non-positional numeral system. They have additional symbols for numbers like 10, 100, 1000, and 10,000. These symbols can be combined into a sum to more conveniently express larger numbers. For instance, the numeral for 10,405 uses one time the symbol for 10,000, four times the symbol for 100, and five times the symbol for 1. A similar well-known framework is the Roman numeral system. It has the symbols I, V, X, L, C, D, M as its basic numerals to represent the numbers 1, 5, 10, 50, 100, 500, and 1000.
A numeral system is positional if the position of a basic numeral in a compound expression determines its value. Positional numeral systems have a radix that acts as a multiplicand of the different positions. For each subsequent position, the radix is raised to a higher power. In the common decimal system, also called the Hindu–Arabic numeral system, the radix is 10. This means that the first digit is multiplied by 10^0, the next digit is multiplied by 10^1, and so on. For example, the decimal numeral 532 stands for 5 \cdot 10^2 + 3 \cdot 10^1 + 2 \cdot 10^0. Because of the effect of the digits' positions, the numeral 532 differs from the numerals 325 and 253 even though they have the same digits.
Another positional numeral system used extensively in computer arithmetic is the binary system, which has a radix of 2. This means that the first digit is multiplied by 2^0, the next digit by 2^1, and so on. For example, the number 13 is written as 1101 in the binary notation, which stands for 1 \cdot 2^3 + 1 \cdot 2^2 + 0 \cdot 2^1 + 1 \cdot 2^0. In computing, each digit in the binary notation corresponds to one bit. The earliest positional system was developed by ancient Babylonians and had a radix of 60.
== Operations ==
Arithmetic operations are ways of combining, transforming, or manipulating numbers. They are functions that have numbers both as input and output. The most important operations in arithmetic are addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. Further operations include exponentiation, extraction of roots, and logarithm. If these operations are performed on variables rather than numbers, they are sometimes referred to as algebraic operations.
Two important concepts in relation to arithmetic operations are identity elements and inverse elements. The identity element or neutral element of an operation does not cause any change if it is applied to another element. For example, the identity element of addition is 0 since any sum of a number and 0 results in the same number. The inverse element is the element that results in the identity element when combined with another element. For instance, the additive inverse of the number 6 is -6 since their sum is 0.
There are not only inverse elements but also inverse operations. In an informal sense, one operation is the inverse of another operation if it undoes the first operation. For example, subtraction is the inverse of addition since a number returns to its original value if a second number is first added and subsequently subtracted, as in 13 + 4 - 4 = 13. Defined more formally, the operation "\star" is an inverse of the operation "\circ" if it fulfills the following condition: t \star s = r if and only if r \circ s = t.
Commutativity and associativity are laws governing the order in which some arithmetic operations can be carried out. An operation is commutative if the order of the arguments can be changed without affecting the results. This is the case for addition, for instance, 7 + 9 is the same as 9 + 7. Associativity is a rule that affects the order in which a series of operations can be carried out. An operation is associative if, in a series of two operations, it does not matter which operation is carried out first. This is the case for multiplication, for example, since (5 \times 4) \times 2 is the same as 5 \times (4 \times 2).
=== Addition and subtraction ===
Addition is an arithmetic operation in which two numbers, called the addends, are combined into a single number, called the sum. The symbol of addition is +. Examples are 2 + 2 = 4 and 6.3 + 1.26 = 7.56. The term summation is used if several additions are performed in a row. Counting is a type of repeated addition in which the number 1 is continuously added.
Subtraction is the inverse of addition. In it, one number, known as the subtrahend, is taken away from another, known as the minuend. The result of this operation is called the difference. The symbol of subtraction is -. Examples are 14 - 8 = 6 and 45 - 1.7 = 43.3. Subtraction is often treated as a special case of addition: instead of subtracting a positive number, it is also possible to add a negative number. For instance 14 - 8 = 14 + (-8). This helps to simplify mathematical computations by reducing the number of basic arithmetic operations needed to perform calculations.
The additive identity element is 0 and the additive inverse of a number is the negative of that number. For instance, 13 + 0 = 13 and 13 + (-13) = 0. Addition is both commutative and associative.
=== Multiplication and division ===
Multiplication is an arithmetic operation in which two numbers, called the multiplier and the multiplicand, are combined into a single number called the product. The symbols of multiplication are \times, \cdot, and *. Examples are 2 \times 3 = 6 and 0.3 \cdot 5 = 1.5. If the multiplicand is a natural number then multiplication is the same as repeated addition, as in 2 \times 3 = 2 + 2 + 2.
Division is the inverse of multiplication. In it, one number, known as the dividend, is split into several equal parts by another number, known as the divisor. The result of this operation is called the quotient. The symbols of division are \div and /. Examples are 48 \div 8 = 6 and 29.4 / 1.4 = 21. Division is often treated as a special case of multiplication: instead of dividing by a number, it is also possible to multiply by its reciprocal. The reciprocal of a number is 1 divided by that number. For instance, 48 \div 8 = 48 \times \tfrac{1}{8}.
The multiplicative identity element is 1 and the multiplicative inverse of a number is the reciprocal of that number. For example, 13 \times 1 = 13 and 13 \times \tfrac{1}{13} = 1. Multiplication is both commutative and associative.
=== Exponentiation and logarithm ===
Exponentiation is an arithmetic operation in which a number, known as the base, is raised to the power of another number, known as the exponent. The result of this operation is called the power. Exponentiation is sometimes expressed using the symbol ^ but the more common way is to write the exponent in superscript right after the base. Examples are 2^4 = 16 and 3^3 = 27. If the exponent is a natural number then exponentiation is the same as repeated multiplication, as in 2^4 = 2 \times 2 \times 2 \times 2.
Roots are a special type of exponentiation using a fractional exponent. For example, the square root of a number is the same as raising the number to the power of \tfrac{1}{2} and the cube root of a number is the same as raising the number to the power of \tfrac{1}{3}. Examples are \sqrt{4} = 4^{\frac{1}{2}} = 2 and \sqrt[3]{27} = 27^{\frac{1}{3}} = 3.
Logarithm is the inverse of exponentiation. The logarithm of a number x to the base b is the exponent to which b must be raised to produce x. For instance, since 1000 = 10^3, the logarithm base 10 of 1000 is 3. The logarithm of x to base b is denoted as \log_b (x), or without parentheses, \log_b x, or even without the explicit base, \log x, when the base can be understood from context. So, the previous example can be written \log_{10} 1000 = 3.
Exponentiation and logarithm do not have general identity elements and inverse elements like addition and multiplication. The neutral element of exponentiation in relation to the exponent is 1, as in 14^1 = 14. However, exponentiation does not have a general identity element since 1 is not the neutral element for the base. Exponentiation and logarithm are neither commutative nor associative.
== Types ==
Different types of arithmetic systems are discussed in the academic literature. They differ from each other based on what type of number they operate on, what numeral system they use to represent them, and whether they operate on mathematical objects other than numbers.
=== Integer arithmetic ===
Integer arithmetic is the branch of arithmetic that deals with the manipulation of positive and negative whole numbers. Simple one-digit operations can be performed by following or memorizing a table that presents the results of all possible combinations, like an addition table or a multiplication table. Other common methods are verbal counting and finger-counting.
For operations on numbers with more than one digit, different techniques can be employed to calculate the result by using several one-digit operations in a row. For example, in the method addition with carries, the two numbers are written one above the other. Starting from the rightmost digit, each pair of digits is added together. The rightmost digit of the sum is written below them. If the sum is a two-digit number then the leftmost digit, called the "carry", is added to the next pair of digits to the left. This process is repeated until all digits have been added. Other methods used for integer additions are the number line method, the partial sum method, and the compensation method. A similar technique is utilized for subtraction: it also starts with the rightmost digit and uses a "borrow" or a negative carry for the column on the left if the result of the one-digit subtraction is negative.
A basic technique of integer multiplication employs repeated addition. For example, the product of 3 \times 4 can be calculated as 3 + 3 + 3 + 3. A common technique for multiplication with larger numbers is called long multiplication. This method starts by writing the multiplier above the multiplicand. The calculation begins by multiplying the multiplier only with the rightmost digit of the multiplicand and writing the result below, starting in the rightmost column. The same is done for each digit of the multiplicand and the result in each case is shifted one position to the left. As a final step, all the individual products are added to arrive at the total product of the two multi-digit numbers. Other techniques used for multiplication are the grid method and the lattice method. Computer science is interested in multiplication algorithms with a low computational complexity to be able to efficiently multiply very large integers, such as the Karatsuba algorithm, the Schönhage–Strassen algorithm, and the Toom–Cook algorithm. A common technique used for division is called long division. Other methods include short division and chunking.
Integer arithmetic is not closed under division. This means that when dividing one integer by another integer, the result is not always an integer. For instance, 7 divided by 2 is not a whole number but 3.5. One way to ensure that the result is an integer is to round the result to a whole number. However, this method leads to inaccuracies as the original value is altered. Another method is to perform the division only partially and retain the remainder. For example, 7 divided by 2 is 3 with a remainder of 1. These difficulties are avoided by rational number arithmetic, which allows for the exact representation of fractions.
A simple method to calculate exponentiation is by repeated multiplication. For instance, the exponentiation of 3^4 can be calculated as 3 \times 3 \times 3 \times 3. A more efficient technique used for large exponents is exponentiation by squaring. It breaks down the calculation into a number of squaring operations. For example, the exponentiation 3^{65} can be written as (((((3^2)^2)^2)^2)^2)^2 \times 3. By taking advantage of repeated squaring operations, only 7 individual operations are needed rather than the 64 operations required for regular repeated multiplication. Methods to calculate logarithms include the Taylor series and continued fractions. Integer arithmetic is not closed under logarithm and under exponentiation with negative exponents, meaning that the result of these operations is not always an integer.
==== Number theory ====
Number theory studies the structure and properties of integers as well as the relations and laws between them. Some of the main branches of modern number theory include elementary number theory, analytic number theory, algebraic number theory, and geometric number theory. Elementary number theory studies aspects of integers that can be investigated using elementary methods. Its topics include divisibility, factorization, and primality. Analytic number theory, by contrast, relies on techniques from analysis and calculus. It examines problems like how prime numbers are distributed and the claim that every even number is a sum of two prime numbers. Algebraic number theory employs algebraic structures to analyze the properties of and relations between numbers. Examples are the use of fields and rings, as in algebraic number fields like the ring of integers. Geometric number theory uses concepts from geometry to study numbers. For instance, it investigates how lattice points with integer coordinates behave in a plane. Further branches of number theory are probabilistic number theory, which employs methods from probability theory, combinatorial number theory, which relies on the field of combinatorics, computational number theory, which approaches number-theoretic problems with computational methods, and applied number theory, which examines the application of number theory to fields like physics, biology, and cryptography.
Influential theorems in number theory include the fundamental theorem of arithmetic, Euclid's theorem, and Fermat's Last Theorem. According to the fundamental theorem of arithmetic, every integer greater than 1 is either a prime number or can be represented as a unique product of prime numbers. For example, the number 18 is not a prime number and can be represented as 2 \times 3 \times 3, all of which are prime numbers. The number 19, by contrast, is a prime number that has no other prime factorization. Euclid's theorem states that there are infinitely many prime numbers. Fermat's Last Theorem is the statement that no positive integer values exist for a, b, and c that solve the equation a^n + b^n = c^n if n is greater than 2.
=== Rational number arithmetic ===
Rational number arithmetic is the branch of arithmetic that deals with the manipulation of numbers that can be expressed as a ratio of two integers. Most arithmetic operations on rational numbers can be calculated by performing a series of integer arithmetic operations on the numerators and the denominators of the involved numbers. If two rational numbers have the same denominator then they can be added by adding their numerators and keeping the common denominator. For example, \tfrac{2}{7} + \tfrac{3}{7} = \tfrac{5}{7}. A similar procedure is used for subtraction. If the two numbers do not have the same denominator then they must be transformed to find a common denominator. This can be achieved by scaling the first number with the denominator of the second number while scaling the second number with the denominator of the first number. For instance, \tfrac{1}{3} + \tfrac{1}{2} = \tfrac{1 \cdot 2}{3 \cdot 2} + \tfrac{1 \cdot 3}{2 \cdot 3} = \tfrac{2}{6} + \tfrac{3}{6} = \tfrac{5}{6}.
Two rational numbers are multiplied by multiplying their numerators and their denominators respectively, as in \tfrac{2}{3} \cdot \tfrac{2}{5} = \tfrac{2 \cdot 2}{3 \cdot 5} = \tfrac{4}{15}. Dividing one rational number by another can be achieved by multiplying the first number with the reciprocal of the second number. This means that the numerator and the denominator of the second number change position. For example, \tfrac{3}{5} : \tfrac{2}{7} = \tfrac{3}{5} \cdot \tfrac{7}{2} = \tfrac{21}{10}. Unlike integer arithmetic, rational number arithmetic is closed under division as long as the divisor is not 0.
Both integer arithmetic and rational number arithmetic are not closed under exponentiation and logarithm. One way to calculate exponentiation with a fractional exponent is to perform two separate calculations: one exponentiation using the numerator of the exponent followed by drawing the nth root of the result based on the denominator of the exponent. For example, 5^\frac{2}{3} = \sqrt[3]{5^2}. The first operation can be completed using methods like repeated multiplication or exponentiation by squaring. One way to get an approximate result for the second operation is to employ Newton's method, which uses a series of steps to gradually refine an initial guess until it reaches the desired level of accuracy. The Taylor series or the continued fraction method can be utilized to calculate logarithms.
The decimal fraction notation is a special way of representing rational numbers whose denominator is a power of 10. For instance, the rational numbers \tfrac{1}{10}, \tfrac{371}{100}, and \tfrac{44}{10000} are written as 0.1, 3.71, and 0.0044 in the decimal fraction notation. Modified versions of integer calculation methods like addition with carry and long multiplication can be applied to calculations with decimal fractions. Not all rational numbers have a finite representation in the decimal notation. For example, the rational number \tfrac{1}{3} corresponds to 0.333... with an infinite number of 3s. The shortened notation for this type of repeating decimal is 0.. Every repeating decimal expresses a rational number.
=== Real number arithmetic ===
Real number arithmetic is the branch of arithmetic that deals with the manipulation of both rational and irrational numbers. Irrational numbers are numbers that cannot be expressed through fractions or repeated decimals, like the root of 2 and Pi|. Unlike rational number arithmetic, real number arithmetic is closed under exponentiation as long as it uses a positive number as its base. The same is true for the logarithm of positive real numbers as long as the logarithm base is positive and not 1.
Irrational numbers involve an infinite non-repeating series of decimal digits. Because of this, there is often no simple and accurate way to express the results of arithmetic operations like \sqrt{2} + \pi or In cases where absolute precision is not required, the problem of calculating arithmetic operations on real numbers is usually addressed by truncation or rounding. For truncation, a certain number of leftmost digits are kept and remaining digits are discarded or replaced by zeros. For example, the number has an infinite number of digits starting with 3.14159.... If this number is truncated to 4 decimal places, the result is 3.141. Rounding is a similar process in which the last preserved digit is increased by one if the next digit is 5 or greater but remains the same if the next digit is less than 5, so that the rounded number is the best approximation of a given precision for the original number. For instance, if the number is rounded to 4 decimal places, the result is 3.142 because the following digit is a 5, so 3.142 is closer to than 3.141. These methods allow computers to efficiently perform approximate calculations on real numbers.
=== Approximations and errors ===
In science and engineering, numbers represent estimates of physical quantities derived from measurement or modeling. Unlike mathematically exact numbers such as or scientifically relevant numerical data are inherently inexact, involving some measurement uncertainty. One basic way to express the degree of certainty about each number's value and avoid false precision is to round each measurement to a certain number of digits, called significant digits, which are implied to be accurate. For example, a person's height measured with a tape measure might only be precisely known to the nearest centimeter, so should be presented as 1.62 meters rather than 1.6217 meters. If converted to imperial units, this quantity should be rounded to 64 inches or 63.8 inches rather than 63.7795 inches, to clearly convey the precision of the measurement. When a number is written using ordinary decimal notation, leading zeros are not significant, and trailing zeros of numbers not written with a decimal point are implicitly considered to be non-significant. For example, the numbers 0.056 and 1200 each have only 2 significant digits, but the number 40.00 has 4 significant digits. Representing uncertainty using only significant digits is a relatively crude method, with some unintuitive subtleties; explicitly keeping track of an estimate or upper bound of the approximation error is a more sophisticated approach. In the example, the person's height might be represented as meters or .
In performing calculations with uncertain quantities, the uncertainty should be propagated to calculated quantities. When adding or subtracting two or more quantities, add the absolute uncertainties of each summand together to obtain the absolute uncertainty of the sum. When multiplying or dividing two or more quantities, add the relative uncertainties of each factor together to obtain the relative uncertainty of the product. When representing uncertainty by significant digits, uncertainty can be coarsely propagated by rounding the result of adding or subtracting two or more quantities to the leftmost last significant decimal place among the summands, and by rounding the result of multiplying or dividing two or more quantities to the least number of significant digits among the factors. (See .)
More sophisticated methods of dealing with uncertain values include interval arithmetic and affine arithmetic. Interval arithmetic describes operations on intervals. Intervals can be used to represent a range of values if one does not know the precise magnitude, for example, because of measurement errors. Interval arithmetic includes operations like addition and multiplication on intervals, as in [1, 2] + [3, 4] = [4, 6] and [1, 2] \times [3, 4] = [3, 8]. It is closely related to affine arithmetic, which aims to give more precise results by performing calculations on affine forms rather than intervals. An affine form is a number together with error terms that describe how the number may deviate from the actual magnitude.
The precision of numerical quantities can be expressed uniformly using normalized scientific notation, which is also convenient for concisely representing numbers which are much larger or smaller than 1. Using scientific notation, a number is decomposed into the product of a number between 1 and 10, called the significand, and 10 raised to some integer power, called the exponent. The significand consists of the significant digits of the number, and is written as a leading digit 1–9 followed by a decimal point and a sequence of digits 0–9. For example, the normalized scientific notation of the number 8276000 is 8.276 \times 10^6 with significand 8.276 and exponent 6, and the normalized scientific notation of the number 0.00735 is 7.35 \times 10^{-3} with significand 7.35 and exponent −3. Unlike ordinary decimal notation, where trailing zeros of large numbers are implicitly considered to be non-significant, in scientific notation every digit in the significand is considered significant, and adding trailing zeros indicates higher precision. For example, while the number 1200 implicitly has only 2 significant digits, the number explicitly has 3.
A common method employed by computers to approximate real number arithmetic is called floating-point arithmetic. It represents real numbers similar to the scientific notation through three numbers: a significand, a base, and an exponent. The precision of the significand is limited by the number of bits allocated to represent it. If an arithmetic operation results in a number that requires more bits than are available, the computer rounds the result to the closest representable number. This leads to rounding errors. A consequence of this behavior is that certain laws of arithmetic are violated by floating-point arithmetic. For example, floating-point addition is not associative since the rounding errors introduced can depend on the order of the additions. This means that the result of (a + b) + c is sometimes different from the result of The most common technical standard used for floating-point arithmetic is called IEEE 754. Among other things, it determines how numbers are represented, how arithmetic operations and rounding are performed, and how errors and exceptions are handled. In cases where computation speed is not a limiting factor, it is possible to use arbitrary-precision arithmetic, for which the precision of calculations is only restricted by the computer's memory.
=== Tool use ===
Forms of arithmetic can also be distinguished by the tools employed to perform calculations and include many approaches besides the regular use of pen and paper. Mental arithmetic relies exclusively on the mind without external tools. Instead, it utilizes visualization, memorization, and certain calculation techniques to solve arithmetic problems. One such technique is the compensation method, which consists in altering the numbers to make the calculation easier and then adjusting the result afterward. For example, instead of calculating 85-47, one calculates 85-50 which is easier because it uses a round number. In the next step, one adds 3 to the result to compensate for the earlier adjustment. Mental arithmetic is often taught in primary education to train the numerical abilities of the students.
The human body can also be employed as an arithmetic tool. The use of hands in finger counting is often introduced to young children to teach them numbers and simple calculations. In its most basic form, the number of extended fingers corresponds to the represented quantity and arithmetic operations like addition and subtraction are performed by extending or retracting fingers. This system is limited to small numbers compared to more advanced systems which employ different approaches to represent larger quantities. The human voice is used as an arithmetic aid in verbal counting.
Tally marks are a simple system based on external tools other than the body. This system relies on mark making, such as strokes drawn on a surface or notches carved into a wooden stick, to keep track of quantities. Some forms of tally marks arrange the strokes in groups of five to make them easier to read.
The abacus is a more advanced tool to represent numbers and perform calculations. An abacus usually consists of a series of rods, each holding several beads. Each bead represents a quantity, which is counted if the bead is moved from one end of a rod to the other. Calculations happen by manipulating the positions of beads until the final bead pattern reveals the result. Related aids include counting boards, which use tokens whose value depends on the area on the board in which they are placed, and counting rods, which are arranged in horizontal and vertical patterns to represent different numbers.
Sectors and slide rules are more refined calculating instruments that rely on geometric relationships between different scales to perform both basic and advanced arithmetic operations. Printed tables were particularly relevant as an aid to look up the results of operations like logarithm and trigonometric functions.
Mechanical calculators automate manual calculation processes. They present the user with some form of input device to enter numbers by turning dials or pressing keys. They include an internal mechanism usually consisting of gears, levers, and wheels to perform calculations and display the results. For electronic calculators and computers, this procedure is further refined by replacing the mechanical components with electronic circuits like microprocessors that combine and transform electric signals to perform calculations.
=== Others ===
There are many other types of arithmetic. Modular arithmetic operates on a finite set of numbers. If an operation would result in a number outside this finite set then the number is adjusted back into the set, similar to how the hands of clocks start at the beginning again after having completed one cycle. The number at which this adjustment happens is called the modulus. For example, a regular clock has a modulus of 12. In the case of adding 4 to 9, this means that the result is not 13 but 1. The same principle applies also to other operations, such as subtraction, multiplication, and division.
Some forms of arithmetic deal with operations performed on mathematical objects other than numbers. Interval arithmetic describes operations on intervals. Vector arithmetic and matrix arithmetic describe arithmetic operations on vectors and matrices, like vector addition and matrix multiplication.
Arithmetic systems can be classified based on the numeral system they rely on. For instance, decimal arithmetic describes arithmetic operations in the decimal system. Other examples are binary arithmetic, octal arithmetic, and hexadecimal arithmetic.
Compound unit arithmetic describes arithmetic operations performed on magnitudes with compound units. It involves additional operations to govern the transformation between single unit and compound unit quantities. For example, the operation of reduction is used to transform the compound quantity 1 h 90 min into the single unit quantity 150 min.
Non-Diophantine arithmetics are arithmetic systems that violate traditional arithmetic intuitions and include equations like 1 + 1 = 1 and 2 + 2 = 5. They can be employed to represent some real-world situations in modern physics and everyday life. For instance, the equation 1 + 1 = 1 can be used to describe the observation that if one raindrop is added to another raindrop then they do not remain two separate entities but become one.
== Axiomatic foundations ==
Axiomatic foundations of arithmetic try to provide a small set of laws, called axioms, from which all fundamental properties of and operations on numbers can be derived. They constitute logically consistent and systematic frameworks that can be used to formulate mathematical proofs in a rigorous manner. Two well-known approaches are the Dedekind–Peano axioms and set-theoretic constructions.
The Dedekind–Peano axioms provide an axiomatization of the arithmetic of natural numbers. Their basic principles were first formulated by Richard Dedekind and later refined by Giuseppe Peano. They rely only on a small number of primitive mathematical concepts, such as 0, natural number, and successor. The Peano axioms determine how these concepts are related to each other. All other arithmetic concepts can then be defined in terms of these primitive concepts.
0 is a natural number.
For every natural number, there is a successor, which is also a natural number.
The successors of two different natural numbers are never identical.
0 is not the successor of a natural number.
If a set contains 0 and every successor then it contains every natural number.
Numbers greater than 0 are expressed by repeated application of the successor function s. For example, 1 is s(0) and 3 is s(s(s(0))). Arithmetic operations can be defined as mechanisms that affect how the successor function is applied. For instance, to add 2 to any number is the same as applying the successor function two times to this number.
Various axiomatizations of arithmetic rely on set theory. They cover natural numbers but can also be extended to integers, rational numbers, and real numbers. Each natural number is represented by a unique set. 0 is usually defined as the empty set \varnothing. Each subsequent number can be defined as the union of the previous number with the set containing the previous number. For example, 1 = 0 \cup \{0\} = \{0\}, 2 = 1 \cup \{1\} = \{0, 1\}, and 3 = 2 \cup \{2\} = \{0, 1, 2\}. Integers can be defined as ordered pairs of natural numbers where the second number is subtracted from the first one. For instance, the pair (9, 0) represents the number 9 while the pair (0, 9) represents the number −9. Rational numbers are defined as pairs of integers where the first number represents the numerator and the second number represents the denominator. For example, the pair (3, 7) represents the rational number \tfrac{3}{7}. One way to construct the real numbers relies on the concept of Dedekind cuts. According to this approach, each real number is represented by a partition of all rational numbers into two sets, one for all numbers below the represented real number and the other for the rest. Arithmetic operations are defined as functions that perform various set-theoretic transformations on the sets representing the input numbers to arrive at the set representing the result.
== History ==
The earliest forms of arithmetic are sometimes traced back to counting and tally marks used to keep track of quantities. Some historians suggest that the Lebombo bone (dated about 43,000 years ago) and the Ishango bone (dated about 22,000 to 30,000 years ago) are the oldest arithmetic artifacts but this interpretation is disputed. However, a basic sense of numbers may predate these findings and might even have existed before the development of language.
It was not until the emergence of ancient civilizations that a more complex and structured approach to arithmetic began to evolve, starting around 3000 BCE. This became necessary because of the increased need to keep track of stored items, manage land ownership, and arrange exchanges. All the major ancient civilizations developed non-positional numeral systems to facilitate the representation of numbers. They also had symbols for operations like addition and subtraction and were aware of fractions. Examples are Egyptian hieroglyphics as well as the numeral systems invented in Sumeria, China, and India. The first positional numeral system was developed by the Babylonians starting around 1800 BCE. This was a significant improvement over earlier numeral systems since it made the representation of large numbers and calculations on them more efficient. Abacuses have been utilized as hand-operated calculating tools since ancient times as efficient means for performing complex calculations.
Early civilizations primarily used numbers for concrete practical purposes, like commercial activities and tax records, but lacked an abstract concept of number itself. This changed with the ancient Greek mathematicians, who began to explore the abstract nature of numbers rather than studying how they are applied to specific problems. Another novel feature was their use of proofs to establish mathematical truths and validate theories. A further contribution was their distinction of various classes of numbers, such as even numbers, odd numbers, and prime numbers. This included the discovery that numbers for certain geometrical lengths are irrational and therefore cannot be expressed as a fraction. The works of Thales of Miletus and Pythagoras in the 7th and 6th centuries BCE are often regarded as the inception of Greek mathematics. Diophantus was an influential figure in Greek arithmetic in the 3rd century BCE because of his numerous contributions to number theory and his exploration of the application of arithmetic operations to algebraic equations.
The ancient Indians were the first to develop the concept of zero as a number to be used in calculations. The exact rules of its operation were written down by Brahmagupta in around 628 CE. The concept of zero or none existed long before, but it was not considered an object of arithmetic operations. Brahmagupta further provided a detailed discussion of calculations with negative numbers and their application to problems like credit and debt. The concept of negative numbers itself is significantly older and was first explored in Chinese mathematics in the first millennium BCE.
Indian mathematicians also developed the positional decimal system used today, in particular the concept of a zero digit instead of empty or missing positions. For example, a detailed treatment of its operations was provided by Aryabhata around the turn of the 6th century CE. The Indian decimal system was further refined and expanded to non-integers during the Islamic Golden Age by Middle Eastern mathematicians such as Al-Khwarizmi. His work was influential in introducing the decimal numeral system to the Western world, which at that time relied on the Roman numeral system. There, it was popularized by mathematicians like Leonardo Fibonacci, who lived in the 12th and 13th centuries and also developed the Fibonacci sequence. During the Middle Ages and Renaissance, many popular textbooks were published to cover the practical calculations for commerce. The use of abacuses also became widespread in this period. In the 16th century, the mathematician Gerolamo Cardano conceived the concept of complex numbers as a way to solve cubic equations.
The first mechanical calculators were developed in the 17th century and greatly facilitated complex mathematical calculations, such as Blaise Pascal's calculator and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz's stepped reckoner. The 17th century also saw the discovery of the logarithm by John Napier.
In the 18th and 19th centuries, mathematicians such as Leonhard Euler and Carl Friedrich Gauss laid the foundations of modern number theory. Another development in this period concerned work on the formalization and foundations of arithmetic, such as Georg Cantor's set theory and the Dedekind–Peano axioms used as an axiomatization of natural-number arithmetic. Computers and electronic calculators were first developed in the 20th century. Their widespread use revolutionized both the accuracy and speed with which even complex arithmetic computations can be calculated.
== In various fields ==
=== Education ===
Arithmetic education forms part of primary education. It is one of the first forms of mathematics education that children encounter. Elementary arithmetic aims to give students a basic sense of numbers and to familiarize them with fundamental numerical operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. It is usually introduced in relation to concrete scenarios, like counting beads, dividing the class into groups of children of the same size, and calculating change when buying items. Common tools in early arithmetic education are number lines, addition and multiplication tables, counting blocks, and abacuses.
Later stages focus on a more abstract understanding and introduce the students to different types of numbers, such as negative numbers, fractions, real numbers, and complex numbers. They further cover more advanced numerical operations, like exponentiation, extraction of roots, and logarithm. They also show how arithmetic operations are employed in other branches of mathematics, such as their application to describe geometrical shapes and the use of variables in algebra. Another aspect is to teach the students the use of algorithms and calculators to solve complex arithmetic problems.
=== Psychology ===
The psychology of arithmetic is interested in how humans and animals learn about numbers, represent them, and use them for calculations. It examines how mathematical problems are understood and solved and how arithmetic abilities are related to perception, memory, judgment, and decision making. For example, it investigates how collections of concrete items are first encountered in perception and subsequently associated with numbers. A further field of inquiry concerns the relation between numerical calculations and the use of language to form representations. Psychology also explores the biological origin of arithmetic as an inborn ability. This concerns pre-verbal and pre-symbolic cognitive processes implementing arithmetic-like operations required to successfully represent the world and perform tasks like spatial navigation.
One of the concepts studied by psychology is numeracy, which is the capability to comprehend numerical concepts, apply them to concrete situations, and reason with them. It includes a fundamental number sense as well as being able to estimate and compare quantities. It further encompasses the abilities to symbolically represent numbers in numbering systems, interpret numerical data, and evaluate arithmetic calculations. Numeracy is a key skill in many academic fields. A lack of numeracy can inhibit academic success and lead to bad economic decisions in everyday life, for example, by misunderstanding mortgage plans and insurance policies.
=== Philosophy ===
The philosophy of arithmetic studies the fundamental concepts and principles underlying numbers and arithmetic operations. It explores the nature and ontological status of numbers, the relation of arithmetic to language and logic, and how it is possible to acquire arithmetic knowledge.
According to Platonism, numbers have mind-independent existence: they exist as abstract objects outside spacetime and without causal powers. This view is rejected by intuitionists, who claim that mathematical objects are mental constructions. Further theories are logicism, which holds that mathematical truths are reducible to logical truths, and formalism, which states that mathematical principles are rules of how symbols are manipulated without claiming that they correspond to entities outside the rule-governed activity.
The traditionally dominant view in the epistemology of arithmetic is that arithmetic truths are knowable a priori. This means that they can be known by thinking alone without the need to rely on sensory experience. Some proponents of this view state that arithmetic knowledge is innate while others claim that there is some form of rational intuition through which mathematical truths can be apprehended. A more recent alternative view was suggested by naturalist philosophers like Willard Van Orman Quine, who argue that mathematical principles are high-level generalizations that are ultimately grounded in the sensory world as described by the empirical sciences.
=== Others ===
Arithmetic is relevant to many fields. In daily life, it is required to calculate change when shopping, manage personal finances, and adjust a cooking recipe for a different number of servings. Businesses use arithmetic to calculate profits and losses and analyze market trends. In the field of engineering, it is used to measure quantities, calculate loads and forces, and design structures. Cryptography relies on arithmetic operations to protect sensitive information by encrypting data and messages.
Arithmetic is intimately connected to many branches of mathematics that depend on numerical operations. Algebra relies on arithmetic principles to solve equations using variables. These principles also play a key role in calculus in its attempt to determine rates of change and areas under curves. Geometry uses arithmetic operations to measure the properties of shapes while statistics utilizes them to analyze numerical data. Due to the relevance of arithmetic operations throughout mathematics, the influence of arithmetic extends to most sciences such as physics, computer science, and economics. These operations are used in calculations, problem-solving, data analysis, and algorithms, making them integral to scientific research, technological development, and economic modeling.
|
[
"John Napier",
"Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz",
"physics",
"cardinal numerals",
"inverse function",
"Schönhage–Strassen algorithm",
"Ancient India",
"numbers",
"ordinal numerals",
"ring of integers",
"exponentiation by squaring",
"matrix multiplication",
"Willard Van Orman Quine",
"Pascal's calculator",
"ratio",
"short division",
"mind",
"counting board",
"rounding",
"Partition of a set",
"unary numeral system",
"Goldbach's conjecture",
"encrypt",
"logic",
"Giuseppe Peano",
"Pythagoras",
"radix",
"multiplication",
"additive inverse",
"superscript",
"long division",
"electronic circuits",
"mechanical calculator",
"Lebombo bone",
"Brahmagupta",
"set theory",
"relative uncertainty",
"identity element",
"positional",
"bit",
"Chinese mathematics",
"long multiplication",
"circumference",
"Newton's method",
"analog computer",
"Mechanical calculator",
"Notch (engineering)",
"rational numbers",
"multiplicative identity",
"finger-counting",
"number 18",
"approximation error",
"affine arithmetic",
"real numbers",
"Quine–Putnam indispensability argument",
"Outline of arithmetic",
"cryptography",
"number 19",
"Tally marks",
"Ancient civilizations",
"significand",
"prime numbers",
"Irrational number",
"Babylonians",
"Thales of Miletus",
"exponentiation",
"Leonardo Fibonacci",
"primary education",
"mathematical instrument",
"abstract objects",
"problem-solving",
"numeral systems",
"computer arithmetic",
"Al-Khwarizmi",
"ancient Babylonians",
"rounding error",
"wheel",
"natural numbers",
"interval arithmetic",
"biology",
"axiom",
"mathematics education",
"Dedekind cut",
"octal",
"logical truth",
"right triangle",
"Elementary arithmetic",
"diameter",
"Trigonometry",
"Sumeria",
"Matrix (mathematics)",
"Field (mathematics)",
"zero",
"primality",
"analytic number theory",
"absolute uncertainty",
"electronic calculator",
"Aryabhata",
"Leonhard Euler",
"counting blocks",
"Number",
"Fibonacci sequence",
"addition table",
"mortgage",
"judgment",
"Decimal",
"computer science",
"Rounding",
"Multiplicative inverse",
"Diophantus",
"Platonism",
"multiplication table",
"Ishango bone",
"nth root",
"Mathematical proof",
"computational number theory",
"binary system",
"Roman numeral system",
"ancient India",
"engineering",
"Interval (mathematics)",
"Modular arithmetic",
"decimal",
"numeracy",
"psychology",
"divisibility",
"Hilary Putnam",
"numeral system",
"complex numbers",
"combinatorics",
"IEEE 754",
"grid method",
"Taylor series",
"floating-point arithmetic",
"tally sticks",
"Marketing research",
"Egyptian hieroglyphics",
"Product (mathematics)",
"ancient civilizations",
"Axiomatic system",
"cube root",
"elementary number theory",
"Carl Friedrich Gauss",
"Logical reasoning",
"equation",
"data analysis",
"Successor function",
"Naturalism (philosophy)",
"multiplication algorithms",
"Hindu–Arabic numeral system",
"Finite field arithmetic",
"algebraic number field",
"Fermat's Last Theorem",
"ordered pair",
"algorithm",
"Geometry",
"Euclid's theorem",
"integer",
"Gerolamo Cardano",
"tally stick",
"counting",
"Plant arithmetic",
"Richard Dedekind",
"mathematical proof",
"quotient",
"exponent",
"finger counting",
"philosophy",
"remainder",
"bead",
"Computers",
"memory",
"lever",
"algebra",
"Sumer",
"Renaissance",
"Vector (mathematics and physics)",
"rates of change",
"electronic calculators",
"Rational number",
"Ring (mathematics)",
"Mental arithmetic",
"Algebra",
"mathematical object",
"sensory experience",
"calculus",
"propagation of uncertainty",
"Georg Cantor",
"perception",
"inverse element",
"statistics",
"false precision",
"arbitrary-precision arithmetic",
"set-theoretic",
"numerical data",
"Abacus",
"lattice method",
"logarithm",
"Sector (instrument)",
"curve",
"computational complexity",
"measurement error",
"Egyptian numerals",
"epistemology",
"subtraction",
"fraction",
"The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art",
"Division (mathematics)",
"personal finances",
"quaternion",
"abacus",
"real number",
"number theory",
"Commutativity",
"cubic equations",
"significant digit",
"summation",
"number sense",
"Function (mathematics)",
"algebraic operations",
"Cryptography",
"rational intuition",
"fundamental theorem of arithmetic",
"circle",
"logicism",
"gear",
"associativity",
"hexadecimal",
"measurement uncertainty",
"continued fraction",
"slide rule",
"Ancient China",
"number line",
"number",
"logarithms",
"Chunking (division)",
"irrational number",
"tally marks",
"Dedekind–Peano axioms",
"geometric number theory",
"integers",
"algebraic equations",
"Binary number",
"prime number theorem",
"vector addition",
"Blaise Pascal",
"insurance policies",
"square root",
"probability theory",
"Normalized number",
"knowledge",
"Decimal fraction",
"Karatsuba algorithm",
"Union (set theory)",
"Intuitionism",
"Ontology",
"decision making",
"a priori",
"computer",
"decimal fraction",
"Algorism",
"tape measure",
"truncation",
"repeating decimal",
"Computer arithmetic",
"counting rods",
"Ancient Egypt",
"negative numbers",
"sciences",
"addition",
"measurement",
"number lines",
"Formalism (philosophy of mathematics)",
"stepped reckoner",
"economics",
"hypotenuse",
"daily life",
"algebraic number theory",
"factorization",
"Carry (arithmetic)",
"combinatorial number theory",
"Pi",
"positional numeral system",
"Expression (mathematics)",
"microprocessor",
"Islamic Golden Age",
"calculator",
"Irrational numbers",
"Toom–Cook multiplication",
"probabilistic number theory",
"even numbers",
"Aryabhatiya",
"ancient Greek mathematicians",
"ancient Greeks",
"Numerical digit",
"Middle Ages",
"mathematics"
] |
3,120 |
Andersonville, Georgia
|
Andersonville is a city in Sumter County, Georgia, United States. As of the 2020 census, the city had a population of 237. It is located in the southwest part of the state, approximately southwest of Macon on the Central of Georgia railroad. During the American Civil War, it was the site of a prisoner-of-war camp, which is now Andersonville National Historic Site.
Andersonville is part of the Americus micropolitan statistical area.
== History ==
The hamlet of Anderson was named for John Anderson, a director of the South Western Railroad in 1853 when it was extended from Oglethorpe to Americus. It was known as Anderson Station until the US post office was established in November 1855. The government changed the name of the station from "Anderson" to "Andersonville" in order to avoid confusion with the post office in Anderson, South Carolina.
During the Civil War, the Confederate army established Camp Sumter at Andersonville to house incoming Union prisoners of war. The overcrowded Andersonville Prison was notorious for its bad conditions, and nearly 13,000 prisoners died there. After the war, Henry Wirz was convicted for war crimes related to the command of the camp. His trial was later regarded as unfair by several pro-confederacy groups, and a monument in his honor has been erected in Andersonville by the United Daughters of the Confederacy.
The town also served as a supply depot during the war period. It included a post office, a depot, a blacksmith shop and stable, a couple of general stores, two saloons, a school, a Methodist church, and about a dozen houses. Ben Dykes, who owned the land on which the prison was built, was both depot agent and postmaster.
Until the establishment of the prison, the area was entirely dependent on agriculture, supported by dark reddish brown sandy loams later mapped as Greenville and Red Bay soil series. After the close of the prison and end of the war, the town continued economically dependent on agriculture, primarily the cultivation of cotton as a commodity crop.
It was not until 1968, when the large-scale mining of kaolin, bauxitic kaolin, and bauxite was begun by Mulcoa, Mullite Company of America, that the town was dramatically altered. This operation exploited of scrub oak wilderness into a massive mining and refining operation. The company now ships more than 2000 tons of refined ore from Andersonville each week.
In 1974, long-time mayor Lewis Easterlin and a group of concerned citizens decided to promote tourism in the town, redeveloping Main Street to look much as it did during the American Civil War. The city of Andersonville and the Andersonville National Historic Site, location of the prison camp, are now tourist attractions.
== Geography ==
=== Climate ===
==Demographics==
As of the census of 2000, there were 331 people, 124 households, and 86 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 142 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 65.26% White and 34.74% African American. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.21% of the population.
There were 124 households, out of which 34.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 46.0% were married couples living together, 17.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 30.6% were non-families. 26.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 10.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.67 and the average family size was 3.21.
In the city, the population was spread out, with 27.8% under the age of 18, 9.4% from 18 to 24, 31.4% from 25 to 44, 19.3% from 45 to 64, and 12.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females, there were 105.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 97.5 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $29,107, and the median income for a family was $30,972. Males had a median income of $26,591 versus $20,000 for females. The per capita income for the city was $15,168. About 19.8% of families and 23.0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 29.3% of those under age 18 and 13.5% of those age 65 or over.
|
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"List of sovereign states",
"Henry Wirz",
"Confederate army",
"poverty line",
"Union Army",
"List of counties in Georgia (U.S. state)",
"bauxite",
"kaolin",
"U.S. state",
"Anderson, South Carolina",
"Race and ethnicity in the United States census",
"Central of Georgia",
"Georgia (U.S. state)",
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"Eastern Time Zone",
"2020 United States census",
"Macon, Georgia",
"Geographic Names Information System",
"United States Geological Survey",
"Sumter County, Georgia",
"American Civil War",
"Americus micropolitan area",
"prisoners of war",
"Area code 229",
"Andersonville National Historic Site",
"United Daughters of the Confederacy",
"United States Census Bureau",
"Federal Information Processing Standard",
"ZIP code"
] |
3,121 |
Andersonville
|
Andersonville may refer to:
==Places==
=== United States ===
Andersonville, Georgia, site of an American Civil War prisoner of war camp
Andersonville Prison, Confederate prisoner of war camp in Georgia holding Union soldiers
Andersonville, Chicago, a neighborhood in Chicago, Illinois
Andersonville Commercial Historic District, an historic district in Chicago
Andersonville, Iowa
Andersonville, Indiana
Andersonville, Michigan
Andersonville, Ohio, an unincorporated community
Andersonville, South Carolina
Andersonville, Tennessee
Andersonville, Virginia
Andersonville, West Virginia
=== Elsewhere ===
Andersonville, New Brunswick, Canada
==Other uses==
Andersonville (novel), Pulitzer Prize–winning 1956 novel by MacKinlay Kantor
Andersonville (film), 1996 film based on a prisoner of war camp prisoner's diary
Andersonville Theological Seminary, Camilla, Georgia, U.S.
"Andersonville", a song by Dave Alvin from his 1991 album Blue Blvd
|
[
"Blue Blvd",
"Andersonville, Chicago",
"Andersonville, Iowa",
"Andersonville, Georgia",
"The Andersonville Trial",
"Andersonville, Tennessee",
"Andersonville (novel)",
"Andersonville (film)",
"Andersonville, Michigan",
"Dave Alvin",
"Andersonville, West Virginia",
"Andersonville, Indiana",
"Andersonville, Ohio",
"Andersonville, New Brunswick",
"Andersonville Commercial Historic District",
"Andersonville, South Carolina",
"Andersonville Prison",
"Andersonville, Virginia"
] |
3,122 |
Agra Canal
|
{{Infobox canal
| name = Agra Canal
| image = Agra canal headworks1871a.jpg
| image_size =
| alt =
| image_caption = Agra Canal headworks, at Okhla barrage, in Delhi, 1871.
| map =
| map_size =
| map_alt =
| map_caption =
| pushpin_map = India
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_map_size =
| pushpin_map_relief =
| pushpin_map_caption =
| location =
| country = India
| coordinates =
| length_mi = 140
The canal receives its water from the Yamuna River at Okhla, about to the south of New Delhi. The weir across the Yamuna was constructed of locally quarried stone. Navigable branches connect the canal with Mathura and Agra.
The canal irrigates about in Agra, and Mathura in Uttar Pradesh, Faridabad in Haryana, Bharatpur in Rajasthan and also some parts of Delhi.
==History==
The canal opened in the year 1874. In the beginning, it was available for navigation, in Delhi, erstwhile Gurgaon, Mathura and Agra Districts, and Bharatpur State. Later, navigation was stopped in 1904 and the canal has, since then, been exclusively used for irrigation purposes only. At present, the canal does not flow in Gurgaon district, but only in Faridabad, which was earlier a part of Gurgaon.
In recent times, Agra canal is an important landmark which separates Greater Faridabad from Faridabad.
|
[
"Mathura, Uttar Pradesh",
"Haryana",
"Gurgaon",
"Bharatpur district",
"Bharatpur State",
"Faridabad",
"Okhla barrage",
"Yamuna",
"Rajasthan",
"Mathura",
"canal",
"Okhla",
"Uttar Pradesh",
"Neharpar",
"Agra District",
"Agra",
"irrigation"
] |
3,123 |
Amakusa
|
, which means "Heaven's Grass," is a series of islands off the west coast of Kyushu, the southernmost of the four main islands of Japan.
== Geography ==
The largest island of the Amakusa group is Shimoshima, which is 26.5 miles long and 13.5 miles at its widest (). It is situated at 32°20'N, 130°E, separated from the rest of Kumamoto Prefecture by the Yatsushiro Sea.
While lacking high mountains with only four peaks surpassing , the island terrain is ruggedly hilly. To cope with the lack of flat arable land, farming is carried out on a terrace system of cultivation.
== History ==
Amakusa, along with the neighboring Shimabara Peninsula, became the site of the Shimabara rebellion in the 17th century, led by Christians. Following the rebellion, Kakure Kirishitan, the Christians who had survived, continued to practice their faith in secret, despite severe persecution.
== Economy ==
Amakusa produces a little coal and pottery stone, both being used by the potters of Hirado ware and Satsuma ware. Many kilns remain on the islands today, and pottery and pottery stone are still exported.
Amakusa pottery has been recognised by the government. The retail company Muji brought out its own line of Hakuji home ware, which is produced out of ground translucent Amakusa stones kneaded into clay, using traditional techniques.
== People ==
Hidenoshin Koyama, who built Thomas Blake Glover's House in Glover Garden, came from this island.
Kenta and Ko-shin, two of the three members of Wanima come from the island of Amakusa.
== Government ==
At present, the islands are organized as Amakusa District, Amakusa City, and Kami-amakusa City, all of which are under the administration of Kumamoto Prefecture.
==Transport==
The islands are served by Amakusa Airfield, located on the north end of Shimoshima. The islands are connected to the mainland by the Five Bridges of Amakusa and by ferry from Hondo and Matsushima.
There are also ferries between the islands and the neighboring prefectures of Kagoshima Prefecture and Nagasaki Prefecture. The ferry from Oniike on the north Shimoshima to Kuchinotsu, at the southern tip of the Shimabara Peninsula, is run by the Shimabara Railway and operates hourly each day. The ferry boat from Tomioka Port in Reihoku, sailing north to Mogi in Nagasaki Prefecture, is operated by Yasuda Sangyo Kisen Co. Ltd.
Two ferries from Shinwa and Ushibuka, in the south of Shimoshima, connect Amakusa to Nagashima in Kagoshima Prefecture.
|
[
"Hakuji",
"Reihoku, Kumamoto",
"Kami-Amakusa, Kumamoto",
"Amakusa Airfield",
"Christianity",
"Kyushu",
"Shimabara rebellion",
"Satsuma ware",
"Glover Garden",
"terrace (agriculture)",
"Thomas Blake Glover",
"Kuchinotsu, Nagasaki",
"pottery",
"Nagashima, Kagoshima",
"Amakusa District, Kumamoto",
"Shimabara Railway",
"island",
"Kumamoto Prefecture",
"Yatsushiro Sea",
"Matsushima, Kumamoto",
"tillage",
"Kakure Kirishitan",
"ferry",
"Nagasaki Prefecture",
"Hirado ware",
"Hondo, Kumamoto",
"coal",
"Shimoshima Island, Amakusa",
"Amakusa pottery",
"Shimabara Peninsula",
"Wanima",
"Kagoshima Prefecture",
"Five Bridges of Amakusa",
"Amakusa, Kumamoto",
"Muji"
] |
3,124 |
Afterglow
|
An afterglow in meteorology consists of several atmospheric optical phenomena, with a general definition as a broad arch of whitish or pinkish sunlight in the twilight sky, consisting of the bright segment and the purple light. Purple light mainly occurs when the Sun is 2–6° below the horizon, from civil to nautical twilight, while the bright segment lasts until the end of the nautical twilight. Afterglow is often in cases of volcanic eruptions discussed, while its purple light is discussed as a different particular volcanic purple light. Specifically in volcanic occurrences it is light scattered by fine particulates, like dust, suspended in the atmosphere. afterglow is used in general for the golden-red glowing light from the sunset and sunrise reflected in the sky, and in particularly for its last stage, when the purple light is reflected. The opposite of an afterglow is a foreglow, which occurs before sunrise.
Sunlight reaches Earth around civil twilight during golden hour intensely in its low-energy and low-frequency red component.
During this part of civil twilight after sunset and before sundawn the red sunlight remains visible by scattering through particles in the air. Backscattering, possibly after being reflected off clouds or high snowfields in mountain regions, furthermore creates a reddish to pinkish light. The high-energy and high-frequency components of light towards blue are scattered out broadly, producing the broader blue light of nautical twilight before or after the reddish light of civil twilight, while in combination with the reddish light producing the purple light. This period of blue dominating is referred to as the blue hour and is, like the golden hour, widely treasured by photographers and painters.
After the 1883 eruption of the volcano Krakatoa, a remarkable series of red sunsets appeared worldwide. An enormous amount of exceedingly fine dust were blown to a great height by the volcano's explosion, and then globally diffused by the high atmospheric winds. Edvard Munch's painting The Scream possibly depicts an afterglow during this period.
File:Dämmerung mit Purpurlicht und Schattenstrahlen, 10.10.2011 bei Limburg VIII.jpg|Purple light with crepuscular shadow
File:Lamma evening4.jpg|Sunset in Hong Kong after the 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo
File:Dresden.afterglow.700px.jpg|An afterglow in Dresden, Saxony, Germany
File:Afterglow.jpg|An afterglow in Slovenian mountains, near Triglav Lakes Valley
File:Full Image Sunset Bates College Lewiston Maine July 3 2008 8.30PM.JPG|Sunset over the Bates College track in Lewiston, Maine
File:Noarlunga Pier, Adelaide.jpg|An afterglow at a pier in Australia
File:Afterglow in Sanchong, New Taipei 20140114.jpg|An afterglow on skyscrapers in New Taipei, Taiwan
File:Afterglow Kraków.JPG|An afterglow on a Kraków housing estate
File:Optical effect march sunset - NOAA.jpg|Additional to foreglow here refracted sunlight reaches the South Pole just before actual sunrise. At Earth's poles the Sun appears at the horizon only and all day around equinox, marking the change between the half year long polar night and polar day.
|
[
"twilight",
"Taiwan",
"Backscatter",
"Germany",
"polar night",
"Krakatoa",
"nautical twilight",
"blue hour",
"Sunset",
"Dresden",
"National Weather Service",
"South Pole",
"American Meteorological Society",
"Earth's poles",
"Optical phenomena",
"es:Arrebol",
"scattering",
"Triglav Lakes Valley",
"Storm Prediction Center",
"sky",
"civil twilight",
"Australia",
"New Taipei",
"Red sky at morning",
"Earth's atmosphere",
"energy of light",
"1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo",
"Track and field",
"horizon",
"Bates College",
"alpenglow",
"light scattering",
"volcano",
"Airglow",
"cloud",
"Slovenia",
"refraction",
"Belt of Venus",
"meteorology",
"Golden hour (photography)",
"mountain",
"Snow field",
"polar day",
"high-frequency",
"equinox",
"NOAA",
"sunrise",
"Electromagnetic spectrum",
"particulates",
"1883 eruption of Krakatoa",
"The Scream",
"reflection (optics)",
"sunset",
"Saxony",
"sunlight",
"scattering of electromagnetic radiation",
"Edvard Munch",
"volcanic eruption",
"dust",
"Kraków",
"Earth's shadow",
"Gegenschein",
"Lewiston, Maine",
"fi:Purppuravalo"
] |
3,125 |
Ammonius Grammaticus
|
Ammonius Grammaticus (; ; ) was a 4th-century Egyptian priest.
In 391, he was involved in a violent revolt centred at Alexandria's Serapeum, where the pagan rebels tortured and killed captured Christians. After the suppression of the revolt and the destruction of the temple, Ammonius fled to Constantinople, where he became the tutor of the ecclesiastical historian Socrates.
Ammonius was formerly identified as the author of a treatise titled Peri homoíōn kai diaphórōn léxeōn (περὶ ὁμοίων καὶ διαφόρων λέξεων, On the Differences of Synonymous Expressions). But it seems more probable that the real author was Herennius Philo of Byblus, who was born during the reign of Nero and lived till the reign of Hadrian, and that the treatise in its present form is a revision prepared by a later Byzantine editor, whose name may have been Ammonius.
|
[
"Alexandria",
"Constantinople",
"Herennius Philo",
"Nero",
"Serapeum of Alexandria",
"Socrates Scholasticus",
"Hadrian"
] |
3,129 |
Algebraic closure
|
In mathematics, particularly abstract algebra, an algebraic closure of a field K is an algebraic extension of K that is algebraically closed. It is one of many closures in mathematics.
Using Zorn's lemma or the weaker ultrafilter lemma, it can be shown that every field has an algebraic closure, and that the algebraic closure of a field K is unique up to an isomorphism that fixes every member of K. Because of this essential uniqueness, we often speak of the algebraic closure of K, rather than an algebraic closure of K.
The algebraic closure of a field K can be thought of as the largest algebraic extension of K.
To see this, note that if L is any algebraic extension of K, then the algebraic closure of L is also an algebraic closure of K, and so L is contained within the algebraic closure of K.
The algebraic closure of K is also the smallest algebraically closed field containing K,
because if M is any algebraically closed field containing K, then the elements of M that are algebraic over K form an algebraic closure of K.
The algebraic closure of a field K has the same cardinality as K if K is infinite, and is countably infinite if K is finite.
==Existence of an algebraic closure and splitting fields==
Let S = \{ f_{\lambda} | \lambda \in \Lambda\} be the set of all monic irreducible polynomials in K[x].
For each f_{\lambda} \in S, introduce new variables u_{\lambda,1},\ldots,u_{\lambda,d} where d = {\rm degree}(f_{\lambda}).
Let R be the polynomial ring over K generated by u_{\lambda,i} for all \lambda \in \Lambda and all i \leq {\rm degree}(f_{\lambda}). Write
f_{\lambda} - \prod_{i=1}^d (x-u_{\lambda,i}) = \sum_{j=0}^{d-1} r_{\lambda,j} \cdot x^j \in R[x]
with r_{\lambda,j} \in R.
Let I be the ideal in R generated by the r_{\lambda,j}. Since I is strictly smaller than R,
Zorn's lemma implies that there exists a maximal ideal M in R that contains I.
The field K1=R/M has the property that every polynomial f_{\lambda} with coefficients in K splits as the product of x-(u_{\lambda,i} + M), and hence has all roots in K1. In the same way, an extension K2 of K1 can be constructed, etc. The union of all these extensions is the algebraic closure of K, because any polynomial with coefficients in this new field has its coefficients in some Kn with sufficiently large n, and then its roots are in Kn+1, and hence in the union itself.
It can be shown along the same lines that for any subset S of K[x], there exists a splitting field of S over K.
==Separable closure==
An algebraic closure Kalg of K contains a unique separable extension Ksep of K containing all (algebraic) separable extensions of K within Kalg. This subextension is called a separable closure of K. Since a separable extension of a separable extension is again separable, there are no finite separable extensions of Ksep, of degree > 1. Saying this another way, K is contained in a separably-closed algebraic extension field. It is unique (up to isomorphism).
The separable closure is the full algebraic closure if and only if K is a perfect field. For example, if K is a field of characteristic p and if X is transcendental over K, K(X)(\sqrt[p]{X}) \supset K(X) is a non-separable algebraic field extension.
In general, the absolute Galois group of K is the Galois group of Ksep over K.
|
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"transcendental extension",
"abstract algebra",
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"isomorphism",
"closure (mathematics)",
"irreducible polynomial",
"Algebraically closed field",
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"rational number",
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"Zorn's lemma",
"I. G. Macdonald",
"fundamental theorem of algebra",
"complex number",
"countably infinite",
"algebraically closed field",
"mathematics"
] |
3,130 |
Advanced Power Management
|
Advanced power management (APM) is a technical standard for power management developed by Intel and Microsoft and released in 1992
Revision 1.2 was the last version of the APM specification, released in 1996. ACPI is the successor to APM. Microsoft dropped support for APM in Windows Vista. The Linux kernel still mostly supports APM, though support for APM CPU idle was dropped in version 3.0.
==Overview==
APM uses a layered approach to manage devices. APM-aware applications (which include device drivers) talk to an OS-specific APM driver. This driver communicates to the APM-aware BIOS, which controls the hardware. There is the ability to opt out of APM control on a device-by-device basis, which can be used if a driver wants to communicate directly with a hardware device.
Communication occurs both ways; power management events are sent from the BIOS to the APM driver, and the APM driver sends information and requests to the BIOS via function calls. In this way the APM driver is an intermediary between the BIOS and the operating system.
Power management happens in two ways; through the above-mentioned function calls from the APM driver to the BIOS requesting power state changes, and automatically based on device activity.
In APM 1.0 and APM 1.1, power management is almost fully controlled by the BIOS. In APM 1.2, the operating system can control PM time (e.g. suspend timeout).
In 1997, Phoenix Technologies released "APM 2.0" which is a kernel device driver compatible with an APM 1.2 BIOS.
== Power management events ==
There are 12 power events (such as standby, suspend and resume requests, and low battery notifications), plus OEM-defined events, that can be sent from the APM BIOS to the operating system. The APM driver regularly polls for event change notifications.
Power Management Events:
==APM functions==
There are 21 APM function calls defined that the APM driver can use to query power management statuses, or request power state transitions.
Aggressive spin-down frequencies may reduce drive lifespan by unnecessarily accumulating load cycles; most modern drives are specified to sustain 300,000 cycles and usually last at least 600,000. On the other hand, not spinning down the drive will cause extra power draw and heat generation; high temperatures also reduce the lifespan of hard drives.
|
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"Green computing",
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3,132 |
Adolphe Sax
|
Antoine-Joseph "Adolphe" Sax (; 6 November 1814 – 7 February 1894) was a Belgian inventor and musician who invented the saxophone in the early 1840s, patenting it in 1846. He also invented the saxotromba, saxhorn and saxtuba, and redesigned the bass clarinet in a fashion still used to the present day. He played the flute and clarinet.
==Early life==
Antoine-Joseph Sax was born on 6 November 1814 in Dinant, in what is now Belgium, to Charles-Joseph Sax and his wife Marie-Joseph (Masson). While his given name was Antoine-Joseph, he was referred to as Adolphe from childhood. His father and mother were instrument designers themselves, who made several changes to the design of the French horn. Adolphe began to make his own instruments at an early age, entering two of his flutes and a clarinet into a competition at the age of 15. He subsequently studied performance on those two instruments as well as voice at the Royal Conservatory of Brussels. and later swallowed a pin. He received serious burns from a gunpowder explosion and once fell onto a hot cast-iron frying pan, burning his side.
Several times he avoided accidental poisoning and asphyxiation from sleeping in a room where varnished furniture was drying. Another time young Sax was struck on the head by a cobblestone and fell into a river, almost dying.
==Career and later life==
After leaving the Royal Conservatory of Brussels, Sax began to experiment with new instrument designs, while his parents continued their business of making conventional instruments. Sax's first important invention was an improvement in bass clarinet design, which he patented at the age of 24. He relocated permanently to Paris in 1842 and began working on a new set of valved bugles. While he did not invent this instrument, his examples were much more successful than those of his rivals and became known as saxhorns. Hector Berlioz was so enamoured of these that he arranged in February 1844 for one of his pieces to be played entirely on saxhorns. They were made in seven different sizes and paved the way for the creation of the flugelhorn. Today saxhorns are sometimes used in concert bands, marching bands, and orchestras. The saxhorn also laid the groundwork for the modern euphonium.
Sax also developed the saxotromba family, valved brass instruments with narrower bore than the saxhorns, in 1845, though they survived only briefly.
The use of saxhorns spread rapidly. The saxhorn valves were accepted as state-of-the-art in their time and remain largely unchanged today. The advances made by Adolphe Sax were soon followed by the British brass band movement, which exclusively adopted the saxhorn family of instruments. A decade after saxhorns became available, the Jedforest Instrumental Band (1854) and The Hawick Saxhorn Band (1855) were formed in the Scottish Borders.
The period around 1840 saw Sax inventing the , an early unsuccessful design of contrabass clarinet. On 28 June 1846 he patented the saxophone, intended for use in orchestras and military bands. By 1846 Sax had designed saxophones ranging from sopranino to subcontrabass, although not all were built. Composer Hector Berlioz wrote approvingly of the new instrument in 1842, but despite his support, saxophones did not become a standard part of the orchestra. Their ability to play technical passages easily like woodwinds yet project loudly like brass instruments led to their inclusion in military bands in France and elsewhere.
During the Crimean War (1853–1856), Sax made two more inventions, though neither was ever actually built: First, he designed the "Saxotonnerre", a massive, locomotive-powered organ which was supposed to be so loud as to be heard across all of Paris at once. The second was developed in response to the Crimean War's Siege of Sevastopol where the French military and its allies were locked in a destructive conflict. As a potential solution to such lengthy sieges, Sax thus designed the "Saxocannon", a giant cannon whose half-ton round shots would be powerful enough to completely destroy an "average-sized city".
Sax's reputation eventually helped secure him a job teaching at the Paris Conservatory in 1857. and was interred in section 5 (Avenue de Montebello) at the Cimetière de Montmartre in Paris.
File:Saxtromba sopran.jpg|Saxotromba
File:MHS Saxhorn.jpg|Saxhorn
File:Saxtuba1867.jpg|Saxtuba
File:Trombone a six pistons-IMG 0853-black.jpg|6-piston trombone
File:Bass saxhorn, 1863.jpg|A bass saxhorn, 1863
== Honors and awards ==
In his birthplace Dinant in Belgium, the Mr Sax's House is dedicated to his life and saxophones.
1849: Awarded the Chevalier rank of the Legion of Honour.
1867: at the 1867 Paris International Exposition.
1995: In 1995, his likeness was featured on the front of Belgium's 200 Belgian francs banknote.
2015: Google Doodle commemorated his 201st birthday.
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3,134 |
Aspirated consonant
|
In phonetics, aspiration is the strong burst of breath that accompanies either the release or, in the case of preaspiration, the closure of some obstruents. In English, aspirated consonants are allophones in complementary distribution with their unaspirated counterparts, but in some other languages, notably most South Asian languages and East Asian languages, the difference is contrastive.
==Transcription==
In the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), aspirated consonants are written using the symbols for voiceless consonants followed by the aspiration modifier letter , a superscript form of the symbol for the voiceless glottal fricative . For instance, represents the voiceless bilabial stop, and represents the aspirated bilabial stop.
Voiced consonants are seldom actually aspirated. Symbols for voiced consonants followed by , such as , typically represent consonants with murmured voiced release (see below). In the grammatical tradition of Sanskrit, aspirated consonants are called voiceless aspirated, and breathy-voiced consonants are called voiced aspirated.
There are no dedicated IPA symbols for degrees of aspiration and typically only two degrees are marked: unaspirated and aspirated . An old symbol for light aspiration was , but this is now obsolete. The aspiration modifier letter may be doubled to indicate especially strong or long aspiration. Hence, the two degrees of aspiration in Korean stops are sometimes transcribed or and , but they are usually transcribed and , with the details of voice onset time given numerically.
Preaspirated consonants are marked by placing the aspiration modifier letter before the consonant symbol: represents the preaspirated bilabial stop.
Unaspirated or tenuis consonants are occasionally marked with the modifier letter for unaspiration , a superscript equals sign: . Usually, however, unaspirated consonants are left unmarked: .
==Phonetics==
Voiceless consonants are produced with the vocal folds open (spread) and not vibrating, and voiced consonants are produced when the vocal folds are fractionally closed and vibrating (modal voice). Voiceless aspiration occurs when the vocal folds remain open after a consonant is released. An easy way to measure this is by noting the consonant's voice onset time, as the voicing of a following vowel cannot begin until the vocal folds close.
In some languages, such as Navajo, aspiration of stops tends to be phonetically realised as voiceless velar airflow; aspiration of affricates is realised as an extended length of the frication.
Aspirated consonants are not always followed by vowels or other voiced sounds. For example, in Eastern Armenian, aspiration is contrastive even word-finally, and aspirated consonants occur in consonant clusters. In Wahgi, consonants are aspirated only when they are in final position.
===Degree===
The degree of aspiration varies: the voice onset time of aspirated stops is longer or shorter depending on the language or the place of articulation.
Armenian and Cantonese have aspiration that lasts about as long as English aspirated stops, in addition to unaspirated stops. Korean has lightly aspirated stops that fall between the Armenian and Cantonese unaspirated and aspirated stops as well as strongly-aspirated stops whose aspiration lasts longer than that of Armenian or Cantonese. (See voice onset time.)
Aspiration varies with place of articulation. The Spanish voiceless stops have voice onset times (VOTs) of about 5, 10, and 30 milliseconds, and English aspirated have VOTs of about 60, 70, and 80 ms. Voice onset time in Korean has been measured at 20, 25, and 50 ms for and 90, 95, and 125 for .
===Doubling===
When aspirated consonants are doubled or geminated, the stop is held longer and then has an aspirated release. An aspirated affricate consists of a stop, fricative, and aspirated release. A doubled aspirated affricate has a longer hold in the stop portion and then has a release consisting of the fricative and aspiration.
===Preaspiration===
Icelandic and Faroese have consonants with preaspiration , and some scholars interpret them as consonant clusters as well. In Icelandic, preaspirated stops contrast with double stops and single stops:
Preaspiration is also a feature of Scottish Gaelic:
Preaspirated stops also occur in most Sami languages. For example, in Northern Sami, the unvoiced stop and affricate phonemes , , , , are pronounced preaspirated (, , , ) in medial or final position.
===Fricatives and sonorants===
Although most aspirated obstruents in the world's languages are stops and affricates, aspirated fricatives such as , and have been documented in Korean and Xuanzhou Wu, and has been described for Spanish, though these are allophones of other phonemes. Similarly, aspirated fricatives and even aspirated nasals, approximants, and trills occur in a few Tibeto-Burman languages, some Oto-Manguean languages, the Hmongic language Hmu, the Siouan language Ofo, and the Chumashan languages Barbareño and Ventureño. Some languages, such as Choni Tibetan, have as many as four contrastive aspirated fricatives , and .
===Voiced consonants with voiceless aspiration===
True aspirated voiced consonants, as opposed to murmured (breathy-voice) consonants such as the that are common among the languages of India, are extremely rare. They have been documented in Kelabit.
==Phonology==
Aspiration has varying significance in different languages. It is either allophonic or phonemic, and may be analyzed as an underlying consonant cluster.
===Allophonic===
In some languages, stops are distinguished primarily by voicing, and voiceless stops are sometimes aspirated, while voiced stops are usually unaspirated.
English voiceless stops are aspirated for most native speakers when they are word-initial or begin a stressed syllable. Pronouncing them as unaspirated in these positions, as is done by many Indian English speakers, may make them get confused with the corresponding voiced stop by other English-speakers. Conversely, this confusion does not happen with the native speakers of languages which have aspirated and unaspirated but not voiced stops, such as Mandarin Chinese.
S+consonant clusters can vary between aspirated and unaspirated forms depending on whether the cluster crosses a morpheme boundary. For example, distend features an unaspirated [t] because it is not analyzed as comprising two morphemes. In contrast, distaste includes an aspirated middle [tʰ] since it is analyzed as dis- + taste, and the word taste begins with an aspirated [t].
Word-final voiceless stops are sometimes aspirated.
Voiceless stops in Pashto are slightly aspirated prevocalically in a stressed syllable.
===Phonemic===
In many languages, such as Hindi, tenuis and aspirated consonants are phonemic. Unaspirated consonants like and aspirated consonants like are separate phonemes, and words are distinguished by whether they have one or the other.
====Consonant cluster====
Alemannic German dialects have unaspirated as well as aspirated ; the latter series are usually viewed as consonant clusters.
===Absence===
French, Standard Dutch, Afrikaans, Tamil, Finnish, Portuguese, Italian, Spanish, Russian, Polish, Latvian and Modern Greek are languages that do not have phonetic aspirated consonants.
==Examples==
===Chinese===
Standard Chinese (Mandarin) has stops and affricates distinguished by aspiration: for instance, , . In pinyin, tenuis stops are written with letters that represent voiced consonants in English, and aspirated stops with letters that represent voiceless consonants. Thus d represents , and t represents .
Wu Chinese and Southern Min has a three-way distinction in stops and affricates: . In addition to aspirated and unaspirated consonants, there is a series of muddy consonants, like . These are pronounced with slack or breathy voice: that is, they are weakly voiced. Muddy consonants as initial cause a syllable to be pronounced with low pitch or light (陽 yáng) tone.
===Indian languages===
Many Indo-Aryan languages have aspirated stops. Sanskrit, Hindustani, Bengali, Marathi, and Gujarati have a four-way distinction in stops: voiceless, aspirated, voiced, and voiced aspirated, such as . Punjabi has lost voiced aspirated consonants, which resulted in a tone system, and therefore has a distinction between voiceless, aspirated, and voiced: .
Other languages such as Telugu, Malayalam, and Kannada, have a distinction between voiced and voiceless, aspirated and unaspirated. However, in all of these languages, aspirated consonant occur (mostly) in borrowed words, and commonly substituted with their unaspirated counterparts.
===Armenian===
Most dialects of Armenian have aspirated stops, and some have breathy-voiced stops.
Classical and Eastern Armenian have a three-way distinction between voiceless, aspirated, and voiced, such as .
Western Armenian has a two-way distinction between aspirated and voiced: . Western Armenian aspirated corresponds to Eastern Armenian aspirated and voiced , and Western voiced corresponds to Eastern voiceless .
===Greek===
Ancient Greek, including the Classical Attic and Koine Greek dialects, had a three-way distinction in stops like Eastern Armenian: . These series were called , , (psilá, daséa, mésa) "smooth, rough, intermediate", respectively, by Koine Greek grammarians.
There were aspirated stops at three places of articulation: labial, coronal, and velar . Earlier Greek, represented by Mycenaean Greek, likely had a labialized velar aspirated stop , which later became labial, coronal, or velar depending on dialect and phonetic environment.
The other Ancient Greek dialects, Ionic, Doric, Aeolic, and Arcadocypriot, likely had the same three-way distinction at one point, but Doric seems to have had a fricative in place of in the Classical period.
Later, during the Koine and Medieval Greek periods, the aspirated and voiced stops of Attic Greek lenited to voiceless and voiced fricatives, yielding in Medieval and Modern Greek. Cypriot Greek is notable for aspirating its inherited (and developed across word-boundaries) voiceless geminate stops, yielding the series /pʰː tʰː cʰː kʰː/.
==Other uses==
===Debuccalization===
The term aspiration sometimes refers to the sound change of debuccalization, in which a consonant is lenited (weakened) to become a glottal stop or fricative .
===Breathy-voiced release===
So-called voiced aspirated consonants are nearly always pronounced instead with breathy voice, a type of phonation or vibration of the vocal folds. The modifier letter after a voiced consonant actually represents a breathy-voiced or murmured consonant, as with the "voiced aspirated" bilabial stop in the Indo-Aryan languages. This consonant is therefore more accurately transcribed as , with the diacritic for breathy voice, or with the modifier letter , a superscript form of the symbol for the voiced glottal fricative .
Some linguists restrict the double-dot subscript to murmured sonorants, such as vowels and nasals, which are murmured throughout their duration, and use the superscript hook-aitch for the breathy-voiced release of obstruents.
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3,135 |
Arteriovenous malformation
|
An arteriovenous malformation (AVM) is an abnormal connection between arteries and veins, bypassing the capillary system. Usually congenital, this vascular anomaly is widely known because of its occurrence in the central nervous system (usually as a cerebral AVM), but can appear anywhere in the body. The symptoms of AVMs can range from none at all to intense pain or bleeding, and they can lead to other serious medical problems.
The most general symptoms of a cerebral AVM include headaches and epileptic seizures, with more specific symptoms that normally depend on its location and the individual, including:
Difficulties with movement coordination, including muscle weakness and even paralysis;
Vertigo (dizziness);
Difficulties of speech (dysarthria) and communication, as found with aphasia;
Difficulties with everyday activities, as found with apraxia;
Abnormal sensations (numbness, tingling, or spontaneous pain);
Memory and thought-related problems, such as confusion, dementia, or hallucinations.
Cerebral AVMs may present themselves in a number of different ways:
Bleeding (45% of cases)
"parkinsonism" 4 symptoms in Parkinson's disease.
Acute onset of severe headache. May be described as the worst headache of the patient's life. Depending on the location of bleeding, may be associated with new fixed neurologic deficit. In unruptured brain AVMs, the risk of spontaneous bleeding may be as low as 1% per year. After a first rupture, the annual bleeding risk may increase to more than 5%.
Seizure or brain seizure (46%). Depending on the place of the AVM, it can contribute to loss of vision.
Headache (34%)
Progressive neurologic deficit (21%)
May be caused by mass effect or venous dilatations. Presence and nature of the deficit depend on location of lesion and the draining veins.
Pediatric patients
Heart failure
Macrocephaly
Prominent scalp veins
=== Pulmonary arteriovenous malformations ===
Pulmonary arteriovenous malformations are abnormal communications between the veins and arteries of the pulmonary circulation, leading to a right-to-left blood shunt.
They have no symptoms in up to 29% of all cases, however they can give rise to serious complications including hemorrhage, and infection.
==Pathophysiology==
In the circulatory system, arteries carry blood away from the heart to the lungs and the rest of the body, where the blood normally passes through capillaries—where oxygen is released and waste products like carbon dioxide () absorbed—before veins return blood to the heart. An AVM interferes with this process by forming a direct connection of the arteries and veins, bypassing the capillary bed.
As an AVM lacks the dampening effect of capillaries on the blood flow, the AVM can get progressively larger over time as the amount of blood flowing through it increases, forcing the heart to work harder to keep up with the extra blood flow. It also causes the surrounding area to be deprived of the functions of the capillaries. The resulting tangle of blood vessels, often called a nidus (Latin for 'nest'), has no capillaries. It can be extremely fragile and prone to bleeding because of the abnormally direct connections between high-pressure arteries and low-pressure veins. One indicator is a pulsing 'whoosh' sound caused by rapid blood flow through arteries and veins, which has been given the term bruit (French for 'noise'). If the AVM is severe, this may produce an audible symptom which can interfere with hearing and sleep as well as cause psychological distress.
Computed tomography (CT) scan is a noninvasive X-ray to view the anatomical structures within the brain to detect blood in or around the brain. A newer technology called CT angiography involves the injection of contrast into the blood stream to view the arteries of the brain. This type of test provides the best pictures of blood vessels through angiography and soft tissues through CT.
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scan is a noninvasive test, which uses a magnetic field and radio-frequency waves to give a detailed view of the soft tissues of the brain.
Magnetic resonance angiography (MRA) – scans created using magnetic resonance imaging to specifically image the blood vessels and structures of the brain. A magnetic resonance angiogram can be an invasive procedure, involving the introduction of contrast dyes (e.g., gadolinium MR contrast agents) into the vasculature (circulatory system) of a patient using a catheter inserted into an artery and passed through the blood vessels to the brain. Once the catheter is in place, the contrast dye is injected into the bloodstream and the MR images are taken. Additionally or alternatively, flow-dependent or other contrast-free magnetic resonance imaging techniques can be used to determine the location and other properties of the vasculature.
AVMs can occur in various parts of the body:
brain (cerebral AV malformation)
spleen
lung
kidney
spinal cord
liver
intercostal space
iris
spermatic cord
extremities – arm, shoulder, etc.
AVMs may occur in isolation or as a part of another disease (for example, Sturge-Weber syndrome or hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia).
AVMs have been shown to be associated with aortic stenosis.
Bleeding from an AVM can be relatively mild or devastating. It can cause severe and less often fatal strokes. A gamma knife may also be used.
If a cerebral AVM is detected before a stroke occurs, usually the arteries feeding blood into the nidus can be closed off to avert the danger. Interventional therapy may be relatively risky in the short term.
Treatment of lung AVMs is typically performed with endovascular embolization alone, which is considered the standard of care. This is approximately one-fifth to one-seventh the incidence of intracranial aneurysms. An estimated 300,000 Americans have AVMs, of whom 12% (approximately 36,000) will exhibit symptoms of greatly varying severity. During the filming of the 1951 film Across the Wide Missouri, Montalbán was thrown from his horse, knocked unconscious, and trampled by another horse which aggravated his AVM and resulted in a painful back injury that never healed. The pain increased as he aged, and in 1993, Montalbán underwent hours of spinal surgery which left him paralyzed below the waist and using a wheelchair.
Composer and lyricist William Finn was diagnosed with AVM and underwent gamma knife surgery in September 1992, soon after he won the 1992 Tony Award for best musical, awarded to "Falsettos". Finn wrote the 1998 Off-Broadway musical A New Brain about the experience.
Phoenix Suns NBA basketball point guard AJ Price nearly died from AVM in 2004 while a student at the University of Connecticut.
On December 13, 2006, Senator Tim Johnson of South Dakota was diagnosed with AVM and treated at George Washington University Hospital.
Actor/comedian T. J. Miller was diagnosed with AVM in 2010; Miller had a seizure and was unable to sleep for a period. He successfully underwent surgery that had a mortality rate of 10%.
On August 3, 2011, Mike Patterson of the Philadelphia Eagles collapsed on the field and had a seizure during a practice, leading to him being diagnosed with AVM.
Former Florida Gators and Oakland Raiders linebacker Neiron Ball was diagnosed with AVM in 2011 while playing for Florida, but recovered and was cleared to play. On September 16, 2018, Ball was placed in a medically induced coma due to complications of the disease, which lasted until his death on September 10, 2019.
Indonesian actress died from complications of AVM on November 29, 2013.
Jazz guitarist Pat Martino experienced an AVM and subsequently developed amnesia and manic depression. He eventually re-learned to play the guitar by listening to his own recordings from before the aneurysm.
YouTube vlogger Nikki Lilly (Nikki Christou), winner of the 2016 season of Junior Bake Off was born with AVM, which has resulted in some facial disfigurement.
Country music singer Drake White was diagnosed with AVM in January 2019, and is undergoing treatment.
Model Lucy Markovic died in April 2025 at age 27 shortly after undergoing surgery to treat AVM.
=== Cultural depictions ===
In the HBO series Six Feet Under (2001), main character Nate Fisher discovers he has an AVM after being in a car accident and getting a precautionary cat scan at the hospital during Season 1. His AVM becomes a key focus during Season 2 and again in Season 5.
In season 1 episode 9 of House (2004), titled "DNR", a jazz musician has an AVM and is misdiagnosed with ALS. Two season three episodes also involve AVM - "Top Secret" (episode 16), in which a veteran who believes himself to be suffering from Gulf War syndrome is found to have spinal and pulmonary AVM from hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia; and "Resignation" (episode 22), where the patient developed AVM in her intestines after drinking pipe cleaner fluid in a suicide attempt.
In the 2005 Lifetime film Dawn Anna, the titular character learns she has AVM, and undergoes a serious operation and subsequent rehabilitation, which she recovers from.
|
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"Mike Patterson (American football)",
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"Cerebral arteriovenous malformation",
"Rudolf Virchow",
"A New Brain",
"Gulf War syndrome",
"human brain",
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"NIH",
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"capillaries",
"Computed tomography",
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"neurological deficit",
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"cerebral AVM",
"George Washington University Hospital",
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"blood vessel",
"You Made It Weird",
"incidental finding",
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"Across the Wide Missouri (film)",
"Vertigo",
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"Dawn Anna",
"catheter",
"Six Feet Under (TV series)",
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"Junior Bake Off",
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"hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia",
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"gamma knife"
] |
3,138 |
Atlanta
|
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Atlanta
| settlement_type = State capital
| nicknames = The City in a Forest, ATL, The A, Hotlanta, The Gate City, Hollywood of the South(See also Nicknames of Atlanta)
| motto = Resurgens (Latin for Rising again, alluding to the myth of the phoenix)
| image_skyline =
| image_flag = Flag of Atlanta.svg
| flag_size = 110px
| image_seal = Seal of Atlanta.svg
| seal_size = 90px
| image_map =
| map_caption = Interactive map of Atlanta
| pushpin_map = USA Georgia#USA
| pushpin_map_caption = Location within Georgia##Location within the United States
| pushpin_relief = yes
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_type1 = State
| subdivision_type2 = Counties
| subdivision_name = United States
| subdivision_name1 = Georgia
| subdivision_name2 = Fulton, DeKalb
| government_footnotes =
| government_type = Strong–mayor council
| leader_title = Mayor
| leader_name = Andre Dickens (D)
| leader_title1 = Body
| leader_name1 = Atlanta City Council
| established_title = Founded
| established_date =
| established_title1 =
| established_date1 =
| established_title2 =
| established_date2 =
| unit_pref = Imperial
| area_footnotes =
| area_total_sq_mi = 136.31
| area_total_km2 = 353.04
| area_land_sq_mi = 135.32
| area_land_km2 = 350.48
| area_water_sq_mi = 0.99
| area_water_km2 = 2.57
| population_total = 498,715
| population_as_of = 2020
| population_footnotes =
| population_est = 510,823
| pop_est_as_of = 2023
| pop_est_footnotes =
| population_metro = 6,307,261 (US: 6th)
| population_urban = 5,100,112 (US: 9th)
| population_density_urban_km2 = 771.3
| population_density_urban_sq_mi = 1,997.7
| population_urban_footnotes =
| population_demonym = Atlantan
| demographics_type2 = GDP
| demographics2_footnotes =
| demographics2_title1 = Atlanta (MSA)
| demographics2_info1 = $525.9 billion (2022)
| timezone = EST
| utc_offset = −5
| timezone_DST = EDT
| utc_offset_DST = −4
| coordinates =
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_m = 320
| elevation_ft = 1050
| area_code_type = Area codes
| area_code = 404/678/770/470/943
| postal_code_type = ZIP Codes
| postal_code = 30301–30322, 30324–30329, 30331–30334, 30336-30346, 30348-30350, 30353-30364, 30366, 30368-30371, 30374-30375, 30377-30378, 30380, 30384-30385, 30388, 30392, 30394, 30396, 30398, 31106-31107, 31119, 31126, 31131, 31136, 31139, 31141, 31145-31146, 31150, 31156, 31192-31193, 31195-31196, 39901
| blank_name = FIPS code
| blank_info = 13-04000
| blank1_name = GNIS feature ID
| blank1_info = 351615 is the capital and most populous city in the U.S. state of Georgia. It is the seat of Fulton County, and a portion of the city extends into neighboring DeKalb County. With a population of 510,823 (2023 estimate) living within the city limits, Atlanta is the eighth most populous city in the Southeast and 36th most populous city in the United States according to the 2020 U.S. census. Situated among the foothills of the Appalachian Mountains at an elevation of just over above sea level, Atlanta features unique topography that includes rolling hills, lush greenery, and the densest urban tree coverage of any major city in the United States.
Atlanta was originally founded as the terminus of a major state-sponsored railroad, but it soon became the convergence point among several railroads, spurring its rapid growth. The largest was the Western and Atlantic Railroad, from which the name "Atlanta" is derived, signifying the city's growing reputation as a major hub of transportation. During the 1950s and 1960s, it became a major organizing center of the American civil rights movement, with Martin Luther King Jr., Ralph Abernathy, and many other locals becoming prominent figures in the movement's leadership. In the modern era, Atlanta has remained a major center of transportation, with Hartsfield-Jackson International Airport becoming the world's busiest airport by passenger traffic in 1998 (a position it has held every year since, except for 2020), with an estimated 93.7 million passengers in 2022.
With a nominal gross domestic product (GDP) of $473 billion in 2021, Atlanta has the 11th-largest economy among cities in the U.S. and the 22nd-largest in the world. Its economy is considered diverse, with dominant sectors in industries including transportation, aerospace, logistics, healthcare, news and media operations, film and television production, information technology, finance, and biomedical research and public policy. Atlanta established itself on the world stage when it won and hosted the 1996 Summer Olympics. The Games impacted Atlanta's development growth into the 21st century, and significantly sparked investment in the city's universities, parks, and tourism industry. The gentrification of some of its neighborhoods has intensified in the 21st century with the growth of the Atlanta Beltline. This has altered its demographics, politics, aesthetics, and culture.
==History==
===Native American settlements===
For thousands of years prior to the arrival of European settlers in North Georgia, the indigenous Creek people and their ancestors inhabited the area. Standing Peachtree, a Creek village where Peachtree Creek flows into the Chattahoochee River, was the closest Native American settlement to what is now Atlanta. Through the early 19th century, European Americans systematically encroached on the Creek of northern Georgia, forcing them out of the area from 1802 to 1825. The Creek were forced to leave the area in 1821, under Indian Removal by the federal government, and European American settlers arrived the following year.
===Western and Atlantic Railroad===
In 1836, the Georgia General Assembly voted to build the Western and Atlantic Railroad in order to provide a link between the port of Savannah and the Midwest. The initial route was to run southward from Chattanooga to a terminus east of the Chattahoochee River, which would be linked to Savannah. After engineers surveyed various possible locations for the terminus, the "zero milepost" was driven into the ground in what is now Foundry Street, Five Points. When asked in 1837 about the future of the little village, Stephen Harriman Long, the railroad's chief engineer said the place would be good "for one tavern, a blacksmith shop, a grocery store, and nothing else". A year later, the area around the milepost had developed into a settlement, first known as Terminus, and later Thrasherville, after a local merchant who built homes and a general store in the area. By 1842, the town had six buildings and 30 residents and was renamed Marthasville to honor Governor Wilson Lumpkin's daughter Martha. Later, John Edgar Thomson, Chief Engineer of the Georgia Railroad, suggested the town be renamed Atlanta, supposedly a feminine version of the word "Atlantic", referring to the Western and Atlantic Railroad. (Atalanta was also Martha Lumpkin's middle name.) The residents approved, and the town was incorporated as Atlanta on December 29, 1847.
===American Civil War===
By 1860, Atlanta's population had grown to 9,554. During the American Civil War, the nexus of multiple railroads in Atlanta made the city a strategic hub for the distribution of military supplies.
In 1864, the Union Army moved southward following the capture of Chattanooga and began its invasion of north Georgia. The region surrounding Atlanta was the location of several major army battles, culminating with the Battle of Atlanta and a four-month-long siege of the city by the Union Army under the command of General William Tecumseh Sherman. On September 1, 1864, Confederate General John Bell Hood decided to retreat from Atlanta, and he ordered the destruction of all public buildings and possible assets that could be of use to the Union Army. On the next day, Mayor James Calhoun surrendered Atlanta to the Union Army, and on September 7, Sherman ordered the city's civilian population to evacuate. On November 11, 1864, Sherman prepared for the Union Army's March to the Sea by ordering the destruction of Atlanta's remaining military assets.
===Reconstruction and late 19th century===
After the Civil War ended in 1865, Atlanta was gradually rebuilt during the Reconstruction era. The work attracted many new residents. Due to the city's superior rail transportation network, the state capital was moved from Milledgeville to Atlanta in 1868. In the 1880 Census, Atlanta had surpassed Savannah as Georgia's largest city.
Beginning in the 1880s, Henry W. Grady, the editor of the Atlanta Constitution newspaper, promoted Atlanta to potential investors as a city of the "New South" that would be based upon a modern economy and less reliant on agriculture. By 1885, the founding of the Georgia School of Technology (now the Georgia Institute of Technology) and the Atlanta University Center, a consortium of historically black colleges made up of units for men and women, had established Atlanta as a center for higher education. In 1895, Atlanta hosted the Cotton States and International Exposition, which attracted nearly 800,000 attendees and successfully promoted the New South's development to the world.
===20th century===
During the first decades of the 20th century, Atlanta enjoyed a period of unprecedented growth. In three decades' time, Atlanta's population tripled as the city limits expanded to include nearby streetcar suburbs. The city's skyline grew taller with the construction of the Equitable, Flatiron, Empire, and Candler buildings. Sweet Auburn emerged as a center of Black commerce. The period was also marked by strife and tragedy. Increased racial tensions led to the Atlanta Race Riot of 1906, when Whites attacked Blacks, leaving at least 27 people dead and over 70 injured, with extensive damage in Black neighborhoods. In 1913, Leo Frank, a Jewish-American factory superintendent, was convicted of the murder of a 13-year-old girl in a highly publicized trial. He was sentenced to death, but the governor commuted his sentence to life. An enraged and organized lynch mob took him from jail in 1915 and hanged him in Marietta. The Jewish community in Atlanta and across the country were horrified. On May 21, 1917, the Great Atlanta Fire destroyed 1,938 buildings in what is now the Old Fourth Ward, resulting in one fatality and the displacement of 10,000 people.
Atlanta played a vital role in the Allied effort during World War II. Colonel Blake Van Leer, the president of Georgia Tech, played a significant part by lobbying war-related manufacturing companies like Lockheed Martin to move to Atlanta, successfully lobbying the Government to build military bases, in turn helping attract thousands of new residents through new jobs. Van Leer also launched major research centers, which included Neely Nuclear Research Center and funds to help make Georgia Tech the "MIT" of the south while also founding Southern Polytechnic State University.
These new defense industries attracted thousands of new residents and generated revenues, resulting in rapid population and economic growth. In the 1950s, the city's newly constructed highway system, supported by federal subsidies, allowed middle class Atlantans the ability to relocate to the suburbs. As a result, the city began to make up an ever-smaller proportion of the metropolitan area's population.
Much controversy preceded the 1956 Sugar Bowl, when the Pitt Panthers, with African-American fullback Bobby Grier on the roster, met the Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets. There had been controversy over whether Grier should be allowed to play due to his race, and whether Georgia Tech should even play at all due to Georgia's Governor Marvin Griffin's opposition to racial integration. After Griffin publicly sent a telegram to the state's Board of Regents requesting Georgia Tech not to engage in racially integrated events, Georgia Tech's president Blake R. Van Leer rejected the request and threatened to resign. Later, students from both Georgia Tech and the University of Georgia held a protest against Griffin's stance, which soon turned into a riot. The students broke windows, upturned parking meters, hung Griffin in effigy, and marched all the way to the governor's mansion, surrounding it until 3:30 a.m. Griffin publicly blamed Georgia Tech's president for the "riots" and requested he be replaced and Georgia Tech's state funding be cut off. On December 5 the Georgia Tech board of regents voted 13–1 in favor of allowing the game to proceed as scheduled.
In the 1960s, Atlanta became a major organizing center of the civil rights movement, with Martin Luther King Jr., Ralph Abernathy, and students from Atlanta's historically black colleges and universities playing major roles in the movement's leadership. While Atlanta in the postwar years had relatively minimal racial strife compared to other cities, Blacks were limited by discrimination, segregation, and continued disenfranchisement of most voters. In 1961, the city attempted to thwart blockbusting by realtors by erecting road barriers in Cascade Heights, countering the efforts of civic and business leaders to foster Atlanta as the "city too busy to hate."
Desegregation of the public sphere came in stages, with public transportation desegregated by 1959, the restaurant at Rich's department store by 1961, movie theaters by 1963, and public schools by 1973 (nearly 20 years after the US Supreme Court ruled that segregated public schools were unconstitutional).
In 1960, Whites comprised 61.7% of the city's population. During the 1950s–70s, suburbanization and White flight from urban areas led to a significant demographic shift. Construction of the city's subway system began in 1975, with rail service commencing in 1979. Despite these improvements, Atlanta lost more than 100,000 residents between 1970 and 1990, over 20% of its population. At the same time, it developed new office space after attracting numerous corporations, with an increasing portion of workers from northern areas.
===1996 Summer Olympic games===
Atlanta was selected as the site for the 1996 Summer Olympic Games. Following the announcement, the city government undertook several major construction projects to improve Atlanta's parks, sporting venues, and transportation infrastructure; however, for the first time, none of the $1.7 billion cost of the games was governmentally funded. While the games experienced transportation and accommodation problems and, despite extra security precautions, there was the Centennial Olympic Park bombing, the spectacle was a watershed event in Atlanta's history. For the first time in Olympic history, every one of the record 197 national Olympic committees invited to compete sent athletes, sending more than 10,000 contestants participating in a record 271 events. The related projects such as Atlanta's Olympic Legacy Program and civic effort initiated a fundamental transformation of the city in the following decade. From 2000 to 2010, Atlanta gained 22,763 white residents, 5,142 Asian residents, and 3,095 Hispanic residents, while the city's Black population decreased by 31,678. Much of the city's demographic change during the decade was driven by young, college-educated professionals: from 2000 to 2009, the three-mile radius surrounding Downtown Atlanta gained 9,722 residents aged 25 to 34 and holding at least a four-year degree, an increase of 61%. This was similar to the tendency in other cities for young, college educated, single or married couples to live in downtown areas.
In the lead-up to the 1996 Summer Olympics, the Atlanta Housing Authority demolished nearly all of its public housing. Residents instead received vouchers to pay for private housing; a wave of mixed housing was built using funding from the HOPE VI program under CEO Renee Lewis Glover (1994–2013).
In 2005, the city approved the $2.8 billion BeltLine project. It was intended to convert a disused 22-mile freight railroad loop that surrounds the central city into an art-filled multi-use trail and light rail transit line, which would increase the city's park space by 40%. The project stimulated retail and residential development along the loop, but has been criticized for its adverse effects on some Black communities. In 2013, the project received a federal grant of $18 million to develop the southwest corridor. In September 2019, the James M. Cox Foundation gave $6 million to the PATH Foundation which will connect the Silver Comet Trail to The Atlanta BeltLine, which was expected to be completed by 2022. Upon completion, the total combined interconnected trail distance around Atlanta for the Atlanta BeltLine and Silver Comet Trail will be the longest paved trail surface in the U.S., totaling about . The College Football Hall of Fame relocated to Atlanta and the National Center for Civil and Human Rights museum was constructed. The city of Atlanta was the subject of a massive cyberattack which began in March 2018. In December 2019, Atlanta hosted the Miss Universe 2019 pageant competition. On June 16, 2022, Atlanta was selected as a host city for the 2026 FIFA World Cup.
==Geography==
Atlanta encompasses , of which is land and is water. The city is situated in the Deep South of the southeastern United States among the foothills of the Appalachian Mountains. At above mean sea level, Atlanta has the highest elevation among major cities east of the Mississippi River. Atlanta straddles the Eastern Continental Divide. Rainwater that falls on the south and east side of the divide flows into the Atlantic Ocean, while rainwater on the north and west side of the divide flows into the Gulf of Mexico. Atlanta developed on a ridge south of the Chattahoochee River, which is part of the ACF River Basin. The river borders the far northwestern edge of the city, and much of its natural habitat has been preserved, in part by the Chattahoochee River National Recreation Area.
Atlanta is southeast of Marietta, southwest of Alpharetta, southwest of Greenville, South Carolina, east of Birmingham, Alabama, and southwest of Charlotte, North Carolina.
Despite having lost significant tree canopy coverage between 1973 and 1999, Atlanta now has the densest urban tree coverage of any major city in the United States and is often called "City of Trees" or "The City in a Forest".
===Cityscape===
==== Neighborhoods ====
Atlanta is divided into 242 officially defined neighborhoods. The city contains three major high-rise districts, which form a north–south axis along Peachtree: Downtown, Midtown, and Buckhead. Surrounding these high-density districts are leafy, low-density neighborhoods, most of which are dominated by single-family homes.
Downtown contains the most office space in the metro area, much of it occupied by government entities. Downtown is home to the city's sporting venues and many of its tourist attractions. Midtown is the city's second-largest business district, containing the offices of many of the region's law firms. Midtown is known for its art institutions, cultural attractions, institutions of higher education, and dense form. Buckhead, the city's uptown district, is north of Downtown and the city's third-largest business district. The district is marked by an urbanized core along Peachtree Road, surrounded by suburban single-family neighborhoods situated among woods and rolling hills.
Surrounding Atlanta's three high-rise districts are the city's low- and medium-density neighborhoods, The eastside is marked by historic streetcar suburbs, built from the 1890s to the 1930s as havens for the upper middle class. These neighborhoods, many of which contain their own villages encircled by shaded, architecturally distinct residential streets, include the Victorian Inman Park, Bohemian East Atlanta, and eclectic Old Fourth Ward. On the westside and along the BeltLine on the eastside, former warehouses and factories have been converted into housing, retail space, and art galleries, transforming the once-industrial areas such as West Midtown into model neighborhoods for smart growth, historic rehabilitation, and infill construction.
In southwest Atlanta, neighborhoods closer to downtown originated as streetcar suburbs, including the historic West End, while those farther from downtown retain a postwar suburban layout. These include Collier Heights and Cascade Heights, historically home to most of the city's upper middle-class African-American population. Northwest Atlanta contains the areas of the city to west of Marietta Boulevard and to the north of Martin Luther King Jr. Drive, including those neighborhoods remote to downtown, such as Riverside, Bolton and Whittier Mill. The latter is one of Atlanta's designated Landmark Historical Neighborhoods. Vine City, though technically Northwest, adjoins the city's Downtown area and has recently been the target of community outreach programs and economic development initiatives.
Gentrification of the city's neighborhoods is one of the more controversial and transformative forces shaping contemporary Atlanta. The gentrification of Atlanta has its origins in the 1970s, after many of Atlanta's neighborhoods had declined and suffered the urban decay that affected other major American cities in the mid-20th century. When neighborhood opposition successfully prevented two freeways from being built through the city's east side in 1975, the area became the starting point for Atlanta's gentrification. After Atlanta was awarded the Olympic games in 1990, gentrification expanded into other parts of the city, stimulated by infrastructure improvements undertaken in preparation for the games. New development post-2000 has been aided by the Atlanta Housing Authority's eradication of the city's public housing. As noted above, it allowed development of these sites for mixed-income housing, requiring developers to reserve a considerable portion for affordable housing units. It has also provided for other former residents to be given vouchers to gain housing in other areas. Construction of the Beltline has stimulated new and related development along its path.
==== Architecture ====
Most of Atlanta was burned in the final months of the American Civil War, depleting the city of a large stock of its historic architecture. Yet architecturally, the city had never been traditionally "southern": Atlanta originated as a railroad town rather than a southern seaport dominated by the planter class, such as Savannah or Charleston. Because of its later development, many of the city's landmarks share architectural characteristics with buildings in the Northeast or Midwest, as they were designed at a time of shared national architectural styles.
The city's embrace of modern architecture has often translated into an ambivalent approach toward historic preservation, leading to the destruction of many notable architectural landmarks. These include the Equitable Building (1892–1971), Terminal Station (1905–1972), and the Carnegie Library (1902–1977). In the mid-1970s, the Fox Theatre, now a cultural icon of the city, would have met the same fate if not for a grassroots effort to save it.
===Climate===
Under the Köppen classification, Atlanta has a humid subtropical climate (Cfa) with generous precipitation year-round, typical for the Upland South. The city is situated in USDA Plant Hardiness Zone 8a, with the northern and western suburbs, as well as part of Midtown transitioning to 7b. Summers are hot and humid, with temperatures somewhat moderated by the city's elevation. Winters are overall mild but variable, occasionally susceptible to snowstorms even if in small quantities on several occasions, unlike the central and southern portions of the state. Warm air from the Gulf of Mexico can bring spring-like highs while strong Arctic air masses can push lows into the teens °F (−7 to −12 °C).
July averages , with high temperatures reaching on an average of 47 days per year, though readings are not seen most years. However, ice storms usually cause more problems than snowfall does, the most severe occurring on January 7, 1973. Tornadoes are rare in the city itself, but the March 14, 2008, EF2 tornado damaged prominent structures in downtown Atlanta.
==Demographics==
===Population===
Atlanta is governed by a mayor and the 15-member Atlanta City Council. The city council consists of one member from each of the city's 12 districts and three at-large members. The mayor may veto a bill passed by the council, but the council can override the veto with a two-thirds majority. The mayor of Atlanta is Andre Dickens, a Democrat elected on a nonpartisan ballot whose first term in office began on January 3, 2022. Every mayor elected since 1973 has been Black. In 2001, Shirley Franklin became the first woman to be elected mayor of Atlanta, and the first African-American woman to serve as mayor of a major Southern city. Atlanta city politics suffered from a notorious reputation for corruption during the 1990s administration of Mayor Bill Campbell, who was convicted by a federal jury in 2006 on three counts of tax evasion in connection with gambling winnings during trips he took with city contractors.
As the state capital, Atlanta is the site of most of Georgia's state government. The Georgia State Capitol building, located downtown, houses the offices of the governor, lieutenant governor and secretary of state, as well as the General Assembly. The Governor's Mansion is in a residential section of Buckhead. Atlanta serves as the regional hub for many arms of the federal bureaucracy, including the Federal Reserve Bank of Atlanta and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). The City of Atlanta annexed the CDC into its territory effective January 1, 2018. Atlanta also plays an important role in the federal judiciary system, containing the United States Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit and the United States District Court for the Northern District of Georgia.
Historically, Atlanta has been a stronghold for the Democratic Party. Although municipal elections are officially nonpartisan, nearly all of the city's elected officials are registered Democrats. The city is split among 14 state house districts and four state senate districts, all held by Democrats. At the federal level, Atlanta is split between three congressional districts. Most of the city is in the 5th district, represented by Democrat Nikema Williams. Much of southern Atlanta is in the 13th district, represented by Democrat David Scott. A small portion in the north is in the 11th district, represented by Republican Barry Loudermilk.
===Emergency services===
The city is served by the Atlanta Police Department (APD), which numbers 2,000 officers and oversaw a 40% decrease in the city's crime rate between 2001 and 2009. In 2012, Forbes ranked Atlanta as the 6th most dangerous American city but by 2023 the city dropped out of its top 10. Despite some improvement in crime, street gangs have continued to plague the city since the 1980s. In 2022, there was a 200% increase in gang-related charges in the city. Also in 2023, it was estimated that about 1,000 gangs in the Atlanta area were responsible for at least 70% of all crime including identity theft, credit card fraud, drug trafficking, and human trafficking. The Georgia Bureau of Investigation Gang Task Force in partnership with the APD is leading efforts in dismantling gang activity and arresting culprits.
The Atlanta Fire Rescue Department provides fire protection and first responder emergency medical services to the city from its 35 fire stations. In 2017, AFRD responded to over 100,000 calls for service over a coverage area of . The department also protects Hartsfield–Jackson with five fire stations on the property, serving over 1 million passengers from over 100 countries. The department protects over 3000 high-rise buildings, of the rapid rail system, and of interstate highway.
The Georgia National Guard is based in the city.
Emergency ambulance services are provided to city residents by hospital-based Grady EMS (Fulton County), and American Medical Response (DeKalb County).
Atlanta in January 2017 declared the city was a "welcoming city" and "will remain open and welcoming to all". Nonetheless, Atlanta does not consider itself to be a "sanctuary city". Atlanta Mayor Keisha Lance Bottoms said: "Our city does not support ICE. We don't have a relationship with the U.S. Marshal[s] Service. We closed our detention center to ICE detainees, and we would not pick up people on an immigration violation."
==Education==
===Tertiary education===
With more than 15 colleges and universities, including three law schools and two medical schools, Atlanta is considered one of the nation's largest hubs for higher education. Three universities have earned the highest classification of "R1: Doctoral Universities – Very high research activity".
The Georgia Institute of Technology, commonly referred to as Georgia Tech, is a prominent public research university in Midtown. It offers highly ranked degree programs in engineering, design, industrial management, the sciences, business, and architecture.
Georgia State University is a major public research university based in Downtown Atlanta; it is the second largest in student population of the 26 public colleges and universities in the University System of Georgia and is a significant contributor to the revitalization of the city's central business district.
Atlanta is home to nationally renowned private colleges and universities, most notably Emory University, a leading liberal arts and research institution that operates Emory Healthcare, the largest health care system in Georgia. The City of Atlanta annexed Emory into its territory effective January 1, 2018. Atlanta contains a campus of the Savannah College of Art and Design, a private art and design university that has proven to be a major factor in the recent growth of Atlanta's visual art community. Atlanta also boasts American Bar Association accredited law schools: Atlanta's John Marshall Law School, Emory University School of Law, and Georgia State University College of Law.
The University of Georgia's Terry College of Business operates a satellite campus in Atlanta's Buckhead district, a major financial center in the city. This location facilitates Executive and Professional MBA programs plus executive education offerings. The Buckhead campus also serves as a hub where Terry students, alumni, faculty, and staff can engage with the business community.
The Atlanta Regional Council of Higher Education (ARCHE) is dedicated to strengthening synergy among 19 public and private colleges and universities in the Atlanta region. Participating Atlanta region colleges and universities partner on joint-degree programs, cross-registration, library services, and cultural events.
===Primary and secondary education===
Approximately 49,000 students are enrolled in 106 schools in Atlanta Public Schools (APS), some of which are operated as charter schools. Atlanta is served by many private schools including, without limitation, Atlanta Jewish Academy, Atlanta International School, The Westminster Schools, Pace Academy, The Lovett School, The Paideia School, Holy Innocents' Episcopal School and Roman Catholic parochial schools operated by the Archdiocese of Atlanta.
In 2018 the City of Atlanta annexed a portion of DeKalb County containing the Centers for Disease Control and Emory University; this portion will be zoned to the DeKalb County School District until 2024, when it will transition into APS. In 2017 the number of children living in the annexed territory who attended public schools was nine.
==Media==
The primary network-affiliated television stations in Atlanta are WXIA-TV 11 (NBC), WANF 46 (CBS), WSB-TV 2 (ABC), and WAGA-TV 5 (Fox). Other major commercial stations include WPXA-TV 14 (Ion), WPCH-TV 17, (CW), WUVG-TV 34 (Univision/UniMás), WUPA 69 (Ind.), and WATL 36 (MyNetworkTV). WPXA-TV, WUVG-TV and WAGA-TV are network O&O's. The Atlanta metropolitan area is served by two public television stations (both PBS member stations), and two public radio stations. WGTV 8 is the flagship station of the statewide Georgia Public Television network, while WABE-TV is owned by Atlanta Public Schools. Georgia Public Radio is listener-funded and comprises one NPR member station, WABE, a classical music station also operated by Atlanta Public Schools. The second public radio, listener-funded NPR member station is WCLK, a jazz music station owned and operated by Clark Atlanta University.
Atlanta is served by The Atlanta Journal-Constitution, its only major daily newspaper with wide distribution. The Atlanta Journal-Constitution is the result of a 1950 merger between The Atlanta Journal and The Atlanta Constitution, with staff consolidation occurring in 1982 and separate publication of the morning Constitution and afternoon Journal ceasing in 2001. Alternative weekly newspapers include Creative Loafing, which has a weekly print circulation of 80,000. Atlanta Daily World is the oldest Black newspaper in Atlanta and one of the earliest Black newspapers in American history. Atlanta magazine is a monthly general-interest magazine based in and covering Atlanta.
==Infrastructure==
===Transportation===
Atlanta's transportation infrastructure comprises a complex network that includes a heavy rail rapid transit system, a light rail streetcar loop, a multi-county bus system, Amtrak service via the Crescent, multiple freight train lines, an Interstate Highway System, several airports, including the world's busiest, and over of bike paths.
Atlanta has a network of freeways that radiate out from the city, and automobiles are the dominant means of transportation in the region. Three major interstate highways converge in Atlanta: I-20 (east-west), I-75 (northwest-southeast), and I-85 (northeast-southwest). The latter two combine in the middle of the city to form the Downtown Connector (I-75/85), which carries more than 340,000 vehicles per day and is one of the most congested segments of interstate highway in the United States. Atlanta is mostly encircled by Interstate 285, a beltway locally known as "the Perimeter" that has come to mark the boundary between "Inside the Perimeter" (ITP), the city and close-in suburbs, and "Outside the Perimeter" (OTP), the outer suburbs and exurbs. The heavy reliance on automobiles for transportation in Atlanta has resulted in traffic, commute, and air pollution rates that rank among the worst in the country. The City of Atlanta has a higher than average percentage of households without a car. In 2015, 15.2 percent of Atlanta households lacked a car, and increased slightly to 16.4 percent in 2016. The national average is 8.7 percent in 2016. Atlanta averaged 1.31 cars per household in 2016, compared to a national average of 1.8.
The Metropolitan Atlanta Rapid Transit Authority (MARTA) provides public transportation in the form of buses, heavy rail, and a downtown light rail loop. Notwithstanding heavy automotive usage in Atlanta, the city's subway system is the eighth busiest in the country. MARTA rail lines connect key destinations, such as the airport, Downtown, Midtown, Buckhead, and Perimeter Center. However, significant destinations, such as Emory University and Cumberland, remain unserved. As a result, a 2011 Brookings Institution study placed Atlanta 91st of 100 metro areas for transit accessibility. Emory University operates its Cliff shuttle buses with 200,000 boardings per month, while private minibuses supply Buford Highway. Amtrak, the national rail passenger system, provides service to Atlanta via the Crescent train (New York–New Orleans), which stops at Peachtree Station. In 2014, the Atlanta Streetcar opened to the public. The streetcar's line, which is also known as the Downtown Loop, runs around the downtown tourist areas of Peachtree Center, Centennial Olympic Park, the Martin Luther King Jr. National Historical Park, and Sweet Auburn. The Atlanta Streetcar line is also being expanded on in the coming years to include a wider range of Atlanta's neighborhoods and important places of interest, with a total of over of track in the plan.
Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International Airport is the world's busiest airport as measured by passenger traffic and aircraft traffic. The facility offers air service to over 150 U.S. destinations and more than 75 international destinations in 50 countries, with over 2,500 arrivals and departures daily. Delta Air Lines maintains its largest hub at the airport. Situated () south of downtown in Clayton and Fulton counties, the airport covers most of the land inside a wedge formed by Interstate 75, Interstate 85, and Interstate 285.
Cycling is a growing mode of transportation in Atlanta, more than doubling since 2009, when it comprised 1.1% of all commutes (up from 0.3% in 2000). Although Atlanta's lack of bike lanes and hilly topography may deter many residents from cycling, the city's transportation plan calls for the construction of of bike lanes by 2020, with the BeltLine helping to achieve this goal. In 2012, Atlanta's first "bike track" was constructed on 10th Street in Midtown. The two lane bike track runs from Monroe Drive west to Charles Allen Drive, with connections to the Beltline and Piedmont Park. Starting in June 2016, Atlanta received a bike sharing program, known as Relay Bike Share, with 100 bikes in Downtown and Midtown, which expanded to 500 bikes at 65 stations as of April 2017.
According to the 2016 American Community Survey (five-year average), 68.6% of working city of Atlanta residents commuted by driving alone, 7% carpooled, 10% used public transportation, and 4.6% walked. About 2.1% used all other forms of transportation, including taxi, bicycle, and motorcycle. About 7.6% worked at home.
The city has also become one of a handful of "scooter capitals", where companies like Lime and Bird have gained a major foothold by placing electric scooters on street corners and byways.
==Notable people==
==Sister cities==
Atlanta's sister cities are:
Montego Bay, Jamaica (1972)
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (1972)
Lagos, Nigeria (1974)
Toulouse, France (1974)
Newcastle upon Tyne, England, UK (1977)
Taipei, Taiwan (1979)
Daegu, South Korea (1981)
Brussels, Belgium (1983)
Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago (1987)
Tbilisi, Georgia (1988)
Olympia, Greece (1994)
Bucharest, Romania (1994)
Cotonou, Benin (1995)
Salcedo, Dominican Republic (1996)
Torrejon de Ardoz, Spain (1996)
Nuremberg, Germany (1998)
Ra'anana, Israel (2000)
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia (2004)
Fukuoka, Japan (2005)
Sassari, Italy (2020)
|
[
"Atlanta Constitution",
"Winter storm",
"Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International Airport",
"diorama",
"Portland Timbers",
"Paschal's",
"Intown Atlanta",
"Georgia State University College of Law",
"Interstate 75",
"Olympia, Greece",
"WABE (FM)",
"Church's Chicken",
"PGA Championship",
"Equitable Building (Atlanta 1892)",
"Ant-Man (film)",
"Black mecca",
"Terry College of Business",
"Sherman's March to the Sea",
"Atlanta Contemporary Art Center",
"Midwestern United States",
"ridge",
"Aflac Kickoff Game",
"Confederate States of America",
"New South",
"giant panda",
"Patch (website)",
"Curbed",
"Star (TV series)",
"Cable News Network",
"AT&T Mobility",
"Westside Park",
"Atlanta International Pop Festival (1969)",
"Clark Atlanta University",
"bungalow",
"Spelman College Museum of Fine Art",
"Billboard (magazine)",
"Baby Driver",
"Gone with the Wind (novel)",
"Silicon peach",
"Georgia Aquarium",
"Scientific American",
"Bank of America Plaza (Atlanta)",
"The Atlanta Journal-Constitution",
"William Tecumseh Sherman",
"Victorian architecture",
"Deadline Hollywood",
"USA Rugby League",
"Downtown Connector",
"Ivan Allen Jr.",
"NBA TV",
"Atlanta Symphony Orchestra",
"Peach",
"Neighborhoods of Atlanta",
"Denver Broncos",
"Pinewood Atlanta Studios",
"Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets football",
"Governing (magazine)",
"Marvel Studios",
"Fortune 500",
"TNT Sports (United States)",
"Cycling in Atlanta",
"National Hockey League",
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"urban forest",
"Lynching",
"The Trust for Public Land",
"Torrejon de Ardoz",
"NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Championship",
"AmericanStyle",
"Demographics of Atlanta",
"Bobby Grier (American football player)",
"Atkins Park",
"Thanksgiving (United States)",
"Morehouse College",
"Ghana",
"Avengers: Infinity War",
"John Lewis Freedom Parkway",
"Super Bowl LI",
"Atlanta International School",
"Barry Loudermilk",
"drug trafficking",
"Carter Center",
"southeastern United States",
"Liberia",
"Univision",
"Martin Luther King Jr. National Historical Park",
"Michelin Guide",
"Love Is Blind (TV series)",
"National Center for Civil and Human Rights",
"hamburgers",
"American Broadcasting Company",
"Creative Loafing (Atlanta)",
"animated series",
"reality television",
"World Series",
"Peachtree Street",
"Westin Peachtree Plaza",
"Eastside (Atlanta)",
"gentrification",
"Great Britain",
"HOPE VI",
"Papa Johns",
"Immigration to the United States",
"Usher (musician)",
"MLS Cup 2018",
"Brookings Institution",
"University of Georgia",
"Georgia Dome",
"Democratic Party (United States)",
"Gwinnett County, Georgia",
"Hattie McDaniel",
"Historic Fourth Ward Park",
"Manchester City F.C.",
"Women's National Basketball Association",
"Allman Brothers Band",
"Atlanta Daily World",
"History of Georgia Tech",
"city park",
"Colony Square",
"Charlotte, North Carolina",
"human trafficking",
"North Georgia",
"Neely Nuclear Research Center",
"Autumn leaf color",
"NAPA Auto Parts",
"Ozark (TV series)",
"WUPA",
"Pew Research Center",
"ZIP Code",
"Atlanta Vibe",
"Crime in Atlanta",
"Maynard Jackson",
"WANF",
"square kilometer",
"Montego Bay",
"Nigeria",
"The Weather Channel",
"Martin Luther King Jr.",
"Cotton States and International Exposition",
"Moline, Illinois",
"African-American middle class",
"The Change-Up",
"National League (baseball)",
"Tony Award",
"The Daily Beast",
"John Edgar Thomson",
"Captain America: Civil War",
"Buckhead",
"Marietta, Georgia",
"National Black Arts Festival",
"Morehouse School of Medicine",
"Associated Press",
"Super Bowl XXXIII",
"White flight",
"Toni Braxton",
"indie rock",
"University System of Georgia",
"Ralph Abernathy",
"Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education",
"The Walking Dead (TV series)",
"Spelman College",
"Bally Sports",
"Atlanta Jewish Academy",
"Margaret Mitchell",
"heavy rail",
"Atlanta Dream",
"African-American English",
"United States District Court for the Northern District of Georgia",
"Cheshire Bridge Road",
"Peachtree Road Race",
"Rollins, Inc.",
"Georgia State Capitol",
"Atlanta Public Schools",
"DeKalb County School District",
"Ion Television",
"Rich's (department store)",
"Dungeon Family",
"Money (magazine)",
"demographics",
"EUE/Screen Gems",
"Delta Air Lines",
"Protestant Christianity",
"Little Five Points",
"PBS",
"CSX Transportation",
"Miss Universe 2019",
"sanctuary city",
"NPR",
"Alliance of American Football",
"Love & Hip Hop: Atlanta",
"Georgia Public Broadcasting",
"Emory University School of Law",
"Atlanta Beltline",
"Birmingham, Alabama",
"2026 FIFA World Cup",
"The New York Times",
"Grant Park (Atlanta)",
"WPXA-TV",
"Creative Loafing",
"Atlanta Hawks",
"Atlanta tree canopy",
"East Lake Golf Club",
"Old Fourth Ward",
"Lime (transportation company)",
"Ronnie Van Zant",
"Interstate 20",
"country music",
"Georgia World Congress Center",
"Cartoon Network",
"College Football Hall of Fame",
"United States Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit",
"Georgia-Pacific Tower",
"Battle of Atlanta",
"List of United States cities by population",
"Early 2014 North American cold wave",
"Wilson Lumpkin",
"Georgia Institute of Technology",
"San Francisco",
"2008 Atlanta tornado outbreak",
"CONCACAF Gold Cup",
"Chattahoochee River National Recreation Area",
"county seat",
"Indian removal",
"Downtown Atlanta",
"John C. Portman Jr.",
"Atlanta Ballet",
"North American Rugby League",
"Geographic Names Information System",
"Los Angeles Times",
"BeltLine",
"Multi-culturalism",
"Interstate 285 (Georgia)",
"Bally Sports Southeast",
"Crunk",
"Atlanta Fire Rescue Department",
"sister cities",
"Peachtree Station",
"191 Peachtree Tower",
"Nuremberg",
"List of metropolitan statistical areas",
"Turner Entertainment",
"Atlanta Film Festival",
"Muscogee",
"Fortune 1000",
"Hispanic and Latino Americans",
"Owned-and-operated station",
"gentrification of Atlanta",
"Interstate 485 (Georgia)",
"Atlanta Gladiators",
"Archdiocese of Atlanta",
"Vivien Leigh",
"Union Army",
"Georgia Department of Economic Development",
"Tyler Perry Studios",
"Clark Gable",
"2020 United States presidential election in Georgia",
"Rio de Janeiro",
"Collier Heights",
"Poverty threshold",
"Mercedes-Benz",
"New England Patriots",
"ATL (film)",
"Shaky Knees Music Festival",
"WarnerMedia",
"The Westminster Schools",
"ACF River Basin",
"Atlanta United FC",
"2016 United States presidential election in Georgia",
"Southeastern Conference",
"Georgia General Assembly",
"United States Soccer Federation",
"Atlanta Athletic Club",
"CNN",
"interstate highways",
"human culture",
"WNET",
"Outkast",
"streetcar",
"Hardiness zone",
"2020 United States census",
"Atlanta Botanical Garden",
"magnolia",
"Flatiron Building (Atlanta)",
"Music Midtown",
"Emory Healthcare",
"North American Soccer League (1968–84)",
"2020 NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Tournament",
"WrestleMania XXVII",
"Georgia Governor's Mansion",
"The Cartoon Network, Inc.",
"State of Georgia Building",
"ASUN Conference",
"Atlanta History Center",
"Crain's Chicago Business",
"Jimmy Carter",
"Boston",
"Southern Polytechnic State University",
"688 Club",
"2018 Atlanta cyberattack",
"Eastern Daylight Time",
"Interstate 85",
"Rail terminus",
"Driving Miss Daisy",
"Cornus (genus)",
"Dragon Con",
"The Fast and the Furious",
"Metropolitan Atlanta Rapid Transit Authority",
"Nikema Williams",
"Atlanta City Hall",
"The Real Housewives of Atlanta",
"Blake R. Van Leer",
"Museum of Contemporary Art of Georgia",
"The Tour Championship",
"lemon pepper wings",
"LGBT culture",
"Multiracial Americans",
"Cobb County, Georgia",
"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention",
"White American",
"North American Numbering Plan",
"Master of Business Administration",
"Eastern Continental Divide",
"Clayton County, Georgia",
"barbecue",
"Atlanta's Olympic Legacy Program",
"Atlanta Rhinos",
"Piedmont Park",
"Public Religion Research Institute",
"NBC News",
"Reconstruction era",
"Stranger Things",
"Atlanta-Fulton Public Library System",
"Festival Peachtree Latino",
"Gulf of Mexico",
"1996 Summer Olympics",
"Bird Global",
"Major League Rugby",
"Wall Street Journal",
"David Scott (Georgia politician)",
"Robert C. Williams Paper Museum",
"TruTV",
"Bureau of Economic Analysis",
"Alliance Theatre",
"Atlanta Dogwood Festival",
"railroad",
"Dolly Parton's Heartstrings",
"List of counties in Georgia (U.S. state)",
"Atlanta Chiefs",
"Super Bowl XXXIV",
"U.S. Marshal",
"Sandy Springs, Georgia",
"Great Recession",
"Georgia Department of Transportation",
"The Varsity (restaurant)",
"Black Catholicism",
"Watchmen (TV series)",
"Milledgeville, Georgia",
"The Technique",
"Fox Theatre (Atlanta, Georgia)",
"square mile",
"Atlanta's John Marshall Law School",
"List of governors of Georgia",
"shade tree",
"Atlanta (magazine)",
"historically black colleges",
"Mercedes-Benz Stadium",
"DeKalb County, Georgia",
"Mercedes-Benz USA",
"Salcedo, Dominican Republic",
"Relay Bike Share",
"Historically black colleges and universities",
"National Football League",
"NBC",
"Savannah, Georgia",
"National Basketball Association",
"Centennial Olympic Park bombing",
"Southern American English",
"urban heat island",
"Pine",
"Turner Field",
"Papa John's",
"MEAC/SWAC Challenge",
"logistics",
"10K run",
"CBS",
"List of mayors of Atlanta",
"Loew's Grand Theatre",
"1955 Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets football team",
"Köppen climate classification",
"Amtrak",
"Memphis, Tennessee",
"Terminal Station (Atlanta)",
"National Lacrosse League",
"Celebration Bowl",
"American Medical Response",
"Gentrification of Atlanta",
"Goodie Mob",
"Bohemianism",
"List of municipalities in Georgia (U.S. state)",
"Republican Party (United States)",
"Lynyrd Skynyrd",
"Holy Innocents' Episcopal School",
"Georgia-Pacific",
"Men's major golf championships",
"Deep South",
"WXIA-TV",
"WSB-TV",
"The Slugger's Wife",
"National Premier Soccer League",
"Sharky's Machine",
"Free Bird",
"WWE",
"Woodruff Park",
"desert",
"WGTV",
"U.S. state",
"The CW",
"Silver Comet Trail",
"Hinduism",
"Georgia Railroad and Banking Company",
"Cotonou",
"Ted Turner",
"Smokey and the Bandit",
"The Home Depot",
"Super Bowl XXVIII",
"United States",
"Counterculture of the 1960s",
"identity theft",
"punk rock",
"Atlanta Legends",
"Ultraviolet index",
"Vice (magazine)",
"historically black colleges and universities",
"Atlanta City Council",
"Ra'anana",
"Area codes 678, 470, and 943",
"Woodruff Arts Center",
"Atlanta Cyclorama & Civil War Museum",
"tropical rainforest",
"United States Colored Troops",
"Midtown Atlanta",
"Georgia Tech",
"cross-registration",
"WABE-TV",
"Complex (magazine)",
"Shirley Franklin",
"Pace Academy",
"Forbes",
"College Park, Georgia",
"Museum of Design Atlanta",
"Houston",
"Atlanta hip hop",
"Dunkin' Donuts",
"Organized Noize",
"Skyway",
"Black Panther (film)",
"Olivia de Havilland",
"Henry W. Grady",
"Christian denomination",
"National Geographic (magazine)",
"Super Bowl LIII",
"Atlanta Falcons",
"Georgia Bureau of Investigation",
"Fukuoka",
"Cobb County",
"1956 Sugar Bowl",
"Pro Volleyball Federation",
"Zoo Atlanta",
"The Outsider (miniseries)",
"American Craftsman",
"human rights movement",
"J. Mack Robinson College of Business Administration Building",
"Georgia State Panthers",
"The Wall Street Journal",
"Western and Atlantic Railroad",
"oak",
"Centers for Disease Control",
"Tbilisi",
"Chicago",
"Ethiopia",
"Mississippi River",
"Lagos",
"USS Atlanta",
"Chattahoochee River",
"List of U.S. cities by foreign-born population",
"Atlanta Flames",
"The Cliff (Emory)",
"Center Parc Stadium",
"African diaspora",
"Five Points, Atlanta",
"Super Bowl",
"Major League Baseball",
"American Bar Association",
"Atlanta Opera",
"List of United States urban areas",
"1996 Summer Olympic Games",
"List of capitals in the United States",
"TLC (group)",
"Sassari",
"College Football Playoff National Championship",
"Time (magazine)",
"Marcel Breuer",
"credit card fraud",
"World's busiest airports by traffic movements",
"Somalia",
"Peach Bowl",
"Atlanta Police Department",
"Atlanta campaign",
"Southeastern United States",
"rail transportation",
"Chastain Park",
"Fox Theatre (Atlanta)",
"Summer 2012 North American heat wave",
"Turner Broadcasting System",
"Xscape (group)",
"Atlanta Marathon",
"Taipei",
"Greek Americans",
"Williams Institute on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity Law and Public Policy",
"Independence Day (United States)",
"Daegu",
"The Coca-Cola Company",
"Leo Frank",
"Indian Americans",
"professional wrestling",
"US Census Bureau",
"premiere",
"humid subtropical climate",
"Newcastle upon Tyne",
"Andre Dickens",
"Atlanta Silverbacks",
"American Civil War",
"Human Rights Campaign",
"Bids for the 1996 Summer Olympics",
"Atlanta metropolitan area",
"Architecture of Atlanta",
"LGBT",
"Government of Atlanta",
"Greenville, South Carolina",
"population density",
"Black flight",
"Porsche AG",
"Mary Mac's Tea Room",
"Appalachian Mountains",
"The Coca Cola Company",
"List of busiest airports by passenger traffic",
"African American",
"Alternative weekly",
"SB Nation",
"Atlanta Thrashers",
"General William T. Sherman",
"World of Coca-Cola",
"Catholic Church",
"One Atlantic Center",
"Rugby ATL",
"Bill Campbell (mayor)",
"Area code 404",
"Strong Mayor",
"Chattanooga, Tennessee",
"WPCH-TV",
"Fulton County, Georgia",
"civil rights movement",
"Truist Park",
"Appalachia",
"Athens, Georgia",
"Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Atlanta",
"Margaret Mitchell House and Museum",
"WUVG-DT",
"Buford Highway",
"modern architecture",
"Islam",
"Black newspaper",
"Norfolk Southern",
"Georgia Swarm",
"American civil rights movement",
"Nominal GDP",
"Stephen Harriman Long",
"Atlanta Journal",
"Atlanta Streetcar",
"Southern fried chicken",
"MyNetworkTV",
"Toulouse",
"Blake Van Leer",
"rapid transit",
"Virginia-Highland Summerfest",
"Great Blizzard of 1899",
"Arthur Blank",
"Bally Sports South",
"Four Seasons Hotel Atlanta",
"Marvin Griffin",
"Federal Information Processing Standard",
"World's busiest airports by passenger traffic",
"Living Walls",
"Gone with the Wind (film)",
"Disfranchisement after Reconstruction era",
"The Washington Times",
"HLN (TV network)",
"Gateway Center Arena",
"UniMás",
"the Confederacy",
"ice storm",
"List of United States Rapid Transit systems by Ridership",
"Germany",
"List of cities by GDP",
"The Dukes of Hazzard",
"St. Louis",
"List of U.S. state historical capitals",
"higher education",
"December 2022 North American winter storm",
"Running",
"University of Georgia Press",
"Cox Enterprises",
"street art in Atlanta",
"Atlanta Braves",
"West Midtown",
"Atlanta Open (tennis)",
"Chick-fil-A",
"MLB Advanced Media",
"beltway",
"immigrants",
"Emory University",
"Georgia (U.S. state)",
"West End (Atlanta)",
"Bucharest",
"United Parcel Service",
"Sex Pistols",
"Atlanta Race Riot",
"CityLab (web magazine)",
"Peachtree Creek",
"U.S. Open Cup",
"East Atlanta",
"Kevin Rathbun",
"WATL",
"Southern rock",
"SEC Championship Game",
"Mexican Americans",
"Candler Building (Atlanta)",
"State Farm Arena",
"Hot 'Lanta",
"Atlanta (TV series)",
"Stateside Puerto Ricans",
"Grady EMS",
"Standing Peachtree",
"U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement",
"Federal Reserve Bank of Atlanta",
"Great Atlanta Fire of 1917",
"Cuban Americans",
"Travis Tritt",
"Seattle",
"Sweet Auburn",
"Eritrea",
"Major League Soccer",
"John Bell Hood",
"Atlanta Housing Authority",
"Economy of Atlanta",
"Williams Street",
"Marthasville, Georgia",
"TNT (American TV network)",
"Newell Brands",
"Gwinnett Daily Post",
"American Jews",
"American Public Transportation Association",
"street gangs",
"High Museum of Art",
"The Vampire Diaries",
"Marble Slab Creamery",
"Brussels",
"Georgia National Guard",
"Georgia State University",
"ECHL",
"Hartsfield-Jackson Atlanta International Airport",
"smart growth",
"Crescent (train)",
"Savannah College of Art and Design",
"WCLK",
"2025 College Football Playoff National Championship",
"Governor of Georgia",
"Peachtree Center",
"World War II",
"Atlanta Journal-Constitution",
"Woodstock",
"James Calhoun (politician, born 1811)",
"streetcar suburbs",
"The Lovett School",
"classification yard",
"Winnipeg Jets",
"general store",
"Inman Park",
"Addis Ababa",
"Phoenix (mythology)",
"Charleston, South Carolina",
"Upland South",
"Information technology",
"street art",
"half marathon",
"WAGA-TV",
"Ride Along (film)",
"New Georgia Encyclopedia",
"American Community Survey",
"Fox Broadcasting Company",
"Norfolk Southern Railway",
"Arby's",
"Judaism",
"blockbusting",
"Interstate Highway System",
"Centennial Olympic Park",
"Turner Classic Movies",
"Atlanta University Center",
"cable television",
"Eastern Time Zone",
"Double degree",
"Slave-trader",
"Eastside, Atlanta",
"Atlanta Marriott Marquis",
"Cumberland, Georgia",
"Alpharetta, Georgia",
"PGA Tour",
"Asian American",
"minibus",
"Calgary Flames",
"North American Soccer League (2011–2017)",
"Port of Spain",
"Black church",
"United States Census Bureau",
"world's busiest airport",
"Michael C. Carlos Museum",
"Keisha Lance Bottoms",
"The Paideia School",
"Ireland",
"1955 Pittsburgh Panthers football team",
"2018 College Football Playoff National Championship",
"Nicknames of Atlanta",
"David O. Selznick"
] |
3,144 |
A Doll's House
|
A Doll's House (Danish and ; also translated as A Doll House) is a three-act play written by Norwegian playwright Henrik Ibsen. It premiered at the Royal Danish Theatre in Copenhagen, Denmark, on 21 December 1879, having been published earlier that month. The play is set in a Norwegian town .
The play concerns the fate of a married woman, who, at the time in Norway, lacked reasonable opportunities for self-fulfillment in a male-dominated world. Despite the fact that Ibsen denied it was his intent to write a feminist play, it was a great sensation at the time and caused a "storm of outraged controversy" that went beyond the theater to the world of newspapers and society.
In 2006, the centennial of Ibsen's death, A Doll's House held the distinction of being the world's most-performed play that year. UNESCO has inscribed Ibsen's autographed manuscripts of A Doll's House on the Memory of the World Register in 2001, in recognition of their historical value.
The title of the play is most commonly translated as A Doll's House, though some scholars use A Doll House. John Simon says that A Doll's House is "the British term for what [Americans] call a 'dollhouse. Egil Törnqvist says of the alternative title: "Rather than being superior to the traditional rendering, it simply sounds more idiomatic to Americans."
==List of characters==
Nora Helmer
Wife of Torvald; she is a mother of three. She is living out the ideal of the 19th-century wife. She feels stifled in her marriage.
Torvald Helmer
Nora's husband; a recently promoted bank manager. He professes to be enamored of his wife.
Dr. Rank / Peter Rank
A family friend. He is terminally ill. The dialogue implies that his "tuberculosis of the spine" originates from a venereal disease contracted by his father.
(The character's name in Michael Meyer's 1965 translation is Peter Rank.)
Kristine Linde / Christine Linde
Nora's old school friend, widowed, is seeking employment. She was in a relationship with Krogstad prior to the play's setting.
(Some English translations localize the spelling of the name Kristine to Christine.)
Nils Krogstad
An employee at Torvald's bank. He is a single father pushed to desperation. We are led to believe that he is a scoundrel, but events reveal him to be a long-lost lover of Kristine.
The Children
Nora and Torvald's three children: Ivar, Bobby, and Emmy.
Anne Marie
Nanny to the Helmer children, and former nanny to their mother Nora. She says that she gave up her own daughter to "strangers" when she became the only mother that Nora knew..
Helene
The Helmers' maid.
The Porter
Delivers a Christmas tree to the Helmer household at the beginning of the play.
===Casting in some notable productions===
==Synopsis==
===Act One===
The play opens around Christmas time as Nora Helmer enters her home carrying many packages and presents. Nora's husband, Torvald, is working in his study when she arrives. He playfully rebukes her for spending so much money on Christmas gifts, calling her his "little squirrel". He teases her about how, the previous year, she had spent weeks making gifts and ornaments by hand because money was scarce. This year, Torvald is due a promotion at the bank where he works, so Nora feels that they can let themselves go a little. The maid announces two visitors: Mrs. Kristine Linde, an old friend of Nora's, who has come seeking employment; and Dr. Rank, a close friend of the family, who is let into the study. Kristine has had a difficult few years, ever since her husband died leaving her with no money or children. Nora says that things have not been easy for them either: Torvald became sick, and they had to travel to Italy so he could recover. Kristine explains that, when her mother was ill, she had to take care of her brothers, but, now that they are grown, she feels her life is "unspeakably empty". Nora promises to talk to Torvald about finding her a job. Kristine gently tells Nora that she is like a child. Nora is offended, so she tells her that she got money from "some admirer" so they could travel to Italy to improve Torvald's health. She told Torvald that her father gave her the money, but, in fact, she illegally borrowed it without his knowledge (women were forbidden from conducting financial activities such as signing checks without a man's endorsement). Since then, she has been secretly working and saving up to pay off the loan.
Krogstad, a lower-level employee at Torvald's bank, arrives and goes into the study. Nora is clearly uneasy when she sees him. Dr. Rank leaves the study and mentions that he feels wretched, though like everyone he wants to go on living. In contrast to his physical illness, he says that the man in the study, Krogstad, is "morally diseased".
After the meeting with Krogstad, Torvald comes out of the study. Nora asks him if he can give Kristine a position at the bank and Torvald is very positive, saying that this is a fortunate moment, as a position has just become available. Torvald, Kristine, and Dr. Rank leave the house, leaving Nora alone. The nanny returns with the children, and Nora plays with them for a while until Krogstad creeps through the ajar door into the living room and surprises her. Krogstad tells Nora that Torvald intends to fire him from the bank and asks her to intercede with Torvald to allow him to keep his job. She refuses, and Krogstad blackmails her about the loan she took out for the trip to Italy; he knows that she obtained this loan by forging her father's signature after his death. Krogstad leaves, and, when Torvald returns, Nora tries to convince him not to fire Krogstad. Torvald refuses to hear her pleas, explaining that Krogstad is a liar and a hypocrite and that, years before, he had committed a crime: he forged other people's signatures. Torvald feels physically ill in the presence of a man "poisoning his own children with lies and dissimulation".
===Act Two===
Kristine arrives to help Nora repair a dress for a costume function that she and Torvald plan to attend the next day. Torvald returns from the bank, and Nora pleads with him to reinstate Krogstad, claiming she is worried Krogstad will publish libelous articles about Torvald and ruin his career. Torvald dismisses her fears and explains that, although Krogstad is a good worker and seems to have turned his life around, he must be fired because he is too familiar around Torvald in front of other bank personnel. Torvald then retires to his study to work.
Dr. Rank then arrives. Nora asks him for a favor, but Rank responds by revealing that he has entered the terminal stage of his disease and that he has always been secretly in love with her. Nora tries to deny the first revelation and make light of it but is more disturbed by his declaration of love. She then clumsily attempts to tell him that she is not in love with him but loves him dearly as a friend.
Having been fired by Torvald, Krogstad arrives at the house. Nora convinces Dr. Rank to go into Torvald's study so he will not see Krogstad. When Krogstad confronts Nora, he declares that he no longer cares about the remaining balance of Nora's loan but that he will instead preserve the associated bond to blackmail Torvald into not only keeping him employed but also promoting him. Nora explains that she has done her best to persuade her husband, but he refuses to change his mind. Krogstad informs Nora that he has written a letter detailing her crime (forging her father's signature of surety on the bond) and put it in Torvald's mailbox, which is locked.
Nora tells Kristine of her difficult situation, gives her Krogstad's card with his address, and asks her to try to convince him to relent.
Torvald enters and tries to retrieve his mail, but Nora distracts him by begging him to help her with the dance she has been rehearsing for the costume party, feigning anxiety about performing. She dances so badly and acts so childishly that Torvald agrees to spend the whole evening coaching her. When the others go to dinner, Nora stays behind for a few minutes and contemplates killing herself.
===Act Three===
Kristine tells Krogstad that she only married her husband because she had no other means to support her sick mother and young siblings and that she has returned to offer him her love again. She believes that he would not have stooped to unethical behavior if he had not been devastated by her abandonment and in dire financial straits. Krogstad changes his mind and offers to take back his letter from Torvald. Kristine, however, decides that Torvald should know the truth for the sake of his and Nora's marriage.
After Torvald literally drags Nora home from the party, Rank follows them. They chat for a while, with Dr. Rank conveying obliquely to Nora that this is a final goodbye, as he has determined that his death is near. Dr. Rank leaves, and Torvald retrieves his letters. As he reads them, Nora prepares to run away for good, but Torvald confronts her with Krogstad's letter. Enraged, he declares that she is now completely in Krogstad's power; she must yield to Krogstad's demands and keep quiet about the whole affair. He berates Nora, calling her a dishonest and immoral woman and telling her that she is unfit to raise their children. He says that from now on their marriage will be only a matter of appearances.
A maid enters, delivering a letter from Krogstad to Nora, which Torvald demands to read himself. Torvald then exults that he is saved, as Krogstad has returned the incriminating bond, which Torvald immediately burns along with Krogstad's letters. He takes back his harsh words to his wife and tells her that he forgives her. Nora realizes that her husband is not the strong and gallant man she thought he was and that he truly loves himself more than he does Nora.
Torvald explains that, when a man has forgiven his wife, it makes him love her all the more since it reminds him that she is totally dependent on him, like a child. He preserves his peace of mind by thinking of the incident as a mere mistake that she made owing to her foolishness, one of her most endearing feminine traits.
Nora tells Torvald that she is leaving him and, in a confrontational scene, expresses her sense of betrayal and disillusionment. She says he has never loved her and they have become strangers to each other. She feels betrayed by his response to the scandal involving Krogstad, and she says she must get away to understand herself. She says that she has been treated like a doll to play with for her whole life, first by her father and then by him. Torvald insists that she fulfill her duty as a wife and mother, but Nora says that she has duties to herself that are just as important and that she cannot be a good mother or wife without learning to be more than a plaything. She reveals that she had expected that he would want to sacrifice his reputation for hers and that she had planned to kill herself to prevent him from doing so. She now realizes that Torvald is not at all the kind of person she had believed him to be and that their marriage has been based on mutual fantasies and misunderstandings.
Nora leaves her keys and wedding ring; Torvald breaks down and begins to cry, baffled by what has happened. After Nora leaves the room, Torvald, for one second, still has a sense of hope and exclaims to himself "The most wonderful thing of all—?", just before the door downstairs is heard closing.
===Alternative ending===
Ibsen's German agent felt that the original ending would not play well in German theaters. In addition, copyright laws of the time would not preserve Ibsen's original work. Therefore, for it to be considered acceptable, and prevent the translator from altering his work, Ibsen was forced to write an alternative ending for the German premiere. In this ending, Nora is led to her children after having argued with Torvald. Seeing them, she collapses, and as the curtain is brought down, it is implied that she stays. Ibsen later called the ending a disgrace to the original play and referred to it as a "barbaric outrage". Virtually all productions today use the original ending, as do nearly all the film versions of the play.
==Composition and publication==
===Real-life inspiration===
A Doll's House was based on the life of Laura Kieler (maiden name Laura Smith Petersen), a good friend of Ibsen. Much that happened between Nora and Torvald happened to Laura and her husband, Victor. Similar to the events in the play, Laura signed an illegal loan to save her husband's life—in this case, to find a cure for his tuberculosis. She wrote to Ibsen, asking for his recommendation of her work to his publisher, thinking that the sales of her book would repay her debt. At his refusal, she forged a check for the money. At this point, she was found out. In real life, when Victor discovered Laura's secret loan, he divorced her and had her committed to an asylum. Two years later, she returned to her husband and children at his urging, and she went on to become a well-known Danish author, living to the age of 83.
Ibsen wrote A Doll's House when Laura Kieler had been committed to the asylum. The fate of this friend of the family shook him deeply, perhaps also because Laura had asked him to intervene at a crucial point in the scandal, which he did not feel able or willing to do. Instead, he turned this life situation into an aesthetically shaped, successful drama. In the play, Nora leaves Torvald with head held high, though facing an uncertain future given the limitations single women faced in the society of the time.
Kieler eventually rebounded from the shame of the scandal and had her own successful writing career while remaining discontented with sole recognition as "Ibsen's Nora" years afterward.
===Composition===
Ibsen started thinking about the play around May 1878, although he did not begin its first draft until a year later, having reflected on the themes and characters in the intervening period (he visualized its protagonist, Nora, for instance, as having approached him one day wearing "a blue woolen dress"). He outlined his conception of the play as a "modern tragedy" in a note written in Rome on 19 October 1878. "A woman cannot be herself in modern society", he argues, since it is "an exclusively male society, with laws made by men and with prosecutors and judges who assess feminine conduct from a masculine standpoint!"
===Publication===
Ibsen sent a fair copy of the completed play to his publisher on 15 September 1879. It was first published in Copenhagen on 4 December 1879, in an edition of 8,000 copies that sold out within a month; a second edition of 3,000 copies followed on 4 January 1880, and a third edition of 2,500 was issued on 8 March.
==Production history==
A Doll's House received its world premiere on 21 December 1879 at the Royal Danish Theatre in Copenhagen, with Betty Hennings as Nora, Emil Poulsen as Torvald, and Peter Jerndorff as Dr. Rank. Writing for the Norwegian newspaper Folkets Avis, the critic Erik Bøgh admired Ibsen's originality and technical mastery: "Not a single declamatory phrase, no high dramatics, no drop of blood, not even a tear." Every performance of its run was sold out. Another production opened at the Royal Dramatic Theatre in Stockholm, on 8 January 1880, while productions in Christiania (with Johanne Juell as Nora and Arnoldus Reimers as Torvald) and Bergen followed shortly after.
In Germany, the actress Hedwig Raabe refused to perform the play as written, declaring, "I would never leave my children!" A production of this version opened in Flensburg in February 1880. This version was also played in Hamburg, Dresden, Hanover, and Berlin, although, in the wake of protests and a lack of success, Raabe eventually restored the original ending. This adaptation was produced at the Princess Theatre on 3 March 1884. Writing in 1896 in his book The Foundations of a National Drama, Jones says: "A rough translation from the German version of A Doll's House was put into my hands, and I was told that if it could be turned into a sympathetic play, a ready opening would be found for it on the London boards. I knew nothing of Ibsen, but I knew a great deal of Robertson and H. J. Byron. From these circumstances came the adaptation called Breaking a Butterfly." H. L. Mencken writes that it was A Doll's House "denaturized and dephlogisticated. [...] Toward the middle of the action Ibsen was thrown to the fishes, and Nora was saved from suicide, rebellion, flight and immorality by making a faithful old clerk steal her fateful promissory note from Krogstad's desk. [...] The curtain fell upon a happy home."
Before 1889, there were two private productions of the play in London (in its original form as Ibsen wrote it). In 1886, the first production in England took place at Eleanor Marx's lodgings in London and featured her as Nora and her friend George Bernard Shaw in the role of Krogstad; both were champions of Ibsen. Achurch played Nora again for a seven-day run in 1897. Soon after its London premiere, Achurch brought the play to Australia in 1889.
The play was first seen in the US in 1883 in Louisville, Kentucky; Helena Modjeska acted Nora. It was first performed in France in 1894.
The play was performed by 24/6: A Jewish Theater Company in March 2011, one of their early performances following their December 2010 Lower Manhattan launch.
In August 2013, Young Vic produced a new adaptation of A Doll's House directed by Carrie Cracknell based on the English language version by Simon Stephens. In September 2014, in partnership with Brisbane Festival, La Boite Theatre Company located in Brisbane, Australia, hosted an adaptation of A Doll's House written by Lally Katz and directed by Stephen Mitchell Wright. In June 2015, Space Arts Centre in London staged an adaptation of A Doll's House featuring the discarded alternate ending. 'Manaveli' Toronto staged a Tamil version of A Doll's House () on 30 June 2018, translated and directed by Mr P Vikneswaran. The drama was very well received by the Tamil community in Toronto and was staged again a few months later. The same stage play was filmed at the beginning of 2019 and screened in Toronto on 4 May 2019. The film was received with very good reviews, and the artists were hailed for their performance. Arrangements were made to screen the film in London, at Safari Cinema Harrow, on 7 July 2019. Though the plot largely remained unchanged, the protagonists were renamed Tom and Niru Helmer and a conversation was added regarding the British oppression of the Indian public. One significant shift was the lack of a slamming door at the end of the play. They also published a pack of teaching materials which includes extracts from the adapted play script.
A production of A Doll's House by The Jamie Lloyd Company starring Jessica Chastain was scheduled to play at the Playhouse Theatre in London in mid-2020. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the play was postponed to a later date. In November 2022, it was announced that the production would instead premiere on Broadway at the Hudson Theatre. It began previews on 13 February 2023 and officially opened on 9 March, running until 10 June. It starred Chastain, Arian Moayed, Michael Patrick Thornton, and Okieriete Onaodowan.
==Analysis and criticism==
A Doll's House questions the traditional roles of men and women in 19th-century marriage. To many 19th-century Europeans, this was scandalous. The covenant of marriage was considered holy, and to portray it as Ibsen did was controversial. The Irish playwright George Bernard Shaw, however, found Ibsen's willingness to examine society without prejudice exhilarating.
The Swedish playwright August Strindberg criticised the play in his volume of essays and short stories Getting Married (1884). Strindberg questioned Nora's walking out and leaving her children behind with a man that she herself disapproved of so much that she would not remain with him. Strindberg also considers that Nora's involvement with an illegal financial fraud that involved Nora forging a signature, all done behind her husband's back, and then Nora's lying to her husband regarding Krogstad's blackmail, are serious crimes that should raise questions at the end of the play, when Nora is moralistically judging her husband. Strindberg also points out that Nora's complaint that she and Torvald "have never exchanged one serious word about serious things" is contradicted by the discussions that occur in act one and two.
The reasons Nora leaves her husband are complex, and various details are hinted at throughout the play. In the last scene, she tells her husband she has been "greatly wronged" by his disparaging and condescending treatment of her, and his attitude towards her in their marriage—as though she were his "doll wife"—and the children in turn have become her "dolls", leading her to doubt her own qualifications to raise her children. She is troubled by her husband's behavior in regard to the scandal of the loaned money. She does not love her husband, feels completely confused and that they are strangers, and suggests that her issues are shared by many women. George Bernard Shaw suggests that she left to begin "a journey in search of self-respect and apprenticeship to life" and that her revolt is "the end of a chapter of human history". In a speech given to the Norwegian Association for Women's Rights in 1898, Ibsen insisted that he "must disclaim the honor of having consciously worked for the women's rights movement" since he wrote "without any conscious thought of making propaganda", his task having been "the description of humanity". The play, however, is associated with feminism, as Miriam Schneir includes it in her anthology Feminism: The Essential Historical Writings, labeling it as one of the essential feminist works.
Because of the departure from traditional behavior and theatrical convention involved in Nora's leaving home, her act of slamming the door as she leaves has come to represent the play itself. In Iconoclasts (1905), James Huneker noted "That slammed door reverberated across the roof of the world." Chinese writer Lu Xun evaluated the ending in the 1923 speech, What happens after Nora leaves home, in which he compares Nora's lack of economic independence to China's political and economic repression.
==Adaptations==
===Film===
A Doll's House has been adapted for the cinema on many occasions, including:
The 1922 lost silent film A Doll's House, starring Alla Nazimova as Nora.
The 1923 German silent film Nora, directed by Berthold Viertel. Nora was played by Olga Chekhova, who was born Olga Knipper, and was the niece and namesake of Anton Chekhov's wife. She was also Mikhail Chekhov's wife.
The 1943 Argentine film Casa de muñecas, starring Delia Garcés, which modernizes the story and uses the alternative ending.
The 1944 German film Nora, directed by Harald Braun, which retells the story in line with Nazi ideology on the place of women, resolving it with Nora in the home.
The 1954 Mexican film Casa de muñecas, directed by Alfredo B. Crevenna and starring Marga López, Ernesto Alonso and Miguel Torruco, sets the story in modern-day Mexico, adds a flashback framing device, turns Dr. Rank (renamed Dr. Eduardo Anguiano and played by Alonso, who gets second billing) into Nora's doomed suitor and savior, changes Nora's motivation for leaving her house, and adds a happy ending the following Christmas Eve.
Two film versions were released in 1973: A Doll's House, directed by Joseph Losey and starring Jane Fonda, David Warner, and Trevor Howard; and A Doll's House, directed by Patrick Garland and starring Claire Bloom, Anthony Hopkins, and Ralph Richardson.
Dariush Mehrjui's 1992 film Sara is based on A Doll's House, with the plot transferred to Iran. Sara, played by Niki Karimi, is the Nora of Ibsen's play.
In 2012, the Young Vic theater in London released a short film titled Nora with Hattie Morahan portraying what a modern-day Nora might look like.
In 2016, there were plans for a modernized adaptation starring Ben Kingsley as Doctor Rank and Michele Martin as Nora.
The 2020 US film Friend of the World, directed by Brian Patrick Butler and starring Nick Young, Alexandra Slade, and Michael C. Burgess, was described as "more like a stage play than a film". During a scene, one of the characters is reading Ibsen's play.
===Television===
The 1959 adaptation was a live version for US TV directed by George Schaefer. This version featured Julie Harris, Christopher Plummer, Hume Cronyn, Eileen Heckart, and Jason Robards.
In 1973, Norwegian TV produced an adaptation of A Doll's House titled Et dukkehjem, directed by Arild Brinchmann and starring Lise Fjeldstad as Nora Helmer.
In 1974, Danish Television produced an adaptation of A Doll's House titled Et dukkehjem, reworked by Leif Panduro, directed by Palle Kjærulff-Schmidt and starring Ghita Nørby as Nora and Preben Neergaard as Thorvald. Also featuring Henning Moritzen, Hanne Borchsenius, Ove Sprogøe, and Lily Broberg.
A 1974 West German television adaptation titled was directed by Rainer Werner Fassbinder and starred Margit Carstensen in the title role.
In 1992, David Thacker directed a British television adaptation with Juliet Stevenson, Trevor Eve, and David Calder.
===Radio===
A Lux Radio Theatre production on 6 June 1938 starred Joan Crawford as Nora and Basil Rathbone as Torvald.
A later version by the Theatre Guild on the Air on 19 January 1947 featured Rathbone again as Torvald with Dorothy McGuire as Nora.
In 2012, BBC Radio 3 broadcast an adaptation by Tanika Gupta transposing the setting to India in 1879, where Nora (renamed 'Niru') is an Indian woman married to Torvald (renamed 'Tom'), an English man working for the British Colonial Administration in Calcutta. This production starred Indira Varma as Niru and Toby Stephens as Tom.
===Restaging===
In 1989, film and stage director Ingmar Bergman staged and published a shortened reworking of the play, now entitled Nora, which entirely omitted the characters of the servants and the children, focusing more on the power struggle between Nora and Torvald. It was widely viewed as downplaying the feminist themes of Ibsen's original. The first staging of it in New York City was reviewed by The New York Times as heightening the play's melodramatic aspects. The Los Angeles Times stated that "Nora shores up A Doll's House in some areas but weakens it in others."
Lucas Hnath wrote A Doll's House, Part 2 in 2017, as a followup about Nora returning.
In 2017, performance artist Cherdonna Shinatra wrote and starred in a reworking of the play titled "Cherdonna's Doll House" under the direction of Ali Mohamed el-Gasseir. The production was staged at 12th Avenue Arts through Washington Ensemble Theatre. Brendan Kiley of The Seattle Times described it as a "triple-decker satire" in which "Cherdonna's version of Ibsen's play about femininity turns into a kind of memoir about Kuehner's neither-here-nor-there career identity."
In 2019, the Citizens Theatre in Glasgow performed Nora: A Doll's House by Stef Smith, a radical reworking of the play, with three actors playing Nora, simultaneously taking place in 1918, 1968, and 2018. The production later transferred to the Young Vic in London.
In 2019, Samuel Adamson's reworking of the play, titled Wife, was staged at the Kiln Theatre in Kilburn, London. It sets the play in different versions covering 80 years, between 1959 and 2042.
In 2022, Indian theatre director Amitesh Grover staged the play at the National School of Drama (India), expanding on the role of the female servants and designing an expressionistic set which collapsed on Nora's husband, Torvald Helmer, at the end of the play.
In 2023, Amy Herzog adapted a new version of the play directed by Jamie Lloyd and starring Jessica Chastain. This Broadway production began previews on February 13, 2023 at the Hudson Theatre, opened on March 9, 2023, and closed on June 10, 2023.
===Novels===
In 2019, memoirist, journalist, and professor Wendy Swallow published Searching for Nora: After the Doll's House. Swallow's historical novel tells the story of Nora Helmer's life from the moment in December 1879 that Nora walks out on her husband and young children at the close of A Doll's House. Swallow draws from her research into Ibsen's play and iconic protagonist, the realities of the time, and the 19th-century Norwegian emigration to the US, following Nora as she first struggles to survive in Christiania (today's Oslo) and then travels by boat, train, and wagon to a new home in the western prairie of Minnesota.
===Dance===
Stina Quagebeur's ballet Nora for the English National Ballet premiered in 2019, with Crystal Costa as Nora and Jeffrey Cirio as Torvald, set to Philip Glass's Tirol Concerto for Piano and Orchestra.
==Footnotes==
==General and cited sources==
Dukore, Bernard F., ed. 1974. Dramatic Theory and Criticism: Greeks to Grotowski. Florence, KY: Heinle & Heinle. .
|
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3,146 |
AIM-7 Sparrow
|
The AIM-7 Sparrow (Air Intercept Missile) is an American medium-range semi-active radar homing air-to-air missile operated by the United States Air Force, United States Navy, United States Marine Corps, and various other air forces and navies. Sparrow and its derivatives were the West's principal beyond visual range (BVR) air-to-air missile from the late 1950s until the 1990s. It remains in service, although it is being phased out in aviation applications in favor of the more advanced AIM-120 AMRAAM.
The early Sparrow was intended primarily for use against larger targets, especially bombers, and had numerous operational limitations in other uses. Against smaller targets, the need to receive a strong reflected radar signal made it difficult to achieve lock-on at the missile's effective range. As the launching aircraft's own radar needed to be pointed at the target throughout the engagement, this meant that in fighter-vs-fighter combat the enemy fighter would often approach within the range of shorter-range infrared homing missiles while the launching aircraft had to continue flying towards its target. Additionally, early models were only effective against targets at roughly the same or higher altitudes, below which reflections from the ground became a problem.
A number of upgraded Sparrow designs were developed to address these issues. In the early 1970s, the RAF developed the Skyflash version with an inverse monopulse seeker and improved motor, while the Italian Air Force introduced the similar Aspide. Both could be fired at targets below the launching fighter ("look-down, shoot-down"), were more resistant to countermeasures, and were much more accurate in the terminal phase. This basic concept then became part of the US Sparrows in the M model (for monopulse) and some of these were later updated as the P model, the last to be produced in the US. Aspides sold to China resulted in the locally produced PL-11. The Japan Self-Defense Forces also employ the Sparrow missile, though it is being phased out and replaced by the Mitsubishi AAM-4.
The Sparrow was also used as the basis for a surface-to-air missile, the RIM-7 Sea Sparrow, used by a number of navies for air defense. Fired at low altitude and flying directly at its target, though, the range of the missile in this role is greatly reduced because of the higher air density of the lower atmosphere. With the retirement of the Sparrow in the air-to-air role, a new version of the Sea Sparrow was produced to address this concern, producing the larger and more capable RIM-162 ESSM.
==Development==
===Sparrow I===
The Sparrow emerged from a late-1940s United States Navy program to develop a guided rocket weapon for air-to-air use. In 1947 the Navy contracted Sperry to build a beam-riding version of a standard HVAR, the standard unguided aerial rocket, under Project Hotshot. The weapon was initially dubbed KAS-1, then AAM-2, and — from 1948 on — AAM-N-2. The airframe was developed by the Douglas Aircraft Company. The diameter of the HVAR proved to be inadequate for the electronics, leading Douglas to expand the missile's airframe to diameter. The prototype weapon began unpowered flight tests in 1947, and made its first aerial interception in 1952. In 1956, they were joined by the McDonnell F3H-2M Demon and Vought F7U Cutlass fighter aircraft. Compared to the modern versions, the Sparrow I was more streamlined and featured a bullet-shaped airframe with a long pointed nose.
Sparrow I was a limited and rather primitive weapon. The limitations of beam-riding guidance (which was slaved to an optical sight on single-seater fighters and to radar on night fighters) restricted the missile to attacks against targets flying a straight course and made it essentially useless against a maneuvering target. Only about 2,000 rounds were produced to this standard.
===Sparrow II===
As early as 1950, Douglas examined equipping the Sparrow with an active radar seeker, initially known as XAAM-N-2a Sparrow II, the original retroactively becoming Sparrow I. In 1952, it was given the new code AAM-N-3. The active radar made the Sparrow II a "fire and forget" weapon, allowing several to be fired at separate targets at the same time.
By 1955, Douglas proposed going ahead with development, intending it to be the primary weapon for the F5D Skylancer interceptor. It was later selected, with some controversy, to be the primary weapon for the Canadian Avro Arrow supersonic interceptor, along with the new Astra fire-control system. For Canadian use and as a second source for US missiles, Canadair was selected to build the missiles in Quebec.
The small size of the missile forebody and the K-band AN/APQ-64-radar limited performance, and it was never able to work in testing. After considerable development and test firings in the U.S. and Canada, Douglas abandoned development in 1956. Canadair continued development until the Arrow was cancelled in 1959.
===Sparrow III===
Concurrently with the development of the Sparrow I, in 1951 Raytheon began work on a semi-active radar-homing version, the AAM-N-6 Sparrow III. The first of these weapons entered United States Navy service in 1958.
The AAM-N-6a was similar to the -6, and included changes to the guidance electronics to make it effective at higher closing speeds. It was originally designed to take the Thiokol LR44-RM-2 liquid-fuel rocket motor, but the decision was made to retain the solid fuel rocket motor. The -6a was also selected to arm the Air Force's F-110A Spectre (F-4 Phantom) fighters in 1962, known to them as the AIM-101. It entered production in 1959, with 7500 being built.
With an improved Rocketdyne solid-fuel motor, the AAM-N-6b started production in 1963. The new motor significantly increased the maximum range to for head-on attacks. This new missile also improved tail-on performance, with the AAM-N-6a being capable of firing on only targets with 300 ft/sec closing velocity, and AAM-N-6b being capable of firing on targets with a 300 knot opening velocity (-300 knot closing velocity or higher).
During this year the Air Force and Navy agreed on standardized naming conventions for their missiles. The Sparrows became the AIM-7 series. The original Sparrow I and aborted Sparrow II became the AIM-7A and AIM-7B, despite both being out of service. The -6, -6a, and -6b became the AIM-7C, AIM-7D, and AIM-7E respectively.
25,000 AIM-7Es were produced and saw extensive use during the Vietnam War, where its performance was considered disappointing. The mixed results were a combination of reliability problems (exacerbated by the tropical climate), limited pilot training in fighter-to-fighter combat, and restrictive rules of engagement that generally prohibited BVR (beyond visual range) engagements. The Pk (kill probability) of the AIM-7E was less than 10%; US fighter pilots shot down 59 aircraft out of the 612 Sparrows fired. Of the 612 AIM-7D/E/E-2 missiles fired, 97 (or 15.8%) hit their targets, resulting in 56 (or 9.2%) kills. Two kills were obtained beyond visual range.
In 1969, an improved version, the E-2, was introduced with clipped wings and various changes to the fuzing. Considered a "dogfight Sparrow", the AIM-7E-2 was intended to be used at shorter ranges where the missile was still travelling at high speeds, and in the head-on aspect, making it much more useful in the visual limitations imposed on the engagements. Even so, its kill rate was only 13% in combat, leading to a practice of ripple-firing all four at once in hopes of increasing kill probability. Its worst tendency was to detonate prematurely about 1,000 feet ahead of the launching aircraft, but it also had many motor failures, erratic flights, and fuzing problems. An E-3 version included additional changes to the fuzing, and the E-4 featured a modified seeker for use with the F-14 Tomcat.
===Vietnam War (1965–1973) records===
===Post Vietnam===
Work began in the mid 1960s on a new version in an attempt to address the weapon's limitations. The AIM-7F, which entered service in 1976, had a dual-stage rocket motor for longer range and solid-state electronics for greatly improved reliability. The reduction in volume from the new guidance system also enabled a larger warhead to be fitted, improving the missile's lethality.
The issues encountered by AIM-7 were not exclusive to the US either, with both British Aerospace and the Italian firm Selenia developing improved missiles at the behest of their national governments as the BAe Skyflash and Selenia Aspide. Notably, both missiles incorporated more reliable inverse monopulse seekers, a feature American AIM-7s would not gain until the 1980s.
The most common version of the Sparrow today, the AIM-7M, entered service in 1982 and featured a new inverse monopulse seeker (matching the capabilities of Skyflash and Aspide), active radar proximity fuse, digital controls, improved ECM resistance, and better low-altitude performance. It was used to good advantage in the 1991 Gulf War, where it scored many USAF air-to-air kills. Of 44 missiles fired, 30 (68.2%) hit their intended targets resulting in 24/26 (54.5%/59.1%) kills. 19 kills were obtained beyond visual range.
The AIM-7P is similar in most ways to the M versions, and was primarily an upgrade for existing M-series missiles. Changes were mainly to the software, improving low-level performance. A follow-on Block II upgrade added a new rear receiver allowing the missile to receive mid-course correction from the launching aircraft. Plans initially called for all M versions to be upgraded, but currently P's are being issued as required to replace M's lost or removed from the inventory.
The U.S. Navy planned to operate the missile through 2018.
The Sparrow is now being phased out with the availability of the active-radar AIM-120 AMRAAM, but is likely to remain in service for several years.
===Variants===
File:Australian F-18A Hornet launches Sparrow missile c1990.jpg|An Australian F-18A Hornet fires an AIM-7 Sparrow missile.
File:F-4C 154 FIS AIM-7E AIM-9P 1980.JPEG|AIM-7Es being loaded on a Hawaii ANG F-4C in 1980
File:F-4G 37FW AIM-7F AGM-65A AGM-88 1988.JPEG|AIM-7Ms on a 37th TFW F-4G in 1988
File:AIM-7 wing install.jpg|Wings being installed on an AIM-7
File:Loading AIM-7.jpg|An AIM-7M being loaded
File:USAF F-15C fires AIM-7 Sparrow 2.jpg|A USAF F-15C fires an AIM-7 Sparrow.
=== Proposals ===
Sparrow X was a subvariant of the Sparrow I armed with the same nuclear warhead as the MB-1 Genie was proposed in 1958 but was cancelled shortly thereafter.
AIM-7F Multishot was a proposal under the US Navy's F-4X program of the 1960s to equip the then under development missiles and their launch platforms with a datalink for track-via-missile guidance akin to that of AIM-54 Phoenix, which would enable multiple AIM-7 missiles to be guided simultaneously. As each missile would only need terminal illumination from the F-4's radar, it could engage multiple aircraft simultaneously as long as it kept all targets within view of its radar. As this modification would have required all-new solid state electronics for the AN/AWG-10 radars on the launching F-4s, it was not pursued.
AIM-7R was to add an infrared homing seeker to an otherwise unchanged AIM-7P Block II. A general wind-down of the budget led to it being cancelled in 1997.
==Foreign versions==
===Canada===
As part of the Avro Canada CF-105 Arrow program, Canadair (now Bombardier) partnered with Douglas Aircraft Company in the development of the Sparrow II (AAM-N-3/AIM-7B). After Douglas dropped out of this program, Canadair continued on with it until the termination of the Arrow project.
The AAM-N-3 Sparrow II was unique in that it had a fully active radar guidance system. unlike Semi-active radar homing (SARH) missiles which require continuous radar-assisted guidance throughout flight. This allowed the aircraft that fired the AAM-N-3 to turn away, prosecute other targets, and/or escape from potential retaliatory missiles fired by the enemy aircraft during the time it took for the Sparrow to reach its target. Despite the significant advantages of this design over SARH guidance, all subsequent models of the Sparrow use semi-active radar homing.
To accommodate the active radar guidance system, the AAM-N-3 Sparrow II had a much greater volume than its predecessor. Its size would subsequently set the precedent for all future Sparrow variants.
===People's Republic of China===
The PL-11 and HQ-6 are a family of Chinese missiles developed by the Shanghai Academy of Science and Technology, largely based on the Italian Aspide version of the Sparrow missile.
===Soviet Union===
The Soviet Union acquired an AIM-7 in 1968 and a Vympel team started copying it as the K-25. The missile did not enter production as the R-23 was thought to have better versatility, range, signal processing logic, and immunity to interference. K-25 work ended in 1971, but analysis of the Sparrow was later used to inform the design of the Vympel R-27, particularly the servomechanisms and movable wings.
===UK===
British Aerospace (BAe) licensed the AIM-7E-2 technology in the 1970s, producing the Skyflash missile. Skyflash used a Marconi XJ521 monopulse seeker together with improvements to the electronics. It was powered by the Aerojet Mk52 mod 2 rocket engine (later by the Rocketdyne Mk38 mod 4). Skyflash entered service with the Royal Air Force (RAF) on their Phantom FG.1 & FGR.2 in 1978, and later on the Tornado F.3. Skyflash was also exported to Sweden for use on their Viggen fighters.
An upgraded version with active radar seeker called Active Sky Flash was proposed by BAe and Thomson-CSF, but the RAF opted to procure AIM-120 AMRAAM instead.
==Design==
The Sparrow has four major sections: guidance section, warhead, control, and rocket motor (currently the Hercules MK-58 solid-propellant rocket motor). It has a cylindrical body with four wings at mid-body and four tail fins. Although the external dimensions of the Sparrow remained relatively unchanged from model to model, the internal components of newer missiles represent major improvements, with vastly increased capabilities. The warhead is of the continuous-rod type.
As with other semi-active radar guided missiles, the missile does not generate radar signals, but instead homes in on reflected continuous-wave signals from the launch platform's radar. The receiver also senses the guidance radar to enable comparisons that enhance the missile's resistance to passive jamming.
==Principle of guidance ==
The launching aircraft illuminates the target with its radar. In 1950s radars, these were single-target tracking devices using a nutating horn as part of the antenna, thereby sweeping the beam in a small cone. Signal processing is applied to determine the direction of maximum illumination, thereby developing a signal to steer the antenna toward the target. The missile detects the reflected signal from the target with a high-gain antenna in a similar fashion and steers the entire missile toward closure with the target. The missile guidance also samples a portion of the illuminating signal via rearward-pointing waveguides. The comparison of these two signals enabled logic circuits to determine the true target reflection signal, even if the target were to eject radar-reflecting chaff.
==Operators==
|
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"13th TFS",
"Raytheon",
"Quebec",
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"air-to-air missile",
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"RIM-162 ESSM",
"Look-down/shoot-down",
"MiG-19",
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"Bombardier Inc.",
"semi-active radar homing",
"Avro Canada CF-105 Arrow",
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"McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II",
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"fighter aircraft",
"Hill Air Force Base",
"Alenia Aspide",
"Vietnam War"
] |
3,147 |
AIM-120 AMRAAM
|
The AIM-120 Advanced Medium-Range Air-to-Air Missile (AMRAAM) ( ) is an American beyond-visual-range air-to-air missile capable of all-weather day-and-night operations. It uses active transmit-receive radar guidance instead of semi-active receive-only radar guidance. When an AMRAAM missile is launched, NATO pilots use the brevity code "Fox Three".
The AMRAAM largely replaced the AIM-7 Sparrow as the principal beyond-visual-range air-to-air missile in U.S. inventory. more than 14,000 had been produced for the United States Air Force, the United States Navy, and 33 international customers. The AMRAAM has been used in several engagements, achieving 16 air-to-air kills in conflicts over Iraq, Bosnia, Kosovo, India, and Syria. In the long term, it is expected to eventually be replaced by the long range AIM-260 JATM in U.S. service and the MBDA Meteor in some European countries.
==Origins==
===AIM-7 Sparrow MRM===
The AIM-7 Sparrow medium range missile (MRM) was purchased by the US Navy from original developer Hughes Aircraft in the 1950s as its first operational air-to-air missile with "beyond visual range" (BVR) capability. With an effective range of about , it was introduced as a radar beam-riding missile and then it was improved to a semi-active radar guided missile which would home in on reflections from a target illuminated by the radar of the launching aircraft. It was effective at visual to beyond visual range. The early beam riding versions of the Sparrow missiles were integrated onto the McDonnell F3H Demon and Vought F7U Cutlass, but the definitive AIM-7 Sparrow was the primary weapon for the all-weather McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II fighter/interceptor, which lacked an internal gun in its U.S. Navy, U.S. Marine Corps, and early U.S. Air Force versions. The F-4 carried up to four AIM-7s in built-in recesses under its belly.
Designed for use against non-maneuvering targets such as bombers, the missiles initially performed poorly against fighters over North Vietnam, and were progressively improved until they proved highly effective in dogfights. Together with the short-range, infrared-guided AIM-9 Sidewinder, they replaced the AIM-4 Falcon IR and radar guided series for use in air combat by the USAF as well. A disadvantage to semi-active homing was that only one target could be illuminated by the launching fighter plane at a time. Also, the launching aircraft had to remain pointed in the direction of the target (within the azimuth and elevation of its own radar set) which could be difficult or dangerous in air-to-air combat.
An active-radar variant called the Sparrow II was developed to address these drawbacks, but the U.S. Navy pulled out of the project in 1956. The Royal Canadian Air Force, which took over development in the hopes of using the missile to arm their prospective Avro Canada CF-105 Arrow interceptor, soon followed in 1958. The electronics of the time simply could not be miniaturized enough to make Sparrow II a viable working weapon. It would take decades, and a new generation of digital electronics, to produce an effective active-radar air-to-air missile as compact as the Sparrow.
===AIM-54 Phoenix LRM===
The US Navy later developed the AIM-54 Phoenix long-range missile (LRM) for the fleet air defense mission. It was a large , Mach 5 missile designed to counter cruise missiles and the bombers that launched them. Originally intended for the straight-wing Douglas F6D Missileer and then the navalized General Dynamics–Grumman F-111B, it finally saw service with the Grumman F-14 Tomcat, the only fighter capable of carrying such a heavy missile. The Phoenix was the first US fire-and-forget, multiple-launch, radar-guided missile: one which used its own active guidance system to guide itself without help from the launch aircraft when it closed on its target. This, in theory, gave a Tomcat with a six-Phoenix load the unprecedented capability of tracking and destroying up to six targets beyond visual range, as far as away—the only US fighter with such capability.
A full load of six Phoenix missiles and its dedicated launcher exceeded a typical Vietnam-era bomb load. Its service in the US Navy was primarily as a deterrent, as its use was hampered by restrictive rules of engagement in conflicts such as 1991 Gulf War, Southern Watch (enforcing no-fly zones), and Iraq War. The US Navy retired the Phoenix in 2004 in light of availability of the AIM-120 AMRAAM on the McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet and the pending retirement of the F-14 Tomcat from active service in late 2006.
===ACEVAL/AIMVAL===
The Department of Defense conducted an extensive evaluation of air combat tactics and missile technology from 1974 to 1978 at Nellis AFB using the F-14 Tomcat and F-15 Eagle equipped with Sparrow and Sidewinder missiles as the blue force and aggressor F-5E aircraft equipped with AIM-9L all-aspect Sidewinders as the red force. This joint test and evaluation (JT&E) was designated Air Combat Evaluation/Air Intercept Missile Evaluation (ACEVAL/AIMVAL). A principal finding was that the necessity to produce illumination for the Sparrow until impact resulted in the red force's being able to launch their all-aspect Sidewinders before impact, resulting in mutual kills. What was needed was Phoenix-type multiple-launch and terminal active capability in a Sparrow-size airframe. This led to a memorandum of agreement (MOA) with European allies (principally the UK and Germany for development) for the US to develop an advanced, medium-range, air-to-air missile with the USAF as lead service.
====ASRAAM====
The MOA also saw an agreement to develop a replacement for the Sidewinder, specifically; an advanced ‘dogfight’ air-to-air missile, capable of better covering the range disparity that would emerge between such short-range missiles and the eventual AMRAAM. This task fell to a British-German design team, with the Germans leaving the project in 1989. The missile would emerge as the British Advanced Short Range Air-to-Air Missile (ASRAAM), entering service in 1998. While the U.S. never adopted the ASRAAM — instead opting to continue upgrading the Sidewinder — the ASRAAM did enter into service with the British, Indian, and Australian militaries. The UK has continued to upgrade the ASRAAM, with the ‘Block 6’ variant entering service in 2022.
===Requirements===
By the 1990s, the reliability of the Sparrow had improved significantly, relative to its use in Vietnam, with it accounting for the largest number of aerial targets destroyed in the Desert Storm phase of the Gulf War. However, while the USAF had passed on the Phoenix and its own similar AIM-47 Falcon/Lockheed YF-12 to optimize dogfight performance, it still needed a multiple-launch fire-and-forget capability for the F-15 and F-16. The AMRAAM would need to be fitted on fighters as small as the F-16, and fit in the same spaces that were designed to fit the Sparrow on the F-4 Phantom. The European partners needed AMRAAM to be integrated on aircraft as small as the BAe Sea Harrier. The US Navy needed the AMRAAM to be carried on the F/A-18 Hornet and wanted capability for two to be carried on a launcher that normally carried one Sparrow to allow for more air-to-ground weapons. Finally, the AMRAAM became one of the primary air-to-air weapons of the new Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor fighter, which needed to place all of its weapons into internal weapons bays in order to help achieve an extremely low radar cross-section.
==Development==
AMRAAM was developed as the result of an agreement (the Family of Weapons MOA, no longer in effect by 1990), among the United States and several other NATO nations to develop air-to-air missiles and to share production technology. Under this agreement, the U.S. was to develop the next generation medium range missile (AMRAAM) and Europe would develop the next generation short range missile (ASRAAM). Although Europe initially adopted the AMRAAM, an effort to develop the MDBA Meteor, a competitor to AMRAAM, was begun in UK. Eventually, the ASRAAM was developed solely by the British, but using another source for its infrared seeker. After protracted development, the deployment of AMRAAM (AIM-120A) began in September 1991 in US Air Force McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle fighter squadrons. The US Navy soon followed (in 1993) in its McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet squadrons.
The Russian Air Force counterpart of AMRAAM is the somewhat similar R-77 (NATO codename AA-12 Adder), sometimes referred to in the West as the "AMRAAMski". Likewise, France began its own air-to-air missile development with the MICA concept that used a common airframe for separate radar-guided and infrared-guided versions.
==Operational history==
===United States===
The AMRAAM was used operationally for the first time on December 27, 1992, when a USAF General Dynamics F-16D Fighting Falcon shot down an Iraqi MiG-25 that violated the southern no-fly-zone. This missile had been returned from the flight line as defective a day earlier. The AMRAAM gained a second victory in January 1993 when an Iraqi MiG-23 was shot down by a USAF F-16C.
On 28 February 1994, a Republika Srpska Air Force J-21 Jastreb aircraft was shot down by a USAF F-16C that was patrolling the UN-imposed no-fly zone over Bosnia. In that engagement, at least three other Serbian aircraft were shot down by USAF F-16Cs using AIM-9 missiles (Banja Luka incident). At that point, three launches in combat had resulted in three kills, resulting in the AMRAAMs being informally named "slammer" in the second half of the 1990s.
In 1994, two USAF F-15 fighters patrolling Iraq's Northern No-Fly Zone mistook a pair of US Army Black Hawk helicopters for Iraqi helicopters, and shot them down. One was downed with an AIM-120, and one with an AIM-9 Sidewinder.
In 1998 and 1999 AMRAAMs were again fired by USAF F-15 fighters at Iraqi aircraft violating the No-Fly-Zone, but this time they failed to hit their targets. During spring 1999, AMRAAMs saw their main combat action during Operation Allied Force, the Kosovo bombing campaign. Six Serbian MiG-29s were shot down by NATO (four USAF F-15Cs, one USAF F-16C, and one Dutch F-16A MLU), all of them using AIM-120 missiles (the supposed kill by the F-16C may have actually been friendly fire, a man-portable SA-7 fired by Serbian infantry).
On 18 June 2017, a US Boeing F/A-18E Super Hornet engaged and shot down a Sukhoi Su-22 of the Syrian Air Force over northern Syria, using an AIM-120. An AIM-9X Sidewinder had failed to bring down the Syrian jet. Some sources have claimed the AIM-9X was decoyed by flares, although the F/A-18E pilot, Lieutenant Commander Michael "MOB" Tremel stated it was unclear why the AIM-9X failed, mentioning no use of flares by the Su-22, saying "I [lost] the smoke trail, and I have no idea what happened to the missile at that point".
===Turkey===
On 23 March 2014 a Turkish Air Force F-16 from 182 Squadron shot down a Syrian Arab Air Force MiG-23BN with an AIM-120C-7.
On 24 November 2015 a Turkish Air Force F-16 shot down a Russian Su-24M strike aircraft with an AIM-120 missile over northern Syria after it allegedly crossed into Turkish airspace.
On 1 March 2020, Turkish Air Force F-16s downed two Su-24s belonging to the Syrian Air Force using two AIM-120C-7s.
On 3 March 2020, a Syrian Air Force L-39 was shot down over Idlib by Turkish Air Force F-16s from inside Turkish airspace with AIM-120C-7 at a distance of about . As of 2020, this has been the longest range AIM-120 kill.
===Pakistan===
On 27 February 2019, India stated that Pakistan Air Force (PAF) used AMRAAMs during Operation Swift Retort. Indian officials displayed fragments of an alleged AIM-120C-5 missile as a proof of its usage during the engagement. Pakistan Air Force (PAF) shot down an Indian Mig 21 and claimed to have shot down an Indian Su-30MKI as well. Neutral observers have confirmed the downing of an Indian Mig-21 whose pilot was captured by the Pakistani forces and later released as a goodwill gesture.
===Saudi Arabia===
During the Yemeni War, Saudi Arabia extensively used F-15 and Typhoon aircraft together with Patriot batteries to intercept and down Yemeni drones and missiles. In November 2021, a possible Foreign Military Sales contract was notified to the US Congress regarding the provision to Saudi Arabia for a mix of 280 AIM-120C-7 and C-8 missiles and related support equipment and service that would be used on Saudi F-15 and Typhoon aircraft. The deal was required to replenish Saudi missiles stock, running low due to extensive use of AMRAAMs and Patriots against Yemeni missiles and drones.
===Spain===
On 7 August 2018, a Spanish Air Force Eurofighter Typhoon accidentally launched a missile in Estonia. There were no human casualties, but a ten-day search operation for the missile was unsuccessful.
== Effectiveness ==
The kill probability (Pk) is determined by several factors, including aspect (head-on interception, side-on or tail-chase), altitude, the speed of the missile and the target, and how hard the target can turn. Typically, if the missile has sufficient energy during the terminal phase, which comes from being launched at close range to the target from an aircraft with an altitude and speed advantage, it will have a good chance of success. This chance drops as the missile is fired at longer ranges as it runs out of overtake speed at long ranges, and if the target can force the missile to turn it might bleed off enough speed that it can no longer chase the target. Operationally, the missile, which was designed for beyond visual range combat, has a Pk of 0.59. The targets included six MiG-29s, a MiG-25, a MiG-23, two Su-22s, a Galeb, and a US Army Blackhawk that was targeted by mistake. giving it the ability to switch over from active radar homing to passive homing – homing on jamming signals from the target aircraft. Software on board the missile allows it to detect if it is being jammed, and guide on its target using the proper guidance system.
==Guidance system overview==
===Interception course stage===
AMRAAM uses two-stage guidance when fired at long range.
The aircraft passes data to the missile just before launch, giving it information about the location of the target aircraft from the launch point, including its direction and speed. This information is generally obtained using the launching aircraft's radar, although it could come from an infrared search and track system, from another fighter aircraft via a data link, or from an AWACS aircraft. Using its built-in inertial navigation system (INS), the missile uses the information provided pre-launch to fly on an interception course toward the target.
After launch, if the firing aircraft or surrogate continues to track the target, periodic updates, e.g. changes in the target's direction and speed, are sent from the launch aircraft to the missile, allowing the missile to adjust its course, via actuation of the rear fins, so that it is able to close to a self-homing distance where it will be close enough to "catch" the target aircraft in the basket (the missile's radar field of view in which it will be able to lock onto the target aircraft, unassisted by the launch aircraft).
Not all armed services using the AMRAAM have elected to purchase the mid-course update option, which limits AMRAAM's effectiveness in some scenarios. The RAF initially opted not to use mid-course update for its Tornado F3 force, only to discover that without it, testing proved the AMRAAM was less effective in beyond visual range (BVR) engagements than the older semi-active radar homing BAE Skyflash (a development of the Sparrow), since the AIM-120's own radar is necessarily of lesser range and power as compared to that of the launch aircraft.
===Terminal stage and impact===
Once the missile closes to self-homing distance, it turns on its active radar seeker and searches for the target aircraft. If the target is in or near the expected location, the missile will find it and guide itself to the target from this point. If the missile is fired at short range, within visual range (WVR) or the near BVR, it can use its active seeker just after launch to guide it to intercept.
===Boresight Visual mode===
Apart from the radar-slaved mode, there is a free guidance mode, called "Visual". This mode is host-aircraft radar guidance-free—the missile just fires and locks onto the first thing it sees. This mode can be used for defensive shots, i.e. when the enemy has numerical superiority.
==Variants and upgrades==
===Air-to-air missile versions===
There are currently four main variants of AMRAAM, all in service with the United States Air Force, United States Navy, and the United States Marine Corps.
===AIM-120A===
AIM-120A is no longer in production and shares the enlarged wings and fins with the successor, the AIM-120B.
===AIM-120B===
AIM-120B deliveries began in 1994. This variant had improved electronics, including a digital processor, upgraded memory, and electronic unit hardware chassis upgrades.
===AIM-120C===
AIM-120C deliveries began in 1996. The C-variant has been steadily upgraded since it was introduced.The AIM-120C has smaller "clipped" aerosurfaces to enable increased internal carriage on the USAF F-22 Raptor from four to six AMRAAMs. The AIM-120C-5 and above have an improved HOBs (High Off Bore-Sight) capability which improves its G overload and seekers field of view over the previous variants allowing the missile to be more maneuverable and be used at targets that are offset from the launching aircraft frontal view which allows for greater flexibility during air-to-air combat. The AIM-120C-6 contained an improved fuze (Target Detection Device) compared to its predecessor. The AIM-120C-7 development began in 1998 and included improvements in homing and greater range (actual amount of improvement unspecified). It was successfully tested in 2003 and is currently being produced for both domestic and foreign customers. It helped the U.S. Navy replace the F-14 Tomcats with F/A-18E/F Super Hornets – the loss of the F-14's long-range AIM-54 Phoenix missiles (already retired) is offset with a longer-range AMRAAM-D. The lighter weight of the enhanced AMRAAM enables an F/A-18E/F pilot greater bring-back weight upon carrier landings.
===FMRAAM===
The FMRAAM (Future Medium Range Air to Air Missile) was a modified ramjet powered version of the AMRAAM that was conceived during the mid-1990s to fulfill British requirements for a new longer range missile on their new Eurofighter Typhoon fighter. The FMRAAM was to use the Aérospatiale liquid fueled RASCAL (Ramjet for Small Calibre) propulsion system. It competed with and lost to the MBDA Meteor, thus never reaching production.
Work on a ramjet motor for the AMRAAM continued under the Variable Flow Ducted Rocket - Flight Vehicle Concept (VFDR-FVC) program in the 2000s, with a prototype demonstrator tested by Aerojet by 2008.
===AIM-120D===
AIM-120D is an upgraded version of the AMRAAM with improvements in almost all areas, including 50% greater range (than the already-extended range AIM-120C-7) and better guidance over its entire flight envelope yielding an improved kill probability (Pk). Initial production began in 2006 under the Engineering and Manufacturing Development phase of program testing and ceased in September 2009. Raytheon began testing the D model on August 5, 2008, the company reported that an AIM-120D launched from an F/A-18F Super Hornet passed within lethal distance of a QF-4 target drone at the White Sands Missile Range. The range of the AIM-120D is classified, but is thought to extend to about or potentially up to .
The AIM-120D (P3I Phase 4) is a development of the AIM-120C with a two-way data link, more accurate navigation using a GPS-enhanced IMU, an expanded no-escape envelope, improved HOBS (high off-boresight) capability, and a max speed of Mach 4. The AIM-120D is a joint USAF/USN project for which Follow-on Operational Test and Evaluation (FOT&E) was completed in 2014. The USN was scheduled to field it from 2014, and AIM-120D will be carried by all Pacific carrier groups by 2020, although the 2013 sequestration cuts could push back this later date to 2022. The Royal Australian Air Force requested 450 AIM-120D missiles, which would make it the first foreign operator of the missile. The procurement, approved by the US Government in April 2016, will cost $1.1 billion and will be integrated for use on the F/A-18F Super Hornet, EA-18G Growler and the F-35 Lightning II aircraft.
There were also plans for Raytheon to develop a ramjet-powered derivative of the AMRAAM, the Future Medium Range Air-Air Missile (FMRAAM). The FMRAAM was not produced since the target market, the British Ministry of Defence, chose the Meteor missile over the FMRAAM for a BVR missile for the Eurofighter Typhoon aircraft.
Raytheon is also working with the Missile Defense Agency to develop the Network Centric Airborne Defense Element (NCADE), an anti-ballistic missile derived from the AIM-120. This weapon will be equipped with a ramjet engine and an infrared homing seeker derived from the Sidewinder missile. In place of a proximity-fuzed warhead, the NCADE will use a kinetic energy hit-to-kill vehicle based on the one used in the Navy's RIM-161 Standard Missile 3.
The -120A and -120B models are currently nearing the end of their service life while the -120D variant achieved initial operational capability in 2015. AMRAAM was due to be replaced by the USAF, the U.S. Navy, and the U.S. Marine Corps after 2020 by the Joint Dual Role Air Dominance Missile (Next Generation Missile), but it was terminated in the 2013 budget plan. Exploratory work was started in 2017 on a replacement called Long-Range Engagement Weapon.
In 2017, work on the AIM-260 Joint Advanced Tactical Missile (JATM) began to create a longer-ranged replacement for the AMRAAM to contend with foreign weapons like the Chinese PL-15. Flight tests are planned to begin in 2021 and initial operational capability is slated for 2022, facilitating the end of AMRAAM production by 2026. In July 2022, Raytheon announced the AIM-120D-3 became the longest-range variant in testing, as well as an air-launched adaptation of the NASAMS-based AMRAAM-ER called the AMRAAM-AXE (air-launched extended envelope). The development of AIM-120D-3 and AMRAAM-AXE is likely driven by the PL-15 performance. The AIM-120D-3 and the AIM-120C-8 variant for international customers were developed under the Form, Fit, Function Refresh (F3R) program and feature 15 upgraded circuit cards in the missile guidance section and the capability to continuously upgrade future software enhancements.
===Ground-launched systems===
The Norwegian Advanced Surface-to-Air Missile System (NASAMS), developed by Kongsberg Defence & Aerospace and fielded in 1994–1995, consists of a number of towed batteries (containing six AMRAAM launching canisters with integrated launching rails) along with separate radar trucks and control station vehicles.
The US Marine Corps and the US Army tested launching AMRAAM missiles from a six-rail carrier on HMMWV as part of their CLAWS (Complementary Low-Altitude Weapon System) and SLAMRAAM (Surface Launched AMRAAM) programs, which were canceled due to budgetary cuts. A more recent version is the High Mobility Launcher for the NASAMS, made in cooperation with Raytheon (Kongsberg Defence & Aerospace was already a subcontractor on the SLAMRAAM system), where the launch-vehicle is a Humvee (M1152A1 HMMWV), containing four AMRAAMs and two optional AIM-9X Sidewinder missiles.
==== AMRAAM-ER ====
As part of the SLAMRAAM project, Raytheon offered the Extended Range upgrade to surface-launched AMRAAM, called AMRAAM-ER. The missile is an Evolved Sea Sparrow Missile using AMRAAM head with two-stage guidance system. It was first shown at the Paris Air Show 2007 and was test-fired in 2008.
Following the cancellation of SLAMRAAM funding in 2011, development of the NASAMS version restarted in 2014. In February 2015 Raytheon announced the AMRAAM-ER missile option for NASAMS, with expected production in 2019, and the first flight test took place in August 2016. Engagement envelope was expanded with a 50 percent increase in maximum range and 70 percent increase in maximum altitude.
In 2019 Qatar placed an order for AMRAAM-ER missiles as part of a NASAMS purchase.
The missile was testfired at Andøya Space Center in May 2021. In February 2024, Raytheon flight-tested an upgraded version of AMRAAM-ER with an improved rocket motor and control actuator system and an AIM-120C-8 guidance head.
Raytheon has proposed an air-launched adaptation of the missile called AMRAAM-AXE, from "Air-launched Extended Envelope".
==Foreign sales==
Canadair, now Bombardier, had largely helped with the development of the AIM-7 Sparrow and Sparrow II, and assisted to a lesser extent in the AIM-120 development. In 2003, the RCAF placed an order for 97 AIM-120C-5 and later C-7 missiles. These missiles have been in service on the CF-18 Hornet since 2004, and fully replaced the AIM-7 Sparrow in the 2010s. In 2020, the Canadian Government was approved by the U.S. DoD for 32 advanced AIM-120D missiles to supplement the AIM-120C stockpile. The package included the 32 active AIM-120D-3 missiles, as well as 18 Captive Training Missiles, and a variety of training equipment and spare parts for $140M. Canada is one of a few countries currently authorized to purchase the longer range AIM-120D missile.
In early 1995 South Korea ordered 88 AIM-120A missiles for its KF-16 fleet. In 1997 South Korea ordered 737 additional AIM-120B missiles.
In 2006 Poland received AIM-120C-5 missiles to arm its new F-16C/D Block 52+ fighters. In 2017 Poland ordered AIM-120C-7 missiles.
In early 2006, the Pakistan Air Force (PAF) ordered 500 AIM-120C-5 AMRAAM missiles as part of a $650 million F-16 ammunition deal to equip its F-16C/D Block 50/52+ and F-16A/B Block 15 MLU fighters. The PAF got the first three F-16C/D Block 50/52+ aircraft on July 3, 2010, and first batch of AMRAAMs on July 26, 2010.
In 2007, the United States government agreed to sell 218 AIM-120C-7 missiles to Taiwan as part of a large arms sales package that also included 235 AGM-65G-2 Maverick missiles. Total value of the package, including launchers, maintenance, spare parts, support and training rounds, was estimated at US$421 million. This supplemented an earlier Taiwanese purchase of 120 AIM-120C-5 missiles a few years ago. Sales to Finland have stalled, because the manufacturer has not been able to fix a mysterious bug that causes the rocket motors of the missile to fail in cold tests. On May 5, 2015, the State Department has made a determination approving a possible Foreign Military Sale to Royal Malaysian Air Force for AIM-120C-7 AMRAAM missiles and associated equipment, parts and logistical support for an estimated cost of $21 million.
In March 2016, the US government approved the sales of 36 units of AIM-120C-7 missiles to the Indonesian Air Force to equip their fleet of F-16 C/D Block 25. The AIM-120C-7 is also equipped for the upgraded F-16 A/B Block 15 OCU through Falcon Star-eMLU upgrade project.
In March 2019, the US Department of State and Defense Security Cooperation Agency formally signed off on a US$240.5 million foreign military sale to support Australia's introduction of the NASAMS and LAND 19 Phase 7B program. As part of the deal, the Australian government requested up to 108 Raytheon AIM-120C-7 AMRAAM, six AIM-120C-7 AMRAAM Air Vehicles Instrumented; and six spare AIM-120C-7 AMRAAM guidance sections.
In December 2019, the United States Congress approved the sale of AIM-120C-7/C-8 to the Republic of Korea. According to the Federal Register document, the AIM-120C-8 is a refurbished version of AIM-120C-7, which replaced some discontinued parts with equivalent commercial parts and its capabilities are identical to AIM-120C-7. This was the first time the C-8 version of AMRAAM has appeared in the US arms sales contract. Later, Japan, the Netherlands, the UAE, Spain and Norway received approval to purchase AIM-120C-8s. In November 2021, Saudi Arabia received approval to purchase 280 AIM-120C-7/C-8s.
Canada, United Kingdom, Australia and Norway have been approved to purchase the AIM-120D. Norway ordered 205 AIM-120D and 60 AIM-120D-3 in November 2022, and an unspecified number of AIM-120C-8 in October 2024.
In March 2023, the United States government agreed to sell 200 AIM-120C-8 missiles to Taiwan.
In mid 2023 Germany has requested the purchase of more than 1,000 AIM-120 C8 missiles in addition to the MBDA Meteor which are to be used by the German Air Force.
In November 2023, the Swedish Defence Materiel Administration signed a contract worth US$605 million to purchase the AIM-120C-8, replacing the older AIM-120B, which will be sold back to the US for further donation to Ukraine.
In January 2024, Turkish Air Force ordered 952 AIM-120C-8s included in a larger package of sales worth over US$23 Billion.
In October 2024, Argentine Air Force ordered 36 AIM-120C-8s and 2 AIM-120C-8 guidance sections included in a larger package of sales worth over US$941 million.
==Operators==
===Current operators===
Royal Australian Air Force
Belgian Air Component
Royal Bahraini Air Force
Royal Canadian Air Force
Czech Air Force
Royal Danish Air Force
Finnish Air Force
German Air Force
Hellenic Air Force
Hungarian Air Force
Indonesian Air Force
Israeli Air Force
Italian Air Force
Italian Navy
Japan Air Self-Defense Force
Royal Jordanian Air Force
Kuwait Air Force
Lithuanian Air Force
Royal Malaysian Air Force
Royal Moroccan Air Force
Royal Netherlands Air Force
Royal Netherlands Army
Royal Norwegian Air Force
Royal Air Force of Oman
Pakistani Air Force
Portuguese Air Force
Qatar Air Force
Romanian Air Force
Royal Saudi Air Force
Republic of Korea Air Force
Swiss Air Force
Spanish Air Force
Spanish Army
Spanish Navy
Swedish Air Force
Republic of China Air Force
Royal Thai Air Force
Turkish Air Force
Ukrainian Air Force
United Arab Emirates Air Force
Royal Air Force
Fleet Air Arm
United States Air Force
United States Marine Corps
Bulgarian Air Force
Argentine Air Force
|
[
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"cruise missile",
"missile guidance",
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"Joint Tactical Information Distribution System",
"Royal Netherlands Army",
"SLAMRAAM",
"Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center",
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"Banja Luka incident",
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"Solid-fuel rocket",
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"Royal Saudi Air Force",
"McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet",
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"CNN",
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"fire-and-forget",
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"ramjet",
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"Probability of kill",
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"AIM-4 Falcon",
"Inertial guidance",
"Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet",
"radar cross-section",
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"United States Marine Corps",
"Missile Defense Agency",
"Lieutenant commander (United States)",
"Squadron (aviation)",
"Argentine Air Force",
"List of missiles",
"active radar homing",
"mid-course update",
"Airborne Early Warning and Control",
"AIM-260 Joint Advanced Tactical Missile",
"Italian Navy",
"Royal Jordanian Air Force",
"Long-Range Engagement Weapon",
"Hungarian Air Force",
"beam riding",
"U.S. Navy",
"kinetic energy",
"Spanish Navy",
"Romanian Air Force",
"Andøya Space Center",
"Royal Canadian Air Force",
"Operation Allied Force",
"Skyflash",
"Grumman F-14 Tomcat",
"Swedish Defence Materiel Administration",
"Saudi-led intervention in the Yemeni civil war",
"Chilean Air Force",
"Janes Information Services",
"Raytheon",
"AIM-47 Falcon",
"CF-18 Hornet",
"Royal Thai Air Force",
"U.S. Marine Corps",
"fighter plane",
"Republic of Korea Air Force",
"Bombardier Aerospace",
"Sukhoi Su-22",
"SA-7",
"Paris Air Show",
"Royal Bahraini Air Force",
"Republika Srpska Air Force",
"Next Generation Missile",
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"Soko J-21 Jastreb",
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"Syrian Air Force",
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"radar",
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"Japan Air Self-Defense Force",
"German Air Force",
"Belgian Air Component",
"Slovak Air Force",
"Aérospatiale",
"semi-active radar homing",
"Avro Canada CF-105 Arrow",
"Australia",
"Qatar Air Force",
"Idlib",
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"Oslo",
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"Proximity fuze",
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"Russo-Ukrainian War",
"Reuters",
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"PBS NewsHour",
"Defense Security Cooperation Agency",
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"Royal Netherlands Air Force",
"Surrey",
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"Japan",
"R-77",
"Hellenic Air Force",
"Network Centric Airborne Defense Element",
"infrared homing",
"Kosovo War",
"air-to-air combat",
"hit-to-kill"
] |
3,149 |
AGM-88 HARM
|
The AGM-88 HARM (High-speed Anti-Radiation Missile) is a tactical, air-to-surface anti-radiation missile designed to home in on electronic transmissions coming from surface-to-air radar systems. It was originally developed by Texas Instruments as a replacement for the AGM-45 Shrike and AGM-78 Standard ARM system. Production was later taken over by Raytheon Corporation when it purchased the defense production business of Texas Instruments.
==Description==
The AGM-88 can detect, attack and destroy a radar antenna or transmitter with minimal aircrew input. The proportional guidance system that homes in on enemy radar emissions has a fixed antenna and seeker head in the missile's nose. A smokeless, solid-propellant, booster-sustainer rocket motor propels the missile at speeds over Mach 2. The HARM was a missile program led by the U.S. Navy, and it was first carried by the A-6E, A-7, and F/A-18A/B aircraft, and then it equipped the EA-6B and EA-18G dedicated electronic attack aircraft. RDT&E for use on the F-14 aircraft was begun, but not completed. The U.S. Air Force (USAF) put the HARM onto the F-4G Wild Weasel aircraft, and later on specialized F-16s equipped with the HARM Targeting System (HTS). The missile has three operational modes: Pre-Briefed (PB), Target Of Opportunity (TOO) and Self-Protect (SP). The HTS pod, used by the USAF only, allows F-16s to detect and automatically target radar systems with HARMs instead of relying on the missile's sensors alone.
==History==
===Deployment===
====United States====
The HARM missile was approved for full production in March 1983, obtained initial operating capability (IOC) on the A-7E Corsair II in late 1983 and then deployed in late 1985 with VA-46 aboard the aircraft carrier USS America. In 1986, the first successful firing of the HARM from an EA-6B was performed by VAQ-131. It was soon used in combat—in March 1986 against a Libyan S-200 surface to air missiles site in the Gulf of Sidra, and then during Operation Eldorado Canyon in April.
HARM was used extensively by the Navy, Marine Corps, and the Air Force in Operation Desert Storm during the Persian Gulf War of 1991.
During the Gulf War, the HARM was involved in a friendly fire incident when the pilot of an F-4G Wild Weasel escorting a B-52G bomber mistook the latter's tail gun radar for an Iraqi AAA site—this was after the tail gunner of the B-52 had targeted the F-4G, mistaking it for an Iraqi MiG. The F-4 pilot launched the missile and then saw that the target was the B-52, which was hit. It survived with shrapnel damage to the tail and no casualties. The B-52 (serial number 58-0248) was subsequently renamed In HARM's Way.
"Magnum" is spoken over the radio to announce the launch of an AGM-88. During the Gulf War, if an aircraft was illuminated by enemy radar a bogus "Magnum" call on the radio was often enough to convince the operators to power down. This technique would also be employed in Yugoslavia during air operations in 1999. On 28 April 1999, during this campaign, an early variant of the AGM-88, after being fired in self defense mode by a NATO jet, lost its radio frequency track as the Serbian air defense radar was turned off, hitting a house in the Gorna Banya district of the Bulgarian capital, Sofia, causing damages, but no casualties.
During the 1990s and early 2000s and during the initial weeks of the operation Iraqi Freedom, the HARM was used to enforce the Iraqi No-Fly-Zones, degrading the Iraqi air defenses trying to engage US and allied patrolling aircraft.
During the opening days of Operation Iraqi Freedom, deconflicting US Army Patriot batteries and allied aircraft routes turned out being more difficult than expected, resulting in three major friendly fire incidents: in one of them, on March 24, 2003, a USAF F-16CJ Fighting Falcon fired an AGM-88 HARM at a Patriot missile battery after the Patriot's radar had locked onto and prepared to fire at the aircraft, causing the pilot to mistake it for an Iraqi surface-to-air missile system because the aircraft was in air combat operations and was on its way to a mission near Baghdad. The HARM damaged the Patriot's radar system with no casualties.
Starting in March 2011, during Operation Unified Protector against Libya, US Navy EA-18Gs had their combat debut using HARMs against Libyan air defenses together with USAF F-16CJs and Italian Tornadoes.
On 24 February 2024, a US Navy EA-18G Growler from USS Dwight D. Eisenhower destroyed a Houthi-operated Mi-24/35 attack helicopter on the ground with an AGM-88E AARGM.
====Israel====
In 2013, US President Barack Obama offered the AGM-88 to Israel for the first time.
====Italy====
Starting in March 2011, during Operation Unified Protector, Italian Tornados employed AGM-88 HARMs against Libyan air defenses.
====Ukraine====
In mid-2022, during the Russian invasion of Ukraine, the US supplied AGM-88 HARM missiles to Ukraine. It was only disclosed after Russian forces showed footage of a tail fin from one of these missiles in early August 2022. U.S. Under Secretary of Defense for Policy Colin Kahl said in recent aid packages they had included a number of anti-radiation missiles that can be fired by Ukrainian aircraft. As built, Soviet-era aircraft do not have the computer architecture to accept NATO standard weapons. Indeed, none of the former Warsaw Pact countries, even those that have had their Soviet-era aircraft updated, were enabled to fire a HARM before. The interface seemed difficult unless using a "crude modification", such as integrating it with an added e-tablet into the cockpit, building a nearly totally independent subsystem within the carrying aircraft. As suggested by Domenic Nicholis, defense correspondent for the Telegraph in the UK, the HARM missile is possibly operating in one of its three modes that enables it to find its target once flying after being released towards a possible enemy air defense and electronic emission area. Pre mission or during flight, NATO signals intelligence aircraft or different intelligence would be providing the overall electromagnetic emissions battlefield to locate the Russian radars where the Ukrainian jets, armed with HARMs would be directed to fire them. This allows the missile to achieve a very long range attack profile, even if it's possible that the missile does not find a target while flying, going wasted. A second possible use of the HARM is operating it in a mode called "HARM as sensor". Similar to the described mode before, the missile acts as both sensor and weapon, not requiring a sensor pod. A simple interface would show that the missile has a target and the pilot can launch it. In this way the range is shorter, and the jet could be under threat already, but would maximize the possibility to hit the emitter.
In August 2022, a senior U.S. defense official confirmed that the Ukrainians have successfully integrated the AGM-88 HARM missile onto their "MiG aircraft", hinting the MiG-29 was the chosen fighter jet with video evidence of AGM-88 missiles fired by upgraded Ukrainian MiG-29s released by the Ukrainian Air Force a few days later.
Speaking on 19 September, US Air Force General James B. Hecker said the effort to integrate AGM-88 HARM missiles into the Ukrainian Su-27s and MiG-29s took "some months" to achieve. This does not give the Ukrainian Air Force the same "capabilities that it would on an F-16." However he said: "Even though you don't get a kinetic kill ... you can get local air superiority for a period of time where you can do what you need to do."
During early September 2022, a Ukrainian Su-27S was spotted with an AGM-88 HARM fitted on the wing pylons. This is the first case of an Su-27 being spotted with an AGM-88 fitted. The missile has been directly fitted to the APU-470 missile launchers, the same launcher used by MiG-29 and Su-27 to fire missiles like the R-27 (air-to-air missile). This suggests that mounting the missile on Soviet aircraft is much easier than experts initially believed, being as simple as "requiring just an interface for the different wirings and the hanging points of the missile". The earlier footage of a Ukrainian MiG-29 using an AGM-88 indicated that the display recognized the missile as a R-27EP, which is designed to lock onto airborne radars. This suggests that the aircraft are using their own avionics to fire the missile, without the need for additional modifications.
In December, the Ukrainian Air Force released a video showing a MiG-29 firing two HARM missiles in a volley. Russia has made the first claim of the war that they have shot down four HARM missiles.
==Variants==
===AGM-88E AARGM===
The AGM-88E Advanced Antiradiation Guided Missile (AARGM) has an updated guidance section and modified control section, along with the rocket motor and warhead section, wings, and fins from the AGM-88 HARM. It utilizes millimeter-wave radar for precise terminal guidance, countering the enemy's radar shut-down capability, and has the ability to transmit images of the target before impact. Northrop Grumman took control of the AARGM program after acquiring Orbital ATK in 2018. The AGM-88E is in use by the US Navy, US Marine Corps, Italian Air Force, and German Air Force.
The Navy authorized Full-Rate Production (FRP) of the AARGM in August 2012, with 72 missiles for the Navy and nine for the Italian Air Force to be delivered in 2013. A U.S. Marine Corps F/A-18 Hornet squadron will be the first forward-deployed unit with the AGM-88E.
In September 2013, ATK delivered the 100th AARGM to the U.S. Navy. The AGM-88E program is on schedule and on budget, with Full Operational Capability (FOC) planned for September 2014. The AGM-88E was designed to improve the effectiveness of legacy HARM variants against fixed and relocatable radar and communications sites, particularly those that would shut down to throw off anti-radiation missiles, by attaching a new seeker to the existing Mach 2-capable rocket motor and warhead section, adding a passive anti-radiation homing receiver, satellite and inertial navigation system, a millimeter-wave radar for terminal guidance, and the ability to beam up images of the target via a satellite link just seconds before impact.
This model of the HARM will be integrated onto the F/A-18C/D/E/F, EA-18G, Tornado ECR, Eurofighter EK aircraft, and later on the F-35 (externally).
In September 2015, the AGM-88E successfully hit a mobile ship target in a live fire test, demonstrating the missile's ability to use antiradiation homing and millimeter-wave radar to detect, identify, locate, and engage moving targets.
In December 2019, the German Air Force ordered the AARGM.
On August 4, 2020, Northrop Grumman's Alliant Techsystems Operations division, based in Northridge, California, was awarded a $12,190,753 IDIQ contract for AARGM depot sustainment support, guidance section and control section repair, and equipment box test and inspection. On August 31, 2020, the same Northrop Grumman division was allocated roughly $80.9 million to develop new technology for the AARGM.
===AGM-88F HCSM===
Although the US Navy/Marine Corps chose the Orbital ATK-produced AGM-88E AARGM, Raytheon developed its own update of the HARM, known as the AGM-88F HARM Control Section Modification (HCSM). This modification was tested in collaboration with and eventually adopted by the US Air Force. It includes upgrades such as satellite and inertial navigation controls, designed to minimize collateral damage and friendly fire. The Republic of China (Taiwan), Bahrain, and Qatar have purchased AGM-88Bs retrofitted with the HCSM upgrade.
===AGM-88G AARGM-ER===
The Navy's FY 2016 budget included funding for an AARGM-Extended Range (ER) that uses the existing guidance system and warhead of the AGM-88E with a dual-pulse solid rocket motor to double the range. In September 2016, Orbital ATK unveiled its AARGM-ER, which incorporates a redesigned control section and rocket motor for twice the range and internal carriage on the Lockheed Martin F-35A and F-35C Lightning II, with integration on P-8 Poseidon, F-16 Fighting Falcon, and Eurofighter Typhoon planned afterwards; internal carriage on the F-35B is not possible due to internal space limitations. The new missile, designated AGM-88G, utilizes the AARGM's warhead and guidance systems in a new airframe that replaces the mid-body wings with aerodynamic strakes along the sides with control surfaces relocated to low-drag tail surfaces and a more powerful propulsion system for greater speed and double the range of its predecessor. It weighs and is slightly shorter than earlier variants at in length.
The U.S. Navy awarded Orbital ATK a contract for AARGM-ER development in January 2018. The USAF later joined the AARGM-ER program, involved in internal F-35A/C integration work. and the first low-rate initial production contract was awarded the next month; initial operational capability was planned for 2023. The AARGM-ER completed its first, second, third, fourth, and fifth flight tests in July 2021, January 2022, July 2022, December 2022, and May 2023 respectively.
In February 2023, the U.S. Navy began exploring the feasibility of launching the AARGM-ER from ground-based launchers and the P-8 Poseidon.
On February 27, 2023, Australia asked to purchase up to 63 AGM-88G AARGM-ERs.
On June 5, 2023, The Netherlands announced the acquisition of the AARGM-ER for the use on their F-35A fleet.
On October 23, 2023, Finland was approved by the U.S. State Department to proceed with purchase of up to 150 AGM-88G AARGM-ERs.
On January 12, 2024, Lockheed Martin was awarded a contract to integrate the AARGM-ER with all three F-35 variants.
On April 24, 2024, the U.S. Defense Security Cooperation Agency (DSCA) made it public that the State Department has approved a possible Foreign Military Sale to the Government of the Netherlands of the AARGM-ER and related equipment for an estimated cost of $700 million.
On September 27, 2024, the U.S. State Department approved the sale of $405 million worth of AARGM-ERs to Australia.
===Stand-in Attack Weapon===
In May 2022, the USAF awarded contracts to L3Harris Technologies, Lockheed Martin, and Northrop Grumman to begin the first phase of development for the Stand-in Attack Weapon (SiAW). While previous HARMs were meant to attack air defense radars, the SiAW will have a broader target set including theater ballistic missile launchers, cruise and anti-ship missile launchers, GPS jamming platforms, and anti-satellite systems. It will have a shorter range than standoff weapons, being fired by an aircraft after penetrating enemy airspace. The SiAW will fit inside the F-35's internal weapon bays. The Air Force plans to have an operational weapon by 2026. Northrop Grumman was chosen to continue development of the SiAW in September 2023, and it will be derived from the AARGM-ER. Lockheed Martin's offering for the program was the hypersonic Mako missile.
==Evaluation==
During Operation Allied Force, NATO reportedly fired 743 HARMs during the course of the 78-day campaign, but could confirm the destruction of only three of the original 25 SA-6 batteries. Over half of the HARMs expended were preemptive targeting shots (PETs), fired at suspected SAM sites, but without a radar to target. During the campaign, Serbian SAM sites fired more than 800 SAMs with only two NATO aircraft downed; the majority from fixed sites were fired without radar guidance. Radars were also forced to operate for only 20 seconds or less to avoid destruction by HARMs. According to Benjamin Lambeth, the F-117 that was downed did not have support from HARM-carrying F-16CJ aircraft.
==Operators==
===Current operators===
Royal Australian Air Force: AGM-88E variant ordered; to be used on EA-18G Growlers. On 28 April 2017, the Defense Security Cooperation Agency stated that Australia intended to purchase 70 AGM-88B and 40 AGM-88E missiles.
Royal Bahraini Air Force: 50 AGM-88Bs refurbished to the AGM-88F standard were ordered in May 2019 to be integrated on newly upgraded F-16 Block 70 fighters.
German Air Force:
Hellenic Air Force: AGM-88B Block IIIA and AGM-88E variants. AGM-88E AARGM on order.
Israeli Air Force
Italian Air Force: AGM-88E variant.
Kuwait Air Force
Royal Moroccan Air Force: AGM-88B variant.
Qatar Emiri Air Force: 100 AGM-88F.
Spanish Air and Space Force
Turkish Air Force: 96 AGM-88Bs and 96 AGM-88Es ordered in 2024 upon existing inventory.
Ukrainian Air Force
:
United States Air Force
United States Marine Corps
United States Navy
===Future operators===
Finnish Air Force: up to 150 AGM-88Gs will be bought.
|
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"Operation Unified Protector",
"anti-ship missile",
"Colin Kahl",
"Texas Instruments",
"cruise missile",
"NATO bombing of Yugoslavia",
"Mako (missile)",
"AGM-45 Shrike",
"Radar lock-on",
"United States Air Force",
"Federation of American Scientists",
"Polish Air Force",
"Barack Obama",
"transmitter",
"F-4 Phantom II",
"SA-6",
"MiG",
"Northrop Grumman",
"Raytheon Corporation",
"United States Navy",
"Egyptian Air Force",
"Thiokol",
"Attack Squadron 46 (United States Navy)",
"initial operational capability",
"dual-thrust rocket engine",
"R-27 (air-to-air missile)",
"Strake (aeronautics)",
"Serbia and Montenegro",
"F-117",
"inertial navigation system",
"Cold War",
"Orbital ATK",
"Target of opportunity",
"A-7E Corsair II",
"Air-to-surface missile",
"antiaircraft artillery",
"F-35 Lightning II",
"radar antenna",
"USS America (CV-66)",
"Italian Air Force",
"Russian invasion of Ukraine",
"F/A-18 Hornet",
"Boeing EA-18G Growler",
"Iraq War",
"Kuwait Air Force",
"Qatar Emiri Air Force",
"Israeli Air Force",
"EA-18G",
"F-16 Fighting Falcon",
"Finnish Air Force",
"2011 military intervention in Libya",
"Sofia",
"Turkish Air Force",
"F-15E",
"home-on-jam",
"anti-radiation missile",
"U.S. Air Force",
"Royal Australian Air Force",
"Su-27",
"anti-satellite",
"F-16",
"Spoofing attack",
"Air & Space Forces Magazine",
"United Arab Emirates Air Force",
"Jane's Defence Weekly",
"AIM-120 AMRAAM",
"United Press International",
"Royal Saudi Air Force",
"McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet",
"GPS/INS",
"Eurofighter Typhoon",
"attack helicopter",
"Gulf War",
"dual-thrust",
"air-to-surface missile",
"Action in the Gulf of Sidra (1986)",
"Raytheon Missiles & Defense",
"satellite navigation",
"Mi-24",
"CNN",
"friendly fire",
"Bombing of Libya (1986)",
"Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet",
"F-14 Tomcat",
"United States Marine Corps",
"General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon variants",
"First Libyan Civil War",
"Ministry of Defence (Italy)",
"James B. Hecker",
"Stand-in Attack Weapon",
"active radar homing",
"Alliant Techsystems",
"Gaza war",
"Operation Desert Storm",
"Passive radar homing",
"Mach number",
"U.S. Navy",
"Libyan Army (1951–2011)",
"A-7 Corsair II",
"millimeter-wave",
"F-4 Phantom",
"Operation Allied Force",
"EA-18G Growler",
"Janes Information Services",
"transporter-erector-launcher",
"rocket motor",
"L3Harris Technologies",
"Panavia Tornado",
"Low rate initial production",
"U.S. Marine Corps",
"Republic of Korea Air Force",
"Full Operational Capability",
"F/A-18",
"theater ballistic missile",
"Royal Bahraini Air Force",
"P-8 Poseidon",
"Iraqi no-fly zones conflict",
"Defense News",
"Satellite navigation",
"standoff weapon",
"S-200 Angara/Vega/Dubna",
"Tablet computer",
"TheGuardian.com",
"Coulsdon",
"satellite link",
"Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II",
"Spanish Air and Space Force",
"Republic of China Air Force",
"IDIQ",
"proportional navigation",
"United States Department of Defense",
"radar",
"Royal Moroccan Air Force",
"German Air Force",
"signals intelligence",
"USS Dwight D. Eisenhower",
"Houthis",
"Inertial navigation system",
"Gorna Banya",
"AGM-78 Standard ARM",
"B-52 Stratofortress",
"initial operating capability",
"MIM-104 Patriot",
"HARM Targeting System",
"Iraqi Freedom",
"Ukrainian Air Force",
"A-6 Intruder",
"Russo-Ukrainian War",
"Persian Gulf War",
"EA-6B",
"Defense Security Cooperation Agency",
"F-4",
"MiG-29",
"AIM-9 Sidewinder",
"Lockheed Martin",
"State Department",
"Royal Netherlands Air Force",
"Surrey",
"Red Sea crisis",
"Hellenic Air Force",
"Gulf of Sidra",
"Kosovo War",
"Wild Weasel"
] |
3,151 |
AGM-65 Maverick
|
{{Infobox weapon
| is_missile = yes
| name = AGM-65 Maverick
| image = AGM-65 Maverick MG 1382.jpg
| caption =
| origin = United States
| type = Air-to-surface missile
| used_by = >30 countries
| wars =
Cold War
Vietnam War
Yom Kippur War
Iran–Iraq War
Persian Gulf War
Kosovo War
Iraq War
First Libyan Civil War
| service = 30 August 1972 – present
| number = >70,000
| propellant = Solid propellant
| height =
| diameter =
| vehicle_range = Greater than and is effective against a wide range of tactical targets, including armor, air defenses, ships, ground transportation and fuel storage facilities.
Development began in 1966 at Hughes Aircraft Company as the first missile to use an electronic contrast seeker. It entered service with the United States Air Force in August 1972. Since then, it has been exported to more than 30 countries and is certified on 25 aircraft. The Maverick served during the Vietnam, Yom Kippur, Iran–Iraq, and Persian Gulf Wars, along with other smaller conflicts, destroying enemy forces and installations with varying degrees of success.
Since its introduction into service, numerous Maverick versions had been designed and produced using electro-optical, laser, and imaging infrared guidance systems. The AGM-65 has two types of warhead: one has a contact fuze in the nose, the other has a heavyweight warhead fitted with a delayed-action fuze, which penetrates the target with its kinetic energy before detonating. The missile is currently produced by Raytheon Missiles & Defense.
The Maverick shares the same configuration as Hughes' AIM-4 Falcon and AIM-54 Phoenix, and measures more than in length and in diameter.
==Development==
The Maverick's development history began in 1965, when the United States Air Force (USAF) began a program to develop a replacement to the AGM-12 Bullpup. With a range of , the radio-guided Bullpup was introduced in 1959 and was considered a "silver bullet" by operators. However, the launch aircraft was required to fly straight towards the target during the missile's flight instead of performing evasive maneuvers, thus endangering itself. The USAF began a series of projects to replace Bullpup, both larger versions of Bullpup, models C and D, as well as a series of Bullpup adaptations offering fire-and-forget guidance. Among the latter were the AGM-83 Bulldog, AGM-79 Blue Eye and AGM-80 Viper.
From 1966 to 1968, Hughes Missile Systems Division and Rockwell competed for the contract to build an entirely new fire-and-forget missile with far greater range performance than any of the Bullpup versions. Each were allocated $3 million for preliminary design and engineering work of the Maverick in 1966. with the first guided test on 18 December successfully performing a direct hit on a M41 tank target at the Air Force Missile Development Center at Holloman Air Force Base, New Mexico. As such, development of the AGM-65B "Scene Magnified" version began in 1975 before it was delivered during the late 1970s. When production of the AGM-65A/B was ended in 1978, more than 35,000 missiles had been built. Another study called "Longhorn Project" The proposal was abandoned, but if the Maverick ER had entered production, it would have replaced the AGM-119B Penguin carried on the MH-60R. To boresight, a certain reference point on the ground is locked by the targeting pod, known as the Sensor Point of Interest (SPI). The Maverick missile's seeker head is then adjusted to correct small offsets, so that it points at the same SPI as the targeting pod. This allows for simpler target acquisition and deployment.
==Variants==
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Differences between different Maverick versions
==Deployment==
The Maverick was declared operational on 30 August 1972 with the F-4D/Es and A-7s initially cleared for the type; the missile made its combat debut four months later with the USAF in Operation Linebacker II, the last major USAF operation of the Vietnam War. During the Yom Kippur War in October 1973, the Israelis used Mavericks to destroy and disable enemy vehicles..
The Maverick was used for trials with the BGM-34A unmanned aerial vehicle in 1972–1973. Targeting could be carried out with a TV camera in the nose of the UAV or using the seeker of an AGM-45 Shrike anti-radar missile also carried by the UAV to locate the target for the Maverick's camera to lock on to.
In June 1975, during a border confrontation, a formation of Iranian F-4E Phantoms destroyed a group of Iraqi tanks by firing 12 Mavericks at them. Five years later, during Operation Morvarid as part of the Iran–Iraq War, Iranian F-4s used Mavericks to sink three Osa II missile boats and four P-6 combat ships.
Due to weapons embargoes, Iran had to equip its AH-1J SeaCobra helicopters with AGM-65 Maverick missiles and used them with some success in various operations such as Operation Fath ol-Mobin wherein Iranian AH-1Js fired 11 Mavericks.
In August 1990, Iraq invaded Kuwait. In early 1991, the US-led Coalition executed Operation Desert Storm during which Mavericks played a crucial role in the ousting of Iraqi forces from Kuwait. Employed by F-15E Strike Eagles, F/A-18 Hornets, AV-8B Harriers, F-16 Fighting Falcons and A-10 Thunderbolt IIs, but used mainly by the last two, more than 5,000 Mavericks were used to attack armored targets. The most-used variant by the USAF was the IIR-guided AGM-65D. The Maverick was used again in Iraq during the 2003 Iraq War, during which 918 were fired.
==Launch platforms==
===United States===
LAU-117 Maverick launchers have been used on US Army, USN, USAF, and USMC aircraft (some platforms may load LAU-88 triple-rail launchers when configured and authorized):
Bell AH-1W SuperCobra
McDonnell Douglas A-4M Skyhawk II
Fairchild Republic A-10C Thunderbolt II
General Dynamics F-16C Fighting Falcon
Belgian Air Component: F-16
Royal Canadian Air Force: CF-18
Chilean Air Force:
Royal Danish Air Force: F-16 (AGM-65G)
Egyptian Air Force: and F-16 Blocks 30, 50, and 52+
Hungarian Air Force:
Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force: F-4E F-2
Royal Jordanian Air Force: and Hawk 208
Royal Moroccan Air Force: F-5E/F (AGM-65B), F-16 Block 52+ (AGM-65D/G/H)
Royal Netherlands Air Force: F-16 (AGM-65D, AGM-65G)
Royal Air Force of Oman: F-16
Pakistan Air Force:
Polish Air Force: A-7P. Capable of being launched by the Portuguese P-3C Cup+.
Romanian Air Force:
Serbian Air Force and Air Defence: J-22 and G-4
Republic of Singapore Air Force: A-4SU, F-5S, F-16C/D Block 52, F-15SG and Hunter
Republic of Korea Air Force: FA-50, TA-50, F-16, F-15K, F-4 AIDC F-CK-1 Ching-kuo (AGM-65B), and F-5E/F (AGM-65B)
Royal Thai Air Force:
Tunisian Air Force: F-5 and Royal New Zealand Air Force: A-4K (after being upgraded in the late 1980s under Project Kahu, retired 2001).
Swedish Air Force: Designated RB 75; used on the AJ37 Viggen
Royal Air Force: Harrier GR7
|
[
"Ryan Model 147",
"Central Europe",
"AGM-12 Bullpup",
"Chord (aircraft)",
"AGM-45 Shrike",
"AGM-79 Blue Eye",
"Hughes Aircraft",
"United States Air Force",
"United States European Command",
"solid fuel",
"General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon",
"Polish Air Force",
"AH-1J SeaCobra",
"Rocket engine",
"infrared guidance",
"United States Navy",
"Royal Air Force of Oman",
"Solid fuel",
"Egyptian Air Force",
"Thiokol",
"AIM-54 Phoenix",
"Swedish Air Force",
"Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force",
"Cold War",
"delta wing",
"Air-to-surface missile",
"Iran–Iraq War",
"turbojet",
"Iraq War",
"Mitsubishi F-2",
"Libyan Coast Guard",
"McDonnell Douglas F-15E Strike Eagle",
"Kuwait Air Force",
"Berkley Books",
"Penguin (missile)",
"Israeli Air Force",
"Yom Kippur War",
"Royal Danish Air Force",
"Thermographic camera",
"Turkish Air Force",
"modular design",
"Royal Australian Air Force",
"Indonesian Air Force",
"solid-fuel rocket",
"Western world",
"Warsaw Pact",
"Kaman SH-2 Seasprite",
"ship",
"Pakistan Air Force",
"Italian Navy",
"Taiwan",
"Royal Saudi Air Force",
"guidance system",
"Royal Malaysian Air Force",
"charge-coupled device",
"Serbian Air Force and Air Defence",
"McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet",
"Philippine Air Force",
"air-to-ground missile",
"shaped charge",
"Republic of Singapore Air Force",
"British Aerospace Harrier II",
"Gulf War",
"Czech Air Force",
"Armour",
"Extremely high frequency",
"Project Kahu",
"General Dynamics F-111 Aardvark",
"AGM-83 Bulldog",
"Kawasaki P-1",
"Lockheed P-3 Orion",
"contact fuze",
"delayed-action fuze",
"Banski dvori",
"Royal New Zealand Air Force",
"Raytheon Missile Systems",
"Electro-optics",
"fire-and-forget",
"Sikorsky SH-3 Sea King",
"Hughes Aircraft Company",
"Air Force Missile Development Center",
"warhead",
"weapon systems officer",
"AIM-4 Falcon",
"Grumman A-6 Intruder",
"Zagreb",
"Aero L-159 Alca",
"Boeing F/A-18E/F Super Hornet",
"Fairchild Republic A-10 Thunderbolt II",
"Flight International",
"United States Marine Corps",
"New Mexico",
"List of military aircraft of the United States",
"List of missiles",
"Operation Morvarid",
"active radar homing",
"Operation Desert Storm",
"Royal Jordanian Air Force",
"Electro-optical guidance",
"Thanh Hóa Bridge",
"Hungarian Air Force",
"Laser guidance",
"kinetic energy",
"Coalition of the Gulf War",
"Soko J-22 Orao",
"Spanish Navy",
"British Aerospace Hawk 200",
"Romanian Air Force",
"Royal Canadian Air Force",
"McDonnell Douglas AV-8B Harrier II",
"Osa class missile boat",
"Iraqi Air Force",
"anti-radar missile",
"Chilean Air Force",
"fragmentation (weaponry)",
"Raytheon",
"Islamic Republic of Iran Army Aviation",
"close air support",
"Operation Fath ol-Mobin",
"Department of National Defence (Canada)",
"Royal Thai Air Force",
"Northrop F-5",
"Republic of Korea Air Force",
"LTV A-7 Corsair II",
"Yugoslav Wars",
"Holloman Air Force Base",
"AIDC F-CK-1 Ching-kuo",
"Multi-function display",
"Infrared homing",
"Portuguese Air Force",
"Swiss Air Force",
"Saab JAS 39 Gripen",
"M41 Walker Bulldog",
"heads-up display",
"KAI T-50 Golden Eagle",
"Bell AH-1 SeaCobra",
"contrast seeker",
"Spanish Air Force",
"Saab 37 Viggen",
"Libyan Civil War (2011)",
"Republic of China Air Force",
"G-force",
"Soko G-4 Super Galeb",
"Rockwell International",
"Unisys",
"Japan Self-Defense Force",
"Royal Moroccan Air Force",
"Peruvian Navy",
"Royal New Zealand Navy",
"Military tactics",
"McDonnell Douglas A-4M Skyhawk",
"Belgian Air Component",
"German Air Force",
"Operation Linebacker II",
"Douglas A-4 Skyhawk",
"Bombing of the Banski Dvori",
"Kaman SH-2G Super Seasprite",
"Tunisian Air Force",
"initial operating capability",
"McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom II",
"Electro-optical sensor",
"Bell AH-1W SuperCobra",
"Hawker Hunter",
"air defenses",
"McDonnell Douglas CF-18 Hornet",
"Boeing AH-64 Apache",
"Defense Security Cooperation Agency",
"F-4",
"AGM-80 Viper",
"Charge-coupled device",
"ST Aerospace A-4SU Super Skyhawk",
"M48 Patton",
"Royal Netherlands Air Force",
"targeting pod",
"Royal Air Force",
"Sikorsky SH-60 Seahawk",
"Hellenic Air Force",
"unmanned aerial vehicle",
"Kosovo War",
"Kuwait",
"Vietnam War"
] |
3,152 |
AIM-54 Phoenix
|
The AIM-54 Phoenix is an American active radar-guided, beyond-visual-range air-to-air missile (AAM), carried in clusters of up to six missiles on the Grumman F-14 Tomcat, its only operational launch platform.
The AIM-54 Phoenix was the United States' only operational long-range AAM during its service life; its operational capabilities were supplemented by the AIM-7 Sparrow (and later, the AIM-120 AMRAAM), which served as the primary medium-range AAM and the AIM-9 Sidewinder, serving as the primary short-range or "dogfight" AAM. The combination of Phoenix missile and the Tomcat's AN/AWG-9 guidance radar meant that it was the first aerial weapons system that could simultaneously engage multiple targets. Due to its active radar tracking, the brevity code "Fox Three" was used when firing the AIM-54. The act of the missile achieving a radar lock with its own radar is known under brevity as "Going Pitbull".
Both the missile and the aircraft were used by Iran and the United States Navy (USN). In US service both are now retired, the AIM-54 Phoenix in 2004 and the F-14 in 2006. They were replaced by the shorter-range AIM-120 AMRAAM, employed on the F/A-18 Hornet and F/A-18E/F Super Hornet; in its AIM-120D version, the latest version of the AMRAAM just matches the Phoenix's maximum range. In July 2024, the USN announced the operational fielding of the AIM-174, the "Air-Launched Configuration" of the RIM-174 Standard ERAM, the first dedicated long-range AAM to be fielded by the U.S. military since the AIM-54's retirement. While details regarding the AIM-174's range are unconfirmed, certain surface-launched RIM-174 variants are capable of launches. With the benefit of being launched already at-speed and at-altitude (where the air is thinner and thus easier to fly through), combined with additional lofting, the AIM-174's range may extend to several hundred miles, though the USN has confirmed a range of , about a 30% increase in range over the AIM-54C.
The AIM-54 has been used in 62 air-to-air strikes, all by Iran during the eight-year Iran–Iraq War. Following the retirement of the F-14 by the USN, the weapon's only current operator is the Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force.
==Development==
===Background===
Since 1951, the Navy faced the initial threat from the Tupolev Tu-4K 'Bull' carrying anti-ship missiles or nuclear bombs.
Eventually, during the height of the Cold War, the threat would have expanded into regimental-size raids of Tu-16 Badger and Tu-22M Backfire bombers equipped with low-flying, long-range, high-speed, nuclear-armed cruise missiles and considerable electronic countermeasures (ECM) of various types. This combination was considered capable of saturating fleet defenses and threatening carrier groups.
The Navy would require a long-range, long-endurance interceptor aircraft to defend carrier battle groups against this threat. The proposed Douglas F6D Missileer was intended to fulfill this mission and oppose the attack as far as possible from the fleet it was defending. The weapon needed for interceptor aircraft, the Bendix AAM-N-10 Eagle, was to be an air-to-air missile of unprecedented range when compared to contemporary AIM-7 Sparrow missiles. It would work together with Westinghouse AN/APQ-81 radar. The Missileer project was cancelled in December 1960.
===AIM-54===
In the early 1960s, the U.S. Navy made the next interceptor attempt with the F-111B, and they needed a new missile design. At the same time, the USAF canceled the projects for their land-based high-speed interceptor aircraft, the North American XF-108 Rapier and the Lockheed YF-12, and left the capable AIM-47 Falcon missile at a quite advanced stage of development, but with no effective launch platform.
The AIM-54 Phoenix, developed for the F-111B fleet air defense fighter, had an airframe with four cruciform fins that was a scaled-up version of the AIM-47. One characteristic of the Missileer ancestry was that the radar sent it mid-course corrections, which allowed the fire control system to "loft" the missile up over the target into thinner air where it had better range.
The F-111B was canceled in 1968. Its weapons system, the AIM-54 working with the AWG-9 radar, migrated to the new U.S. Navy fighter project, the VFX, which would later become the F-14 Tomcat.
The AIM-54 Phoenix was also considered by the Royal Air Force to be used on Avro Vulcan bomber planes as part of an air defence aircraft. This missileer conversion would have used 12 missiles onboard and an extensive modification to the Vulcan's radar.
In 1977, development of a significantly improved Phoenix version, the AIM-54C, was developed to better counter projected threats from tactical anti-naval aircraft and cruise missiles, and its final upgrade included a re-programmable memory capability to keep pace with emerging ECM.
==Usage in comparison to other weapon systems==
The AIM-54/AWG-9 combination had multiple track (up to 24 targets) and multiple launch (up to six Phoenixes can be launched nearly simultaneously) capability, regardless of weather conditions or heavy enemy electronic warfare, known as jamming. The large missile is equipped with a conventional warhead.
The AIM-54 is designed for ejection launch, where a pyrotechnic charge forcefully jettisons it from either a LAU-93 or a LAU-132 launcher before its solid propellant rocket motor ignites.
On the F-14, four missiles can be carried under the fuselage tunnel attached to special aerodynamic pallets, plus two under glove stations. A full load of six Phoenix missiles and the unique launch rails weighs in at over , about twice the weight of Sparrows, putting it above the allowable bringback load (which also would include enough fuel for go-around attempts). As such, carrying six Phoenix missiles would necessitate the jettison of at least some of the Phoenix missiles if they were not used. The most common air superiority payload was a mix of two Phoenix, three Sparrow, and two Sidewinder missiles.
Most other US aircraft relied on the smaller, semi-active medium-range AIM-7 Sparrow. Semi-active guidance meant the aircraft no longer had a search capability while supporting the launched Sparrow, reducing situational awareness.
The Tomcat's radar could track up to 24 targets in track-while-scan mode, with the AWG-9 selecting up to six potential targets for the missiles. The pilot or radar intercept officer (RIO) could then launch the Phoenix missiles once parameters were met. The large tactical information display (TID) in the RIO's cockpit gave information to the aircrew (the pilot had the ability to monitor the RIO's display) and the radar could continually search and track multiple targets after Phoenix missiles were launched, thereby maintaining situational awareness of the battlespace.
The Link 4 datalink allowed US Navy Tomcats to share information with the E-2C Hawkeye AEW aircraft. During Desert Shield in 1990, the Link 4A was introduced; this allowed the Tomcats to have a fighter-to-fighter datalink capability, further enhancing overall situational awareness. The F-14D entered service with JTIDS that brought the even better Link 16 datalink "picture" to the cockpit.
===Active guidance===
The Phoenix has several guidance modes and achieves its longest range by using mid-course updates from the F-14A/B AWG-9 radar (APG-71 radar in the F-14D) as it climbs to cruise between and at close to Mach 5. The Phoenix uses this high altitude to maximize its range by reducing atmospheric drag. At around from the target, the missile activates its own radar to provide terminal guidance. Minimum engagement range for the Phoenix is around ; at this range active homing would initiate upon launch.
On September 9, 1999, another US F-14 launched an AIM-54 at an Iraqi MiG-23 that was heading south into the no-fly zone from Al Taqaddum air base west of Baghdad. The missile missed, eventually going into the ground after the Iraqi fighter reversed course and fled north.
The AIM-54 Phoenix was retired from USN service on September 30, 2004. F-14 Tomcats were retired on September 22, 2006. They were replaced by shorter-range AIM-120 AMRAAMs, employed on the F/A-18E/F Super Hornet.
Despite the much-vaunted capabilities, the Phoenix was rarely used in combat, with only two confirmed launches and no confirmed targets destroyed in US Navy service. The USAF F-15 Eagle had responsibility for overland combat air patrol duties in Operation Desert Storm in 1991, primarily because of the onboard F-15 IFF capabilities. The Tomcat did not have the requisite IFF capability mandated by the Joint Force Air Component Commander (JFACC) to satisfy the rules of engagement to utilize the Phoenix capability at beyond visual range. The AIM-54 was not adopted by any foreign nation besides Iran, or any other US armed service, and was not used on any aircraft other than the F-14.
===Iranian combat experience===
On January 7, 1974, as part of Project Persian King, the Imperial Iranian Air Force placed an order for 424 AIM-54As, later increasing it by 290 missiles that June. until the 1979 Revolution ended deliveries and left the remaining 150 missiles embargoed and the additional order of 290 cancelled.
According to Tom Cooper and Farzad Bishop, during the Iran–Iraq War AIM-54s fired by IRIAF Tomcats achieved 78 victories against Iraqi MiG-21s, MiG-23s, MiG-25s, Tu-22s, Su-20/22s, Mirage F 1s, Super Étendards, and even two AM-39 Exocets and a C-601. This includes two occasions where one AIM-54 was responsible for the downing of two Iraqi aircraft, as well as an incident on January 7, 1981, where a Phoenix fired at a four-ship of MiG-23s downed three and damaged the fourth.
Both the F-14 Tomcat and the AIM-54 Phoenix missile continue in the service of the Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force. Iran claimed to be working on building an equivalent missile and in 2013 unveiled the Fakour-90, an upgraded and reverse-engineered version of the Phoenix.
==Variants==
Original model that became operational with the U.S. Navy in about 1974, and it was also exported to Iran before the Iran hostage crisis beginning in 1979.
Also known as the 'Dry' missile. A version with simplified construction and no coolant conditioning. Did not enter series production. Developmental work started in January 1972. 7 X-AIM-54B missiles were created for testing, 6 of them by modifying pilot production IVE/PIP rounds. After two successful test firings, the 'Dry' missile effort was cancelled for being "not cost effective".
The only improved model that was ever produced. It used digital electronics in the place of the analog electronics of the AIM-54A. This model had better abilities to shoot down low and high-altitude anti-ship missiles. It was designed for greater service life, reliability, and utilized less parts. It also included a built in self-test (BIST/BIT) and missile on-aircraft test capability. Both land and ship based tests of modified Phoenix (AIM-54A) missiles and a containerised AWG-9 (originally the 14th example off the AN/AWG-9 production line) were successfully carried out from 1974 onwards.
AIM-54B: A land based version for the USMC was also proposed. It has been suggested that the AIM-54B would have been used in operational Sea Phoenix systems, although that version had been cancelled by the second half of the 1970s. Ultimately, a mix of budgetary and political issues meant that, despite being technically and operationally attractive, further development of the Sea Phoenix did not proceed.
In February 2013 Iran reportedly tested an indigenous long-range air-to-air missile. In September 2013 it displayed the Fakour-90 on a military parade. It looked almost identical to the AIM-54 Phoenix. In July 2018 as reported by Jane's, Iran started mass production of the Fakour-90.
==Operators==
===Current operators===
– Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force
===Former operators===
- Imperial Iranian Air Force
– United States Navy: Retired in 2004
==Characteristics==
The following is a list of AIM-54 Phoenix specifications:
Primary function: long-range, air-launched, air-intercept missile
Contractor: Hughes Aircraft Company and Raytheon Corporation
Unit cost: about $477,000, but this varied greatly
Power plant: solid propellant rocket motor built by Hercules Incorporated
Length:
Weight:
Diameter:
Wing span:
Range: over (actual range is classified)
Speed: 3,000+ mph (4,680+ km/h)
Guidance system: semi-active and active radar homing
Warheads: proximity fuze, high explosive
Warhead weight:
Users: US (U.S. Navy), Iran (IRIAF)
Date deployed: 1974
Date retired (U.S.): September 30, 2004
|
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] |
3,155 |
Lockheed AC-130
|
{{Infobox aircraft
| name = AC-130
| image = File:AC-130 (5872).jpg
| caption = An AC-130J gunship from the 4th Special Operations Squadron
| type = Ground-attack aircraft and close air support gunship for SOF teams
| national_origin = United States
| manufacturer = Lockheed MartinBoeing
| designer =
| first_flight = AC-130A: 1967
| introduction = {{plainlist|
AC-130A: 1968
AC-130H: 1969
AC-130U: 1995
AC-130J: 2017
AC-130W: 2022
The airframe is manufactured by Lockheed Martin, while Boeing is responsible for the conversion into a gunship and for aircraft support. Developed during the Vietnam War as "Project Gunship II", the AC-130 replaced the Douglas AC-47 Spooky, or "Gunship I". The sole operator is the United States Air Force, which uses the AC-130J Ghostrider. Close air support roles include supporting ground troops, escorting convoys, and urban operations. Air-interdiction missions are conducted against planned targets and targets of opportunity. Force-protection missions include defending air bases and other facilities. AC-130Js are based at Hurlburt Field, Florida and Cannon AFB, New Mexico; gunships can be deployed worldwide. The squadrons are part of the Air Force Special Operations Command (AFSOC), a component of the United States Special Operations Command.
The AC-130 has an unpressurized cabin, with the weaponry mounted to fire from the port side of the fuselage. During an attack, the gunship performs a pylon turn, flying in a large circle around the target, so is able to fire at it for far longer than in a conventional strafing attack. The AC-130H Spectre was armed with two M61 Vulcan cannons, one L/60 Bofors 40 mm cannon, and M137 cannon and M37 recoil mechanism from the M102 howitzer; after 1994, the cannons were removed. The upgraded AC-130U Spooky has a GAU-12 Equalizer cannon in place of the Spectre's two cannons, an improved fire-control system, and increased ammunition capacity. The new AC-130J was based on the MC-130J Commando II special-operations tanker. The AC-130W Stinger II is a modified C-130H with upgrades including a precision strike package.
In 1967, JC-130A 54-1626 was selected for conversion into the prototype AC-130A gunship (Project Gunship II). The modifications were done at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base by the Aeronautical Systems Division. A direct-view night-vision telescope was installed in the forward door, an early forward-looking infrared device was placed in the forward part of the left wheel well, with miniguns and rotary cannons fixed facing down and aft along the left side. The analog fire-control computer prototype was handcrafted by Wing Commander Tom Pinkerton at the USAF Avionics Laboratory at Wright-Patterson AFB. Flight testing of the prototype was performed primarily at Eglin Air Force Base, followed by further testing and modifications. By September 1967, the aircraft was certified ready for combat testing and was flown to Nha Trang Air Base, South Vietnam, for a 90-day test program. and one aircraft received the "Surprise Package" refit in 1969. The Surprise Package upgrade included the latest 20 mm rotary autocannons and 40 mm Bofors cannon, but no 7.62 mm close-support armament. The Surprise Package configuration served as a test bed for the avionic systems and armament for the AC-130E. In 1970, 10 more AC-130As were acquired under the "Pave Pronto" project. In the summer of 1971, Surprise Package AC-130s were converted to the Pave Pronto configuration and assumed the new nickname of "Thor". Conversion of C-130Es into AC-130Es for the "PAVE Spectre" project followed. Regardless of their project names, the aircraft were more commonly referred to by the squadron's call sign, Spectre.
===Recent and planned upgrades===
In 2007, AFSOC initiated a program to upgrade the armament of AC-130s. The test program planned for the 25 mm GAU-12/U and 40 mm Bofors cannon on the AC-130U gunships to be replaced with two 30 mm Mk 44 Bushmaster II cannons. In 2007, the Air Force modified four AC-130U gunships as test platforms for the Bushmasters. These were referred to as AC-130U Plus 4 or AC-130U+4. AFSOC, however, canceled its plans to install the new cannons on its fleet of AC-130Us. It has since removed the guns and reinstalled the original 40 mm and 25 mm cannons and returned the planes to combat duty. Brigadier General Bradley A. Heithold, AFSOC's director of plans, programs, requirements, and assessments, said on 11 August 2008 that the effort was canceled because of problems with the Bushmaster's accuracy in tests "at the altitude we were employing it". Also, schedule considerations drove the decision, he said.
Plans were made for the possible replacement of the 105 mm M102 howitzer with a breech-loading variant of the 120 mm M120 mortar. The 120mm breech-loading mortar concept offers more flexibility with the use of munitions that are currently available with greater lethality, precision strike capabilities, reduction in collateral damage, and decreased casualties in danger close scenarios. Also, using the newer AGM-114 Hellfire missiles, the Advanced Precision Kill Weapon System (based on the Hydra 70 rockets), or the Viper Strike glide bombs can dramatically increase the standoff capability of the AC-130.
The conceptual breechloading variant of the 120 mm M120 mortar has several key advantages over the conventional M102 105 mm howitzer. 100 rounds of ammunition weighs for the M102 105 mm howitzer compared to for the M120 120 mm mortar. The recoil load is with the 105 mm howitzer compared to with the M120 120 mm mortar. The gun recoiling weight for the M102 105 mm howitzer is compared to for the M120 120 mm mortar. The muzzle pressure for the M102 105 mm howitzer is compared to for the M120 120 mm mortar.
In 2010, the Air Force awarded L-3 Communications a $61 million (~$ in ) contract to add precision strike packages to eight MC-130W Combat Spear special-mission aircraft to give them a gunship-like attack capability; such-equipped MC-130Ws are known as Dragon Spears. AFSOC is arming these aircraft to relieve the high operational demands on AC-130 gunships until new AC-130Js enter service. The MC-130W Dragon Spear was renamed AC-130W Stinger II in 2011. The precision strike packages consist of a 30 mm gun and several precision guided munitions. Rails are mounted on the outboard pylon of the wing for four Hellfire missiles, SDBs, or SDB IIs under each. Ten common launch tubes (CLTs) are mounted on the rear ramp to fire Griffin A missiles; additional missiles are stored in the aircraft that can be reloaded in flight. CLTs are able to fire other small munitions able to fit inside the -diameter, -long tubes.
The AC-130J Ghostrider came from a 2011 initiative that sought to acquire 16 new gunships based on newly built MC-130J Commando II special-operations tankers outfitted with a "precision strike package" to give them an attack capability, requesting $1.6 billion from fiscal years 2011 through 2015. This was to increase the size of the gunship fleet to 33 aircraft, a net increase of eight after the planned retirement of eight aging AC-130Hs. The first aircraft would be bought in fiscal 2012, followed by two in fiscal 2013, five in fiscal 2014, and the final eight in fiscal 2015. The decision to retain the C-130 came after funding for 16 C-27Js was removed from the fiscal 2010 budget.
The AC-130J was to follow the path of the Dragon Spear program. On 9 January 2013, the Air Force began converting the first MC-130J into an AC-130J. The first AC-130J was delivered to AFSOC on 29 July 2015. The first AC-130J gunships achieved initial operational capability (IOC) on 30 September 2017. The AC-130J has two planned increments: the Block 10 configuration includes an internal 30 mm gun, small diameter bombs, and laser-guided missiles launched from the rear cargo door; and Block 20 configuration adds a 105 mm cannon, large aircraft infrared countermeasures, wing-mounted Hellfire missiles, and radio-frequency countermeasures.
The Air Force decided to add a 105 mm cannon to the AC-130J in addition to the 30 mm cannon and smart bombs, the shells being more accurate and cheaper than dropping SDBs. AFSOC also pursued a directed-energy weapon on board the AC-130J by 2022, similar to the previous Advanced Tactical Laser program. It was to produce a beam of up to 120 kW, or potentially even 180–200 kW, weigh about , defensively destroy antiaircraft missiles, and offensively engage communications towers, boats, cars, and aircraft. A laser armament would have only been installed on a few aircraft rather than the entire AC-130J fleet; the laser would be mounted on the side in place of the 30 mm cannon. AFSOC eventually ruled out the idea in 2024 after the project was delayed by years, determining that placing a laser out the side of the airframe would yield so much air turbulence that it would disrupt the beam. In addition to this, while the laser weapon on the Lockheed AC-130 turned out to be a failure, Lockheed has been examining concepts for the integration of the laser module system onto the F-35 Joint Strike Fighter, he said. Other potential additions include an active denial system to perform airborne crowd control, and small unmanned aerial vehicles from the CLTs to provide remote video feed and coordinates to weapons operators through cloud cover. Called the Tactical Off-board Sensor (TOBS), the drones would be expendable and fly along a programmed orbit to verify targets the aircraft cannot see itself because of bad weather or standing off from air defenses. In June 2016, Dynetics was awarded a contract by SOCOM to integrate its tactical munition onto the AC-130. Designated the GBU-69/B Small Glide Munition, the weapon weighs and is armed with a blast-fragmentation warhead that can detonate by direct impact or at a selected height; despite being smaller, being unpowered allows for its warhead to be heavier than those on the Hellfire and Griffin A missiles, and , respectively. Guidance is provided by a GPS receiver with anti-spoofing software and four distributed-aperture semiactive laser seeker apertures adapted from the WGU-59/B APKWS for terminal guidance. Approval for fielding occurred in early 2017. Dynetics was awarded a contract to deliver an initial batch of 70 SGMs in June 2017, with plans to buy up to 1,000. The SGM can travel .
===Future===
, AC-130 gunships have been providing close air support for special operators for 56 years. Although the aircraft have been kept relevant through constant upgrades to their weaponry, sensor packages, and countermeasures, they are not expected to be survivable in future nonpermissive environments due to their high signatures and low airspeeds. Military analysts, such as the Center for Strategic and Budgetary Assessments, have suggested that AFSOC invest in more advanced technologies to fill the role to operate in future contested combat zones, including a mix of low-cost disposable unmanned and stealthy strike aircraft.
AFSOC is considering a number of changes to the AC-130J in order to make it effective against advanced adversaries including removing the 105mm cannon and upgrading the aircraft with small cruise missiles, an AESA radar, and adaptive mission networking enhancements.
==Design==
===Overview===
The AC-130 is a heavily armed, long-endurance aircraft carrying an array of weapons against ground targets that are integrated with sophisticated sensors, navigation, and fire-control systems. It is capable of delivering precision firepower or area-saturation fire over a target area over a long period of time, at night, or in adverse weather. The sensor suite consists of an electro-optical image sensor, infrared sensor, and radar. These sensors allow the gunship to visually or electronically identify friendly ground forces and targets in most weather conditions.
The AC-130U is equipped with the AN/APQ-180, a synthetic aperture radar, for long-range target detection and identification. The gunship's navigational devices include inertial navigation systems and a global positioning system. The AC-130U employs technologies developed in the 1990s, which allow it to attack two targets simultaneously. It has twice the munitions capacity of the AC-130H. The AC-130H's unit cost is US$132.4 million, and the AC-130U's cost is $190 million (fiscal 2001 dollars).
==Operational history==
===Vietnam War===
The AC-130 gunship first arrived in South Vietnam on 21 September 1967 under the Gunship II program and began combat operations over Laos and South Vietnam that same year. In June 1968, AC-130s were deployed to Tan Son Nhut AB near Saigon for support against the Tet Offensive. By 30 October 1968, enough AC-130 Gunship IIs arrived to form a squadron, the 16th Special Operations Squadron of the 8th Tactical Fighter Wing, at Ubon Royal Thai Air Force Base, Thailand. At this time, the C-130A gunship was designated the AC-130A.
On 18 August 1968, an AC-130 gunship flying an armed reconnaissance mission in Vietnam's III Corps was diverted to support the Katum Special Forces Camp. The ground commander quickly assessed the accurate fire and capabilities of this weapons system and called for fire on his own perimeter when the Viet Cong attempted to bridge the wire on the west side of his position.
By December 1968, most AC-130s flew under F-4 Phantom II escort (to protect the gunship against heavy and concentrated antiaircraft fire) from the 497th Tactical Fighter Squadron, normally three Phantoms per gunship. On 24 May 1969, the first Spectre gunship was lost to enemy fire.
In late 1969, under code name "Surprise Package", 56-0490 arrived with solid-state, laser-illuminated, low light-level TV with a companion YAG laser designator, an improved forward-looking infrared (FLIR) sensor, video recording for TV and FLIR, an inertial navigation system, and a prototype digital fire-control computer. The remaining AC-130s were refitted with upgraded similar equipment in the summer of 1970, and then redeployed to Ubon RTAFB. On 25 October 1971, the first "Cadillac" gunship, the AC-130E, arrived in Vietnam. On 17 February 1972, the first 105mm cannon arrived for service with Spectre and was installed on Gunship 570. It was used from mid-February until the aircraft received battle damage to its right flap. The cannon was switched to Gunship 571 and was used until 30 March when the aircraft was shot down.
On 28 January 1973, the Vietnam peace accord went into effect, marking the end of Spectre operations in Vietnam. Spectre was still needed and active in the region, supporting operations in Laos and Cambodia. On 22 February 1973, American offensive operations in Laos ended and the gunships became totally committed to operations in the Cambodian conflict.
On 12 April 1975, the Khmer Rouge was threatening the capital of Phnom Penh and AC-130s were called on to help in Operation Eagle Pull, the final evacuation of American and allied officials from Phnom Penh before it was conquered by the communists. The AC-130 was also over Saigon on 30 April 1975 to protect the final evacuation in Operation Frequent Wind. Spectres were also called in when the USS Mayaguez was seized, on the open sea, by Khmer Rouge soldiers and sailors on 15 May 1975.
Six AC-130s and 52 air crew members were lost during the war. AC-130s reportedly destroyed more than 10,000 trucks and participated in many crucial close-air-support missions in Vietnam.
===Cold War and later action===
With the conclusion of hostilities in Southeast Asia in the mid-1970s, the AC-130H became the sole gunship in the regular Air Force, home based at Hurlburt Field, Florida, while the AC-130A fleet was transferred to the Air Force Reserve's 919th Tactical Airlift Group (919 TAG) at Eglin AFB Auxiliary Field #3/Duke Field, Florida. With the transition to the AC-130A, the 919 TAG was then redesignated as the 919th Special Operations Group.
In the late 1970s, when the AC-130H fleet was first being modified for in-flight refueling capability, a demonstration mission was planned and flown from Hurlburt Field, Florida, nonstop, to conduct a 2-hour live-fire mission over Empire Firing Range in the Republic of Panama, then return home. This 13-hour mission with two in-flight refuelings from KC-135 tankers proved the validity of flying long-range missions outside the contiguous United States to attack targets then return to home base without intermediate stops.
AC-130s from both the 4th and 16th Special Operations Squadrons have been deployed in nearly every conflict in which the United States has been involved, officially and unofficially, since the end of the Vietnam War.
In July 1979, AC-130H crews deployed to Howard Air Force Base, Panama, as a precaution against possible hostile actions against American personnel during the Nicaraguan Revolution. New time aloft and nonstop distance records were subsequently set by a 16th SOS two-ship AC-130H formation flight that departed Hurlburt Field on 13 November 1979 and landed on 15 November at Andersen Air Force Base, Guam, a distance of and 29 hours 43 minutes nonstop, refueling four times in-flight. Refueling support for the Guam deployment was provided by KC-135 crews from the 305th Air Refueling Wing from Grissom AFB, Indiana.
In November 1979, four AC-130H gunships flew nonstop from Hurlburt Field to Anderson AFB, Guam, because of the hostage situation at the US Embassy in Iran. On Guam, AC-130H crews developed communications-out/lights-out refueling procedures for later employment by trial-and-error. This deployment with the 1 SOW/CC as task force commander was directed from the office of the CJCS for fear that Iranian militants could begin executing American Embassy personnel who had been taken hostage on 4 November. One early option considered AC-130H retaliatory punitive strikes deep within Iran. Later gunship flights exceeded the 1979 Hurlburt-to-Guam flight. Upon return in March 1980, the four planes soon found themselves in Egypt to support the ill-fated hostage rescue attempt.
During Operation Urgent Fury in Grenada in 1983, AC-130s suppressed enemy air-defense systems and attacked ground forces enabling the assault of the Point Salines Airfield via airdrop and air-land of friendly forces. The AC-130 aircrew earned the Lieutenant General William H. Tunner Award for the mission.
The AC-130Hs of the 16th Special Operations Squadron unit maintained an ongoing rotation to Howard AB, Panama, monitoring activities in El Salvador and other Central American points of interest, with rules of engagement eventually permitting attacks on FMLN targets. This commitment of maintainers and crews started in 1983 and lasted until 1990. The AC-130 is considered to have hastened the end of the Salvadoran Civil War in the 1980s. Crews flew undercover missions from Honduras and attacked guerrilla camps and concentrations.
AC-130s also had a primary role during the United States invasion of Panama (named Operation Just Cause) in 1989, when they destroyed Panama Defense Force headquarters and numerous command-and-control facilities, and provided close air support for US ground troops. Aircrews earned the Mackay Trophy for the most meritorious flight of the year, and the Tunner Award.
===Gulf War and the 1990s===
During the Gulf War of 1990–1991 (Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm), Regular Air Force and Air Force Reserve AC-130s provided close air support and force protection (air base defense) for ground forces, and battlefield interdiction. The primary interdiction targets were early-warning/ground-control intercept sites along the southern border of Iraq. At its standard altitude of , the aircraft had a proven ability to engage moving ground targets. The first gunship to enter the Battle of Khafji helped stop a southbound Iraqi armored column on 29 January 1991. One day later, three more gunships provided further aid to Marines participating in the operation. The gunships attacked Iraqi positions and columns moving south to reinforce their positions north of the city.
Despite the threat of SAMs and increasing visibility during the early morning hours of 31 January 1991, one AC-130H, AF Serial No. 69-6567, call-sign Spirit 03, opted to stay to continue to protect the Marines. A lone Iraqi with a Strela-2 MANPADS shot Spirit 03 down, and all 14 crew members were killed. The loss of Spirit 03 did however result in the US DoD joining the development of the AN/AAQ-24 Directed Infrared Countermeasures System which, in its updated laser-based form, is now a common fit across large US military aircraft.
The military has used AC-130 gunships during the humanitarian operations in Somalia (Operation Restore Hope and Operation United Shield) in 1992–93 and Operation Uphold Democracy in Haiti in 1994. AC-130s took part in Operation Assured Response in Liberia in 1996 and in Operation Silver Wake in 1997, the evacuation of American non-combatants from Albania.
AC-130s took part in the NATO missions in Bosnia and Herzegovina and Kosovo during the 1990s.
The AC-130U gunship set a new record for the longest sustained flight by any C-130 on 22 and 23 October 1997, when two AC-130U gunships flew 36 hours nonstop from Hurlburt Field to Taegu Air Base (Daegu), South Korea, being refueled seven times in the air by KC-135 tankers. The two gunships took on 410,000 lb (186,000 kg) of fuel. Gunships also were part of the buildup of US forces in 1998 to compel Iraq to allow UNSCOM weapons inspections.
===War on Terror===
The US has used gunships with deployments to the War in Afghanistan (Operation Enduring Freedom, Operation Freedom's Sentinel, 2001–21), and Iraq War (Operation Iraqi Freedom, 2003–11). AC-130 strikes were directed by special forces on known Taliban locations during the early days of the war in Afghanistan. US Special Operations Forces used the AC-130 to support its operations. The day after arriving in Afghanistan, the AC-130s attacked Taliban and Al-Qaeda forces near the city of Kunduz and were directly responsible for the city's surrender the next day. On 26 November 2001, Spectres were called in to put down a rebellion at the prison fort of Qala-i-Jangi. The 16 SOS flew missions over Mazar-i-Sharif, Kunduz, Kandahar, Shkin, Asadabad, Bagram, Baghran, Tora Bora, and virtually every other part of Afghanistan. The Spectre participated in countless operations within Afghanistan, performing on-call close air support and armed reconnaissance. In March 2002, three AC-130 Spectres provided 39 crucial combat missions in support of Operation Anaconda in Afghanistan. During the intense fighting, the planes fired more than 1,300x 40mm and 1,200x 105mm rounds.
Close air support was the main mission of the AC-130 in Iraq. Night after night, at least one AC-130 was in the air to fulfill one or more air-support requests (ASRs). A typical mission had the AC–130 supporting a single brigade's ASRs followed by aerial refueling and another two hours with another brigade or SOF team. The use of AC-130s in places like Fallujah, urban settings where insurgents were among crowded populations of non-combatants, was criticized by human rights groups. AC-130s were also used for intelligence gathering with their sophisticated long-range video, infrared and radar sensors. In 2007, US Special Operations forces also used the AC-130 in attacks on suspected Al-Qaeda militants in Somalia.
Eight AC-130H and 17 AC-130U aircraft were in active-duty service as of July 2010. which eventually came under NATO as Operation Unified Protector.
By September 2013, 14 MC-130W Dragon Spear aircraft have been converted to AC-130W Stinger II gunships. The Stinger gunships have been deployed to Afghanistan to replace the aging AC-130H aircraft and provide an example for the new AC-130J Ghostrider. Modifications began by cutting holes in the plane to make room for weapons and adding kits and bomb bases for laser-guided munitions. Crews added a 105 mm cannon, 20-inch infrared and electro-optical sensors, and the ability to carry 250-lb bombs on the wings.
The final AC-130H Spectre gunship, tail number 69-6569 "Excalibur" was retired on 26 May 2015 at Cannon Air Force Base, New Mexico.
On 3 October 2015, an AC-130 mistakenly attacked the Doctors Without Borders hospital in Kunduz, Afghanistan, killing 42 people and injuring over 30. In five separate runs, the gunship struck the hospital, which had been erroneously identified as the source of attacks on coalition members. Subsequent inquiries led to punishment of 16 military personnel and cited "human error" as the root cause.
On 30 September 2017, the Air Force declared the AC-130J Ghostrider had achieved initial operational capability, with six gunships having been delivered; the aircraft is planned to reach full operational capability by 2023 with 37 gunships delivered. The J-variant is lighter and more fuel efficient than previous versions, able to fly at with a range of and service ceiling of . the final AC-130U was retired in June 2020. AFSOC started taking delivery of the AC-130J in spring 2019, and the aircraft began deploying to Afghanistan by the summer.
On 21 November 2023, the Air Force released a statement that an AC-130J had performed a retaliatory strike on Iranian-backed militia group in central Iraq. The strike happened near Al-Asad Airbase after the militia members reportedly launched a ballistic missile against Al-Asad airbase. The Deputy Press Secretary of The Pentagon, Sabrina Singh stated "This self-defense strike resulted in some hostile fatalities." Notably the AC-130J's transponder remained on during the strike, and the remainder of its sortie.
==Variants==
=== In service ===
AC-130J Ghostrider As of 2018, the first AC-130J Ghostrider squadron, the 73rd Special Operations Squadron, is operating from Hurlburt Field, Florida.
=== Retired ===
AC-130A Spectre (Project Gunship II, Surprise Package, Pave Pronto)
Conversions of C-130As; 19 completed; transferred to Air Force Reserve in 1975, retired in 1995.
AC-130H Spectre
Upgraded AC-130E aircraft; 8 completed; last aircraft retired in 2015. The variant was retired in June 2020.12 MC-130W's converted to gunships. The variant was retired in July 2022.
==Operators==
United States Air Force- 37 Active Duty as of 2024
Detachment 2, 14th Air Commando Wing – Nha Trang Air Base, South Vietnam 1967–1968
8th Tactical Fighter Wing – Ubon/Korat Royal Thai Air Force Base, Thailand 1968–1975
16th Special Operations Squadron
1st Special Operations Wing – Hurlburt Field, Florida 1975–1993, 2006–present
4th Special Operations Squadron 2006–present
8th Special Operations Squadron 1975
16th Special Operations Squadron 1975–1993, 2006–2007
18th Flight Test Squadron 1991–1993, 2006–2017
19th Special Operations Squadron 2006–2017
73rd Special Operations Squadron 2018–present
16th Special Operations Wing – Hurlburt Field, Florida 1993–2006
4th Special Operations Squadron 1995–2006
73rd Special Operations Squadron 2007–2015
18th Flight Test Squadron
19th Special Operations Squadron 1996–2006
27th Special Operations Wing – Cannon AFB, New Mexico 2007–
16th Special Operations Squadron
17th Special Operations Squadron
551st Special Operations Squadron
46th Test Wing – Eglin AFB, Florida 2014–present
413th Flight Test Squadron
412th Test Wing – Edwards AFB, California 1990–1995
418th Flight Test Squadron
492nd Special Operations Wing – Hurlburt Field, Florida 2017–present
18th Flight Test Squadron
19th Special Operations Squadron
919th Special Operations Wing – Duke Field, Florida 1975–1995
711th Special Operations Squadron
==Aircraft on display==
One of the first seven AC-130A aircraft deployed to Vietnam was AF serial no. 53–3129, named First Lady in November 1970. This aircraft was a conversion of the first production C-130. On 25 March 1971, it took an anti-aircraft artillery hit in the belly just aft of the nose gear wheel well over the Ho Chi Minh trail in Laos. The 37 mm shell destroyed everything below the crew deck and barely missed striking two crew members. The pilot was able to crash land the aircraft safely. In 1975, after the conclusion of US involvement in the Vietnam war, it was transferred to the Air Force Reserve, where it served with the 711th Special Operations Squadron of the 919th Special Operations Wing. In 1980, the aircraft was upgraded from the original three-bladed propellers to the quieter four-bladed propellers and was eventually retired in late 1995. The retirement also marked an end to the Air Force Reserve Command flying the AC-130A. The aircraft now sits on display in the final Air Force Reserve Command configuration with grey paint, black markings, and the four-bladed Hamilton Sunstrand 54H60-91 props at the Air Force Armament Museum at Eglin Air Force Base, Florida, USA.
A second aircraft, AF serial no. 56–0509, named the Ultimate End, was originally accepted as a C-130A by the Air Force on 28 February 1957, and modified to the AC-130A configuration on 27 July 1970. The aircraft participated in the Vietnam War and the rescue of the SS Mayaguez. Ultimate End demonstrated the durability of the C-130 after surviving hits in five places by 37 mm anti-aircraft artillery on 12 December 1970, extensive left wing leading edge damage on 12 April 1971 and a 57 mm round damaging the belly and injuring one crewman on 4 March 1972. "Ultimate End" was reassigned to the Air Force Reserve's 919th Special Operations Wing at Eglin AFB Auxiliary Field No.3 / Duke Field on 17 June 1975, where it continued in service until retired in the fall 1994 and transferred to Air Force Special Operations Command's Heritage Air Park at Hurlburt Field, Florida. While assigned to the 711th Special Operations Squadron, Ultimate End served in Operations JUST CAUSE in Panama, DESERT STORM in Kuwait and Iraq, and UPHOLD DEMOCRACY in Haiti. After 36 years and seven months of service, 24 years as a gunship, Ultimate End retired from service on 1 October 1994. It made its last flight from Duke Field to Hurlburt Field on 20 October 1994. The Spectre Association dedicated "Ultimate End" (which served with the 16 SOS in Vietnam) on 4 May 1995. Lt Col Michael Byers, then 16 SOS commander, represented the active-duty gunship force and Clyde Gowdy of the Spectre Association represented all Spectre personnel past and present for the unveiling of a monument at the aircraft and the dedication as a whole.
A third AC-130A, AF serial no. 54–1630, is on display in the Cold War Gallery at the National Museum of the United States Air Force at Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio. Named Azrael for the angel of death in Islam who severs the soul from the body, this aircraft figured prominently in the closing hours of Operation Desert Storm. On 26 February 1991, Coalition ground forces were driving the Iraqi Army out of Kuwait. With an Air Force Reserve crew called to active duty, Azrael was sent to the Al Jahra highway (Highway 80) between Kuwait City and Basra, Iraq, to intercept the convoys of tanks, trucks, buses, and cars fleeing the battle. Facing SA-6 and SA-8 surface-to-air missiles and 37 mm and 57 mm radar-guided anti-aircraft artillery the crew attacked and destroyed or disabled most of the convoys. Azrael was also assigned to the 919th Special Operations Wing and retired to the museum in October 1995.
Another AC-130A, AF serial no. 54–1626, the original prototype AC-130 named "Gunship II" is on display at the outdoor Air Park at the National Museum of the United States Air Force at Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio. This aircraft served in Southeast Asia from 1967 to 1972, then served in JC-130A test configuration. It was transferred to the National Museum of the United States Air Force in 1976, and converted back to AC-130A configuration in the late 1990s.
AC-130A serial no. 54–1623, c/n 3010, named "Ghost Rider" served in Southeast Asia and later conflicts until being retired in 1997 to Dobbins AFB, Georgia. Ghost Rider eventually was transferred and displayed at the Aviation Wing Museum at Marietta, Georgia.
AC-130A serial no. 55–0014, named "Jaws of Death," initially served as a C-130A cargo aircraft before being converted to AC-130A configuration in 1970 and being deployed in Southeast Asia from 1971 to 1975. The aircraft also participated in Operation Desert Storm as part of Joint Task Force Proven Force in 1991 before being retired in 1995, when it was flown to Robins Air Force Base, Georgia and placed on display at the adjacent Museum of Aviation in Warner Robins.
AC-130H serial no. 69-6575, named "Wicked Wanda" is on display at the Hurlburt Field, FL airpark.
AC-130U serial no. 87-0128, named "Big Daddy" is on display at the Hurlburt Field, FL airpark.
==Specifications (AC-130)==
==Notable appearances in media==
|
[
"Operation Unified Protector",
"Eglin Air Force Base",
"cruise missile",
"Operation Eagle Claw",
"Directional Infrared Counter Measures",
"Operation Uphold Democracy",
"711th Special Operations Squadron",
"United States Air Force",
"20 mm caliber",
"November 2015 Paris attacks",
"Port and starboard",
"F-4 Phantom II",
"Bosnia and Herzegovina",
"SA-6",
"DESERT STORM",
"Northrop Grumman",
"AN/APG-70",
"Radar warning receiver",
"List of military electronics of the United States",
"Boeing KC-135 Stratotanker",
"Kosovo",
"All Things Considered",
"27th Special Operations Wing",
"magnetic anomaly detector",
"Tan Son Nhut",
"inertial navigation system",
"Mackay Trophy",
"Lockheed C-130 Hercules",
"Qala-i-Jangi",
"Missile Approach Warning",
"Advanced Precision Kill Weapon System",
"8th Tactical Fighter Wing",
"Salvadoran Civil War",
"Iran hostage crisis",
"Iraq War",
"418th Flight Test Squadron",
"precision guided munition",
"Point Salines International Airport",
"A-10 Thunderbolt II",
"Eglin AFB",
"Khmer Rouge",
"Kuwait City",
"Dynetics",
"Mk44 Bushmaster II",
"2011 military intervention in Libya",
"16th Special Operations Wing",
"Museum of Aviation (Warner Robins)",
"Raytheon Coyote",
"Antonov An-12",
"United States invasion of Panama",
"global positioning system",
"Paris Peace Accords",
"laser designator",
"413th Flight Test Squadron",
"Internet Archive",
"Timeline of United States military operations",
"air base",
"25 mm caliber",
"War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)",
"Digital radio frequency memory",
"nose art",
"1st Special Operations Wing",
"F-15E Strike Eagle",
"BAE Systems",
"Anti-aircraft warfare",
"FMLN",
"pylon turn",
"Operation Frequent Wind",
"MANPADS",
"navigation",
"Breech-loading weapon",
"Ammunition",
"Unified Task Force",
"NATO",
"Gulf War",
"Dragon Spear",
"reconnaissance",
"Guam",
"AGM-176 Griffin",
"Air International",
"active denial system",
"Andersen Air Force Base",
"Boeing",
"directed-energy weapon",
"SS Mayaguez",
"Islamic",
"Air Force Armament Museum",
"492nd Special Operations Wing",
"Operation Silver Wake",
"attack aircraft",
"MC-130J Commando II",
"Georgia (U.S. state)",
"Forward Looking Infrared",
"gunship",
"Hydra 70",
"M61 Vulcan",
"phased-array",
"General Dynamics",
"Tet Offensive",
"List of Lockheed aircraft",
"16th Special Operations Squadron",
"APKWS",
"Vietnam",
"Strela-2",
"sensor",
"Phnom Penh",
"fire-control system",
"airdrop",
"Howard Air Force Base",
"Sabrina Singh",
"Center for Strategic and Budgetary Assessments",
"Edwards AFB",
"8th Special Operations Squadron",
"South Vietnam",
"Rescue of Bat 21 Bravo",
"Black Arrow (missile)",
"Doctors Without Borders",
"C-130 Hercules",
"United Kingdom",
"United States Marine Corps",
"glide bomb",
"New Mexico",
"US Air Force",
"submarine",
"military intervention against ISIL",
"Wright-Patterson Air Force Base",
"AN/ALE-47",
"Ubon Royal Thai Air Force Base",
"Analog computer",
"Ryan Aeronautical",
"Night vision device",
"master/slave (technology)",
"Operation Odyssey Dawn",
"Allison T56",
"UNSCOM",
"AN/APQ-180",
"Al-Asad Airbase",
"Alliant Techsystems",
"infrared countermeasures",
"Lockheed Martin C-130J Super Hercules",
"Marconi Electronic Systems",
"Basra",
"Ho Chi Minh trail",
"Bloomberg L.P.",
"Hurlburt Field",
"17th Special Operations Squadron",
"ITT Exelis",
"Operation Tidal Wave II",
"Operation Freedom's Sentinel",
"National Museum of the United States Air Force",
"551st Special Operations Squadron",
"synthetic-aperture radar",
"semi-active laser",
"Albania",
"Raytheon",
"close air support",
"Loiter (flight)",
"AN/APG-66",
"GAU-17",
"Korat Royal Thai Air Force Base",
"Azrael",
"Battle of Khafji",
"919th Special Operations Wing",
"Cabin pressurization",
"Ground-controlled interception",
"Operation United Shield",
"SA-7",
"GBU-44/B Viper Strike",
"SA-8",
"Taegu Air Base",
"General Electric",
"Advanced Tactical Laser",
"AN/ALQ-172",
"Defense News",
"ignition coil",
"Motorola",
"List of active United States military aircraft",
"Operation Anaconda",
"surface-to-air missile",
"Cannon AFB",
"Warner Robins, Georgia",
"19th Special Operations Squadron",
"Small Diameter Bomb",
"Bushmaster II",
"Lockheed MC-130",
"SA-2",
"GAU-12 Equalizer",
"Al-Qaeda",
"World War II",
"fixed-wing aircraft",
"contiguous United States",
"Thailand",
"Marietta, Georgia",
"7.62×51mm NATO",
"Katum Camp",
"William H. Tunner",
"412th Test Wing",
"Iraq",
"46th Test Wing",
"Earth's magnetic field",
"The Pentagon",
"howitzer",
"Invasion of Grenada",
"30 mm caliber",
"Alenia C-27J Spartan",
"radar",
"Grissom AFB",
"AZP S-60",
"Kunduz hospital airstrike",
"Operation Tidal Wave",
"search and rescue",
"convoy",
"4th Special Operations Squadron",
"M102 howitzer",
"Mayaguez incident",
"M120 mortar",
"AESA radar",
"United States Special Operations Command",
"Robins Air Force Base",
"List of accidents and incidents involving the Lockheed C-130 Hercules",
"Somalia",
"fire-control computer",
"infrared",
"Bofors 40 mm Automatic Gun L/60",
"Highway of Death",
"Douglas AC-47 Spooky",
"AGM-114 Hellfire",
"forward-looking infrared",
"Operation Eagle Pull",
"Nha Trang Air Base",
"Kunduz, Afghanistan",
"strafing",
"Military of Panama",
"Operation Enduring Freedom",
"73rd Special Operations Squadron",
"Air Force Reserve Command",
"Air Force Special Operations Command",
"Cannon Air Force Base",
"History of Kunduz",
"high-explosive incendiary",
"Battle of Qala-i-Jangi",
"Air Force Reserve",
"Attack aircraft",
"Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant",
"37 mm automatic air defense gun M1939 (61-K)",
"Wright-Patterson AFB",
"Electronic countermeasure",
"Dobbins AFB",
"turboprop",
"radome",
"WP:Air/PC",
"Cubic Corporation",
"GBU-53/B",
"Lockheed Martin",
"Fairchild AC-119",
"18th Flight Test Squadron",
"Nicaraguan Revolution",
"Duke Field",
"synthetic aperture radar",
"Antenna (radio)",
"L-3 Communications",
"non-combatants",
"F-16A Fighting Falcon",
"unmanned aerial vehicle",
"Closed-circuit television",
"Rolls-Royce AE 2100D3",
"Commercial off-the-shelf",
"Vietnam War"
] |
3,158 |
Alternative
|
Alternative or alternate may refer to:
==Arts, entertainment and media==
Alternative (Kamen Rider), a character in the Japanese TV series Kamen Rider Ryuki
Alternative comics, or independent comics are an alternative to mainstream superhero comics
Alternative fashion, fashion that stands apart from mainstream, commercial fashion.
Alternative manga, manga published outside the more commercial market, or which have different art styles, themes, and narratives to those found in the more popular manga magazines.
AlterNative, academic journal
The Alternative (film), a 1978 Australian television film
The Alternative, a radio show hosted by Tony Evans
120 Minutes (2004 TV program), an alternative rock music video program formerly known as The Alternative
The American Spectator, an American magazine formerly known as The Alternative: An American Spectator
===Music===
Alternative dance, a musical genre that mixes alternative rock with electronic dance music
Alternative hip hop, subgenre of hip hop music that encompasses a wide range of styles that are not typically identified as mainstream
Alternative pop, pop music with broad commercial appeal that is made by figures outside the mainstream, or which is considered more original, challenging, or eclectic than traditional pop music
Alternative rock, also known as "alternative music" or simply "alternative"
Alternative metal, genre of heavy metal music that combines heavy metal with influences from alternative rock and other genres not normally associated with metal
Alternative (album), a B-sides album by Pet Shop Boys
The Alternative (album), an album by IAMX
"Altern-ate", a song by H-el-ical//, 2020
==Sports==
Alternate (sports), a replacement or backup for a regular or starting team player
==Mathematics and science==
Alternativity, a weaker property than associativity
Alternate leaves, a classification in botanical phyllotaxis
==Politics==
The Alternative (Denmark), a green political party in Denmark
The Alternative (France), electoral coalition
The Alternative (Palestine), a former electoral alliance of several socialist Palestinian groups
Alternativa (Kosovo), a liberal political party in Kosovo
Alternativa (Italian political party), a populist political party in Italy
Alternativa (North Macedonia), a political party in North Macedonia
Alternative (political bloc), in the Republic of Moldova
|
[
"Alternatives",
"Alternativa (Italian political party)",
"Alternative lifestyle",
"Alternative science (disambiguation)",
"Alternate reality (disambiguation)",
"Alternative rock",
"Alternative education",
"Alternative (album)",
"Alternative natural materials",
"Alternate (sports)",
"Alt porn",
"Alternative facts",
"Alternative pop",
"The Alternate (disambiguation)",
"Alternative fuel locomotive",
"Alternative music (disambiguation)",
"The Alternative (film)",
"phyllotaxis",
"Alt-right",
"Alternate (theatre)",
"Alternative (political bloc)",
"Alternative (Kamen Rider)",
"Tony Evans (radio)",
"The American Spectator",
"The Alternative (Denmark)",
"Alternative comics",
"The Alternative (Palestine)",
"Alternative fuel",
"Alternative culture",
"The Alternative (France)",
"Alternative hip hop",
"Alternativa (North Macedonia)",
"Alternative press (disambiguation)",
"Alternativity",
"Alternative metal",
"Alternative fashion",
"AlterNative",
"Alternativa (Kosovo)",
"Alternative housing",
"The Alternative (album)",
"H-el-ical//",
"Alternative media",
"Alternative fuel vehicle",
"Alternative manga",
"120 Minutes (2004 TV program)",
"Alternating (disambiguation)",
"Alternative dance"
] |
3,160 |
Alternative algebra
|
In abstract algebra, an alternative algebra is an algebra in which multiplication need not be associative, only alternative. That is, one must have
x(xy) = (xx)y
(yx)x = y(xx)
for all x and y in the algebra.
Every associative algebra is obviously alternative, but so too are some strictly non-associative algebras such as the octonions.
==The associator==
Alternative algebras are so named because they are the algebras for which the associator is alternating. The associator is a trilinear map given by
[x,y,z] = (xy)z - x(yz).
By definition, a multilinear map is alternating if it vanishes whenever two of its arguments are equal. The left and right alternative identities for an algebra are equivalent to
[x,x,y] = 0
[y,x,x] = 0.
Both of these identities together imply that
[x,y,x] = [x, x, x] + [x, y, x] - [x, x+y, x+y] = [x, x+y, -y] = [x, x, -y] - [x, y, y] = 0
for all x and y. This is equivalent to the flexible identity
(xy)x = x(yx).
The associator of an alternative algebra is therefore alternating. Conversely, any algebra whose associator is alternating is clearly alternative. By symmetry, any algebra which satisfies any two of:
left alternative identity: x(xy) = (xx)y
right alternative identity: (yx)x = y(xx)
flexible identity: (xy)x = x(yx).
is alternative and therefore satisfies all three identities.
An alternating associator is always totally skew-symmetric. That is,
[x_{\sigma(1)}, x_{\sigma(2)}, x_{\sigma(3)}] = \sgn(\sigma)[x_1,x_2,x_3]
for any permutation \sigma. The converse holds so long as the characteristic of the base field is not 2.
==Examples==
Every associative algebra is alternative.
The octonions form a non-associative alternative algebra, a normed division algebra of dimension 8 over the real numbers.
More generally, any octonion algebra is alternative.
===Non-examples===
The sedenions, trigintaduonions, and all higher Cayley–Dickson algebras lose alternativity.
==Properties==
Artin's theorem states that in an alternative algebra the subalgebra generated by any two elements is associative. Conversely, any algebra for which this is true is clearly alternative. It follows that expressions involving only two variables can be written unambiguously without parentheses in an alternative algebra. A generalization of Artin's theorem states that whenever three elements x,y,z in an alternative algebra associate (i.e., [x,y,z] = 0), the subalgebra generated by those elements is associative.
A corollary of Artin's theorem is that alternative algebras are power-associative, that is, the subalgebra generated by a single element is associative. The converse need not hold: the sedenions are power-associative but not alternative.
The Moufang identities
a(x(ay)) = (axa)y
((xa)y)a = x(aya)
(ax)(ya) = a(xy)a
hold in any alternative algebra.
The structure theory of alternative rings is presented in the book Rings That Are Nearly Associative by Zhevlakov, Slin'ko, Shestakov, and Shirshov.
==Occurrence==
The projective plane over any alternative division ring is a Moufang plane.
Every composition algebra is an alternative algebra, as shown by Guy Roos in 2008: A composition algebra A over a field K has a norm n that is a multiplicative homomorphism: n(a \times b) = n(a) \times n(b) connecting (A, ×) and (K, ×).
Define the form ( _ : _ ): A × A → K by (a:b) = n(a+b) - n(a) - n(b). Then the trace of a is given by (a:1) and the conjugate by a* = (a:1)e – a where e is the basis element for 1. A series of exercises prove that a composition algebra is always an alternative algebra.
|
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"multilinear map",
"composition algebra",
"associative ring",
"American Mathematical Society",
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"octonion",
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"associative algebra",
"group of units",
"power-associative",
"subalgebra",
"abstract algebra",
"Maltsev algebra",
"associator",
"non-associative algebra",
"associative",
"trilinear map",
"flexible identity",
"octonion algebra",
"Moufang plane",
"projective plane",
"Algebra over a field",
"normed division algebra",
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"inverse element",
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"corollary",
"Zorn ring",
"characteristic (algebra)",
"Moufang loop",
"permutation",
"real number",
"trigintaduonion",
"Academic Press",
"alternativity",
"Moufang identities",
"alternating form",
"sedenion",
"algebra over a field",
"Cayley–Dickson algebra"
] |
3,162 |
Arbitrage
|
Arbitrage (, ) is the practice of taking advantage of a difference in prices in two or more marketsstriking a combination of matching deals to capitalize on the difference, the profit being the difference between the market prices at which the unit is traded. Arbitrage has the effect of causing prices of the same or very similar assets in different markets to converge.
When used by academics in economics, an arbitrage is a transaction that involves no negative cash flow at any probabilistic or temporal state and a positive cash flow in at least one state; in simple terms, it is the possibility of a risk-free profit after transaction costs. For example, an arbitrage opportunity is present when there is the possibility to instantaneously buy something for a low price and sell it for a higher price.
In principle and in academic use, an arbitrage is risk-free; in common use, as in statistical arbitrage, it may refer to expected profit, though losses may occur, and in practice, there are always risks in arbitrage, some minor (such as fluctuation of prices decreasing profit margins), some major (such as devaluation of a currency or derivative). In academic use, an arbitrage involves taking advantage of differences in price of a single asset or identical cash-flows; in common use, it is also used to refer to differences between similar assets (relative value or convergence trades), as in merger arbitrage.
The term is mainly applied in the financial field. People who engage in arbitrage are called arbitrageurs ().
==Etymology==
"Arbitrage" is a French word and denotes a decision by an arbitrator or arbitration tribunal (in modern French, "" usually means referee or umpire). It was first defined as a financial term in 1704 by French mathematician Mathieu de la Porte in his treatise "" as a consideration of different exchange rates to recognise the most profitable places of issuance and settlement for a bill of exchange (" [, in modern spelling] ".)
==Arbitrage equilibrium==
If the market prices do not allow for profitable arbitrage, the prices are said to constitute an arbitrage equilibrium, or an arbitrage-free market. An arbitrage equilibrium is a precondition for a general economic equilibrium. The 'no-arbitrage assumption' is used in quantitative finance to calculate a unique risk neutral price for derivatives.
==Arbitrage-free pricing approach for bonds==
Arbitrage-free pricing for bonds is the method of valuing a coupon-bearing financial instrument by discounting its future cash flows by multiple discount rates. By doing so, a more accurate price can be obtained than if the price is calculated with a present-value pricing approach. Arbitrage-free pricing is used for bond valuation and to detect arbitrage opportunities for investors.
For the purpose of valuing the price of a bond, its cash flows can each be thought of as packets of incremental cash flows with a large packet upon maturity, being the principal. Since the cash flows are dispersed throughout future periods, they must be discounted back to the present. In the present-value approach, the cash flows are discounted with one discount rate to find the price of the bond. In arbitrage-free pricing, multiple discount rates are used.
The present-value approach assumes that the bond yield will stay the same until maturity. This is a simplified model because interest rates may fluctuate in the future, which in turn affects the yield on the bond. For this reason, the discount rate may differ for each cash flow. Each cash flow can be considered a zero-coupon instrument that pays one payment upon maturity. The discount rates used should be the rates of multiple zero-coupon bonds with maturity dates the same as each cash flow and similar risk as the instrument being valued. By using multiple discount rates, the arbitrage-free price is the sum of the discounted cash flows. Arbitrage-free price refers to the price at which no price arbitrage is possible.
The idea of using multiple discount rates obtained from zero-coupon bonds and discounting a similar bond's cash flow to find its price is derived from the yield curve, which is a curve of the yields of the same bond with different maturities. This curve can be used to view trends in market expectations of how interest rates will move in the future. In arbitrage-free pricing of a bond, a yield curve of similar zero-coupon bonds with different maturities is created. If the curve were to be created with Treasury securities of different maturities, they would be stripped of their coupon payments through bootstrapping. This is to transform the bonds into zero-coupon bonds. The yield of these zero-coupon bonds would then be plotted on a diagram with time on the x-axis and yield on the y-axis.
Since the yield curve displays market expectations on how yields and interest rates may move, the arbitrage-free pricing approach is more realistic than using only one discount rate. Investors can use this approach to value bonds and find price mismatches, resulting in an arbitrage opportunity. If a bond valued with the arbitrage-free pricing approach turns out to be priced higher in the market, an investor could have such an opportunity:
Investor shorts the bond at price at time t1.
Investor longs the zero-coupon bonds making up the related yield curve and strips and sells any coupon payments at t1.
As t>t1, the price spread between the prices will decrease.
At maturity, the prices will converge and be equal. Investor exits both the long and short positions, realising a profit.
If the outcome from the valuation were the reverse case, the opposite positions would be taken in the bonds. This arbitrage opportunity comes from the assumption that the prices of bonds with the same properties will converge upon maturity. This can be explained through market efficiency, which states that arbitrage opportunities will eventually be discovered and corrected. The prices of the bonds in t1 move closer together to finally become the same at tT.
==Conditions for arbitrage==
Arbitrage may take place when:
the same asset does not trade at the same price on all markets ("the law of one price").
two assets with identical cash flows do not trade at the same price.
an asset with a known price in the future does not today trade at its future price discounted at the risk-free interest rate (or the asset has significant costs of storage; so this condition holds true for something like grain but not for securities).
Arbitrage is not simply the act of buying a product in one market and selling it in another for a higher price at some later time. The transactions must occur simultaneously to avoid exposure to market risk, or the risk that prices may change in one market before both transactions are complete. In practical terms, this is generally possible only with securities and financial products that can be traded electronically, and even then, when each leg of the trade is executed, the prices in the market may have moved. Missing one of the legs of the trade (and subsequently having to trade it soon after at a worse price) is an 'execution risk' referred to as 'leg risk'.
In the simplest example, any good sold in one market should sell for the same price in another. Traders may, for example, find that the price of wheat is lower in agricultural regions than in cities, purchase the good, and transport it to another region to sell at a higher price. This type of price arbitrage is the most common, but this simple example ignores the cost of transport, storage, risk, and other factors. "True" arbitrage requires that there is no market risk involved. Where securities are traded on more than one exchange, arbitrage occurs by simultaneously buying in one and selling on the other.
See rational pricing, particularly § arbitrage mechanics, for further discussion.
Mathematically it is defined as follows:
P(V_t \geq 0) = 1 \text{ and } P(V_t \neq 0) > 0, \,0
where V_0 = 0, V_t denotes the portfolio value at time t and T is the time the portfolio ceases to be available on the market. This means that the value of the portfolio is never negative, and guaranteed to be positive at least once over its lifetime.
Negative, or anti-, arbitrage is similarly defined as
P(V_t \leq 0) = 1 \text{ and } P(V_t \neq 0) > 0, \,0
and occurs naturally in arbitrage relations as the seller view as opposed to the buyer view.
==Price convergence==
Arbitrage has the effect of causing prices, and thus purchasing power, in different markets to converge. As a result of arbitrage, the currency exchange rates and the prices of securities and other financial assets in different markets tend to converge. The speed at which they do so is a measure of market efficiency. Arbitrage tends to reduce price discrimination by encouraging people to buy an item where the price is low and resell it where the price is high (as long as the buyers are not prohibited from reselling and the transaction costs of buying, holding, and reselling are small, relative to the difference in prices in the different markets).
Arbitrage moves different currencies toward purchasing power parity. Assume that a car purchased in the United States is cheaper than the same car in Canada. Canadians would buy their cars across the border to exploit the arbitrage condition. At the same time, Americans would buy US cars, transport them across the border, then sell them in Canada. Canadians would have to buy American dollars to buy the cars and Americans would have to sell the Canadian dollars they received in exchange. Both actions would increase demand for US dollars and supply of Canadian dollars. As a result, there would be an appreciation of the US currency. This would make US cars more expensive and Canadian cars less so until their prices were similar. On a larger scale, international arbitrage opportunities in commodities, goods, securities, and currencies tend to change exchange rates until the purchasing power is equal.
In reality, most assets exhibit some difference between countries. These, transaction costs, taxes, and other costs provide an impediment to this kind of arbitrage. Similarly, arbitrage affects the difference in interest rates paid on government bonds issued by the various countries, given the expected depreciation in the currencies relative to each other (see interest rate parity).
==Risks==
Arbitrage transactions in modern securities markets involve fairly low day-to-day risks, but can face extremely high risk in rare situations,
===Execution risk===
Generally, it is impossible to close two or three transactions at the same instant; therefore, there is the possibility that when one part of the deal is closed, a quick shift in prices makes it impossible to close the other at a profitable price. However, this is not necessarily the case. Many exchanges and inter-dealer brokers allow multi legged trades (e.g. basis block trades on LIFFE).
Competition in the marketplace can also create risks during arbitrage transactions. As an example, if one was trying to profit from a price discrepancy between IBM on the NYSE and IBM on the London Stock Exchange, they may purchase a large number of shares on the NYSE and find that they cannot simultaneously sell on the LSE. This leaves the arbitrageur in an unhedged risk position.
In the 1980s, risk arbitrage was common. In this form of speculation, one trades a security that is clearly undervalued or overvalued, when it is seen that the wrong valuation is about to be corrected. The standard example is the stock of a company, undervalued in the stock market, which is about to be the object of a takeover bid; the price of the takeover will more truly reflect the value of the company, giving a large profit to those who bought at the current price, if the merger goes through as predicted. Traditionally, arbitrage transactions in the securities markets involve high speed, high volume, and low risk. At some moment a price difference exists, and the problem is to execute two or three balancing transactions while the difference persists (that is, before the other arbitrageurs act). When the transaction involves a delay of weeks or months, as above, it may entail considerable risk if borrowed money is used to magnify the reward through leverage. One way of reducing this risk is through the illegal use of inside information, and risk arbitrage in leveraged buyouts was associated with some of the famous financial scandals of the 1980s, such as those involving Michael Milken and Ivan Boesky.
===Mismatch===
Another risk occurs if the items being bought and sold are not identical and the arbitrage is conducted under the assumption that the prices of the items are correlated or predictable; this is more narrowly referred to as a convergence trade. In the extreme case this is merger arbitrage, described below. In comparison to the classical quick arbitrage transaction, such an operation can produce disastrous losses.
===Counterparty risk===
As arbitrages generally involve future movements of cash, they are subject to counterparty risk: the risk that a counterparty fails to fulfill their side of a transaction. This is a serious problem if one has either a single trade or many related trades with a single counterparty, whose failure thus poses a threat, or in the event of a financial crisis when many counterparties fail. This hazard is serious because of the large quantities one must trade in order to make a profit on small price differences.
For example, if one purchases many risky bonds, then hedges them with CDSes, profiting from the difference between the bond spread and the CDS premium, in a financial crisis, the bonds may default and the CDS writer/seller may fail, due to the stress of the crisis, causing the arbitrageur to face steep losses.
===Liquidity risk===
Arbitrage trades are necessarily synthetic, leveraged trades, as they involve a short position. If the assets used are not identical (so a price divergence makes the trade temporarily lose money), or the margin treatment is not identical, and the trader is accordingly required to post margin (faces a margin call), the trader may run out of capital (if they run out of cash and cannot borrow more) and be forced to sell these assets at a loss even though the trades may be expected to ultimately make money. In effect, arbitrage traders synthesise a put option on their ability to finance themselves.
Prices may diverge during a financial crisis, often termed a "flight to quality"; these are precisely the times when it is hardest for leveraged investors to raise capital (due to overall capital constraints), and thus they will lack capital precisely when they need it most. Excessive gray market arbitrage will lead to arbitrage behaviors in formal channels, which will reduce returns due to factors such as price confusion, and may even cause prices to plummet in severe cases.
==Types==
===Spatial arbitrage===
Also known as geographical arbitrage, this is the simplest form of arbitrage. In spatial arbitrage, an arbitrageur looks for price differences between geographically separate markets. For example, there may be a bond dealer in Virginia offering a bond at 100-12/23 and a dealer in Washington bidding 100-15/23 for the same bond. For whatever reason, the two dealers have not spotted the difference in the prices, but the arbitrageur does. The arbitrageur immediately buys the bond from the Virginia dealer and sells it to the Washington dealer.
=== Crypto arbitrage ===
Also known as interexchange arbitrage, this is the form of arbitrage that takes advantage of the difference between two or more crypto exchanges. For example, on HTX token like LSK could be priced at $1.39 while on Gate it could be sold for $1.5. Although there are some risks involved in that type of arbitrage, such as network and exchange fees, blockchain overload, and inability to deposit or withdraw funds, this activity remains one of the most profitable ventures in crypto.
===Latency arbitrage===
For very short amounts of time, the prices of two assets that are either fungible or related by a strict pricing relationship may temporarily go out of sync as the market makers are slow to update the prices. This momentary mispricing creates the opportunity for an arbitrageur to capture the difference between the two prices. For example, the price of calls and puts on an underlying should be related by put-call parity. If these prices are misquoted relative to the put-call parity relationship, it provides an arbitrageur the opportunity to profit from the mispricing.
Latency arbitrage is often mentioned especially in electronic processing in the financial field, where the use of fast server hardware allows an arbitrageur to realize opportunities that may exist for as little as nanoseconds. A study by the Financial Conduct Authority of the United Kingdom found that this practice generates as much as $5 billion per year in profit.
===Merger arbitrage===
Also called risk arbitrage, merger arbitrage generally consists of buying/holding the stock of a company that is the target of a takeover while shorting the stock of the acquiring company.
Usually, the market price of the target company is less than the price offered by the acquiring company.
The spread between these two prices depends mainly on the probability and the timing of the takeover being completed as well as the prevailing level of interest rates.
The bet in a merger arbitrage is that such a spread will eventually be zero, if and when the takeover is completed. The risk is that the deal "breaks" and the spread massively widens.
===Municipal bond arbitrage===
Municipal bond arbitrage, also called municipal bond relative value arbitrage, municipal arbitrage, or just muni arb, is a hedge fund strategy involving one of two approaches. The term "arbitrage" is also used in the context of the Income Tax Regulations governing the investment of proceeds of municipal bonds; these regulations, aimed at the issuers or beneficiaries of tax-exempt municipal bonds, are different and, instead, attempt to remove the issuer's ability to arbitrage between the low tax-exempt rate and a taxable investment rate.
Generally, managers seek relative value opportunities by being both long and short municipal bonds with a duration-neutral book. The relative value trades may be between different issuers, different bonds issued by the same entity, or capital structure trades referencing the same asset (in the case of revenue bonds). Managers aim to capture the inefficiencies arising from the heavy participation of non-economic investors (i.e., high income "buy and hold" investors seeking tax-exempt income) as well as the "crossover buying" arising from corporations' or individuals' changing income tax situations (i.e., insurers switching their munis for corporates after a large loss as they can capture a higher after-tax yield by offsetting the taxable corporate income with underwriting losses). There are additional inefficiencies arising from the highly fragmented nature of the municipal bond market which has two million outstanding issues and 50,000 issuers, in contrast to the Treasury market which has 400 issues and a single issuer.
Second, managers construct leveraged portfolios of AAA- or AA-rated tax-exempt municipal bonds with the duration risk hedged by shorting the appropriate ratio of taxable corporate bonds. These corporate equivalents are typically interest rate swaps referencing Libor or SIFMA. The arbitrage manifests itself in the form of a relatively cheap longer maturity municipal bond, which is a municipal bond that yields significantly more than 65% of a corresponding taxable corporate bond. The steeper slope of the municipal yield curve allows participants to collect more after-tax income from the municipal bond portfolio than is spent on the interest rate swap; the carry is greater than the hedge expense. Positive, tax-free carry from muni arb can reach into the double digits. The bet in this municipal bond arbitrage is that, over a longer period of time, two similar instruments—municipal bonds and interest rate swaps—will correlate with each other; they are both very high quality credits, have the same maturity and are denominated in the same currency. Credit risk and duration risk are largely eliminated in this strategy. However, basis risk arises from use of an imperfect hedge, which results in significant, but range-bound principal volatility. The end goal is to limit this principal volatility, eliminating its relevance over time as the high, consistent, tax-free cash flow accumulates. Since the inefficiency is related to government tax policy, and hence is structural in nature, it has not been arbitraged away.
However, many municipal bonds are callable, and this adds substantial risks to the strategy.
===Convertible bond arbitrage===
A convertible bond is a bond that an investor can return to the issuing company in exchange for a predetermined number of shares in the company.
A convertible bond can be thought of as a corporate bond with a stock call option attached to it.
The price of a convertible bond is sensitive to three major factors:
interest rate. When rates move higher, the bond part of a convertible bond tends to move lower, but the call option part of a convertible bond moves higher (and the aggregate tends to move lower).
stock price. When the price of the stock the bond is convertible into moves higher, the price of the bond tends to rise.
credit spread. If the creditworthiness of the issuer deteriorates (e.g. rating downgrade) and its credit spread widens, the bond price tends to move lower, but, in many cases, the call option part of the convertible bond moves higher (since credit spread correlates with volatility).
Given the complexity of the calculations involved and the convoluted structure that a convertible bond can have, an arbitrageur often relies on sophisticated quantitative models in order to identify bonds that are trading cheap versus their theoretical value.
Convertible arbitrage consists of buying a convertible bond and hedging two of the three factors in order to gain exposure to the third factor at a very attractive price.
For instance an arbitrageur would first buy a convertible bond, then sell fixed income securities or interest rate futures (to hedge the interest rate exposure) and buy some credit protection (to hedge the risk of credit deterioration).
Eventually what he or she would be left with is something similar to a call option on the underlying stock, acquired at a very low price.
He or she could then make money either selling some of the more expensive options that are openly traded in the market or delta hedging his or her exposure to the underlying shares.
===Depository receipts===
A depositary receipt is a security that is offered as a "tracking stock" on another foreign market. For instance, a Chinese company wishing to raise more money may issue a depository receipt on the New York Stock Exchange, as the amount of capital on the local exchanges is limited. These securities, known as ADRs (American depositary receipt) or GDRs (global depository receipt) depending on where they are issued, are typically considered "foreign" and therefore trade at a lower value when first released. Many ADR's are exchangeable into the original security (known as fungibility) and actually have the same value. In this case, there is a spread between the perceived value and real value, which can be extracted. Other ADR's that are not exchangeable often have much larger spreads. Since the ADR is trading at a value lower than what it is worth, one can purchase the ADR and expect to make money as its value converges on the original. However, there is a chance that the original stock will fall in value too, so by shorting it one can hedge that risk.
===Cross-border arbitrage===
Cross-border arbitrage exploits different prices of the same stock in different countries:
Example: Apple is trading on NASDAQ at US$108.84. The stock is also traded on the German electronic exchange, XETRA. If 1 euro costs US$1.11, a cross-border trader could enter a buy order on the XETRA at €98.03 per Apple share and a sell order at €98.07 per share.
Some brokers in Germany do not offer access to the U.S. exchanges. Hence if a German retail investor wants to buy Apple stock, he needs to buy it on the XETRA. The cross-border trader would sell the Apple shares on XETRA to the investor and buy the shares in the same second on NASDAQ. Afterwards, the cross-border trader would need to transfer the shares bought on NASDAQ to the German XETRA exchange, where he is obliged to deliver the stock.
In most cases, the quotation on the local exchanges is done electronically by high-frequency traders, taking into consideration the home price of the stock and the exchange rate. This kind of high-frequency trading benefits the public, as it reduces the cost to the German investor and enables them to buy U.S. shares.
===Dual-listed companies===
A dual-listed company (DLC) structure involves two companies incorporated in different countries contractually agreeing to operate their businesses as if they were a single enterprise, while retaining their separate legal identity and existing stock exchange listings. In integrated and efficient financial markets, stock prices of the twin pair should move in lockstep. In practice, DLC share prices exhibit large deviations from theoretical parity. Arbitrage positions in DLCs can be set up by obtaining a long position in the relatively underpriced part of the DLC and a short position in the relatively overpriced part. Such arbitrage strategies start paying off as soon as the relative prices of the two DLC stocks converge toward theoretical parity. However, since there is no identifiable date at which DLC prices will converge, arbitrage positions sometimes have to be kept open for considerable periods of time. In the meantime, the price gap might widen. In these situations, arbitrageurs may receive margin calls, after which they would most likely be forced to liquidate part of the position at a highly unfavorable moment and suffer a loss. Arbitrage in DLCs may be profitable, but is also very risky.
A good illustration of the risk of DLC arbitrage is the position in Royal Dutch Shell—which had a DLC structure until 2005—by the hedge fund Long-Term Capital Management (LTCM, see also the discussion below). Lowenstein (2000) describes that LTCM established an arbitrage position in Royal Dutch Shell in the summer of 1997, when Royal Dutch traded at an 8 to 10 percent premium. In total, $2.3 billion was invested, half of which was long in Shell and the other half was short in Royal Dutch (Lowenstein, p. 99). In the autumn of 1998, large defaults on Russian debt created significant losses for the hedge fund and LTCM had to unwind several positions. Lowenstein reports that the premium of Royal Dutch had increased to about 22 percent and LTCM had to close the position and incur a loss. According to Lowenstein (p. 234), LTCM lost $286 million in equity pairs trading and more than half of this loss is accounted for by the Royal Dutch Shell trade. (See further under Limits to arbitrage.)
===Private to public equities===
The market prices for privately held companies are typically viewed from a return on investment perspective (such as 25%), whilst publicly held and or exchange listed companies trade on a price to earnings ratio (P/E) (such as a P/E of 10, which equates to a 10% return on investment (ROI)). Thus, if a publicly traded company specialises in the acquisition of privately held companies, from a per-share perspective there is a gain with every acquisition that falls within these guidelines. E.g., Berkshire Hathaway. Private to public equities arbitrage is a term that can arguably be applied to investment banking in general. Private markets to public markets differences may also help explain the overnight windfall gains enjoyed by principals of companies that just did an initial public offering (IPO).
===Regulatory arbitrage===
Regulatory arbitrage "is an avoidance strategy of regulation that is exercised as a result of a regulatory inconsistency". In other words, where a regulated institution takes advantage of the difference between its real (or economic) risk and the regulatory position. For example, if a bank, operating under the Basel I accord, has to hold 8% capital against default risk, but the real risk of default is lower, it is profitable to securitise the loan, removing the low-risk loan from its portfolio. On the other hand, if the real risk is higher than the regulatory risk then it is profitable to make that loan and hold on to it, provided it is priced appropriately. Regulatory arbitrage can result in parts of entire businesses being unregulated as a result of the arbitrage.
This process can increase the overall riskiness of institutions under a risk insensitive regulatory regime, as described by Alan Greenspan in his October 1998 speech on The Role of Capital in Optimal Banking Supervision and Regulation.
The term "Regulatory Arbitrage" was used for the first time in 2005 when it was applied by Scott V. Simpson, a partner at law firm Skadden, Arps, to refer to a new defence tactic in hostile mergers and acquisitions where differing takeover regimes in deals involving multi-jurisdictions are exploited to the advantage of a target company under threat.
In economics, regulatory arbitrage (sometimes, tax arbitrage) may refer to situations when a company can choose a nominal place of business with a regulatory, legal or tax regime with lower costs. This can occur particularly where the business transaction has no obvious physical location. In the case of many financial products, it may be unclear "where" the transaction occurs.
Regulatory arbitrage can include restructuring a bank by outsourcing services such as IT. The outsourcing company takes over the installations, buying out the bank's assets and charges a periodic service fee back to the bank. This frees up cashflow usable for new lending by the bank. The bank will have higher IT costs, but counts on the multiplier effect of money creation and the interest rate spread to make it a profitable exercise.
Example:
Suppose the bank sells its IT installations for US$40 million. With a reserve ratio of 10%, the bank can create US$400 million in additional loans (there is a time lag, and the bank has to expect to recover the loaned money back into its books). The bank can often lend (and securitize the loan) to the IT services company to cover the acquisition cost of the IT installations. This can be at preferential rates, as the sole client using the IT installation is the bank. If the bank can generate 5% interest margin on the 400 million of new loans, the bank will increase interest revenues by 20 million. The IT services company is free to leverage their balance sheet as aggressively as they and their banker agree to. This is the reason behind the trend towards outsourcing in the financial sector. Without this money creation benefit, it is actually more expensive to outsource the IT operations as the outsourcing adds a layer of management and increases overhead.
According to PBS Frontline's 2012 four-part documentary, "Money, Power, and Wall Street", regulatory arbitrage, along with asymmetric bank lobbying in Washington and abroad, allowed investment banks in the pre- and post-2008 period to continue to skirt laws and engage in the risky proprietary trading of opaque derivatives, swaps, and other credit-based instruments invented to circumvent legal restrictions at the expense of clients, government, and publics.
Due to the Affordable Care Act's expansion of Medicaid coverage, one form of Regulatory Arbitrage can now be found when businesses engage in "Medicaid Migration", a maneuver by which qualifying employees who would typically be enrolled in company health plans elect to enroll in Medicaid instead. These programs that have similar characteristics as insurance products to the employee, but have radically different cost structures, resulting in significant expense reductions for employers.
===Telecom arbitrage===
Telecom arbitrage companies allow phone users to make international calls for free through certain access numbers. Such services are offered in the United Kingdom; the telecommunication arbitrage companies get paid an interconnect charge by the UK mobile networks and then buy international routes at a lower cost. The calls are seen as free by the UK contract mobile phone customers since they are using up their allocated monthly minutes rather than paying for additional calls.
Such services were previously offered in the United States by companies such as FuturePhone.com. These services would operate in rural telephone exchanges, primarily in small towns in the state of Iowa. In these areas, the local telephone carriers are allowed to charge a high "termination fee" to the caller's carrier in order to fund the cost of providing service to the small and sparsely populated areas that they serve. However, FuturePhone (as well as other similar services) ceased operations upon legal challenges from AT&T and other service providers.
===Statistical arbitrage===
Statistical arbitrage is an imbalance in expected nominal values. A casino has a statistical arbitrage in every game of chance that it offers, referred to as the house advantage, house edge, vigorish, or house vigorish.
=== Gray market ===
Grey market arbitrage involves buying items through marketing channels that sell them without the permission of the product trademark owner and sells them in the legitimate market.
==The fall of Long-Term Capital Management==
Long-Term Capital Management (LTCM), a highly leveraged U.S.-based hedge fund, lost 4.6 billion U.S. dollars in fixed income arbitrage in September 1998. LTCM had attempted to make money on the price difference between different bonds. For example, it would sell U.S. Treasury securities and buy Italian bond futures. The concept was that because Italian bond futures had a less liquid market, in the short term Italian bond futures would have a higher return than U.S. bonds, but in the long term, the prices would converge. Because the difference was small, a large amount of money had to be borrowed to make the buying and selling profitable.
The downfall in this system began on August 17, 1998, when Russia defaulted on its ruble debt and domestic dollar debt. Because global markets were already nervous due to the 1997 Asian financial crisis, investors began selling non-U.S. treasury debt and buying U.S. treasuries, which were considered a safe investment. As a result, the price on US treasuries began to increase and the return began decreasing because there were many buyers, and the return (yield) on other bonds began to increase because there were many sellers (i.e. the price of those bonds fell). This caused the difference between the prices of U.S. treasuries and other bonds to increase, rather than to decrease as LTCM was expecting. Eventually this caused LTCM to fold, and their creditors had to arrange a bail-out. More controversially, officials of the Federal Reserve assisted in the negotiations that led to this bail-out, on the grounds that so many companies and deals were intertwined with LTCM that if LTCM actually failed, they would as well, causing a collapse in confidence in the economic system. Thus LTCM failed as a fixed income arbitrage fund, although it is unclear what sort of profit was realised by the banks that bailed LTCM out.
|
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3,165 |
ACF Fiorentina
|
ACF Fiorentina,
==History==
===Foundation prior to World War II===
Associazione Calcio Fiorentina was founded in the autumn of 1926 by local noble and National Fascist Party member Luigi Ridolfi Vay da Verrazzano, who initiated the merger of two older Florentine clubs, CS Firenze and PG Libertas. The aim of the merger was to give Florence a strong club to rival those of the more dominant Italian Football Championship sides of the time from Northwest Italy. Also influential was the cultural revival and rediscovery of , an ancestor of modern football that was played by members of the family.
Viola players began the 1970s decade with scudetto sewed on their breast, but the period was not especially fruitful for the team. After a fifth-place finish in 1971, they finished in mid-table almost every year, even flirting with relegation in 1972 and 1978. The Viola did win the Anglo-Italian League Cup in 1974 and won the Coppa Italia again in 1975. The team consisted of young talents like Vincenzo Guerini and Moreno Roggi, who suffered bad injuries, and above all Giancarlo Antognoni, who would later become an idol to Fiorentina's fans. The young average age of the players led to the team being called "Fiorentina Ye-Ye".
===Pontello era===
In 1980, Fiorentina was bought by Flavio Pontello, who came from a rich housebuilding family. He quickly changed the team's anthem and logo, leading to some complaints by the fans, but he started to bring in high-quality players such as Francesco Graziani and Eraldo Pecci from Torino; Daniel Bertoni from Sevilla; Daniele Massaro from Monza; and a young Pietro Vierchowod from Como. The team was built around Giancarlo Antognoni, and in 1982, Fiorentina were involved in an exciting duel with rivals Juventus. After a bad injury to Antognoni, the league title was decided on the final day of the season when Fiorentina were denied a goal against Cagliari and were unable to win. Juventus won the title with a disputed penalty and the rivalry between the two teams erupted.
The following years were strange for Fiorentina, who vacillated between high finishes and relegation battles. Fiorentina also bought two interesting players, El Puntero Ramón Díaz and, most significantly, the young Roberto Baggio.
In 1990, Fiorentina fought to avoid relegation right up until the final day of the season, but did reach the UEFA Cup final, where they again faced Juventus. The Turin team won the trophy, but Fiorentina's tifosi once again had real cause for complaint: the second leg of the final was played in Avellino (Fiorentina's home ground was suspended), a city with many Juventus fans, and emerging star Roberto Baggio was sold to the rival team on the day of the final. Pontello, suffering from economic difficulties, was selling all the players and was forced to leave the club after serious riots in Florence's streets. The club was then acquired by the famous filmmaker Mario Cecchi Gori.
===Cecchi Gori era: from Champions League to bankruptcy===
The first season under Cecchi Gori's ownership was one of stabilisation, after which the new chairman started to sign some good players like Brian Laudrup, Stefan Effenberg, Francesco Baiano and, most importantly, Gabriel Batistuta, who became an iconic player for the team during the 1990s. In 1993, however, Cecchi Gori died and was succeeded as chairman by his son, Vittorio. Despite a good start to the season, Cecchi Gori fired the coach, Luigi Radice, after a defeat against Atalanta, and replaced him with Aldo Agroppi. The results were dreadful: Fiorentina fell into the bottom half of the standings and were relegated on the last day of the season.
Claudio Ranieri was brought in as coach for the 1993–94 season, and that year, Fiorentina dominated Serie B, Italy's second division. Upon their return to Serie A, Ranieri put together a good team centred around new top scorer Batistuta, signing the young talent Rui Costa from Benfica and the new world champion Brazilian defender Márcio Santos. The former became an idol to Fiorentina fans, while the second disappointed and was sold after only a season. The Viola finished the season in tenth place.
The following season, Cecchi Gori bought other important players, namely Swedish midfielder Stefan Schwarz. The club again proved its mettle in cup competitions, winning the Coppa Italia against Atalanta and finishing joint-third in Serie A. In the summer, Fiorentina became the first non-national champions to win the Supercoppa Italiana, defeating Milan 2–1 at the San Siro.
Fiorentina's 1996–97 season was disappointing in the league, but they did reach the Cup Winners' Cup semi-final by beating Gloria Bistrița, Sparta Prague and Benfica. The team lost the semi-final to the eventual winner of the competition, Barcelona (away 1–1; home 0–2). The season's main signings were Luís Oliveira and Andrei Kanchelskis, the latter of whom suffered from many injuries.
At the end of the season, Ranieri left Fiorentina for Valencia in Spain, with Cecchi Gori appointing Alberto Malesani as his replacement. Fiorentina played well but struggled against smaller teams, although they did manage to qualify for the UEFA Cup. Malesani left Fiorentina after only a season and was succeeded by Giovanni Trapattoni. With Trapattoni's expert guidance and Batistuta's goals, Fiorentina challenged for the title in 1998–99 but finished the season in third, earning them qualification for the Champions League. The following year was disappointing in Serie A, but Viola played some historical matches in the Champions League, beating Arsenal 1–0 at the old Wembley Stadium and Manchester United 2–0 in Florence. They were ultimately eliminated in the second group stage.
At the end of the season, Trapattoni left the club and was replaced by Turkish coach Fatih Terim. More significantly, however, Batistuta was sold to Roma, who eventually won the title the following year. Fiorentina played well in 2000–01 and stayed in the top half of Serie A, despite the resignation of Terim and the arrival of Roberto Mancini. They also won the Coppa Italia for the sixth and last time.
The year 2001 heralded major changes for Fiorentina, as the terrible state of the club's finances was revealed: they were unable to pay wages and had debts of around US$50 million. The club's owner, Vittorio Cecchi Gori, was able to raise some more money, but this soon proved to be insufficient to sustain the club. Fiorentina were relegated at the end of the 2001–02 season and went into judicially-controlled administration in June 2002. This form of bankruptcy (sports companies cannot exactly fail in this way in Italy, but they can suffer a similar procedure) meant that the club was refused a place in Serie B for the 2002–03 season, and as a result effectively ceased to exist.
===Della Valle era: from fourth tier to Europe (2000s and 2010s)===
The club was promptly re-established in August 2002 as Associazione Calcio Fiorentina e Florentia Viola with shoe and leather entrepreneur Diego Della Valle as new owner and the club was admitted into Serie C2, the fourth tier of Italian football. The only player to remain at the club in its new incarnation was Angelo Di Livio, whose commitment to the club's cause further endeared him to the fans. Helped by Di Livio and 30-goal striker Christian Riganò, the club won its Serie C2 group with considerable ease, which would normally have led to a promotion to Serie C1. Due to the bizarre Caso Catania (Catania Case), the club skipped Serie C1 and was admitted into Serie B, something that was only made possible by the Italian Football Federation (FIGC)'s decision to resolve the Catania situation by increasing the number of teams in Serie B from 20 to 24 and promoting Fiorentina for "sports merits". In the 2003 off-season, the club also bought back the right to use the Fiorentina name and the famous shirt design, and re-incorporated itself as ACF Fiorentina. The club finished the 2003–04 season in sixth place and won the playoff against Perugia to return to top-flight football.
In their first season back in Serie A, the club struggled to avoid relegation, only securing survival on the last day of the season on head-to-head record against Bologna and Parma. In 2005, Della Valle decided to appoint Pantaleo Corvino as new sports director, followed by the appointment of Cesare Prandelli as head coach in the following season. The club made several signings during the summer transfer market, most notably Luca Toni and Sébastien Frey. This drastic move earned them a fourth-place finish with 74 points and a Champions League qualifying round ticket. Toni scored 31 goals in 38 appearances, the first player to pass the 30-goal mark since Antonio Valentin Angelillo in the 1958–59 season, for which he was awarded the European Golden Boot. On 14 July 2006, Fiorentina were relegated to Serie B due to their involvement in the Calciopoli scandal and given a 12-point penalty. The team was reinstated to the Serie A on appeal, but with a 19-point penalty for the 2006–07 season. The team's 2006–07 Champions League place was also revoked. After the start of the season, Fiorentina's penalisation was reduced from 19 points to 15 on appeal to the Italian courts. In spite of this penalty, they managed to secure a place in the UEFA Cup.
Despite Toni's departure to Bayern Munich, Fiorentina had a strong start to the 2007–08 season and were tipped by Italy national team head coach Marcello Lippi, among others, as a surprise challenger for the scudetto, and although this form tailed off towards the middle of the season, the Viola managed to qualify for the Champions League. In Europe, the club reached the semi-final of the UEFA Cup, where they were ultimately defeated by Rangers on penalties. The 2008–09 season continued this success, a fourth-place finish assuring Fiorentina's spot in 2010's Champions League playoffs. Their European campaign was also similar to that of the previous run, relegated to the 2008–09 UEFA Cup and were eliminated by Ajax in the end.
In the 2009–10 season, Fiorentina started their domestic campaign strongly before steadily losing momentum and slipped to mid-table positions at the latter half of the season. In Europe, the team proved to be a surprise dark horse: after losing their first away fixture against Lyon, they staged a comeback with a five-match streak by winning all their remaining matches (including defeating Liverpool home and away). The Viola qualified as group champions, but eventually succumbed to Bayern Munich due to the away goals rule. This was controversial due to a mistaken refereeing decision by Tom Henning Øvrebø, who allowed a clearly offside goal for Bayern in the first leg. Bayern eventually finished the tournament as runners-up, making a deep run all the way to the final. The incident called into attention the possible implementation of video replays in football. Despite a good European run and reaching the semi-finals in the Coppa Italia, Fiorentina failed to qualify for Europe.
During this period, on 24 September 2009, Andrea Della Valle resigned from his position as chairman of Fiorentina, and announced all duties would be temporarily transferred to Mario Cognini, Fiorentina's vice-president until a permanent position could be filled.
In June 2010, the Viola bid farewell to long-time manager Cesare Prandelli, by then the longest-serving coach in the team's history, who was departing to coach the Italy national team. Catania manager Siniša Mihajlović was appointed to replace him. The club spent much of the early 2010–11 season in last place, but their form improved and Fiorentina ultimately finished ninth. Following a 1–0 defeat to Chievo in November 2011, Mihajlović was sacked and replaced by Delio Rossi. After a brief period of improvements, the Viola were again fighting relegation, prompting the sacking of Sporting Director Pantaleo Corvino in early 2012 following a 0–5 home defeat to Juventus. Their bid for survival was kept alive by a number of upset victories away from home, notably at Roma and Milan. During a home game against Novara, trailing 0–2 within half an hour, manager Rossi decided to substitute midfielder Adem Ljajić early. Ljajić sarcastically applauded him in frustration, whereupon Rossi retaliated by physical assaulting his player, an action that ultimately prompted his termination by the club. His replacement, caretaker manager Vincenzo Guerini, then guided the team away from the relegation zone to a 13th-place finish to end the turbulent year.
To engineer a resurrection of the club after the disappointing season, the Della Valle family invested heavily in the middle of 2012, buying 17 new players and appointing Vincenzo Montella as head coach. The team began the season well, finishing the calendar year in joint third place and eventually finishing the 2012–13 season in fourth, enough for a position in the 2013–14 Europa League.
The club lost fan favourite Stevan Jovetić during the middle of 2013, selling him to English Premier League club Manchester City for a €30 million transfer fee. They also sold Adem Ljajić to Roma and Alessio Cerci to Torino, using the funds to bring in Mario Gómez, Josip Iličić and Ante Rebić, among others. During the season, Fiorentina topped their Europa League group, moving on to the round of 32 to face Danish side Esbjerg fB, which Fiorentina defeated 4–2 on aggregate. In the following round of 16, however, they then lost to Italian rivals Juventus 2–1 on aggregate, ousting Fiorentina from the competition. At the end of the season, the team finished fourth again in the league, and also finishing the year as Coppa Italia runners-up after losing 3–1 to Napoli in the final.
In 2014–15, during the 2015 winter transfer window, the team club sold star winger Juan Cuadrado to Chelsea for €30 million but were able to secure the loan of Mohamed Salah in exchange, who was a revelation in the second half of the season. Their 2014–15 Europa League campaign saw them progress to the semi-finals, where they were knocked-out by Spanish side Sevilla, the eventual champions. In the 2014–15 domestic season, Fiorentina once again finished fourth, thus qualifying for the 2015–16 Europa League. In June 2015, Vincenzo Montella was sacked as manager after the club grew impatient with the coaches inability to prove his commitment to the club, and was replaced by Paulo Sousa, who lasted until June 2017 and the appointment of Stefano Pioli. Club captain Davide Astori died suddenly at the age of 31 in March 2018. Astori had suffered a cardiac arrest while in a hotel room before an away game. The club subsequently retired Astori's kit number, 13. Fiorentina suffered during the 2018–19 Serie A campaign and ended the season on a 14 match winless streak, finishing in 16th place with only 41 points, 3 points from the relegation zone. On 9 April 2019, Pioli resigned as manager and was replaced by Montella.
===Commisso era (2019–present)===
On 6 June 2019, the club was sold to Italian-American billionaire Rocco Commisso for around 160 million euros. The sale marked the end of the Della Valle family's seventeen-year association with the club. Vincenzo Montella was confirmed as coach for the first season of the new era despite the team's poor end to the previous campaign, which saw them finish only three points clear of the relegation zone. Fiorentina continued their struggles from the previous year, spending the majority of the season in lower midtable. Montella was sacked on 21 December after a 7 match winless run which left the club in 15th place, and was replaced by Giuseppe Iachini. In November 2020 Cesare Prandelli returned to Fiorentina, replacing Giuseppe Iachini as coach.
Under coach Vincenzo Italiano, who arrived in 2021, Fiorentina reached and lost two consecutive finals of the UEFA Europa Conference League, in the 2022–23 and 2023–24 editions, being the first club to record two consecutive final appearances in the competition's history, and becoming the first team to lose two consecutive European finals since Benfica in 2013 and 2014 UEFA Europa League finals.
==Players==
===Current squad===
===Fiorentina Primavera===
===Other players under contract===
{{updated|4 February 2025|
===Management staff===
==Managerial history==
Fiorentina have had many managers and head coaches throughout their history. Below is a chronological list from the club's foundation in 1926 to the present day.
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==Colours and badge==
===Badge===
The official emblem of the city of Florence, a red fleur-de-lis on a white field, has been the staple in the all-round symbolism of the club.
Over the course of the club's history, they have had several badge changes, all of which incorporated Florence's fleur-de-lis in some way. The first one was nothing more than the city's coat of arms, a white shield with the red fleur-de-lis inside.
The logo introduced by owner Flavio Pontello in 1980 was particularly distinct, consisting of one-half of the city of Florence's emblem and one-half of the letter "F", for Fiorentina. People disliked it when it was introduced, believing it was a commercial decision and, above all, because the symbol bore more of a resemblance to a halberd than a fleur-de-lis. The more well-known and highly distinctive purple kit was adopted in 1928 and has been used ever since, giving rise to the nickname La Viola ("The Purple (team)"). Tradition has it that Fiorentina got their purple kit by mistake after an accident washing the old red and white coloured kits in the river.
The away kit has always been predominantly white, sometimes with purple and red elements, sometimes all-white. The red shirt has been the most worn 3rd shirt by Fiorentina, although they also wore rare yellow shirts ('97–'98, '99–'00 and '10–'11) and a sterling version, mostly in the Coppa Italia, in 2000–01.
===Anthem===
"Canzone Viola" (Purple Song) is the title of the Fiorentina's song, nowadays better known as "Oh Fiorentina". It is the oldest official football anthem in Italy and one of the oldest in the world. Dated 1930 and born only four years after the creation of the club, the song was written by a 12-year-old child, Enzo Marcacci, and musically arranged by maestro Marco Vinicio.
The song was recorded by Narciso Parigi in 1959 and again in 1965; the latter version replaced the original edition as the Fiorentina anthem. Subsequently, Narciso Parigi himself acquired the ownership of the rights, which he donated in 2002 to the supporter club Collettivo Autonomo Viola.
|Opel
|-
|1986–1988
| rowspan="2" |Crodino
|-
|1988–1989
| rowspan="2" |ABM
|-
|1989–1991
|La Nazione
|-
|1991–1992
| rowspan="2" |Lotto
|Giocheria
|-
|1992–1993
| rowspan="2" |7 Up
|-
|1993–1994
| rowspan="2" |Uhlsport
|-
|1994–1995
| rowspan="2" |Sammontana
|-
|1995–1997
|Reebok
|-
|1997–1999
| rowspan="2" |Fila
|Nintendo
|-
|1999–2000
| rowspan="3" |Toyota
|-
|2000–2001
|Diadora
|-
|2001–2002
|Mizuno
|-
|2002–2003
|Garman / Puma
|La Fondiaria / Fondiaria Sai
|-
|2003–2004
| rowspan="2" |Adidas
|Fondiaria Sai
|-
|2004–2005
| rowspan="2" |Toyota
|-
|2005–2010
| rowspan="3" |Lotto
|-
|2010–2011
|Save the Children (Matchday 1-18) / Mazda (Matchday 19-38)
|Save the Children (Matchday 19-38)
|-
|2011–2012
| rowspan="2" |Mazda
| rowspan="2" |Save the Children
|-
|2012–2014
| rowspan="2" |Joma
|-
|2014–2015
| rowspan="2" |Save the Children
| rowspan="4" |None
|-
|2015–2016
| rowspan="4" |Le Coq Sportif
|-
|2016–2018
|Folletto / Vorwerk (Europa League)
|Save the Children
|-
|2018–2019
|Save the Children
|Dream Loud Entertainment
|New Generation Mobile
|-
|2019–2020
| rowspan="4" |Mediacom
|Val di Fassa / Meyer Children's Hospital
| rowspan="2" |Prima Assicurazioni
| rowspan="2" |Estra
|-
|2020–2022
| rowspan="3" |Kappa
| rowspan="3" |None
|-
|2022–2024
| rowspan="2" |Lamioni Holding
|None
|-
|2024–
|Betway Scores
|}
=== Official partners ===
EA Sports – Football video gaming partner
Montezemolo – Fashion partner
Gruppoaf – Official partner
Sammontana – Official ice cream
Synlab – Health partner
OlyBet.tv – Infotainment partner
==Honours==
===National titles===
Serie A:
Winners (2): 1955–56; 1968–69
Runners-up (5): 1956–57; 1957–58; 1958–59; 1959–60; 1981–82
Coppa Italia:
Winners (6): 1939–40; 1960–61; 1965–66; 1974–75; 1995–96; 2000–01
Runners-up (5): 1958, 1959–60, 1998–99, 2013–14, 2022–23
Supercoppa Italiana:
Winners (1): 1996
Runners-up (1): 2001
===European titles===
UEFA Champions League:
Runners-up (1): 1956–57
UEFA Cup Winners' Cup:
Winners (1): 1960–61
Runners-up (1): 1961–62
UEFA Europa League:
Runners-up (1): 1989–90
UEFA Conference League:
Runners-up (2): 2022–23, 2023–24
Mitropa Cup
Winners (1): 1966
===Other titles===
Serie B
Winners: 1930–31, 1938–39, 1993–94
Serie C2
Winners: 2002–03
Coppa Grasshoppers
Winners: 1957
Anglo-Italian League Cup
Winners: 1975
==Divisional movements==
==Fiorentina as a company==
A.C. Fiorentina S.p.A. was unable to register for 2002–03 Serie B due to financial difficulties, and then the sports title was transferred to a new company thanks to Article 52 of N.O.I.F., while the old company was liquidated. At that time the club was heavily relying on windfall profit from selling players, especially in pure player swap or cash plus player swap that potentially increased the cost by the increase in amortisation of player contracts (an intangible assets). For example, Marco Rossi joined Fiorentina for Lire 17 billion in 2000, but at the same time Lorenzo Collacchioni moved to Salernitana for Lire 1 billion, meaning the club had a player profit of Lire 997 million and extra Lire 1 billion to be amortised in 5-years. which the latter was valued for Lire 10 billion. However, it was alleged they were to transfer to Parma The two players eventually joined Inter Milan and A.C. Milan in 2001–02 financial year instead, for undisclosed fees. Failing to have financial support from the owner Vittorio Cecchi Gori, the club was forced to windup due to its huge imbalance in operating income.
Since re-established in 2002, ACF Fiorentina S.p.A. are yet to self-sustain to keep the team in top division as well as in European competitions. In the 2005 financial year, which cover the first Serie A season, the club made a net loss of €9,159,356, followed by a net loss of €19,519,789. In 2006 (2005–06 Serie A and 2006–07 Serie A), Fiorentina heavily invested on players, meaning the amortisation of intangible asset (the player contract) had increased from €17.7 million to €24 million. However the club suffered from the 2006 Italian football scandal, which meant the club did not qualify for Europe. In 2007 Fiorentina almost broke-even, with a net loss of just €3,704,953. In the 2007 financial year the TV revenue increased after they qualified to the 2007–08 UEFA Cup. Despite qualifying to the 2008–09 UEFA Champions League, Fiorentina made a net loss of €9,179,484 in 2008 financial year after the increase in TV revenue was outweighed by the increase in wage. In the 2009 financial year, Fiorentina made a net profit of €4,442,803, largely due to the profit on selling players (€33,631,489 from players such as Felipe Melo, Giampaolo Pazzini and Zdravko Kuzmanović; increased from about €3.5 million in 2008). However it was also offset by the write-down of selling players (€6,062,545, from players such as Manuel da Costa, Arturo Lupoli and Davide Carcuro).
After the club failed to qualify to Europe at the end of 2009–10 Serie A, as well as lack of player profit, Fiorentina turnover was decreased from €140,040,713 in 2009 to just €79,854,928, despite the wage bill also falling, la Viola still made a net loss of €9,604,353. In the 2011 financial year, the turnover slipped to €67,076,953, as the club's lack of capital gains from selling players and 2010 financial year still included the instalments from UEFA for participating 2009–10 UEFA Europa League. Furthermore, the gate income had dropped from €11,070,385 to €7,541,260. The wage bill did not fall much and in reverse the amortisation of transfer fee had sightly increased due to new signings. La Viola had savings in other costs but counter-weighted by huge €11,747,668 write-down for departed players, due to D'Agostino, Frey and Mutu, but the former would counter-weight by co-ownership financial income, which all made the operating cost remained high as worse as last year. Moreover, in 2010 the result was boosted by acquiring the asset from subsidiary (related to AC Fiorentina) and the re-valuation of its value in separate balance sheet. If deducting that income (€14,737,855), 2010 financial year was net loss 24,342,208 and 2011 result was worse with €8,131,876 only in separate balance sheet. In 2012, the club benefited from the sales of Matija Nastasić and Valon Behrami, followed by Stevan Jovetić and Adem Ljajić in 2013. In 2014, due to €28.4 million drop from the windfall profit of selling players, the club recorded their worst financial results since re-foundation, despite the fact the club maintained the same level of windfall profit, the result was still worse than in 2013. Moreover, Fiorentina also revealed that the club had a relevant football net income of minus €19.5 million in the first assessment period of UEFA Financial Fair Play Regulations in the 2013–14 season (in May 2014). (aggregate of 2012 and 2013 results), which within the limit of minus €45 million, as well as minus €25.5 million in assessment period 2014–15 (aggregate of 2012, 2013 and 2014 results). However, as the limit was reduced to minus €30 million in assessment period 2015–16, 2016–17 and 2017–18 season, the club had to achieve a relevant net income of positive €5.6 million in 2015 financial year. La Viola sold Juan Cuadrado to Chelsea in January 2015 for €30 million fee, to make the club eligible to 2016–17 edition of UEFA competitions.
==League history==
1926–1928: Prima Divisione (2nd tier)
1928–1929: Divisione Nazionale (1st tier)
1929–1931: Serie B (2nd tier) – Champions: 1931
1931–1938: Serie A (1st tier)
1938–1939: Serie B (2nd tier) – Champions: 1939
1939–1943: Serie A (1st tier)
1943–1946: no contests (WW II)
1946–1993: Serie A (1st tier) – Champions: 1956, 1969
1993–1994: Serie B (2nd tier) – Champions: 1994
1994–2002: Serie A (1st tier)
2002–2003: Serie C2 (4th tier) – Champions: 2003
2003–2004: Serie B (2nd tier)
2004–present: Serie A (1st tier)
|
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"Bruno Pesaola",
"Yacine Adli",
"2013–14 UEFA Europa League",
"C.S. Firenze",
"Felipe Melo",
"Amortization (accounting)",
"Vincenzo Montella",
"Eddy Nda Konan Kouadio",
"Pietro Comuzzo",
"Vice-captain (association football)",
"Al Ain FC",
"Roberto Baggio",
"Mario Gómez",
"Giuseppe Galluzzi",
"Renzo Magli",
"Eugenio Fascetti",
"AS Roma",
"Uhlsport",
"2005–06 Serie A",
"Avellino",
"Lorenzo Lucchesi",
"Francesco Toldo",
"it:Daniele Pradè",
"Oliver Christensen",
"Claudio Ranieri",
"Giovanni Trapattoni",
"AC Monza",
"2006 Italian football scandal",
"Arsenal F.C.",
"1968–69 Serie A",
"Eraldo Pecci",
"2008–09 UEFA Champions League",
"Fatih Terim",
"1930–31 Serie B",
"Parma F.C.",
"Captain (association football)",
"Ante Rebić",
"1955–56 Serie A",
"intangible asset",
"2022–23 UEFA Europa Conference League",
"Angelo Di Livio",
"Cup Winners' Cup",
"FC Bayern Munich",
"Andrea Colpani",
"Michael Kayode",
"Mazda",
"away goals rule",
"Val di Fassa",
"Giovanni Berta",
"2012–13 Serie A",
"Adem Ljajić",
"Dynamo Kyiv",
"Pedro Petrone",
"2000–01 Coppa Italia",
"Sofyan Amrabat",
"Christian Riganò",
"Mediacom",
"Abdelhamid Sabiri",
"Fondiaria-Sai",
"Calcio Lecco 1912",
"Stefan Effenberg",
"San Siro",
"Cher Ndour",
"1965–66 Coppa Italia",
"fleur-de-lis",
"Gino Infantino",
"Gabriele Ferrarini",
"Bologna F.C. 1909",
"Eljon Toçi",
"Calcio Fiorentino",
"S.L. Benfica",
"AC Sparta Prague",
"Manchester United F.C.",
"SS Juve Stabia",
"2001 Supercoppa Italiana",
"1957–58 Serie A",
"Pablo Marí",
"Luigi Radice",
"Calcio Como",
"Ternana Calcio",
"Antonio Valentin Angelillo",
"Vittorio Cecchi Gori",
"UEFA Conference League",
"Manuel da Costa (footballer, born 1986)",
"cardiac arrest",
"Brentford FC",
"Garman",
"1939–40 Coppa Italia",
"Luca Ranieri",
"Rangers F.C.",
"Giuseppe Iachini",
"Torino F.C.",
"Lorenzo Collacchioni",
"SSC Bari",
"Turin",
"Gabriel Batistuta",
"1974–75 Coppa Italia",
"1937–38 Serie A",
"2023–24 Serie A",
"Delfino Pescara 1936",
"Miguel Montuori",
"Article 52 of N.O.I.F.",
"Márcio Roberto dos Santos",
"US Pianese",
"Olympique Lyonnais",
"Vincenzo Guerini (footballer)",
"Davide Carcuro",
"Vincenzo Italiano",
"Giancarlo De Sisti",
"FC Barcelona",
"La Fondiaria Assicurazioni",
"Stadio Artemio Franchi",
"Alberto Cavasin",
"2004–05 Serie A",
"2008–09 Serie A",
"Esbjerg fB",
"A.S. Varese 1910",
"Defender (association football)",
"Serie C",
"1993–94 Serie B",
"Imre Senkey",
"Albert Guðmundsson (footballer, born 1997)",
"Joma",
"Fallou Sene",
"Como 1907",
"Hellas Verona",
"2007–08 UEFA Cup",
"Ottavio Bianchi",
"Giampaolo Pazzini",
"Italian lira",
"Ferenc Molnár (footballer)",
"Frosinone Calcio",
"Mitropa Cup",
"Riccardo Sottil",
"Aurora Pro Patria 1919",
"Juventus",
"Francesco Baiano",
"Galatasaray S.K. (football)",
"Dodô (footballer, born 1998)",
"Lucas Beltrán",
"Sorrento Calcio 1945",
"Dimo Krastev",
"1960–61 Coppa Italia",
"tifosi",
"2000–01 Serie A",
"Sven-Göran Eriksson",
"Christian Kouamé",
"Tommaso Rubino",
"1956–57 Serie A",
"Playoffs",
"Stefan Schwarz",
"2003–04 Serie B",
"1961–62 European Cup Winners' Cup",
"Celtic F.C.",
"2001–02 Serie A",
"SS Lazio",
"Sergio Buso",
"Glasgow",
"Károly Csapkay",
"Association football",
"Antonín Barák",
"Le Coq Sportif",
"Bruno Giorgi (footballer)",
"1. FC Union Berlin",
"Serie A",
"Perugia Calcio",
"VAT identification number",
"Marco Rossi (footballer, born 1978)",
"Atalanta B.C.",
"Narciso Parigi",
"Mario Cecchi Gori",
"Crodino",
"Chelsea F.C.",
"2010 UEFA Champions League Final",
"Wembley Stadium (1923)",
"Opel",
"Tuscany",
"1960–61 European Cup Winners' Cup",
"Vorwerk (company)",
"Raffaele Palladino",
"National Fascist Party",
"Emiliano Mondonico",
"2008–09 UEFA Cup",
"Luis Carniglia",
"Nereo Rocco",
"Kappa (brand)",
"Luca Toni",
"Società a responsabilità limitata",
"Marin Pongračić",
"Mohamed Salah",
"Hermann Felsner",
"Reebok",
"Puma SE",
"Nicolás González (footballer, born 1998)",
"Sébastien Frey",
"M'Bala Nzola",
"Gigi Riva",
"Tommaso Martinelli (footballer)",
"Juventus FC",
"Giuseppe Chiappella",
"Cagliari Calcio",
"Bruno Prati",
"Ramón Díaz",
"Lotto Sport Italia",
"Federico Peluso",
"2022–23 Coppa Italia",
"1958–59 Serie A",
"Valon Behrami",
"Pietro Vierchowod",
"Stefano Pioli",
"Júlio Botelho",
"List of football clubs in Italy",
"1995–96 Coppa Italia",
"Italian Football Federation",
"Aldo Agroppi",
"A.S. Roma",
"Nils Liedholm",
"Empoli FC",
"2009–10 UEFA Champions League",
"Davide Gentile",
"Giochi Preziosi",
"UEFA competitions",
"2007–08 Serie A",
"Arturo Lupoli",
"European Golden Boot",
"Sammontana",
"Luigi Ridolfi Vay da Verrazzano",
"Maat Daniel Caprini",
"halberd",
"UEFA Financial Fair Play Regulations",
"Leonardo Baroncelli",
"Rui Costa",
"Carlo Mazzone",
"New Generation Mobile",
"Daniele Massaro",
"1989–90 UEFA Cup",
"Serie C2",
"Niccolò Nardi",
"lily",
"Toyota",
"financial statement",
"Josip Iličić",
"Al-Taawoun FC",
"Anglo-Italian League Cup",
"Tom Henning Øvrebø",
"Matías Moreno (footballer)",
"P.G. Libertas",
"Brian Laudrup",
"it:Ennerre",
"Amir Richardson",
"Fila (company)",
"Salernitana",
"Adidas",
"1958 Coppa Italia",
"1998–99 Coppa Italia",
"1956–57 European Cup",
"Alfredo Di Stéfano",
"Nándor Hidegkuti",
"Italy national football team",
"comune",
"Genoa CFC",
"Italian Football Championship",
"Guido Ara",
"Nicolò Fagioli",
"David de Gea",
"Nicolò Zaniolo",
"UEFA Europa Conference League",
"Gyula Feldmann",
"Fenerbahçe S.K. (football)",
"Christian Biagetti",
"Filippo Distefano"
] |
3,168 |
Afrobeat
|
Afrobeat (also known as Afrofunk) is a West African music genre, fusing influences from Yoruba music and Ghanaian music (such as highlife), with American funk, jazz, and soul influences. With a focus on chanted vocals, complex intersecting rhythms, and percussion, the style was pioneered in the 1960s by Nigerian multi-instrumentalist and bandleader Fela Kuti, who popularised it both within and outside Nigeria. At the height of his popularity, he was referred to as one of Africa's most "challenging and charismatic music performers."
Distinct from Afrobeat is Afrobeats, a combination of sounds originating in West Africa in the 21st century. This takes on diverse influences and is an eclectic combination of genres such as hip hop, house, jùjú, ndombolo, R&B, soca, and dancehall. The two genres, though often conflated, are not the same. as well as Yoruba vocal traditions, rhythm, and instruments. In the late 1950s, Kuti left Lagos to study abroad at the London School of Music, where he took lessons in piano and percussion and was exposed to jazz. Fela Kuti returned to Lagos and played a highlife-jazz hybrid, albeit, without commercial success.
Upon arriving in Nigeria, Kuti had also changed the name of his group to "Africa '70". The new sound hailed from a club he established called the Afrika Shrine. The band maintained a five-year residency at the Afrika Shrine from 1970 to 1975 while Afrobeat thrived among Nigerian youth.
Prevalent in his and Lagbaja's music are native Nigerian harmonies and rhythms, taking contrasting elements and combining, modernizing, and improvising upon them. Politics is essential to Afrobeat because Kuti uses social criticism to pave the way for change. His message can be described as confrontational and controversial, which relates to the political climate of most African countries in the 1970s, many of which were dealing with political injustice and military corruption while recovering from the transition from colonial governments to self-determination. Many bands took up the style as the genre spread throughout the African continent. The recordings of these bands and their songs were rarely heard or exported outside the originating countries, but many can now be found on compilation albums and CDs from specialist record shops.
==Influence==
Many jazz musicians have been attracted to the aromatic genre of Afrobeat. From Roy Ayers in the 1970s to Randy Weston in the 1990s, there have been collaborations that resulted in albums such as Africa: Centre of the World by Roy Ayers, released on the Polydore label in 1981. In 1994, Branford Marsalis, the American jazz saxophonist, included samples of Fela's "Beasts of No Nation" on his Buckshot LeFonque album.
Afrobeat has also profoundly influenced various contemporary producers and musicians, such as Brian Eno and David Byrne, who credit Fela Kuti as an essential influence. Both worked on Talking Heads' highly acclaimed 1980 album Remain in Light, which brought polyrhythmic Afrobeat influences to Western music. The new generation of DJs and musicians of the 2000s who have fallen in love with both Kuti's material and other rare releases have made compilations and remixes of these recordings, thus re-introducing the genre to new generations of listeners and fans of afropop and groove.
In the late 1990s and early 2000s, a small Afrobeat scene began in Brooklyn, New York, with projects including Antibalas, The Daktaris and the Kokolo Afrobeat Orchestra. Since then, other artists like Zongo Junction have come onto the scene. Many others have cited Afrobeat as an influence, like Daptone Records-adjacent groups The Budos Band and El Michels Affair. The horn section of Antibalas have been guest musicians on TV on the Radio's highly acclaimed 2008 album Dear Science, as well as on British band Foals' 2008 album Antidotes. Further examples are Val Veneto, Radio Bantu, Tam Tam Afrobeat, Combo Makabro, Marabunta Orquesta, Minga!, Antropofonica, Guanabana Afrobeat Orquesta, El Gran Capitan, Morbo y Mambo, Luka Afrobeat Orquesta or NikiLauda. Some Afrobeat influence can also be found in the music of Vampire Weekend and Paul Simon. In 2020, Antibalas was nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Global Music Album.
Afrobeat artists of the 2000s and present continue to follow in the footsteps of Fela Kuti. Some examples of these artists are his sons Femi Kuti and Seun Kuti, Franck Biyong & Massak (from Cameroon), London Afrobeat Collective (from London, UK), Segun Damisa & the Afro-beat Crusaders, Shaolin Afronauts (from Adelaide, Australia), Newen Afrobeat (from Santiago, Chile), Eddy Taylor & the Heartphones (from Cologne, Germany), Bantucrew, the Albinoid Afrobeat Orchestra / Albinoid Sound System (from Strasbourg, France), Underground System / Underground System Afrobeat (from Brooklyn, New York), Abayomy Afrobeat Orquestra, Chicago Afrobeat Orchestra, Warsaw Afrobeat Orchestra, Karl Hector & the Malcouns (from Munich, Germany), Ojibo Afrobeat (from Vilnius, Lithuania), Afrodizz and Dele Sosimi and the ex-Africa '70 members Oghene Kologbo (guitar) with Afrobeat Academy, Nicholas Addo-Nettey (percussion), who is also known as , with Ridimtaksi (both based in Berlin, Germany). Namibian artist EES (Eric Sell) associates Afrobeat with reggae and kwaito.
In 2009, the music label Knitting Factory Records (KFR) produced the Broadway musical Fela! The story showcased Kuti's "courage and incredible musical mastery" along with the story of his life. The show had 11 Tony nominations, receiving three for Best Costumes, Best Sound and Best Choreography. Fela! was on Broadway for 15 months and was produced by notables such as Shawn "Jay-Z " Carter and Will and Jada Pinkett-Smith. Many celebrities were noted as attending the shows, including Denzel Washington, Madonna, Sting, Spike Lee (who saw it eight times), Kofi Annan, and Michelle Obama. Michelle Williams, former singer of girl group Destiny's Child, was cast as the role of Sandra Izsadore.
Fela Kuti's music has been sampled by various hip-hop musicians such as Missy Elliott, J. Cole, and Kanye West, as well as other popular acts such as Beyoncé.
The "Festival de Afrobeat Independiente" (FAI) takes place regularly in Buenos Aires, where regional bands as well as renown Afrobeat acts perform.
|
[
"TV on the Radio",
"Seun Kuti",
"Branford Marsalis",
"Die Tageszeitung",
"Fela Kuti",
"Segun Damisa & the Afro-beat Crusaders",
"EES (rapper)",
"Dele Sosimi",
"Femi Kuti",
"Polydor Records",
"Yoruba music",
"Missy Elliott",
"Kanye West",
"Knitting Factory Records",
"jazz",
"Angela Davis",
"Brian Eno",
"Buckshot LeFonque (album)",
"Afrobeat Academy",
"The Budos Band",
"Confusion (album)",
"Remain in Light",
"Fuji music",
"Afro-Cuban music",
"remix",
"Michelle Obama",
"Newen Afrobeat",
"Afrobeats",
"Dear Science",
"British hip hop",
"ndombolo",
"Michelle Williams (singer)",
"Jay-Z",
"fuji music",
"Ogene",
"Afro pop music",
"Kofi Annan",
"Black Panther Party",
"Randy Weston",
"Kokolo Afrobeat Orchestra",
"soul music",
"Antibalas",
"The Daktaris",
"Jùjú music",
"Africa '70 (band)",
"Groove (music)",
"Ridimtaksi",
"West African music",
"Afrika Shrine",
"Oghene Kologbo",
"Foals (band)",
"Grammy Award for Best Global Music Album",
"highlife",
"music genre",
"Beyoncé",
"Tony Allen (musician)",
"dancehall",
"Afroswing",
"Denzel Washington",
"Brooklyn",
"David Byrne",
"Talking Heads",
"house music",
"funk",
"James Brown",
"El Michels Affair",
"Jesse Jackson",
"Nigeria",
"Afrodizz",
"Martin Luther King Jr.",
"Lagos",
"Tony Award",
"Broadway theatre",
"Spike Lee",
"Malcolm X",
"kwaito",
"Bantucrew",
"Latin music (genre)",
"J. Cole",
"Buenos Aires",
"Lagbaja",
"Roy Ayers",
"shekere",
"Jada Pinkett-Smith",
"Zongo Junction",
"Will Smith",
"Soca music",
"reggae",
"sakara drum",
"Contemporary R&B",
"Antidotes",
"The Observer",
"Paul Simon",
"Hammond organ",
"Shaolin Afronauts",
"compilation album",
"horn section",
"Vampire Weekend",
"Fela!",
"Franck Biyong & Massak",
"Destiny's Child"
] |
3,170 |
Arithmetic function
|
In number theory, an arithmetic, arithmetical, or number-theoretic function is generally any function whose domain is the set of positive integers and whose range is a subset of the complex numbers. Hardy & Wright include in their definition the requirement that an arithmetical function "expresses some arithmetical property of n". There is a larger class of number-theoretic functions that do not fit this definition, for example, the prime-counting functions. This article provides links to functions of both classes.
An example of an arithmetic function is the divisor function whose value at a positive integer n is equal to the number of divisors of n.
Arithmetic functions are often extremely irregular (see table), but some of them have series expansions in terms of Ramanujan's sum.
== Multiplicative and additive functions ==
An arithmetic function a is
completely additive if a(mn) = a(m) + a(n) for all natural numbers m and n;
completely multiplicative if a(1) = 1 and a(mn) = a(m)a(n) for all natural numbers m and n;
Two whole numbers m and n are called coprime if their greatest common divisor is 1, that is, if there is no prime number that divides both of them.
Then an arithmetic function a is
additive if a(mn) = a(m) + a(n) for all coprime natural numbers m and n;
multiplicative if a(1) = 1 and a(mn) = a(m)a(n) for all coprime natural numbers m and n.
== Notation ==
In this article, \sum_p f(p) and \prod_p f(p) mean that the sum or product is over all prime numbers:
\sum_p f(p) = f(2) + f(3) + f(5) + \cdots
and
\prod_p f(p)= f(2)f(3)f(5)\cdots.
Similarly, \sum_{p^k} f(p^k) and \prod_{p^k} f(p^k) mean that the sum or product is over all prime powers with strictly positive exponent (so is not included):
\sum_{p^k} f(p^k) = \sum_p\sum_{k > 0} f(p^k) = f(2) + f(3) + f(4) +f(5) +f(7)+f(8)+f(9)+\cdots.
The notations \sum_{d\mid n} f(d) and \prod_{d\mid n} f(d) mean that the sum or product is over all positive divisors of n, including 1 and n. For example, if , then
\prod_{d\mid 12} f(d) = f(1)f(2) f(3) f(4) f(6) f(12).
The notations can be combined: \sum_{p\mid n} f(p) and \prod_{p\mid n} f(p) mean that the sum or product is over all prime divisors of n. For example, if n = 18, then
\sum_{p\mid 18} f(p) = f(2) + f(3),
and similarly \sum_{p^k\mid n} f(p^k) and \prod_{p^k\mid n} f(p^k) mean that the sum or product is over all prime powers dividing n. For example, if n = 24, then
\prod_{p^k\mid 24} f(p^k) = f(2) f(3) f(4) f(8).
== Ω(n), ω(n), νp(n) – prime power decomposition ==
The fundamental theorem of arithmetic states that any positive integer n can be represented uniquely as a product of powers of primes: n = p_1^{a_1}\cdots p_k^{a_k} where p1 < p2 < ... < pk are primes and the aj are positive integers. (1 is given by the empty product.)
It is often convenient to write this as an infinite product over all the primes, where all but a finite number have a zero exponent. Define the p-adic valuation νp(n) to be the exponent of the highest power of the prime p that divides n. That is, if p is one of the pi then νp(n) = ai, otherwise it is zero. Then
n = \prod_p p^{\nu_p(n)}.
In terms of the above the prime omega functions ω and Ω are defined by
To avoid repetition, formulas for the functions listed in this article are, whenever possible, given in terms of n and the corresponding pi, ai, ω, and Ω.
== Multiplicative functions ==
=== σk(n), τ(n), d(n) – divisor sums ===
σk(n) is the sum of the kth powers of the positive divisors of n, including 1 and n, where k is a complex number.
σ1(n), the sum of the (positive) divisors of n, is usually denoted by σ(n).
Since a positive number to the zero power is one, σ0(n) is therefore the number of (positive) divisors of n; it is usually denoted by d(n) or τ(n) (for the German Teiler = divisors).
\sigma_k(n) = \prod_{i=1}^{\omega(n)} \frac{p_i^{(a_i+1)k}-1}{p_i^k-1}= \prod_{i=1}^{\omega(n)} \left(1 + p_i^k + p_i^{2k} + \cdots + p_i^{a_i k}\right).
Setting k = 0 in the second product gives
\tau(n) = d(n) = (1 + a_{1})(1+a_{2})\cdots(1+a_{\omega(n)}).
=== φ(n) – Euler totient function ===
φ(n), the Euler totient function, is the number of positive integers not greater than n that are coprime to n.
\varphi(n) = n \prod_{p\mid n} \left(1-\frac{1}{p}\right)
= n \left(\frac{p_1 - 1}{p_1}\right)\left(\frac{p_2 - 1}{p_2}\right) \cdots \left(\frac{p_{\omega(n)} - 1}{p_{\omega(n)}}\right)
.
=== Jk(n) – Jordan totient function ===
Jk(n), the Jordan totient function, is the number of k-tuples of positive integers all less than or equal to n that form a coprime (k + 1)-tuple together with n. It is a generalization of Euler's totient, .
J_k(n) = n^k \prod_{p\mid n} \left(1-\frac{1}{p^k}\right)
= n^k \left(\frac{p^k_1 - 1}{p^k_1}\right)\left(\frac{p^k_2 - 1}{p^k_2}\right) \cdots \left(\frac{p^k_{\omega(n)} - 1}{p^k_{\omega(n)}}\right)
.
=== μ(n) – Möbius function===
μ(n), the Möbius function, is important because of the Möbius inversion formula. See , below.
\mu(n)=\begin{cases}
(-1)^{\omega(n)}=(-1)^{\Omega(n)} &\text{if }\; \omega(n) = \Omega(n)\\
0&\text{if }\;\omega(n) \ne \Omega(n).
\end{cases}
This implies that μ(1) = 1. (Because Ω(1) = ω(1) = 0.)
=== τ(n) – Ramanujan tau function ===
τ(n), the Ramanujan tau function, is defined by its generating function identity:
\sum_{n\geq 1}\tau(n)q^n=q\prod_{n\geq 1}(1-q^n)^{24}.
Although it is hard to say exactly what "arithmetical property of n" it "expresses", (τ(n) is (2π)−12 times the nth Fourier coefficient in the q-expansion of the modular discriminant function) it is included among the arithmetical functions because it is multiplicative and it occurs in identities involving certain σk(n) and rk(n) functions (because these are also coefficients in the expansion of modular forms).
=== cq(n) – Ramanujan's sum ===
cq(n), Ramanujan's sum, is the sum of the nth powers of the primitive qth roots of unity:
c_q(n) = \sum_{\stackrel{1\le a\le q}{ \gcd(a,q)=1}} e^{2 \pi i \tfrac{a}{q} n}.
Even though it is defined as a sum of complex numbers (irrational for most values of q), it is an integer. For a fixed value of n it is multiplicative in q:
If q and r are coprime, then c_q(n)c_r(n)=c_{qr}(n).
=== ψ(n) – Dedekind psi function ===
The Dedekind psi function, used in the theory of modular functions, is defined by the formula
\psi(n) = n \prod_{p|n}\left(1+\frac{1}{p}\right).
== Completely multiplicative functions ==
=== λ(n) – Liouville function ===
λ(n), the Liouville function, is defined by
\lambda (n) = (-1)^{\Omega(n)}.
=== χ(n) – characters ===
All Dirichlet characters χ(n) are completely multiplicative. Two characters have special notations:
The principal character (mod n) is denoted by χ0(a) (or χ1(a)). It is defined as
\chi_0(a) = \begin{cases}
1 & \text{if } \gcd(a,n) = 1, \\
0 & \text{if } \gcd(a,n) \ne 1.
\end{cases}
The quadratic character (mod n) is denoted by the Jacobi symbol for odd n (it is not defined for even n):
\left(\frac{a}{n}\right) = \left(\frac{a}{p_1}\right)^{a_1}\left(\frac{a}{p_2}\right)^{a_2}\cdots \left(\frac{a}{p_{\omega(n)}}\right)^{a_{\omega(n)}}.
In this formula (\tfrac{a}{p}) is the Legendre symbol, defined for all integers a and all odd primes p by
\left(\frac{a}{p}\right) = \begin{cases}
\;\;\,0 & \text{if } a \equiv 0 \pmod p,
\\+1 & \text{if }a \not\equiv 0\pmod p \text{ and for some integer }x, \;a\equiv x^2\pmod p
\\-1 & \text{if there is no such } x. \end{cases}
Following the normal convention for the empty product, \left(\frac{a}{1}\right) = 1.
== Additive functions ==
=== ω(n) – distinct prime divisors ===
ω(n), defined above as the number of distinct primes dividing n, is additive (see Prime omega function).
== Completely additive functions ==
=== Ω(n) – prime divisors ===
Ω(n), defined above as the number of prime factors of n counted with multiplicities, is completely additive (see Prime omega function).
=== νp(n) – p-adic valuation of an integer n ===
For a fixed prime p, νp(n), defined above as the exponent of the largest power of p dividing n, is completely additive.
=== Logarithmic derivative ===
\operatorname{ld}(n)=\frac{D(n)}{n} = \sum_{\stackrel{p\mid n}{p\text{ prime}}} \frac {v_p(n)} {p}, where D(n) is the arithmetic derivative.
== Neither multiplicative nor additive ==
=== π(x), Π(x), ϑ(x), ψ(x) – prime-counting functions===
These important functions (which are not arithmetic functions) are defined for non-negative real arguments, and are used in the various statements and proofs of the prime number theorem. They are summation functions (see the main section just below) of arithmetic functions which are neither multiplicative nor additive.
π(x), the prime-counting function, is the number of primes not exceeding x. It is the summation function of the characteristic function of the prime numbers.
\pi(x) = \sum_{p \le x} 1
A related function counts prime powers with weight 1 for primes, 1/2 for their squares, 1/3 for cubes, etc. It is the summation function of the arithmetic function which takes the value 1/k on integers which are the kth power of some prime number, and the value 0 on other integers.
\Pi(x) = \sum_{p^k\le x}\frac{1}{k}.
ϑ(x) and ψ(x), the Chebyshev functions, are defined as sums of the natural logarithms of the primes not exceeding x.
\vartheta(x)=\sum_{p\le x} \log p,
\psi(x) = \sum_{p^k\le x} \log p.
The second Chebyshev function ψ(x) is the summation function of the von Mangoldt function just below.
=== Λ(n) – von Mangoldt function ===
Λ(n), the von Mangoldt function, is 0 unless the argument n is a prime power , in which case it is the natural logarithm of the prime p:
\Lambda(n) = \begin{cases}
\log p &\text{if } n = 2,3,4,5,7,8,9,11,13,16,\ldots=p^k \text{ is a prime power}\\
0&\text{if } n=1,6,10,12,14,15,18,20,21,\dots \;\;\;\;\text{ is not a prime power}.
\end{cases}
=== p(n) – partition function ===
p(n), the partition function, is the number of ways of representing n as a sum of positive integers, where two representations with the same summands in a different order are not counted as being different:
p(n) = \left|\left\{ (a_1, a_2,\dots a_k): 0 < a_1 \le a_2 \le \cdots \le a_k\; \land \;n=a_1+a_2+\cdots +a_k \right\}\right|.
=== λ(n) – Carmichael function ===
λ(n), the Carmichael function, is the smallest positive number such that a^{\lambda(n)}\equiv 1 \pmod{n} for all a coprime to n. Equivalently, it is the least common multiple of the orders of the elements of the multiplicative group of integers modulo n.
For powers of odd primes and for 2 and 4, λ(n) is equal to the Euler totient function of n; for powers of 2 greater than 4 it is equal to one half of the Euler totient function of n:
\lambda(n) = \begin{cases}
\;\;\phi(n) &\text{if }n = 2,3,4,5,7,9,11,13,17,19,23,25,27,\dots\\
\tfrac 1 2 \phi(n)&\text{if }n=8,16,32,64,\dots
\end{cases}
and for general n it is the least common multiple of λ of each of the prime power factors of n:
\lambda(p_1^{a_1}p_2^{a_2} \dots p_{\omega(n)}^{a_{\omega(n)}}) = \operatorname{lcm}[\lambda(p_1^{a_1}),\;\lambda(p_2^{a_2}),\dots,\lambda(p_{\omega(n)}^{a_{\omega(n)}}) ].
=== h(n) – class number ===
h(n), the class number function, is the order of the ideal class group of an algebraic extension of the rationals with discriminant n. The notation is ambiguous, as there are in general many extensions with the same discriminant. See quadratic field and cyclotomic field for classical examples.
=== rk(n) – sum of k squares ===
rk(n) is the number of ways n can be represented as the sum of k squares, where representations that differ only in the order of the summands or in the signs of the square roots are counted as different.
r_k(n) = \left|\left\{(a_1, a_2,\dots,a_k):n=a_1^2+a_2^2+\cdots+a_k^2\right\}\right|
=== D(n) – Arithmetic derivative ===
Using the Heaviside notation for the derivative, the arithmetic derivative D(n) is a function such that
D(n) = 1 if n prime, and
D(mn) = m D(n) + D(m) n (the product rule)
== Summation functions ==
Given an arithmetic function a(n), its summation function A(x) is defined by
A(x) := \sum_{n \le x} a(n) .
A can be regarded as a function of a real variable. Given a positive integer m, A is constant along open intervals m < x < m + 1, and has a jump discontinuity at each integer for which a(m) ≠ 0.
Since such functions are often represented by series and integrals, to achieve pointwise convergence it is usual to define the value at the discontinuities as the average of the values to the left and right:
A_0(m) := \frac 1 2 \left(\sum_{n < m} a(n) +\sum_{n \le m} a(n)\right) = A(m) - \frac 1 2 a(m) .
Individual values of arithmetic functions may fluctuate wildly – as in most of the above examples. Summation functions "smooth out" these fluctuations. In some cases it may be possible to find asymptotic behaviour for the summation function for large x.
A classical example of this phenomenon is given by the divisor summatory function, the summation function of d(n), the number of divisors of n:
\liminf_{n\to\infty} d(n) = 2
\limsup_{n\to\infty}\frac{\log d(n) \log\log n}{\log n} = \log 2
\lim_{n\to\infty}\frac{d(1) + d(2)+ \cdots +d(n)}{\log(1) + \log(2)+ \cdots +\log(n)} = 1.
An average order of an arithmetic function is some simpler or better-understood function which has the same summation function asymptotically, and hence takes the same values "on average". We say that g is an average order of f if
\sum_{n \le x} f(n) \sim \sum_{n \le x} g(n)
as x tends to infinity. The example above shows that d(n) has the average order log(n).
== Dirichlet convolution ==
Given an arithmetic function a(n), let Fa(s), for complex s, be the function defined by the corresponding Dirichlet series (where it converges):
F_a(s) := \sum_{n=1}^\infty \frac{a(n)}{n^s} .
Fa(s) is called a generating function of a(n). The simplest such series, corresponding to the constant function a(n) = 1 for all n, is ζ(s) the Riemann zeta function.
The generating function of the Möbius function is the inverse of the zeta function:
\zeta(s)\,\sum_{n=1}^\infty\frac{\mu(n)}{n^s}=1, \;\;\Re s >1.
Consider two arithmetic functions a and b and their respective generating functions Fa(s) and Fb(s). The product Fa(s)Fb(s) can be computed as follows:
F_a(s)F_b(s) = \left( \sum_{m=1}^{\infty}\frac{a(m)}{m^s} \right)\left( \sum_{n=1}^{\infty}\frac{b(n)}{n^s} \right) .
It is a straightforward exercise to show that if c(n) is defined by
c(n) := \sum_{ij = n} a(i)b(j) = \sum_{i\mid n}a(i)b\left(\frac{n}{i}\right) ,
then F_c(s) = F_a(s) F_b(s).
This function c is called the Dirichlet convolution of a and b, and is denoted by a*b.
A particularly important case is convolution with the constant function a(n) = 1 for all n, corresponding to multiplying the generating function by the zeta function:
g(n) = \sum_{d \mid n}f(d).
Multiplying by the inverse of the zeta function gives the Möbius inversion formula:
f(n) = \sum_{d\mid n}\mu\left(\frac{n}{d}\right)g(d).
If f is multiplicative, then so is g. If f is completely multiplicative, then g is multiplicative, but may or may not be completely multiplicative.
== Relations among the functions ==
There are a great many formulas connecting arithmetical functions with each other and with the functions of analysis, especially powers, roots, and the exponential and log functions. The page divisor sum identities contains many more generalized and related examples of identities involving arithmetic functions.
Here are a few examples:
=== Dirichlet convolutions ===
\sum_{\delta\mid n}\mu(\delta)=
\sum_{\delta\mid n}\lambda\left(\frac{n}{\delta}\right)|\mu(\delta)|=
\begin{cases}
1 & \text{if } n=1\\
0 & \text{if } n\ne1
\end{cases}
where λ is the Liouville function.
\sum_{\delta\mid n}\varphi(\delta) = n.
\varphi(n)
=\sum_{\delta\mid n}\mu\left(\frac{n}{\delta}\right)\delta
=n\sum_{\delta\mid n}\frac{\mu(\delta)}{\delta}.
Möbius inversion
\sum_{d \mid n } J_k(d) = n^k.
J_k(n)
=\sum_{\delta\mid n}\mu\left(\frac{n}{\delta}\right)\delta^k
=n^k\sum_{\delta\mid n}\frac{\mu(\delta)}{\delta^k}.
Möbius inversion
\sum_{\delta\mid n}\delta^sJ_r(\delta)J_s\left(\frac{n}{\delta}\right) = J_{r+s}(n)
\sum_{\delta\mid n}\varphi(\delta)d\left(\frac{n}{\delta}\right) = \sigma(n).
\sum_{\delta\mid n}|\mu(\delta)| = 2^{\omega(n)}.
|\mu(n)|=\sum_{\delta\mid n}\mu\left(\frac{n}{\delta}\right)2^{\omega(\delta)}. Möbius inversion
\sum_{\delta\mid n}2^{\omega(\delta)}=d(n^2).
2^{\omega(n)}=\sum_{\delta\mid n}\mu\left(\frac{n}{\delta}\right)d(\delta^2). Möbius inversion
\sum_{\delta\mid n}d(\delta^2)=d^2(n).
d(n^2)=\sum_{\delta\mid n}\mu\left(\frac{n}{\delta}\right)d^2(\delta). Möbius inversion
\sum_{\delta\mid n}d\left(\frac{n}{\delta}\right)2^{\omega(\delta)}=d^2(n).
\sum_{\delta\mid n}\lambda(\delta)=\begin{cases}
&1\text{ if } n \text{ is a square }\\
&0\text{ if } n \text{ is not square.}
\end{cases} where λ is the Liouville function.
\sum_{\delta\mid n}\Lambda(\delta) = \log n.
\Lambda(n)=\sum_{\delta\mid n}\mu\left(\frac{n}{\delta}\right)\log(\delta). Möbius inversion
=== Sums of squares ===
For all k \ge 4,\;\;\; r_k(n) > 0. (Lagrange's four-square theorem).
r_2(n) = 4\sum_{d\mid n}\left(\frac{-4}{d}\right),
where the Kronecker symbol has the values
\left(\frac{-4}{n}\right) =
\begin{cases}
+1&\text{if }n\equiv 1 \pmod 4 \\
-1&\text{if }n\equiv 3 \pmod 4\\
\;\;\;0&\text{if }n\text{ is even}.\\
\end{cases}
There is a formula for r3 in the section on class numbers below.
r_4(n) =
8 \sum_{\stackrel{d\mid n}{ 4\, \nmid \,d}}d =
8 (2+(-1)^n)\sum_{\stackrel{d\mid n}{ 2\, \nmid \,d}}d =
\begin{cases}
8\sigma(n)&\text{if } n \text{ is odd }\\
24\sigma\left(\frac{n}{2^\nu}\right)&\text{if } n \text{ is even }
\end{cases},
where .
r_6(n) = 16 \sum_{d\mid n} \chi\left(\frac{n}{d}\right)d^2 - 4\sum_{d\mid n} \chi(d)d^2,
where \chi(n) = \left(\frac{-4}{n}\right).
Define the function as
\sigma_k^*(n) = (-1)^{n}\sum_{d\mid n}(-1)^d d^k=
\begin{cases}
\sum_{d\mid n} d^k=\sigma_k(n)&\text{if } n \text{ is odd }\\
\sum_{\stackrel{d\mid n}{ 2\, \mid \,d}}d^k -\sum_{\stackrel{d\mid n}{ 2\, \nmid \,d}}d^k&\text{if } n \text{ is even}.
\end{cases}
That is, if n is odd, is the sum of the kth powers of the divisors of n, that is, and if n is even it is the sum of the kth powers of the even divisors of n minus the sum of the kth powers of the odd divisors of n.
r_8(n) = 16\sigma_3^*(n).
Adopt the convention that Ramanujan's if x is not an integer.
r_{24}(n) = \frac{16}{691}\sigma_{11}^*(n) + \frac{128}{691}\left\{
(-1)^{n-1}259\tau(n)-512\tau\left(\frac{n}{2}\right)\right\}
=== Divisor sum convolutions ===
Here "convolution" does not mean "Dirichlet convolution" but instead refers to the formula for the coefficients of the product of two power series:
\left(\sum_{n=0}^\infty a_n x^n\right)\left(\sum_{n=0}^\infty b_n x^n\right)
= \sum_{i=0}^\infty \sum_{j=0}^\infty a_i b_j x^{i+j}
= \sum_{n=0}^\infty \left(\sum_{i=0}^n a_i b_{n-i}\right) x^n
= \sum_{n=0}^\infty c_n x^n
.
The sequence c_n = \sum_{i=0}^n a_i b_{n-i} is called the convolution or the Cauchy product of the sequences an and bn.
These formulas may be proved analytically (see Eisenstein series) or by elementary methods.
\sigma_3(n) = \frac{1}{5}\left\{6n\sigma_1(n)-\sigma_1(n) + 12\sum_{0
\sigma_5(n) = \frac{1}{21}\left\{10(3n-1)\sigma_3(n)+\sigma_1(n) + 240\sum_{0
\begin{align}
\sigma_7(n)
&=\frac{1}{20}\left\{21(2n-1)\sigma_5(n)-\sigma_1(n) + 504\sum_{0
\begin{align}
\sigma_9(n)
&= \frac{1}{11}\left\{10(3n-2)\sigma_7(n)+\sigma_1(n) + 480\sum_{0
\tau(n) = \frac{65}{756}\sigma_{11}(n) + \frac{691}{756}\sigma_{5}(n) - \frac{691}{3}\sum_{0 where τ(n) is Ramanujan's function.
Since σk(n) (for natural number k) and τ(n) are integers, the above formulas can be used to prove congruences for the functions. See Ramanujan tau function for some examples.
Extend the domain of the partition function by setting
p(n)=\frac{1}{n}\sum_{1\le k\le n}\sigma(k)p(n-k).
This recurrence can be used to compute p(n).
=== Class number related ===
Peter Gustav Lejeune Dirichlet discovered formulas that relate the class number h of quadratic number fields to the Jacobi symbol.
An integer D is called a fundamental discriminant if it is the discriminant of a quadratic number field. This is equivalent to D ≠ 1 and either a) D is squarefree and D ≡ 1 (mod 4) or b) D ≡ 0 (mod 4), D/4 is squarefree, and D/4 ≡ 2 or 3 (mod 4).
Extend the Jacobi symbol to accept even numbers in the "denominator" by defining the Kronecker symbol:
\left(\frac{a}{2}\right) = \begin{cases}
\;\;\,0&\text{ if } a \text{ is even}
\\(-1)^{\frac{a^2-1}{8}}&\text{ if }a \text{ is odd. }
\end{cases}
Then if D < −4 is a fundamental discriminant
\begin{align}
h(D) & = \frac{1}{D} \sum_{r=1}^r\left(\frac{D}{r}\right)\\
& = \frac{1}{2-\left(\tfrac{D}{2}\right)} \sum_{r=1}^
|
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"arithmetic derivative",
"Dirichlet convolution",
"generating function",
"modular form",
"Lagrange's four-square theorem",
"Möbius inversion",
"divisor function",
"divisor sum identities",
"Jacobi symbol",
"P Kesava Menon",
"harmonic number",
"prime power",
"Completely additive function",
"Arithmetic derivative",
"Kronecker symbol",
"discriminant",
"quadratic field",
"Prime factor",
"World Scientific",
"Jordan totient function",
"quadratic number field",
"Divisor function",
"Multiplicative group of integers modulo n",
"Dirichlet character",
"Domain of a function",
"Prime-counting function",
"prime omega function",
"Sum of squares function",
"partition function (number theory)",
"Chebyshev function",
"Additive function",
"convolution",
"indicator function",
"Undergraduate Texts in Mathematics",
"roots of unity",
"Jordan's totient function",
"Legendre symbol",
"Riemann hypothesis",
"Ramanujan tau function",
"Modular discriminant",
"complex number",
"Asymptotic analysis",
"Prentice Hall",
"Springer Nature",
"Eisenstein series",
"Riemann zeta function",
"Differential operator",
"Power series",
"Primitive root modulo n",
"Dirichlet series",
"prime-counting function",
"Completely multiplicative function",
"least common multiple",
"product rule",
"Ramanujan's sum",
"cyclotomic field",
"subset",
"Convergent series",
"number theory",
"Carmichael function",
"Ideal class group",
"Cambridge University Press",
"divisor summatory function",
"Prime omega function",
"Multiplicative function",
"Function (mathematics)",
"Möbius function",
"fundamental theorem of arithmetic",
"p-adic valuation",
"P-adic valuation",
"prime number",
"László Fejes Tóth",
"coprime",
"Liouville function",
"q-expansion",
"modular function",
"Classification of discontinuities",
"prime number theorem",
"squarefree",
"Euler totient function",
"Dedekind psi function",
"D. C. Heath and Company",
"Cauchy product",
"greatest common divisor",
"von Mangoldt function",
"open interval",
"ideal class group",
"average order of an arithmetic function",
"Peter Gustav Lejeune Dirichlet",
"natural number",
"Euler–Mascheroni constant",
"John Wiley & Sons",
"quadratic reciprocity"
] |
3,172 |
ANSI C
|
ANSI C, ISO C, and Standard C are successive standards for the C programming language published by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) and ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 22/WG 14 of the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC). Historically, the names referred specifically to the original and best-supported version of the standard (known as C89 or C90). Software developers writing in C are encouraged to conform to the standards, as doing so helps portability between compilers.
==History and outlook==
The first standard for C was published by ANSI. Although this document was subsequently adopted by ISO/IEC and subsequent revisions published by ISO/IEC have been adopted by ANSI, "ANSI C" is still used to refer to the standard. While some software developers use the term ISO C, others are standards-body neutral and use Standard C.
=== Informal specification: K&R C (C78) ===
Informal specification in 1978 (Brian Kernighan and Dennis Ritchie book The C Programming Language).
===Standardizing C===
In 1983, the American National Standards Institute formed a committee, X3J11, to establish a standard specification of C. In 1985, the first Standard Draft was released, sometimes referred to as C85. In 1986, another Draft Standard was released, sometimes referred to as C86. The prerelease Standard C was published in 1988, and sometimes referred to as C88.
===C89===
The ANSI standard was completed in 1989 and ratified as ANSI X3.159-1989 "Programming Language C." This version of the language is often referred to as "ANSI C". Later on sometimes the label "C89" is used to distinguish it from C90 but using the same labeling method.
===C90===
The same standard as C89 was ratified by ISO/IEC as ISO/IEC 9899:1990, with only formatting changes, which is sometimes referred to as C90. Therefore, the terms "C89" and "C90" refer to a language that is virtually identical.
This standard has been withdrawn by both ANSI/INCITS and ISO/IEC.
===C95===
In 1995, the ISO/IEC published an extension, called Amendment 1, for the C standard. Its full name finally was ISO/IEC 9899:1990/AMD1:1995 or nicknamed C95. Aside from error correction there were further changes to the language capabilities, such as:
Improved multi-byte and wide character support in the standard library, introducing and as well as multi-byte I/O
Addition of digraphs to the language
Specification of standard macros for the alternative specification of operators, e.g. and for &&
Specification of the standard macro __STDC_VERSION__
In addition to the amendment, two technical corrigenda were published by ISO for C90:
ISO/IEC 9899:1990/Cor 1:1994 TCOR1 in 1994
ISO/IEC 9899:1990/Cor 2:1996 in 1996
====Preprocessor test for C95 compatibility====
if defined(__STDC_VERSION__) && __STDC_VERSION__ >= 199409L
/* C95 compatible source code. */
elif defined(__STDC__)
/* C89 compatible source code. */
endif
===C99===
In March 2000, ANSI adopted the ISO/IEC 9899:1999 standard. This standard is commonly referred to as C99. Some notable additions to the previous standard include:
New built-in data types: long long, _Bool, _Complex, and _Imaginary
Several new core language features, including static array indices, designated initializers, compound literals, variable-length arrays, flexible array members, variadic macros, and restrict keyword
Several new library headers, including stdint.h, , fenv.h,
Improved compatibility with several C++ features, including inline functions, single-line comments with //, mixing declarations and code, and universal character names in identifiers
Removed several dangerous C89 language features such as implicit function declarations and implicit int
Three technical corrigenda were published by ISO for C99:
ISO/IEC 9899:1999/Cor 1:2001(E)
ISO/IEC 9899:1999/Cor 2:2004(E)
ISO/IEC 9899:1999/Cor 3:2007(E), notable for deprecating the standard library function gets
This standard has been withdrawn by both ANSI/INCITS and ISO/IEC in favour of C11.
===C11===
C11 was officially ratified and published on December 8, 2011. Notable features include improved Unicode support, type-generic expressions using the new _Generic keyword, a cross-platform multi-threading API (threads.h), and atomic types support in both core language and the library (stdatomic.h).
One technical corrigendum has been published by ISO for C11:
ISO/IEC 9899:2011/Cor 1:2012
===C17===
C17 was published in June 2018. Rather than introducing new language features, it only addresses defects in C11.
=== C23 ===
C23 was published in October 2024, and is the current standard for the C programming language.
===Other related ISO publications===
As part of the standardization process, ISO/IEC also publishes technical reports and specifications related to the C language:
ISO/IEC TR 19769:2004, on library extensions to support Unicode transformation formats, integrated into C11
ISO/IEC TR 24731-1:2007, on library extensions to support bounds-checked interfaces, integrated into C11
ISO/IEC TR 18037:2008, on embedded C extensions
ISO/IEC TR 24732:2009, on decimal floating point arithmetic, superseded by ISO/IEC TS 18661-2:2015
ISO/IEC TR 24747:2009, on special mathematical functions,
ISO/IEC TR 24731-2:2010, on library extensions to support dynamic allocation functions
ISO/IEC TS 17961:2013, on secure coding in C
ISO/IEC TS 18661-1:2014, on IEC 60559:2011-compatible binary floating-point arithmetic
ISO/IEC TS 18661-2:2015, on IEC 60559:2011-compatible decimal floating point arithmetic
ISO/IEC TS 18661-3:2015, on IEC 60559:2011-compatible interchange and extended floating-point types
ISO/IEC TS 18661-4:2015, on IEC 60559:2011-compatible supplementary functions
More technical specifications are in development and pending approval, including the fifth and final part of TS 18661, a software transactional memory specification, and parallel library extensions.
==Support from major compilers==
ANSI C is supported by almost all the widely used compilers. GCC and Clang are two major C compilers popular today, both based on the C11 with updates including changes from later specifications such as C17. Any source code written only in standard C and without any hardware dependent assumptions is virtually guaranteed to compile correctly on any platform with a conforming C implementation. Without such precautions, most programs may compile only on a certain platform or with a particular compiler, due, for example, to the use of non-standard libraries, such as GUI libraries, or to the reliance on compiler- or platform-specific attributes such as the exact size of certain data types and byte endianness.
===Compliance detectability===
To mitigate the differences between K&R C and the ANSI C standard, the __STDC__ ("standard c") macro can be used to split code into ANSI and K&R sections.
if defined(__STDC__) && __STDC__
extern int getopt(int, char * const *, const char *);
else
extern int getopt();
endif
In the above example, a prototype is used in a function declaration for ANSI compliant implementations, while an obsolescent non-prototype declaration is used otherwise. Those are still ANSI-compliant as of C99. Note how this code checks both definition and evaluation: this is because some implementations may set __STDC__ to zero to indicate non-ANSI compliance.
== Compiler support ==
List of compilers supporting ANSI C:
Acornsoft ANSI C (first version in 1988, revised in 1989)
Amsterdam Compiler Kit (C K&R and C89/90)
ARM RealView
Clang (full C89/C90, partial C99, C11, C17, C23 and C2y), using LLVM backend
GCC (full C89/90, C99, C11, partial C17 and some C23 and experimental/incomplete C2y)
HP C/ANSI C compiler (C89 and C99)
IBM XL C/C++ (C11, starting with version 12.1)
Intel's ICC (later versions are based on clang, and have its support!-- or more or less, seemingly missing some support/or table wrong, not updated? And can have more support than clang despite when using it? -->)
LabWindows/CVI
LCC
Oracle Developer Studio
OpenWatcom (C89/90 and some C99)
Microsoft Visual C++ (C89/90 and some C99, C11, C17, mostly missing C23)
Pelles C (C99 and C11. Windows only.)
vbcc (C89/90 and C99)
Tiny C Compiler (C89/90 and some C99)
|
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"Input/output",
"ARM Holdings",
"C++03",
"OpenWatcom",
"Specification (technical standard)",
"restrict",
"Unicode",
"linearizability",
"IBM XL C/C++",
"LCC (compiler)",
"C++23",
"flexible array member",
"inline function",
"C++ Technical Report 1",
"Multi-byte character set",
"Brian Kernighan",
"wide character",
"C (programming language)",
"C data types",
"decimal floating point",
"vbcc",
"thread (computing)",
"Acorn C/C++",
"Tiny C Compiler",
"American National Standards Institute",
"LLVM",
"variadic macro",
"variable-length array",
"Dennis Ritchie",
"Behavioral Description Language",
"Declaration (computer programming)",
"C++17",
"K&R C",
"Amsterdam Compiler Kit",
"system platform",
"GNU Compiler Collection",
"Intel C++ Compiler",
"ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 22",
"Comment (computer programming)",
"Pelles C",
"Graphical user interface",
"Identifier (computer programming)",
"The C Programming Language",
"International Electrotechnical Commission",
"International Organization for Standardization",
"C++",
"C++20",
"Visual C++",
"clang",
"C++14",
"endianness",
"gets()",
"open standard",
"LabWindows/CVI",
"Clang",
"IEEE floating point",
"porting",
"Oracle Developer Studio",
"Compatibility of C and C++",
"C++98",
"Digraph (computing)",
"C++11",
"stdint.h"
] |
3,173 |
Alien and Sedition Acts
|
The Alien and Sedition Acts were a set of four laws enacted in 1798 that applied restrictions to immigration and speech in the United States. The Acts were passed by a Congress controlled by the Federalist Party over the opposition of the Democratic-Republicans, the party typically favored by immigrants and political émigrés. The prosecution of Democratic-Republican journalists under the Sedition Act trials rallied public opinion against the Federalist administration of John Adams and contributed to the victory of the Democratic-Republicans in the elections of 1800. Under the new administration of Thomas Jefferson, only the Alien Enemies Act, granting the President powers of detention and deportation of foreigners in wartime or during threatened invasion, remained in force after 1802.
Against the backdrop of the undeclared Quasi War with the French Republic, the Federalists argued that the acts were essential to national security. Democratic-Republicans denounced the legislation as a tool of government repression and as a violation of First Amendment rights of free speech.
The surviving Alien Enemies Act has been invoked three times since 1800, in the course of major declared wars: the War of 1812, World War I and World War II. The law is best known for its partial role during the Second World War in the disproportionate Internment of Japanese Americans. (Most of the 120,000 people of Japanese descent incarcerated in U.S. internment camps were U.S. citizens detained solely on the basis of their Japanese ancestry, under the authority of Executive Order 9066 issued by President Franklin Roosevelt in early 1942. On a much smaller scale, order 9066 also enabled incarceration of U.S. citizens of German and Italian descent.).
Following his second-term inauguration as President in January 2025, Donald Trump invoked the Alien Enemies Act to expedite the removal of non-citizens engaged in what he claimed was an organised criminal-gang "invasion" of the United States. His authorization of the deportation of Venezuelan suspected gang members, under the presumed terms of the Act, is being litigated in the courts. In the first three months of the second Trump Administration, most other deportations from America have been carried out under other legal bases.
==History==
After the American Revolutionary War concluded, France was unable to provide further loans; Congress could no longer pay its soldiers. In 1793, Congress unilaterally suspended repayment of French loans from the war, and in 1794 signed the Jay Treaty with Great Britain. France, engaged in the 1792 to 1797 War of the First Coalition, retaliated by having French privateers seize U.S. ships on both the Eastern Seaboard and the Caribbean.
President John Adams sent envoys to Paris but was purportedly confronted with a demand by French foreign minister Talleyrand for a bribe as a condition for opening formal negotiations. The publication of in the Philadelphia Aurora of Talleyrand's account of what became known as the XYZ Affair initiated the first attempted prosecution under the Sedition Act.
The unresolved dispute with France evolved into the Quasi-War (1798 to 1800) fought almost entirely at sea, primarily in the Caribbean and off the East Coast of the United States. Believing that French military successes in Europe had been assisted by the broader appeal of French revolutionary ideals, the Adams administration proposed the Alien and Sedition acts as counter to what they presumed would be a French strategy of domestic subversion.
Protests occurred across the country, with critics denouncing the Acts as an encroachment of the federal executive upon the powers of Congress and the judiciary, and a violation of the First Amendment the right to free speech, primarily intended to suppress the Democratic-Republican opposition As campaign material for his 1800 United States presidential bid, Vice President Thomas Jefferson, secretly authored a Kentucky resolution, seconded by James Madison in the Virginia legislature, asserting the right of the states to nullify the Acts as unconstitutional. Unless repealed, Jefferson suggested the legislation might drive states "into revolution and blood".
Alarmed, the Federalists accused the Democratic-Republicans of shielding the subversive activities of French and French-sympathizing immigrants. The Federalist pamphleteer William Cobbett accused Bache's successor at the Aurora, William Duane, of orchestrating a conspiracy among United Irish émigrés. Convening in Philadelphia's African Free School, and admitting, together with "all those who have suffered in the cause of freedom", free blacks, the Irish republicans had formed a society dedicated to the proposition (to which each member attested) that "a free form of government, and uncontrouled [sic] opinion on all subjects, [are] the common rights of all the human species". Against the backdrop of the Quasi War and of the Haitian Revolution (then still under the flag of the French Republic), for Cobbett, this was sufficient proof of an intention to organise slave revolts and "thus involve the whole country in rebellion and bloodshed".
With President John Adams naming Duane as one of the three or four men most responsible for his defeat, Jefferson's Democratic-Republicans ticket triumphed in the elections of 1800. Upon assuming the presidency, Jefferson pardoned those still serving sentences under the Sedition Act, and the new Congress repaid their fines.
Of the four original acts, by 1802 only the Alien Enemies Act remained.
== The Acts ==
=== Alien Friends Act ===
The Alien Friends Act (officially "An Act Concerning Aliens") authorized the president to arbitrarily deport any non-citizen that was determined to be "dangerous to the peace and safety of the United States." Once a non-citizen was determined to be dangerous, or was suspected of conspiring against the government, the president had the power to set a reasonable amount of time for departure, and remaining after the time limit could result to up to three years in prison. The law was never directly enforced, but it was often used in conjunction with the Sedition Act to suppress criticism of the Adams administration. Upon enactment, the Alien Friends Act was authorized for two years, and it was allowed to expire at the end of this period. Democratic-Republicans opposed the law, with Thomas Jefferson referring to it as "a most detestable thing... worthy of the 8th or 9th century."
While the law was not directly enforced, it resulted in the voluntary departure of foreigners who feared that they would be charged under the act. The Adams administration encouraged these departures, and Secretary of State Timothy Pickering would ensure that the ships were granted passage. Though Adams did not delegate the final decision-making power, Secretary Pickering was responsible for overseeing enforcement of the Alien Friends Act. Both Adams and Pickering considered the law too weak to be effective; Pickering expressed his desire for the law to require sureties and authorize detainment prior to deportation.
Many French nationals were considered for deportation but were allowed to leave willingly, or Adams declined to take action against them. These figures included: philosopher Constantin François de Chassebœuf, comte de Volney, General Victor Collot, scholar Médéric Louis Élie Moreau de Saint-Méry, diplomat Victor Marie du Pont, journalist William Duane, scientist Joseph Priestley, and journalist William Cobbett. Secretary Pickering also proposed applying the act against the French diplomatic delegation to the United States, but Adams refused. Journalist John Daly Burk agreed to leave under the act informally to avoid being tried for sedition, but he went into hiding in Virginia until the act's expiration. Under this law, the president could authorize the arrest, relocation, or deportation of any male over the age of 14 who hailed from a foreign enemy country. It also provided some legal protections for those subject to the law. Unlike the other acts, this act was largely unopposed by the Democratic-Republicans.
The Alien Enemies Act was not allowed to expire with the other Alien and Sedition Acts, and it remains in effect as Chapter 3, Sections 21–24 of Title 50 of the United States Code.
==== War of 1812 ====
President James Madison invoked the act against British nationals during the War of 1812, and ordered them to report to local authorities in order to undertake additional duties.
==== World War I ====
President Woodrow Wilson invoked the act against nationals of the Central Powers during World War I. In 1918, an amendment to the act struck the provision restricting the law to males.
==== World War II ====
On December 7, 1941, in response to the bombing of Pearl Harbor, President Franklin D. Roosevelt used the authority of the revised Alien Enemies Act to make presidential proclamations #2525 (Alien Enemies – Japanese), #2526 (Alien Enemies – German), and #2527 (Alien Enemies – Italian), in order to apprehend, restrain, secure, and remove Japanese, German, and Italian non-citizens. Roosevelt later relied on further wartime and national defense statutes, and his authority as Commander in Chief, to issue Executive Order 9066, which interned Japanese Americans holding U.S. citizenship using powers unrelated to the Alien Enemies Act. Hostilities with Germany and Italy ended in May 1945, and President Harry S. Truman issued presidential proclamation #2655 on July 14. The proclamation gave the attorney general authority regarding enemy aliens within the continental United States, to decide whether they are "dangerous to the public peace and safety of the United States," to order them removed, and to create regulations governing their removal, citing the Alien Enemies Act. On September 8, 1945, Truman issued presidential proclamation #2662, which authorized the secretary of state to remove enemy aliens that had been sent to the United States from Latin American countries. On April 10, 1946, Truman's proclamation #2685 modified previous proclamations, and set a 30-day deadline for removal.
In Ludecke v. Watkins (1948), the Supreme Court interpreted the time of release under the Alien Enemies Act. German alien Kurt G. W. Lüdecke was detained on December 8, 1941, under Proclamation 2526, and continued to be held after cessation of hostilities. In 1947, Lüdecke petitioned for a writ of habeas corpus to order his release, after the attorney general ordered him deported. The court ruled 5–4 to affirm the district court and appellate decisions to deny the writ of habeas corpus. The Court also concluded that the Alien Enemies Act allowed for detainment beyond the time hostilities ceased until an actual treaty was signed with the hostile nation or government or the until the president determines that hostilities have concluded.
In 1988, President Ronald Reagan signed the Civil Liberties Act of 1988, which conceded that the internment of Japanese Americans had been based on "race prejudice, war hysteria, and a failure of political leadership", and authorizing compensation for survivors.
=== Naturalization Act ===
The Naturalization Act increased the residency requirement for American citizenship from five to 14 years and increased the notice time from three to five years. Although the law was passed under the guise of protecting national security, most historians conclude it was really intended to decrease the number of citizens, and thus voters, who disagreed with the Federalist Party. At the time, the majority of immigrants supported Thomas Jefferson and the Democratic-Republicans—the political opponents of the Federalists. by a vote of 44 to 41. The legislation made it illegal to print “false, scandalous and malicious writing or writings against the government of the United States, or either house of the Congress of the United States, or the President of the United States.”
The act was used to suppress speech critical of the Adams administration, including the prosecution and conviction of many Jeffersonian newspaper owners who disagreed with the Federalist Party.
The Sedition Act did not extend enforcement to speech about the Vice President, as then-incumbent Thomas Jefferson was a political opponent of the Federalist-controlled Congress. The Sedition Act was allowed to expire in 1800, and its enactment is credited with helping Jefferson win the presidential election that year.
Prominent prosecutions under the Sedition Act included:
James T. Callender, a Scottish pamphleteer who had fled to the United States after becoming embroiled in controversy due to his political opinions again British imperialism. Living first in Philadelphia, then seeking refuge close by in Virginia, he wrote a book titled The Prospect Before Us (read and approved by Vice President Jefferson before publication), in which he called the Adams administration a "continual tempest of malignant passions," and referred to the President as a "repulsive pedant, a gross hypocrite, and an unprincipled oppressor." Callender, already residing in Virginia and writing for the Richmond Examiner, was indicted in mid-1800 under the Sedition Act, and was subsequently convicted, fined $200, and sentenced to nine months in jail.
Matthew Lyon was a Democratic-Republican congressman from Vermont. He was the first individual to be placed on trial under the Alien and Sedition Acts.
Benjamin Franklin Bache was the editor of the Philadelphia Aurora, a Democratic-Republican newspaper. Bache had accused George Washington of incompetence and financial irregularities, and "the blind, bald, crippled, toothless, querulous Adams" of nepotism and monarchical ambition. He was arrested in 1798 under the Sedition Act, but he died of yellow fever before trial.
Anthony Haswell was an English immigrant, and a printer of the Jeffersonian Vermont Gazette. Sourced from the Philadelphia Aurora, Haswell had reprinted Bache's claim that the federal government employed Tories. Haswell also published an advertisement from Lyon's sons for a lottery to raise money for his fine that decried Lyon's oppression by jailers exercising "usurped powers". Haswell was found guilty of seditious libel by judge William Paterson, and sentenced to a two-month imprisonment and a $200 fine.
Luther Baldwin was indicted, convicted, and fined $100 for a drunken incident that occurred during a visit by President Adams to Newark, New Jersey. Upon hearing a gun report during a parade, he yelled "I hope it hit Adams in the [backside]."
In November 1798, David Brown led a group in Dedham, Massachusetts, including Benjamin Fairbanks, in setting up a liberty pole with the words, "No Stamp Act, No Sedition Act, No Alien Bills, No Land Tax, downfall to the Tyrants of America; peace and retirement to the President; Long Live the Vice President." Brown was arrested in Andover, Massachusetts, but because he could not afford the $4,000 bail, he was taken to Salem for trial. and sentenced to eighteen months in prison, the most severe sentence imposed under the Sedition Act.
==Invocation of the Alien Enemies Act by Donald Trump==
On September 20, 2024, then-nominee Donald Trump announced that if elected president for a second term he would invoke the Alien Enemies Act to expedite the removal of non-citizens and criminal networks operating in the United States. On October 27, 2024, he again invoked the Alien Enemies Act during a campaign rally held at Madison Square Garden, claiming that he would use it to remove illegal immigrants operating within gangs and criminal networks on "day one" of his presidency.
Trump repeated his intentions in his second inaugural address on January 20, 2025, and on March 14, he signed a presidential proclamation invoking the Alien Enemies Act against what he termed an invasion being perpetrated or attempted by the Venezuelan criminal gang, Tren de Aragua. The following day he authorized the deportation of Venezuelan suspected gang members to the Terrorism Confinement Center (CECOT) in El Salvador. Trump's executive order was temporarily blocked the same day by Judge James Boasberg of the U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia, following a lawsuit seeking to stop the deportations.
On April 7, 2025, the U.S. Supreme Court vacated Judge Boasberg's temporary restraining order and held that the plaintiffs must bring the lawsuit in Texas, where they are being held, not in Washington, D.C. The Court also ruled that the government must provide notice to the plaintiffs and an opportunity to challenge the deportation. The ruling did not address the constitutionality of the deportation.
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] |
3,175 |
Antinomy
|
In philosophy, an antinomy (Ancient Greek: 'against' + 'law') is a real or apparent contradiction between two conclusions, both of which seem justified. It is a term used in logic and epistemology, particularly in the philosophy of Immanuel Kant.
Antinomy is a common form of argument in the dialogues of Plato. Kant credited Zeno of Elea (see Zeno's paradoxes) as the inventor of the antinomic mode of argumentation, which he described as a "skeptical method" of "watching, or rather provoking, a conflict of assertions, not for the purpose of deciding in favor of one or the other side, but of investigating whether the object of the controversy is not perhaps a deceptive appearance which each vainly tries to grasp, and in regard to which, even if there were no opposition to overcome, neither can arrive at any result". Hegel said that Kant was in error when he limited the antinomies to cosmological ideas, claiming that the world itself contains contradiction. Schopenhauer said that the antitheses in Kant's antinomies were justified, but claimed the theses (cosmological propositions) to be sophisms.
There are many examples of antinomy. A self-contradictory phrase such as "There is no absolute truth" can be considered an antinomy because this statement is suggesting in itself to be an absolute truth, and therefore denies itself any truth in its statement. It is not necessarily also a paradox. A paradox, such as "this sentence is false," can also be considered to be an antinomy; in this case, for the sentence to be true, it must be false.
== Terminology ==
Antinomies can be found in Plato, in substance though not by this name (cf. Phaedo 102; Rep. 523 ff., Parm. 135 E). Modern usage dates back to a 17th-century legal term, which acquired philosophical significance in Immanuel Kant's Critique of Pure Reason (CPR). In the Transcendental Dialectic, Kant defines an antinomy as a "conflict of laws" (CPR A407/B434).
Kant's use of the term was derived from jurisprudence, where it refers to a conflict between laws, and from biblical exegesis, where it refers to conflict between passages of scripture. Empirical reason cannot here play the role of establishing rational truths because it goes beyond possible experience and is applied to the sphere of that which transcends it.
For Kant there are four antinomies, connected with:
the limitation of the universe in respect to space and time
the theory that the whole consists of indivisible atoms (whereas, in fact, none such exist)
the problem of free will in relation to universal causality
the existence of a universal being Karl Marx claims that capitalist production sustains "the assertion of a right to an unlimited working day, and the assertion of a right to a limited working day, both with equal justification". Author James Furner claims that the thesis and antithesis of this antinomy are not contradictory opposites, but rather "consist in the assertion of rights to states of affairs that are contradictory opposites".
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] |
3,189 |
Ascending chain condition
|
In mathematics, the ascending chain condition (ACC) and descending chain condition (DCC) are finiteness properties satisfied by some algebraic structures, most importantly ideals in certain commutative rings. These conditions played an important role in the development of the structure theory of commutative rings in the works of David Hilbert, Emmy Noether, and Emil Artin.
The conditions themselves can be stated in an abstract form, so that they make sense for any partially ordered set. This point of view is useful in abstract algebraic dimension theory due to Gabriel and Rentschler.
== Definition ==
A partially ordered set (poset) P is said to satisfy the ascending chain condition (ACC) if no infinite strictly ascending sequence
a_1 < a_2 < a_3 < \cdots
of elements of P exists.
Equivalently, every weakly ascending sequence
a_1 \leq a_2 \leq a_3 \leq \cdots,
of elements of P eventually stabilizes, meaning that there exists a positive integer n such that
a_n = a_{n+1} = a_{n+2} = \cdots.
Similarly, P is said to satisfy the descending chain condition (DCC) if there is no infinite strictly descending chain of elements of P. Equivalently, every weakly descending sequence
a_1 \geq a_2 \geq a_3 \geq \cdots
of elements of P eventually stabilizes.
=== Comments ===
Assuming the axiom of dependent choice, the descending chain condition on (possibly infinite) poset P is equivalent to P being well-founded: every nonempty subset of P has a minimal element (also called the minimal condition or minimum condition). A totally ordered set that is well-founded is a well-ordered set.
Similarly, the ascending chain condition is equivalent to P being converse well-founded (again, assuming dependent choice): every nonempty subset of P has a maximal element (the maximal condition or maximum condition).
Every finite poset satisfies both the ascending and descending chain conditions, and thus is both well-founded and converse well-founded.
== Example ==
Consider the ring
\mathbb{Z} = \{\dots, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, \dots\}
of integers. Each ideal of \mathbb{Z} consists of all multiples of some number n. For example, the ideal
I = \{\dots, -18, -12, -6, 0, 6, 12, 18, \dots\}
consists of all multiples of 6. Let
J = \{\dots, -6, -4, -2, 0, 2, 4, 6, \dots\}
be the ideal consisting of all multiples of 2. The ideal I is contained inside the ideal J, since every multiple of 6 is also a multiple of 2. In turn, the ideal J is contained in the ideal \mathbb{Z}, since every multiple of 2 is a multiple of 1. However, at this point there is no larger ideal; we have "topped out" at \mathbb{Z}.
In general, if I_1, I_2, I_3, \dots are ideals of \mathbb{Z} such that I_1 is contained in I_2, I_2 is contained in I_3, and so on, then there is some n for which all I_n = I_{n+1} = I_{n+2} = \cdots. That is, after some point all the ideals are equal to each other. Therefore, the ideals of \mathbb{Z} satisfy the ascending chain condition, where ideals are ordered by set inclusion. Hence \mathbb{Z} is a Noetherian ring.
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3,192 |
Adin Steinsaltz
|
Rabbi Adin Even-Israel Steinsaltz (; 11 July 19377 August 2020) was an Israeli Chabad Chasidic rabbi, teacher, philosopher, social critic, author, translator and publisher.
His Steinsaltz edition of the Talmud was originally published in modern Hebrew, with a running commentary to facilitate learning, and has also been translated into English, French, Russian, and Spanish. and has since been brought to completion.
Steinsaltz was a recipient of the Israel Prize for Jewish Studies (1988), the President's Medal (2012), and the Yakir Yerushalayim prize (2017). to Avraham Steinsaltz and Leah (née Krokovitz). His father was a great-grandson of the first Slonimer Rebbe, Avrohom Weinberg, and was a student of Hillel Zeitlin. Avraham and Leah Steinsaltz met through Zeitlin. They immigrated to Mandatory Palestine in 1924. Avraham Steinsaltz, a devoted communist and member of Lehi, went to Spain in 1936 to fight with the International Brigades in the Spanish Civil War. Adin was born the following year.
Steinsaltz became a baal teshuva during his teenage years and learned from Rabbi Shmuel Elazar Heilprin (Rosh yeshiva of Yeshivas Toras Emes Chabad). He studied mathematics, physics, and chemistry at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, in addition to rabbinical studies at Yeshivas Tomchei Temimim in Lod and with Dov Ber Eliezrov and Shmaryahu Noach Sasonkin. Following graduation, he established several experimental schools after an unsuccessful attempt to start a neo-Hassidic community in the Negev,
Steinsaltz's classic work on Kabbalah, The Thirteen Petalled Rose, was first published in 1980 and now appears in eight languages. In all, Steinsaltz authored some 60 books
Continuing his work as a teacher and spiritual mentor, Steinsaltz joined the original faculty of the nondenominational Pardes Institute of Jewish Studies in Jerusalem in 1972, along with David Hartman, Eliezer Schweid, Menachem Froman, Dov Berkovits, and others. He established Yeshivat Makor Chaim alongside Rabbis Menachem Froman and Shimon Gershon Rosenberg in 1984 and Yeshivat Tekoa in 1999. He also served as president of the Shefa Middle and High Schools. He has served as scholar in residence at the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars in Washington, D.C., and the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton. His honorary degrees include doctorates from Yeshiva University, Ben Gurion University of the Negev, Bar Ilan University, Brandeis University, and Florida International University. Steinsaltz was also Rosh Yeshiva of Yeshivat Hesder Tekoa. In this capacity, Steinsaltz travelled to Russia and the Republics once each month from his home in Jerusalem. In 1991, on Schneersohn's advice, he changed his family name from Steinsaltz to Even-Israel, 'Stone of Israel' in English. Schneersohn suggested the name Even Melach, 'Salt Stone' in English, as recorded in his meeting with the Rebbe in 1990. Besides Chabad, Steinsaltz was also inspired by the teachings of Menachem Mendel of Kotzk. He was in close contact with the fifth Gerrer Rebbe, Yisrael Alter, and his brother and successor, Simcha Bunim Alter. and called for "a theological dialogue that asks the tough questions, such as whether Catholicism allows for Jews to enter eternal paradise".
Steinsaltz and his wife lived in Jerusalem until his death and had three children and many grandchildren and great-grandchildren. In 2016, Steinsaltz suffered a stroke, leaving him unable to speak. His son, Rabbi Menachem ("Meni") Even-Israel, is the executive director of the Steinsaltz Center, Steinsaltz's umbrella organization located in the Nachlaot neighborhood of Jerusalem.
Steinsaltz died in Jerusalem on 7 August 2020, from acute pneumonia at the Shaare Tzedek Medical Center. He was hospitalized earlier in the week with a severe lung infection. His wife Sarah survived him, together with three children and eighteen grandchildren.
== As an author ==
Steinsaltz was a prolific author and commentator who wrote numerous books on Jewish knowledge, tradition and culture, and produced original commentaries on a huge portion of the Jewish canon: Tanakh (the Jewish bible), the Babylonian Talmud, the Mishna, the Mishneh Torah, Tanya, and Torah Or/Likutei Torah.
His published works include:
Biblical Images (1984)
The Candle of God (1998)
A Dear Son to Me (2011)
The Essential Talmud (1976)
A Guide to Jewish Prayer (2000)
The Passover Haggadah (1983)
In the Beginning (1992)
My Rebbe (2014)
The Tales of Rabbi Nachman of Bratslav (1993)
On Being Free (1995)
The Miracle of the Seventh Day (2003)
Simple Words (1999)
The Strife of the Spirit (1988)
A Reference Guide to The Talmud (2012)
Talmudic Images (1997)
Learning from the Tanya (2005)
Opening the Tanya (2003)
Understanding the Tanya (2007)
Teshuvah (1982)
The Longer Shorter Way (1988)
The Seven Lights: On the Major Jewish Festivals (2000)
The Sustaining Utterance (1989)
The Thirteen Petalled Rose (1980)
We Jews (2005)
The Woman of Valor (1994)
== As a speaker ==
Steinsaltz was invited to speak at the Aspen Institute for Humanistic Studies at Yale University in 1979.
Prior to his stroke, he gave evening seminars in Jerusalem, which, according to Newsweek, usually lasted until 2:00 in the morning and attracted prominent politicians, such as the former Prime Minister Levi Eshkol and former Finance Minister Pinchas Sapir.
== Awards and critical reception ==
On 21 April 1988, Steinsaltz received the Israel Prize for Jewish Studies.
On 9 February 2012, Steinsaltz was honored by Israeli President Shimon Peres with Israel's first President's Prize alongside Zubin Mehta, Uri Slonim, Henry Kissinger, Judy Feld Carr, and the Rashi Foundation.[15] Steinsaltz was presented with this award for his contribution to the study of Talmud, making it more accessible to Jews worldwide.
Steinsaltz was also presented with the 2012 National Jewish Book Award in the category of Modern Jewish Thought & Experience by the Jewish Book Council for his commentary, translation, and notes in the Koren Babylonian Talmud. The Modern Jewish Thought & Experience award was awarded on 15 January 2013 in memory of Joy Ungerleider Mayerson by the Dorot Foundation.
On 22 May 2017, Jerusalem Mayor Nir Barkat visited Steinsaltz at his home to present him with the Yakir Yerushalayim ("Worthy Citizen of Jerusalem") medal. This medal of achievement was awarded to Steinsaltz for his writing and translating work.
On 10 June 2018, Steinsaltz was honored at a Gala Dinner at the Orient Hotel in Jerusalem for his pedagogical achievements throughout a lifetime dedicated to Jewish education. A limited-edition version of "The Steinsaltz Humash" was presented to the attendees of this event.
== Public reception ==
=== Academic criticism ===
Jacob Neusner's How Adin Steinsaltz Misrepresents the Talmud. Four False Propositions from his "Reference Guide" (1998) displays strong disagreement. In what was an overall favorable review, Dr. Jeremy Brown notes that the Koren Talmud Bavli contains some inaccurate scientific information, such as identifying Ursa Major as a star and describing polycythemia vera as a disease causing excessive bleeding from the gums and from ordinary cuts. Aharon Feldman penned a lengthy critical review of the Steinsaltz Talmud contending that the work "is marred by an extraordinary number of inaccuracies stemming primarily from misreadings of the sources; it fails to explain those difficult passages which the reader would expect it to explain; and it confuses him with notes which are often irrelevant, incomprehensible, and contradictory." Feldman says he fears that, "An intelligent student utilizing the Steinsaltz Talmud as his personal instructor might in fact conclude that Talmud in general is not supposed to make sense." Furthermore, writes Feldman, the Steinsaltz Talmud gives off the impression that the Talmud is "intellectually flabby, inconsistent, and often trivial."
=== Haredi reaction and ban ===
Publication of the Steinsaltz Hebrew translation of the Talmud in the 1960s received endorsements from prominent rabbis including Moshe Feinstein and Ovadia Yosef. However, in 1989, when the English version appeared, Steinsaltz faced a fierce backlash from many leading rabbis in Israel such as Harav Elazar Shach, Harav Yosef Shalom Eliashiv, Harav Eliezer Waldenberg, Harav Nissim Karelitz, Harav Chaim Pinchas Scheinberg, and Harav Shmuel Wosner, who harshly condemned his work and other publications. Branding him a heretic, Rav Shach was at the forefront of a campaign which banned all his works, believing that his literary and psychological explanations of biblical characters and events rendered them heretical. He also slated his translation of the Talmud, describing it as being written in the style of a secular book causing "any trace of holiness and faith to vanish." Waldenberg wrote that he was shocked to see the way in which Steinsaltz described the Patriarchs and Talmudic sages, writing that the works had the power to "poison the souls" of those who read them. Striking a more conciliatory tone in the controversy, however, were the Gerer Hasidim who praised his works and commended him on his willingness to amend various passages "which could have been misconstrued." After the Jerusalem-based Edah Charedis limited the ban to three books, Steinsaltz publicly apologised for his error and offered to refund anyone who had bought the books. The ban nevertheless caused thousands of schools and individuals to discard the Steinsaltz Talmud, with Rabbi Avigdor Nebenzahl ordering all copies to be placed in genizah. This led to more liberal Jewish movements placing adverts in the press asking for the edition to be donated to their institutions instead. For his part, Steinsaltz countered that much of the criticism he faced was rooted in opposition to the Chabad-Lubavitch community with which he was affiliated.
=== Praise ===
While certain members of the Haredi community may have opposition to Steinsaltz's works, other Jewish leaders, rabbis, and authors have spoken or written about their appreciation for Steinsaltz's unique educational approach. Rabbi John Rosove of Temple Israel of Hollywood featured "Opening The Tanya", "Learning the Tanya", and "Understanding the Tanya" on his list of the top ten recommended Jewish books. These volumes are written by Rabbi Shneur Zalman of Liadi, the founder of the Chabad Lubavitch movement, and include commentary by Steinsaltz. Through reading the Tanya, readers can explore all aspects of the central text of Chabad movement. Rabbi Elie Kaunfer, a rosh yeshiva and the CEO of Mechon Hadar Yeshiva, discussed his gratitude for Steinsaltz's Global Day of Jewish Learning and the opportunity created by this online platform for learning and creating a deeper connection to Torah, other Jewish text, and Jews worldwide. Rabbi Pinchas Allouche, who studied under Steinsaltz, notes that Steinsaltz "is a world scholar" who "revolutionized the Jewish landscape" through his commentary, other writings, and educational organizations. In 1988, secular Israeli historian Zeev Katz compared Steinsaltz's importance to that of Rashi and Maimonides, two Jewish scholars of medieval times. In addition, Ilana Kurshan, an American-Israeli author, wrote that Steinsaltz's ability to bring "the historical world of the Talmudic stages to life" created an enjoyable Jewish learning experience for her when she was intensely studying Talmud.
|
[
"Ilana Kurshan",
"Rosh yeshiva",
"Adolf Shayevich",
"Rebbe",
"Yosef Shalom Elyashiv",
"National Jewish Book Award",
"Talmud",
"Jerusalem",
"Elie Kaunfer",
"Jacob Neusner",
"Tanya (Judaism)",
"modern Hebrew",
"Israel Prize",
"Shneur Zalman of Liadi",
"Kabbalah",
"Shmuel Wosner",
"Avigdor Nebenzahl",
"Tanakh",
"Torah Or/Likutei Torah",
"Soviet Union",
"Negev",
"Rashi",
"Yisrael Alter",
"Jewish Book Council",
"BBC",
"Rabbi",
"Israelis",
"Babylonian Talmud",
"Brandeis University",
"Judy Feld Carr",
"Shimon Peres",
"polycythemia vera",
"Saint Petersburg",
"International Brigades",
"List of Israel Prize recipients",
"Pinchas Sapir",
"Menachem Mendel Schneerson",
"Yakir Yerushalayim",
"Yeshiva University",
"Modern attempts to revive the Sanhedrin",
"Ben Gurion University of the Negev",
"Simcha Bunim Alter",
"Menachem Mendel of Kotzk",
"San Diego Jewish World",
"Jewish philosophy",
"Eliezer Waldenberg",
"Chabad",
"tract (literature)",
"Hebrew University of Jerusalem",
"Chaim Pinchas Scheinberg",
"Tomchei Temimim",
"Edah Charedis",
"Menachem Froman",
"David Hartman (rabbi)",
"Cardinal (Catholicism)",
"Lod",
"Koren Publishers Jerusalem",
"Elazar Shach",
"The Talmud: The Steinsaltz Edition",
"Aharon Feldman",
"Heresy in Judaism",
"President's Medal (Israel)",
"YouTube",
"Levi Eshkol",
"Humash",
"Temple Israel of Hollywood",
"Yeshivat Makor Chaim",
"Finance Minister",
"Spanish Civil War",
"Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars",
"baal teshuva",
"Aramaic language",
"Nir Barkat",
"Florida International University",
"rosh yeshiva",
"Mandatory Palestine",
"Zubin Mehta",
"Mishneh Torah",
"Ursa Major",
"rabbi",
"Moshe Feinstein",
"Hillel Zeitlin",
"Time (magazine)",
"Tekoa, Gush Etzion",
"Mishna",
"Aspen Institute for Humanistic Studies",
"Henry Kissinger",
"genizah",
"Ger (Hasidic dynasty)",
"Yale University",
"Lehi (militant group)",
"Rosh Yeshiva",
"Bar Ilan University",
"Ovadia Yosef",
"Eliezer Schweid",
"Patriarchs (Bible)",
"Pardes Institute of Jewish Studies",
"Zürich-Enge",
"Torah",
"Yeshivat Hesder",
"Neo-Hasidism",
"Shimon Gershon Rosenberg",
"Nissim Karelitz",
"Newsweek",
"Mount of Olives Jewish Cemetery",
"Maimonides",
"Shaliach (Chabad)",
"Slonim (Hasidic dynasty)"
] |
3,198 |
A. E. Housman
|
Alfred Edward Housman (; 26 March 1859 – 30 April 1936) was an English classical scholar and poet. He showed early promise as a student at the University of Oxford, but he failed his final examination in literae humaniores and took employment as a patent examiner in London in 1882. In his spare time he engaged in textual criticism of classical Greek and Latin texts, and his publications as an independent researcher earned him a high academic reputation and appointment as professor of Latin at University College London in 1892. In 1911 he became the Kennedy Professor of Latin at the University of Cambridge. Today he is regarded as one of the foremost classicists of his age and one of the greatest classical scholars of any time. and Edward Housman (whose family came from Lancaster), and was baptised on 24 April 1859 at Christ Church, in Catshill. His mother died on his twelfth birthday, and his father, a country solicitor, then married an elder cousin, Lucy, in 1873. Two of his siblings became prominent writers, sister Clemence Housman and brother Laurence Housman.
Housman was educated at King Edward's School in Birmingham and later Bromsgrove School, where he revealed his academic promise and won prizes for his poems. In 1877, he won an open scholarship to St John's College, Oxford, and went there to study classics. most biographers adduce more obvious causes. Housman was indifferent to philosophy and overconfident in his exceptional gifts, and he spent too much time with his friends. He may also have been distracted by news of his father's desperate illness.
After Oxford, Jackson went to work as a clerk in the Patent Office in London and he also arranged a job there for Housman. Bayswater, with Jackson's brother Adalbert until 1885, when Housman moved to lodgings of his own, probably after Jackson responded to a declaration of love by telling Housman that he could not reciprocate his feelings. Two years later, Jackson moved to India, placing more distance between himself and Housman. When he returned briefly to England in 1889 to marry, Housman was not invited to the wedding and knew nothing about it until the couple had left the country. Adalbert Jackson died in 1892 and Housman commemorated him in a poem published as "XLII – A.J.J." of More Poems (1936).
Meanwhile, Housman pursued his classical studies independently, and published scholarly articles on Horace, Propertius, Ovid, Aeschylus, Euripides and Sophocles. remarked that it would be better to sell it to "buy some really useful books with the proceeds".
==Later life==
Although Housman's early work and his responsibilities as a professor included both Latin and Greek, he began to specialise in Latin poetry. When asked later why he had stopped writing about Greek verse, he responded, "I found that I could not attain to excellence in both." In 1911 he took the Kennedy Professorship of Latin at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he remained for the rest of his life.
Between 1903 and 1930, Housman published his critical edition of Manilius's Astronomicon in five volumes. He also edited Juvenal (1905) and Lucan (1926). G. P. Goold, Classics Professor at University College, wrote of his predecessor's accomplishments that "the legacy of Housman's scholarship is a thing of permanent value; and that value consists less in obvious results, the establishment of general propositions about Latin and the removal of scribal mistakes, than in the shining example he provides of a wonderful mind at work … He was and may remain the last great textual critic".
Many colleagues were unnerved by Housman's scathing attacks on those he thought guilty of shoddy scholarship.
His younger colleague, A. S. F. Gow, quoted examples of these attacks, noting that they "were often savage in the extreme". Gow also related how Housman intimidated students, sometimes reducing the women to tears. According to Gow, Housman could never remember the names of female students, maintaining that "had he burdened his memory by the distinction between Miss Jones and Miss Robinson, he might have forgotten that between the second and fourth declension". Among the more notable students at his Cambridge lectures was Enoch Powell, one of whose own Classical emendations was later complimented by Housman.
In his private life, Housman enjoyed country walks, gastronomy, air travel and making frequent visits to France, where he read "books which were banned in Britain as pornographic" but he struck A. C. Benson, a fellow don, as being "descended from a long line of maiden aunts". His feelings about his poetry were ambivalent and he certainly treated it as secondary to his scholarship. He did not speak in public about his poems until 1933, when he gave a lecture "The Name and Nature of Poetry", arguing there that poetry should appeal to emotions rather than to the intellect.
Housman died, aged 77, in Cambridge. His ashes are buried just outside St Laurence's Church, Ludlow. A cherry tree was planted there in his memory (see A Shropshire Lad II) and replaced by the Housman Society in 2003 with a new cherry tree nearby.
==Poetry==
===A Shropshire Lad===
During his years in London, Housman completed A Shropshire Lad, a cycle of 63 poems. After one publisher had turned it down, he helped subsidise its publication in 1896. At first selling slowly, it rapidly became a lasting success. Its appeal to English musicians had helped to make it widely known before World War I, when its themes struck a powerful chord with English readers. The book has been in print continuously since May 1896.
The poems are marked by pessimism and preoccupation with death, without religious consolation (Housman had become an atheist while still an undergraduate). Housman wrote many of them while living in Highgate, London, before ever visiting Shropshire, which he presented in an idealised pastoral light as his 'land of lost content'. Housman himself acknowledged that "No doubt I have been unconsciously influenced by the Greeks and Latins, but [the] chief sources of which I am conscious are Shakespeare's songs, the Scottish Border ballads, and Heine".
===Later collections===
Housman began collecting a new set of poems after the First World War. His early work was an influence on many British poets who became famous by their writing about the war, and he wrote several poems as occasional verse to commemorate the war dead. This included his Epitaph on an Army of Mercenaries, honouring the British Expeditionary Force, an elite but small force of professional soldiers sent to Belgium at the start of the war. In the early 1920s, when Moses Jackson was dying in Canada, Housman wanted to assemble his best unpublished poems so that Jackson could read them before his death.
John Sparrow quoted a letter written late in Housman's life that described the genesis of his poems:
{{Blockquote | Poetry was for him …'a morbid secretion', as the pearl is for the oyster. The desire, or the need, did not come upon him often, and it came usually when he was feeling ill or depressed; then whole lines and stanzas would present themselves to him without any effort, or any consciousness of composition on his part. Sometimes they wanted a little alteration, sometimes none; sometimes the lines needed in order to make a complete poem would come later, spontaneously or with 'a little coaxing'; sometimes he had to sit down and finish the poem with his head. That... was a long and laborious process.
===De Amicitia (Of Friendship)===
In 1942, Laurence Housman also deposited an essay entitled "A. E. Housman's 'De Amicitia'" in the British Library, with the proviso that it was not to be published for 25 years. The essay discussed A. E. Housman's homosexuality and his love for Moses Jackson. Despite the conservative nature of the times and his own caution in public life, Housman was quite open in his poetry, and especially in A Shropshire Lad, about his deeper sympathies. Poem XXX of that sequence, for instance, speaks of how "Fear contended with desire": "Others, I am not the first, / Have willed more mischief than they durst". In More Poems, he buries his love for Moses Jackson in the very act of commemorating it, as his feelings of love are not reciprocated and must be carried unfulfilled to the grave:
His poem "Oh who is that young sinner with the handcuffs on his wrists?", written after the trial of Oscar Wilde, addressed more general attitudes towards homosexuals. In the poem the prisoner is suffering "for the colour of his hair", a natural quality that, in a coded reference to homosexuality, is reviled as "nameless and abominable" (recalling the legal phrase peccatum illud horribile, inter Christianos non nominandum, "that horrible sin, not to be named amongst Christians").
==Musical settings==
Housman's poetry, especially A Shropshire Lad, was set to music by many British, and in particular English, composers in the first half of the 20th century. The national, pastoral and traditional elements of his style resonated with similar trends in English music. In 1904, the cycle A Shropshire Lad was set by Arthur Somervell, who in 1898 had begun to develop the concept of the English song-cycle in his version of Tennyson's "Maud". Stephen Banfield believes it was acquaintance with Somervell's cycle that led other composers to set Housman: Ralph Vaughan Williams is likely to have attended the first performance at the Aeolian Hall on 3 February 1905. His well-known cycle of six songs On Wenlock Edge, for string quartet, tenor and piano, was published in 1909. Between 1909 and 1911, George Butterworth produced settings in two collections, Six Songs from A Shropshire Lad and Bredon Hill and Other Songs. He also wrote the orchestral tone poem A Shropshire Lad, first performed at Leeds Festival in 1912.
Ivor Gurney was another composer who made renowned settings of Housman's poems. Towards the end of World War I, he was working on his cycle Ludlow and Teme, for voice and string quartet (published in 1919), and went on to compose the eight-song cycle The Western Playland in 1921. One more who set Housman songs during this period was John Ireland in the song cycle, The Land of Lost Content (192021). Charles Wilfred Orr produced 24 Housman settings in songs and song cycles composed from the 1920s into the 1950s. Even composers not directly associated with the 'pastoral' tradition, such as Arnold Bax, Lennox Berkeley and Arthur Bliss, were attracted to Housman's poetry.
Housman's attitude to musical interpretations of his poetry, and indeed to music in general, was either indifference or torment. He told his friend Percy Withers that he knew nothing of music and it meant nothing to him. Withers once played him a record of the Vaughan Williams setting, but realised he had made a mistake when he saw the look of disgust on the poet's face. Nevertheless, by 1976, a catalogue listed 400 musical settings of Housman's poems.
==Commemorations==
The earliest commemoration of Housman was in the chapel of Trinity College in Cambridge, where there is a memorial brass on the south wall. The Latin inscription was composed by his colleague there, A. S. F. Gow, who was also the author of a biographical and bibliographical sketch published immediately following his death. Translated into English, the memorial reads:
From 1947, University College London's academic common room was dedicated to his memory as the Housman Room. Blue plaques followed later elsewhere, the first being on Byron Cottage in Highgate in 1969, recording the fact that A Shropshire Lad was written there. More followed, placed on his Worcestershire birthplace, his homes and school in Bromsgrove. The latter were encouraged by the Housman Society, which was founded in the town in 1973. Another initiative was the statue in Bromsgrove High Street, showing the poet striding with walking stick in hand. The work of local sculptor Kenneth Potts, it was unveiled on 22 March 1985.
The blue plaques in Worcestershire were set up on the centenary of A Shropshire Lad in 1996. In September of the same year, a memorial window lozenge was dedicated at Poets' Corner in Westminster Abbey The following year saw the première of Tom Stoppard's play The Invention of Love, whose subject is the relationship between Housman and Moses Jackson.
As the 150th anniversary of his birth approached, London University inaugurated its Housman lectures on classical subjects in 2005, initially given every second year then annually after 2011. The anniversary itself in 2009 saw the publication of a new edition of A Shropshire Lad, including pictures from across Shropshire taken by local photographer Gareth Thomas. Among other events, there were performances of Vaughan Williams's On Wenlock Edge and Ivor Gurney's Ludlow and Teme at St Laurence's Church in Ludlow.
==Works==
===Poetry collections===
A Shropshire Lad (1896)
Last Poems (1922, Henry Holt & Company)
A Shropshire Lad: Authorized Edition (1924, Henry Holt & Company)
More Poems (1936, Barclays)
Collected Poems (1940, Henry Holt & Company)
Collected Poems (1939); the poems included in this volume but not the three above are known as Additional Poems. The Penguin edition of 1956 includes an introduction by John Sparrow.
Manuscript Poems: Eight Hundred Lines of Hitherto Uncollected Verse from the Author's Notebooks, ed. Tom Burns Haber (1955)
A. E. Housman: Collected Poems and Selected Prose, ed. Christopher Ricks (1988, Allen Lane)
Unkind to Unicorns: Selected Comic Verse, ed. J. Roy Birch (1995; 2nd ed. 1999)
The Poems of A. E. Housman, ed. Archie Burnett (1997)
A Shropshire Lad and Other Poems (2010, Penguin Classics)
===Classical scholarship===
P. Ovidi Nasonis Ibis (1894. In J. P. Postgate's "Corpus Poetarum Latinorum")
M. Manilii Astronomica (1903–1930; 2nd ed. 1937; 5 vols.)
D. Iunii Iuuenalis Saturae: editorum in usum edidit (1905; 2nd ed. 1931)
M. Annaei Lucani, Belli Ciuilis Libri Decem: editorum in usum edidit (1926; 2nd ed. 1927)
The Classical Papers of A. E. Housman, ed. J. Diggle and F. R. D. Goodyear (1972; 3 vols.)
"Housman's Latin Inscriptions", William White, The Classical Journal (1955) 159–166
===Published lectures===
These lectures are listed by date of delivery, with date of first publication given separately if different.
Introductory Lecture (1892)
"Swinburne" (1910; published 1969)
Cambridge Inaugural Lecture (1911; published 1969 as "The Confines of Criticism")
"The Application of Thought to Textual Criticism" (1921; published 1922)
"The Name and Nature of Poetry" (1933)
===Prose collections===
Selected Prose, edited by John Carter, Cambridge University Press, 1961
===Collected letters===
The Letters of A. E. Housman, ed. Henry Maas (1971)
The Letters of A. E. Housman, ed. Archie Burnett (2007)
==Footnotes==
|
[
"Satires of Juvenal",
"William Blair Anderson",
"tone poem",
"Michaelmas term",
"patent examiner",
"Academic degree",
"Sophocles",
"Bredon Hill and Other Songs",
"Clemence Housman",
"St Laurence's Church, Ludlow",
"Tom Stoppard",
"Juvenal",
"Excelsior (Longfellow)",
"Propertius",
"Astronomica (Manilius)",
"P. Ovidi Nasonis",
"John Ireland (composer)",
"Henry Wadsworth Longfellow",
"Greek language",
"British Library",
"St John's College, Oxford",
"King Edward's School, Birmingham",
"Isaac Newton",
"classics",
"Catshill",
"song-cycle",
"Cambridge",
"Coverdale Bible",
"Trevor Hold",
"Arnold Bax",
"Birmingham",
"Lancaster, Lancashire",
"Six Songs from A Shropshire Lad",
"World War I",
"Ralph Vaughan Williams",
"Patent Office",
"Julian Critchley",
"The Classical Journal",
"Macmillan Publishers",
"Algernon Charles Swinburne",
"Oxford University Press",
"On Wenlock Edge (song cycle)",
"Ancient Greek",
"musical setting",
"Literae Humaniores",
"Arthur Bliss",
"Lennox Berkeley",
"Loveliest of trees, the cherry now",
"Maud and other poems",
"University College London",
"Heinrich Heine",
"Westminster Abbey",
"More Poems",
"introversion",
"Poets' Corner",
"Trinity College, Cambridge",
"Aeolian Hall (London)",
"Arthur Somervell",
"George Butterworth",
"Blue plaque",
"tenor",
"Alfred Tennyson, 1st Baron Tennyson",
"textual criticism",
"Charles Scribner's Sons",
"Laurence Housman",
"A. S. F. Gow",
"A. C. Benson",
"string quartet",
"Kennedy Professor of Latin",
"Leeds",
"The Land of Lost Content (John Ireland)",
"University of Oxford",
"Charles Wilfred Orr",
"London University",
"Cousin marriage",
"The Invention of Love",
"British Expeditionary Force (World War I)",
"Alfred W. Pollard",
"Bromsgrove",
"s:Fragment of a Greek Tragedy",
"Christopher Ricks",
"Lyric poetry",
"Bromsgrove School",
"Woodchester",
"Richard Bentley",
"gastronomy",
"Highgate",
"Harry Eyres",
"Ivor Gurney",
"John Hanbury Angus Sparrow",
"Latin",
"Kennedy Professorship of Latin",
"Marcus Manilius",
"Bayswater",
"Aeschylus",
"University of Cambridge",
"John E. B. Mayor",
"Final examination",
"Ovid",
"Last Poems",
"Horace",
"Arthur Eaglefield Hull",
"A Shropshire Lad",
"Pharsalia",
"War Poets",
"Oscar Wilde",
"literae humaniores",
"Lucan",
"Stephen Banfield",
"Moderations",
"Euripides",
"Enoch Powell"
] |
3,201 |
Causes of climate change
|
The scientific community has been investigating the causes of climate change for decades. After thousands of studies, the scientific consensus is that it is "unequivocal that human influence has warmed the atmosphere, ocean and land since pre-industrial times." This consensus is supported by around 200 scientific organizations worldwide. The scientific principle underlying current climate change is the greenhouse effect, which provides that greenhouse gases pass sunlight that heats the earth, but trap some of the resulting heat that radiates from the planet's surface. Large amounts of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide and methane have been released into the atmosphere through burning of fossil fuels since the industrial revolution. Indirect emissions from land use change, emissions of other greenhouse gases such as nitrous oxide, and increased concentrations of water vapor in the atmosphere, also contribute to climate change. vs the 1850–1900 average used by the IPCC as a pre-industrial baseline. The primary driver for increased global temperatures in the industrial era is human activity, with natural forces adding variability.]]
The warming from the greenhouse effect has a logarithmic relationship with the concentration of greenhouse gases. This means that every additional fraction of and the other greenhouse gases in the atmosphere has a slightly smaller warming effect than the fractions before it as the total concentration increases. However, only around half of emissions continually reside in the atmosphere in the first place, as the other half is quickly absorbed by carbon sinks in the land and oceans. Further, the warming per unit of greenhouse gases is also affected by feedbacks, such as the changes in water vapor concentrations or Earth's albedo (reflectivity).
As the warming from increases, carbon sinks absorb a smaller fraction of total emissions, while the "fast" climate change feedbacks amplify greenhouse gas warming. Thus, the effects counteract one another, and the warming from each unit of emitted by humans increases temperature in linear proportion to the total amount of emissions. Further, some fraction of the greenhouse warming has been "masked" by the human-caused emissions of sulfur dioxide, which forms aerosols that have a cooling effect. However, this masking has been receding in the recent years, due to measures to combat acid rain and air pollution caused by sulfates.
== Factors affecting Earth's climate ==
A forcing is something that is imposed externally on the climate system. External forcings include natural phenomena such as volcanic eruptions and variations in the sun's output. Human activities can also impose forcings, for example, through changing the composition of Earth's atmosphere. Radiative forcing is a measure of how various factors alter the energy balance of planet Earth. A positive radiative forcing will lead towards a warming of the surface and, over time, the climate system. Between the start of the Industrial Revolution in 1750, and the year 2005, the increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide (chemical formula: ) led to a positive radiative forcing, averaged over the Earth's surface area, of about 1.66 watts per square metre (abbreviated W m−2).
Climate feedbacks can either amplify or dampen the response of the climate to a given forcing.
The climate system will show internal variability both in the presence and absence of forcings imposed on it. This internal variability is a result of complex interactions between components of the climate system, such as the coupling between the atmosphere and ocean. An example of internal variability is the El Niño–Southern Oscillation.
== Human-caused influences ==
Factors affecting Earth's climate can be broken down into forcings, feedbacks and internal variations. Four main lines of evidence support the dominant role of human activities in recent climate change:
A physical understanding of the climate system: greenhouse gas concentrations have increased and their warming properties are well-established.
There are historical estimates of past climate changes suggest that the recent changes in global surface temperature are unusual.
Advanced climate models are unable to replicate the observed warming unless human greenhouse gas emissions are included.
Observations of natural forces, such as solar and volcanic activity, show that cannot explain the observed warming. For example, an increase in solar activity would have warmed the entire atmosphere, yet only the lower atmosphere has warmed.
=== Greenhouse gases ===
Greenhouse gases are transparent to sunlight, and thus allow it to pass through the atmosphere to heat the Earth's surface. The Earth radiates it as heat, and greenhouse gases absorb a portion of it. This absorption slows the rate at which heat escapes into space, trapping heat near the Earth's surface and warming it over time. While water vapour and clouds are the biggest contributors to the greenhouse effect, they primarily change as a function of temperature. Therefore, they are considered to be feedbacks that change climate sensitivity. On the other hand, gases such as , tropospheric ozone, CFCs and nitrous oxide are added or removed independently from temperature. Hence, they are considered to be external forcings that change global temperatures.
Human activity since the Industrial Revolution (about 1750), mainly extracting and burning fossil fuels (coal, oil, and natural gas), has increased the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, resulting in a radiative imbalance. Over the past 150 years human activities have released increasing quantities of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. By 2019, the concentrations of and methane had increased by about 48% and 160%, respectively, since 1750. These levels are higher than they have been at any time during the last 2 million years. Concentrations of methane are far higher than they were over the last 800,000 years.
This has led to increases in mean global temperature, or global warming. The likely range of human-induced surface-level air warming by 2010–2019 compared to levels in 1850–1900 is 0.8 °C to 1.3 °C, with a best estimate of 1.07 °C. This is close to the observed overall warming during that time of 0.9 °C to 1.2 °C. Temperature changes during that time were likely only ±0.1 °C due to natural forcings and ±0.2 °C due to variability in the climate.
Global anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions in 2019 were equivalent to 59 billion tonnes of . Of these emissions, 75% was , 18% was methane, 4% was nitrous oxide, and 2% was fluorinated gases.
==== Carbon dioxide ====
emissions primarily come from burning fossil fuels to provide energy for transport, manufacturing, heating, and electricity. Additional emissions come from deforestation and industrial processes, which include the released by the chemical reactions for making cement, steel, aluminum, and fertiliser.
is absorbed and emitted naturally as part of the carbon cycle, through animal and plant respiration, volcanic eruptions, and ocean-atmosphere exchange. Human activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels and changes in land use (see below), release large amounts of carbon to the atmosphere, causing concentrations in the atmosphere to rise.
The high-accuracy measurements of atmospheric concentration, initiated by Charles David Keeling in 1958, constitute the master time series documenting the changing composition of the atmosphere. These data, known as the Keeling Curve, have iconic status in climate change science as evidence of the effect of human activities on the chemical composition of the global atmosphere.
In 2022–2024, the concentration of in the atmosphere increased faster than ever before according to National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, as a result of sustained emissions and El Niño conditions.
==== Methane and nitrous oxide ====
Methane emissions come from livestock, manure, rice cultivation, landfills, wastewater, and coal mining, as well as oil and gas extraction. Nitrous oxide emissions largely come from the microbial decomposition of fertiliser.
Methane and to a lesser extent nitrous oxide are also major forcing contributors to the greenhouse effect. The Kyoto Protocol lists these together with hydrofluorocarbon (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), and sulfur hexafluoride (SF6), which are entirely artificial gases, as contributors to radiative forcing. The chart at right attributes anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions to eight main economic sectors, of which the largest contributors are power stations (many of which burn coal or other fossil fuels), industrial processes, transportation fuels (generally fossil fuels), and agricultural by-products (mainly methane from enteric fermentation and nitrous oxide from fertilizer use).
=== Aerosols ===
Air pollution, in the form of aerosols, affects the climate on a large scale. Aerosols scatter and absorb solar radiation. From 1961 to 1990, a gradual reduction in the amount of sunlight reaching the Earth's surface was observed. This phenomenon is popularly known as global dimming, and is primarily attributed to sulfate aerosols produced by the combustion of fossil fuels with heavy sulfur concentrations like coal and bunker fuel. Globally, aerosols have been declining since 1990 due to pollution controls, meaning that they no longer mask greenhouse gas warming as much. They also reduce the growth of raindrops, which makes clouds more reflective to incoming sunlight. Indirect effects of aerosols are the largest uncertainty in radiative forcing.
While aerosols typically limit global warming by reflecting sunlight, black carbon in soot that falls on snow or ice can contribute to global warming. Not only does this increase the absorption of sunlight, it also increases melting and sea-level rise. Limiting new black carbon deposits in the Arctic could reduce global warming by 0.2 °C by 2050.
===Land surface changes===
According to Food and Agriculture Organization, around 30% of Earth's land area is largely unusable for humans (glaciers, deserts, etc.), 26% is forests, 10% is shrubland and 34% is agricultural land. Deforestation is the main land use change contributor to global warming, Between 1750 and 2007, about one-third of anthropogenic carbon dioxide| emissions were from changes in land use - primarily from the decline in forest area and the growth in agricultural land. primarily deforestation. as the destroyed trees release , and are not replaced by new trees, removing that carbon sink. Between 2001 and 2018, 27% of deforestation was from permanent clearing to enable agricultural expansion for crops and livestock. Another 24% has been lost to temporary clearing under the shifting cultivation agricultural systems. 26% was due to logging for wood and derived products, and wildfires have accounted for the remaining 23%. Some forests have not been fully cleared, but were already degraded by these impacts. Restoring these forests also recovers their potential as a carbon sink.
The Earth's surface absorbs as part of the carbon cycle. Despite the contribution of deforestation to greenhouse gas emissions, the Earth's land surface, particularly its forests, remain a significant carbon sink for . Land-surface sink processes, such as carbon fixation in the soil and photosynthesis, remove about 29% of annual global emissions. The ocean also serves as a significant carbon sink via a two-step process. First, dissolves in the surface water. Afterwards, the ocean's overturning circulation distributes it deep into the ocean's interior, where it accumulates over time as part of the carbon cycle. Over the last two decades, the world's oceans have absorbed 20 to 30% of emitted .
This fraction of absorbed emissions is not static. If future emissions decrease, the Earth will be able to absorb up to around 70%. If they increase substantially, it'll still absorb more carbon than now, but the overall fraction will decrease to below 40%. This is because climate change increases droughts and heat waves that eventually inhibit plant growth on land, and soils will release more carbon from dead plants when they are warmer. The rate at which oceans absorb atmospheric carbon will be lowered as they become more acidic and experience changes in thermohaline circulation and phytoplankton distribution.
===Climate change feedbacks ===
The response of the climate system to an initial forcing is modified by feedbacks: increased by "self-reinforcing" or "positive" feedbacks and reduced by "balancing" or "negative" feedbacks. The main reinforcing feedbacks are the water-vapour feedback, the ice–albedo feedback, and the net effect of clouds. The primary balancing mechanism is radiative cooling, as Earth's surface gives off more heat to space in response to rising temperature. In addition to temperature feedbacks, there are feedbacks in the carbon cycle, such as the fertilizing effect of on plant growth.
Uncertainty over feedbacks, particularly cloud cover, is the major reason why different climate models project different magnitudes of warming for a given amount of emissions. As air warms, it can hold more moisture. Water vapour, as a potent greenhouse gas, holds heat in the atmosphere. If cloud cover increases, more sunlight will be reflected back into space, cooling the planet. If clouds become higher and thinner, they act as an insulator, reflecting heat from below back downwards and warming the planet.
Another major feedback is the reduction of snow cover and sea ice in the Arctic, which reduces the reflectivity of the Earth's surface.
More of the Sun's energy is now absorbed in these regions, contributing to amplification of Arctic temperature changes. Arctic amplification is also thawing permafrost, which releases methane and into the atmosphere. Climate change can also cause methane releases from wetlands, marine systems, and freshwater systems. Overall, climate feedbacks are expected to become increasingly positive.
== Natural variability ==
Already in 2001, the IPCC Third Assessment Report had found that, "The combined change in radiative forcing of the two major natural factors (solar variation and volcanic aerosols) is estimated to be negative for the past two, and possibly the past four, decades." Solar irradiance has been measured directly by satellites, and indirect measurements are available from the early 1600s onwards. Similarly, volcanic activity has the single largest natural impact (forcing) on temperature, yet it is equivalent to less than 1% of current human-caused CO2 emissions. Volcanic activity as a whole has had negligible impacts on global temperature trends since the Industrial Revolution.
Between 1750 and 2007, solar radiation may have at most increased by 0.12 W/m2, compared to 1.6 W/m2 for the net anthropogenic forcing. Consequently, the observed rapid rise in global mean temperatures seen after 1985 cannot be ascribed to solar variability." Further, the upper atmosphere (the stratosphere) would also be warming if the Sun was sending more energy to Earth, but instead, it has been cooling. This is consistent with greenhouse gases preventing heat from leaving the Earth's atmosphere.
Explosive volcanic eruptions can release gases, dust and ash that partially block sunlight and reduce temperatures, or they can send water vapor into the atmosphere, which adds to greenhouse gases and increases temperatures. Because both water vapor and volcanic material have low persistence in the atmosphere, even the largest eruptions only have an effect for several years.
|
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] |
3,203 |
Achduart
|
Achduart (Gaelic: Achadh Dhubhaird It is situated about 4 km southeast of the village of Achiltibuie, at the end of a minor road. A footpath continues on to the hamlet of Culnacraig, then along the coast past Ben More Coigach to Strathcanaird.
Achduart has accommodation facilities for tourists, who come for its proximity to the sea and its seclusion and remoteness. There is a hostel in Acheninver, a short distance to the north, formerly run by the Scottish Youth Hostels Association.
The name of Achduart comes from the Gaelic for "the field at the black headland". Achduart was part of the Estate of Coigach, Lochbroom, belonging to the Countess of Cromartie.
The dominant geographical feature in the area is Cairn Conmheall, which rises to 541 metres.
==Notable people==
Kenny John Macleod -fiddler
|
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"Cairn Conmheall",
"Caithness, Sutherland and Ross (Scottish Parliament constituency)",
"Ross, Skye and Lochaber (UK Parliament constituency)",
"Earl of Cromartie",
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"Scottish Gaelic language",
"Google Maps",
"Highland (council area)",
"Ben More Coigach",
"Wester Ross",
"Scotland",
"Strathcanaird",
"Scottish Parliament",
"Harris Corporation",
"Lochbroom, Highland",
"Microsoft",
"Ross and Cromarty",
"Coigach",
"Scottish Youth Hostels Association",
"Kenny John Macleod",
"Bing Maps"
] |
3,204 |
Achiltibuie
|
Achiltibuie (; or Field of the yellow-haired boy) is a long linear village in Ross and Cromarty, Highland, on the Coigach coast of northwestern Scotland, overlooking Badentarbet Bay to the west. Loch Broom and the Summer Isles lie to the south. Located 10 miles (16 km) northwest of Ullapool as the crow flies. Achiltibuie is the central community of a series of townships and communities stretching from Culnacraig, through Badenscallie and Polglass (where the community hall, the primary school and the Piping School Cafe are located), Polbain, and Reiff to Achnahaird.
==History==
The first post office in the village opened on 28 July 1884.
===Smokehouse===
For a time the Summer Isles Smokehouse attracted visitors. In 2013 the community had hopes to re-establish the business.
===Hydroponicum===
The Hydroponicum, a facility for growing fresh fruit and vegetables indoors using hydroponics, was built in the village in the 1980s by Robert Irvine, then owner of the Summer Isles Hotel. The Hydroponicum was known for growing exotic fruit such as bananas all year round. It attracted up to 10,000 visitors a year until it was sold in 2007 to a company based in the Isle of Man. New greenhouses have since been built apart from the original hydroponicum buildings, and the new owners continue to grow fruit and vegetables for local businesses and residents. A community buyout attempt in 2011 by the Coigach Community Development Company fell through when the site's sellers pulled out. The building has now been demolished. Some of the former staff of the Hydroponicum run a small-scale activity known as The Achiltibuie Garden, situated nearby.
==Notable residents==
Tom Longstaff (1875–1964), mountaineer.
Lucy Irvine (b. 1956), writer, lived very briefly in the Summer Isles Hotel with her father, who owned it and the Hydroponicum.
de:Reiner Luyken (b.1951), former foreign correspondent of the German weekly paper Die Zeit
==Notable recent achievements==
'Coigach Community Rowing' the crew members of which coastal rowing club are all local, won the World St. Ayles Skiff Rowing Championships in July 2013 and a mixed crew from the club won the Alan Spong Trophy for 1st Mixed crew 4-oar rowing at the Thames Great River Race in September 2013. Coigach Community Rowing hand-built their two St Ayles rowing skiffs, the 'Coigach Lass' and the 'Lily~Rose' and race under the auspices of the Scottish Coastal Rowing Association, which is the governing body of St Ayles class coastal rowing around the world.
The Brochs of Coigach designed by SBA Architects Ltd were shortlisted in 2011 for the RIAS Andrew Doolan Best Building in Scotland Award. They are two unique buildings landscaped into a hillside. They were Regional Finalist of the Civic Trust Awards 2013. In 2015, they were highly commended in the inaugural Scottish Rural Awards.
==Cultural connections==
The Roman epic movie The Eagle, based on the 1954 novel The Eagle of the Ninth by Rosemary Sutcliff, was filmed on location in Achiltibuie for a week in October 2009. The main location was Fox Point, Old Dornie. The Pictish village which was constructed at Fox Point was used on most days of the filming. Other sites included Achnahaird beach where a horse chase was filmed and Loch Lurgainn.
The village and its residents featured in The Wee Mad Road (2008) by Jack and Barbara Maloney.
Achiltibuie is also the setting of a humorous German book about Scotland by Reiner Luyken, Schotten dicht (2015) published by Ullstein Verlag, Berlin.
|
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] |
3,205 |
Adaptive expectations
|
In economics, adaptive expectations is a hypothesized process by which people form their expectations about what will happen in the future based on what has happened in the past. For example, if people want to create an expectation of the inflation rate in the future, they can refer to past inflation rates to infer some consistencies and could derive a more accurate expectation the more years they consider.
One simple version of adaptive expectations is stated in the following equation, where p^e is the next year's rate of inflation that is currently expected; p^e_{-1} is this year's rate of inflation that was expected last year; and p is this year's actual rate of inflation:
p^e = p^{e}_{-1} + \lambda (p - p^{e}_{-1})
where \lambda is between 0 and 1. This says that current expectations of future inflation reflect past expectations and an "error-adjustment" term, in which current expectations are raised (or lowered) according to the gap between actual inflation and previous expectations. The error-adjustment term, also called partial adjustment, allows for variations in inflation rates over the previous years, especially years that have abnormally high or low rates.
\lambda(p - p^{e}_{-1})
The above term is the partial adjustment error term, this term allows for variances that occur between actual values and expected values. The importance of considering the error prevents over and under expecting values of in the above example inflation rates. The adjustment means that the expectation can tend toward the direction of the future expected value that would be closer to the actual value, this allows a prediction to be made and consideration to be added or removed so as to be accurate of the future expectation. This consideration or error term is what allows the predicted value to be adaptable, thus creating an equation that is adaptive of the expectation being inferred.
The theory of adaptive expectations can be applied to all previous periods so that current inflationary expectations equal:
p^e_t = \lambda \sum_{j = 0}^{\infty} (1 - \lambda)^j p_{t-j}
where p_{t-j} equals actual inflation j years in the past. The adding of a time series portion to the expectation equations accounts for multiple previous years and their respective rates in forecasting like the above example of the future inflation rate. Thus, current expected inflation reflects a weighted average of all past inflation rates, where the weights get smaller and smaller as we move further in to the past. The initial previous year has the highest weighting and the subsequent years take lesser weighting the further back the equation accounts for.
When an agent makes a forecasting error (as in incorrectly recording a value or mistyping), the stochastic shock will cause the agent to incorrectly forecast the price expectation level again even if the price level experiences no further shocks, since the previous expectations only ever incorporates part of their errors. The backward nature of expectation formulation and the resultant systematic errors made by agents (see cobweb model) had become unsatisfactory to economists such as John Muth, who was pivotal in the development of an alternative model of how expectations are formed, called rational expectations. The use of rational expectations have largely replaced adaptive expectations in macroeconomic theory since its assumptions rely on an optimal expectations approach which is consistent with economic theory. However, it must be stressed that confronting adaptive expectations and rational expectations aren't necessarily justified by either use, in other words, there are situations in which following the adaptive scheme is a rational response.
The first use adaptive expectations hypothesis was to describe agent behavior in The Purchasing Power of Money by Irving Fisher (1911), then later used to describe models such as hyperinflation by Philip Cagan (1956). Adaptive expectations were instrumental in the consumption function (1957) and Phillips curve outlined by Milton Friedman. Friedman suggests that workers form adaptive expectations of the inflation rate, the government can easily surprise them through unexpected monetary policy changes. As agents are trapped by the money illusion, they are unable to correctly perceive price and wage dynamics, so based on Friedman's theory, unemployment can always be reduced through monetary expansions. If the government chooses to fix a low unemployment rate the result is an increasing level of inflation for an extended period of time. However, in this framework, it is clear why and how adaptive expectations are problematic. Agents are arbitrarily supposed to ignore sources of information which, otherwise, would affect their expectations. For example, government announcements are such sources. Agents are expected to modify their expectations and break with the former trends when changes in economic policy necessitate it. This is the reason why the theory of adaptive expectations is often regarded as a deviation from the rational tradition of economics.
|
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"rational expectations",
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"money illusion",
"economics",
"John Muth",
"consumption function",
"Phillips curve",
"Rational expectations",
"expected inflation",
"Problem of induction",
"Milton Friedman"
] |
3,209 |
Mexican tetra
|
The Mexican tetra (Astyanax mexicanus), also known as the blind cave fish, blind cave characin or the blind cave tetra, is a freshwater fish in the Characidae family (tetras and relatives) of the order Characiformes. The type species of its genus, it is native to the Nearctic realm, originating in the lower Rio Grande, and the Neueces and Pecos Rivers in Texas, into the Central Plateau and eastern states of Mexico.
Maturing at a total length of about , the Mexican tetra is of typical characin form, albeit with silvery, unremarkable scalation, likely an evolutionary adaptation to its natural environment. as it inhabits pitch-black caverns and subterranean streams and has no need for a colorful appearance (i.e. for attracting mates).
Likewise, the blind cave tetra has fully "devolved" (lost) the use of its eyes by living in an environment completely devoid of natural light, with only empty sockets in their place. The blind tetra instead has sensory organs along its body, as well as a heightened nervous system (and senses of smell and touch), and can immediately detect where objects or other animals are located by slight changes in the surrounding water pressure, a process vaguely similar to echolocation—another adaptation known from cave-dwelling, as well as aquatic, species, such as the bats and cetaceans.
The Mexican tetra's blind variant has experienced a steady surge in popularity among modern aquarists.
A. mexicanus is a peaceful, sociable schooling species, like most tetras, that spends most of its time in midlevel waters above the rocky and sandy bottoms of pools, and backwaters of creeks and streams. Coming from an environment somewhere between subtropical climate, it prefers water with 6.5–8 pH, a hardness of up to 30 dGH, and a temperature range of . In the winter, some populations migrate to warmer waters. The species' natural diet consists largely of crustaceans, annelids and arthropods and their larvae, including both aquatic insects, such as water beetles, and those that land on or fall in the water, like flies or arachnids. It will also supplement its diet with algae or aquatic vegetation; in captivity, it is largely omnivorous, often doing well on a variety of foods such as frozen/thawed or live cultured blackworms, bloodworms, brine shrimp, daphnia, and mysis shrimp, among other commercially available fish foods.
==Blind cave form==
A. mexicanus is famous for its blind cave form, which is known by such names as blind cave tetra, blind tetra (leading to easy confusion with the Brazilian Stygichthys typhlops), blind cave characin and blind cavefish. Depending on the exact population, cave forms can have degenerated sight or have total loss of sight and even their eyes, due to down-regulation of the protein αA-crystallin and consequent lens cell death. Despite losing their eyes, cavefish cells respond to light and show an endogenous circadian rhythm. During the start of development, larvae still exhibit a shadow response which is controlled by the pineal eye. The fish in the Pachón caves have lost their eyes completely whilst the fish from the Micos cave only have limited sight. Cave fish and surface fish are able to produce fertile offspring. Blindness in A. mexicanus induces a disruption of early neuromast patterning, which further causes asymmetries in cranial bone structure. One such asymmetry is a bend in the dorsal region of their skull, which is propounded to increase water flow to the opposite side of the face, functionally enhancing sensory input and spatial mapping in the dark waters of caves. Scientists suggest that gene cystathionine beta synthase-a mutation restricts blood flow to cavefish eyes during a critical stage of growth so the eyes are covered by skin.
Currently, about 30 cave populations are known, dispersed over three geographically distinct areas in a karst region of San Luis Potosí and far southern Tamaulipas, northeastern Mexico. Among the various cave population are at least three with only full cave forms (blind and without pigment), at least eleven with cave, "normal" and intermediate forms, and at least one with both cave and "normal" forms but no intermediates. Furthermore, cave populations have a very recent origin (< 20,000 years) in which blindness or reduced vision evolved convergently after surface ancestors populated several caves independently at different times. This recent origin suggests that the phenotypic changes in cavefish populations, namely eye degeneration, arose as a result of the high fixation of genetic variants present in surface fish populations in a short period of time.
The eyed and eyeless forms of A. mexicanus, being members of the same species, are closely related and can interbreed making this species an excellent model organism for examining convergent and parallel evolution, regressive evolution in cave animals, and the genetic basis of regressive traits. This, combined with the ease of maintaining the species in captivity, has made it the most studied cavefish and likely also the most studied cave organism overall.
Another cave-adapted population of Astyanax, varying from blind and depigmented to individuals showing intermediate features, is known from the Granadas Cave, part of the Balsas River drainage in Guerrero, southern Mexico, but it is a part of A. aeneus (itself sometimes included in A. mexicanus).
===Evolution research===
The surface and cave forms of the Mexican tetra have proven powerful subjects for scientists studying evolution. One of the most striking changes to evolve was the loss of eyes. This is referred to as a "regressive trait" because the surface fish that originally colonized caves possessed eyes. or indirect selection through antagonistic pleiotropy, rather than genetic drift and neutral mutation, the traditionally favored hypothesis for regressive evolution. As selective pressure on one trait can coordinate change in others, pleiotropy could explain why independent adaptation to the cave environment has been observed in multiple populations of the species. One example is the relationship between taste bud amplification and eye loss controlled by sonic hedgehog expression (Shh) in cave fish. It has been shown that with an over expression of Shh there is an increased number of taste buds and reduced eye development.
Darwin said of sightless fish:
Modern genetics has made clear that the lack of use does not, in itself, necessitate a feature's disappearance. In this context, the positive genetic benefits have to be considered, i.e., what advantages are obtained by cave-dwelling tetras by losing their eyes? Possible explanations include:
Not developing eyes allows the individual more energy for growth but not egg production.
Inhibition of the HSP90 protein has a dramatic effect in the development of the blind tetra.
===In the aquarium===
The blind cave tetras seen in the aquarium trade are all based on stock collected in the Cueva Chica Cave in the southern part of the Sierra del Abra system in 1936. Experiments have shown that keeping these fish in bright aquarium set-ups has no effect on the development of the skin flap that forms over their eyes as they grow.
|
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] |
3,211 |
Atom probe
|
The atom probe was introduced at the 14th Field Emission Symposium in 1967 by Erwin Wilhelm Müller and J. A. Panitz. It combined a field ion microscope with a mass spectrometer having a single particle detection capability and, for the first time, an instrument could “... determine the nature of one single atom seen on a metal surface and selected from neighboring atoms at the discretion of the observer”.
Atom probes are unlike conventional optical or electron microscopes, in that the magnification effect comes from the magnification provided by a highly curved electric field, rather than by the manipulation of radiation paths. The method is destructive in nature removing ions from a sample surface in order to image and identify them, generating magnifications sufficient to observe individual atoms as they are removed from the sample surface. Through coupling of this magnification method with time of flight mass spectrometry, ions evaporated by application of electric pulses can have their mass-to-charge ratio computed.
Through successive evaporation of material, layers of atoms are removed from a specimen, allowing for probing not only of the surface, but also through the material itself. Computer methods are used to rebuild a three-dimensional view of the sample, prior to it being evaporated, providing atomic scale information on the structure of a sample, as well as providing the type atomic species information. The instrument allows the three-dimensional reconstruction of up to billions of atoms from a sharp tip (corresponding to specimen volumes of 10,000-10,000,000 nm3).
== Overview ==
Atom probe samples are shaped to implicitly provide a highly curved electric potential to induce the resultant magnification, as opposed to direct use of lensing, such as via magnetic lenses. Furthermore, in normal operation (as opposed to a field ionization modes) the atom probe does not utilize a secondary source to probe the sample. Rather, the sample is evaporated in a controlled manner (field evaporation) and the evaporated ions are impacted onto a detector, which is typically 10 to 100 cm away.
The samples are required to have a needle geometry and are produced by similar techniques as TEM sample preparation electropolishing, or focused ion beam methods. Since 2006, commercial systems with laser pulsing have become available and this has expanded applications from metallic only specimens into semiconducting, insulating such as ceramics, and even geological materials.
Preparation is done, often by hand, to manufacture a tip radius sufficient to induce a high electric field, with radii on the order of 100 nm.
To conduct an atom probe experiment a very sharp needle shaped specimen is placed in an ultra high vacuum chamber. After introduction into the vacuum system, the sample is reduced to cryogenic temperatures (typically 20-100 K) and manipulated such that the needle's point is aimed towards an ion detector. A high voltage is applied to the specimen, and either a laser pulse is applied to the specimen or a voltage pulse (typically 1-2 kV) with pulse repetition rates in the hundreds of kilohertz range is applied to a counter electrode. The application of the pulse to the sample allows for individual atoms at the sample surface to be ejected as an ion from the sample surface at a known time. Typically the pulse amplitude and the high voltage on the specimen are computer controlled to encourage only one atom to ionize at a time, but multiple ionizations are possible. The delay between application of the pulse and detection of the ion(s) at the detector allow for the computation of a mass-to-charge ratio.
Whilst the uncertainty in the atomic mass computed by time-of-flight methods in atom probe is sufficiently small to allow for detection of individual isotopes within a material this uncertainty may still, in some cases, confound definitive identification of atomic species. Effects such as superposition of differing ions with multiple electrons removed, or through the presence of complex species formation during evaporation may cause two or more species to have sufficiently close time-of-flights to make definitive identification impossible.
== History ==
=== Field ion microscopy ===
Field ion microscopy is a modification of field emission microscopy where a stream of tunneling electrons is emitted from the apex of a sharp needle-like tip cathode when subjected to a sufficiently high electric field (~3-6 V/nm). The needle is oriented towards a phosphor screen to create a projected image of the work function at the tip apex. The image resolution is limited to (2-2.5 nm), due to quantum mechanical effects and lateral variations in the electron velocity.
In field ion microscopy, the tip is cooled by a cryogen and its polarity is reversed. When an imaging gas (usually hydrogen or helium) is introduced at low pressures (< 0.1 Pascal) gas ions in the high electric field at the tip apex are field ionized and produce a projected image of protruding atoms at the tip apex. The image resolution is determined primarily by the temperature of the tip but even at 78 Kelvin atomic resolution is achieved.
===10-cm Atom Probe===
The 10-cm Atom Probe, invented in 1973 by J. A. Panitz was a “new and simple atom probe which permits rapid, in depth species identification or the more usual atom-by atom analysis provided by its predecessors ... in an instrument having a volume of less than two liters in which tip movement is unnecessary and the problems of evaporation pulse stability and alignment common to previous designs have been eliminated.” This was accomplished by combining a time of flight (TOF) mass spectrometer with a proximity focussed, dual channel plate detector, an 11.8 cm drift region and a 38° field of view. An FIM image or a desorption image of the atoms removed from the apex of a field emitter tip could be obtained. The 10-cm Atom Probe has been called the progenitor of later atom probes including the commercial instruments.
===Imaging Atom Probe===
The Imaging Atom-Probe (IAP) was introduced in 1974 by J. A. Panitz. It incorporated the features of the 10-cm Atom-Probe yet “... departs completely from [previous] atom probe philosophy. Rather than attempt to determine the identity of a surface species producing a preselected ion-image spot, we wish to determine the complete crystallographic distribution of a surface species of preselected mass-to-charge ratio. Now suppose that instead of operating the [detector] continuously, it is turned on for a short time coincidentally with the arrival of a preselected species of interest by applying a gate pulse a time T after the evaporation pulse has reached the specimen. If the duration of the gate pulse is shorter than the travel time between adjacent species, only that surface species having the unique travel time T will be detected and its complete crystallographic distribution displayed.” It was patented in 1975 as the Field Desorption Spectrometer. The Imaging Atom-Probe moniker was coined by A. J. Waugh in 1978 and the instrument was described in detail by J. A. Panitz in the same year.
===Atom Probe Tomography (APT)===
Modern day atom probe tomography uses a position sensitive detector aka a FIM in a box to deduce the lateral location of atoms. The idea of the APT, inspired by J. A. Panitz's Field Desorption Spectrometer patent, was developed by Mike Miller starting in 1983 and culminated with the first prototype in 1986. AMETEK acquired CAMECA in 2007 and Imago Scientific Instruments (Madison, WI) in 2010, making the company the sole commercial developer of APTs with more than 110 instruments installed around the world in 2019.
The first few decades of work with APT focused on metals. However, with the introduction of the laser pulsed atom probe systems applications have expanded to semiconductors, ceramic and geologic materials, with some work on biomaterials. The most advanced study of biological material to date using APT In this study, the use of APT showed chemical maps of organic fibers in the surrounding nano-crystalline magnetite in the chiton teeth, fibers which were often co-located with sodium or magnesium. and human enamel.
== Theory ==
=== Field evaporation ===
Field evaporation is an effect that can occur when an atom bonded at the surface of a material is in the presence of a sufficiently high and appropriately directed electric field, where the electric field is the differential of electric potential (voltage) with respect to distance. Once this condition is met, it is sufficient that local bonding at the specimen surface is capable of being overcome by the field, allowing for evaporation of an atom from the surface to which it is otherwise bonded.
=== Ion flight ===
Whether evaporated from the material itself, or ionised from the gas, the ions that are evaporated are accelerated by electrostatic force, acquiring most of their energy within a few tip-radii of the sample.
Subsequently, the accelerative force on any given ion is controlled by the electrostatic equation, where n is the ionisation state of the ion, and e is the fundamental electric charge.
F=ne \nabla \phi
This can be equated with the mass of the ion, m, via Newton's law (F=ma):
ma = q \nabla \phi
a = \frac{q}{m} \nabla \phi
Relativistic effects in the ion flight are usually ignored, as realisable ion speeds are only a very small fraction of the speed of light.
Assuming that the ion is accelerated during a very short interval, the ion can be assumed to be travelling at constant velocity. As the ion will travel from the tip at voltage V1 to some nominal ground potential, the speed at which the ion is travelling can be estimated by the energy transferred into the ion during (or near) ionisation. Therefore, the ion speed can be computed with the following equation, which relates kinetic energy to energy gain due to the electric field, the negative arising from the loss of electrons forming a net positive charge.
E = \frac{1}{2}mU_{\mathrm{ion}}^2 = -neV_1
Where U is the ion velocity. Solving for U, the following relation is found:
U =\sqrt{ \frac{ 2neV_1}{m}}
Let's say that for at a certain ionization voltage, a singly charged hydrogen ion acquires a resulting velocity of 1.4x10^6 ms−1 at 10~kV. A singly charged deuterium ion under the sample conditions would have acquired roughly 1.4x10^6/1.41 ms−1. If a detector was placed at a distance of 1 m, the ion flight times would be 1/1.4x10^6 and 1.41/1.4x10^6 s. Thus, the time of the ion arrival can be used to infer the ion type itself, if the evaporation time is known.
From the above equation, it can be re-arranged to show that
\frac{m}{n} = -\frac{2eV_1}{U^2}
given a known flight distance. F, for the ion, and a known flight time, t,
U = \frac{f}{t}
and thus one can substitute these values to obtain the mass-to-charge for the ion.
\frac{m}{n} = -2eV_1 \left(\frac{t}{f}\right)^2
Thus for an ion which traverses a 1 m flight path, across a time of 2000 ns, given an initial accelerating voltage of 5000 V (V in Si units is kg.m^2.s^-3.A^-1) and noting that one amu is 1×10−27 kg, the mass-to-charge ratio (more correctly the mass-to-ionisation value ratio) becomes ~3.86 amu/charge. The number of electrons removed, and thus net positive charge on the ion is not known directly, but can be inferred from the histogram (spectrum) of observed ions.
=== Magnification ===
The magnification in an atom is due to the projection of ions radially away from the small, sharp tip. Subsequently, in the far-field, the ions will be greatly magnified. This magnification is sufficient to observe field variations due to individual atoms, thus allowing in field ion and field evaporation modes for the imaging of single atoms.
The standard projection model for the atom probe is an emitter geometry that is based upon a revolution of a conic section, such as a sphere, hyperboloid or paraboloid. For these tip models, solutions to the field may be approximated or obtained analytically. The magnification for a spherical emitter is inversely proportional to the radius of the tip, given a projection directly onto a spherical screen, the following equation can be obtained geometrically.
M = \frac{r_{screen}}{r_{tip}}.
Where rscreen is the radius of the detection screen from the tip centre, and rtip the tip radius. A practical tip to screen distances may range from several centimeters to several meters, with increased detector area required at larger to subtend the same field of view.
Practically speaking, the usable magnification will be limited by several effects, such as lateral vibration of the atoms prior to evaporation.
Whilst the magnification of both the field ion and atom probe microscopes is extremely high, the exact magnification is dependent upon conditions specific to the examined specimen, so unlike for conventional electron microscopes, there is often little direct control on magnification, and furthermore, obtained images may have strongly variable magnifications due to fluctuations in the shape of the electric field at the surface.
=== Reconstruction ===
The computational conversion of the ion sequence data, as obtained from a position-sensitive detector to a three-dimensional visualisation of atomic types, is termed "reconstruction". Reconstruction algorithms are typically geometrically based and have several literature formulations. Most models for reconstruction assume that the tip is a spherical object, and use empirical corrections to stereographic projection to convert detector positions back to a 2D surface embedded in 3D space, R3. By sweeping this surface through R3 as a function of the ion sequence input data, such as via ion-ordering, a volume is generated onto which positions the 2D detector positions can be computed and placed three-dimensional space.
Typically the sweep takes the simple form of advancement of the surface, such that the surface is expanded in a symmetric manner about its advancement axis, with the advancement rate set by a volume attributed to each ion detected and identified. This causes the final reconstructed volume to assume a rounded-conical shape, similar to a badminton shuttlecock. The detected events thus become a point cloud data with attributed experimentally measured values, such as ion time of flight or experimentally derived quantities, e.g. time of flight or detector data.
This form of data manipulation allows for rapid computer visualisation and analysis, with data presented as point cloud data with additional information, such as each ion's mass to charge (as computed from the velocity equation above), voltage or other auxiliary measured quantity or computation therefrom.
=== Data features ===
The canonical feature of atom probe data, is its high spatial resolution in the direction through the material, which has been attributed to an ordered evaporation sequence. This data can therefore image near atomically sharp buried interfaces with the associated chemical information.
The data obtained from the evaporative process is however not without artefacts that form the physical evaporation or ionisation process. A key feature of the evaporation or field ion images is that the data density is highly inhomogeneous, due to the corrugation of the specimen surface at the atomic scale. This corrugation gives rise to strong electric field gradients in the near-tip zone (on the order of an atomic radii or less from the tip), which during ionisation deflects ions away from the electric field normal.
The resultant deflection means that in these regions of high curvature, atomic terraces are belied by a strong anisotropy in the detection density. Where this occurs due to a few atoms on a surface is usually referred to as a "pole", as these are coincident with the crystallographic axes of the specimen (FCC, BCC, HCP) etc. Where the edges of an atomic terrace causes deflection, a low density line is formed and is termed a "zone line".
These poles and zone-lines, whilst inducing fluctuations in data density in the reconstructed datasets, which can prove problematic during post-analysis, are critical for determining information such as angular magnification, as the crystallographic relationships between features are typically well known.
When reconstructing the data, owing to the evaporation of successive layers of material from the sample, the lateral and in-depth reconstruction values are highly anisotropic. Determination of the exact resolution of the instrument is of limited use, as the resolution of the device is set by the physical properties of the material under analysis.
== Systems ==
Many designs have been constructed since the method's inception. Initial field ion microscopes, precursors to modern atom probes, were usually glass blown devices developed by individual research laboratories.
=== System layout ===
At a minimum, an atom probe will consist of several key pieces of equipment.
A vacuum system for maintaining the low pressures (~10−8 to 10−10 Pa) required, typically a classic 3 chambered UHV design.
A system for the manipulation of samples inside the vacuum, including sample viewing systems.
A cooling system to reduce atomic motion, such as a helium refrigeration circuit - providing sample temperatures as low as 15K.
A high voltage system to raise the sample standing voltage near the threshold for field evaporation.
A high voltage pulsing system, use to create timed field evaporation events
A counter electrode that can be a simple disk shape (like earlier generation atom probes), or a cone-shaped Local Electrode. The voltage pulse (negative) is typically applied to the counter electrode.
A detection system for single energetic ions that includes XY position and TOF information.
Optionally, an atom probe may also include laser-optical systems for laser beam targeting and pulsing, if using laser-evaporation methods. In-situ reaction systems, heaters, or plasma treatment may also be employed for some studies as well as a pure noble gas introduction for FIM.
=== Performance ===
Collectable ion volumes were previously limited to several thousand, or tens of thousands of ionic events. Subsequent electronics and instrumentation development has increased the rate of data accumulation, with datasets of hundreds of million atoms (dataset volumes of 107 nm3). Data collection times vary considerably depending upon the experimental conditions and the number of ions collected. Experiments take from a few minutes, to many hours to complete.
== Applications ==
=== Metallurgy ===
Atom probe has typically been employed in the chemical analysis of alloy systems at the atomic level. This has arisen as a result of voltage pulsed atom probes providing good chemical and sufficient spatial information in these materials. Metal samples from large grained alloys may be simple to fabricate, particularly from wire samples, with hand-electropolishing techniques giving good results.
Subsequently, atom probe has been used in the analysis of the chemical composition of a wide range of alloys.
Such data is critical in determining the effect of alloy constituents in a bulk material, identification of solid-state reaction features, such as solid phase precipitates. Such information may not be amenable to analysis by other means (e.g. TEM) owing to the difficulty in generating a three-dimensional dataset with composition.
=== Semiconductors ===
Semi-conductor materials are often analysable in atom probe, however sample preparation may be more difficult, and interpretation of results may be more complex, particularly if the semi-conductor contains phases which evaporate at differing electric field strengths.
Applications such as ion implantation may be used to identify the distribution of dopants inside a semi-conducting material, which is increasingly critical in the correct design of modern nanometre scale electronics.
== Limitations ==
Materials implicitly control achievable spatial resolution.
Specimen geometry during the analysis is uncontrolled, yet controls projection behaviour, hence there is little control over the magnification. This induces distortions into the computer generated 3D dataset. Features of interest might evaporate in a physically different manner to the bulk sample, altering projection geometry and the magnification of the reconstructed volume. This yields strong spatial distortions in the final image.
Volume selectability can be limited. Site specific preparation methods, e.g. using Focussed ion beam preparation, although more time-consuming, may be used to bypass such limitations.
Ion overlap in some samples (e.g. between oxygen and sulfur) resulted in ambiguous analysed species. This may be mitigated by selection of experiment temperature or laser input energy to influence the ionisation number (+, ++, 3+ etc.) of the ionised groups. Data analysis can be used in some cases to statistically recover overlaps.
Low molecular weight gases (Hydrogen & Helium) may be difficult to be removed from the analysis chamber, and may be adsorbed and emitted from the specimen, even though not present in the original specimen. This may also limit identification of Hydrogen in some samples. For this reason, deuterated samples have been used to overcome limitations.
Results may be contingent on the parameters used to convert the 2D detected data into 3D. In more problematic materials, correct reconstruction may not be done, due to limited knowledge of the true magnification; particularly if zone or pole regions cannot be observed.
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3,212 |
Al Capone
|
Alphonse Gabriel Capone ( ; ; January 17, 1899 – January 25, 1947), sometimes known by the nickname "Scarface", was an American gangster and businessman who attained notoriety during the Prohibition era as the co-founder and boss of the Chicago Outfit from 1925 to 1931. His seven-year reign as a crime boss ended when he went to prison at the age of 33.
Capone was born in New York City in 1899 to Italian immigrants. He joined the Five Points Gang as a teenager and became a bouncer in organized crime premises such as brothels. In his early twenties, Capone moved to Chicago and became a bodyguard of Johnny Torrio, head of a criminal syndicate that illegally supplied alcohol—the forerunner of the Outfit—and was politically protected through the Unione Siciliana.
A conflict with the North Side Gang was instrumental in Capone's rise and fall. Torrio went into retirement after North Side gunmen almost killed him, handing control to Capone. Although Capone expanded the bootlegging business through increasingly violent means, his mutually profitable relationships with Mayor William Hale Thompson and the Chicago Police Department meant he seemed safe from law enforcement.
Capone apparently reveled in attention, such as the cheers from spectators when he appeared at baseball games. He made donations to various charities and was viewed by many as a "modern-day Robin Hood". both born in Angri, a small municipality outside of Naples in the province of Salerno. His father was a barber and his mother was a seamstress. Capone's family had immigrated to the United States in 1893 by ship, first going through the port city of Fiume, Austria-Hungary (modern-day Rijeka, Croatia). The family settled at 95 Navy Street, in the Brooklyn Navy Yard. When Capone was aged 11, he and his family moved to 38 Garfield Place in Park Slope, Brooklyn.
Capone's parents had eight other children: James Vincenzo Capone, who later changed his name to Richard Hart and became a Prohibition agent in Homer, Nebraska; Raffaele James Capone, also known as Ralph Capone or "Bottles", who took charge of his brother's beverage industry; Salvatore "Frank" Capone; Ermina Capone, who died at the age of one; Ermino "John" Capone; Albert Capone; Matthew Capone and Mafalda Capone. Ralph and Frank worked with Al in his criminal empire. Frank did so until his death on April 1, 1924. Ralph ran Al's bottling companies (both legal and illegal) early on and was also the front man for the Chicago Outfit until he was imprisoned for tax evasion in 1932.
Capone showed promise as a student but had trouble with the rules at his strict parochial Catholic school. His schooling ended at the age of 14 after he was expelled for hitting a female teacher in the face. From 1916 to 1918, he played semi-professional baseball. Following this, Capone was influenced by gangster Johnny Torrio, whom he came to regard as a mentor.
Capone married Mae Josephine Coughlin at age 19, on December 30, 1918. She was Irish Catholic and earlier that month had given birth to their son Albert Francis "Sonny" Capone (1918–2004). Albert lost most of his hearing in his left ear as a child. Capone was under the age of 21, and his parents had to consent in writing to the marriage. By all accounts, the two had a happy marriage.
==Career==
===New York City===
Capone initially became involved with small-time gangs that included the Junior Forty Thieves and the Bowery Boys. He then joined the Brooklyn Rippers, and then the powerful Five Points Gang based in Lower Manhattan. During this time he was employed and mentored by fellow racketeer Frankie Yale, a bartender in a Coney Island dance hall and saloon called the Harvard Inn. Capone inadvertently insulted a woman while working the door, and he was slashed with a knife three times on the left side of his face by her brother, Frank Galluccio; the wounds led to the nickname "Scarface", which Capone loathed. The date when this occurred has been reported with inconsistencies. When Capone was photographed, he hid the scarred left side of his face, saying that the injuries were war wounds. He was called "Snorky" by his closest friends, a term for a sharp dresser.
===Move to Chicago===
In 1919, Capone left New York City for Chicago at the invitation of Torrio, who was imported by crime boss James "Big Jim" Colosimo as an enforcer. Capone began in Chicago as a bouncer in a brothel, which is thought to be most likely where he contracted syphilis. Capone was aware of being infected at an early stage and timely use of Salvarsan probably could have cured the infection, but he apparently never sought treatment. In 1923, Capone purchased a small house at 7244 South Prairie Avenue in the Park Manor neighborhood in Chicago's South Side for .
As originally reported in the Chicago Tribune, hijacker Joe Howard was killed on May 8, 1924, after he tried to interfere with the Capone-Torrio bootlegging business. In a 1936 article highlighting Capone's criminal career, the Tribune erroneously reported the date as May 7, 1923. In the early years of the decade, Capone's name began appearing in newspaper sports pages where he was described as a boxing promoter. Torrio took over Colosimo's criminal empire after the latter's murder on May 11, 1920, in which Capone was suspected of being involved.
Torrio headed an essentially Italian organized crime group that was the biggest in Chicago, with Capone as his right-hand man. Torrio was wary of being drawn into gang wars and tried to negotiate agreements over territory between rival crime groups. The smaller North Side Gang, led by Dean O'Banion, came under pressure from the Genna brothers who were allied with Torrio. O'Banion found that Torrio was unhelpful with the Gennas' encroachment, despite his pretensions to be a settler of disputes. In a fateful step, Torrio arranged the murder of O'Banion at his flower shop on November 10, 1924. This placed Hymie Weiss at the head of the gang, backed by Vincent Drucci and Bugs Moran. Weiss had been a close friend of O'Banion, and the North Siders made it a priority to get revenge on his killers.
During Prohibition, Capone was involved with Canadian bootleggers who helped him smuggle liquor into the U.S. When Capone was asked if he knew Rocco Perri, billed as Canada's "King of the Bootleggers", he replied: "Why, I don't even know which street Canada is on." Other sources claim that Capone had certainly visited Canada, where he maintained some hideaways, although the Royal Canadian Mounted Police states that there is no "evidence that he ever set foot on Canadian soil".
===Boss===
An ambush in January 1925 left Capone shaken, but unhurt. Twelve days later, Torrio was returning from a shopping trip when he was shot several times. After recovering, he effectively resigned and handed control over to Capone, aged 26, who became the new boss of an organization that took in illegal breweries and a transportation network that reached to Canada, with political and law-enforcement protection. In turn, he was able to use more violence to increase revenue. Any establishment that refused to purchase liquor from Capone often got blown up, and as many as 100 people were killed in such bombings during the 1920s. Rivals saw Capone as responsible for the proliferation of brothels in the city.
Capone often enlisted the help of local members of the black community into his operations; jazz musicians Milt Hinton and Lionel Hampton had uncles who worked for Capone on Chicago's South Side. A fan of jazz as well, Capone once asked clarinetist Johnny Dodds to play a number that Dodds did not know; Capone split a $100 bill in half and told Dodds that he would get the other half when he learned it. Capone also sent two bodyguards to accompany jazz pianist Earl Hines on a road trip.
Capone indulged in custom suits, cigars, gourmet food and drink, and female companionship. He was particularly known for his flamboyant and costly jewelry. His favorite responses to questions about his activities were "I am just a businessman, giving the people what they want" and "All I do is satisfy a public demand". Capone had become a national celebrity and talking point. Capone's driver was found tortured and murdered, and there was an attempt on Weiss' life in the Chicago Loop. On September 20, 1926, the North Siders used a ploy outside Capone's headquarters at the Hawthorne Inn aimed at drawing him to the windows. Gunmen in several cars then opened fire with Thompson submachine guns and shotguns at the windows of the first-floor restaurant. Capone was unhurt and called for a truce, but the negotiations fell flat. Three weeks later, on October 11, Weiss was killed outside the North Siders' headquarters at O'Banion's former flower shop. The owner of Hawthorne's restaurant was a friend of Capone's, and he was kidnapped and killed by Moran and Drucci in January 1927.
Capone became increasingly security-minded and desirous of getting away from Chicago. As a precaution, he and his entourage would often show up suddenly at one of Chicago's train depots and buy up an entire Pullman sleeper car on a night train to Cleveland, Omaha, Kansas City, Little Rock, or Hot Springs, Arkansas, where they would spend a week in luxury hotel suites under assumed names. In 1928, Capone paid $40,000 to Clarence Busch of the Anheuser-Busch brewing family for a home at 93 Palm Avenue on Palm Island, Florida, between Miami and Miami Beach.
===Feud with Aiello===
In November 1925, Antonio Lombardo, who was Capone's consigliere, was named head of the Unione Siciliana, a Sicilian-American benevolent society that had been corrupted by gangsters. An infuriated Joe Aiello, who had wanted the position himself, believed Capone was responsible for Lombardo's ascension and resented the non-Sicilian's attempts to manipulate affairs within the Unione. Aiello severed all personal and business ties with Lombardo and entered into a feud with Capone. Aiello plotted to eliminate both Lombardo and Capone, and starting in the spring of 1927, made several attempts to assassinate Capone. On one occasion, Aiello offered money to the chef of Joseph "Diamond Joe" Esposito's Bella Napoli Café, Capone's favorite restaurant, to put prussic acid in Capone's and Lombardo's soup; reports indicated he offered between $10,000 and $35,000. Instead, the chef exposed the plot to Capone, who responded by dispatching men to destroy Aiello's bakery on West Division Street with machine-gun fire. More than 200 bullets were fired into the bakery on May 28, 1927, wounding Aiello's brother Antonio. Upon learning of the arrest, Capone dispatched nearly two dozen gunmen to stand guard outside the station and await Aiello's release. The men made no attempt to conceal their purpose there, and reporters and photographers rushed to the scene to observe Aiello's expected murder. Thompson allegedly accepted a contribution of $250,000 from Capone. Thompson beat Democratic candidate William Emmett Dever in the 1927 mayoral race by a relatively slim margin.
On the day of the Pineapple Primary on April 10, 1928, voting booths were targeted by Capone's bomber, James Belcastro, in wards where Thompson's opponents were thought to have support, causing the deaths of at least fifteen people. Belcastro was accused of murdering lawyer Octavius Granady, an African-American, who challenged Thompson's candidate for the Black vote, and was chased through the streets on polling day by cars of gunmen before being shot dead. Four policemen were among those charged along with Belcastro, but all charges were dropped after key witnesses recanted their statements. An indication of the attitude of local law enforcement toward Capone's organization came in 1931 when Belcastro was wounded in a shooting; police suggested to skeptical journalists that Belcastro was an independent operator. A 1929 report by The New York Times connected Capone to the 1926 murder of Assistant State Attorney William H. McSwiggin, the 1928 murders of chief investigator Ben Newmark, and former mentor Frankie Yale.
===Saint Valentine's Day Massacre===
Capone was widely assumed to have been responsible for ordering the 1929 Saint Valentine's Day Massacre, despite being at his Florida home at the time of the massacre. The massacre was an attempt to eliminate Bugs Moran, head of the North Side Gang, and the motivation for the plan may have been the fact that some expensive whisky that was illegally imported from Canada via the Detroit River had been hijacked while it was being transported to Cook County, Illinois. Moran was the last survivor of the North Side gunmen; his succession had come about because his similarly aggressive predecessors, Weiss and Vincent Drucci, had been killed in the violence that followed the murder of original leader Dean O'Banion.
To monitor their targets' habits and movements, Capone's men rented an apartment across from the trucking warehouse and garage at 2122 North Clark Street, which served as Moran's headquarters. On the morning of Thursday, February 14, 1929, Capone's lookouts signaled four gunmen, disguised as police officers, to initiate a "police raid". The faux police lined the seven victims along a wall and signaled for accomplices armed with machine guns and shotguns. Moran was not among the victims. Photos of the slain victims shocked the public and damaged Capone's image. Within days, Capone received a summons to testify before a Chicago grand jury on charges of federal Prohibition violations, but he claimed to be too unwell to attend. In an effort to clean up his image, Capone donated to charities and sponsored a soup kitchen in Chicago during the Depression. The Saint Valentine's Day Massacre led to public outcry about Thompson's alliance with Capone, and this was a factor in Anton J. Cermak winning the mayoral election on April 6, 1931.
===Feud with Aiello ends===
Capone was known for ordering other men to do his dirty work for him. In May 1929, one of Capone's bodyguards, Frank Rio, uncovered a plot by three of his men; Albert Anselmi, John Scalise and Joseph Giunta. They had been persuaded by Aiello to depose Capone and take over the Chicago Outfit. Later on, Capone beat the men with a baseball bat and then ordered his bodyguards to shoot them, a scene that was included in the 1987 film The Untouchables. Deirdre Bair, along with writers and historians such as William Elliot Hazelgrove, have questioned the veracity of the claim.
Bair questioned why "three trained killers could sit quietly and let this happen", while Hazelgrove stated that Capone would have been "hard pressed to beat three men to death with a baseball bat" and that he would have instead let an enforcer perform the murders; George Meyer, an associate of Capone's, also claimed to have witnessed both the planning of the murders and the event itself. Aiello, angst-ridden from the constant need to hide out and the killings of several of his men, set up residence in the Chicago apartment of Unione Siciliana treasurer Pasquale "Patsy Presto" Prestogiacomo at 205 N. Kolmar Ave. On October 23, upon exiting Prestogiacomo's building to enter a taxicab, a gunman in a second-floor window across the street started firing at Aiello with a submachine gun. attempting to move out of the line of fire. Instead, he moved directly into the range of a second submachine gun positioned on the third floor of another apartment block, and was subsequently gunned down. In Hoover's 1952 Memoir, the former President reported that Strong argued "Chicago was in the hands of the gangsters, that the police and magistrates were completely under their control, …that the Federal government was the only force by which the city's ability to govern itself could be restored. At once I directed that all the Federal agencies concentrate upon Mr. Capone and his allies." That meeting launched a multi-agency attack on Capone. Treasury and Justice Departments developed plans for income tax prosecutions against Chicago gangsters, and a small, elite squad of Prohibition Bureau agents (whose members included Eliot Ness) were deployed against bootleggers. In a city used to corruption, these lawmen were incorruptible. Charles Schwarz, a writer for the Chicago Daily News, dubbed them Untouchables. To support Federal efforts, Strong secretly used his newspaper's resources to gather and share intelligence on the Capone outfit.
===Trials===
On March 27, 1929, Capone was arrested by FBI agents as he left a Chicago courtroom after testifying to a grand jury that was investigating violations of federal prohibition laws. He was charged with contempt of court for feigning illness to avoid an earlier appearance. On May 16, 1929, Capone was arrested in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, for carrying a concealed weapon. On May 17, 1929, Capone was indicted by a grand jury and a trial was held before Philadelphia Municipal Court Judge John E Walsh. Entering a guilty plea by his attorney, Capone was sentenced to a prison term of one year. On August 8, 1929, Capone was transferred to Philadelphia's Eastern State Penitentiary. A week after his release in March 1930, Capone was listed as "Public Enemy #1" on the unofficial Chicago Crime Commission's widely publicized list.
In April 1930, Capone was arrested on vagrancy charges when visiting Miami Beach; the governor had ordered sheriffs to run him out of the state. Capone claimed that Miami police had refused him food and water and threatened to arrest his family. He was charged with perjury for making these statements, but was acquitted after a three-day trial in July. In September, a Chicago judge issued a warrant for Capone's arrest on charges of vagrancy and then used the publicity to run against Thompson in the Republican primary. In February 1931, Capone was tried on the contempt of court charge. In court, Judge James Herbert Wilkerson, intervened to reinforce questioning of Capone's doctor by the prosecutor. Wilkerson sentenced Capone to six months, but he remained free while on appeal of the contempt conviction.
In February 1930, Capone's organization was linked to the murder of Julius Rosenheim, who served as a police informant in the Chicago Outfit for 20 years.
===Tax evasion===
U.S. Assistant Attorney General Mabel Walker Willebrandt is said to have originated the tactic of charging obviously wealthy crime figures with federal tax evasion on the basis of their luxurious lifestyles. In 1927, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in United States v. Sullivan that the approach was legally sound: illegally earned income was subject to income tax. The key to Capone's conviction on tax charges was not his spending, but proving his income, and the most valuable evidence in that regard originated in his offer to pay tax. Ralph, his brother and a gangster in his own right, was tried for tax evasion in 1930. Ralph spent the next 18 months in prison after being convicted in a two-week trial over which Wilkerson presided.
Seeking to avoid the same fate, Capone ordered his lawyer to regularize his tax position, and although it was not done, his lawyer made crucial admissions when stating the income that Capone was willing to pay tax on for various years, admitting income of $100,000 for 1928 and 1929, for instance; hence, without any investigation, the government had been given a letter from a lawyer acting for Capone conceding his large taxable income for certain years he had paid no tax on. On March 13, 1931, Capone was charged with income tax evasion for 1924, in a secret grand jury. On June 5, 1931, Capone was indicted by a federal grand jury on 22 counts of income tax evasion from 1925 through 1929; he was released on $50,000 bail.
On June 16, 1931, at the Chicago Federal Building in the courtroom of Wilkerson, Capone pleaded guilty to income tax evasion and the 5,000 Volstead Act violations as part of a -year prison sentence plea bargain. On July 30, 1931, Wilkerson refused to honor the plea bargain, and Capone's counsel rescinded the guilty pleas. Wilkerson later tried Capone only on the income tax evasion charges as he determined they took precedence over the Volstead Act charges. This would have been irrelevant regardless, since gambling losses can only be subtracted from gambling winnings, but it was further undercut by Capone's expenses, which were well beyond what his claimed income could support; Wilkerson allowed Capone's spending to be presented at very great length. and was sentenced a week later to 11 years in federal prison, fined $50,000 plus $7,692 for court costs, and was held liable for $215,000 plus interest due on his back taxes. The contempt of court sentence was served concurrently. New lawyers hired to represent Capone were Washington-based tax experts. They filed a writ of habeas corpus based on a Supreme Court ruling that tax evasion was not fraud, which apparently meant that Capone had been convicted on charges relating to years that were actually outside the time limit for prosecution; however, a judge interpreted the law so that the time that Capone had spent in Miami was subtracted from the age of the offences, thereby denying the appeal of both Capone's conviction and sentence.
===Imprisonment===
Capone was sent to Atlanta U.S. Penitentiary in May 1932, aged 33. Upon his arrival at Atlanta, Capone was officially diagnosed with syphilis and gonorrhea. He was also experiencing withdrawal symptoms from cocaine addiction, the use of which had perforated his nasal septum. Capone was competent at his prison job of stitching soles on shoes for eight hours a day, but his letters were barely coherent. He was seen as a weak personality, and so out of his depth dealing with bullying at the hands of fellow inmates that his cellmate, seasoned convict Red Rudensky, feared that Capone would have a breakdown.
Rudensky was formerly a small-time criminal associated with the Capone gang and found himself becoming a protector for Capone. The conspicuous protection by Rudensky and other prisoners drew accusations from less friendly inmates and fueled suspicion that Capone was receiving special treatment. No solid evidence ever emerged, but it formed part of the rationale for moving Capone to the recently opened Alcatraz Federal Penitentiary off the coast of San Francisco, in August 1934. On June 23, 1936, Capone was stabbed and superficially wounded by fellow Alcatraz inmate James C. Lucas.
Due to his good behavior, Capone was permitted to play banjo in the Alcatraz prison band, the Rock Islanders, which gave regular Sunday concerts for other inmates. Capone also transcribed the song "Madonna Mia" creating his own arrangement as a tribute to his wife Mae. At Alcatraz, Capone's decline became increasingly evident, as neurosyphilis progressively eroded his mental faculties; his formal diagnosis of syphilis of the brain was made in February 1938. He spent the last year of his Alcatraz sentence in the hospital section, confused and disoriented. Capone completed his term in Alcatraz on January 6, 1939, and was transferred to the Federal Correctional Institution at Terminal Island in California to serve out his sentence for contempt of court. He was paroled on November 16, 1939, after his wife Mae appealed to the court, based on his reduced mental capabilities.
==Chicago aftermath==
The main effect of Capone's conviction was that he ceased to be boss immediately on his imprisonment, but those involved in the jailing of Capone portrayed it as a considerable undermining of the city's organized crime syndicate. Capone's underboss, Frank Nitti, took over as boss of the Outfit after he was released from prison in March 1932, having also been convicted of tax evasion charges. Far from being smashed, the Outfit continued without being troubled by the Chicago police, but at a lower level and without the open violence that had marked Capone's rule.
Organized crime in the city had a lower profile once Prohibition was repealed, already wary of attention after seeing Capone's notoriety bring him down, to the extent that there is a lack of consensus among writers about who was actually in control and who was a figurehead "front boss". Some historians have speculated that Capone ordered the 1939 murder of Edward J. O'Hare a week before his release, for helping federal prosecutors convict Capone of tax evasion, though there are other theories for O'Hare's death.
==Illness and death==
Due to his failing health, Capone was released from prison on November 16, 1939, and referred to Johns Hopkins Hospital in Baltimore for the treatment of syphilitic paresis. Because of his unsavory reputation, Johns Hopkins refused to treat him, but Baltimore's Union Memorial Hospital did. Capone was grateful for the compassionate care that he received and donated two Japanese weeping cherry trees to Union Memorial Hospital in 1939. After a few weeks of inpatient and outpatient care, on March 20, 1940, a very sickly Capone left Baltimore and travelled to his mansion in Palm Island, Florida. In 1942, after mass production of penicillin was started in the United States, Capone was one of the first American patients treated by the new drug. Though it was too late for him to reverse the damage to his brain, it did slow down the progression of the disease. On January 21, 1947, Capone had a stroke. He regained consciousness and started to improve, but contracted bronchopneumonia. He suffered a cardiac arrest on January 22, and on January 25, surrounded by his family in his home, died after his heart failed as a result of apoplexy. His body was transported back to Chicago a week later and a private funeral was held. He was originally buried at Mount Olivet Cemetery in Chicago. In 1950, Capone's remains, along with those of his father, Gabriele, and brother, Frank, were moved to Mount Carmel Cemetery in Hillside, Illinois.
File:Death certificate of Al Capone.jpg|Capone's death certificate January 25, 1947
File:Grave Al Capone.jpg|Capone's grave in Mount Carmel Cemetery, Hillside, Illinois
==In popular culture==
Capone is one of the most notorious American gangsters of the 20th century and has been the major subject of numerous articles, books, and films. Particularly, from 1925 to 1929, shortly after he moved to Chicago, he enjoyed his status as the most notorious mobster in the country. He cultivated a certain image of himself in the media that made him a subject of fascination.
|
[
"Eliot Ness",
"Volstead Act",
"gangland killing",
"Great Depression in the United States",
"Cicero, Illinois",
"James Herbert Wilkerson",
"Pullman (car or coach)",
"Chicago Daily News",
"political corruption",
"MedStar Union Memorial Hospital",
"sewing",
"baseball bat",
"Florida",
"The Mystery of Al Capone's Vaults",
"Federal Bureau of Prisons",
"Greenwood Publishing Group",
"income tax evasion",
"Nebraska",
"Public enemy",
"Frank Capone",
"penicillin",
"Da Capo Press",
"Chicago Tribune",
"James Vincenzo Capone",
"Palm Island, Florida",
"bouncer",
"rum-running",
"Frank Rio",
"Lower Manhattan",
"Republican Party (United States)",
"American Mafia",
"stroke",
"Baltimore",
"Genna crime family",
"Mount Carmel Cemetery (Hillside, Illinois)",
"Unione Siciliana",
"bounty (reward)",
"jazz",
"Antonio Lombardo",
"neurosyphilis",
"James Belcastro",
"heart failure",
"Thompson submachine gun",
"Chicago Crime Commission",
"Rochester, New York",
"Max Allan Collins",
"Philadelphia",
"Edward J. O'Hare",
"shotgun",
"cardiac arrest",
"Naples",
"Prohibition in the United States",
"Brooklyn Navy Yard",
"Milt Hinton",
"South Side, Chicago",
"Tax evasion",
"Palm Island (Miami Beach)",
"Stefano Magaddino",
"underboss",
"Indiana University Press",
"Charles Fischetti",
"Arsphenamine",
"gonorrhea",
"General paresis of the insane",
"Homer, Nebraska",
"Walter Noble Burns",
"Prairie Avenue",
"The Baltimore Sun",
"Hymie Weiss",
"Pineapple Primary",
"boxing",
"Chicago Federal Building",
"Crime Library",
"Park Slope",
"Five Points Gang",
"Arcadia Publishing",
"Italian Americans",
"Rocco Fischetti",
"racketeer",
"Coney Island",
"Frank J. Loesch",
"Robin Hood",
"borough of New York City",
"Habeas corpus in the United States",
"North Side Gang",
"Vincent Drucci",
"informant",
"Italians",
"plea bargain",
"expulsion (education)",
"Cleveland",
"Routledge",
"Hot Springs, Arkansas",
"organized crime",
"province of Salerno",
"Rowman & Littlefield",
"Miami",
"Life (magazine)",
"Chicago Police Department",
"bodyguard",
"Saint Valentine's Day Massacre",
"Johnny Torrio",
"Bugs Moran",
"William Emmett Dever",
"Herbert Hoover",
"The Biography Channel",
"Joseph Giunta (mobster)",
"Anton J. Cermak",
"West Side, Chicago",
"Atlanta U.S. Penitentiary",
"Democratic Party (United States)",
"Royal Canadian Mounted Police",
"contempt of court",
"Detroit River",
"Richard James Hart",
"Prohibition era",
"Brooklyn",
"Frank Nitti",
"death certificate",
"Joe Aiello",
"Collins, Max Allan",
"Morris Rudensky",
"Vagrancy",
"Miami Beach",
"brothel",
"Alcatraz Federal Penitentiary",
"Arkansas",
"liquor",
"Catholic school",
"Chicago",
"Nashville, Tennessee",
"Little Rock, Arkansas",
"Austria-Hungary",
"Frankie Yale",
"bouncer (doorman)",
"Mount Olivet Cemetery (Chicago)",
"Prunus itosakura",
"Dean O'Banion",
"Untouchables (law enforcement)",
"Southern Illinois University Press",
"tax law",
"WMAR-TV",
"Defense (legal)",
"Johnny Dodds",
"Walter A. Strong",
"Sleeping car",
"Associated Press",
"Al Capone bibliography",
"Chicago Outfit",
"Laird Bell",
"Kansas City",
"Mabel Walker Willebrandt",
"The Untouchables (film)",
"crime boss",
"Illinois",
"Organized crime",
"William Hale Thompson",
"U.S. Supreme Court",
"Lionel Hampton",
"Leicester",
"Johns Hopkins Hospital",
"Mae Capone",
"Time (magazine)",
"Earl Hines",
"soup kitchen",
"List of the Great Depression-era outlaws",
"Tennessee",
"baseball",
"Rum-running",
"prussic acid",
"History of Rijeka",
"Milwaukee",
"Jack Zuta",
"businessman",
"James C. Lucas",
"Hillside, Illinois",
"consigliere",
"Anheuser-Busch",
"Chicago Loop",
"John Scalise",
"United States v. Sullivan",
"apoplexy",
"Timeline of organized crime",
"Trenton, New Jersey",
"police corruption",
"Angri",
"barber",
"Rijeka",
"Rocco Perri",
"Omaha",
"Joseph \"Diamond Joe\" Esposito",
"Eastern State Penitentiary",
"Federal Correctional Institution, Terminal Island",
"bronchopneumonia",
"Madonna Mia",
"tax evasion",
"Federal parole in the United States",
"The New York Times",
"syphilis",
"Buffalo crime family",
"Jim Colosimo",
"perjury",
"Ralph Capone"
] |
3,214 |
Amplifier figures of merit
|
In electronics, the figures of merit of an amplifier are numerical measures that characterize its properties and performance. Figures of merit can be given as a list of specifications that include properties such as gain, bandwidth, noise and linearity, among others listed in this article. Figures of merit are important for determining the suitability of a particular amplifier for an intended use.
== Gain ==
The gain of an amplifier is the ratio of output to input power or amplitude, and is usually measured in decibels. When measured in decibels it is logarithmically related to the power ratio: G(dB)=10 log(Pout /Pin). RF amplifiers are often specified in terms of the maximum power gain obtainable, while the voltage gain of audio amplifiers and instrumentation amplifiers will be more often specified. For example, an audio amplifier with a gain given as 20 dB will have a voltage gain of ten.
The use of voltage gain figure is appropriate when the amplifier's input impedance is much higher than the source impedance, and the load impedance higher than the amplifier's output impedance.
If two equivalent amplifiers are being compared, the amplifier with higher gain settings would be more sensitive as it would take less input signal to produce a given amount of power.
== Bandwidth ==
The bandwidth of an amplifier is the range of frequencies for which the amplifier gives "satisfactory performance". The definition of "satisfactory performance" may be different for different applications. However, a common and well-accepted metric is the half-power points (i.e. frequency where the power goes down by half its peak value) on the output vs. frequency curve. Therefore, bandwidth can be defined as the difference between the lower and upper half power points. This is therefore also known as the bandwidth. Bandwidths (otherwise called "frequency responses") for other response tolerances are sometimes quoted (, etc.) or "plus or minus 1dB" (roughly the sound level difference people usually can detect).
The gain of a good quality full-range audio amplifier will be essentially flat between 20 Hz to about 20 kHz (the range of normal human hearing). In ultra-high-fidelity amplifier design, the amplifier's frequency response should extend considerably beyond this (one or more octaves either side) and might have points < 10 Hz and > . Professional touring amplifiers often have input and/or output filtering to sharply limit frequency response beyond ; too much of the amplifier's potential output power would otherwise be wasted on infrasonic and ultrasonic frequencies, and the danger of AM radio interference would increase. Modern switching amplifiers need steep low pass filtering at the output to get rid of high-frequency switching noise and harmonics.
The range of frequency over which the gain is equal to or greater than 70.7% of its maximum gain is termed as bandwidth.
== Efficiency ==
Efficiency is a measure of how much of the power source is usefully applied to the amplifier's output. Class A amplifiers are very inefficient, in the range of 10–20% with a max efficiency of 25% for direct coupling of the output. Inductive coupling of the output can raise their efficiency to a maximum of 50%.
Drain efficiency is the ratio of output RF power to input DC power when primary input DC power has been fed to the drain of a field-effect transistor. Based on this definition, the drain efficiency cannot exceed 25% for a class A amplifier that is supplied drain bias current through resistors (because RF signal has its zero level at about 50% of the input DC). Manufacturers specify much higher drain efficiencies, and designers are able to obtain higher efficiencies by providing current to the drain of the transistor through an inductor or a transformer winding. In this case the RF zero level is near the DC rail and will swing both above and below the rail during operation. While the voltage level is above the DC rail current is supplied by the inductor.
Class B amplifiers have a very high efficiency but are impractical for audio work because of high levels of distortion (See: Crossover distortion). In practical design, the result of a tradeoff is the class AB design. Modern Class AB amplifiers commonly have peak efficiencies between 30 and 55% in audio systems and 50-70% in radio frequency systems with a theoretical maximum of 78.5%.
Commercially available Class D switching amplifiers have reported efficiencies as high as 90%. Amplifiers of Class C-F are usually known to be very high-efficiency amplifiers. RCA manufactured an AM broadcast transmitter employing a single class-C low-mu triode with an RF efficiency in the 90% range.
More efficient amplifiers run cooler, and often do not need any cooling fans even in multi-kilowatt designs. The reason for this is that the loss of efficiency produces heat as a by-product of the energy lost during the conversion of power. In more efficient amplifiers there is less loss of energy so in turn less heat.
In RF linear Power Amplifiers, such as cellular base stations and broadcast transmitters, special design techniques can be used to improve efficiency. Doherty designs, which use a second output stage as a "peak" amplifier, can lift efficiency from the typical 15% up to 30-35% in a narrow bandwidth. Envelope Tracking designs are able to achieve efficiencies of up to 60%, by modulating the supply voltage to the amplifier in line with the envelope of the signal.
== Linearity ==
An ideal amplifier would be a totally linear device, but real amplifiers are only linear within limits.
When the signal drive to the amplifier is increased, the output also increases until a point is reached where some part of the amplifier becomes saturated and cannot produce any more output; this is called clipping, and results in distortion.
In most amplifiers a reduction in gain takes place before hard clipping occurs; the result is a compression effect, which (if the amplifier is an audio amplifier) sounds much less unpleasant to the ear. For these amplifiers, the 1 dB compression point is defined as the input power (or output power) where the gain is 1 dB less than the small signal gain. Sometimes this non linearity is deliberately designed in to reduce the audible unpleasantness of hard clipping under overload.
Ill effects of non-linearity can be reduced with negative feedback.
Linearization is an emergent field, and there are many techniques, such as feed forward, predistortion, postdistortion, in order to avoid the undesired effects of the non-linearities.
== Noise ==
This is a measure of how much noise is introduced in the amplification process. Noise is an undesirable but inevitable product of the electronic devices and components; also, much noise results from intentional economies of manufacture and design time. The metric for noise performance of a circuit is noise figure or noise factor. Noise figure is a comparison between the output signal to noise ratio and the thermal noise of the input signal.
== Output dynamic range ==
Output dynamic range is the range, usually given in dB, between the smallest and largest useful output levels. The lowest useful level is limited by output noise, while the largest is limited most often by distortion. The ratio of these two is quoted as the amplifier dynamic range. More precisely, if S = maximal allowed signal power and N = noise power, the dynamic range DR is DR = (S + N ) /N.
In many switched mode amplifiers, dynamic range is limited by the minimum output step size.
== Slew rate ==
Slew rate is the maximum rate of change of the output, usually quoted in volts per second (or microsecond). Many amplifiers are ultimately slew rate limited (typically by the impedance of a drive current having to overcome capacitive effects at some point in the circuit), which sometimes limits the full power bandwidth to frequencies well below the amplifier's small-signal frequency response.
== Rise time ==
The rise time, tr, of an amplifier is the time taken for the output to change from 10% to 90% of its final level when driven by a step input.
For a Gaussian response system (or a simple RC roll off), the rise time is approximated by:
tr * BW = 0.35, where tr is rise time in seconds and BW is bandwidth in Hz.
== Settling time and ringing ==
The time taken for the output to settle to within a certain percentage of the final value (for instance 0.1%) is called the settling time, and is usually specified for oscilloscope vertical amplifiers and high-accuracy measurement systems. Ringing refers to an output variation that cycles above and below an amplifier's final value and leads to a delay in reaching a stable output. Ringing is the result of overshoot caused by an underdamped circuit.
== Overshoot ==
In response to a step input, the overshoot is the amount the output exceeds its final, steady-state value.
== Stability ==
Stability is an issue in all amplifiers with feedback, whether that feedback is added intentionally or results unintentionally. It is especially an issue when applied over multiple amplifying stages.
Stability is a major concern in RF and microwave amplifiers. The degree of an amplifier's stability can be quantified by a so-called stability factor. There are several different stability factors, such as the Stern stability factor and the Linvil stability factor, which specify a condition that must be met for the absolute stability of an amplifier in terms of its two-port parameters.
|
[
"Gaussian",
"second",
"Specification (technical standard)",
"Inductive coupling",
"harmonic",
"direct coupling",
"field-effect transistor",
"dynamic range",
"Crossover distortion",
"noise figure",
"Low-noise amplifier",
"half-power point",
"Octave (electronics)",
"Linearization",
"hertz",
"BIBO stability",
"Slew rate",
"roll-off",
"step response",
"Low-pass filter",
"Damping ratio",
"Noise (electronics)",
"voltage",
"Hearing (sense)",
"microwave",
"Radio frequency",
"predistortion",
"distortion",
"logarithm",
"Nonlinear system",
"Gain (electronics)",
"rise time",
"switching amplifier",
"instrumentation amplifier",
"amplifier",
"electronics",
"Ultrasound",
"Figures of merit",
"slew rate",
"radio interference",
"input impedance",
"bandwidth (signal processing)",
"Bandwidth (signal processing)",
"Feed forward (control)",
"Ringing (signal)",
"noise",
"overshoot (signal)",
"infrasonic",
"Electronic amplifier",
"settling time",
"power bandwidth",
"Audio system measurements",
"two-port parameters",
"decibel"
] |
3,217 |
Army of Darkness
|
Army of Darkness is a 1992 American dark fantasy comedy film directed, co-written, and co-edited by Sam Raimi. The film is the third installment in the Evil Dead film series and the sequel to Evil Dead II (1987). Starring Bruce Campbell and Embeth Davidtz, it follows Ash Williams (Campbell) as he is trapped in the Middle Ages and battles the undead in his quest to return to the present.
The film was produced as part of a production deal with Universal Pictures after the financial success of Darkman (1990). Filming took place in California in 1991. The makeup and creature effects for the film were handled by two different companies: Tony Gardner and his company Alterian, Inc. were responsible for the makeup effects for Ash and Sheila, while Kurtzman, Nicotero & Berger EFX Group was credited for the remaining special makeup effects characters. Tom Sullivan, who had previously worked on Within the Woods, The Evil Dead, and Evil Dead II, also contributed to the visual effects.
Army of Darkness had its premiere at the Sitges Film Festival on October 9, 1992, and was released in the United States on February 19, 1993. It grossed $21.5 million total over its $11 million budget and received generally positive reviews from critics, who praised Raimi's direction, humor, visuals and Campbell's performance, though criticism was aimed at the lighter tone compared to the previous films.
Despite not being a box office success in the U.S., it became a success on video release and later garnered a cult following from fans of the series, along with the other two films in the trilogy. The film was dedicated to The Evil Dead sales agent and Evil Dead II executive producer Irvin Shapiro, who died before the film's production in 1989.
== Plot ==
Having been accidentally transported to the Middle Ages, Ash Williams is captured by Lord Arthur's men, who suspect him of being a spy for Duke Henry, with whom Arthur is at war. He is enslaved along with the captured Henry, his shotgun and chainsaw are confiscated, and he is taken to Arthur's castle. Ash is thrown in a pit where he kills a Deadite and regains his weapons from Arthur's Wise Man. After demanding that Henry and his men be set free and killing a Deadite publicly, Ash is celebrated as a hero. He grows attracted to Sheila, the sister of one of Arthur's fallen knights.
According to the Wise Man, the only way that Ash can return to his time is through the magical Necronomicon Ex-Mortis. Ash then starts his search for the Necronomicon. As he enters a haunted forest, an unseen force pursues Ash into a windmill, and he crashes into a mirror. Small reflections of Ash in the mirror shards come to life and antagonize him, with one becoming a life-sized copy of him, which Ash dismembers and buries.
When he arrives at the Necronomicons location, he finds three books instead of one, and has to determine which one is real. Realizing at the last moment that he has forgotten the last word of the phrase that will allow him to remove the book safely "Klaatu barada nikto" he tries to mumble and cough his way through the pronunciation. He grabs the book and begins rushing back. Meanwhile, unknown to Ash, his ruse has failed and his body's copy rises from the dead, uniting other Deadites into the Army of Darkness.
Upon his return, Ash demands to be returned to his own time. However, Sheila is abducted by a flying Deadite and later transformed into one by "Evil Ash". Ash becomes determined to lead the outnumbered humans against the Army, and the people reluctantly agree. Using knowledge from textbooks in his 1973 Oldsmobile Delta 88 and enlisting the help of Duke Henry, Ash successfully leads the soldiers to victory over the Deadites, blows up "Evil Ash", saves Sheila, and brings peace between Arthur and Henry. Using a passage from the Necronomicon, the Wise Man tells him how to return to the present by giving him a potion after reciting the same phrase as earlier.
Back in the present, Ash recounts his story to a fellow employee at the S-Mart department store. As he talks to a female co-worker who is interested in his story, a surviving Deadite, present because Ash once again forgot the last word, attacks the customers. Ash kills it using a Winchester rifle and exclaims, "Hail to the king, baby", before passionately kissing the co-worker.
===Original ending===
For the film's original ending, using a passage from the Necronomicon, the Wise Man tells Ash to swallow six drops of the potion to return to the present; unfortunately, due to a distraction by falling rocks, Ash miscalculates the amount of potion needed to be able to correctly return to his own time, swallowing seven instead of six. As a result, Ash wakes up in a post-apocalyptic London where human civilization is destroyed, and he screams in dismay at having overslept. Universal Pictures objected to this climax, feeling that it was too negative and depressing in tone; as such, a more positive and optimistic ending was filmed and ultimately incorporated into the theatrical cut.
==Cast==
Bruce Campbell as Ashley "Ash" J. Williams and "Evil Ash"
Embeth Davidtz as Sheila
Marcus Gilbert as Lord Arthur
Ian Abercrombie as Wise Man
Richard Grove as Duke Henry the Red
Timothy Patrick Quill as Blacksmith
Michael Earl Reid as Gold Tooth
Bridget Fonda as Linda
Bill Moseley as Deadite captain
Patricia Tallman as Possessed witch
Ted Raimi as Cowardly warrior/Second supportive villager/S-Mart clerk/Skeleton voices
Angela Featherstone as Girl in S-Mart (uncredited)
==Production==
===Development===
Plans to make a third Evil Dead film had been circulating for a number of years, even prior to the production of Darkman. Evil Dead II made enough money internationally that Dino De Laurentiis was willing to finance a sequel. Director and script writer Sam Raimi drew from a variety of sources, including literature with A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court and Jonathan Swift's Gulliver's Travels and films like The 7th Voyage of Sinbad, Jason and the Argonauts, The Three Stooges, and Conan the Barbarian. Evil Dead II, according to Bruce Campbell, "was originally designed to go back into the past to 1300, but we couldn't muster it at the time, so we decided to make an interim version, not knowing if the 1300 story would ever get made". Promotional drawings were created and published in Variety during the casting process before the budget was deemed too little for the plot. The working title for the project was Medieval Dead, before it was later known as Evil Dead III: Army of Darkness. The title "Army of Darkness" came from an idea by Irvin Shapiro, during the production of Evil Dead II.
===Writing===
Initially, Raimi invited Scott Spiegel to co-write Army of Darkness because he had done a good job on Evil Dead II, but he was busy on rewrites for the Clint Eastwood film The Rookie. After the good experience of writing the screenplay for a film called Easy Wheels, Sam and his brother Ivan decided to co-write the film together. They worked on the script throughout the pre-production and production of Darkman. After filming Darkman, they took the script out and worked on it in more detail. Raimi says that Ivan "has a good sense of character" and that he brought more comedy into the script. Campbell remembers, "We all decided, 'Get him out of the cabin.' There were earlier drafts where part three still took place there, but we thought, 'Well, we all know that cabin, it's time to move on.' The three of us decided to keep it in 1300, because it's more interesting". Campbell and Tapert would read the script drafts, give Raimi their notes and he would decide which suggestions to keep and which ones to discard.
===Pre-production===
The initial budget was $8 million; during pre-production, however, it became obvious that this was not going to be enough. Darkman was also a financial success and De Laurentiis had a multi-picture deal with Universal and so Army of Darkness became one of the films. The studio decided to contribute half of the film's $12 million budget. However, the film's ambitious scope and its extensive effects work forced Campbell, Raimi and producer Robert Tapert to put up $1 million of their collective salaries to shoot a new ending and not film a scene where a possessed woman pushes down some giant pillars. Visual effects supervisor William Mesa showed Raimi storyboards he had from Victor Fleming's film Joan of Arc that depicted huge battle scenes and he picked out 25 shots to use in Army of Darkness. A storyboard artist worked closely with the director in order to blend the shots from the Joan of Arc storyboards with the battle scenes in his film.
Traci Lords was among the actresses auditioning for the film, saying in 2001, "I didn't get the part but I clicked with Bruce [Campbell]," with whom she would later work as a guest star in the TV series Hercules: The Legendary Journeys.
===Filming===
Principal photography took place between soundstage and on-location work. Army of Darkness was filmed in Bronson Canyon and Vasquez Rocks Natural Area Park. The interior shots were filmed on an Introvision stage in Hollywood. Raimi's use of the Introvision process was a tribute to the stop-motion animation work of Ray Harryhausen. Introvision uses front-projected images with live actors instead of the traditional rear projection that Harryhausen and others used. Introvision blended components with more realistic-looking results. To achieve this effect, Raimi used 60-foot-tall Scotchlite front-projection screens, miniatures and background plates. According to the director, the advantage of using this technique was "the incredible amount of interaction between the background, which doesn't exist, and the foreground, which is usually your character".
Shooting began in mid-1991, and it lasted for about 100 days. It was a mid-summer shoot and while on location on a huge castle set that was built near Acton, California, on the edge of the Mojave Desert, the cast and crew endured very hot conditions during the day and very cold temperatures at night. Most of the film took place at night and the filmmakers shot most of the film during the summer when the days were longest and the nights were the shortest. It would take an hour and a half to light an area leaving the filmmakers only six hours left to shoot a scene. Money problems forced cinematographer Bill Pope to shoot only for certain hours Monday through Friday because he could not be paid his standard fee. Mesa shot many of the action sequences on the weekend.
It was a difficult shoot for Campbell who had to learn elaborate choreography for the battle scenes, which involved him remembering a number system because the actor was often fighting opponents that were not really there. Mesa remembers, "Bruce was cussing and swearing some of the time because you had to work on the number system. Sam would tell us to make it as complicated and hard for Bruce as possible. 'Make him go through torture!' So we'd come up with these shots that were really, really difficult, and sometimes they would take thirty-seven takes". Some scenes, like Evil Ash walking along the graveyard while his skeleton minions come to life, blended stop-motion animation with live-action skeleton puppets that were mechanically rigged, with prosthetics and visual effects.
During the filming of a scene in which Campbell flipped a stuntman down a set of stairs, the lower part of his face contacted with a piece of armor, which resulted in him bleeding. Campbell was brought to a local emergency room to have the wound mended by a plastic surgeon, who, upon seeing the number of artificial cuts and slashes on Campbell's face, asked, "Which one is it?" In order to maintain the continuity of the injuries and dirt on Ash's face, the on-set makeup specialist utilized a plastic template that fit over Campbell's face.
The filmmakers initially intended to reshoot the shot from Evil Dead II in which Ash and the Oldsmobile fall from the sky onto the ground of medieval England, with Campbell later stating that the reason they sought to reshoot it rather than reusing the footage from the previous film was due to "a rights issue". Campbell was initially supposed to jump from a ladder onto the ground, and the Oldsmobile dropped from its suspension on an aircraft cable attached to a crane on a nearby access road. However, the support legs under the crane gave out, causing the car to prematurely crash to the ground and the crane to fall off a cliff into a gravel pit. Campbell noted that, "Ironically, after all the hassle, we wound up using the footage from 1986."
===Post-production===
While Dino De Laurentiis gave Raimi and his crew freedom to shoot the film the way they wanted, Universal took over during post-production. Universal was not happy with Raimi's cut, specifically its ending in which Ash wakes up in a futuristic, post-apocalyptic wasteland, as they felt it was too negative. A more upbeat ending was shot a month later in a lumber store in Malibu, California. (Raimi later noted, "Actually, I kind of like the fact that there are two endings, that in one alternate universe Bruce is screwed, and in another universe he's some cheesy hero".) Two months after principal filming was finished, a round of re-shoots began in Santa Monica and involved Ash in the windmill and the scenes with Bridget Fonda.
Raimi needed $3 million to finish his film, but Universal was not willing to give him the money and delayed its release due to a dispute with De Laurentiis over the rights to the Hannibal Lecter character which Universal needed so that they could film a sequel to The Silence of the Lambs. The matter was finally resolved, but the release date for Army of Darkness was pushed back from summer of 1992 to February 1993.
For the film's poster, Universal brought Campbell in to take several reference head shots and asked him to strike a sly look on his face. They showed him a rough of the Frank Frazetta-like painting. The actor had a day to approve it or, as he was told, there would be no ad campaign for the film. Raimi ran into further troubles when the Motion Picture Association of America gave it an NC-17 rating for a shot of a female Deadite being killed early on in the film. Universal wanted a PG-13 rating, so Raimi made a few cuts and was still stuck with an R rating. In response, Universal turned the film over to outside film editors who cut the film to 81 minutes and another version running 87 minutes that was eventually released in theaters, still with an R rating.
==Music==
Danny Elfman, who composed the score for Darkman, wrote the "March of the Dead" theme for Army of Darkness. After the re-shoots were completed, Joseph LoDuca, who composed the music for The Evil Dead and Evil Dead II, returned to score the film. The composer used his knowledge of synthesizers and was able to present many cues in a mock-up form before he recorded them with the Seattle Symphony. A vinyl release of the score was revealed during the MondoCon in Austin, Texas, on October 3 and 4, 2015 over Mondo Records.
==Reception==
===Box office===
Army of Darkness was released by Universal on February 19, 1993, in 1,387 theaters in the United States, grossing $4.4 million (38.5% of total gross) in its first weekend. On a budget of $11 million, the film earned $11.5 million in the US and $21.5 million worldwide.
===Critical response===
On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 68% based on 87 reviews, with an average rating of 6.6/10. The site's critics consensus reads, "Some of the evil magic is gone as this trilogy capper dispenses with most of the scares, but Bruce Campbell's hammy charm and Sam Raimi's homage to classic visual effects make for a fun enough adventure." On Metacritic, the film holds a weighted average score of 59 out of 100, based on 32 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".
Roger Ebert gave the film two out of four stars and wrote, "The movie isn't as funny or entertaining as Evil Dead II, however, maybe because the comic approach seems recycled." In her review for The New York Times, Janet Maslin wrote that "Mr. Campbell's manly, mock-heroic posturing is perfectly in keeping with the director's droll outlook." Desson Howe, in his review for The Washington Post praised the film's style: "Bill Pope's cinematography is gymnastic and appropriately frenetic. The visual and make-up effects (from artist-technicians William Mesa, Tony Gardner and others) are incredibly imaginative." However, Entertainment Weekly gave the film a "C+" rating and wrote, "This spoofy cast of thousands looks a little too much like a crew of bland Hollywood extras. By the time Army of Darkness turns into a retread of Jason and the Argonauts, featuring an army of fighting skeletons, the film has fallen into a ditch between parody and spectacle."
===Accolades===
Army of Darkness won the Saturn Award for Best Horror Film (1994). It was also nominated for Best Make-Up. Army of Darkness was nominated for the Grand Prize at Avoriaz Fantastic Film Festival, and won the Golden Raven at the Brussels International Festival of Fantasy Film in 1993. The film also won the Critics' Award at Fantasporto, and was nominated for the International Fantasy Film Award in the category of Best Film in 1993. It was also nominated for Best Film at Sitges, the Spanish International Film Festival.
==Other media==
===Future===
In March 2013, shortly before the release of Evil Dead, a loose continuation of the franchise, Raimi stated that the next Evil Dead film will be Army of Darkness 2. Campbell confirmed that he would star as an older, but not necessarily wiser, Ash. At a WonderCon panel in March, Campbell and Fede Álvarez, director of the 2013 film, stated that their ultimate plan was for Álvarez's Evil Dead 2 and Raimi's Army of Darkness 2 to be followed by a seventh film which would merge the narratives of Ash and Mia. Later in October, Campbell once again confirmed in an interview with ComicBook.com that he will be reprising his role as Ash in the sequel. Fede Álvarez posted a status update on his Twitter account that Raimi will direct the sequel. Campbell later commented that the rumor about him returning is false.
In July 2014, Campbell stated it was likely the planned sequel would instead be a TV series with him as the star. The ten-episode season of Ash vs Evil Dead premiered on Starz on October 31, 2015, with the pilot co-written and directed by Sam Raimi. Due to legal issues with Universal, the events from Army of Darkness could not specifically be mentioned in the first season; it was later resolved and the events from that film were mentioned in the second season. In addition to Campbell, the series stars Dana DeLorenzo, Ray Santiago,
A new Evil Dead film, entitled Evil Dead Rise, written and directed by Lee Cronin and starring Alyssa Sutherland, Lily Sullivan, Gabrielle Echols, Morgan Davies, Nell Fisher, and Mia Challis was theatrically released on April 21, 2023.
===Comics===
Army of Darkness had a comic book adaptation and several comic book sequels. The movie adaptation, from publisher Dark Horse Comics, was published before the film's theatrical release.
Army of Darkness (movie adaptation)
Army of Darkness: Ashes 2 Ashes
Army of Darkness: Shop till You Drop Dead
Darkman vs. Army of Darkness
Army of Darkness vs. Re-Animator
Army of Darkness: Old School
Army of Darkness: Ash vs. The Classic Monsters
Marvel Zombies vs. The Army of Darkness
Army of Darkness: From the Ashes
Army of Darkness: Long Road Home
Freddy vs. Jason vs. Ash
Freddy vs. Jason vs. Ash: The Nightmare Warriors
Army of Darkness/Xena: Warrior Princess: Why Not?
Xena vs. Army of Darkness: What Again?
Army of Darkness vs. Hack/Slash
===Role-playing game===
Eden Studios, Inc. published the Army of Darkness Roleplaying Game in 2005.
=== Video games ===
The 2000 video game Evil Dead: Hail to the King, and its 2003 sequel Evil Dead: A Fistful of Boomstick, act as sequels to Army of Darkness, taking place several years after the events of the film. Both games were published by THQ; Hail to the King was released for PlayStation, Dreamcast, and Microsoft Windows, and A Fistful of Boomstick was released for PlayStation 2 and Xbox.
In 2011, a tower defense mobile game titled Army of Darkness: Defense, developed by Backflip Studios and published by MGM Interactive, was released for iOS and Android.
The 2022 video game Evil Dead: The Game—published by Saber Interactive for PlayStation 4, PlayStation 5, Windows, Xbox One and Xbox Series X/S—includes playable characters from Army of Darkness, including Ash, Lord Arthur, Duke Henry the Red, A "Castle Kandar" map, featuring locations from Army of Darkness, was made available as downloadable content (DLC).
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3,218 |
RUR-5 ASROC
|
{{Infobox weapon
| is_missile = yes
| name = RUR-5 ASROC
| image = ASROC launcher.JPG
| image_size = 300
| caption = ASROC Launcher on board Mölders (D186)
| origin = United States
| type = Standoff anti-submarine ballistic missile
| used_by = United States Navy and others
| manufacturer = Honeywell
| unit_cost = Approximately $350,000 (not including warhead)
| designer = Naval Ordnance Test Station Pasadena
| ceiling =
| altitude =
| filling = Mark 46 torpedo,
==History==
ASROC started development as the Rocket Assisted Torpedo (RAT) program by Naval Air Weapons Station China Lake in the early 1950s to develop a surface warship anti-submarine warfare (ASW) weapon to counter the new post-World War II submarines which ran quieter, at much higher speed and could attack from much longer range with high speed homing torpedoes. In addition, the goal was to take advantage of modern sonars with a much larger detection range. An extended range torpedo delivered by parachute from the air would allow warships the stand-off capability to attack hostile submarines with very little advance notice to the hostile submarine.
The RAT program came in three phases: RAT-A, RAT-B and RAT-C. RAT-A and its follow-on, RAT-B, were compact and economical stand-off weapons for smaller warships, but were determined to be either unreliable or had too short a range. RAT-C was developed as a stand-off ASW weapon that used a nuclear depth charge. This required a range of at least to escape potential damage from the underwater blast. The RAT-C was considerably larger than the previous RAT program rockets to accommodate the extended range needed and was for larger warships.
After the failure of both the RAT-A and RAT-B programs, RAT-C was redesigned to use not only a nuclear depth charge but also a homing ASW torpedo. To obtain the accuracy needed, the RAT-C rocket booster had to be redesigned with larger side fins. This program finally combined reliability and accuracy, along with the required stand-off range. Before RAT-C reached operational status in 1960, aboard the large US Navy destroyer leader , its name was changed to ASROC. ASROC was deployed in 1961 and eventually made the majority of USN surface combatants nuclear-capable.
==Description==
The first ASROC system using the MK-112 "Matchbox" launcher was developed in the 1950s and installed in the 1960s. This system was phased out in the 1990s and replaced with the RUM-139 Vertical Launch ASROC, or "VLA". or a W44 nuclear depth bomb onto an unguided ballistic trajectory toward the target. At a pre-determined point on the missile's trajectory, the payload separates from the missile and deploys a parachute to permit splashdown and water entry at a low speed and with minimum detectable noise. Water entry activates the torpedo, which is guided by its own sonar system, and homes in on the target using either active sonar or passive sonar.
===W44 nuclear depth charge===
The W44 nuclear depth charge entered service in 1961, but was never used beyond one or two tests before the Limited Nuclear Test Ban Treaty banning underwater nuclear tests went into effect. A total of 575 weapons were produced. The W44 weighed with a diameter of and length of . Following payload separation, the unguided W44 sank quickly to a predetermined depth where the 10-kiloton warhead detonated. The nuclear-armed ASROC was never used in combat. W44-armed ASROC missiles were retired by 1989, when all types of nuclear depth bombs were removed from deployment.
The 31 U.S. Navy s were all built with the Mark 16 Mod 7 ASROC Launching Group and MK 4 ASROC Weapons Handling System (AWHS) reload system. These had one standard Mark 112 octuple ASROC launcher, located immediately above a reload system holding an additional 16 assembled rounds (two complete reloads of eight missiles apiece). Thus, each Spruance-class destroyer originally carried a maximum total of 24 ASROC.
Most other US Navy and allied navy destroyers, destroyer escorts, frigates, and several different classes of cruisers only carried the one ASROC "matchbox" MK 112 launcher with eight ASROC missiles (although later in service, some of those missiles could be replaced by the Harpoon anti-ship missile). The "matchbox" Mk 112 launchers were capable of carrying a mixture of the two types. Reloads were carried in many classes, either on first level of the superstructure immediately abaft the launcher, or in a separate deckhouse just forward or abaft the Mk 112.
The MK 16 Launching Group also had configurations that supported RGM-84 Harpoon (onboard destroyer escorts (frigates)) or a variation of the Tartar missile in limited distribution.
Ships with the Mk 26 GMLS, and late marks of the Mk 10 GMLS aboard the s, could accommodate ASROC in these power-loaded launchers (the Mk 13 GMLS was not able to fire the weapon, as the launcher rail was too short).
Most Spruance-class destroyers were later modified to include the Mk 41 VLS, these launchers are capable of carrying a mixture of the RUM-139 VL-ASROC, the Tomahawk TLAM, and other missiles. All of the Spruance destroyers carried two separate quad Harpoon launchers. Other US ships with the Mk 41 can also accommodate VL-ASROC.
==Operators==
===Former operators===
- only on s (after IRE/DELEX modification.)
- only on s
- only on using a Mk 10 GMLS launcher (depot for 40 missiles, between RIM-2 Terrier / RIM-67A SM-1ER and ASROC)
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3,221 |
Ahmed al-Nami
|
Ahmed bin Abdullah al-Nami (; 7 December 197711 September 2001) was a Saudi terrorist hijacker. He was one of the four hijackers of United Airlines Flight 93, which was crashed into a field in Stonycreek Township, Pennsylvania, following a passenger revolt, as part of the 11 September attacks.
Born in Saudi Arabia, al-Nami had served as a muezzin and was a college student. He left his family in 2000 to complete the Hajj, but later went to Afghanistan bound for an al-Qaeda training camp where he befriended other future hijackers and would soon be chosen to participate in the attacks.
He arrived in the United States in May 2001, on a tourist visa, where he would settle in Florida up until the attacks. On 11 September 2001, al-Nami boarded United 93 and assisted in the hijacking of the plane so that it could be flown into the U.S. Capitol. The plane instead crashed into a field in rural Somerset County, Pennsylvania during a passenger uprising, due to the passengers receiving information from their families of the three other hijacked planes that hit the World Trade Center and the Pentagon. Al-Nami, along with Ahmed al-Haznawi are suspected to have carried the presumed bomb that was brought aboard Flight 93.
==Early life and activities==
Ahmed al-Nami, much like Wail al-Shehri, Waleed al-Shehri and Mohand al-Shehri, was born in the 'Asir Province in Saudi Arabia. Born to the Quraysh tribe of Saudi Arabia, al-Nami served as a muezzin at the Seqeley mosque after having reportedly become very religious sometime in early 1999. That autumn he left his family home in Abha in the summer of 2000 to complete the Hajj, but never returned – instead travelling to the Al Farouq training camp in Afghanistan where he met and befriended Waleed and Wail al-Shehri, two brothers from Khamis Mushayt in the same province, and Saeed al-Ghamdi. The four reportedly pledged themselves to Jihad in the spring of 2000, in a ceremony presided over by Wail al-Shehri – who had dubbed himself Abu Mossaeb al-Janubi after one of Muhammad's companions. Dubbed "Abu Hashim", al-Nami was considered "gentle in manner" by his colleagues, and reported that he had a dream in which he rode a mare along with Muhammad, and that the prophet told him to dismount and fight his enemies to liberate his land. He was interviewed by a consular officer, who again approved his application. Records at the time only recorded past failures to procure a visa, so the officer had no way of realising that Nami had successfully received an earlier visa.
In mid-November 2000, the 9/11 Commission believed that al-Nami, Wail and Waleed al-Shehri, all of whom had obtained their U.S. visas in late October, traveled in a group from Saudi Arabia to Beirut and then onward to Iran where they could travel through to Afghanistan without getting their passports stamped. This probably followed their return to Saudi Arabia to get "clean" passports. An associate of a senior Hezbollah operative is thought to have been on the same flight, although this may have been a coincidence.
While in the United Arab Emirates, al-Nami purchased traveler's cheques presumed to have been paid for by Mustafa al-Hawsawi. Five other hijackers also passed through the UAE and purchased travellers cheques, including Majed Moqed, Saeed al-Ghamdi, Hamza al-Ghamdi, Ahmed al-Haznawi and Wail al-Shehri.
===2001===
In March 2001, Ahmed al-Nami appeared in an al-Qaeda farewell video showing 13 of the "muscle hijackers" before they left their training centre in Kandahar; while he does not speak, he is seen studying maps and flight manuals.
On 23 April, al-Nami was recorded obtaining a new US visa.
On 28 May, al-Nami arrived in the United States from Dubai with fellow-hijackers Mohand al-Shehri and Hamza al-Ghamdi. By early June, al-Nami was living in apartment 1504 at the Delray Racquet Club condominiums with Saeed al-Ghamdi in Delray Beach, Florida. He telephoned his family in 'Asir shortly after arriving in the country.
In June, he phoned his family for the last time.
He was one of 9 hijackers to open a SunTrust bank account with a cash deposit around June 2001, and on June 29 received either a Florida State Identification Card or Drivers License.
He may have been one of three hijackers that listed the Naval Air Station in Pensacola, Florida as their permanent address on drivers' licenses, though other sources claim he listed the Delray condominium.
On 28 August, al-Nami and Ahmed al-Haznawi reportedly bothered a Delray Beach resident, Maria Siscar Simpson, to let them through her apartment to retrieve a towel that had fallen off their balcony onto hers.
On 5 September, al-Nami and Saeed al-Ghamdi purchased tickets for a September 7 flight to Newark at Mile High Travel on Commercial Boulevard—paying cash for their tickets. Ziad Jarrah and al-Haznawi also purchased tickets for the same flight from Passage Tours.
On 7 September, all four Flight 93 hijackers flew from Fort Lauderdale to Newark International Airport aboard Spirit Airlines.
==Attacks==
On 11 September 2001, al-Nami arrived in Newark to board United Airlines Flight 93 along with al-Ghamdi, al-Haznawi and Jarrah. Some reports suggest al-Haznawi was pulled aside for screening while others claim there is no record of whether any of the four were screened; the lack of CCTV cameras at the time has compounded the problem. Nami boarded the plane between 7:39 am and 7:48 am; seated in First Class 3C, next to al-Ghamdi.
Due to the flight's routine delay, the pilot and crew were notified of the previous hijackings and were told to be on the alert, though within two minutes Jarrah had stormed the cockpit leaving the pilots dead or injured.
At least two of the cellphone calls made by passengers indicate that the hijackers were wearing red bandanas. The calls also indicated that one had tied a box around his torso, and claimed there was a bomb inside.
Passengers on the plane heard through phone calls the fates of the other hijacked planes, and organized a brief assault to retake the cockpit. The plane crashed into the Pennsylvanian countryside and all aboard died.
==Aftermath==
He has been portrayed by British actor Jamie Harding in the 2006 film United 93 and Asim Wali in the film Flight 93.
Television film The Flight That Fought Back (2005) portrays the passenger uprising inside the hijacked United Airlines 93, with actor Raj Mann portraying Ahmed al-Nami.
|
[
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] |
3,222 |
Ahmed al-Haznawi
|
Ahmed Ibrahim al-Haznawi al-Ghamdi (11 October 198011 September 2001) was a Saudi terrorist hijacker. He was one of the four hijackers of United Airlines Flight 93, which was crashed into a field in Stonycreek Township, Pennsylvania, following a passenger revolt, as part of the September 11 attacks.
He left his family to fight in Chechnya in 2000. He was chosen to participate in the 9/11 attacks. He arrived in the United States in June 2001 under the direction of Al-Qaeda for terrorist attacks, on a tourist visa. Once he was in the U.S., he settled in Florida and helped plan out how the attacks would take place.
On 11 September 2001, al-Haznawi boarded United Airlines Flight 93 and assisted in the hijacking of the plane so it could be crashed into the United States Capitol. Haznawi or Ahmed al-Nami are believed to be one of the apparent hijackers to have carried the bomb. Instead, the plane crashed into a field in Somerset County, Pennsylvania, after the passengers on-board started a revolt against al-Haznawi and the other hijackers.
==Early life==
Ahmed al-Haznawi was the son of a Saudi imam from the Al-Bahah province, a province in the south west of Saudi Arabia. Al-Haznawi grew up in the village of Hazna, where his father was a cleric at the mosque in the central marketplace section of the village. Al-Haznawi belonged to a family that was part of the larger Ghamd tribe, sharing the same tribal affiliation with fellow hijackers Saeed al-Ghamdi, Hamza al-Ghamdi, and Ahmed al-Ghamdi. He memorised the Quran, giving him the title hafiz.
This group is noted as being some of the more religiously observant of the hijackers, and they are thought to have met one another some time in 1999.
==Early activities==
===1999–2000===
al-Haznawi announced he was leaving his family in 1999 to fight in Chechnya, although his father forbade him from travelling to Chechnya. His father and brother, Abdul Rahman al-Haznawi, reportedly last heard from him in late 2000, after he made references to training in Afghanistan.
On 12 November 2000, al-Haznawi applied for and received a two-year U.S. B-1/B-2
(tourist/business) visa in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia.
From 27 November 2000, through 27 December that year, al-Haznawi was in Saudi Arabia for Ramadan. It is theorized that during this trip, he may have initially told Saeed and Hamza al-Ghamdi about the operation.
Some time late in 2000, al-Haznawi traveled to the United Arab Emirates, where he purchased traveler's cheques presumed to have been paid for by Mustafa al-Hawsawi. Five other hijackers also passed through the UAE and purchased travellers cheques, including Majed Moqed, Saeed al-Ghamdi, Hamza al-Ghamdi, Wail al-Shehri and Ahmed al-Nami.
===2001===
He was one of four hijackers believed to be staying at a Kandahar guest house in March 2001, where they were seen by Mohammed Jabarah. Jabarah remembered al-Haznawi specifically, saying that he was "very devout and could recite the entire Koran from memory."
On 8 June, he arrived in Miami, Florida, with fellow hijacker Wail al-Shehri. He was one of nine hijackers to open a SunTrust bank account with a cash deposit around June 2001. He is believed to have moved in with Ziad Jarrah, who got a new apartment on Bougainvilla Dr. in Lauderdale-by-the-Sea, after both men gave the landlord photocopies of their German passports, which he later turned over to the FBI.
On 25 June, Jarrah took al-Haznawi to Holy Cross Hospital in Fort Lauderdale on advice of his landlord. Al-Haznawi was treated by Dr. Christos Tsonas, who gave him antibiotics for a cut on his left calf. While he told staff that he had bumped into a suitcase, the media briefly reported it as a sign of cutaneous anthrax and a possible link to the 2001 anthrax attacks, although FBI later addressed the rumors stating that "Exhaustive testing did not support that anthrax was present anywhere the hijackers had been."
On 10 July, al-Haznawi obtained a Florida driver's license, later obtaining another copy on 7 September 2001, by filling out a change-of-address form. Five other hijackers also received duplicate Florida licenses in 2001, and others had licenses from different states. Some have speculated that this was to allow multiple persons to use the same identity.
Jarrah and al-Haznawi both received their one-way tickets for United Airlines Flight 93, on 5 September. On 7 September all four Flight 93 hijackers flew from Fort Lauderdale to Newark International Airport aboard Spirit Airlines.
==Attacks==
On 11 September 2001, al-Haznawi arrived at Newark International Airport to board United Airlines Flight 93. Although he was selected for additional security by CAPPS and screened, he was able to board the flight without incident, with only his checked bags requiring extra screening for explosives.
Due to the flight's delay, the pilot and crew were notified of the previous hijackings that day and were told to be on the alert. Within minutes, Flight 93 was hijacked as well.
At least two of the cellphone calls made by passengers indicate that the hijackers were wearing red bandanas. The calls also indicated that one had tied a box around his torso, and claimed there was a bomb inside. Some passengers expressed doubt that the bomb was real.
Passengers on the plane heard through phone calls the fates of the other hijacked planes. A passenger uprising soon took place. Three times in a period of five seconds there were shouts of pain or distress from a hijacker outside the cockpit, suggesting that a hijacker was being attacked by the passengers. Hijacker-pilot Ziad Jarrah crashed the plane into an empty field near Shanksville, Pennsylvania, in order to prevent the passengers from gaining control of the plane. The crash killed everyone on board.
==Aftermath==
After the attacks, before the release of the FBI pictures of the hijackers, Arab News reported that al-Haznawi's brother Abdul Rahman had told al-Madinah newspaper that a photograph published by local newspapers bore no resemblance to his brother.
A videotape titled "The Wills of the New York and Washington Battle Martyrs" was aired on Al Jazeera on April 16, 2002. While the name beneath the speaker read al-Ghamdi, the image is of al-Haznawi speaking. Officials suggested that the name was merely a reference to his tribal affiliation. The film was thought to have been made in March 2001. In it, he talked about his plans to bring the "bloodied message" to America. In September 2002, a similar tape made by Abdulaziz al-Omari appeared.
== In popular culture ==
He has been portrayed by Moroccan actor Omar Berdouni in United 93, and Canadian actor Zak Santiago in Flight 93.
Television film The Flight That Fought Back (2005) portrays the passenger uprising inside the hijacked United Airlines 93, with actor Hugh Mun portraying al-Haznawi.
|
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"Newark International Airport",
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"Miami",
"Hamza al-Ghamdi",
"Al-Bahah Province"
] |
3,225 |
Athanasius of Alexandria
|
Athanasius I of Alexandria ( – 2 May 373), also called Athanasius the Great, Athanasius the Confessor, or, among Coptic Christians, Athanasius the Apostolic, was a Christian theologian and the 20th patriarch of Alexandria (as Athanasius I). His intermittent episcopacy spanned 45 years ( – 2 May 373), of which over 17 encompassed five exiles, when he was replaced on the order of four different Roman emperors. Athanasius was a Church Father, the chief proponent of Trinitarianism against Arianism, and a noted Egyptian Christian leader of the fourth century.
Conflict with Arius and Arianism, as well as with successive Roman emperors, shaped Athanasius' career. In 325, at age 27, Athanasius began his leading role against the Arians as a deacon and assistant to Bishop Alexander of Alexandria during the First Council of Nicaea. Roman Emperor Constantine the Great had convened the council in May–August 325 to address the Arian position that the Son of God, Jesus of Nazareth, is of a distinct substance from the Father. Three years after that council, Athanasius succeeded his mentor as Patriarch of Alexandria. In addition to the conflict with the Arians (including powerful and influential Arian churchmen led by Eusebius of Nicomedia), he struggled against the Emperors Constantine, Constantius II, Julian the Apostate and Valens. He was known as Athanasius Contra Mundum (Latin for 'Athanasius Against the World').
Nonetheless, within a few years of his death, Gregory of Nazianzus called him the "Pillar of the Church". His writings were well regarded by subsequent Church fathers in the West and the East, who noted their devotion to the Word-become-man, pastoral concern and interest in monasticism. Athanasius is considered one of the four great Eastern Doctors of the Church in the Catholic Church. Some argue that, in his Easter letter of 367, Athanasius was the first person to list the 27 books of the New Testament canon that are in use today. Others argue that Origen of Alexandria was the first to list the twenty-seven books of the New Testament in his Homilies on Joshua (only there is a textual variant as to whether or not he included Revelation). Athanasius is venerated as a saint in the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Catholic Church, the Coptic Orthodox Church, the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, the Anglican Communion, and Lutheranism.
== Biography ==
Athanasius was born to a Christian family in Alexandria, or possibly the nearby Nile Delta town of Damanhur, sometime between 293 and 298. The earlier date is sometimes assigned because of the maturity revealed in his two earliest treatises Contra Gentes (Against the Heathens) and De Incarnatione (On the Incarnation), which were likely written circa 318 before Arianism had begun to make itself felt, as those writings do not show an awareness of Arianism. He was, nevertheless, clearly not a member of the Egyptian aristocracy. Some Western scholars consider his command of Greek, in which he wrote most (if not all) of his surviving works, evidence that he may have been a Greek born in Alexandria. Historical evidence, however, indicates that he was fluent in Coptic as well, given the regions of Egypt where he preached. Its famous catechetical school, while sacrificing none of its famous passion for orthodoxy since the days of Pantaenus, Clement of Alexandria, Origen, Dionysius and Theognostus, had begun to take on an almost secular character in the comprehensiveness of its interests and had counted influential pagans among its serious auditors.
Peter of Alexandria, the 17th archbishop of Alexandria, was martyred in 311 in the closing days of the Great Persecution and may have been one of Athanasius's teachers. His successor as bishop of Alexandria was Alexander of Alexandria. According to Sozomen; "the Bishop Alexander 'invited Athanasius to be his commensal and secretary. He had been well educated, and was versed in grammar and rhetoric, and had already, while still a young man, and before reaching the episcopate, given proof to those who dwelt with him of his wisdom and acumen' ".(Soz., II, xvii)
Bishop (or Patriarch, the highest ecclesial rank in the Centre of the Church, in Alexandria) Alexander ordained Athanasius a deacon in 319. In 325, Athanasius served as Alexander's secretary at the First Council of Nicaea. Already a recognized theologian and ascetic, he was the obvious choice to replace his ageing mentor Alexander as the Pope of Alexandria, despite the opposition of the followers of Arius and Meletius of Lycopolis. Arius embraced a subordinationist Christology which taught that Christ was the divine Son (Logos) of God, made, not begotten. Arius had support from a powerful bishop named Eusebius of Nicomedia (not to be confused with Eusebius of Caesarea), illustrating how Arius's subordinationist Christology was shared by other Christians in the empire. Arius was subsequently excommunicated by Alexander, and Arius began to elicit the support of many bishops who agreed with his position. Alban Butler writes on the subject: "Five months after this great Council, Nicae, St Alexander lying on his deathbed, recommended to his clergy and people the choice of Athanasius for his successor, thrice repeating his name. In consequence of his recommendation, the bishops of all Egypt assembled at Alexandria, and finding the people and clergy unanimous in their choice of Athanasius for patriarch, they confirmed the election about the middle of year 326. He seems, then, to have been about thirty years of age."
Athanasius' episcopate began on 9 May 328 as the Alexandrian Council elected Athanasius to succeed after the death of Alexander. At that meeting, the Arians claimed Athanasius would try to cut off essential Egyptian grain supplies to Constantinople. He was found guilty and sent into exile to Augusta Treverorum in Gaul (now Trier in Germany).
When Athanasius reached his destination in exile in 336, Maximin of Trier received him, but not as a disgraced person. Athanasius stayed with him for two years. Constantine died in 337 and was succeeded by his three sons, Constantine II, Constantius, and Constans. Paul I of Constantinople had cautioned Emperor Constans against the Arians, revealing their plots, and he also had been banished and found shelter with Maximin.
====Second exile====
When Emperor Constantine I died, Athanasius was allowed to return to his See of Alexandria. Shortly thereafter, however, Constantius II renewed the order for Athanasius's banishment in 338. "Within a few weeks he set out for Rome to lay his case before the Church at large. He had made his appeal to Pope Julius, who took up his cause with whole-heartedness that never wavered down to the day of that holy pontiff's death. The pope summoned a synod of bishops to meet in Rome. After a careful and detailed examination of the entire case, the primate's innocence was proclaimed to the Christian world." and vigorously rejected the criticisms of the Eusebian faction at Tyre. Plus, Pope Julius wrote to the supporters of Arius strongly urging Athanasius's reinstatement, but that effort proved in vain. Julius called a synod in Rome in 340 to address the matter, which proclaimed Athanasius the rightful bishop of Alexandria.
Early in 343 Athanasius met with Hosius of Córdoba, and together they set out for Serdica. A full council of the Church was summoned there in deference to the Roman pontiff's wishes. At this great gathering of prelates, leaders of the Church, the case of Athanasius was taken up once more, that is, Athanasius was formally questioned over misdemeanours and even murder, (a bishop in Egypt named Arsenius had turned up missing, and they blamed his death on Athanasius, even supposedly producing Arsenius' severed hand.)
The council was convoked for the purpose of inquiring into the charges against Athanasius and other bishops, on account of which they were deposed from their sees by the semi-Arian Synod of Antioch in 341 and went into exile. Eusebian bishops objected to the admission of Athanasius and other deposed bishops to the council, except as accused persons to answer the charges brought against them. Their objections were overridden by the orthodox bishops. The Eusebians, seeing they had no chance of having their views carried, retired to Philippopolis in Thrace where they held an opposition council under the presidency of the Patriarch of Antioch and confirmed the decrees of the Synod of Antioch. He celebrated his last Easter in exile in Aquileia in April 345, received by Bishop Fortunatianus.
The Council of Serdica sent an emissary to report their finding to Constantius. Constantius reconsidered his decision, owing to a threatening letter from his brother Constans and the uncertain conditions of affairs on the Persian border, and he accordingly made up his mind to yield. But three separate letters were needed to overcome the natural hesitation of Athanasius. When he finally acquiesced to meet with Constantius, he was accorded a gracious interview by the emperor and sent back to his see in triumph and began ten years of peace.
With characteristic energy he set to work to re-establish the somewhat shattered fortunes of the orthodox party and to purge the theological atmosphere of uncertainty. To clear up the misunderstandings that had arisen in the course of the previous years, an attempt was made to determine still further the significance of the Nicene formularies. In the meanwhile, Julian, who seems to have become suddenly jealous of the influence that Athanasius was exercising at Alexandria, addressed an order to Ecdicius, the Prefect of Egypt, peremptorily commanding the expulsion of the restored primate on the ground that he had not been included in the imperial act of clemency. The edict was communicated to the bishop by Pythicodorus Trico, who, though described in the "Chronicon Athanasianum" (XXXV) as a "philosopher", seems to have behaved with brutal insolence. On 23 October the people gathered about the proscribed bishop to protest against the emperor's decree; but Athanasius urged them to submit, consoling them with the promise that his absence would be of short duration.
=== Polemical and theological works ===
Athanasius was not a speculative theologian. As he states in his First Letters to Serapion, he held on to "the tradition, teaching, and faith proclaimed by the apostles and guarded by the fathers." they constitute the first classic work of developed Orthodox theology. In the first part, Athanasius attacks several pagan practices and beliefs. The second part presents teachings on the redemption.
His other important works include his Letters to Serapion, which defends the divinity of the Holy Spirit. In a letter to Epictetus of Corinth, Athanasius anticipates future controversies in his defence of the humanity of Christ. In a letter addressed to the monk Dracontius, Athanasius urges him to leave the desert for the more active duties of a bishop.}}
=== Biographical and ascetic works ===
His biography of Anthony the Great entitled Life of Antony(Βίος καὶ Πολιτεία Πατρὸς Ἀντωνίου, Vita Antonii) became his most widely read work. Translated into several languages, it became something of a best seller in its day and played an important role in the spreading of the ascetic ideal in Eastern and Western Christianity. Athanasius' works on asceticism also include a Discourse on Virginity, a short work on Love and Self-Control, and a treatise On Sickness and Health (of which only fragments remain).
=== Misattributed works ===
There are several other works ascribed to him, although not necessarily generally accepted as being his own. These include the so-called Athanasian Creed (which is today generally seen as being of 5th-century Galician origin), and a complete Expositions on the Psalms. which he brought back to Egypt on 15 May. The relic is currently preserved under the new Saint Mark's Coptic Orthodox Cathedral in Cairo. However, the majority of Athanasius's corpse remains in the Venetian church.
All major Christian denominations which officially recognize saints venerate Athanasius. Western Christians observe his feast day on 2 May, the anniversary of his death. The Catholic Church considers Athanasius a Doctor of the Church. Athanasius is honored on the liturgical calendars of the Church of England and the Episcopal Church on 2 May. Gregory of Nazianzus (330–390, also a Doctor of the Church), said: "When I praise Athanasius, virtue itself is my theme: for I name every virtue as often as I mention him who was possessed of all virtues. He was the true pillar of the Church. His life and conduct were the rule of bishops, and his doctrine the rule of the orthodox faith."
The greater majority of Church leaders and the emperors fell into support for Arianism, so much so that Jerome (340–420) wrote of the period: "The whole world groaned and was amazed to find itself Arian". Athanasius' 39th Festal Letter, written in 367, is widely regarded as a milestone in the evolution of the canon of New Testament books. Some claim that Athanasius is the first person to identify the same 27 books of the New Testament that are in use today. Up until then, various similar lists of works to be read in churches were in use. Others argue that Origen of Alexandria was the first to list the twenty-seven books of the New Testament in his Homilies on Joshua (only there is a textual variant as to whether or not he included Revelation).
Athanasius' list is similar to the Codex Vaticanus in the Vatican Library. The establishment of the canon was not a unilateral decision by a bishop in Alexandria but the result of a process of careful investigation and deliberation, as documented in a codex of the Greek Bible and, twenty-seven years later, in his festal letter.
Scholars debate whether Athanasius' list in 367 formed the basis for later lists. Because Athanasius' canon is the closest canon of any of the Church Fathers to the one used by Protestant churches today, many Protestants point to Athanasius as the Father of the Canon.
=== Supporters ===
Christian denominations worldwide revere Athanasius as a saint and teacher. They cite his defence of the Christology described in the first chapter of the Gospel of St. John and his significant theological works (C. S. Lewis calls On the Incarnation of the Word of God a "masterpiece") as evidence of his righteousness. They also emphasize his close relationship with Anthony the Great, the ancient monk who was one of the founders of the Christian monastic movement.
The Gospel of St. John, and particularly the first chapter, demonstrates the Divinity of Jesus. This Gospel is the greatest support of Athanasius' stand. The Gospel of St. John's first chapter began to be said at the end of Mass, we believe as a result of Athanasius and his life's stand. The beginning of John's Gospel was much used as an object of special devotion throughout the Middle Ages; the practice of saying it at the altar grew, and eventually Pope Pius V made this practice universal for the Roman Rite in his 1570 edition of the Missal. It became a firm custom with exceptions in using another Gospel in use from 1920. Cyril of Alexandria (370–444) in the first letter says: "Athanasius is one who can be trusted: he would not say anything that is not in accord with sacred scripture." (Ep 1).
=== Critics ===
Throughout most of his career, Athanasius had many detractors. Classics scholar Timothy Barnes recounts ancient allegations against Athanasius: from defiling an altar, to selling Church grain that had been meant to feed the poor for his own personal gain, and even violence and murder to suppress dissent. According to Sir Isaac Newton, Athanasius lied about the death of Arius, feigned other men's letters and denied his own, murdered the bishop Arsenius, broke a communion cup, overthrew an altar, was made bishop by violence and sedition against the canons of his own church, and was seditious and immoral. Athanasius used "Arian" to describe both followers of Arius and as a derogatory polemical term for Christians who disagreed with his formulation of the Trinity. Athanasius called many of his opponents "Arian", except for Meletius.
Scholars now believe that the Arian party was not monolithic but held drastically different theological views that spanned the early Christian theological spectrum. They supported the tenets of Origenist thought and subordinationist theology but had little else in common. Moreover, many labelled "Arian" did not consider themselves followers of Arius. In addition, non-homoousian bishops disagreed with being labeled as followers of Arius, since Arius was merely a presbyter, while they were fully ordained bishops.
The old allegations continue to be made against Athanasius, however, many centuries later. For example, Richard E. Rubenstein suggests that Athanasius ascended to the rank of bishop in Alexandria under questionable circumstances because some questioned whether he had reached the minimum age of 30 years, and further that Athanasius employed force when it suited his cause or personal interests. Thus, he argues that a small number of bishops who supported Athanasius held a private consecration to make him bishop.
==Selected works==
Athanasius. Contra Gentes – De Incarnatione (translated by Thompson, Robert W.), text and ET (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971).
at
Letters to Serapion (on the Holy Spirit) at archive.org
|
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"Letter of Jeremiah",
"Serapion of Nitria",
"Theognostus of Alexandria",
"Millennialism",
"Pope Damasus I",
"Paul of Samosata",
"Patriarch of Alexandria",
"Roman emperor",
"Prophecy of Seventy Weeks",
"subordinationism",
"First Synod of Tyre",
"Pope Alexander I of Alexandria",
"Church of the Byzantine Rite",
"Tomus ad Antiochenos",
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"Catechetical School of Alexandria",
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] |
3,226 |
Azores
|
The Azores ( , , ; , ), officially the Autonomous Region of the Azores (), is one of the two autonomous regions of Portugal (along with Madeira). It is an archipelago composed of nine volcanic islands in the Macaronesia region of the North Atlantic Ocean, about west of Lisbon, about northwest of Morocco, about southeast of Newfoundland, Canada, and the same distance southwest of Cork, Ireland.
Its main industries are agriculture, dairy farming, livestock, fishing, and tourism, which has become a major service activity in the region. In the 20th century and to some extent into the 21st, they have served as a waypoint for refueling aircraft flying between Europe and North America. The government of the Azores employs a large percentage of the population directly or indirectly in the service and tertiary sectors. The largest city of the Azores is Ponta Delgada. The culture, dialect, cuisine, and traditions of the Azorean islands vary considerably, because these remote islands were settled sporadically over a span of two centuries.
There are nine major Azorean islands and an islet cluster, in three main groups. These are Flores and Corvo, to the west; Graciosa, Terceira, São Jorge, Pico, and Faial in the centre; and São Miguel, Santa Maria, and the Formigas islets to the east. They extend for more than and lie in a northwest–southeast direction. All of the islands have volcanic origins, although some, such as Santa Maria, have had no recorded activity in the time since the islands were settled several centuries ago. Mount Pico, on the island of Pico, is the highest point in Portugal, at . If measured from their base at the bottom of the ocean to their peaks, the Azores are among the tallest mountains on the planet.
The Azores are located at the seismically active Azores triple junction plate boundary where the North American plate, Eurasian plate and Nubian plate meet.
The climate of the Azores is very mild for such a northerly location, being influenced by its distance from the continents and by the passing Gulf Stream. Because of the marine influence, temperatures remain mild year-round. Daytime temperatures normally fluctuate between depending on season. Temperatures above or below are unknown in the major population centres. It is also generally wet and cloudy.
==History==
A small number of alleged hypogea (underground structures carved into rocks) have been identified on the islands of Corvo, Santa Maria, and Terceira by Portuguese archaeologist Nuno Ribeiro, who speculated that they might date back 2,000 years, implying a human presence on the island before the Portuguese. These structures have been used by settlers in the Azores to store grain and the suggestion by Ribeiro that they might be burial sites is unconfirmed. Detailed examination and dating to authenticate the validity of these speculations is lacking; thus it is unclear whether these structures are natural or human-made and whether they predate the 15th century Portuguese colonization of the Azores.
According to a 2015 paper published in Journal of Evolutionary Biology, research based on mouse mitochondrial DNA points to a Scandinavian rather than Portuguese origin of the local mouse population. A 2021 paper published in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, using data from lake sediment core sampling, suggests brush-clearing was undertaken and animal husbandry introduced between 700 and 850 A.D. These findings suggest a brief period of Norse settlement, and the 2021 paper further cites climate simulations that suggest the dominant westerly winds in the North Atlantic Ocean were weaker in that period, which would have made it easier for Viking ships to sail to the Azores from Scandinavia .
===Discovery===
In 1427, a captain sailing for Prince Henry the Navigator, possibly Gonçalo Velho, may have discovered the Azores, but this is not certain. In Thomas Ashe's 1813 work A History of the Azores, the author identified a Fleming, Joshua Vander Berg of Bruges, who made landfall in the archipelago during a storm on his way to Lisbon. According to Ashe, the Portuguese explored the area and claimed it for Portugal.
Although it is commonly said that the archipelago received its name from (Portuguese for goshawk, a common bird at the time of discovery) it is unlikely that the bird ever nested or hunted on the islands. There were no large animals on Santa Maria; after its discovery and before settlement began, sheep were let loose on the island to supply future settlers with food.
===Early settlement===
The archipelago was largely settled from mainland Portugal, but settlement did not take place right away. Gonçalo Velho Cabral gathered resources and settlers for the next three years (1433–1436) and sailed to establish colonies, first on Santa Maria and then on São Miguel. Settlers built houses, established villages and cleared bush and rocks to plant crops, grain, grapevines, sugar cane and other plants suitable for local use and for export. They brought domesticated animals, such as chickens, rabbits, cattle, sheep, goats and pigs. The settlement of the unoccupied islands started in 1439 with people mainly from the continental provinces of Algarve and Alentejo, in mainland Portugal. São Miguel was first settled in 1449, the settlers – mainly from the Estremadura, Alto Alentejo and Algarve areas of mainland Portugal – under the command of Gonçalo Velho Cabral, who landed at the site of modern-day Povoação.
===Flemish settlers===
The first reference to the island of São Jorge was made in 1439, but the date of discovery is unknown. In 1443, the island was already inhabited, but settlement began only after the arrival of the noble Flemish native Willem van der Haegen. Arriving at Topo, São Jorge, where he lived and died, he became known as Guilherme da Silveira to the islanders. João Vaz Corte-Real received the captaincy of the island in 1483. Velas became a town before the end of the 15th century. By 1490, there were 2,000 Flemings living on the islands of Terceira, Pico, Faial, São Jorge and Flores. Because there was such a large Flemish settlement, the Azores became known as the Flemish Islands or the Isles of Flanders.
Prince Henry the Navigator was responsible for this Flemish settlement. His sister, Isabel, was married to Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy, Flanders, at the time belonging to Burgundy. There was a revolt against Philip's rule, and disease and hunger became rampant. Isabel appealed to Henry to allow some of the unruly Flemings to settle in the Azores. He granted this and supplied them with means of transport and goods.
===The 1522 earthquake and recovery===
In 1522, Vila Franca do Campo, then the capital of São Miguel, was devastated by an earthquake and landslide that killed about 5,000 people, and the capital was moved to Ponta Delgada. The town of Vila Franca do Campo was rebuilt on the original site, and today is a thriving fishing and yachting port. Ponta Delgada received its city status in 1546. From the first settlement, the pioneers applied themselves to agriculture, and by the 15th century Graciosa was exporting wheat, barley, wine and brandy. The goods were sent to Terceira largely because of the proximity of that island.
===Effects of the Portuguese succession crisis of 1580===
Portugal fell into a dynastic crisis following the death of Cardinal-King Henry of Portugal in 1580. Of the various claimants to the crown, the most powerful was king Phillip II of Spain, who justified his rights to the Portuguese throne by the fact that his mother was a Portuguese royal princess, his maternal grandfather having been King Manuel I of Portugal. Following his proclamation in Santarém, António, Prior of Crato was acclaimed in the Azores in 1580 (through his envoy António da Costa) but was expelled from the continent by the Spaniards following the Battle of Alcântara.
In 1583, Philip II of Spain, as King of Portugal, sent his fleet to clear the Azores of a combined multinational force of adventurers, mercenaries, volunteers, and soldiers who were attempting to establish the Azores as a staging post for a rival pretender to the Portuguese throne. Following the success of his fleet at the Battle of Ponta Delgada, captured enemies were hanged from yardarms, as they were considered pirates by Philip II. Opponents receiving the news variously portrayed Philip II as a despot or "Black Legend", the sort of insult widely made against contemporary monarchs engaged in aggressive empire building and the European wars of religion. Figueiredo and Violante do Canto helped organize a resistance on Terceira that influenced some of the response of the other islands, even as internal politics and support for Philip's faction increased on the other islands (including specifically on São Miguel, where the Gonçalvez da Câmara family supported the Spanish claimant).
In 1902, the Dominion Line began operating a Mediterranean passenger service between Boston and Italy via Gibraltar and the Azores, with an established port of call at Sao Miguel. In 1904, the service was taken over by the White Star Line, future owners of the ill-fated Titanic. Four ships formerly owned by Dominion were renamed and put into service under White Star, named Canopic, Romanic, Cretic and Republic, the last of which is best known for its 1909 sinking off the New England coast. Canopic and Romanic provided regular services to Boston, while Cretic and Republic operated on the service to both New York and Boston throughout their careers. By the time the service ended in 1921, these four ships had transported an estimated total of 58,000 Azorean Portuguese to the United States.
===Liberal Wars of 1828–1834===
The Portuguese Civil War (1828–1834) had strong repercussions in the Azores. In 1829, in Praia da Vitória, the liberals won over the absolutists, making Terceira Island the main headquarters of the new Portuguese regime and also where the Council of Regency () of Maria II of Portugal was established. Beginning in 1868, Portugal issued its stamps overprinted with "" for use in the islands. Between 1892 and 1906, it also issued separate stamps for the three administrative districts of the time.
===Arbitrary district divisions 1836–1976===
From 1836 to 1976, the archipelago was divided into three districts, equivalent (except in area) to those in the Portuguese mainland. The division was arbitrary and did not follow the natural island groups, rather reflecting the location of each district capital on the three main cities (none of which were on the western group).
Angra do Heroísmo consisted of Terceira, São Jorge, and Graciosa, with the capital at Angra do Heroísmo on Terceira.
Horta consisted of Pico, Faial, Flores, and Corvo, with the capital at Horta on Faial.
Ponta Delgada consisted of São Miguel and Santa Maria, with the capital at Ponta Delgada on São Miguel.
===Modern period===
In 1931, the Azores (together with Madeira and Portuguese Guinea) revolted against the Ditadura Nacional and were held briefly by rebel military.
In 1943, during World War II, the Portuguese ruler António de Oliveira Salazar leased air and naval bases in the Azores to Great Britain. The occupation of these facilities in October 1943 was codenamed Operation Alacrity by the British. This was a key turning point in the Battle of the Atlantic, enabling the Royal Air Force, the U.S. Army Air Forces, and the U.S. Navy to provide aerial coverage in the Mid-Atlantic gap. This helped them to protect convoys and to hunt hostile German U-boats.
In 1944, the U.S. constructed a small and short-lived air base on the island of Santa Maria. In 1945, a new base was constructed on the island of Terceira, named Lajes Field. This air base is in an area called Lajes, a broad, flat sea terrace that had been a large farm. Lajes Field is a plateau rising out of the sea on the northeast corner of the island. This air base is a joint American and Portuguese venture. Lajes Field continues to support the American and Portuguese Armed Forces.
During the Cold War, U.S. Navy P-3 Orion anti-submarine warfare squadrons patrolled the North Atlantic Ocean for Soviet Navy submarines and surface warships. Since its opening, Lajes Field has been used for refuelling American cargo planes bound for Europe, Africa, and the Middle East. The U.S. Navy keeps a small squadron of its ships at the harbor of Praia da Vitória, southeast of Lajes Field. The airfield also has a small commercial terminal handling scheduled and chartered passenger flights from the other islands in the Azores, Europe, Africa, and North America.
Following the Carnation Revolution of 1974, which deposed the Estado Novo dictatorship in Lisbon, Portugal and its territories across the world entered into a period of great political uncertainty. The Azorean Liberation Front attempted to take advantage of this instability immediately after the revolution, hoping to establish an independent Azores, until operations ceased in 1975.
In 1976, the Azores became the Autonomous Region of the Azores (), one of the autonomous regions of Portugal, and the subdistricts of the Azores were eliminated. In 2003, the Azores saw international attention when United States President George W. Bush, British Prime Minister Tony Blair, Spanish Prime Minister José María Aznar, and Portuguese Prime Minister José Manuel Durão Barroso held a summit there days before the commencement of the Iraq War.
==Geography==
The archipelago of the Azores is located in the middle of the northern hemisphere of the Atlantic Ocean and extends along a west-northwest to east-southeast orientation (between 36.5°–40° North latitudes and 24.5°–31.5° West longitudes) in an area approximately wide. The islands of the Azores emerged from what is called the Azores Plateau, a 5.8 million km2 region that is morphologically accented by a depth of .
The nine islands that compose the archipelago occupy a surface area of , that includes both the main islands and many islets located in their vicinities. They range in surface area from the largest, São Miguel, at to the smallest, Corvo, at approximately .
Each of the islands has its own distinct geomorphological characteristics that make them unique:
Corvo (the smallest island) is a crater of a major Plinian eruption
Flores (its neighbor on the North American plate) is a rugged island carved by many valleys and escarpments
Faial is characterized for its shield volcano and caldera (Caldeira Volcano)
Pico, is the highest point, at , in the Azores and continental Portugal
Graciosa is known for its active Furnas do Enxofre and mixture of volcanic cones and plains
São Jorge is a long slender island, formed from fissural eruptions over thousands of years
Terceira, almost circular, is the location of one of the largest craters in the region
São Miguel is the largest island and is pitted with many large craters and fields of spatter cones
Santa Maria – the oldest island – is heavily eroded, being one of the few places to encounter brown sandy beaches in the archipelago.
These islands can be divided into three recognizable groups located on the Azores Plateau:
The Eastern Group () of São Miguel, Santa Maria and Formigas Islets
The Central Group () of Terceira, Graciosa, São Jorge, Pico and Faial
The Western Group () of Flores and Corvo.
São Jorge, Pico and Faial are also collectively called ('Islands of the Triangle').
Several sub-surface reefs (particularly the Dollabarat on the fringe of the Formigas), banks (specifically the Princess Alice Bank and D. João de Castro Bank), as well as many hydrothermal vents and sea-mounts are monitored by the regional authorities, owing to the complex geotectonic and socioeconomic significance within the economic exclusion zone of the archipelago.
== Geology ==
From a geostructural perspective, the Azores are located above an active triple junction between three of the world's major tectonic plates (the North American plate, the Eurasian plate and the African plate), The westernmost islands of the archipelago (Corvo and Flores) are located on the North American plate, while the remaining islands are located within the boundary that divides the Eurasian and African plates.
The principal tectonic structures that exist in the region of the Azores are the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, the Terceira Rift, the Azores Fracture Zone and the Glória Fault. Other notable elevations include Pico da Vara on São Miguel Island, Pico da Esperança on São Jorge Island, Cabeço Gordo on Faial Island, and Calderia de Santa Barbara on Terceira Island.
=== Volcanoes ===
The islands' volcanism is associated with the rifting along the Azores triple junction; the spread of the crust along the existing faults and fractures has produced many of the active volcanic and seismic events, while supported by buoyant upwelling in the deeper mantle, some associate with an Azores hotspot. Most of the volcanic activity has centered, primarily, along the Terceira Rift.
The islands have many examples of volcano-built geomorphology including caves and lava tubes (such as the Gruta das Torres, Algar do Carvão, Gruta do Natal, Gruta das Cinco Ribeiras), the coastal lava fields (like the coast of Feteiras, Faial, the Mistério of Prainha or São João on Pico Island) in addition to the inactive cones in central São Miguel Island, the aforementioned Capelinhos on Faial, the volcanic complexes of Terceira or Plinian caldeira of Corvo Island.
The islands of the archipelago were formed through volcanic and seismic activity during the Neogene Period; the first embryonic surfaces started to appear in the waters of Santa Maria during the Miocene epoch (from circa 8 million years ago).
The sequence of the island formation has been generally characterized as: Santa Maria (8.12 Ma), São Miguel (4.1 Ma), Terceira (3.52 Ma), Graciosa (2.5 Ma), Flores (2.16 Ma), Faial (0.7 Ma), São Jorge (0.55 Ma), Corvo (0.7 Ma) and the youngest, Pico (0.27 Ma). All islands have experienced volcanism during their geological history, with Late Holocene volcanism being recorded from Flores and Faial. Within recorded "human settlement" history the islands of Santa Maria, Graciosa, Flores, and Corvo have not experienced any volcanic eruptions; in addition to active fumaroles and hot-springs, the remaining islands have had sporadic eruptions since the 14th century. Apart from the Capelinhos volcano in 1957–1958, the last recorded instance of "island formation" occurred off the coast of São Miguel, when the island of Sabrina was briefly formed.
=== Earthquakes ===
Owing to its geodynamic environment, the region has been a center of intense seismic activity, particularly along its tectonic boundaries on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and Terceira Rift. Seismic events although frequent, are usually tectonic or vulco-tectonic in nature, but in general are of low to medium intensities, occasionally punctuated by events of level 5 or greater on the Richter scale. The most severe earthquake was registered in 1757, near Calheta on the island of São Jorge, which exceeded 7 on the Richter magnitude scale.
In comparison, the 1522 earthquake that was mentioned by historian Gaspar Frutuoso measured 6.8, but its effects were judged to be X (Extreme) on the Mercalli intensity scale, and was responsible for the destruction of Vila Franca do Campo and landslides that may have killed more than 5,000 of the inhabitants.
==Biome==
The archipelago lies in the Palearctic realm and has a unique biotic community that includes the Macaronesian subtropical laurissilva, with many endemic species of plants and animals. There are at least 6,112 terrestrial species, of which about 411 are endemic. The majority (75%) of these endemics are animals, mostly arthropods and mollusks. New species are found regularly in the Azores (e.g., 30 different new species of land snails were discovered circa 2013).
Even though the Azores look very green and sometimes wild, the vegetation has been extremely altered. A great part of it has been wiped out in the past 600 years for its valuable wood (for tools, buildings, boats, fire wood, and so on) and to clear land for agriculture. As a result, it is estimated that more than half of insects on the Graciosa island have disappeared or will become extinct.
Many cultivated places (which are traditionally dedicated to pasture or to growing taro, potatoes, maize and other crops) have now been abandoned, especially as a result of emigration. Consequently, some invasive plants have filled these deserted and disturbed lands. Hydrangeas are another potential pest, but their threat is less serious. Notwithstanding the fact that hydrangeas were introduced from America or Asia, some locals consider them a symbol of the archipelago and propagate them along roadsides. Cryptomeria, the Japanese cedar, is a conifer extensively grown for its timber. The two most common of these alien species are Pittosporum undulatum and Hedychium gardnerianum. Reforestation efforts with native laurissilva vegetation have been accomplished successfully in many parts of the Azores.
The Azores has at least two endemic living bird species. The Azores bullfinch, or Priolo, is restricted to remnant laurisilva forest in the mountains at the eastern end of São Miguel and is classified by BirdLife International as endangered. Monteiro's storm petrel, described to science as recently as 2008, is known to breed in just two locations in the islands but may occur more widely. An extinct species of owl, the São Miguel scops owl, has recently been described, which probably became extinct after human settlement because of habitat destruction and the introduction of alien species. Five species of flightless rail (Rallus spp.) once existed on the islands, as did a flightless quail (Coturnix sp.) and another species of bullfinch, the greater Azores bullfinch, but these also went extinct after human colonization. Eleven subspecies of bird are endemic to the islands. The Azores has an endemic bat, the Azores noctule, which has an unusually high frequency of diurnal flight.
The islets of the Formigas (the Portuguese word for "ants"), including the area known as the Dollabarat Reef, have a rich environment of maritime species, such as black coral and manta rays, different species of sharks, whales, and sea turtles. Seventeen new marine reserves (with special conservation status) were added to the Azorean Marine Park (which covers around ). On São Miguel there are notable micro-habitats formed by hot springs that host extremophile microorganisms.
==Climate==
The archipelago is spread out at roughly the same latitude as the southern half of mainland Portugal, but its location in the mid-Atlantic Ocean gives it a generally tepid, oceanic, mild to warm subtropical climate, with mild annual oscillations.
==='Azores High' anticyclone===
The Azores archipelago is located in a transition and confrontation zone between air masses of tropical origin and masses of cooler air of polar origin. The climate of the archipelago is largely determined by variations in the atmospheric pressure field over the North Atlantic. These variations conditioned by the mass of the American Continent and the Atlantic water mass are overlapped by a semi-permanent subtropical Atlantic anticyclone, commonly known as the Azores High. This anticyclone experiences seasonal variations which can affect the archipelago in many ways.
In winter, the Azores anticyclone is positioned further south, and allows for a descent of the Polar front, approaching it to the archipelago. In summer, on the other hand, the anticyclone's movement further north, leads to the departure of the polar front and its associated disturbances towards higher latitudes. Far enough away from the mainland coasts, the continental air masses that reach the archipelago are weakened by the maritime influence.
The same can not be said for the higher altitudes (e.g. Mount Pico), where upper air masses of a continental origin and with a more direct pathway can reach the surface and present those areas with drier air and more extreme temperatures. At the same time, this free atmosphere circulating air transports aerosols to the archipelago, namely volcanic ash or fine sands from the Sahara desert, which sporadically affect the radiation and air quality.
===Köppen classification===
Under the Köppen climate classification, the eastern group (São Miguel and Santa Maria) is usually classified as Mediterranean while the central and western group (especially Flores and Corvo) is increasingly more humid subtropical and overall rainier because of the effects of the Gulf Stream. This stream has a large effect over the sea temperature which varies between in February and March, and in August and September, and increases earlier in the western group.
Salvador Rivas-Martínez data presents several different bioclimatic zones for the Azores. Seasonal lag is extreme in the low-sun half of the year, with December being milder than April in terms of mean temperatures. During summer the lag is somewhat lower, with August being the warmest month, though September is usually as warm or warmer than July.
=== Temperatures, humidity, and sunshine ===
Although temperatures as warm as have been recorded on Pico, neither Ponta Delgada nor Angra do Heroísmo, the two largest cities, have ever been warmer than . There has never been a frost, snowfall, freeze or even temperatures below recorded at sea level on any of the islands. The coldest weather in winter usually comes from northwesterly air masses originating from Labrador in Canada. However, since those air masses are warmed up as they pass across the warmer Atlantic Ocean, temperatures by day even then exceed .
The average relative humidity can range from 80% at the coast to over 90% above . However, higher elevations above the planetary boundary layer can experience extremely low values close to 10%.
Insolation is relatively low, with 35–40% of the total possible value for sunshine, and higher in topographically lower islands such as Graciosa or Santa Maria, inversely proportional to precipitation. This is directly caused by the orographic lift of humid air masses and is especially pronounced in islands marked by high orography.
===Hurricanes===
Despite the northern position that the archipelago occupies, the Azores can be affected by the passage of tropical cyclones, or tropical storms derived from them. This happens with a greater rarity, especially in late summer and autumn. Some can result from anomalies of low latitude systems, while others result from the return to the Atlantic after a route close to or even over the American continent. Though often small and in the process of dissipation, these cyclones result in many of the worst storms the archipelago is subject to. Agricultural products include São Jorge cheese. As of 2023, GDP in Azores stood at €5.4 billion, with a GDP per capita of €22,346, 88% of Portugal's average and 59% of the EU27 average.
!colspan="2"|Municipalities of the Azores!! rowspan="2" style="width:150pt;"| Main Settlement
|-
! style="text-align:right; width:75pt;"|2021!! style="text-align:right; width:75pt;" |% Total!! style="text-align:right; width:50pt;"|No!! style="text-align:left; width:550pt;"|Municipalities (Concelho)
|-
| São Miguel ||Eastern||align="right"| 133,295 || align="right" | 56.38
| style="text-align:center;"| 6 ||Lagoa, Nordeste, Ponta Delgada, Povoação, Ribeira Grande, Vila Franca do Campo ||Ponta Delgada
|-
| Terceira ||Central||align="right"| 53,244 || align="right" | 22.52
| style="text-align:center;"| 2||Angra do Heroísmo, Praia da Vitória ||Angra do Heroísmo
|-
| Faial ||Central||align="right"| 14,334 || align="right" | 6.06
| style="text-align:center;"| 1||Horta ||Horta
|-
| Pico ||Central||align="right"| 13,883 || align="right" | 5.87
| style="text-align:center;"| 3||Lajes do Pico, Madalena, São Roque do Pico ||Madalena
|-
| São Jorge ||Central||align="right"| 8,373 || align="right" | 3.54
| style="text-align:center;"| 2||Calheta, Velas ||Velas
|-
| Santa Maria ||Eastern||align="right"| 5,408 || align="right" | 2.29
| style="text-align:center;"| 1||Vila do Porto ||Vila do Porto
|-
| Graciosa ||Central||align="right"| 4,091 || align="right" | 1.73
| style="text-align:center;"| 1||Santa Cruz da Graciosa ||Santa Cruz da Graciosa
|-
| Flores ||Western||align="right"| 3,428 || align="right" | 1.45
| style="text-align:center;"| 2||Lajes das Flores, Santa Cruz das Flores ||Santa Cruz das Flores
|-
| Corvo ||Western||align="right"| 384 || align="right" | 0.16
| style="text-align:center;"| 1||Vila do Corvo ||Vila do Corvo
|-
| Total |||| style="text-align:right;"| 236,440 ||
| style="text-align:center;"| 19||||
|}
===Population===
According to the 2019 Census, population in the Azores was 242,796. The Azores were uninhabited when Portuguese navigators arrived in the early 15th century; settlement began in 1439 with migrants from mainland Portugal as well as Spaniards, Sephardic Jews, Moors, Italians, Flemings, and Africans from Guinea, Cape Verde and São Tomé and Príncipe.
The first Sephardic Jews in the Azores were slaves after their expulsion from Portugal by D. Manuel I, in 1496. The islands sometimes served as a waypoint for ships carrying African slaves.
===Emigration===
Since the 17th century, many Azoreans have emigrated, mainly to Brazil, Uruguay, the United States and Canada. Rhode Island and southeastern Massachusetts are the primary destination for Azorean emigrants. From 1921 to 1977, about 250,000 Azoreans immigrated to Rhode Island and Massachusetts. Northern California was the final destination for many of the Massachusetts immigrants who then moved on to the San Joaquin Valley, especially the city of Turlock. In the late 19th century many Azoreans immigrated to the Hawaiian islands. During the Great Recession of the early 21st century, Portugal was in a recession from 2011 until 2013, which resulted in high levels of unemployment across the mainland as well as the Azores. The Great Recession led to an increase of emigration from the Azores.
Florianópolis and Porto Alegre in the Southern Region of Brazil were founded by Azoreans, who accounted for over half of Rio Grande do Sul and Santa Catarina's populations in the late 18th century. As late as 1960, mass immigration currents were registered to Brazil, and many were from the Azores.
==Politics==
Since 1976, the Azores has been an autonomous region integrated within the framework of the Portuguese Republic. It has its own government and autonomous legislature within its own political-administrative statute and organic law. Its governmental organs include: the legislative assembly, a unicameral parliament composed of 52 elected deputies, elected by universal suffrage for a four-year term; the regional government and presidency, with parliamentary legitimacy, composed of a president, a vice-president and seven regional secretaries responsible for day-to-day operations. It is represented in the Council of Ministers by a representative appointed by the president of the Republic, which was created during the revision of the constitution of 2004 (which, among other things, removed the older Portuguese representative that was appointed by the president of the Republic, beholden to the Council of State and coincident with the president). Since becoming a Portuguese autonomous region, the executive branch of the regional authority has been located in Ponta Delgada, the legislative branch in Horta, and the judicial branch in Angra do Heroísmo.
The islands of the archipelago do not have independent status in law, except in electoral law and are governed by 19 municipalities that subdivide the islands. In addition, until the administrative reform of the 19th century, the following civil parishes had municipal standing: Topo (today integrated into the municipality of Calheta, São Jorge); Praia (today integrated into municipality of Santa Cruz da Graciosa); São Sebastião (today an integral part of the municipality of Angra do Heroísmo); Capelas (now part of the municipality of Ponta Delgada); and Água de Pau (now a civil parish in the municipality of Lagoa). These civil parishes still retain their titles of "vila" in name only; the populations of Capelas and neighbouring parish still protest the change and promote the restoration of their status. The municipalities are further subdivided into several civil parishes, with the exception of Corvo (the only municipality by law without a civil parish, owing to its size).
Azorean politics is dominated by the two largest Portuguese political parties, the Socialist Party and Social Democratic Party, the former holding a majority in the Legislative Assembly. The Democratic and Social Center / People's Party, the Left Bloc, the Unitary Democratic Coalition and the People's Monarchist Party are also represented. , the President of the Azores is Social Democratic Party leader José Manuel Bolieiro. Although the Socialist Party dominates the regional politics, the Social Democratic Party is traditionally popular in city and town council elections.
==Foreign relations and defence==
As an autonomous but integral region of Portugal, foreign affairs and defence are the responsibility of the national government. As is all of Portugal, the Azores are in the European Union and Schengen Area. They are also in the European Union Customs Union and VAT area but levy a lower rate of VAT than applies on the mainland. The Azores, like Madeira and the Canary Islands, are among the European Union's state territories with special status, and are one of its designated "Outermost Regions".
The Azores Military Zone is the Portuguese Army's command for ground forces stationed in the archipelago. The Air Force, in turn, maintains a base at Lajes Field, which is also home to the United States Forces Azores, while the Navy tasks the offshore patrol vessel Figueira da Foz, as well as a range of other patrol vessels, to patrol Portugal's large economic zone around the islands.
==Transport==
===Aviation===
Each of the nine islands has an airport, although the majority are airfields rather than airports. The full list of airports is:
Santa Maria: Santa Maria Airport (LPAZ)
São Miguel: João Paulo II Airport (LPPD)
Terceira: Lajes Airport (LPLA)
São Jorge: São Jorge Airport (LPSJ)
Pico: Pico Airport (LPPI)
Faial: Horta Airport (LPHR)
Graciosa: Graciosa Airport (LPGR)
Flores: Flores Airport (LPFL)
Corvo: Corvo Airport (LPCR)
The primary (and busiest) airport of the island group is João Paulo II Airport. The commercial terminals at João Paulo II, Horta, Santa Maria and Flores airports are operated by ANA – Aeroportos de Portugal, a public entity that oversees the operations of airports across Portugal. The remaining, except for Lajes Airport, are operated by the Regional Government. Lajes is a military airbase, as well as a commercial airport, and is operated by the Portuguese Armed Forces in conjunction with the United States.
===Marine transportation===
The Azores has had a long history of marine transport to overcome distances and establish inter-community contacts and trade. Consequently, the shipbuilding industry developed in many islands, from small fishing boats to whaling sloops and larger passenger services. Passenger traffic to the main islands (São Miguel, Santa Maria, Terceira and Faial) began in the 17th century, and between the 18th–19th century, the Pico Yacht controlled the lucrative summer traffic season.]]
Transmaçor (Transportes Marítimos Açorianos, Lda.) was founded in 1987. The shipping company operates four to six daily connections between Horta and Madalena throughout the year, using its small fleet of ships, in addition to inter-island connections between Faial, Pico, São Jorge and Terceira during the summer months.
In 2005, Atlânticoline was established, providing transport services. The Atlantida, a 50 million Euro cruiser (as part of a two-ship deal with the other named Anticiclone) was rejected in 2009 by Atlanticoline for the under-performance of the power-plant.
Similarly, the Regional Government approved the consolidation of the three individual port authorities (Administração dos Portos do Triângulo e Grupo Ocidental, Administração dos Portos da Terceira e Graciosa and the Administração dos Portos das Ilhas de São Miguel e Santa Maria) and regional Portos dos Açores into one entity that resulted in a 2.2 million Euro cost savings, in addition to a reduction from 11 to three administrators.
==Culture==
===Religious societies and festivals===
Religious festivals, patron saints, and traditional holidays mark the Azorean calendar. The most important religious events are tied with the festivals associated with the cult of the Holy Spirit, commonly referred to as the festivals of the Holy Spirit (or ), rooted in millenarian dogma and held on all islands from May to September. These festivals are very important to the Azorean people, who are primarily Roman Catholic, and combine religious rituals with processions celebrating the benevolence and egalitarianism of neighbours. These events are centred around or , small buildings that host the meals, adoration and charity of the participants, and used to store the artefacts associated with the events. On Terceira, for example, these impérios have grown into ornate buildings painted and cared for by the local brotherhoods in their respective parishes. The events focus on the members of local parishes, not tourists, but all are welcome, as sharing is one of the main principles of the festivals. Some limited events focus on tourists, including a public event that the city government of Ponta Delgada on the island of São Miguel holds, which attracts visitors and locals.
The Festival of the Lord Holy Christ of the Miracles () in Ponta Delgada is the largest individual religious event in the Azores and takes place on Rogation Sunday. Pilgrims from within the Portuguese diaspora normally travel to Ponta Delgada to participate in an afternoon procession behind the image of Christ along the flower-decorated streets of the city. Although the solemn procession is only held on one day, the events of the Festival of Senhor Santo Cristo occur over a period of a week and involve a ritual of moving the image between the main church and convent nightly, ultimately culminating in the procession, which is televised within the Azores and to the Portuguese diaspora.
The Sanjoaninas Festivities in Angra do Heroísmo on Terceira are held in June honoring Saint Anthony, Saint Peter and Saint John the Baptist, in a large religious celebration. The festival of Our Lady of Lourdes (), patron saint of whalers, begins in Lajes on Pico Island on the last Sunday of August and runs through the week—Whalers Week. It is marked by social and cultural events connected to the tradition of whale hunting. The Wine Harvest Festival (), takes place during the first week of September and is a century-old custom of the people of Pico.
On Corvo, the people celebrate their patron saint (Our Lady of Miracles) on 15 August every year in addition to the festivals of the Divine Holy Spirit. The (August Sea Festival), takes place every year beginning on 15 August in Praia Formosa on Santa Maria. Also, the (Sea Week), dedicated almost exclusively to water sports, takes place in August in the city of Horta, on Faial.
is celebrated in the Azores. Parades and pageants are the heart of the Carnaval festivities. There is lively music, colorful costumes, hand-made masks, and floats. The traditional bullfights in the bullring are ongoing as is the running of bulls in the streets.
===International visitors===
During the 18th and 19th centuries, Graciosa was host to many prominent figures, including
Chateaubriand, the French writer who passed through upon his escape to America during the French Revolution
Almeida Garrett, the Portuguese poet who visited an uncle and wrote some poetry while there
Prince Albert of Monaco, the 19th century oceanographer who led several expeditions in the waters of the Azores. He arrived on his yacht Hirondelle, and visited the furna da caldeira, the noted hot springs grotto.
author Mark Twain published The Innocents Abroad in 1869 – a travel book, where he described his time in the Azores.
== Sports ==
Notable sports teams in the Azores include Santa Clara (Primeira Liga), Lusitânia (Liga Portuguesa de Basquetebol), Fonte do Bastardo (Portuguese Volleyball First Division) and Sporting Clube da Horta (Portuguese Handball Second Division).
The Rallye Açores is an international rally race held annually since 1965, which was part of the European Rally Championship and the Intercontinental Rally Challenge.
The Azores Senior Open was a golf tournament held in 2008 as part of the European Seniors Tour.
== Sustainability ==
The Azores are committed to sustainable tourism and have implemented various policies to preserve their natural, historical, and cultural resources. This approach has led to the designation of approximately 25% of their land area as Protected Areas for conservation and the establishment of vast marine reserves.
Key to their sustainability policy is the integration and participation of all societal members, ensuring equal opportunities in various sectors like health, social solidarity, education, culture, and employment. The harmony between people and nature is considered vital for the region's sustainable development, enhancing the quality of life for residents and visitors.
The Azores Destination Management Organisation (Açores DMO), established in 2018, plays a crucial role in coordinating these sustainability efforts with public and private sectors, NGOs, and local communities.
The policy aims to position the Azores as a leading sustainable tourist destination, aligning with the Sustainable Development Goals and gaining certification with the EarthCheck Sustainable Destinations program. All with a focus on continuous improvement, prioritising the involvement of local communities and stakeholders in decision-making, and promoting sustainability across the tourism sector.
|
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3,229 |
Outback
|
The Outback is a remote, vast, sparsely populated area of Australia. The Outback is more remote than the bush. While often envisaged as being arid, the Outback regions extend from the northern to southern Australian coastlines and encompass a number of climatic zones, including tropical and monsoonal climates in northern areas, arid areas in the "red centre" and semi-arid and temperate climates in southerly regions. The total population is estimated at 607,000 people.
Geographically, the Outback is unified by a combination of factors, most notably a low human population density, a largely intact natural environment and, in many places, low-intensity land uses, such as pastoralism (livestock grazing) in which production is reliant on the natural environment. In 2009, as part of the Q150 celebrations, the Queensland Outback was announced as one of the Q150 Icons of Queensland for its role as a "natural attraction".
==History==
Aboriginal peoples have lived in the Outback for at least 50,000 years and occupied all Outback regions, including the driest deserts, when Europeans first entered central Australia in the 1800s. Many Aboriginal Australians retain strong physical and cultural links to their traditional country and are legally recognised as the Traditional Owners of large parts of the Outback under Commonwealth Native Title legislation.
Early European exploration of inland Australia was sporadic. More focus was on the more accessible and fertile coastal areas. The first party to successfully cross the Blue Mountains just outside Sydney was led by Gregory Blaxland in 1813, 25 years after the colony was established. People, starting with John Oxley in 1817, 1818 and 1821, followed by Charles Sturt from 1829 to 1830, attempted to follow the westward-flowing rivers to find an "inland sea", but these were found to all flow into the Murray River and Darling River, which turn south.
From 1858 onwards, the so-called "Afghan" cameleers and their beasts played an instrumental role in opening up the Outback and helping to build infrastructure.
Over the period 1858 to 1861, John McDouall Stuart led six expeditions north from Adelaide, South Australia into the Outback, culminating in successfully reaching the north coast of Australia and returning without the loss of any of the party's members' lives. This contrasts with the ill-fated Burke and Wills expedition in 1860–61 which was much better funded, but resulted in the deaths of three of the members of the transcontinental party.
The Overland Telegraph line was constructed in the 1870s along the route identified by Stuart.
In 1865, the surveyor George Goyder, using changes in vegetation patterns, mapped a line in South Australia, north of which he considered rainfall to be too unreliable to support agriculture.
Exploration of the Outback continued in the 1950s when Len Beadell explored, surveyed and built many roads in support of the nuclear weapons tests at Emu Field and Maralinga and rocket testing on the Woomera Prohibited Area. Mineral exploration continues as new mineral deposits are identified and developed.
2002 was declared the Year of the Outback. While the early explorers used horses to cross the Outback, the first woman to make the journey riding a horse was Anna Hingley, who rode from Broome to Cairns in 2006.
== Environment ==
=== Global significance ===
The paucity of industrial land use has led to the Outback being recognised globally as one of the largest remaining intact natural areas on Earth. and wilderness reviews highlight the importance of Outback Australia as one of the world's large natural areas, along with the Boreal forests and Tundra regions in North America, the Sahara and Gobi deserts and the tropical forests of the Amazon and Congo Basins.
The savanna (or grassy woodlands) of northern Australia are the largest, intact savanna regions in the world. In the south, the Great Western Woodlands, which occupy , an area larger than all of England and Wales, are the largest remaining temperate woodland left on Earth.
=== Major ecosystems ===
Reflecting the wide climatic and geological variation, the Outback contains a wealth of distinctive and ecologically rich ecosystems. Major land types include:
the Kimberley and Pilbara regions in northern Western Australia,
sub-tropical savanna landscape of the Top End,
ephemeral water courses of the Channel Country in western Queensland,
the ten deserts in central and western Australia,
the Inland Ranges, such as the MacDonnell Ranges, which provide topographic variation across the flat plains,
the flat Nullarbor Plain north of the Great Australian Bight, and
the Great Western Woodlands in southern Western Australia.
=== Wildlife ===
The Outback is full of very important well-adapted wildlife, although much of it may not be immediately visible to the casual observer. Many animals, such as red kangaroos and dingoes, hide in bushes to rest and keep cool during the heat of the day.
Birdlife is prolific, most often seen at waterholes at dawn and dusk. Huge flocks of budgerigars, cockatoos, corellas and galahs are often sighted. On bare ground or roads during the winter, various species of snakes and lizards bask in the sun, but they are rarely seen during the summer months.
Feral animals such as camels thrive in central Australia, brought to Australia by pastoralists and explorers, along with the early Afghan drivers. Feral horses known as 'brumbies' are station horses that have run wild. Feral pigs, foxes, cats, goats and rabbits and other imported animals are also degrading the environment, so time and money is spent eradicating them in an attempt to help protect fragile rangelands.
The Outback is home to a diverse set of animal species, such as the kangaroo, emu and dingo. The Dingo Fence was built to restrict movements of dingoes and wild dogs into agricultural areas towards the south east of the continent. The marginally fertile parts are primarily utilised as rangelands and have been traditionally used for sheep or cattle grazing, on cattle stations which are leased from the Federal Government. While small areas of the outback consist of clay soils the majority has exceedingly infertile palaeosols.
Riversleigh, in Queensland, is one of Australia's most renowned fossil sites and was recorded as a World Heritage site in 1994. The area contains fossil remains of ancient mammals, birds and reptiles of Oligocene and Miocene age.
== Industry ==
=== Pastoralism ===
The largest industry across the Outback, in terms of the area occupied, is pastoralism, in which cattle, sheep, and sometimes goats are grazed in mostly intact, natural ecosystems. Widespread use of bore water, obtained from underground aquifers, including the Great Artesian Basin, has enabled livestock to be grazed across vast areas in which no permanent surface water exists naturally.
Capitalising on the lack of pasture improvement and absence of fertiliser and pesticide use, many Outback pastoral properties are certified as organic livestock producers. In 2014, , most of which is in Outback Australia, was fully certified as organic farm production, making Australia the largest certified organic production area in the world.
=== Tourism ===
Tourism is a major industry across the Outback, and commonwealth and state tourism agencies explicitly target Outback Australia as a desirable destination for domestic and international travellers. There is no breakdown of tourism revenues for the "Outback" per se. However, regional tourism is a major component of national tourism incomes. Tourism Australia explicitly markets nature-based and Indigenous-led experiences to tourists. In the 2015–2016 financial year, 815,000 visitors spent $988 million while on holidays in the Northern Territory alone.
There are many popular tourist attractions in the Outback. Some of the well known destinations include Devils Marbles, Kakadu National Park, Kata Tjuta (The Olgas), MacDonnell Ranges and Uluru (Ayers Rock).
===Mining===
Other than agriculture and tourism, the main economic activity in this vast and sparsely settled area is mining. Owing to the almost complete absence of mountain building and glaciation since the Permian (in many areas since the Cambrian) ages, the outback is extremely rich in iron, aluminium, manganese and uranium ores, and also contains major deposits of gold, nickel, copper, lead and zinc ores. Because of its size, the value of grazing and mining is considerable. Major mines and mining areas in the Outback include opals at Coober Pedy, Lightning Ridge and White Cliffs, metals at Broken Hill, Tennant Creek, Olympic Dam and the remote Challenger Mine. Oil and gas are extracted in the Cooper Basin around Moomba.
In Western Australia the Argyle diamond mine in the Kimberley was once the world's biggest producer of natural diamonds and contributed approximately one-third of the world's natural supply, but was closed down in 2020 due to financial reasons. The Pilbara region's economy is dominated by mining and petroleum industries. The Pilbara's oil and gas industry is the region's largest export industry, earning $5.0 billion in 2004/05 and accounting for over 96% of the State's production. Most of Australia's iron ore is also mined in the Pilbara and it also has one of the world's major manganese mines.
== Population ==
Aboriginal communities in outback regions, such as the Anangu Pitjantjatjara Yankunytjatjara lands in northern South Australia, have not been displaced as they have been in areas of intensive agriculture and large cities, in coastal areas.
The total population of the Outback in Australia declined from 700,000 in 1996 to 690,000 in 2006. The largest decline was in the Outback Northern Territory, while the Kimberley and Pilbara showed population increases during the same period. The sex ratio is 1040 males for 1000 females and 17% of the total population is indigenous.
==Facilities==
The Royal Flying Doctor Service (RFDS) started service in 1928 and helps people who live in the outback of Australia. Previously, serious injuries or illnesses often meant death owing to the lack of proper medical facilities and trained personnel.
In many outback communities, the number of children is too small for a conventional school to operate. Children are educated at home by the School of the Air. Originally the teachers communicated with the children via radio, but now satellite telecommunication is used instead.
Some children attend boarding school, mostly only those in secondary school.
==Terminology==
The term "outback" derives from the adverbial phrase referring to the back yard of a house, and came to be used meiotically in the late 1800s to describe the vast sparsely settled regions of Australia behind the cities and towns. The earliest known use of the term in this context in print was in 1869, when the writer clearly meant the area west of Wagga Wagga, New South Wales. Over time, the adverbial use of the phrase was replaced with the present day noun form.
It is colloquially said that "the outback" is located "beyond the Black Stump". The location of the black stump may be some hypothetical location or may vary depending on local custom and folklore. It has been suggested that the term comes from the Black Stump Wine Saloon that once stood about out of Coolah, New South Wales on the Gunnedah Road. It is claimed that the saloon, named after the nearby Black Stump Run and Black Stump Creek, was an important staging post for traffic to north-west New South Wales and it became a marker by which people gauged their journeys.
"The Never-Never" is a term referring to remoter parts of the Outback. The Outback can also be referred to as "back of beyond" or "back o' Bourke", although these terms are more frequently used when referring to something a long way from anywhere, or a long way away. The well-watered north of the continent is often called the "Top End" and the arid interior "The Red Centre", owing to its vast amounts of red soil and sparse greenery amongst its landscape.
==Transport==
The outback is criss-crossed by historic tracks. Most of the major highways have an excellent bitumen surface and other major roads are usually well-maintained dirt roads.
The Stuart Highway runs from north to south through the centre of the continent, roughly paralleled by the Adelaide–Darwin railway. There is a proposal to develop some of the roads running from the south-west to the north-east to create an all-weather road named the Outback Highway, crossing the continent diagonally from Laverton, Western Australia (north of Kalgoorlie, through the Northern Territory to Winton, in Queensland.
Air transport is relied on for mail delivery in some areas, owing to sparse settlement and wet-season road closures. Most outback mines have an airstrip and many have a fly-in fly-out workforce. Most outback sheep stations and cattle stations have an airstrip and quite a few have their own light plane. Medical and ambulance services are provided by the Royal Flying Doctor Service.
|
[
"King's College London School of Medicine",
"Wagga Wagga, New South Wales",
"Coober Pedy",
"cockatoo",
"brumby",
"New South Wales",
"Royal Geographical Society",
"Kakadu National Park",
"Australian outback literature of the 20th century",
"Australian feral camel",
"Stuart Highway",
"Bourke, New South Wales",
"Overland Telegraph",
"Australia (continent)",
"dingo",
"semi-arid",
"Boreal forests",
"Kata Tjuta",
"White Cliffs, New South Wales",
"pastoralism",
"Invasive species in Australia",
"Coolah, New South Wales",
"School of the Air",
"Emu Field",
"Feral cats in Australia",
"Great Artesian Basin",
"Anangu Pitjantjatjara Yankunytjatjara",
"Burke and Wills expedition",
"manganese",
"Red foxes in Australia",
"Rabbits in Australia",
"Murray River",
"Olympic Dam mine",
"savanna",
"Laverton, Western Australia",
"George Goyder",
"Australian landmarks",
"Kalgoorlie, Western Australia",
"red kangaroo",
"Sydney",
"Feral goats in Australia",
"Australian desert",
"Maralinga, South Australia",
"Pilbara",
"Deserts of Australia",
"Central Australia",
"Mount Conner",
"Organic farming",
"Bushland",
"paleosols",
"Pilbara Development Commission",
"Oligocene",
"Cairns",
"Yalgoo, Western Australia",
"MacDonnell Ranges",
"bitumen",
"Outback Highway",
"Broken Hill",
"Life magazine",
"Queensland",
"Australian bush",
"Great Western Woodlands",
"Cooper Basin",
"Karlu Karlu / Devils Marbles Conservation Reserve",
"iron ore",
"Human Footprint",
"Australian Fossil Mammal Sites (Riversleigh)",
"Tennant Creek",
"Queensland Government",
"Australian art",
"Woomera Prohibited Area",
"Permian",
"natural environment",
"sheep station",
"Challenger Mine",
"Len Beadell",
"Gregory Blaxland",
"Dingo Fence",
"meiosis (figure of speech)",
"Nuclear weapons tests in Australia",
"Miocene",
"Dingo–dog hybrid",
"Tundra",
"Channel Country",
"Q150 Icons",
"Argyle diamond mine",
"impact crater",
"John McDouall Stuart",
"cattle station",
"Anna Hingley",
"Goyder's Line",
"Broome, Western Australia",
"Adelaide–Darwin railway",
"Native title in Australia",
"Black Stump",
"Darling River",
"Feral pig",
"Royal Flying Doctor Service",
"Blue Mountains (Australia)",
"meteor",
"Nullarbor Plain",
"Cambrian",
"temperate climate",
"Australia",
"Pew Charitable Trusts",
"Adelaide, South Australia",
"Afghan (Australia)",
"Kimberley (Western Australia)",
"Uluru",
"Lightning Ridge",
"Charles Sturt",
"fly-in fly-out",
"Tourism Australia",
"Q150",
"Winton, Queensland",
"Aboriginal Australians",
"Never Never (Australian outback)",
"Top End",
"Corella (bird)",
"emu",
"Moomba, South Australia",
"arid",
"budgerigar",
"John Oxley",
"galah",
"tropical climate",
"Afghan cameleers in Australia",
"folklore"
] |
3,231 |
Absolute infinite
|
The absolute infinite (symbol: Ω), in context often called "absolute", is an extension of the idea of infinity proposed by mathematician Georg Cantor. Cantor linked the absolute infinite with God, and believed that it had various mathematical properties, including the reflection principle: every property of the absolute infinite is also held by some smaller object.
== Cantor's view ==
Cantor said:
{{Blockquote|The actual infinite was distinguished by three relations: first, as it is realized in the supreme perfection, in the completely independent, extra worldly existence, in Deo, where I call it absolute infinite or simply absolute; second to the extent that it is represented in the dependent, creatural world; third as it can be conceived in abstracto in thought as a mathematical magnitude, number or order type. In the latter two relations, where it obviously reveals itself as limited and capable for further proliferation and hence familiar to the finite, I call it Transfinitum and strongly contrast it with the absolute.{{#tag:ref|https://www.uni-siegen.de/fb6/phima/lehre/phima10/quellentexte/handout-phima-teil4b.pdfTranslated quote from German: [Ca-a,
Cantor also mentioned the idea in his letters to Richard Dedekind (text in square brackets not present in original):
== The Burali-Forti paradox ==
The idea that the collection of all ordinal numbers cannot logically exist seems paradoxical to many. This is related to the Burali-Forti's paradox which implies that there can be no greatest ordinal number. All of these problems can be traced back to the idea that, for every property that can be logically defined, there exists a set of all objects that have that property. However, as in Cantor's argument (above), this idea leads to difficulties.
More generally, as noted by A. W. Moore, there can be no end to the process of set formation, and thus no such thing as the totality of all sets, or the set hierarchy. Any such totality would itself have to be a set, thus lying somewhere within the hierarchy and thus failing to contain every set.
A standard solution to this problem is found in Zermelo set theory, which does not allow the unrestricted formation of sets from arbitrary properties. Rather, we may form the set of all objects that have a given property and lie in some given set (Zermelo's Axiom of Separation). This allows for the formation of sets based on properties, in a limited sense, while (hopefully) preserving the consistency of the theory.
While this solves the logical problem, one could argue that the philosophical problem remains. It seems natural that a set of individuals ought to exist, so long as the individuals exist. Indeed, naive set theory might be said to be based on this notion. Although Zermelo's fix allows a class to describe arbitrary (possibly "large") entities, these predicates of the metalanguage may have no formal existence (i.e., as a set) within the theory. For example, the class of all sets would be a proper class. This is philosophically unsatisfying to some and has motivated additional work in set theory and other methods of formalizing the foundations of mathematics such as New Foundations by Willard Van Orman Quine.
|
[
"Willard Van Orman Quine",
"Ernst Zermelo",
"Reflection principle",
"Ineffability",
"Richard Dedekind",
"Springer Publishing",
"Zermelo set theory",
"reflection principle",
"well-ordered",
"New Foundations",
"Rudy Rucker",
"Limitation of size",
"Class (set theory)",
"Open Access",
"Monadology",
"ordinal number",
"Axiom schema of specification",
"Ω",
"perfection",
"set theory",
"Georg Cantor",
"mathematician",
"mathematical",
"God",
"metalanguage",
"Latin language",
"Ivor Grattan-Guinness",
"infinity",
"element (mathematics)",
"A. W. Moore (philosopher)",
"absolute (philosophy)",
"Absolute (philosophy)",
"naive set theory",
"cumulative hierarchy",
"set (mathematics)",
"transcendence (philosophy)",
"paradoxical",
"negative theology",
"proper class",
"Actual infinity",
"Transfinite number"
] |
3,233 |
Acceptance testing
|
In engineering and its various subdisciplines, acceptance testing is a test conducted to determine if the requirements of a specification or contract are met. It may involve chemical tests, physical tests, or performance tests.
In systems engineering, it may involve black-box testing performed on a system (for example: a piece of software, lots of manufactured mechanical parts, or batches of chemical products) prior to its delivery.
In software testing, the ISTQB defines acceptance testing as: The final test in the QA lifecycle, user acceptance testing, is conducted just before the final release to assess whether the product or application can handle real-world scenarios. By replicating user behavior, it checks if the system satisfies business requirements and rejects changes if certain criteria are not met.
Some forms of acceptance testing are, user acceptance testing (UAT), end-user testing, operational acceptance testing (OAT), acceptance test-driven development (ATDD) and field (acceptance) testing. Acceptance criteria are the criteria that a system or component must satisfy in order to be accepted by a user, customer, or other authorized entity.
== Overview ==
Testing is a set of activities conducted to facilitate the discovery and/or evaluation of properties of one or more items under test. Each test, known as a test case, exercises a set of predefined test activities, developed to drive the execution of the test item to meet test objectives; including correct implementation, error identification, quality verification, and other valued details.
User acceptance test (UAT) criteria (in agile software development) are usually created by business customers and expressed in a business domain language. These are high-level tests to verify the completeness of a user story or stories 'played' during any sprint/iteration.
Operational acceptance test (OAT) criteria (regardless of using agile, iterative, or sequential development) are defined in terms of functional and non-functional requirements; covering key quality attributes of functional stability, portability, and reliability.
== Process ==
The acceptance test suite may need to be performed multiple times, as all of the test cases may not be executed within a single test iteration.
The acceptance test suite is run using predefined acceptance test procedures to direct the testers on which data to use, the step-by-step processes to follow, and the expected result following execution. The actual results are retained for comparison with the expected results. It is not system testing (ensuring software does not crash and meets documented requirements) but rather ensures that the solution will work for the user (i.e. tests that the user accepts the solution); software vendors often refer to this as "Beta testing".
This testing should be undertaken by the intended end user, or a subject-matter expert (SME), preferably the owner or client of the solution under test and provide a summary of the findings for confirmation to proceed after trial or review. In software development, UAT as one of the final stages of a project often occurs before a client or customer accepts the new system. Users of the system perform tests in line with what would occur in real-life scenarios.
The materials given to the tester must be similar to the materials that the end user will have. Testers should be given real-life scenarios such as the three most common or difficult tasks that the users they represent will undertake.
The UAT acts as a final verification of the required business functionality and proper functioning of the system, emulating real-world conditions on behalf of the paying client or a specific large customer. If the software works as required and without issues during normal use, one can reasonably extrapolate the same level of stability in production.
User tests, usually performed by clients or by end-users, do not normally focus on identifying simple cosmetic problems such as spelling errors, nor on showstopper defects, such as software crashes; testers and developers identify and fix these issues during earlier unit testing, integration testing, and system testing phases.
UAT should be executed against test scenarios. Test scenarios usually differ from System or Functional test cases in that they represent a "player" or "user" journey. The broad nature of the test scenario ensures that the focus is on the journey and not on technical or system-specific details, staying away from "click-by-click" test steps to allow for a variance in users' behavior. Test scenarios can be broken down into logical "days", which are usually where the actor (player/customer/operator) or system (backoffice, front end) changes.
In industry, a common UAT is a factory acceptance test (FAT). This test takes place before the installation of the equipment. Most of the time testers not only check that the equipment meets the specification but also that it is fully functional. A FAT usually includes a check of completeness, a verification against contractual requirements, a proof of functionality (either by simulation or a conventional function test), and a final inspection.
The results of these tests give clients confidence in how the system will perform in production. There may also be legal or contractual requirements for acceptance of the system.
==Operational acceptance testing==
Operational acceptance testing (OAT) is used to conduct operational readiness (pre-release) of a product, service or system as part of a quality management system. OAT is a common type of non-functional software testing, used mainly in software development and software maintenance projects. This type of testing focuses on the operational readiness of the system to be supported, and/or to become part of the production environment.
== Acceptance testing in extreme programming ==
Acceptance testing is a term used in agile software development methodologies, particularly extreme programming, referring to the functional testing of a user story by the software development team during the implementation phase.
The customer specifies scenarios to test when a user story has been correctly implemented. A story can have one or many acceptance tests, whatever it takes to ensure the functionality works. Acceptance tests are black-box system tests. Each acceptance test represents some expected result from the system. Customers are responsible for verifying the correctness of the acceptance tests and reviewing test scores to decide which failed tests are of highest priority. Acceptance tests are also used as regression tests prior to a production release. A user story is not considered complete until it has passed its acceptance tests. This means that new acceptance tests must be created for each iteration, or the development team will report zero progress.
== Types of acceptance testing ==
Typical types of acceptance testing include the following
User acceptance testing:This may include factory acceptance testing (FAT), i.e. the testing done by a vendor before the product or system is moved to its destination site, after which site acceptance testing (SAT) may be performed by the users at the site.
Operational acceptance testing:Also known as operational readiness testing, this refers to the checking done to a system to ensure that processes and procedures are in place to allow the system to be used and maintained. This may include checks done to back-up facilities, procedures for disaster recovery, training for end users, maintenance procedures, and security procedures.
Contract and regulation acceptance testing
In contract acceptance testing, a system is tested against acceptance criteria as documented in a contract, before the system is accepted. In regulation acceptance testing, a system is tested to ensure it meets governmental, legal and safety standards.
Factory acceptance testing
Acceptance testing conducted at the site at which the product is developed and performed by employees of the supplier organization, to determine whether a component or system satisfies the requirements, normally including hardware as well as software.
Alpha and beta testing
Alpha testing takes place at developers' sites and involves testing of the operational system by internal staff, before it is released to external customers. Beta testing takes place at customers' sites and involves testing by a group of customers who use the system at their own locations and provide feedback, before the system is released to other customers. The latter is often called "field testing".
==Acceptance criteria==
According to the Project Management Institute, acceptance criteria is a "set of conditions that is required to be met before deliverables are accepted." Requirements found in acceptance criteria for a given component of the system are usually very detailed.
== List of acceptance-testing frameworks ==
Concordion, Specification by example (SbE) framework
Concordion.NET, acceptance testing in .NET
Cucumber, a behavior-driven development (BDD) acceptance test framework
Capybara, Acceptance test framework for Ruby web applications
Behat, BDD acceptance framework for PHP
Lettuce, BDD acceptance framework for Python
Cypress
Fabasoft app.test for automated acceptance tests
Framework for Integrated Test (Fit)
FitNesse, a fork of Fit
Gauge (software), Test Automation Framework from Thoughtworks
iMacros
ItsNat Java Ajax web framework with built-in, server based, functional web testing capabilities.
Maveryx Test Automation Framework for functional testing, regression testing, GUI testing, data-driven and codeless testing of Desktop and Web applications.
Mocha, a popular web acceptance test framework based on Javascript and Node.js
Playwright (software)
Ranorex
Robot Framework
Selenium
Specification by example (Specs2)
Watir
|
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"Playwright (software)",
"deployment environment",
"Engineering validation test",
"agile software development",
"Test-driven development",
"user acceptance testing",
"Mocha (JavaScript framework)",
"non-functional requirement",
"software testing",
"acceptance test-driven development",
"integration testing",
"iMacros",
"Domain specific language",
"Functional requirement",
"White box testing",
"end user",
"portability testing",
"Regression testing",
"Selenium (software)",
"Specification by example",
"Development stage",
"acceptance criteria",
"Software bug",
"FitNesse",
"quality management system",
"Gauge (software)",
"Fabasoft app.test",
"Framework for Integrated Test",
"software system",
"subject-matter expert",
"International Software Testing Qualifications Board",
"Robot Framework",
"operational acceptance testing",
"Cypress (software)",
"extreme programming",
"Watir",
"software maintenance",
"Grey box testing",
"Functional testing (manufacturing)",
"system testing",
"user story",
"fields of engineering",
"system",
"functional testing",
"Maveryx",
"Performance test (assessment)",
"Ranorex",
"engineering",
"software development",
"Fork (software development)",
"International Organization for Standardization",
"reliability theory",
"crash (computing)",
"specification",
"Thoughtworks",
"Dynamic testing",
"project stakeholder",
"black-box testing",
"contract",
"Acceptance sampling",
"chemical test",
"Conference room pilot",
"physical test",
"unit testing",
"Operational acceptance testing",
"Concordion",
"systems engineering",
"behavior-driven development",
"Verification and validation",
"Cucumber (software)",
"Project Management Institute",
"Software development process"
] |
3,234 |
Archbishopric of Riga
|
The Archbishopric of Riga (, ) was a Catholic diocese and civil government in Medieval Livonia, subject to the Holy See. It was established in 1186 and ended in 1561.
== History ==
The diocese was established in 1186 as the Bishopric of Livonia at Ikšķile; after its seat was moved to Riga, it became the Bishopric of Riga in 1202 and was elevated to an archbishopric in 1255.
The archbishops of Riga were also the secular rulers of Riga until 1561 when during the Reformation the territory converted from Catholicism to Lutheranism and all church territories were secularized. The see was restored as a diocese of the Catholic Church in 1918 and raised into an archdiocese in 1923.
== Bishops and Archbishops of Riga ==
A new Bishopric of Livonia was established in Latgalia in 1621 during the Inflanty Voivodeship of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.
== Coinage ==
The Archbishops of Riga were innovators in the field of minting currency, reviving techniques abandoned since the collapse of Rome. The names of individual archbishops after 1418, as well as the years of their respective reigns, are stamped on Livonian pennies excavated at archaeological sites. In many cases, this is the only biographical data available. No Livonian pennies before 1418 have been found.
|
[
"de:Nikolaus von Nauen",
"Catholic Church",
"Latin",
"Michael Hildebrand",
"Terra Mariana",
"Livonian Brothers of the Sword",
"Holy See",
"Bishopric of Reval",
"Lutheranism",
"Theocracy",
"penny",
"Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth",
"diocese",
"Riga",
"Austrian schilling",
"Saint Meinhard",
"Bishopric of Courland",
"Livonian language",
"Reformation",
"Wilhelm von Brandenburg",
"Diocese of Inflanty",
"Latvian language",
"deflation",
"Bishopric of Ösel-Wiek",
"Prince-Bishop",
"Thomas Schöning",
"Evangelical Lutheran Church of Latvia",
"Latgalia",
"Berthold of Hanover",
"Bishopric of Dorpat",
"Jens Grand",
"Inflanty Voivodeship",
"Episcopal see",
"Albert Suerbeer",
"Sede vacante",
"Mint (coin)",
"Albert of Riga",
"Low German",
"Johannes Ambundii",
"Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Riga",
"Roman Catholic",
"Ikšķile",
"Latvia",
"Penny",
"Monastic state of the Teutonic Knights",
"Middle Ages",
"Livonian Crusade"
] |
3,235 |
Albert Frederick, Duke of Prussia
|
Albert Frederick (; ; 7 May 1553 – 27 August 1618) was the Duke of Prussia, from 1568 until his death. He was a son of Albert of Prussia and Anna Marie of Brunswick-Lüneburg. He was the second and last Prussian duke of the Ansbach branch of the Hohenzollern family.
==Duke of Prussia==
Albert became Duke of Prussia after paying feudal homage to his cousin, the King of Poland, Sigismund Augustus, on 19 July 1569 in Lublin. The homage was described by the Polish chronicler Jan Kochanowski in his work Proporzec ("Standard"). During the 1573 Polish election, Albert Frederick attempted to gain acceptance to the Polish senate but was opposed by the powerful Jan Zamoyski (later Grand Hetman of the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland) who feared the influence of Protestants in the Polish legislative body. Albert Frederick initially refused to recognize the election of Stefan Bathory and supported the candidacy of Maximilian of Austria. However, at the Toruń sejm of October 1576 he gave his support to the new monarch.
As the great-grandson of the Polish king Casimir IV Jagiellon, and as a Duke in Prussia who was fluent in Polish, Albert Frederick was seriously considered for a time as a possible candidate for the Polish throne. He particularly enjoyed the support of Polish Lutherans.
In 1572 he began to exhibit signs of mental disorder. He had twice tried to commit suicide and was prone to violent outbursts and held a great fear of " Turks and Muscovites " overrunning Germany.
In early 1578, the regency was taken over by his cousin, George Frederick of Brandenburg-Kulmbach (1539–1603). After George Frederick's death in 1603, the Polish king Sigismund III Vasa appointed Joachim Frederick as regent in 1605, and permitted his son, John Sigismund, to succeed him in 1611. The latter became Duke of Prussia after Albert Frederick's death in 1618.
==Marriage==
Albert Frederick was married in 1573 to Marie Eleonore of Cleves, a daughter of Wilhelm, Duke of Jülich-Cleves-Berg and Archduchess Maria of Austria (1531–1581). Maria was a daughter of Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor and Anna of Bohemia and Hungary.
==Issue==
Albert Frederick and Marie were parents to seven children:
Anna of Prussia (3 July 1576 – 30 August 1625). Married John Sigismund, Elector of Brandenburg.
Marie of Prussia (23 January 1579 – 21 February 1649). Married Christian, Margrave of Brandenburg-Bayreuth.
Albert Frederick of Prussia (1 June 1580 – 8 October 1580) died in infancy.
Sophie of Prussia (31 March 1582 – 4 December 1610). Married Wilhelm Kettler of Courland.
Eleanor of Prussia (21 August 1583 – 9 April 1607). Married Joachim Frederick, Elector of Brandenburg.
Wilhelm Frederick of Prussia (23 June 1585 – 18 January 1586) died in infancy.
Magdalene Sibylle of Prussia (31 December 1586 – 22 February 1659). Married John George I, Elector of Saxony.
At his death, the duchy passed to his son-in-law John Sigismund, Margrave of Brandenburg, combining the two territories under a single dynasty and forming Brandenburg-Prussia.
== Ancestors ==
|
[
"Sigismund III Vasa",
"Eric I, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg",
"Joachim Frederick, Elector of Brandenburg",
"sejm",
"Wilhelm, Duke of Jülich-Cleves-Berg",
"John Sigismund, Elector of Brandenburg",
"Marie of Prussia, Margravine of Brandenburg-Bayreuth",
"Lutheranism",
"Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor",
"Anna Marie of Brunswick-Lüneburg",
"Protestants",
"John Sigismund, Margrave of Brandenburg",
"Marie Eleonore of Cleves",
"Stefan Bathory",
"Elisabeth of Brandenburg, Duchess of Brunswick-Calenberg-Göttingen",
"Joachim I Nestor, Elector of Brandenburg",
"Duchess Anna of Prussia",
"Lublin",
"Eleanor of Prussia",
"Magdalene Sibylle of Prussia",
"Crown of the Kingdom of Poland",
"King of Poland",
"Christian, Margrave of Brandenburg-Bayreuth",
"Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie",
"Toruń",
"Duke of Prussia",
"senate",
"John George I, Elector of Saxony",
"Maria of Habsburg, Archduchess of Austria",
"Sophia Jagiellon, Margravine of Brandenburg-Ansbach",
"Brandenburg-Prussia",
"Albert, Duke of Prussia",
"Elisabeth of Austria (1436–1505)",
"Joachim III Frederick, Elector of Brandenburg",
"Homage (feudal)",
"Hetman",
"Wilhelm Kettler",
"Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor",
"Anna, Duchess of Prussia",
"House of Hohenzollern",
"George Frederick, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach",
"Fischhausen",
"Anna of Bohemia and Hungary",
"Hohenzollern",
"Neue Deutsche Biographie",
"Frederick I, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach",
"Albrecht III Achilles, Elector of Brandenburg",
"William IV, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg",
"Ansbach",
"Jan Zamoyski",
"Casimir IV Jagiellon",
"Sigismund Augustus",
"Courland",
"Anna of Saxony, Electress of Brandenburg",
"Königsberg",
"Elizabeth of Denmark, Electress of Brandenburg",
"Duchy of Prussia",
"Jan Kochanowski",
"Duchess Sophie of Prussia",
"Albert of Prussia"
] |
3,236 |
Ansbach
|
Ansbach ( , ; ) is a city in the German state of Bavaria. It is the capital of the administrative region of Middle Franconia. Ansbach is southwest of Nuremberg and north of Munich, on the river Fränkische Rezat, a tributary of the river Main. In 2020, its population was 41,681.
Developed in the 8th century as a Benedictine monastery, it became the seat of the Hohenzollern family in 1331. In 1460, the Margraves of Brandenburg-Ansbach lived here. The city has a castle known as Margrafen–Schloss, built between 1704 and 1738. It was not badly damaged during the World Wars and hence retains its original historical baroque sheen. Ansbach is now home to a US military base and to the Ansbach University of Applied Sciences.
The city has connections via autobahn A6 and highways B13 and B14. Ansbach station is on the Nürnberg–Crailsheim and Treuchtlingen–Würzburg railways and a Station of line S4 of the Nuremberg S-Bahn.
==Name origin==
Ansbach was originally called Onoltesbach (about 790 AD), a term composed of three parts.
The individual word elements are "Onold" (the city founder's name), the Suffix "-es" (a possessive ending, like "-'s" in English) and the Old High German expression "pah" or "bach" (for brook). The name of the city has slightly changed throughout the centuries into Onoltespah (837 AD), Onoldesbach (1141 AD), Onoldsbach (1230 AD), Onelspach (1338 AD), Onsbach (1508 AD) and finally Ansbach (1732 AD).
It was also formerly known as Anspach.
==History==
According to folklore, towards the end of the 7th century a group of Franconian peasants and their families went up into the wilderness to found a new settlement. Their leader Onold led them to an area called the "Rezattal" (Rezat valley). This is where they founded the "Urhöfe" (meaning the first farms: Knollenhof, Voggenhof and Rabenhof). Gradually more settlers, such as the "Winden-Tribe" came, and the farms grew into a small village. Many villages around Ansbach were founded by the "Winden" during that period (even today, their settlements can easily identified by their names, like Meinhardswinden, Dautenwinden or Brodswinden). A Benedictine monastery was established there around 748 by the Frankish noble St Gumbertus. The adjoining village of Onoltesbach was first noticed as a proper town in 1221.
The counts of Öttingen ruled over Ansbach until the Hohenzollern burgrave of Nürnberg took over in 1331. The Hohenzollerns made Ansbach the seat of their dynasty until their acquisition of the Margraviate of Brandenburg in 1415. After the 1440 death of Frederick I, a cadet branch of the family established itself as the margraves of Ansbach. George the Pious introduced the Protestant Reformation to Ansbach in 1528, leading to Gumbertus Abbey's secularization in 1563.
The Markgrafenschloß was built between 1704 and 1738. Its gardens continued to be a notable attraction into the 1800s. In 1791, the last margrave sold his realm to the Kingdom of Prussia. In 1796, the Duke of Zweibrücken, Maximilian Joseph — the future Bavarian king— was exiled to Ansbach the French took Zweibrücken. In Ansbach, Maximilian von Montgelas wrote an elaborate concept for the future political organization of Bavaria, which is known as the Ansbacher Mémoire. Napoleon forced Prussia to cede Ansbach and its principality to Bavaria in the Franco-Prussian treaty of alliance signed at Schönbrunn Palace on 15 December 1805 at the end of the Third Coalition. Ansbach became the capital of the ('Circle of the Rezat'). Bavarian ownership was confirmed by the 1815 Congress of Vienna; Prussia was compensated with the Bavarian Duchy of Berg. In 1837 the became the circle of Middle Franconia. Following the unification of Germany Ansbach had a population of 12,635.
Jewish families were resident in Ansbach from at least the end of the 18th century. They set up a Jewish Cemetery in the Ruglaender Strasse, which was vandalised and razed under the Nazi regime in the Kristallnacht. It was repaired in 1946, but it was damaged several times more. A plaque on the wall of the cemetery commemorates these events. The Jewish Congregation built its synagogue at No 3 Rosenbadstrasse, but it too was damaged by the SA, though it was not burnt down for fear of damaging the neighbouring buildings. It serves today as a "Symbolic House of God". A plaque in the entrance serves as a memorial to the synagogue and to Jewish residents who were murdered during the Holocaust. In 1940, at least 500 patients were deported from the Heil- und Pflegeanstalt Ansbach [Ansbach Medical and Nursing Clinic] to the extermination facilities Sonnenstein and Hartheim which were disguised as psychiatric institutions, as part of the Action T4 euthanasia action. They were gassed there. At the clinic in Ansbach itself, around 50 intellectually disabled children were injected with the drug Luminal and killed that way. A plaque was erected in their memory in 1988 in the local hospital at No. 38 Feuchtwangerstrasse.
During World War II, a subcamp of Flossenbürg concentration camp was located here. Also during the Second World War the Luftwaffe and Wehrmacht had bases here. The nearby airbase was the home station for the Stab & I/KG53 (Staff & 1st Group of Kampfgeschwader 53) operating 38 Heinkel He 111 bombers. On 1 September 1939 this unit was one of the many that participated in the attack on Poland that started the war. All of its bridges were destroyed during the course of the war. During the Western Allied invasion of Germany in April 1945, the airfield was seized by the United States Third Army, and used by the USAAF 354th Fighter Group which flew P-47 Thunderbolts from the aerodrome (designated ALG R-82) from late April until the German capitulation on 7 May 1945. At the end of the war, 19-year-old student Robert Limpert tried to get the town to surrender to the US Forces without a fight. He was betrayed by Hitler Youth and was hanged from the portal of the City Hall by the city's military commander, Col. (Oberst) Ernst Meyer. Several memorials to his heroic deed have been erected over the years, despite opposition from some residents — in the Ludwigskirche, in the Gymnasium Carolinum and at No 6 Kronenstrasse. After the Second World War, Ansbach belonged to the American Zone. The American Military authorities established a displaced persons (DP) camp in what used to be a sanatorium in what is today the Strüth quarter.
Bachwoche Ansbach has been held in Ansbach since 1947. Since 1970, Ansbach has enlarged its municipal area by incorporating adjacent communities. Ansbach hosts several units of the U.S. armed forces, associated with German units under NATO. There are five separate U.S. installations: Shipton Kaserne, home to 412th Aviation Support Battalion, Katterbach Kaserne, formerly the home of the 1st Infantry Division's 4th Combat Aviation Brigade, also home of 501st M.I. Bn and 501st Avn Bn. which has been replaced by the 12th Combat Aviation Brigade as of 2006, as part of the 1st Infantry Division's return to Fort Riley, Kansas; Bismarck Kaserne, which functions as a satellite post to Katterbach, hosting their Post Theater, barracks, Von Steuben Community Center, Military Police, and other support agencies, Barton Barracks, home to the USAG Ansbach and Bleidorn Barracks, which has a library and housing, and Urlas, which hosts the Post Exchange as well as a housing area opened in 2010. Ansbach was also home to the headquarters of the 1st Armored Division (United States) from 1972 to the early 1990s.
On 24 July 2016 a bomb was detonated in a restaurant in the city, killing only the bomber himself and injuring few people. The perpetrator was reported to be a Syrian refugee whose asylum application had been rejected but who had been given exceptional leave to remain until the security situation in Syria returned to a safe condition. Witnesses reported he had tried to enter a nearby music festival but had been turned away, before detonating his device outside a nearby wine bar.
==Boroughs==
Eyb bei Ansbach, part of Ansbach since 1 October 1970
Bernhardswinden, part of Ansbach since 1 July 1972
Brodswinden, part of Ansbach since 1 July 1972
Claffheim, part of Ansbach since 1 July 1972
Elpersdorf bei Ansbach, part of Ansbach since 1 July 1972
Hennenbach, part of Ansbach since 1 July 1972
Neuses bei Ansbach, part of Ansbach since 1 July 1972
Strüth
Wasserzell
Schalkhausen, part of Ansbach since 1 July 1972
Geisengrund
Dornberg
Neudorf
Steinersdorf
==Lord mayors==
1877–1905: Ludwig Keller (1839–1911)
1905–1919: Ernst Rohmeder
1919–1934: Wilhelm Borkholder (1886–1945)
1934–1945: Richard Hänel (NSDAP) (1895-date of death unknown)
1945: Hans Schregle (1890–1970), (SPD), introduced by the Office of Military Government, United States
1945–1950: Ernst Körner (SPD)
1950–1952: Friedrich Böhner
1952–1957: Karl Burkhardt (CSU)
1957–1971: Ludwig Schönecker (CSU)
1971–1990: Ernst-Günther Zumach (CSU) (1926–2012)
1990–2008: Ralf Felber (SPD)
2008-2020: Carda Seidel (independent)
since May 2020: Thomas Deffner (CSU)
==Sights==
Castle of the Margraves of Brandenburg-Ansbach
Museum Retti Palais
Margrave museum
Kaspar Hauser Monument
St. Gumbertus and St. Johannis churches, both 15th century
Theater Ansbach
Ansbacher Kammerspiele
LOFT – projectspace for contemporary art
==Climate==
Ansbach has a transitional temperate-continental climate (Köppen climate classification: Cfb/Dfb), with a small diurnal air temperature variation between day and night during winter, and with a moderate annual precipitation.
== Demography ==
==Economy==
Around the time of the unification of Germany in 1871, the chief manufactures of Ansbach were woollen, cotton, and half-silk goods; earthenware; tobacco; cutlery; and playing cards. A considerable trade in grain, wool, and flax was also supported. By the onset of the First World War, it also produced machinery, toys, and embroidery.
Today there is a large density of plastics industry in the city and rural districts around Ansbach.
The city is known for making Peperami pork sausages and jerky.
== Transport ==
Ansbach lies on the Treuchtlingen-Würzburg railway.
==Notable people==
===Public service ===
Elisabeth von Brandenburg-Ansbach (1451–1524), Princess of Brandenburg, by marriage Duchess of Württemberg
Frederick I, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach (1460–1536), Margrave of Ansbach & Margrave of Kulmbach
Albert, Duke of Prussia (1490–1568), Grand Master of the Teutonic Order and the first duke of Prussia.
Margravine Eleonore Juliane of Brandenburg-Ansbach (1663–1724), Princess of Brandenburg-Ansbach, by marriage Duchess of Württemberg-Winnental
Caroline of Ansbach (1683–1737), Queen of Great Britain and Ireland, wife of George II of Great Britain.
Christian Friedrich Carl Alexander (1736–1806), the last Margrave of Ansbach
Karl Heinrich Ritter von Lang (1764–1835), a historian and statesman, lived mainly in Ansbach.
Moritz Ritter von Spies (1805–1862), Bavarian Major General and War Minister
John James Maximilian Oertel (1811–1882), a Lutheran clergyman, converted to Roman Catholicism and moved to the United States
Maximilian Wolfgang Duncker (1811–1886), a historian and politician, died in Ansbach.
Kaspar Hauser (1812–1833), lived in Ansbach from 1830 to 1833, stabbed in the palace gardens
Henry Hochheimer (1818–1912), rabbi
George H. Brickner (1834–1904), U.S. Representative from Wisconsin
Pinchas Kohn (1867–1941), was the last rabbi of Ansbach. He was the rabbinical advisor to the German occupying forces of Poland in the First World War and was also one of the founders of the World Agudath Israel movement
Theodor Endres (1876–1956), General of the Artillery
Wilhelm Adam (1893–1978), Colonel General
Hermann Fegelein (1906–1945), General of the Waffen-SS, was married to the sister of Eva Braun
Waldemar Fegelein (1912–2000), officer in the Waffen-SS
Amélie Jakobovits (née Munk, 1928–2010), wife of Immanuel Jakobovits, Chief Rabbi of the United Kingdom
Walter Brandmüller (born 1929), theologian and historian, president of the Pontifical Committee for Historical Sciences
Manfred Ach (born 1940), politician, from 1994 to 2008 Member of the Bavarian Parliament
=== Arts & science ===
Leonhart Fuchs (1501–1566), botanist and physician to margrave Georg Friedrich
Simon Marius (1573–1625), astronomer lived in Ansbach, he observed Jupiter's moons from the castle's tower, which led to a dispute with the true discoverer, Galileo Galilei
Georg Ernst Stahl (1659–1734), chemist, physician and metallurgist.
Matthias Buchinger (1674–1740), a German artist, magician and illustrator, born without hands or legs
Johann Uz (1720–1796), a German poet.
Marcus Eliezer Bloch (1723–1799), ichthyologist.
Georg Christian Oeder (1728–1791), pre-Linnean botanist
Ludwig von Förster (1792–1863), architect: Ringstrasse, 3 & synagogues in Vienna and Budapest
August von Platen-Hallermünde (1796–1835), poet.
Georges Oberhaeuser (1798–1868), optician
Oskar Freiherr von Redwitz (1823–1891), a poet from nearby Lichtenau.
Ferdinand Christian Gustav Arnold (1828–1901), lichenologist and taxonomist
Wilhelm Hecht (1843–1920), wood engraver and etcher
Fritz Hommel (1854–1936), orientalist
Theodor Escherich (1857–1911), pediatrician and bacteriologist
Max Westenhöfer (1871–1957), pathologist, professor at the University of Berlin and the University of Chile. Proposed the Aquatic ape hypothesis
Herbert Blendinger (1936–2020), violinist and composer
===Sport ===
Helga Matschkur (born 1943), gymnast, competed in six events at the 1968 Summer Olympics.
Georg Volkert (1945–2020), footballer, played 410 games in Bundesliga and won 12 caps for West Germany
Sebastian Preiss (born 1981), handball player
Dominik Farnbacher (born 1984), racing driver
Alex King (born 1985), basketball player
Mario Farnbacher (born 1992), racing driver
Danilo Dittrich (born 1995), football player
==Twin towns – sister cities==
Ansbach is twinned with:
Anglet, Nouvelle-Aquitaine, France
Bay City, Michigan, United States
Fermo, Marche, Italy
Jingjiang, Jiangsu, China
==In popular culture==
In the novel The Schirmer Inheritance (1953) by Eric Ambler (1909–1998), Sergeant Franz Schirmer of the Ansbach Dragoons is wounded in the battle of Preussisch-Eylau in 1807. He returns to Ansbach to settle but changes his name as he has been posted as a deserter. The bulk of the novel concerns efforts by an American law firm to trace his descendants to claim an inheritance.
|
[
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"Invasion of Poland",
"Post Exchange",
"Bundesautobahn 6",
"Amélie Jakobovits",
"France",
"wool",
"Kingdom of Bavaria",
"Bundesstraße 14",
"Christian Social Union in Bavaria",
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"Mario Farnbacher",
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"Margraviate of Brandenburg",
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"2016 Ansbach bombing",
"Henry Hochheimer",
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"Carl Linnaeus",
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"Maximilian I Joseph of Bavaria",
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"University of Berlin",
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"Rastatt",
"Fort Riley",
"Rezatkreis",
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"Hohenzollern",
"Immanuel Jakobovits",
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"Jupiter",
"Margrave of Ansbach",
"Theodor Endres",
"Bernhardswinden",
"County of Öttingen",
"P-47 Thunderbolts",
"Fritz Hommel",
"Johann Uz",
"St. Gumbertus, Ansbach",
"Treuchtlingen–Würzburg railway",
"Nuremberg",
"Old High German",
"Geisengrund",
"Marcus Eliezer Bloch",
"Duchy of Berg",
"Principality of Ansbach",
"Danilo Dittrich",
"Fürst und Markgraf von Ansbach",
"Germany",
"Wilhelm Hecht",
"Wolf of Ansbach",
"Neuses bei Ansbach",
"Matthias Buchinger",
"Anglet",
"Deutscher Wetterdienst",
"NATO",
"12th Combat Aviation Brigade (United States)",
"Marche",
"unification of Germany",
"Humid continental climate",
"Independent politician",
"Steinersdorf",
"Eric Ambler",
"United States",
"Caroline of Ansbach",
"Pontifical Committee for Historical Sciences",
"Jingjiang",
"Simon Marius",
"George H. Brickner",
"Manfred Ach",
"Waffen-SS",
"Theodor Escherich",
"Bay City, Michigan",
"1st Armored Division (United States)",
"earthenware",
"Ludwig Förster",
"Oskar von Redwitz",
"Palatine Zweibrücken",
"House of Hohenzollern",
"Benedictine Order",
"Phenobarbital",
"Bundesstraße 13",
"Gumbertus",
"Ferdinand Christian Gustav Arnold",
"Burgraviate of Nürnberg",
"playing cards",
"University of Chile",
"Eyb bei Ansbach",
"Ansbach station",
"354th Fighter Wing",
"1968 Summer Olympics",
"cutlery",
"Neudorf (Ansbach)",
"flax",
"Michigan",
"Regierungsbezirk",
"Kristallnacht",
"Lutheran",
"Germany national football team",
"Bachwoche Ansbach",
"Roman Catholicism",
"Hennenbach",
"Lichtenau, Bavaria",
"Oceanic climate",
"toy",
"Leonhart Fuchs",
"John James Maximilian Oertel",
"Kingdom of Prussia",
"Maximilian von Montgelas",
"Western Allied invasion of Germany",
"Aquatic ape hypothesis",
"World Wars",
"Karl Heinrich Lang",
"Moritz von Spies",
"Elisabeth of Brandenburg (1451–1524)",
"Ansbach University of Applied Sciences",
"Suffix",
"Bavaria",
"Advanced Landing Ground",
"Main (river)",
"Franconian Rezat",
"woolens",
"China",
"August von Platen-Hallermünde",
"Walter Brandmüller",
"Georg Volkert",
"Fränkische Rezat",
"Wisconsin",
"Frederick I, Elector of Brandenburg",
"Italy",
"Nuremberg–Crailsheim railway",
"Helga Matschkur",
"Nouvelle-Aquitaine",
"Battle of Eylau",
"Alex King (basketball)",
"Museum Retti Palais",
"Treuchtlingen-Würzburg railway",
"Alexander, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach",
"Protestant Reformation",
"diurnal air temperature variation",
"tobacco",
"Verlag C. H. Beck",
"World Agudath Israel",
"Margravine Eleonore Juliane of Brandenburg-Ansbach",
"World War II",
"Elpersdorf bei Ansbach",
"Robert Limpert",
"Galileo Galilei",
"Brandenburg-Ansbach",
"continental climate",
"Duchy of Prussia",
"Eva Braun",
"Benedictine monastery",
"St. Johannis, Ansbach",
"Stream",
"Georg Christian Oeder",
"Nazi Party",
"Schalkhausen",
"Ansbach Residence",
"Peperami",
"Principality of Bayreuth",
"Kaspar Hauser",
"Wasserzell (Ansbach)",
"plastics industry",
"textiles",
"Mittelfranken",
"USAAF",
"4th Combat Aviation Brigade",
"Hitler Youth",
"George, Margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach",
"Action T4",
"Hermann Fegelein",
"Dominik Farnbacher",
"Claffheim",
"silk",
"Treaty of Schönbrunn (1805)",
"Waldemar Fegelein",
"Wilhelm Adam",
"Georges Oberhaeuser",
"East Franconian German",
"Office of Military Government, United States",
"1st Infantry Division (United States)",
"Georg Ernst Stahl",
"Teutonic Order",
"Nuremberg S-Bahn",
"Pinchas Kohn",
"machinery",
"412th Aviation Support Battalion",
"Jiangsu",
"Congress of Vienna",
"Temperate climate",
"SPD Bavaria",
"Markgrafenschloß",
"Franks",
"clergyman",
"Max Westenhöfer",
"embroidery"
] |
3,237 |
National Alliance (Italy)
|
National Alliance (, AN) was a national conservative political party in Italy. It was the successor of the Italian Social Movement (MSI), a neo-fascist party founded in 1946 by former followers of Benito Mussolini that had moderated its policies over its last decades and finally distanced itself from its former ideology, a move known as , during a convention in Fiuggi by dissolving into the new party in 1995.
Gianfranco Fini was the leader of AN from its foundation through 2008, after being elected President of the Chamber of Deputies. Fini was succeeded by Ignazio La Russa, who managed the merger of the party with Forza Italia (FI) into The People of Freedom (PdL) in 2009. During AN's last congress, it was decided that a foundation would manage the assets and the political legacy of MSI/AN; as a result, the National Alliance Foundation was established in 2011. A group of former AN members, led by La Russa and Giorgia Meloni, as well as former Christian Democrat Guido Crosetto, left the PdL in 2012 to launch the Brothers of Italy (FdI), while others remained in the PdL and were among the founding members of the re-launched Forza Italia (FI) in 2013. The National Alliance Foundation authorised FdI to use AN's symbol in 2014 and onwards.
==History==
===Foundation===
National Alliance was launched in 1994 when the Italian Social Movement (MSI), the former neo-fascist party, merged with conservative elements of the former Christian Democracy, which had disbanded in 1994 after two years of scandals and various splits due to political corruption at its highest levels, exposed by the Mani pulite investigation, and the Italian Liberal Party, disbanded in the same year. It was officially launched in January 1995. Former MSI members dominated the new party, and the MSI's last leader, Gianfranco Fini, was elected the new party's first leader.
The AN logo followed a template very similar to that of the Democratic Party of the Left, incorporating the MSI logo in a small roundel of the AN logo as a means of legally preventing others from using it. The name was suggested by an article on the Italian newspaper Il Tempo written in 1992 by Domenico Fisichella, a prominent conservative academic. Starting in the 1990s, the MSI gradually transformed into a mainstream right-wing party, culminating in its 1995 dissolution into AN.
===Government participation===
The party was part of all three House of Freedoms coalition governments led by Silvio Berlusconi. Fini was nominated Deputy Prime Minister after the 2001 Italian general election and was Foreign Minister from November 2004 to May 2006.
When Fini visited Israel in late November 2003 in the function of Italian Deputy Prime Minister, he labelled the racial laws issued by the Italian fascism regime in 1938 as "infamous", as also Giorgio Almirante, historic leader of MSI, had done before. He also referred to the Italian Social Republic as belonging to the most shameful pages of the past, and considered fascism part of an era of "absolute evil", something which was hardly acceptable to the few remaining hardliners of the party. As a result, Alessandra Mussolini, the granddaughter of the former fascist dictator Benito Mussolini, who had been at odds with the party on a number of issues for a long time, and some hardliners left the party and formed Social Action.
In occasion of the 2006 Italian general election, AN ran within the House of Freedoms, with new allies. The centre-right lost by 24,000 votes in favour of the centre-left coalition The Union. Individually, AN received nearly 5 million votes, amounting to 12.3%. In July 2007, a group of splinters led by Francesco Storace formed The Right, which was officially founded on 10 November. Seven MPs of AN, including Teodoro Buontempo and Daniela Santanchè, joined the new party.
===The People of Freedom===
In November 2007, Silvio Berlusconi announced that Forza Italia would have soon merged or transformed into The People of Freedom (PdL) party.
After the sudden fall of the Prodi II Cabinet in January 2008, the break-up of The Union and the subsequent political crisis which led to a fresh general election, Berlusconi hinted that Forza Italia would have probably contested its last election and the new party would have been officially founded only after that election. In an atmosphere of reconciliation with Gianfranco Fini, Berlusconi also stated that the new party could see the participation of other parties. Finally, on 8 February, Berlusconi and Fini agreed to form a joint list under the PdL banner, allied with Lega Nord (LN). After the victory of the PdL in the 2008 Italian general election, AN was merged into the PdL in early 2009.
During AN's last congress, it was decided that a foundation would manage the assets and the political legacy of MSI/AN; as a result, in 2011 the National Alliance Foundation was established. With most hardliners leaving the party, That is why the party was strong in Rome and Lazio, where most civil servants live. The implosion of the Christian Democrats created space for a more economically interventionist party of the conservative right, and the AN sought closer ties to the former DC factions that joined the Berlusconi-led alliances of the right. As part of this, it also moderated its stances on the European Union and immigration, both of which were conditionally accepted by the party's leadership. and 48 senators, who were elected as part of a joint election list under the banner of The People of Freedom.
The electoral results of National Alliance in general (Chamber of Deputies) and European Parliament elections since 1994 are shown in the chart below.
The electoral results of National Alliance in the 10 most populated regions of Italy are shown in the table below.
==Election results==
===Italian Parliament===
===European Parliament===
==Leadership==
President: Gianfranco Fini (1995–2008), Ignazio La Russa (acting, 2008–2009)
Coordinator: Maurizio Gasparri (1995–1998), Ignazio La Russa (2003–2005)
Spokesman: Francesco Storace (1995–1997), Adolfo Urso (1997–2001), Antonio Landolfi (2001–2005), Andrea Ronchi (2005–2009)
Head of Political Secretariat: Donato Lamorte (1995–2002), Andrea Ronchi (2002–2004), Carmelo Briguglio (2002–2004), Donato Lamorte (2004–2009)
President of National Assembly: Domenico Fisichella (1995–2005), Marcello Perina (2005–2006), Francesco Servello (2006–2009)
Organizational Coordinator: Giuseppe Tatarella (1995–1998), Altero Matteoli (1998–2002), Donato Lamorte (2002–2004), Italo Bocchino (2004–2005), Marco Martinelli (2005–2009)
Administrative Secretary: Francesco Pontone (1995–2009)
Party Leader at the Chamber of Deputies: Raffaele Valensise (1994–1995), Giuseppe Tatarella (1995–1998), Gustavo Selva (1998–2001), Ignazio La Russa (2001–2003), Gian Franco Anedda (2003–2004), Ignazio La Russa (2004–2008), Italo Bocchino (deputy-leader of PdL's group, 2008–2009)
Party Leader at the Senate: Giulio Maceratini (1994–2001), Domenico Nania (2001–2006), Altero Matteoli (2006–2008), Maurizio Gasparri (leader of PdL's group, 2008–2009)
Party Leader at the European Parliament: Cristiana Muscardini (1994–2004), Roberta Angelilli (2004–2009)
==Symbols==
Alleanza Nazionale.svg|1995–2009
Logo AN 2006.png|2006 general election
|
[
"Catholic Church",
"Non-attached members",
"Campania",
"Fiuggi",
"political corruption",
"Tuscany",
"Secolo d'Italia",
"Giuseppe Tatarella",
"Democratic Party of the Left",
"Student Action (Italy)",
"Carmelo Briguglio",
"presidentialism",
"Gian Franco Anedda",
"1994 European Parliament election in Italy",
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"national identity",
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"Italian Social Republic",
"Domenico Fisichella",
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"Central Italy",
"Marcello Perina",
"privatisation",
"People of Freedom",
"Pole for Freedoms",
"Forza Italia (2013)",
"Southern Italy",
"Italian fascism",
"Forza Italia",
"Franco Pontone",
"President of the Chamber of Deputies (Italy)",
"Antonio Landolfi",
"statist",
"Youth Action (Italy)",
"liberal-conservative",
"Mani pulite",
"stem cell",
"European People's Party",
"2004 European Parliament election in Italy",
"Italo Bocchino",
"List of political parties in Italy",
"Far-right politics",
"Friuli-Venezia Giulia",
"Gaetano Rebecchini",
"1999 European Parliament election in Italy",
"Sicily",
"Alessandra Mussolini",
"Italy",
"Giorgio Almirante",
"Benito Mussolini",
"Domenico Nania",
"Guido Crosetto",
"Il Tempo (newspaper)",
"Riccardo Migliori",
"market economy",
"Secularism",
"Gianfranco Fini",
"Silvio Berlusconi",
"The Right (Italy)",
"European Parliament",
"far-right skinheads",
"Foundation (nonprofit)",
"Donato Lamorte",
"Sardinia",
"Publio Fiori",
"immigration",
"Prodi II Cabinet",
"Francisco Franco",
"Italian Social Movement",
"Christian Democracy (Italy)",
"Conservatism",
"Christian-democratic",
"Alliance for Europe of the Nations",
"Alessandro Ruben",
"2006 Italian general election",
"conservative",
"Protagonist Right",
"The Union (political coalition)",
"Fiamma Nirenstein",
"artificial insemination",
"National conservatism",
"Mayor of Rome",
"Luigi Gagliardi",
"Traditionalist Catholic",
"David Cameron",
"social liberalism",
"regions of Italy",
"Daniela Santanchè",
"Lazio",
"Social Action",
"Antonio Mazzocchi",
"Lega Nord",
"Jacobin (magazine)",
"Giuseppe Valentino",
"People's Party (Spain)",
"state-owned companies",
"Umbria",
"Teodoro Buontempo",
"Ignazio La Russa",
"Lombardy",
"punishment",
"liberalisation",
"Rome",
"Roberta Angelilli",
"Pole of Good Government",
"Gianni Alemanno"
] |
3,240 |
Arno
|
The Arno is a river in the Tuscany region of Italy. It is the most important river of central Italy after the Tiber.
== Source and route ==
The river originates on Monte Falterona in the Casentino area of the Apennines, and initially takes a southward curve. The river turns to the west near Arezzo passing through Florence, Empoli and Pisa, flowing into the Ligurian Sea at Marina di Pisa.
With a length of , it is the largest river in the region. It has many tributaries: Sieve at long, Bisenzio at , Ombrone Pistoiese at , and the Era, Elsa, Pesa, and Pescia. The drainage basin amounts to more than and drains the waters of the following subbasins:
The Casentino, in the province of Arezzo, formed by the upper course of the river until its confluence with the Maestro della Chiana channel.
The Val di Chiana, a plain drained in the 18th century, which until then had been a marshy area tributary of the Tiber.
The upper Valdarno, a long valley bordered on the east by the Pratomagno massif and on the west by the hills around Siena.
The Sieve's basin, which flows into the Arno immediately before Florence.
The middle Valdarno, with the plain including Florence, Sesto Fiorentino, Prato, and Pistoia.
The lower Valdarno, with the valley of important tributaries such as the Pesa, Elsa, and Era and in which, after Pontedera, the Arno flows into the Ligurian Sea. The river has a very variable discharge, ranging from about to more than . The mouth of the river was once near Pisa but is now several kilometres westwards.
It crosses Florence, where it passes below the Ponte Vecchio and the Santa Trinita bridge (built by Bartolomeo Ammannati but inspired by Michelangelo). The river flooded this city regularly in historical times, most recently in 1966, with after rainfall of in Badia Agnano and in Florence, in only 24 hours.
Before Pisa, the Arno is crossed by the Imperial Canal at La Botte. This water channel passes under the Arno through a tunnel, and serves to drain the former area of the Lago di Bientina, which was once the largest lake in Tuscany before its reclamation.
The flow rate of the Arno is irregular. It is sometimes described as having a torrentlike behaviour, because it can easily go from almost dry to near flood in a few days. At the point where the Arno leaves the Apennines, flow measurements can vary between . New dams built upstream of Florence have greatly alleviated the problem in recent years.
The flood on November 4, 1966 collapsed the embankment in Florence, killing at least 40 people and damaging or destroying millions of works of art and rare books. New conservation techniques were inspired by the disaster, but even decades later hundreds of works still await restoration.
== Etymology ==
From Latin Arnus (Pliny, Natural History 3.50). The philologist Hans Krahe related this toponym on a paleo-European basis *Ar-n-, derived from the Proto-Indo-European root *er-, "flow, move".. The hydronym is closely akin to another nearby hydronym, for the Reno (river).
== Ecology ==
The Arno river has been strongly affected by non-native species: over 90% of fish species and 70% of macroinvertebrate species in the area around Florence are alien species. These include the European catfish, channel catfish, topmouth gudgeon,
== Uses and human impacts ==
Water from the Arno drainage basin is used for drinking water, irrigation, and firefighting. Citizens in the central part of the drainage basin also identified flood control, support for biodiversity, fisheries, and cultural value as other services that the river provides.
==Gallery==
File:Arno_river.jpg|The Arno in Florence
File:Arno River in Pisa.honeydew.jpg|The Arno in Pisa, near the Ponte della Fortezza (Fortress Bridge)
File:Firenze.Arno.jpg|Banks of the Arno, seen from the Ponte Vecchio (Old Bridge), Florence
File:Arno_Mouth_Italy_aerial_view.jpg|Mouth of the Arno in Marina di Pisa
File:Florence Arno 180.jpg|The Arno in Florence, 180 degree view: the Uffizi Gallery is straight across and the Ponte Vecchio is to the left
File:Florence at night.jpg|The Arno in Florence at night
File:Ponte amerigo vespucci.JPG|The Ponte Amerigo Vespucci (Amerigo Vespucci Bridge)
|
[
"Valdichiana",
"Tyrrhenian Sea",
"Siena",
"Stone moroko",
"Pratomagno",
"Empoli",
"Dikerogammarus villosus",
"Pontedera",
"Casentino",
"Tiber",
"Ponte Santa Trinita",
"Sesto Fiorentino",
"New Zealand mud snail",
"Apennine Mountains",
"ecosystem service",
"Tuscany",
"central Italy",
"Ombrone Pistoiese",
"Bisenzio (river)",
"Era (river)",
"Prato",
"Piazzale Michelangelo",
"Pisa",
"Monte Falterona",
"Sieve (river)",
"Wels catfish",
"Arezzo",
"Ponte Vecchio",
"Ligurian Sea",
"Hans Krahe",
"Pesa",
"Italy",
"Elsa (river)",
"Pescia (river)",
"drainage basin",
"Pistoia",
"Old European hydronymy",
"flood",
"Crucian carp",
"1966 flood of the Arno",
"Bartolomeo Ammannati",
"Florence",
"dam",
"Uffizi",
"Reno (river)",
"Ponte Amerigo Vespucci",
"common bleak",
"Lago di Bientina",
"province of Arezzo",
"Rhithropanopeus harrisii",
"Michelangelo",
"channel catfish",
"Valdarno",
"Proto-Indo-European",
"Marina di Pisa",
"river",
"hydronym"
] |
3,244 |
Aveiro, Portugal
|
Aveiro () is a city and a municipality in Portugal. In 2021, the population was 80,880, in an area of : it is the second most populous city in the Centro Region of Portugal (after Coimbra).
Along with the neighbouring city of Ílhavo, Aveiro is part of an urban agglomeration that includes 120,000 inhabitants, making it one of the most important populated regions by density in the North Region, and primary centre of the Intermunicipal Community of Aveiro and Baixo Vouga. Administratively, the president of the municipal government is José Ribau Esteves, elected by coalition between the Social Democratic Party and the Democratic Social Centre, who governs the ten civil parishes ().
==History==
The presence of human settlement in the territory of Aveiro extends to the period associated with the great dolmens of pre-history, which exist in most of the region. The Latinised toponym ‘'Averius'’ derived from the Celtic word aber (river-mouth, etym.< Brythonic *aber < Proto-Celtic *adberos, compare Welsh Aberystwyth).
For a long period Aveiro was an important economic link in the production of salt and commercial shipping.
===Climate===
Aveiro has a warm-summer Mediterranean climate influenced by its proximity to the Atlantic Ocean. The maritime influence causes a narrow temperature range resulting in summers averaging around in daytime temperatures, considerably lower than inland areas on the same parallel on the Iberian Peninsula. As typical of mediterranean climates, summers are dry and winters are wet. A characteristic of the coastal climate is that frosts are rare and never severe, though still happening on average 9 days per year. The hottest temperature recorded was . Temperatures above are only occasional.
===Demography===
Administratively, the municipality is divided into 10 civil parishes ():
Aradas
Cacia
Eixo e Eirol
Esgueira
Glória e Vera Cruz (urban centre and location of the seat of the municipality of Aveiro)
Oliveirinha
Requeixo, Nossa Senhora de Fátima e Nariz
Santa Joana
São Bernardo
São Jacinto
São Jacinto is located on an eponymous peninsula, between the Atlantic Ocean and Ria de Aveiro. Aveiro had 61,430 eligible voters in 2006.
==International relations==
Aveiro's sister cities are:
– Arcachon, France, since 1989
– Belém, Brazil, since 1970
– Bourges, France, since 1989
– Cholargos, Greece, since 2001
– Ciudad Rodrigo, Spain, since 1989
– Cubatão, Brazil, since 1992
– Farim, Guinea-Bissau, since 1992
– Forlì, Italy, since 1990
– Inhambane, Mozambique, since 1989
– Mahdia, Tunisia, since 1998
– Ōita, Japan, since 1978
– Panyu District, China since 2000
– Pelotas, Brazil, since 1996
– Pemba, Mozambique, since 1995
– Santa Cruz, Cape Verde, since 1993
– Santo António, São Tomé and Príncipe, since 1998
– Trois-Rivières, Canada, since 1996
– Viana do Castelo, Portugal, since 1910
==Economy==
Aveiro was known for many years for its production of salt and for the moliço seagrass harvest, which was used as fertilizer before the development of chemicals for that purpose. The boats once used for harvesting now carry tourists on the canals. Salt production has also decreased dramatically with only a few salt ponds still remaining.
The region is now known for the preponderance of ceramics industries, a reflection of the regions advancements, resulting in a long productive tradition since the late Roman, early medieval period (reflected in the ceramics kilns).
The city of Aveiro has several shopping centers and malls (Pingo Doce Shopping Center, Fórum Aveiro, Glicínias Plaza (Jumbo – Auchan), Aveiro's Shopping Center (Continente & Mediamarkt), Aveiro's Retail Park and the Oita Shopping Center). This city has many traditional commerce stores. The most central one being Forum Aveiro with clothes stores, restaurant zone and book stores.
The town's unemployment rate in 2015 was 12.5%; the University of Aveiro is a major employer.
===Tourism===
Tourism is also important for the economy. The old town centre, with its Art Nouveau and Romanesque architecture and "gondolas" (barcos moliceiros once used for collecting moliço seaweed) plying the Ria de Aveiro canals, is referred to as "The Venice of Portugal" in some tourist brochures.
Important tourist attractions are the Arte Nova (Art Nouveau) architectural designs and tiles of some buildings that were created in the early 20th century, the Art Nouveau museum, the Aveiro Museum (Museu de Aveiro, formerly the Mosteiro de Jesus convent with exhibits of King Afonso V's daughter, Santa Joana), the 15th century Aveiro Sé or São Domingos cathedral and the Church of Jesus (Igreja de Jesus) with its architecture. The nearby beaches, Costa Nova and Barra, attract many visitors in warm weather; they can be reached by bus from Aveiro. Other sites of interest to tourists include the Carmelite Church and the Misericórdia Church built in the 16th century.
===Transport===
The local economy is fed by a series of transport networks that cross the municipal boundaries.
==== Air ====
Regional gateways include air service through the Aeródromo de Aveiro/São Jacinto (LPAV) and the Porto de Aveiro (Ílhavo/Aveiro).
==== Rail ====
Rail service includes service by Alfa Pendular (between Lisbon and Braga; Lisbon and Oporto; Faro and Oporto) and Intercity (between Lisbon and Oporto as well as Lisbon and Guimarães) trains; suburban links through the Urbanos do Porto and, also, the Linha do Vouga, a narrow gauge railway to Águeda and Sernada do Vouga.
==== Road ====
The primary expressways and inter-regional thoroughfares include: A1 (between Porto and Lisbon); and the A25 (which links Viseu, Guarda and Vilar Formoso).
Intercity buses connect Aveiro with Porto and Lisbon several times a day.
==== Water ====
Moliceiros provide access along the Ria for tourist visits, in addition to traditional fishing or recreational purposes, including regattas.
==Architecture==
The architecture of Aveiro is influenced by two phases: the pre-Kingdom era, with a number of historical monuments; and the modernist movements resulting from the expansion of economy during the 19th-20th centuries.
The city's primary landmark is the 15th century Monastery of Jesus (), containing the tomb of King Afonso V's daughter, St. Joana (who died in 1490). The presence of this royal personage, beatified in 1693, proved to be of great benefit when she bequeathed her valuable estate to the convent. In the 17th and 18th centuries, the convent housed a school of embroidery, but was transformed into the Museu de Santa Joana, or simply, the Museum of Aveiro, housing many of these handicrafts.
The abundance of 19th-20th century architectural buildings reflects the effects of the boom during that period, including many of the Arte Nova and Art Deco buildings, inspired by modernist trends and Nationalist tendencies of the Estado Novo regime.
There are several attractions in the city of Aveiro, including cathedrals, canals and the beaches, including the Ílhavo ceramica de Vista Alegre and the beaches of Barra, Costa Nova do Prado, and Gafanha da Nazaré.
==Culture==
Aveiro is known in Portugal for its traditional sweets, Ovos Moles de Aveiro (PGI), trouxas de ovos, both made from eggs. Raivas are also typical biscuits of Aveiro.
The municipal holiday is 12 May, the day of Joanna, Princess of Portugal (1452–1490).
==Education==
The University of Aveiro was created in 1973 and attracts thousands of students to the city. It is ranked as the 354th best university in the world in the Times World University Rankings, and the 2nd best in Portugal.
The university has about 430 professors (with PhD degrees), 11,000 undergraduate students, and 1,300 post-graduate students.
==Sport==
Sport Clube Beira-Mar is an association football club. Founded in 1922, it has a sports academy with various youth levels in sports including basketball and futsal. The club used to play at Estádio Municipal de Aveiro, designed by Portuguese architect Tomás Taveira for Euro 2004, where it held two group matches.
The other long-established club in the city, Os Galitos, was founded in 1904 and houses a wide variety of sports. Its rowers have represented Portugal in international tournaments including the Olympic Games.
José Luciano de Castro (1834 in Oliveirinha – 1914) a politician, statesman and journalist who served three times as Prime Minister of Portugal
Jaime de Magalhães Lima (1859–1936) a Portuguese philosopher, poet and writer
Mário Sacramento (1920–1969), physician and essayist, famous for his anti-fascist activities against the Estado Novo regime.
José Afonso (1929–1987) known as Zeca Afonso, one of the most influential folk and political musicians in Portugal
Rosa Alice Branco (born 1950 in Aveiro) a Portuguese poet.
=== Sport ===
Arnaldo Edi Lopes da Silva (born 1982), known as Edinho, a Portuguese footballer with almost 500 club caps
Diogo Valente (born 1984) a Portuguese footballer with over 360 club caps
Rui Raínho (born 1989) a Portuguese footballer with over 330 club caps
==Gallery==
File:Aveiro-Azulejo.jpg|Typical azulejo façades of Aveiro.
File:Aveiro-Rotunda.jpg|Aveiro, Portugal
File:AveiroCanal2.jpg|Aveiro, Portugal
File:Aveiro 5.JPG|A square in Aveiro.
File:Ria de Aveiro.jpg|Aveiro, Portugal
File:Aveiro - Portugal (16704486410).jpg|Old ceramics factory
File:Aveiro_Canal.jpg|Aveiro, Portugal
File:Aveiro_6.JPG|Aveiro, Portugal
File:Cais da Fonte Nova (Aveiro).webm|Cais da Fonte Nova (Aveiro, Portugal)
|
[
"A25 motorway (Portugal)",
"A1 motorway (Portugal)",
"University of Aveiro",
"Forlì",
"John III of Portugal",
"Oliveirinha",
"Esgueira",
"Vilar Formoso",
"metal",
"Afonso V of Portugal",
"John I of Portugal",
"Art Nouveau",
"salt",
"town twinning",
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"São Jacinto (parish)",
"Coimbra",
"Venice",
"seaport",
"Ria de Aveiro",
"Ílhavo",
"CDS – People's Party",
"Pelotas",
"Joseph I of Portugal",
"Donatário",
"José Luciano de Castro",
"Santa Joana (parish)",
"Região de Aveiro",
"association football",
"Porto",
"Ciudad Rodrigo",
"Pemba, Mozambique",
"Ōita, Ōita",
"Mário Sacramento",
"Santa Cruz (Cape Verde)",
"Centro Region, Portugal",
"Gafanha da Nazaré",
"Alfa Pendular",
"Pope Clement XIV",
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"Duarte de Portugal",
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"Fernão de Oliveira",
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"Santo António",
"UEFA",
"Liberal Wars",
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"seagrass",
"Réseau Art Nouveau Network",
"Mahdia, Tunisia",
"Joanna, Princess of Portugal",
"Aradas",
"Baixo Vouga",
"Aveiro Lagoon",
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"Arcachon",
"S.C. Beira-Mar",
"Doutor Lourenço Peixinho Avenue",
"dolmen",
"Eixo e Eirol",
"azulejo",
"Panyu District",
"Rui Raínho",
"Guarda, Portugal",
"Bourges",
"Tomás Taveira",
"Cubatão",
"Archangel Michael",
"Universidade de Aveiro",
"Euro 2004",
"Aveiro District",
"Social Democratic Party (Portugal)",
"Estado Novo (Portugal)",
"Mediterranean climate",
"Jean Hyacinthe de Magellan",
"Estádio Municipal de Aveiro",
"Peter, Duke of Coimbra",
"List of prime ministers of Portugal",
"city",
"Cacia",
"Trois-Rivières",
"Atlantic Ocean",
"Viseu",
"São Bernardo (parish)",
"Diogo Valente",
"Belém",
"basketball",
"Antónia Rodrigues",
"Edinho (footballer, born July 1982)",
"Linha do Vouga",
"Manuel I of Portugal",
"Jaime de Magalhães Lima",
"Lisbon",
"Instituto Português do Mar e da Atmosfera",
"José Afonso",
"List of municipalities of Portugal",
"People's Party (Portugal)",
"Requeixo, Nossa Senhora de Fátima e Nariz",
"Cholargos",
"Sernada do Vouga",
"foral",
"tile",
"Diocese of Aveiro",
"Ovos Moles de Aveiro",
"Art Deco",
"Ancient Rome",
"Viana do Castelo, Portugal",
"Aberystwyth",
"Middle Ages",
"Rosa Alice Branco"
] |
3,246 |
Anthony the Great
|
Anthony the Great ( ὁ Μέγας Antónios ho̅ Me̅́gas; ; ; ; – 17 January 356) was a Christian monk from Egypt, revered since his death as a saint. He is distinguished from other saints named Anthony, such as , by various epithets: , , , , , and . For his importance among the Desert Fathers and to all later Christian monasticism, he is also known as the . His feast day is celebrated on 17 January among the Eastern Orthodox and Catholic churches and on Tobi 22 in the Coptic calendar.
The biography of Anthony's life by Athanasius of Alexandria helped to spread the concept of Christian monasticism, particularly in Western Europe via its Latin translations. He is often erroneously considered the first Christian monk, but as his biography and other sources make clear, there were many ascetics before him. Anthony was, however, among the first known to go into the wilderness (about AD 270), which seems to have contributed to his renown. Accounts of Anthony enduring supernatural temptation during his sojourn in the Eastern Desert of Egypt inspired the depiction of his temptations in visual art and literature.
Anthony is invoked against infectious diseases, particularly skin diseases. In the past, many such afflictions, including ergotism, erysipelas, and shingles, were referred to as Saint Anthony's fire.
==Life of Anthony==
Most of what is known about Anthony comes from the Life of Anthony. Written in Greek by Athanasius of Alexandria, it depicts Anthony as an illiterate and holy man who, through his existence in a primordial landscape, has an absolute connection to the divine truth, which is always in harmony with that of Athanasius as the biographer. it became his most widely read work. Sometime before 374 it was translated into Latin by Evagrius of Antioch. The Latin translation helped the Life become one of the best-known works of literature in the Christian world, a status it would hold through the Middle Ages.
Translated into several languages, it became something of a "best seller" in its day and played an important role in the spreading of the ascetic ideal in Eastern and Western Christianity. It later served as an inspiration to Christian monastics in both the East and the West, and helped to spread the concept of Christian monasticism, particularly in Western Europe via its Latin translations.
Many stories are also told about Anthony in the Sayings of the Desert Fathers.
Anthony probably spoke only his native language, Coptic, but his sayings were spread in a Greek translation. He himself dictated letters in Coptic, seven of which are extant.
=== Hermit ===
For the next fifteen years, Anthony remained in the area, spending the first years as the disciple of another local hermit.
According to the Temptation of Saint Anthony (1878) by Félicien Rops:
{{blockquote|Anthony is sometimes considered the first monk, and the first to initiate solitary desertification, but there were others before him. There were already ascetic hermits (the Therapeutae), and loosely organized cenobitic communities were described by the Jewish philosopher Philo of Alexandria in the 1st century AD as long established in the harsh environment of Lake Mareotis and in other less accessible regions. Philo opined that "this class of persons may be met with in many places, for both Greece and barbarian countries want to enjoy whatever is perfectly good." Christian ascetics such as Thecla had likewise retreated to isolated locations at the outskirts of cities. Anthony is notable for having decided to surpass this tradition and headed out into the desert proper. He left for the alkaline Nitrian Desert (later the location of the noted monasteries of Nitria, Kellia, and Scetis) on the edge of the Western Desert about west of Alexandria. He remained there for 13 years. He ate at most only once a day and sometimes fasted through two or four days.
According to Athanasius, the devil fought Anthony by afflicting him with boredom, laziness, and the phantoms of women, which he overcame by the power of prayer, providing a theme for Christian art. After that, he moved to one of the tombs near his native village. There it was that the Life records those strange conflicts with demons in the shape of wild beasts, who inflicted blows upon him, and sometimes left him nearly dead.
After fifteen years of this life, at the age of thirty-five, Anthony determined to withdraw from the habitations of men and retire in absolute solitude. He went into the desert to a mountain by the Nile called Pispir (now Der-el-Memun), opposite Arsinoë. There he lived strictly enclosed in an old abandoned Roman fort for some 20 years. as he organized his disciples into a community and later, following the spread of Athanasius's hagiography, was the inspiration for similar communities throughout Egypt and elsewhere. Macarius the Great was a disciple of Anthony. Visitors traveled great distances to see the celebrated holy man. Anthony is said to have spoken to those of a spiritual disposition, leaving the task of addressing the more worldly visitors to Macarius. Macarius later founded a monastic community in the Scetic desert.
The fame of Anthony spread and reached Emperor Constantine, who wrote to him requesting his prayers. The brethren were pleased with the Emperor's letter, but Anthony was not overawed and wrote back exhorting the Emperor and his sons not to esteem this world but remember the next.
The stories of the meeting of Anthony and Paul of Thebes, the raven who brought them bread, Anthony being sent to fetch the cloak given him by "Athanasius the bishop" to bury Paul's body in, and Paul's death before he returned, are among the familiar legends of the Life. However, belief in the existence of Paul seems to have existed quite independently of the Life.
In 338, he left the desert temporarily to visit Alexandria to help refute the teachings of Arius. Anthony was interred, according to his instructions, in a grave next to his cell.
Anthony is said to have faced a series of preternatural temptations during his pilgrimage to the desert. The first to report on the temptation was his contemporary Athanasius of Alexandria. It is possible these events, like the paintings, are full of rich metaphor or in the case of the animals of the desert, perhaps a vision or dream. Emphasis on these stories, however, did not really begin until the Middle Ages when the psychology of the individual became of greater interest.
=== The satyr and the centaur ===
Anthony was on a journey in the desert to find Paul of Thebes, who according to his dream was a better Hermit than he. Anthony had been under the impression that he was the first person to ever dwell in the desert; however, due to the dream, Anthony was called into the desert to find his "better", Paul. On his way there, he ran into two creatures in the forms of a centaur and a satyr. Although chroniclers sometimes postulated that they might have been living beings, Western theology considers them to have been demons.
Anthony found next the satyr, "a manikin with hooked snout, horned forehead, and extremities like goats's feet." This creature was peaceful and offered him fruits, and when Anthony asked who he was, the satyr replied, "I'm a mortal being and one of those inhabitants of the desert whom the Gentiles, deluded by various forms of error, worship under the names of Fauns, Satyrs, and Incubi. I am sent to represent my tribe. We pray you in our behalf to entreat the favor of your Lord and ours, who, we have learnt, came once to save the world, and 'whose sound has gone forth into all the earth.'" Upon hearing this, Anthony was overjoyed and rejoiced over the glory of Christ. He condemned the city of Alexandria for worshipping monsters instead of God while beasts like the satyr spoke about Christ. Soon, after walking some more in that desert, he found a pile of gold coins that was also a temptation from the devil. Anthony cast the gold into a fire, and the gold coins immediately disappeared just like the silver ones.
After these two events, he had a vision where the whole world was covered with snares and traps. Anthony prayed saying, "Oh good Lord, who may escape from these snares?” He was responded to by a voice that said, "Humility shall escape them without more."
=== Demons in the cave ===
Being an ascetic, Anthony went out to live in the tombs away from the village. There were so many demons in the cave though, that Anthony's servant had to carry him out because they had beaten him to death. When the hermits were gathered to Anthony's corpse to mourn his death, Anthony was revived. He demanded that his servants take him back to that cave where the demons had beaten him. When he got there he called out to the demons, and they came back as wild beasts to rip him to shreds. Suddenly a bright light flashed, and the demons ran away. Anthony knew that the light must have come from God, and he asked God where he was before when the demons attacked him. God replied, "I was here but I would see and abide to see thy battle, and because thou hast mainly fought and well maintained thy battle, I shall make thy name to be spread through all the world."
== Veneration ==
Anthony had been secretly buried on the mountaintop where he had chosen to live. His remains were reportedly discovered in 361 and transferred to Alexandria. Some time later, they were taken from Alexandria to Constantinople, so that they might escape the destruction being perpetrated by invading Saracens. In the eleventh century, the Byzantine emperor gave them to the French Count Jocelin. Jocelin had them transferred to La-Motte-Saint-Didier, later renamed.
Veneration of Anthony in the East is more restrained. There are comparatively few icons and paintings of him. He is, however, regarded as the "first master of the desert and the pinnacle of holy monks", and there are monastic communities of the Maronite, Chaldean, and Orthodox churches which state that they follow his monastic rule.
Anthony is remembered in the Anglican Communion with a Lesser Festival on 17 January.
Though Anthony himself did not organize or create a monastery, a community grew around him based on his example of living an ascetic and isolated life. Athanasius' biography helped propagate Anthony's ideals. Athanasius writes, "For monks, the life of Anthony is a sufficient example of asceticism. and John Chrysostom.
The main centre of veneration of this saint in the Canary Islands (Spain) is located in the town of La Matanza de Acentejo, on the island of Tenerife. The sanctuary of San Antonio Abad is one of the oldest temples in the Canary Islands, founded shortly after the completion of the conquest of the archipelago.
=== Coptic literature ===
Examples of purely Coptic literature are the works of Anthony and Pachomius, who spoke only Coptic, and the sermons and preaching of Shenouda the Archmandrite, who chose to write only in Coptic. The earliest original writings in the Coptic language were the letters of Anthony. During the 3rd and 4th centuries, many ecclesiastics and monks wrote in Coptic.
==Translations==
|
[
"Catholic Church",
"Canary Islands",
"Paul of Thebes",
"Saint Anthony (disambiguation)",
"Eastern Orthodox Church",
"Nitrian Desert",
"Augustine of Hippo",
"intercession",
"Hilarion",
"Hubertus",
"Piero di Cosimo",
"Lesser Festival (Anglicanism)",
"Satyrs",
"Nile",
"Christian art",
"Anthony of Padua",
"Eastern Desert",
"Koma, Egypt",
"Jerome",
"Coptic calendar",
"Anoub",
"Order of Saint Paul the First Hermit",
"Tobi (month)",
"Greek language",
"Sayings of the Desert Fathers",
"Roman Catholic",
"Calendar of saints (Church of England)",
"Oriental Orthodox Church",
"Quirinus of Neuss",
"Pachomius the Great",
"Saracen",
"Dayr al-Maymūn",
"Spain",
"St. Anthony Hall",
"Anglican",
"Qiman al-Arus",
"Libyan Desert",
"Tau Cross",
"ascetic",
"Tenerife",
"Gustave Flaubert",
"raven",
"Chariton the Confessor",
"Salvador Dalí",
"Faiyum",
"Eastern Orthodox",
"Hieronymus Bosch",
"Roman Empire",
"Nitria (monastic site)",
"Pinacoteca Nazionale di Bologna",
"Coptic literature",
"Count",
"asceticism",
"Constantine I (emperor)",
"Anglican Communion",
"Michael Damaskinos",
"Desert Fathers",
"demon",
"Arius",
"Lake Mareotis",
"Fauns",
"Lower Egypt",
"satyr",
"Athanasius of Alexandria",
"Saint",
"List of Coptic saints",
"Coptic language",
"Ancient biography",
"Jewish philosophy",
"Saint-Antoine-l'Abbaye",
"Pitirim of Porphyry",
"Herpes zoster",
"Matthias Grünewald",
"La Matanza de Acentejo",
"Rhineland",
"Or (monk)",
"Evangelical Lutheran Church in America",
"Martin Schongauer",
"Desert Mothers",
"monasticism",
"ergotism",
"hermit",
"Sheepskin (material)",
"Constantinople",
"erysipelas",
"Scetis",
"Max Ernst",
"Thecla",
"The Temptation of St Anthony (Schongauer)",
"Alexandria",
"Christian monasticism",
"Pope Cornelius",
"Maronite Church",
"swineherd",
"Evagrius of Antioch",
"Early centers of Christianity",
"Michelangelo",
"centaur",
"Chaldean Syrian Church",
"Leonora Carrington",
"Four Holy Marshals",
"Matthew 19",
"cenobitic",
"Mount Colzim",
"Latin",
"Kellia",
"John Chrysostom",
"Assyrian Church of the East",
"Fasting",
"Incubi",
"Consecrated virgin",
"Serapion of Nitria",
"temptation",
"Pre-Congregation",
"Egypt (Roman province)",
"Athanasius",
"Hospital Brothers of St. Anthony",
"Byzantine emperor",
"Temptation of Saint Anthony in visual arts",
"Isère",
"Shenoute",
"Jacob van Swanenburg",
"Monastery of Saint Anthony",
"Macarius of Egypt",
"Therapeutae",
"Macarius the Great",
"Diocletian Persecutions",
"Ancient Rome",
"Pachomius",
"Dorothea Tanning",
"month of Tobi",
"The Venerable",
"The Temptation of Saint Anthony (novel)",
"Patron saints of ailments, illness and dangers",
"Roman Catholic Church",
"Félicien Rops",
"Philo of Alexandria",
"Middle Ages"
] |
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