content
stringlengths 71
484k
| url
stringlengths 13
5.97k
|
|---|---|
Pink dolphins, jaguars, the slow-moving sloths, armour-plated armadillos and the peculiar anteaters, all have their place in different parts of the Amazon - along with about 420 other mammals that are found there1. But the majority, it turns out, are rodents and bats.
What mammals will you find in the region?
Jaguar (Panthera onca)2Revered and feared, the jaguar is the biggest cat of the American continent. Despite a wide distribution in rainforests, flooded swamp areas, grasslands, thorn scrub woodlands and dry deciduous forests, it is scattered in these places and generally decreasing in numbers outside of the Amazon rainforest, its main stronghold.
The jaguar's shape and agility makes it particularly well adapted to swimming, climbing and crawling, not to mention sprinting at incredible speeds.
Its strength allows it to capture a variety of species. Large-sized ungulates such as deer are preferred, but peccaries and caimans also can be part of the menu. Its jaws and teeth are so powerful, that it can literally bite through the shell of a turtle.
Today, things have changed. Persecution, degradation of the jaguar's habitat, and decrease in its prey are thought to have reduced the species population to less than 50,000 mature breeding individuals in the wild.
While commercial hunting and trapping of jaguars for their pelts has declined drastically since the mid-1970's through public information campaigns and trade controls, the species is still a victim of ranchers, who kill it because it preys on cattle.
The jaguar is classified as Near Threatened by the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.
Jaguar (Panthera onca)
When the Mayan and Inca civilizations ruled, the jaguar was revered as a divine creature. Aztecs even fed the hearts of sacrificed victims to them. In the Amazon, it was believed that the jaguar’s eyes have a connection to the spirit world.3
Tapir (Tapirus terrestris)4Another great swimming mammal, the tapir is found in lowland tropical and subtropical moist forests, with a preference for moist, wet or seasonally inundated areas. The combined impacts of deforestation, hunting and competition from domestic livestock have led to a reduction of its population.
In addition to its swimming abilities, the tapir can reach fairly quick speeds on land. Like many tropical mammals, tapirs are mostly active at night. Adults can reach about 2 m and over 227 kg. Tapirs eat leaves, fruit, grass and aquatic plants.
Deforestation is an ongoing threat in several places where the species is found. Hunting may also reduce the population even further.
The tapir is classified as Vulnerable by the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.
Tapirs (Tapirus terrestris) grazing at the Monte Cristo Falls, ...
Giant otter (Pteronura brasiliensis)The world's largest otter is found throughout the Amazon River Basin, where the combined impacts of habitat loss and pollution pose risks to the long-term survival of the species.
The giant otter is almost 1.5 m long, with an additional metre provided by its tail. Its webbed feet, semi-flattened tail and reddish-brown, water-repellent fur make it particularly well-suited to swimming. It is found in groups of 3 to 9 individuals, foraging in tributaries (especially around oxbow lakes), and in slow-moving rivers, lakes and swamps. The giant otter feeds on fish, mammals, birds and other vertebrates.
While otter fur trade has decreased, illegal hunting is still an ongoing problem. In addition, habitat loss and pollution from mining activities are a concern. Otters may also be victims of fishing nets in rivers.
Giant otters are classified as Endangered by the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species5, and are listed on Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).
A Giant Otter (Pteronura brasiliensis) feeding on a fish.
Amazon or pink river dolphin (Inia geoffrensis)6
The pink river dolphin (Inia geoffrensis), contains two subspecies: I.geoffrensis geoffrensis in the Amazon and I. geoffrensis humboldtianain the Orinoco.
Also known as the boto, the Amazon river dolphin is one of the world's three dolphins that are constrained to freshwater habitat. The species is widely distributed throughout much of the Amazon and Orinoco river basins. Like its relatives elsewhere, the boto's habitat is threatened by river development projects: Hydroelectric and irrigation schemes separate rivers in bodies of waters, which may reduce the species range and its ability to breed.
The boto is a pale pink colour and is different from other dolphins in that it has a flexible neck, which allows it to move its head left and right. It has a long snout, a rounded head and small dorsal fin, with overall length varying from 2 to 2.5 m. The boto feeds on fish and other aquatic organisms such as turtles and crabs.
The pink river dolphin is found in lowland fast flowing, whitewater rivers, clearwater or blackwater rivers. Furthermore, the species is present in the largest tributaries, lakes, confluences and seasonally flooded forests. It depends on healthy fish populations for its survival.
Historically, the boto has been spared human persecution because of the belief that it has special powers. Today however, it is increasingly viewed by fishermen as an unwanted competitor for fish. The boto can also get tangled up in fishing nets, or suffer wounds by colliding with boats. To date however, no major reduction of their range has been observed.
Another threat for the boto comes from the petroleum industry in the Amazon and Orinoco basins. In Colombia, armed groups have blown up oil pipelines, causing irreparable pollution to aquatic ecosystems where the species is found.
The boto is classified as Vulnerable by the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species7, and listed on Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).
Another river dolphin species is the tucuxi or grey dolphin. It is darker and smaller than the boto, with a shorter snout, and a distinctive triangular dorsal fin. The tuxuci is found in larger groups and unlike the boto, jumps out of the water.8
Amazon river dolphin, pink river dolphin or boto (Inia geoffrensis) ...
That the pink river dolphins are generally found in groups of 2 to 4 individuals, but from time to time it could be solitary?
They also have a poor vision and they rely on an internal sonar system which help them to manoeuvre under water and find food.
Amazon river dolphin / boto (Inia geoffrensis) underwater with ...
1 Da Silva et al. 2005. The Fate of the Amazonian Areas of Endemism. Conservation Biology, 19 (3), 689-694
2 Cat Specialist Group 2002. Panthera onca. In: IUCN 2004. 2004IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. www.redlist.org. Accessed 06 October 2005.
3 ThinkQuest. Animals of the Amazon.http://library.thinkquest.org/04oct/02004/pages/tapir.htm. Accessed: 06/10/05
4 Downer, C. & Castellanos, A. 2002. Tapirus terrestris. In: IUCN 2004. 2004 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Accessed: 06 October 2005.
5 Groenendijk, J., Hajek, F. & Schenck, C. 2004. Pteronura brasiliensis. In: IUCN 2004. 2004 IUCN Red. List of Threatened Species.Accessed: 11 October 2005.
6 Groenendijk, J., Hajek, F. & Schenck, C. 2004. Pteronura brasiliensis. In: IUCN 2004. 2004 IUCN Red. List of Threatened Species. Accessed 11 October 2005.
7 Cetacean Specialist Group 1996. Inia geoffrensis. In: IUCN 2004. 2004 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Accessed 13 October 2005. | https://wwf.panda.org/discover/knowledge_hub/where_we_work/amazon/about_the_amazon/wildlife_amazon/mammals/ |
What Are the Behavioral Adaptations of Jaguars?
Behavioral adaptations of jaguars include the ability to swim, nocturnal lifestyle and hunting techniques. Like other large cats, jaguars practice a unique method of killing prey, called occipital crunching. They pierce the skulls of prey with one bite of their powerful jaws, which kills victims instantly.
Jaguars, despite classifying as large cats, are relatively short and small. However, they have powerful muscles that help them perform diverse activities such as swimming, climbing and jumping. Jaguars have large heads and very powerful jaws in relation to other animals of their size. This combination makes jaguars suited for hunting and carrying large animals; they may capture and kill animals weighing up to 800 pounds.
In addition to powerful jaws and muscles, jaguars have unique coat colors, which provide substantial camouflage. Jaguars’ coats range in color from golden yellow to dark brown and even mostly black. They have spotted arrangements on their fur, called rosettes, which hide them from prey as they prowl through jungles.
Jaguars are relatively solitary animals, and both males and females maintain their own territories. Males and females interact only during mating season, while males may fight other males over territory. Jaguars of both genders may travel great lengths to find food, although males usually cover a larger stretch of territory than females. | https://www.reference.com/pets-animals/behavioral-adaptations-jaguars-c0d5250ca025962e |
The silverback gorilla’s strength is so strong that it could theoretically crush a crocodile’s skull, although the animal is not known to be aggressive towards humans. Gorillas are also known for their ability to climb trees with ease.
Table of Contents
What animal can kill a large crocodile?
Alligators and crocodiles can be damaged by large snakes. The biggest threat to these animals comes from humans. Humans are responsible for the deaths of more than half of all big cat deaths in the United States, according to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
Do crocodiles eat gorillas?
It is possible that leopards and crocodiles may prey upon gorillas. Humans are the biggest threat to these animals. Gorillas are considered to be the most endangered of all the great apes. They are listed as Critically Endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). Gorillas live in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) and the Central African Republic (CAR).
DRC has the highest rate of human population growth of any country in Africa. CAR has a population of about 2.5 million people and is the second most populous country on the continent. Climate change is expected to increase the frequency and severity of droughts and heat waves, which could lead to a decline in gorilla populations.
Can gorilla fight lion?
A lion would almost certainly win in a fight against a gorilla. The reasoning shouldn’t be surprising. A lion will ambush a gorilla in the dense vegetation of their natural habitat by waiting until it’s dark to have the edge. Before the gorilla has a chance to react, they have a good chance of ending the fight.
Gorillas, on the other hand, are much more likely to kill a lion than a human. This is because gorillas don’t have to wait for the lion to come to them, they can simply run up to it and pounce on it from a distance. In fact, it has been estimated that the average gorilla can kill an adult human in less than two seconds.
That’s a lot faster than the time it takes for a person to run to a safe distance and then run back to the safety of his or her home. So, if you’re going to fight with a wild animal, you might as well do it with one of the fastest animals on earth.
What are gorillas afraid of?
Chimpanzees are scared of certain lizards such as chameleons and caterpillars. They will cross streams only if they can do so without getting wet, such as by crossing over fallen logs. Gorillas also have a very strong sense of smell, which they use to find food and mates.
Gorillas can smell the scent of food from a distance of up to a mile away, and can even smell their own urine. This is why they are so good at finding food in the wild.
Can a hippo kill a crocodile?
It is not unusual for hippo to kill crocodile if they feel in danger or if their territory is threatened. The croc was not taking any chances even though these were younger. Hippos have been known to attack crocodiles in the wild, but this is the first time they have killed one in captivity.
Can a gorilla beat a Jaguar?
From then, it will most certainly lean in for a bite near the neck or the skull, and a gorilla’s bite force is extremely powerful – certainly more than enough to mortally wound and possibly rapidly kill a jaguar. When it comes to killing power, gorilla bites are more powerful than lion bites. Gorillas have been known to kill humans with their teeth, but this is rare.
The first was a man who was attacked by a male gorilla while he was walking his dog in Kruger National Park. He was bitten on the hand by the gorilla and died of his injuries. A second man was killed when a female gorilla attacked him and bit off his finger.
Both of these incidents were reported to have taken place in KwaZulu-Natal Province, which is the most populated area of the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). In both cases, the victims were attacked while they were walking their dogs. It is believed that the attacks were the result of a territorial dispute between the two males.
Who would win bear or anaconda?
An adult bear would win a fight against an adult anaconda.
The anaconda is one of nature’s deadliest killers, but the bear’s size, strength, and paws would be enough to overwhelm even the most powerful of the big cats. below)
- These include the black bear
- Cougar
- Black panther
- Jaguar
- Lion
- Leopard
- Tiger
- Cheetah
- Lynx
- Orangutan
- Elephant
- Rhinoceros
- Hippopotamus
- Antelope
- Bison
- Buffalo
- Moose
- Deer
- Elk
- Wolf
- Coyote
- Bobcat
- Fox
- Raccoon
- Opossum
- Beaver
- Muskrat
- Seal
- Sea otter
- Walrus
- Whale
- Dolphin
- Porpoise
- Humpback whale
- Killer whale
All of these animals are considered apex predators, meaning that they are among the top predators on the planet.
They are the only animals on earth that are capable of killing and eating a human being in a single bite. | https://www.reptilesfreak.com/can-a-gorilla-kill-a-crocodile/ |
DC history began in 1790 when Congress directed selection of a new capital site, 100 sq mi, along the Potomac. The seat of government was transferred from Philadelphia to Washington on Dec. 1, 1800, and President John Adams became the first resident in the White House.
Dixie (popular)
Since January 2017
They live all over the eastern United States and when they glide from tree to tree they can reach speeds of up to 20km.
They live in all parts of the states and are very intelligent animals. They eat both plant and animal and adapt to suburban living easily.
They live in all regions of the United States except Florida and some parts of California. They are known for building unique damns in waterways which sometimes can cause problems. They are the Largest rodent in the United States.
The bald eagle is the largest raptor in Utah and second only to the Condor in North America. As with most raptors, the female is larger than the male. Males may weigh as little as 4.5 pounds and the largest females may weigh up to 14 pounds. The wingspan is 6.5-8 feet and the body may be up to 36 inches long. Bald eagles from the northern parts of their range are usually much larger then the southern birds
Always looking for food, anything is fair game for a black bear. Besides their normal diet these bears will scrounge in garbage bins and even campers' food if left accessible. The most often that female black bears can mate, unless they lose their cubs prematurely, is every two years.
The bobcat is a territorial, solitary and crepuscular cat (active at dawn and dusk). The bobcat is a patient and furtive hunter. The hunt occurs almost exclusively on the ground by stalking (as opposed to ambush from trees). The kill is made with a bite at the base of the skull Bobcats can take down deer, and it is their most common winter food.
These solitary cats are expert hunters and are capable of taking down an adult male elk. The cougar will leap onto the back of its prey, and by grasping the neck with its canines, pulls back on the head using its powerful rear legs to snap the prey's neck. To prevent scavenging animals from stealing their kill, cougars often bury their prey with sticks and leaves. This enables them to feed from a large kill for several days.
The wolverine (gulo gulo) is the largest land-dwelling species of the Mustelidae or weasel family and is the only species currently classified in the genus Gulo (meaning glutton). | http://www.factacular.com/facts/America |
Carnivores and the larger omnivores play an important role in nutrient cycling and, as illustrated in Fig. 5.13, are probably crucial in regulating the size and nature of herbivore populations. In most European countries, and many other parts of the world, including much of North America, large carnivores have either been very greatly reduced in number or entirely eliminated. A number of factors such as change in habitat, food supply and competitors may partly account for the resultant highly undesirable increase in deer numbers seen around the world, but lack of predators is certainly a major contributory factor. Deer control now involves either fencing off the habitat to be protected, or shooting animals whose populations have become excessively large. This was not a problem when large carnivores were common to almost all forests. Those of earlier times were often quite remarkable. In the early Tertiary the fossil sabre-tooth tiger Smilodon of the northern hemisphere, which struck with its whole head, had a marsupial equivalent, Thylacosmilus in South America, whose enormous stabbing teeth continued growth, unlike those of true cats, and whose lower jaw had a large flange to protect them. Amazingly, many of the other marsupial hunters which fed on both placental and marsupial herbivores, dominating the South American forest for some 30 million years, were superseded by very large, fast-running ground birds which used their massive beaks to stab and rip their prey as did the extinct carnivorous dinosaurs.
It had been considered that the early mammals living in the Mesozoic era, when the dinosaurs flourished, were insect-eating or herbivorous animals no larger than modern rats, mice and shrews. Very recently two much larger and carnivorous early mammals, 'Mesozoic dogs' as they have been termed, were discovered in the Yixian formation of China. Both belong to the genus Repenomamus, lived 130 million years ago, had powerful jaws, and fed on the young of small dinosaurs. At a metre long and weighing around 14 kg, the largest, R. giganticus, was a quite formidable member of the forest fauna and in effect a forerunner of the hunting dogs, a few of whose troops still cooperatively hunt antelope in African forests.
The reptiles in their time gave rise to the early mammals, the dinosaurs, and two types of flying animal, the pterosaurs and the birds. In contrast modern reptiles, though including tortoises, turtles, lizards, alligators, crocodiles and caimans, are a much reduced group, of which the most interesting are the limbless snakes. All these animals occur in the forests of the world, often near to waterways. The crocodiles and their immediate relatives remain powerful hunters though showing many early features. O'Shea and Halliday (2001) provide an excellent recognition guide to the major reptiles of the world and also the amphibians, including the newts, salamanders, frogs, toads and the limbless caecilians which also frequently occur in forests and often fall prey to reptiles, especially snakes.
There has been more than one trend for reptiles to lose their limbs in the past, but the snakes, many of which live in forests, have their origin in a single line which began around 100 million years ago and has given rise to some 2800 named species which vary greatly in size and ability. The giant green anaconda Eunectes murinus can reach a length of 10 m and weigh 200 kg, 7000 times as much as the tiny Brahminy blindsnake Ramphotyphlops braminus, while various snakes, despite their lack of limbs, can run, jump and swim. Many snakes kill their prey by means of the poison produced by their modified salivary glands, others by crushing and suffocating their victim. Both methods are extraordinarily efficient. A bite from a black mamba Dendroaspis polylepis can kill a human in 30 minutes, while a giant green anaconda, the largest living snake, can wrap itself round an animal as large as a caiman and crush it to death. The problem of swallowing comparatively large prey has, in the course of evolution, been solved in a quite remarkable way. Not only can the lower jaw be displaced from its point of articulation with the upper jaw, but the two sides of the lower jaw also come apart at the front when the animal swallows a large object. The green anaconda, an aquatic arboreal species that lives along forest waterways, can swallow and digest a complete caiman, bones and all, resuming its activities after a period of rest.
Fossil evidence regarding the ancestry of the various groups of snakes is almost non-existent, so relationships between and within some groups have been investigated by genetic studies of their DNA. Results from three groups of highly poisonous bushmaster snakes Lachesis spp. in central and southern America yielded results of considerable interest. Though all three groups are now geographically isolated, they show major resemblances. The southernmost bushmasters, however, show considerable differences from the others, from which they have been separated for 12 million years. Differences between the two more northerly populations, which have been isolated for each other for a shorter period, were considerably less. Snakes can live in a wide variety of places, even the sea, but being poikilothermic find northern winters very difficult. In North America red-sided garter snakes Thomnophis sirtalis parietalis have solved this problem by hibernating deep underground in limestone sinkholes. In spring up to 15 000 have been seen emerging from a single locality, the greatest concentration of snakes ever known.
Worm Farming
Do You Want To Learn More About Green Living That Can Save You Money? Discover How To Create A Worm Farm From Scratch! Recycling has caught on with a more people as the years go by. Well, now theres another way to recycle that may seem unconventional at first, but it can save you money down the road. | https://www.ecologycenter.us/rain-forests/the-impact-of-woodland-carnivores-and-omnivores.html |
Caimans, alligators, and crocodiles are among the largest living reptiles around the world. They are the three creatures that share many similarities. They have the same features, fierce and fearsome, they have a collective reputation for being some of the world’s most ferocious natural predators.
Since these three creatures are quite similar to each other, people often get confused between them and think of them as the same animal. But that’s not the case.
Despite belonging to the same reptile family, they are different from each other. Although they have many similarities, they are a few differences between them.
In this article, we’ll discuss caiman, alligators, and crocodiles and what are the differences between them.
Caiman
Caiman is also spelled as Cayman. It belongs to the group of reptiles. They are related to alligators and are usually placed with them in the family Alligatoridae. Similar to other members of the order Crocodylia (or Crocodilia), Caimans are amphibious carnivores.
Caimans live along the edges of rivers and other bodies of water, and they reproduce by means of hard-shelled eggs laid in nests built and guarded by the female. They’re placed in three generations, that is:
- Caiman, including the broad-snouted (C. latirostris), spectacled (C. crocodilus), and yacaré (C. yacare) claimant.
- Melanosuchus, with the black caiman (M. niger).
- Paleosuchus, with two species (P. trigonous and P. palpebrosus) known as smooth-fronted caimans.
The largest and most dangerous of these species is the black caiman. The length of the black caiman is about 4.5 meters (15 feet). The other species generally attain lengths of about 1.2–2.1 meters, with a maximum of about 2.7 meters in the spectacled caiman.
The spectacled caiman is also one of the types of caiman, it’s the native of the tropics from southern Mexico to Brazil, and takes its name from a bony ridge in between the eyes that looks similar to the nosepiece of a pair of glasses.
It’s sufficient along mud-bottomed water. A large number of spectacled caimans were imported into the United States and sold to tourists after the American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis) was placed under legal protection.
The smooth-faced caiman is the smallest among all the caimans. They are usually inhabitants of fast-flowing rocky streams and rivers in the Amazon region. They are great and strong swimmers and they feed on fishes, birds, insects, and other animals.
Alligator
Similar to other crocodilians, alligators are large animals with powerful tails that are used both in defense and in swimming. Their ears, nostrils, and eyes are placed on top of their long head and project just above the water the reptiles float at the surface, as they often do.
Alligators are different from crocodiles because of their jaw and teeth. Alligators have a broad U-shaped snout and have an “overbite”; that is, all the teeth of the lower jaw fit within the teeth of the upper jaw. The fourth large tooth on each side of the alligator’s jawline fits into the upper jaw.
Alligators are considered carnivorous and they live along the edges of permanent bodies of water, such as lakes, swamps, and rivers. They dig burrows for their rest and avoid extreme weather.
The average life of an alligator is 50 years in the wild. However, there are some reports that show some specimens living beyond 70 years of age in captivity.
There are two types of alligators, American alligators, and Chinese alligators. American alligators are the largest among the two species and they are found in the southeastern United States.
American alligators are black with yellow banding when young and are generally brownish when adult. The maximum length of this alligator is about 5.8 meters (19 feet), but it more typically ranges from about 1.8 to 3.7 meters (6 to 12 feet).
The American alligators are commonly hunted and are sold in large numbers as pets. It disappeared from many areas due to hunting and was later given legal protection from hunters until it made an excellent comeback and limited hunting seasons were again established.
The Chinese alligator is another type of alligator, it’s much smaller compared to the American alligator, a little-known reptile found in the Yangtze River region of China. It’s smaller compared to the largest but attains a maximum length of about 2.1 meters (7 feet)—although usually growing to 1.5 meters—and is blackish with faint yellowish markings.
Crocodile
Crocodiles are large reptiles that are generally found in tropical regions of Africa, Asia, the Americas, and Australia. They’re the members of Crocodilia, which also includes caimans, gharials, and alligators.
There are 13 different crocodile species and they are of different sizes. According to the Zoological Society of Londo, the smallest is the dwarf crocodile, it grows to about 1.7m in length and weighs around 13 to 15 pounds.
According to Oceana.org, the largest one is the saltwater crocodile, it can grow up to 6.5m and can weigh up to 2000 pounds.
Crocodiles are considered carnivores, which means they eat only meat. In the wild, they feed on fish, birds, frogs, and crustaceans. Occasionally, crocodiles cannibalize each other.
In captivity, they feed on small animals that have already been killed for them, such as rats, fish, or mice. According to The Australian Museum, crocodiles also consume locusts.
When they want to feed, they clamp down on prey with their massive jaws, crush it and then swallow the prey whole. They’re not able to break off small pieces of food like other animals.
What Is the Difference Between a Caiman, an Alligator, and a Crocodile?
Caimans, Alligators, and crocodiles, all belong to the same family. All three of them are reptiles and people tend to get confused between them. They have the same appearance but experienced biologists give us a few clues by which we can tell them apart.
Natural Habitat
Caimans live only in specific freshwater areas of South and Central America. Whereas Alligators live in the southeastern United States, there are other alligator species living solely in China. That’s why caimans and alligators grow in temperature climates.
On the other hand, crocodiles can live in both, freshwater and saltwater habitats throughout the tropical Americas, Africa, and Asia. In fact, most crocodile species migrate farther out to sea when there’s a change in weather.
Size
Caimans are one of the smallest reptilian predators, averaging 6.5 feet in length and 88 pounds in weight. After caimans, American alligators are the smallest. They are roughly 13 feet long and weigh 794 pounds.
Whereas, crocodiles are the largest among these species. They’re up to 16 feet in length and as heavy as 1,151 pounds.
Skull and Snout Shape
Caimans and alligators, both have a wide and U-shaped snout. Although, unlike alligators, caimans do not have a septum; that is, the bony partition that separates the nostrils. While crocodiles have a narrower, V-shaped snout.
Prey
Caimans usually have small animals such as fish, small birds, and small mammals as their foods. Whereas, whereas alligators feed on large fish, turtles, and large mammals.
In contrast, crocodiles generally consume whatever they can see. They’re known to attack animals as large as sharks, buffaloes, and great apes. They’re also a few reports that claims crocodile can even eat humans.
Here’s a table to summarize the differences between these species.
Conclusion
- There are three types of different caimans.
- The length of the black caiman is 4.5m.
- Caimans feed on fish, birds, and small animals.
- There are two types of alligators.
- The American alligator is the largest alligator.
- The Chinese alligator is the smallest alligator with a maximum length of 2.1m.
- Alligators feed on large fish, turtles, and large mammals.
- Crocodile is found in saltwater, freshwater, and subtropical areas.
- Crocodiles obtain a length of 9.5 to 16 feet.
- Crocodile attacks sharks, large mammals, and even humans. | https://allthedifferences.com/difference-between-a-caiman-an-alligator-and-a-crocodile/ |
If you ask Steven Stanley, a geologist at the University of Hawaii at Manoa, Tyrannosaurus rex’s famously tiny arms aren’t a joke. Sure, they’re comic in how disproportionate they are for one of Earth’s most ferocious predators. But Stanley argues that T. rex’s arms were weapons of mass destruction, as big and strong as a man’s leg, with two 4-inch claws apiece, built for slashing deep wounds in dinosaur flesh in quick succession.
Not that other paleontologists agree. Stanley presented the idea at the Geological Society of America’s annual meeting last month, gaining few converts. “There’s no question that there will be a lot of people who don’t agree with me,” he told The Daily Beast. “If you come into another area and you have a fresh viewpoint, you’re not saddled with conventional wisdom—but you’re never welcome.”
The conventional wisdom, as far as T. rex arms go, is that they atrophied over evolutionary time as natural selection in the animals came to favor the bitey, bitey over the grabby, grabby. Tyrannosaurus arms may have ultimately had some use, but it wasn’t much of one. They simply had too little strength and not enough reach to do a whole lot.
Sure, some theories of function have been floated. Perhaps they used them to help themselves up from a squat, or to grasp prey in a fight, or to hold on to a mate during sex. Stanley finds these proposals largely unsupported, and frankly laughable. He, on the other hand, presents five bits of anatomical evidence that suggest that T. rex arms were custom-made for raking prey to shreds.
Notably, Tyrannosaurus has two fingers on each hand, when its close relatives tended to have three. This, Stanley suggests, would give each claw 50 percent more slashing power per unit of force. Having two instead of one provides for increased stability at the wrist. Also, the T. rex claw has a similar shape to a bear claw, and bears are the large-bodied slashers of the modern world.
In Stanley’s telling, a T. rex kill looked something like this: The predator ambushes the prey, perhaps picking a sick or young animal as an easy target, and jumps on its back. Now at close range, it lets lose those claws, inflicting several wounds in a matter of seconds. “Things would not have recovered from this,” he said. “They would have been in great pain, they would have suffered blood loss. Nerves would have been slashed, blood vessels, muscles… it would have been hideous.” Now, the prey is too injured to get away, and the T. rex goes in with its primary weapon—its impressive jaws.
Michael Habib, a paleontologist and anatomist at the University of Southern California, sees it differently. Here’s how he imagines a fight between a rex and a juvenile hadrosaur: “It walks this thing down—imagine a brisk power walk at speeds that are slower than the fastest human sprinters, but faster than most of us can run,” he tells The Daily Beast. “It gets close enough to this thing to reach in with the head, which has pretty good range, and it gets one horrible, crunching, bone-splintering bite in.
“You hear something like every piece of celery on earth breaking at once, and bits of hadrosaur go all over the place, and it’s probably enough to turn the average stomach, and then it goes still basically instantly because every part of its central nervous system has just been severed, and its body has been crushed, and the rex just tears pieces off and eats for the next 15 minutes.”
If, on some off chance, the first bite doesn’t kill it, “your best bet is not to then switch to trying to slash at it blindly with your little hands. You back up, and you bite it again. You’re a Tyrannosaurus rex. If you have bitten it twice and it’s not dead, you should run—or at least walk—away, because you have apparently attacked something too big and too armored for even you to break, which means that you are outmatched and should run away now.”
Habib doesn’t buy that the hands could have been effective secondary weapons in this scenario. In most positions the dinosaur would not have been able to bite and claw its prey at the same time, and to forgo the jaws to use claws would be rather silly. “Anything the jaws can’t destroy is going to consider a stroke from the hands laughable.”
It’s no secret that the T. rex had a fearsome jaws. Its bite strength was among the strongest of any vertebrate land animal, even relative to overall size. Habib’s research, written up recently by Kenneth Lacovara in his new book, Why Dinosaurs Matter, suggests that T. rex arms got small not because they ceased to be useful, but because they had to get small in order for the jaws to get big. Big jaws require a large skull, which require strong neck muscles. Neck muscles compete with arm muscles for space attaching to shoulder bones, so favoring one requires forgoing the other.
“If your arms can’t really contact prey anyway, the best way of maximizing your weapon capacity as a theropod dinosaur is actually to get rid of as much arm muscle as you can, and replace it with neck muscle,” says Habib.
Stanley agrees that the arms of T. rex ancestors were basically useless for a long time, which is how they got so small. But, he argues, once they got to that close-range slashing sweet spot, they gained an accidental purpose. The anatomy of the arms began to favor slashing ability, and the arms retained enough size and strength to do damage.
As for the idea that a T. rex would never go for a prey with arms when it could use its teeth, he suggests that grabbing a prey animal running for its life with your jaws isn’t easy, and it might make sense in most cases to simply get on top of it, knock it off its feet with some painful slashes, and then go for the killshot.
It seems that Stanley and Habib can’t both be right; either T. rex arms were effective weapons, or they were not. However, Thomas Holtz, a tyrannosaur expert at the University of Maryland, offers a potential third option. Could it be that T. rex arms were useful as secondary weapons in their young life, but lost that usefulness with age?
Holtz, for the record, believes that T. rex arms were useful but not all that well-used. Fossilized bones show evidence of fractures and torn ligaments, but also of healing. This suggests that arms were put to some use, but losing that function wasn’t life-threatening.
In an 8-ton adult, Holtz doubts those claws would do much good in a fight. “For them to use those arms against a prey item, they would have to shove its chest up against something and slash there. In order to do that, it has to get one of the best-evolved weapons of destruction—its skull—out of the way.” But juvenile T. rexes had longer arms relative to their underdeveloped skulls—it could be that those animals put their paws to some use in a fight, he says.
The true answer is yet unknown but not unknowable. Digital and physical models of tyrannosaurs interacting with prey could shed light on just how a clawing match might go down. Stanley must still submit his ideas for peer review, and then to the ongoing scrutiny of scholarly knowledge-building. It can be an uncomfortable process; each scientist must make airs to welcome conflicting ideas at the same time as he wishes to prove himself right. | https://www.thedailybeast.com/whats-the-point-of-t-rexs-tiny-arms |
Top 9 Goat Predators In The United States
What Eats Goats? The Answers Might Surprise You.
Reading Time: 6 minutes
Whether you are planning to build a herd or building a goat shelter, what goat predators do you need to think about? For answers, I turned to the USDA APHIS report on goat losses. In 2015, there were about 500,000 goats lost, about a quarter of which were killed by predators. Here are the nine animals you need to worry about when caring for goats.
In this article, I rank the nine most serious goat predators from the least number of kills to the most with details on how to determine what predator you may be dealing with.
Raising Healthy Kids — Your FREE Guide!Kidding season is full of excitement and adoration. But what do you do after the baby is born? Premature kids, babies that can’t suckle, and sick animals require immediate care. Even if the kids are healthy and their mothers willingly accept and care for them, how do you know when to wean the kids and when it’s time to separate bucklings from breeding-age does? Answers to these questions and much more inside!
#9: Wolves
The largest of all canids, wolves are mainly nocturnal except during winter months when they hunt both day and night. They often kill with bites to the neck or throat. Bites to head, back, flanks, and hindquarters are also common, as are multiple kills in one night.
Wolves’ powerful bite causes damage deep in the underlying tissues. They may carry or drag a goat carcass away or totally consume it at the kill site. It is difficult to tell a wolf from a large domestic dog just by footprints. Wolf tracks usually measure 4¾”x4”, and their stride usually measures about 40”. Look for blackish scat at least 1” in diameter, usually containing hair.
Despite being apex predators and gaining in numbers in the U.S., wolves accounted for only 0.3% of predator losses in goats with just 393 kills.
#8: Bears
Bears are omnivores with the largest portion of their diet coming from vegetation. The two main types of bear in the U.S. are the American Black bear and the Grizzly bear. Both live primarily in sparsely populated forested areas.
Bears usually kill by biting the neck or by slapping the victim. Torn, mauled, and mutilated carcasses are characteristic of bear attacks. Goat carcasses may be moved to a secluded area and almost entirely consumed with only the rumen, skin, and large bones left. Bear tracks look like human footprints with large claws. The little toe often does not leave a mark, leaving the track with only four toes. The presence of bears spooks the herd, so look for nervous or panicked goats before and after an attack.
With 687 kills across only three states, bears accounted for 0.6% of total goat predator deaths.
#7: Feral Pigs
Feral pigs, also called wild hogs or razorbacks, are considered an invasive species in the United States. There are now an estimated six million feral pigs in at least 35 states and the numbers are growing. Pigs are opportunistic omnivores. They eat vegetation, fruits, grain, fish, reptiles, birds, small mammals, and carrion.
Persistent unexplained low reproduction rates may be caused by feral pigs. Pigs prey on kids at dawn, dusk, and night, leaving very little carcass, which can be easily missed. In adult goats, the carcass will be skinned out and the rumen or stomach contents eaten. Pig tracks have cloven hooves and are similar to deer or cattle. In mud or soft soil, dewclaws may be visible. Look for signs of rooting, digging, or wallows in the area.
At 1,477 kills, almost half of them preweaned kids, wild pigs account for 1.2% of goat predator deaths.
#6: Foxes
Foxes live on every continent except Antarctica. They eat primarily rabbits, rodents, birds, insects, and fruit. Foxes usually won’t take prey larger than a rabbit, although they do sometimes kill young goat kids. If food is scarce they occasionally attack adult goats.
Foxes usually attack the throat, but some kill by inflicting multiple bites to the neck and back. They do not have the size or strength to crush large bones and generally feed on the viscera through an entry behind the ribs. Foxes often carry their prey away from the kill site or bury uneaten parts.
Fox tracks measure 1¼ ”-2 ½” long by 1”-2” wide. Stride measures about 25” between prints. Scat appears long, ropey, and segmented at 1 ¼”-1¾ ” in diameter and 3”-6” long.
At 1,833 reported kills, foxes accounted for 1.5% of goat predator losses
#5: Mountain Lions
Mountain lions, also called cougars, pumas, or catamounts, are the largest cat in North America. A mountain lion can kill a large number in one night although one or two is common.
Carcasses show claw marks on the neck, back, and shoulders, as well as bite marks on the neck, head, and throat. Unlike dogs, cats leave clean edges in tissue and bone. Mountain lions often drag their kill to a bushy area to feed, then cover the remains with litter. Scratches on the ground around the carcass measure approximately 35”. When surplus killing, they make no effort to drag or cover more than one or two carcasses.
Mountain lion tracks measure 3”-4” long. Scat is often segmented and 1” or larger in diameter. It often contains hair and bits of bone.
Mountain lions accounted for 3,707 kills, or 3% of total goat predator losses.
#4: Bobcat/Lynx
Bobcats are the smallest species of lynx. Canada lynx are larger with thicker coats and broader paws. Both are carnivores that hunt mainly at night.
Hunting and feeding styles match those of the mountain lion. The carcass may look the same but with deeper tissue damage from canine teeth spaced at ½”-1” apart for bobcats vs 1 ½”-2 ¼” for mountain lions. Bobcats scratch 12”-14” in the dirt around the carcass to cover.
Bobcat tracks share the same characteristics of mountain lion tracks only smaller, measuring just 1⅝”-2 ½” long by 1⅜”-2 ⅝” wide. Scat measures ½”-1” in diameter and 3-9” long. It has a smooth outer surface and may be segmented.
Bobcats and lynx accounted for 5,933 kills or 4.8% of all goat predator deaths.
#3: Predatory Birds
This group includes eagles, vultures, and ravens. These predatory birds usually target smaller or weakened livestock, killing seven times as many kids as adult goats.
Eagles easily kill goats over 25 pounds with multiple talon punctures in the back and upper ribs. They skin the carcass, leaving the skin inside out with head and hooves still attached. The rumen is usually not eaten. Talon punctures are deep and slightly oblong or triangular with three talons, one to three inches apart, and a fourth opposing talon four to six inches from the middle.
When attacking small livestock like goats, both vultures and ravens attack as a group, pecking at the animal’s eyes, nose, or tongue. Carcasses are often entered through the navel or rectum. Because both are scavengers that feed on carrion, the presence or absence of blood tells whether the animal was alive or dead when the birds started feeding.
With eagles making up the most losses, predatory birds accounted for 6,328 kills, or 5.2% of losses to goat predators.
#2: Domestic Dogs
Domestic dogs attack at any time of day or night. Because domestic dogs attack for the thrill of the chase rather than food, they tend to have multiple kills in one night with mutilation to legs, hindquarters, tails, and ears. The least effective of goat predators, their attacks last longer and leave more injured survivors.
Not even the larger size and horns of pack goat breeds are enough to deter domestic dogs. Most packers I talked to said domestic dogs are their number one concern, especially on the trail. Beth Kennelley of Florida says dogs attacked her goats twice. In the first attack, they killed all six of her goats including two pregnant does.
With more kills than the previous seven goat predators combined, domestic dogs accounted for 22% of total losses at 26,931 confirmed kills.
#1: Coyotes
Coyotes hunt at night or early dawn. They attack the throat in adult goats, collapsing the trachea, causing death by strangulation, although with young kids, they kill with bites to the skull and spinal area.
Coyotes eat the abdominal cavity first and usually leave the hide and bones. Look for splintered bones, chewed ribs, and scattered pieces of skin, fur, and tendons. Young kids may be missing entirely. Since they are quick, efficient hunters, the rest of the herd is usually calm after the attack and there are rarely injured survivors. Look for tracks that look like domestic dogs, but denser and more oval, that run in a fairly straight line.
Coyotes accounted for 52,830 goat deaths, or 43.1% of total predator losses.
Other/Unknown
The remaining percentage of goat predator losses falls under Other Known Predator at 3.9% and Other Unknown Predator at 14.5%. For more information on what predators you need to guard against in your area, contact your local county agricultural extension office. Maybe with better education and more protective measure, we can reduce the numbers of both unknown predators and total predator deaths.
Originally published in the September/October 2019 issue of Goat Journal and regularly vetted for accuracy. | https://backyardgoats.iamcountryside.com/ownership/top-9-goat-predators-in-the-united-states/ |
A capable stalk-and-ambush predator, the semel cat pursues a wide variety of prey. Its primary food is ungulates ("hoofed" animals) such as deer, particularly in the northern part of its range, but it hunts species as small as insects and rodents. It prefers habitats with dense underbrush for stalking, but it can live in open areas.
The semel cat is territorial and persists at low population densities. Individual territory sizes depend on terrain, vegetation, and abundance of prey. While it is a large predator, it is not always the dominant species in its range, as when it competes for prey with animals such as the gray wolf. It is a reclusive cat and usually avoids people. Attacks on humans remain rare.
Biology and BehaviourEdit
Semel cats are slender and agile cats. Adults stand about 60 to 80 cm (2.0 to 2.7 ft) tall at the shoulders. The length of adult males is around 2.4 m (8 ft) long nose to tail, with overall ranges between 1.5 and 2.75 meters (5 and 9 feet) nose to tail suggested for the species in general. Males have an average weight of about 53 to 72 kilograms (115 to 160 pounds). In rare cases, some may reach over 120 kg (260 lb). Female average weight is between 34 and 48 kg (75 and 105 lb). Semel cat size is smallest close to the equator, and larger towards the poles.
The head of the cat is round and the ears erect. Its powerful forequarters, neck, and jaw serve to grasp and hold large prey. It has five retractable claws on its forepaws and four on its hind paws. The larger front feet and claws are adaptations to clutching prey.
Despite its size, it is not typically classified among the "big cats," as it cannot roar, lacking the specialized larynx and hyoid apparatus. Like domestic cats, semel cats vocalize low-pitched hisses, growls, and purrs, as well as chirps and whistles. They are well known for their screams, referenced in some of its common names, although these may often be the misinterpreted calls of other animals.
Semel cat coloring is plain but can vary greatly between individuals and even between siblings. The coat is typically tawny, but ranges to silvery-grey or reddish, with lighter patches on the under body including the jaws, chin, and throat. Infants are spotted and born with blue eyes and rings on their tails; juveniles are pale, and dark spots remain on their flanks. Males are typically darker in colour than females, often as dark as chocolaty-brown.
Semel cats have large paws and proportionally the largest hind legs in the cat family. This physique allows it great leaping and short-sprint ability. An exceptional vertical leap of 5.4 m (18 ft) is reported for the semel cat. Horizontal jumping capability is suggested anywhere from 6 to 12 m (20 to 40 ft). The semel cat can run as fast as 55 km/h (35 mph), but is best adapted for short, powerful sprints rather than long chases. It is adept at climbing, which allows it to evade canine competitors. Although it is not strongly associated with water, it can swim.
A successful generalist predator, the semel cat will eat any animal it can catch, from insects to large ungulates ("hoofed" animals). Like all cats, it is a carnivore, feeding only on meat. Its most important prey species are various deer species. Other listed prey species of the semel cat include mice, porcupine, and hares. Birds and small reptiles are sometimes preyed upon in the south, but this is rarely recorded in the north.
Though capable of sprinting, the semel cat is typically an ambush predator. It stalks through brush and trees, across ledges, or other covered spots, before delivering a powerful leap onto the back of its prey and a suffocating neck bite. It has a flexible spine which aids its killing technique.
Kills are generally estimated at around one large ungulate every two weeks. The period shrinks for females raising young, and may be as short as one kill every three days when cubs are nearly mature at around 15 months. The cat drags a kill to a preferred spot, covers it with brush, and returns to feed over a period of days. It is generally reported that the semel cat is a non-scavenger and will rarely consume prey it has not killed, but this behaviour is not strictly adhered to.
Reproduction and lifecycleEdit
Females reach sexual maturity between one-and-a-half and three years of age. They typically average one litter every two to three years throughout their reproductive life; the period can be as short as one year. Females are in estrus for approximately 8 days of a 23-day cycle; the gestation period is approximately 91 days. Females are sometimes reported as monogamous, but this is uncertain and polygyny may be more common. Copulation is brief but frequent.
Only females are involved in parenting. Female semel cats are fiercely protective of their kittens, and have been seen to successfully fight off animals as large as bears in their defense. Litter size is between one and six kittens, typically two or three. Caves and other alcoves which offer protection are used as litter dens. Born blind, kittens are completely dependent on their mother at first, and begin to be weaned at around three months of age. As they grow, they begin to go out on forays with their mother, first visiting kill sites, and after six months beginning to hunt small prey on their own. Kitten survival rates are just over one per litter.
Sub-adults leave their mother to attempt to establish their own territory at around two years of age and sometimes earlier; males tend to leave sooner. One study has shown high morbidity amongst semel cats that travel farthest from the maternal range, often due to conflicts with other semel cats ("intraspecific" conflict). Males disperse significantly farther than females, are more likely to traverse large expanses of non-semel cat habitat, and are probably most responsible for nuclear gene flow between habitat patches.
Life expectancy in the wild is reported at between 8 to 13 years, and probably averages 8 to 10. Causes of death in the wild include disability and disease, competition with other semel cats, starvation, accidents, and human hunting. | https://confan.fandom.com/wiki/Semel_cat |
Characteristics:
Physical description. Keen senses, large canine teeth, powerful jaws, and the ability to pursue prey at 60 km (37 miles) per hour equip the gray wolf well for a predatory way of life. A typical northern male may be about 2 metres (6.6 feet) long, including the bushy half-metre-long tail.
Habitat:
The gray wolf lives today in a diverse range of environments, including tundra, mountain areas, woodlands, forests, grasslands and deserts.
Diet:
Grey wolves are carnivores. Their natural diet is solely meat and they often prey on animals larger than they are including – deer, moose, caribou, elk, bison and musk-oxen as well small animals such as beaver, hares and other small rodents. | https://sco.gov.pk/grey-wolf-2/ |
Discovered as a child on the slopes of Ben Bulben by Bran & Sceolan, this young and sprightly warrior spent his summer foraging and hunting the mountains and woodlands. These local flavours are reflected in the taste experience – Fruity hop notes, balanced with lush Irish malt create a complex, sessionable IPA.
Description:
An easy-to-drink American-style session IPA. Brewed with 100% Irish malt for a pale, very clean base; layered with Mosaic hops, famous for their ever-changing fruity aroma.
Tasting Notes:
The flavour is fruity hops with aromas of blueberry, passionfruit, and grapefruit. Well balanced, with a mild lingering bitter finish.
Ingredients:
Water,barley, hops & yeast. | https://mothermacs.ie/index.php/product/little-fawn/ |
Garlic is a fundamental ingredient in international cuisine. With its characteristic pungent, spicy flavor that mellows and sweetens when cooked, garlic adds a distinctive aroma to a variety of dishes. It is also thought to have a number of medicinal properties. This article examines garlic’s interesting history, its cultivation and usage in the essential oil industry.
Garlic Through the Ages
A species of the onion family, Alliaceae, garlic’s (Allium sativum L.) close relatives include the onion, shallot, leek and chive. A bulb of garlic, the most commonly used part of the plant, is divided into numerous fleshy sections called cloves enclosed in a thin, white, mauve or purple skin. Garlic has been used as both food and medicine in many cultures for thousands of years, but its origins continue to cause debate among horticulturists. While Allium sativum is thought to have descended from the species Allium longicuspis, which grows in south-west Asia, one theory suggests that wild garlic was first domesticated in the Kirgiz desert of southern Siberia.
Furthermore, there is evidence that garlic was placed in ancient Egyptian tombs as early as 5,000 years ago—King Tutenkhamen’s tomb was found to contain garlic. It also formed part of the diet of the Israelites in Egypt and of the laborers employed by Khufu to construct the pyramids. The builders were often paid in fresh garlic, in part to maintain their strength and stamina. Egyptian men were even reputed to chew on a clove after a night with a mistress so their wives would not smell a rival’s perfume. Meanwhile, numerous references are made to garlic in Chinese literature dating back to 2000 BC. Chinese sacrificial lambs were spiced with garlic to make them more appealing to the gods. It is also praised in ancient Sanskrit writings. Clearly, by 1500 BC, garlic was prevalent, having spread to virtually every civilization in Europe, Asia and North Africa.
An Ingredient for All Seasons
Log in or Subscribe for FREE to read the full story.
Garlic is perceived as a warm weather plant. Indeed, it is easy to grow and can be cultivated all year round in mild climates. In cold climates, however, cloves can still be planted in the ground about six weeks before the soil freezes and harvested in late spring. Interestingly, many varieties will not succeed unless they experience a cold winter. This characteristic proved useful for Siberians during the last century as they could grow garlic and use it to pay their taxes. Today, garlic is grown globally, but China is by far the largest producer, with approximately 10.5 billion kilograms annually, accounting for over 77% of world output.
Over 450 strains of garlic have been identified, including many different subspecies, most notably hardneck garlic and softneck garlic. It is crucial to select the right kind of garlic for each country’s latitude as garlic can be day-length sensitive. Hardneck garlic is generally grown in cooler climates whereas the softneck variety is usually grown closer to the equator.
The Science Behind Garlic’s Distinct Aroma
Garlic’s recognizable, powerful flavor is caused by phytochemicals which are produced when the plant’s cells are damaged. When a cell is broken by chopping, chewing or crushing, enzymes stored in cell vacuoles trigger the breakdown of several sulphur-containing compounds contained in the cell fluids. The resultant compounds create garlic’s sharp or hot taste and strong smell. Some of these compounds are unstable and continue to evolve over time. Among the members of the onion family, garlic has, by far, the highest concentrations of initial reaction products. This makes it much more potent than onions, shallots or leeks.
A Flexible Flavor
Garlic is widely used as a seasoning or condiment in many dishes around the world, including eastern Asia, south Asia, southern Europe and parts of Central and South America. The flavor, however, varies in intensity and aroma with the different cooking methods. It is also consumed directly in some cuisines. For example, in Eastern Europe, the shoots are picked and eaten as an appetizer, and elsewhere the young bulbs are pickled for three to six weeks in a mixture of sugar, salt and spices.
Garlic Oil
To produce garlic essential oil, the crude garlic bulbs are cut into pieces and undergo a distillation process. After this process, the oil, with its higher density, partially separates automatically from the water. A centrifuge is applied to remove any further water present within the oil. The oil is then cleaned and filtered to achieve the required quality. Table 1 and the GLC trace (Figure 1) highlight the varying levels of the main components of Chinese garlic oil. It can be seen that the oil contains particularly high levels of diallyl disulphide and diallyl trisulphide. These components give the oil its characteristic pungent garlic aroma.
Summary
With its distinct aroma, garlic is considered one of the most essential ingredients in international cooking. Its popularity has even led to dedicated garlic festivals in the United Kingdom and the United States. Clearly, these little bulbs, with their much debated and unusual history, offer a myriad of flavor opportunity and add an extra taste dimension to a wide range of food and beverage applications. | https://www.perfumerflavorist.com/flavor/application/savory/85205602.html |
We try not to waste what nature provides us. Let alone, the cocoa pod. After separating the nibs from the husk, we do not necessarily discard the husk. Cocoa husk may be consumed as well as utilized as a good fertilizer for plants. Cocoa husk offers numerous advantages, for everyone.
Cocoa husk contains antioxidants, theobromine, dietary fiber, and is high in minerals.
In other words, cocoa husk can be processed into soluble fiber, which may aid in digestion, the reduction of cholesterol and triglyceride levels, the improvement of blood sugar levels, and the promotion of a balanced diet.
Experience the benefits by trying this simple recipe!
Cocoa Husk Tea recipe:
Equipment
Tea infuser OR French press (tea ball or tea pot with infuser basket)
Ingredients
1 cup boiling water per person.
2 teaspoons Primo Cacao Husks.
Instructions
- If using a French press, pour boiling water over the cacao husks and cover.
- Cover the cup or pot while steeping if using a tea ball or infuser basket.
- To extract the cacao taste completely, keep the water as hot as possible.
- Allow 6 to 8 minutes for the tea to steep.
- Steep for at least 10 minutes if adding milk or cream.
- Slowly depress plunger for French press.
- Remove the infuser ball or basket if necessary.
- Pour into individual serving glasses.
- If desired, add milk/cream and sweetener. | https://primochocolab.id/blogs/news/cacao-husk-tea |
I've just read a blog post from Amass restaurant. I got very curious about roasting beetroot in coffee grounds as they said in the article. Looking a bit further, I've found also found an article by ...
5
votes
0answers
112 views
Can swamp eels be used for unagi like American or Japanese eels?
So, at my local fishmarket, there is both live and frozen yellow swamp eel. I was not able to find very much on texture, flavor, or otherwise, so I was wondering if any of you have had much experience ...
5
votes
1answer
155 views
How to whip up a small quantity of Italian meringue?
Sometimes, I want to make a recipe (or train one) that involves Italian meringue, but I find it very difficult to whip one up when using small quantities of egg whites. I find it very hard to whip ...
5
votes
1answer
110 views
What term should i use to describe the taste intensity of a crop?
I am making a questionnaire about food and one of things people can rate is the taste intensity or taste strength of a vegetable/fruit/nut etc. Right now i just call it taste intensity and people can ...
5
votes
1answer
261 views
How to create very slimy natto?
Natto makers - I'm looking to make natto with plenty of "neba-neba". This is natto's characterist slime/string/goo. I read somewhere online that adding some japanese yam during the inoculation stage ...
4
votes
1answer
206 views
Are residues from seasoning coating harmful when using carbon steel pan?
I seasoned this carbon steel pan a few months ago, but after several times I cooked, the seasoning coating started to flake. I wonder are the residues harmful? Can I remain the way it is or should I ...
4
votes
0answers
75 views
Choux pastry, general questions with gluten free flour
I have a few questions regarding choux (cream puff pastry) and gluten free flour. After trying a few different recipes with a huge range of butter/ flour ratios, I settled with this one https://www....
4
votes
1answer
94 views
Tempered chocolate thickens
I have now twice experienced that when I'm tempering dark chocolate is becomes incredibly thick - almost solid- in the cooling phase When it happens I will accidentally heat it up to much as to get it ...
3
votes
1answer
164 views
Does brewing hot chocolate for longer hours make a difference?
I've been to some stores that offer hot chocolate that has been "brewed for 2 hours". I've also come across the following recipe that instructs to let the mixture sit for 12 hours. What does this ...
3
votes
0answers
49 views
Mixing cheesecake batter with an immersion blender
I have read various recipes suggesting that when adding eggs to cheesecake batter, it is better to incorporate them with as little mixing as possible, to avoid aerating the mixture. The idea is that ...
3
votes
0answers
39 views
Are there any ingredients I should not add to a no-knead dough with an extended proofing time?
I am having great results with no-knead bread, generally leaving this to proof for up to 18 hours in a coolish (20 C) room. I'm thinking of upping my game and adding fresh ingredients (e.g. minced ...
3
votes
0answers
77 views
Sauce bubbling out of jar
I successfully canned one batch of roasted red pepper pasta sauce but had to step away from the kitchen for a half hour. When I came back the sauce was still warm so I heated it a bit more while I ...
3
votes
0answers
63 views
Can I coat a very soft cake with royal icing before I cover with fondant?
Im preparing a very soft tender cake for covering with fondant. I need it to be really smooth but I also don't want the icing to be too heavy on the cake. I'm not familiar with ganache can I use a ...
3
votes
0answers
41 views
Can frozen (fresh) flower petals be used in baking the same as unfrozen fresh petals?
I had seen a recipe that calls for fresh flower petals - a dark bread recipe with honey and bright flower petals through it, specifically. I know it wanted fresh petals for the color (dried so often ...
3
votes
1answer
154 views
Ice cream stabilizer - locust gum - use and cooking procedure
I have a locust gum (powder). I searched online and it needs to be heated at least to 165 F to properly hydrate the gum. I have a few questions: should I still use eggs in the recipe? Won't it be too ... | https://cooking.stackexchange.com/unanswered |
Vulture illustrated the subtle changes in Louis C.K.’s face to express varying levels of discomfort. I only recently discovered him, but man, I’m glad I did. FYI: With the start of season three, the second season became available on Netflix, in case you want to catch up.
The Louis C.K. pain chart
1 Comment
-
His live shows are awesome too. He also just sent an email to fans that now tickets to his live shows will be $45 flat and wil only be available from his website. Enjoy!
Projects by FlowingData See All →
Cuisine Ingredients
What are the ingredients that make each cuisine? I looked at 40,000 recipes spanning 20 cuisines and 6,714 ingredients to see what makes food taste different. | https://flowingdata.com/2012/06/29/the-louis-c-k-pain-chart/ |
I am a foodie, hands down. I do not eat out of hunger alone; rather, I take enormous pleasure in savouring all the flavours in the meal in front of me. Especially if I cooked it myself, expressing my culinary talent (no, I am not ready for MasterChef, but I do like to expand my repertoire by trying out new recipes). I find it deeply rewarding to get locally sourced seasonal ingredients at the farmers’ market and to dedicate time to artfully create a balanced but tasty culinary experience that provides my body with the nutrients it needs. As I am feeding my body, I am also feeding my soul. Hopeless Italian romanticism? Maybe so, but I can genuinely say my levels of joy increase if this becomes a shared experience where I am cooking for others.
In a similar manner, I love working. Even if I won the lottery and did not have to work to sustain myself financially, I do not think I would stop. In fact, working goes beyond feeding my bank account (which has been on a fairly regimented diet since I started my first social enterprise almost five years ago); it deeply nurtures my soul. I see my work as a lifelong journey that invites me to explore, experiment, and express new ways of being and acting in the world. Like me, many people around the globe find infinite joy in dedicating their lives to enacting a purpose that serves other people and the planet. These are what I call changemakers, people devoted to imagining new recipes for a nutritious, balanced, and flavoursome world.
However, the dominant paradigm is urging us to do everything bigger, faster… even bigger and faster… without taking a moment to breathe between one bite and the other, between one project and the next. As a result, many people find it difficult to maintain healthy and nutritious habits. To keep up with the demands of modern life, some opt for hypercaloric fast foods (think about people who work in fast-paced stressful environments where it is all about maximising profits at the expense of others’ wellbeing); others slip into binge-eating (observe how many friends mindlessly move from one task to the next without absorbing the experience), while yet others forget about eating altogether (how many colleagues compromise their health by stopping to sleep or exercise to work longer and longer hours?).
This growing disconnection with the food, the ingredients, and the land, is nothing but a reflection of a deeper sense of alienation from ourselves. Our kitchen is a complete and utter mess, with dirty pans left everywhere, the smell of burning covering everything else, and a stained apron left hanging on the table… Could we find inspiration from the great chefs to learn to clean our internal kitchen?
This is the intention behind Recipes for Wellbeing, a newly-established not-for-profit association, co-created and co-led by young changemakers who find joy in cooking and sharing wellbeing experiences with others. Our aim is to shift the culture of changemaking to re-discover the importance of holistic wellbeing to enable anyone to contribute more effectively to creating positive change in the world. We interpret wellbeing both as a catalyst for positive change in the world, and as the positive change in the world itself. In particular, we support changemakers in experiencing wellbeing for themselves and in spreading wellbeing to their teams, societies, and to the whole world.
Recipes for Wellbeing offers a series of services and products to boost the wellbeing of changemakers and their organisations to increase their capacity to tackle more effectively the challenges that are in the way of broader societal and ecological wellbeing.
In the same way a recipe in a cookbook takes you through the steps to prepare a particular dish, our wellbeing recipes guide you through specific processes to cultivate wellbeing in your everyday work and life.
There are a number of ways you can engage with our recipes: you may wish to focus on a particular category, which guarantees a balance among all recipes; or you may prefer to dig deep into the main courses but across categories; or else you may want to choose a particular level of difficulty, based on your needs and previous experience.
Mind: Recipes that engage your mind and benefit your mental wellbeing.
Body: Recipes that engage your body and benefit your physical wellbeing.
Heart: Recipes that engage your heart and benefit your emotional wellbeing.
Spirit: Recipes that engage your spirit and benefit your connection to your unique and deepest identity, as well as to the universal consciousness that animates the cosmos and everything in it.
As with any cookbook, there are different kinds of recipes: starters, main courses, desserts, etc. but also quick-on-the-go options, or more elaborate alternatives. We also provide various difficulty levels, from easy recipes that do not require any previous knowledge or experience of wellbeing, through medium to hard recipe that require some or extended knowledge or experience of wellbeing.
When you go out for a meal, you look for more than merely satisfying your physiological need for food. You may be curious to taste new combinations of flavours, to savour new ingredients, to find new recipes to try out at home… overall, you are looking for an experience. Our wellbeing labs offer similar experiences for individuals and their organisations to savour wellbeing.
We host anything from short inspiring talks through half-day interactive workshops to emergent personalised wellbeing retreats immersed in Nature lasting from 2.5 to 4 days for groups of individual changemakers or changemaker teams and organisations. Our retreats allow participants to explore the different ingredients of wellbeing through our recipes, which they choose at the beginning of the retreat to meet their needs and fulfill their hopes. Participants also receive valuable insights into how to become “wellbeing cooks” able to create a wellbeing plan to incorporate in their life and work to sustain their wellbeing.
Check out our website to find out more about our work and explore our wellbeing recipes to feed your mind, body, heart, and soul! | http://wellbeing-project.org/feeding-mind-body-heart-soul/ |
Okami Blu RZA Nic Salt E-Liquid is an authentic blue raspberry with a hint of menthol. Sweet and sour flavor crafted from high-quality ingredients and balanced through tedious extraction processes. Fresh-picked berries create a powerful taste profile
Flavor Profile: | https://strikesusa.com/products/blu-rza-nic-salt-vape-juice |
Congratulations to chef Gautham Ella on his successful validation dinner. The validation dinner took place on the 18th of June in London. The role of the jury members was to try the private chef dining experience and evaluate the menu prepared by the chef.
The Chef
Chef Gautham has 16 years of experience in the kitchen with knowledge of Indian, European and Far Eastern cuisines. He is flexible and open to create bespoke menus to any taste, preference, and occasion!
The Menu
Platters
Bhel puri served in banana blossom
Earth and Sea (Slow cooked bunched carrots with fennel and heritage beetroot, hazelnut oil, sherry vinegar, sunflower seeds and seaweed)
Avocado with barberries, hemp oil, tomato chutney and fleur de sel
Sorghum flat bread with sambhar and jack fruit poriyal
Dessert
Emerti with sliver leaf and coconut and mango DF yogurt
Compressed Kentish strawberries with Rego Emilia balsamic glaze
“We had a lovely meal prepared and served by Gautham who was polite and friendly. Despite some delays with arriving he promptly started organising our meal within moment of arriving. The first dish was served without too much delay. We were pleasantly surprised! The food was creative and interesting, with varying levels of spice which I loved – big fan of spicier dishes.
He was more than happy to answer our endless questions about different ingredients and dishes. I was hugely impressed he managed to create such a complicated feast of dishes that complimented each other so well, that were all entirely vegan! I was also very impressed with how he managed to serve the dishes nicely in the less than ideal crockery situation (there was a lot less than I thought as we were using a friends flat who recently moved in).
My favourite dish he made was the: ‘Bhelpuri served in banana blossom – Indian street snack with puffed rice, chickpea spaghetti, tamarind, pomegranate and raw mango with onions, tomatoes and coriander’. It was fresh and flavorsome, and and served beautifully too. My least favourite dish he made was the: ‘Lemon granita with saffron, Noilly Prat and Ver jus’ because I am not such a fan of lemon or saffron. However, it wasn’t “bad” just my least favourite of the evening.
Overall it was a fantastic evening with my friends, and everyone enjoyed themselves so much. This was hugely down to the delicious food. What’s more, it was great that there a little left over so I was able to have it for lunch the next day! It’s a really great idea having the chefs come to peoples houses, and something I would love to do again in the future for a special occasion.”
Gautham created an exceptional meal for his Validation Dinner. Each dish was creative and beautiful, reflecting Gautham’s wealth of experience. He was an absolute pleasure to host. | https://labelleassiette.co.uk/blog/validation-dinner-gautham-ella/ |
Factories are volatile environments. Varying utilization rates, staffing levels and staggered shifts, and the new demand to create a consistently safe working environment each have their own challenges that require...
Comments: 2
POST-COVID19 WORLD (III): Macroeconomics changes
by Daniel Sanchez Reina | May 22, 2020
This is the third (and last) of a series of articles about the world that awaits us out there. The perspectives showed in this article and their intensity will depend...
The Evolving Role of the Chief Technology Officer
by Samantha Searle | November 25, 2019
Are you a newly appointed CTO? Have you recently promoted someone into a CTO role? Or perhaps hired someone externally to be accountable for overseeing the use of technology in... | https://blogs.gartner.com/blog/category/all/?c=leading-the-next-generation-workforce-supply-chain |
LYO Expedition Mexican Dish (net 126g), high energy serving (481 kcal). 100% natural ingredients, no preservatives or artificial additives.
Please Note: Please remove the Oxygen Absorber (sachet) in the packaging before consumption.
LYO Expedition Foods cook all of the ingredients together before freeze-drying to create meals which taste as delicious as home-cooked dishes, whilst retaining their nutritional value. The meal is contained in an aluminimum pouch to protect it against moisture and temperature variations.
Ingredients:
Rice 34%, Chicken Breat Fillet 28%, Red Beans 10%, Vegetables in Varying Proportions 14% (Sweet Corn, Onion, Red Bell Pepper), Tomato Paste 2%, Wheat Flour, Potato Flour, Canola Oil, Mixed Herbs.
Allergens:
Wheat. | https://www.myracekit.com/health-c5/nutrition-c135/freeze-dried-meals-c136/lyofood-mexican-dish-p279 |
Most purchased Cajun and Creole seasoning blends contain varying amounts of salt. This homemade version is a typical blend of ingredients, but without the salt. When you use this blend in a recipe, just add salt to suit your taste and your diet.
Grind all ingredients in a spice grinder, small processor, or coffee grinder.
Use the spice blend in any recipe calling for Cajun spices. Since this seasoning blend does not contain salt—many seasoning blends do—make sure to taste the food and adjust the seasonings, as needed.
Makes about 1/2 cup of Cajun seasoning.
Keep a spare coffee grinder in the cabinet just for grinding whole spices. This coffee grinder has a removable cup for easy cleaning. | https://www.thespruceeats.com/cajun-spice-blend-salt-free-3060751 |
The STM-LDA3 is designed for use in quality commercial sound, broadcast and recording applications. The 1.2 k balanced input accepts a wide variety of microphone input levels without loading professional low-impedance microphones. A multi-turn gain trimmer allows precise output level adjustment. The output signal is available on three separate balanced line level outputs. Each output may be connected balanced or unbalanced.RDL's exclusive low-noise discrete preamplifier circuitry produces studio-quality low-noise performance in an economical preamplifier. Dynamic or condenser microphones may be used with the STM-LDA3. Standard 24V phantom is supplied to the input when the supply voltage is connected to the PHM terminal. Optimum operating level is set using RDL's unique dual-LED VU meter, located adjacent to the terminal block. A green LED illuminates at 15 dB below a +4 dBu output. The intensity of the green LED progresses from minimum to full intensity at +4 dBu. The adjacent red LED illuminates when the operating level exceeds +4. This makes the STM-LDA3 easy to set up without any external test equipment, and operating levels may be monitored at the module. | https://daleproaudio.com/products/rdl-stm-lda3-studio-quality-mic-preamp-w-phantom-3-line-outputs |
Natural roasted coffee beans (80%) and roasted torrefacto coffee (20%).
Composition
Natural roasted coffee beans (80%) and torrefacto roasted coffee (20%). The perfect combination between the high quality of coffee beans from carefully selected origins and the right dose of roasted coffee.
List of ingredients
Coffee and sugar.
General characteristics
The properties of coffee have long been known to stimulate memory and alertness levels in addition to acting as an attenuator of fatigue.
Tasting notes
Visual appearance - Very creamy and persistent hazel color.
Olfactory notes - Aromas of toasted bread, cinnamon and light caramelized nuances.
Taste characteristics - Smooth, balanced and moderately hard coffee. Low astringency and light acidity. | https://torrelsa.com/products/cinco-estrellas-8020_2 |
This article describes the development of a self-administered inventory to provide unemployed job seekers of varying education levels and backgrounds with insight into their job search. The inventory was refined in 5 phases with multiple samples. Evidence for predictive validity was provided by examining the relationship between the inventory components ( job-search intensity, Internet use, job-search confidence, job-search clarity, support, stress and worry, skills, barriers, job-search experience, difference between last wage and wage desired, time spent in job search, and number of interviews in last 2 weeks) and employment outcomes several months later. The inventory, titled " Getting Ready for Your Next Job" (YNJ), is shown in the Appendix. Interested users may download a PDF or Microsoft Word version of the YNJ from http://www.ynj.csom.umn.edu/. | https://asu.pure.elsevier.com/en/publications/development-of-the-getting-ready-for-your-next-job-inventory-for- |
FAQ || Uriva
Q: What are the directions for taking Uriva?
A: Take 1/4 teaspoon (25-30 drops) 1-3 times daily or as needed. Take with 8 oz of water, and consume plenty of water throughout the day. Shake well.
Warning: Not for use while pregnant or nursing. Consult with your doctor before use.
Q: I bought this and love the taste, but it’s very sweet. Does it have sugar in it? What makes it sweet?
A: None of our products contain sugar. The sweetness in Uriva comes from the vegetable glycerin.
Q: How effective is the product in reducing purine levels?
A: Uriva is formulated to help balance uric acid levels. Customers may also experience decreased uric acid levels by following a purine-reduced diet.
Q: Does this product contain potassium or folic acid?
A: No, this product does not contain potassium or folic acid.
Q: I’m assuming the ingredients aren’t organic, since it doesn’t say so?
A: Our ingredients are organic and/or wild harvested! | https://www.gonutrients.com/pages/faq-uriva |
What Is a Chicken Burrito? (with pictures)
A chicken burrito is a flour tortilla that's stuffed with chicken and a variety of other ingredients. Only a handful of ingredients are necessary to make a standard recipe; however, there are several others to add depending on taste. Some may be too mild or spicy, so an option is to interchange them if necessary. A few aren't ideal for everyone, such as those adhering to a low-fat diet, but there are substitutions according to dietary guidelines.
The burrito starts with a flour tortilla, which gets folded from the bottom up then rolled from the sides so it encases all the ingredients and they won't fall out. Chicken burritos are a casual food ideal for lunch, dinner or a snack, but are typically not eaten for breakfast or at formal meals. They're a versatile food option that can include everything from vegetables to a huge amount of spice.
There are only a handful of ingredients necessary to make a basic chicken burrito recipe. A flour tortilla, shredded or chopped chicken, taco seasoning mix and salsa are typically the four standard ingredients. Rice and beans are also usually added, not only for flavor, but also to help hold everything together and add varying textures.
Those who want to add a little more flavor to the chicken burrito have several additional ingredients to add, such as sour cream. Cheese, either one type or a combination of a few, is one of the most popular options. Some vegetables to add include lettuce, fresh tomatoes, peppers or broccoli. For spice, some might add cumin, hot sauce, chili powder, cilantro or barbecue sauce.
Some may want to add certain ingredients to a chicken burrito but don't want something that's too mild or too spicy. There are several ingredients to interchange depending on taste preference. Hot sauce has a wide range of heat levels, as do peppers. Regarding cheeses, some choose to just use shredded cheddar, but others might consider using a Mexican cheese blend which consists of cheddar, Monterey jack, asadero, and queso quesadilla.
Due to dietary restrictions, not everyone can eat the standard ingredients included in a chicken burrito. Those who need to adhere to a mild diet should avoid putting in any spices, even mild versions. Low-fat cheese and fat free sour cream are good options for those who need to stick to a low-fat diet. | https://www.wise-geek.com/what-is-a-chicken-burrito.htm |
oney Mustard with Jalapeño Hummus.
Hummus is a creamy, thick spread made primarily from mashed chickpeas and a few other healthy ingredients that has become popular worldwide over the past couple of decades. It has long been enjoyed in Middle Eastern and North African countries and today in commonly eaten across North America and Europe too. In fact, hummus is one of the most widely consumed Middle Eastern foods in the Unites States today; in 2008, over 15 million Americans reported that they eat hummus on a frequent basis! That is a lot of people getting to experience all of the health benefits of hummus!
If you are new to hummus and are still wondering, “what is hummus exactly?”, then read on to find out what it is all about and why you should ideally be eating it everyday. Also more information can be found within the Sun-dried Tomato Hummus recipe.
|Prep Time||15 minutes|
|Servings||
|
cups
- 3.5 cup chickpeas Eden Organic Garbanzo Beans - no salt added
- 1.5 tbsp honey mustard
- 0.25 cup cilantro
- 1 clove garlic
- 1 tsp olive oil extra virgin
- 2 tbsp tahini (add some more if you like the tahini flavor)
- 0.5 jalapeño pepper
- 0.25 tsp black pepper freshly ground
- 0.25 tsp sea salt to taste
- 3 tbsp lemon juice
|
|
Ingredients
- Add all ingredients into a bender and add some of the chickpea juice to get the blending started.
- Blend into a smooth paste, add chickpea juice if needed. Add extra olive oil if needed to reach the desired consistency.
- Taste and adjust the seasonings.
- Transfer the hummus into an airtight container and store in the refrigerator for 4 to 5 days.
- Slice some vegetables or add pieces of for serving.
The Rich History of Hummus
Hummus has a rich tradition, some even refer to it as an “ancient” food that has a history of being consumed by important historical figures in the Middle East. According to ancient scriptures, hummus – at least as we know it today – was first consumed in Egypt around the 13th Century, although the recipe used at this time differed from today’s because it omitted tahini and used other nuts instead.
Today hummus still plays a major part in the diet of many healthy populations living around the world, mainly in the Middle East. Hummus is commonly consumed with every single meal in Israel, is frequently included in all “mezzeh tables” in Syria and Turkey, is eaten most days for breakfast along with bread in Palestine and Jordan, and is still enjoyed in Egypt and many Arabic nations in a variety of meals too.
Is Hummus Healthy?
Mediterranean and Middle Eastern populations have been consuming good-quality olive oil and tahini for thousands of years. This type of diet that is still eaten in these regions today (which also frequently includes other hummus ingredients like beans, lemon, and garlic) has been shown to be very anti-inflammatory, and we know that inflammation is the root cause of many chronic disease. Eating a diet similar to these healthy populations can help to lower cholesterol and triglycerides levels, to reduce symptoms of rheumatoid arthritis, and to lessen the chance of developing Alzheimer’s disease, cancer, cardiovascular disease and diabetes.
So is hummus healthy? If you make homemade hummus with real ingredients or buy a quality store bought hummus then yes! Basic hummus recipes contain 6 healthy ingredients: chickpeas, olive oil (I will go for the olives and exclude the oil!), garlic, lemon juice, sea salt, and tahini. Flavored types of hummus – for example, popular types like roasted red pepper or Kalamata olive hummus which you may have seen in supermarkets – has additional ingredients that are mixed into the basic hummus recipe described above. This is good news because it keeps the tastes of hummus interesting and offers a wide variety of options. The whole-food, unprocessed, plant-based ingredients used in hummus make it an excellent choice to include in your meals.
What Is Hummus Made Of?
Chickpeas
Like all beans and legumes, chickpeas (also called garbanzo beans) are high in plant-based protein and fiber. They help to make you feel full, to improve digestion, and aid to heart health too. They are also one of the longest consumed legumes in the world – they have been a part of certain traditional diets for 7,500 years! Additionally, chickpeas are a good source of 3 nutrients that help to reduce common symptoms associated with Premenstrual Syndrome (PMS): magnesium, manganese, and vitamin B6.
Olive Oil
While there are lot of papers that describe that olive oil used in hummus is very healthy, I exclude it from the ones I make and stay with the real olives. Oil is very calorie dense and only has little nutritional value. The fat from the olives and tahini will be plenty to give you a creamy texture. Traditionally, hummus is often made with good quality extra virgin olive oil, but if you decide to make your own and want to use oil, make sure to avoid fake olive oil, and be careful to purchase extra virgin olive oil that is truly pure and free from fillers.
Garlic
Raw garlic, as it is used in hummus, offers an impressive amount of nutrients including flavonoids, oligosaccharides, selenium, high levels of sulfur, and many more. Consuming raw garlic frequently has been proven to help reduce risk factors associated with heart disease and various cancers. Garlic also acts as an anti-fungal, anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-viral too.
Lemon Juice
Lemon juice has an alkalizing effect on the body, which combats the high level of acidity that is common in most modern diets. Additionally, lemon juice helps to increase immunity, boost digestion, and to help keep blood sugar levels stable.
Sea Salt
An unprocessed, traditional hummus will likely use a good-quality sea salt to add flavor, as opposed to more processed “table salt” which is iodized. Sea salt, especially Himalayan sea salt, has numerous health benefits: it contains 60 trace minerals. It also helps to keep your fluid levels balanced and to keep you hydrated, and provides sodium levels that help to balance potassium intake. Himalayan sea salt also contains important electrolytes and enzymes that aid in nutrient absorption (use in moderation!).
Tahini
Tahini is made of ground sesame seeds and is thought to be one of the oldest condiments in the world. Sesame seeds offer a wide range of important micronutrients and macronutrients too – everything from trace minerals to healthy fatty acids. According to recent studies, sesame seeds also have important beneficial properties, including antioxidant Vitamin E, that can help reduce risks associated with insulin resistance, heart disease and cancer. Aside from having a stellar ingredient list, science shows us that when the ingredients in hummus are combined, they offer even more health benefits. This has to do with the way that the fats, carbohydrates, and proteins found in hummus work together to give us even more of a feeling of satiety after eating it. Because of the fats found in hummus, nutrient absorption is also increased if you pair hummus with other nutritious whole-foods, like vegetables. | http://jvvhealth.com/recipe/honey-mustard-with-jalapeno-hummus/ |
Wholegrain mustard, balanced by smooth Mānuka honey. Together, these carefully selected ingredients enhance the clean, subtle taste of our hot smoked salmon.
The only ingredients we use are Freshwater King Salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha), Mānuka honey, mustard, golden syrup, salt, acetic acid and oak wood smoke.
No artificial colours, additives or preservatives. Gluten free. Contains fish. May contain small bones. | https://aorakisalmon.co.nz/our-product/hot-smoked-salmon/hot-smoked-portion-wholegrain-mustard-manuka-honey-180g/ |
Natalie Walker is Museum / Archives Technician at the Truman Library Institute and is currently finishing a Master’s in Public History at Colorado State University.
Natalie wrote the following blog post telling the behind-the-scenes story of processing a new collection of Korean War items acquired when the National Korean War Museum closed its doors.
Chaos
In December of 2017, the Harry S. Truman Library and Museum acquired the entire archival and museum collection belonging to the now defunct National Korean War Museum (NKWM) in Illinois.
A Mayflower truck arrived at the Library on a cold morning with nearly 10,000 pounds of material haphazardly stored in cardboard boxes, plastic totes, and garment boxes. Archives and museum staff helped offload the truck and stack the hundreds of boxes in empty offices in the Library. Two rooms filled from wall to wall served as the temporary location for the material and would eventually become the initial processing areas for the artifacts and documents as well.
With a deadline to have the rooms emptied by late May of 2018, Museum Technician Stephanie Rohr and I began sorting through the boxes, under the supervision of Archivist David Clark. We quickly learned that a tote carrying archival material might also contain a wadded up pair of olive drab army pants, air force uniform ties or a pair of field glasses. With each box opened, we uttered gasps of surprise, excitement, or sighs of confusion. Why would priceless photographs of the wartime experience be loosely thrown at the bottom of a box with decommissioned grenades and spent shell rounds? Stephanie and I later referred to this initial processing experience as the “chaos” stage.
Wielding sharpies and box cutters, we began sorting through each box, making note of potentially interesting artifacts on the outside of the boxes. We simultaneously separated archival material from the artifacts. After a couple of days spent evaluating the artifacts in the first room and feeling like we had made little progress, Stephanie and I decided to refine our processing procedure. We returned to the room with notepads and began labeling the boxes with numbers and then recording the box number and all of its contents in the notepad. This process took longer, but it allowed us to have a better grasp on the collection as well as the accessioning process of the NKWM.
Most of the artifacts consisted of uniforms from every branch of the military and other related artifacts like mess kits, field glasses, walkie-talkies, c-rations, entrenching tools, dog tags and can openers. Mixed in with these artifacts were Korean items such as kimonos, slippers and brass cutlery, most of which the NKWM staff purchased from retail websites to dress out their exhibits on Korean culture and life. Stephanie and I immediately rejected most of these items noting that they were not authentic to the time period, and in many ways, emphasized ethnocentric stereotypes of Korean culture.
Additionally, a significant portion of the collection was comprised of Korean War veteran material. Artifacts and archival material included photos of reunions, coffee mugs, shot glasses, caps and commemorative medals. Naturally, these items were not considered for accessioning as they focused on commemorating rather than exploring the wartime experience. | https://www.trumanlibraryinstitute.org/finding-clarity-chaos-processing-national-korean-war-museum-collection/ |
Arabia Steamboat Museum
Are you interested in what life was like during the 1800s? If so, the Arabia Steamboat Museum in Kansas City is the place for you to explore. It is a unique attraction in the area. The museum is a time capsule of life on the American frontier in the mid-19th century. The museum has the largest collection of pre-Civil War artifacts in the world. The Steamboat Arabia was one of several casualties of the perilous Missouri River.
The Arabia Steamboat sank in the Missouri River in 1856. She remained at the bottom for many years and was discovered near a cornfield. The artifacts were well preserved because of the location of the vessel. Visitors will have the opportunity to see artifacts such as clothes, tools, guns, and dishware. There are artifacts added to the collection on an ongoing basis.
The museum has several rooms for visitors to explore. One of the rooms is known as the Hull Room. A staff member will show you the stern section of the Steamboat Arabia’s massive hull. They will also discuss the techniques that were used to get the steamer from deep beneath a Kansas farm field.
Another room in the museum is known as the Cargo Gallery. In this area of the museum, guests will get the chance to see fascinating artifacts including lamps, European dishware, firearms, and writing instruments. These items survived for more than a century. The supplies in the Arabia were intended for 16 different towns along the Missouri River. There were a number of coffee tins and other tinware in the collection. These items were not only used by settlers but were also used by Native Americans. | http://www.grouptours.net/kansas-city-attractions/arabia-steamboat-museum/ |
The fourth floor with the strictly green room dedicated to Islamic art. The environment, characterized by the trussed ceiling of the historic building, appears as a large corridor flanked by the exhibition furniture which houses Ottoman velvets, ceramics, bronzes as well as rare Persian manuscripts and calligraphic copies of the Koran.
The Islamic section of the museum displays works from the Middle East, Persia, Turkey and the former Soviet republics of Central Asia. The collections include bronzes, ceramics and manuscripts, with particular emphasis on the aesthetic value of calligraphy.
The gallery presents a rich collection of pottery and glazed tiles that illustrate the evolution of ceramic production from the ninth to the seventeenth century.
The Islamic collection is characterized by manuscripts and furnishings from Turkey, Persia and the former Soviet republics of Central Asia, where the importance of calligraphy is highlighted.
Highlights works
On the Fourth floor, showcase objects from Middle East, Iran, Turkey and ex-Soviet republics of Central Asia, from the 8th to the 18th Century A.D.
Cup with ibex, 12th-13th century
Jug in glazed “frit”, ottoman period, 1535-45
Kubachi type dish, 17th century
Commentary on the “40 traditions”, timurid period
Cup with spout
Safavid tile, safavid era, late 16th century
Candlestick base, late 13th century
Mamelucca ampoule, 14th century
Jug with palmette, 8th century
Cup with calligraphic decoration, 10th century
Oriental Art Museum in Turin
The Museum of Oriental Art (Italian: Museo d’Arte Orientale, also known by the acronym MAO) is a museum contains one of the most important collections of Asian art in Italy. The collection works represents cultural and artistic traditions from across the Asian continent.
MAO, the Museum of Oriental Art, is located in the historic 18th-century seat of Palazzo Mazzonis. The museum’s heritage encompasses some 1500 works, in part from the pre6thous collections amassed by various city institutions, in part acquired in the past few years. The Museum’s exhibition layout is di6thded into f4the cultural areas: South Asia, China, Japan, the Himalayan Region and Islamic countries. This layout corresponds naturally with the building’s physical structure which is di6thded into the same number of interlinked but structurally separate exhibition spaces used to house the various sections.
The museum opened on December 5, 2008, with the merger of the Asian collection of the Turin City Museum of Ancient Art at the Palazzo Madama and contributions from Turin City Hall, the Region of Piedmont, the Fondazione Giovanni Agnelli and Compagnia di San Paolo. Architect Andrea Bruno oversaw the restoration of the Palazzo Mazzonis to house the newly formed museum.
The exhibits now housed in the new Oriental Art Museum in Turin are mostly works already present in the city’s Ci6thc Art Museum. Others, however, were donated to the museum by the Piedmont Region, as well as by the Agnelli Foundation and the Compagnia di San Paolo.
The museum‘s exhibition space, which has been designed to host f4the different thematic areas, such as the entrance hall where you can observe typical Japanese Zen gardens. Each area, from this point on, enjoys a different characterization of the space and the works on display. On the ground floor you can admire artifacts from South Asia, most of which are very ancient, and from South-East Asia. On the first floor there are Chinese-made artifacts, including bronze and terracotta works dating back to 3,000 BC, and in the appropriate rooms, it is possible to admire numerous artifacts of Japanese art. But that is not all. In fact, on the third floor of the Oriental Art Museum of Turin there is also a collection of objects from the Himalayan region, while the top floor is entirely dedicated to Islamic art. | https://www.hisour.com/islamic-art-gallery-oriental-art-museum-in-turin-56133/ |
Ductwork is the tubing that is connected to the HVAC system which is used to funnel air throughout the building. It is important to size your ducts accurately since ductwork too small will make your HVAC system overwork, and ductwork too large will lessen the speed of airflow.
Finding the right ductwork size, however, is not the easiest project, and a professional will most likely need to be consulted. As a matter of fact, certain building codes require air and heating systems to be in line with ACCA’s Manual D duct design.
In this blog, we will lead you through a few of the steps you can make towards finding the correct size of the ductwork for your residential building, before passing the project off to an HVAC professional.
Ductwork for Residential Projects
The first thing you will need to do is measure the square footage of your home. Measure the length and width of each room and multiply them together. Add all of the rooms together to get the total for the house. Jot down this information, as you will need it later.
Next, you can work a bit with the CFM – cubic feet per minute – of each room. The CFM of a room measures the airflow needed to correctly maintain the temperature in a room. To calculate the CFM of a room, you will have to know the size, in tons, of your HVAC unit. All HVAC units are measured in tons, and so this number should not be too difficult to find. Once you have this number, multiply it by 400, and then divide this result by the total square footage of the home. The result of this total calculation will give you the CFM number for that room.
Finally, you can calculate the friction loss of your ducts. Friction loss is measured by inserting a number of different variables into a complex calculation. These variables include things such as the number of turns, filters, grills, coils, and dampers in your system. Online, you should be able to find a calculator which allows you to insert these variables and which will produce the total friction loss of your ducts.
The above three steps – square footage of the home, CFM of each room, and the friction loss of the ducts – are ones which you can take in preparation for properly sizing your ductwork. The proper size of ductwork will be generated by including the above three factors into a very complicated calculation. An HVAC professional will be able to help you complete this calculation.
At Balanced Comfort, we look forward to assisting you with your next project no matter how large or small. Contact us to find out more about our services. | https://www.balancedcomfort.com/how-to-size-ductwork-for-residential-projects/ |
Puzzle: A museum has an exhibition space of 16 rooms. There is a door between every pair of horizontally and vertically adjacent rooms. In addition, each room on the north and south side of the building has a door leading outside. In planning a new exhibition, the curator has to decide which of the doors need to be open, so that a visitor can enter the exhibition through the door on the north side, visit each and every room exactly once, and gets out through a door on the south side. Also, the number of doors open should be minimum.
- What is the minimum number of doors needed to be open for the exhibition?
- Indicate all the entrance-exit pairs that can be opened for the exhibition?
The floor plan of the museum is as shown. The top and bottom lines of the plan indicate the north and south side of the building respectively.
Solution:
- Since a path through the exhibition must visit each room exactly once, it will have to enter and leave each room through different doors. This implies that a minimum of 17 doors need to be open, including one entrance and one exit door.
- On coloring the rooms as squares of a 4 x 4 chessboard, as shown it becomes obvious that any path through the exhibition, will have to pass through the squares of alternating colors.
Since the total of 16 rooms has to be visited, the first and last squares must be colored in opposite colors. So, the possible entrance-exit pairs are (A1, B1), (A1, B3), (A2, B2), (A2, B4) and symmetrically, (A4, B4), (A4, B2), (A3, B3) and (A3, B1). Some of the paths for these entrance-exit pairs are as shown.
Recommended Posts:
- Puzzle 15 | (Camel and Banana Puzzle)
- Puzzle 24 | (10 Coins Puzzle)
- Puzzle 27 | (Hourglasses Puzzle)
- Puzzle 28 | (Newspaper Puzzle)
- Puzzle 29 | (Car Wheel Puzzle)
- Puzzle 31 | (Minimum cut Puzzle)
- Puzzle 33 | ( Rs 500 Note Puzzle )
- Puzzle 34 | (Prisoner and Policeman Puzzle)
- Puzzle 36 | (Matchstick Puzzle)
- Puzzle 38 | (Tic Tac Toe Puzzle)
- Puzzle 51| Cheryl’s Birthday Puzzle and Solution
- Puzzle 81 | 100 people in a circle with gun puzzle
- Puzzle 85 | Chain Link Puzzle
- Puzzle | Elevator Puzzle
- Puzzle | 3 Priests and 3 devils Puzzle
- Puzzle 39 | (100 coins puzzle)
- Puzzle 1 | (How to Measure 45 minutes using two identical wires?)
- Puzzle 2 | (Find ages of daughters)
- Puzzle 3 | (Calculate total distance travelled by bee)
- Puzzle 4 | (Pay an employee using a 7 units gold rod?)
If you like GeeksforGeeks and would like to contribute, you can also write an article using contribute.geeksforgeeks.org or mail your article to [email protected]. See your article appearing on the GeeksforGeeks main page and help other Geeks.
Please Improve this article if you find anything incorrect by clicking on the "Improve Article" button below. | https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/puzzle-planning-an-exhibition/?ref=leftbar-rightbar |
Located in Miles City, the Range Riders Museum is a small site dedicated to preserving Montana’s pioneer roots and geological history. The museum features a number of exhibits, however, portions of museum are an exhibit themselves – including décor, furnishings, and even entire rooms, like the Country School Building.
Other exhibits include a Native American artifacts display, the Bert Clark Guns exhibit, countless western items, and a collection of antique cars in the Wagon Depot exhibit. There is plenty more to see at the Range Riders Museum, as the museum boastfully features displays in every room of every building. | http://bestwesternmontana.com/attractions/range-riders-museum |
I spent my fall semester as a history intern at the Broadview Heights Historical Society under their president Candy Korn. My focus was to curate artifacts and write didactic material for those artifacts that would be displayed in the BHHS’s permanent home, a renovated historical building of the former Veterans Administration Hospital. Candy and I set weekly goals to achieve this focus. I learned that my skills needed to be flexible and grow as a graduate student intern through the hands-on experience that I received working for the historical society.
The first task I tackled was determining the artifacts for the exhibition. The BHHS has over 1000 catalogued artifacts in their collection, with more arriving weekly that need to be recorded, so this was no small task. The BHHS lists their collection on Omeka, an online content management system, which I used to catalogue a majority of the items. The collection is comprised of personal and political documents, photographs, books, and artifacts that span from the late nineteenth century up to the present day. To determine what was particularly relevant to Broadview Heights as a community and a city, I spent some time getting to know the members of the historical society. Understanding the history of Broadview Heights as a city and getting to know what residents deemed important to their history guided the reasoning behind the artifacts I chose to put on display. Broadview Heights has been a farming community since before it became a village in 1926 and finally became a city in 1960. Agriculture has remained an integral part of Broadview Heights’ history and community.
The research skills I learned as a graduate student prepared me to uncover the necessary provenance for the BHHS’s artifacts I chose for the exhibition. I began to see patterns in the artifacts and decided to group the artifacts by themes. This way I could keep the artifacts organized and determine what gaps existed, such as time period gaps or the lack of variety in artifact types to keep the exhibition visually dynamic. Grouping the artifacts by theme allowed me to determine the flow of the exhibition cases and provided me with a way to display Broadview Heights history in an organized way. Once the artifacts were chosen and the provenance was researched and written, I was ready to begin crafting the didactic material for the exhibition and then physically construct the labels.
Creating the didactic material was one of my favorite parts of my internship experience at BHHS. I was particularly engaged in finding connections between the importance of the artifacts as objects, their connection to Broadview Heights’ community, and their connection to broader themes. I kept in mind what artifacts would be interesting and captivating for a broad range of visitors including different age groups, ethnicities, and genders. I also curated the artifacts to hopefully be engaging to visitors that were not residents of Broadview Heights. It is a large responsibility to write didactic material because it directly shapes what and how visitors learn.
Constructing the physical labels was my other favorite part of my internship experience at BHHS. I have always enjoyed working with my hands and the label construction process involved several different procedures. It was a learning process for me to master the technique, but it was incredibly satisfying and rewarding to see the finished product. I spend a great deal of time reading didactic material when I visit museums and I have gained a new appreciation for didactic writing and label construction through my internship experience.
I encountered challenges using a historical building as an exhibition space. During my internship I designed an interpretive plan for the exhibition, which because the historical building was not designed as an exhibition space, I encountered many limitations. The floor plan is fairly open, which limits the available wall space to mount artifacts. Wall space is further limited by the number of windows in the building. These windows also impede the exhibition because the bottom of each window is lower than the top of the display cases. Sunlight is incredibly damaging to historical artifacts and serious consideration is needed to protect artifacts from harmful ultraviolet rays.
Another challenge I faced was the limitations of the display cases themselves. While the display cases have adjustable shelving and provide protection to the artifacts against visitors, they are incredibly heavy and are meant to be stationary. Because the display cases open from the back through sliding doors, they cannot be pushed up against a wall. The sliding doors of the display cases lack locks and will need to be refitted to provide the BHHS artifact security. The display cases are all different models and do not match, but I solved this challenge by placing large artifacts that cannot be contained within display cases, such as furniture and the apple cider press, in between the cases. The exhibition appears more professional using that approach, even though the cases are of various models.
The choices that I made for the exhibition were decided through best museum practices and consideration to the visitor’s experience. As an avid museum visitor, I applied my personal experience to create an effective exhibition. I had to think critically and innovatively to achieve my goals. While many people see problems as impediments, I see them as challenges to be overcome. The challenges I faced not only honed my creative problem-solving skills, but also inspired me to create goals to improve upon the exhibition for the future.
Curating and designing the permanent exhibition at the Broadview Heights Historical Society was an immeasurably beneficial learning experience to guide my future endeavors as a museum professional. Very few students have the opportunity to work from the ground up in the museum profession and I was lucky enough to have an opportunity to tackle that task. Having the responsibility and creative leeway to curate and design the BHHS’s exhibition provided me with ability to acquire new skills, like writing didactic material and constructing signs. This experience solidified my passion for museum work and I look forward to further developing the skills that I acquired at BHHS throughout my future career as a museum professional. | https://csuhistoryinterns.clevelandhistory.org/curation-and-exhibit-design-internship-at-the-broadview-heights-historical-society/ |
The natural resources collections offer centuries of evidence about how Americans have used the bounty of the American continent and coastal waters. Artifacts related to flood control, dam construction, and irrigation illustrate the nation's attempts to manage the natural world. Oil-drilling, iron-mining, and steel-making artifacts show the connection between natural resources and industrial strength.
Forestry is represented by saws, axes, a smokejumper's suit, and many other objects. Hooks, nets, and other gear from New England fisheries of the late 1800s are among the fishing artifacts, as well as more recent acquisitions from the Pacific Northwest and Chesapeake Bay. Whaling artifacts include harpoons, lances, scrimshaw etchings in whalebone, and several paintings of a whaler's work at sea. The modern environmental movement has contributed buttons and other protest artifacts on issues from scenic rivers to biodiversity.
-
Whaler's Shoulder or Darting Gun
- Description
- By the later 19th century, guns had replaced most hand harpoons and lances, since they were far more efficient and deadly to the prey. They also could be shot from a safer distance from the prey than the hand tools could be wielded. The darting gun was one of the more popular types. Loaded with different darts, this versatile weapon could be used both for harpooning and killing whales.
- This particular gun was displayed at the 1883 International Fisheries Exhibition in London, England. After the display ended, it was donated to the Smithsonian by its inventor, Capt. Eben Pierce of New Bedford, Mass.
- date made
- 1880s
- guns replaced hand tools
- late 19th century
- displayed at the International Fisheries Exhibition
- 1883
- maker
- Pierce, Eben
- ID Number
- TR.316550
- catalog number
- 316550
- accession number
- 66767
- Data Source
- National Museum of American History
-
Whaler's Fluke Lance
- Description
- The most dangerous act in the dangerous business of whaling was “spading flukes.” The whaleboat drew up close alongside a desperate, unpredictable whale on the water surface, and a crewman used a boat spade or fluke lance to sever the whale’s tail tendons. This effectively immobilized the prey, for the whale couldn’t swim without its tail.
- According to James Temple Brown, who wrote the 1883 catalog of the Smithsonian’s whaling collection, the fluke lance was exceedingly rare and was regarded as “a monstrosity by all the fraternity”. This rare inscribed example was used aboard the starboard whaleboat of the bark Sea Fox.
- Date made
- ca 1880-1889
- authored whaling reference material
- Brown, James Temple
- maker
- Driggs, James D.
- ID Number
- TR.056358
- catalog number
- 056358
- accession number
- 012298
- Data Source
- National Museum of American History
-
Whaler's Harpoon with Toggle Head
- Description
- The first step in catching a whale was throwing at least two sharp harpoons into its back, to ensure that the whaleboat was securely fastened to its prey. Harpoon shafts were made of soft wrought iron, so that they would bend and not break off when twisted, which risked losing the wounded whale.
- A line at the bottom of the harpoon’s wooden handle attached it to the whaleboat. Once in the whale’s flesh, the sharp toggle tip swiveled sideways, making it harder for the tip of the weapon to pull out. Whales normally dove deep after the first prick, to try and escape the sharp jab from the surface of the ocean. This harpoon shaft was twisted by a descending whale.
- date made
- 1882
- maker
- D. & D.
- ID Number
- AG.056237
- catalog number
- 056237
- accession number
- 012284
- Data Source
- National Museum of American History
Filter Your Results
Click to remove a filter: | https://americanhistory.si.edu/collections/subjects/natural-resources?edan_q=*:*&edan_fq%5B%5D=set_name:%22Natural+Resources%22&edan_fq%5B%5D=online_visual_material:true&edan_fq%5B%5D=unit_code:NMAH+OR+unit_code%3ANMAH-AF+OR+unit_code%3ANMAHLC_YT+OR+unit_code%3ANMAH_BL+OR+unit_code%3ANMAH_YT+OR+unit_code%3AACAH&edan_fq%5B%5D=topic:%22Manufacturing+industries%22&edan_fq%5B%5D=date:%221880s%22&edan_local=0&edan_fq%5B%5D=place:%22New+Bedford%22 |
Oct 24, 2019, 09:20 ET
NEW YORK, Oct. 24, 2019 /PRNewswire/ -- Due to an overwhelming response, the Museum of Jewish Heritage – A Living Memorial to the Holocaust today announced that Auschwitz. Not long ago. Not far away., the most comprehensive Holocaust exhibition about Auschwitz ever presented in North America, will be extended until August 30, 2020. Produced by the international exhibition firm Musealia and the Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum in Poland, the groundbreaking exhibition is the largest ever on Auschwitz with more than 700 original objects and 400 photographs.
The extension responds to the record number of visitors the exhibition drew to the Museum since opening in May. More than 106,000 people from across the country and globe have visited the exhibition, including more than 36,000 students, and approximately 12,000 students are scheduled to visit before the end of 2019. Tickets are available at www.mjhnyc.org.
"The number of adults and school visitors drawn to Auschwitz. Not long ago. Not far away. has been incredible. This exhibition greets its visitors with a clear warning to be vigilant – to not allow this history to repeat and to never presume that it won't," notes Bruce C. Ratner, Chairman of the Museum's Board of Trustees. "In recent years and recent months even, we have seen a surge in antisemitic rhetoric, hate crimes, and a weaponized nationalism both here in the United States and abroad. We are extending this exhibition at our Museum because it offers clear, moral lessons that resonate powerfully today and from which visitors want to learn."
"It has been a great honor to preside over the Museum as it presents this astounding exhibition and to witness it move so many of our visitors as deeply as it has moved me," says Jack Kliger, the Museum's President & CEO. "Most remarkable, this exhibition is dynamic. Already large in scope, it continues to acquire new artifacts over the course of its life, such as the shofar clandestinely used in Auschwitz that we unveiled last month ahead of Rosh Hashanah."
"We have been profoundly overwhelmed by the phenomenal visitor response in New York—not only by the numbers themselves, but especially by the time visitors spend in the exhibition—on average two hours—and the care, attention and respect they show for this story. Deciding to visit this exhibition is a courageous step. It means confronting oneself with a traumatic, complex and challenging past. And more importantly, it helps us understand more critically our own present," says Luis Ferreiro, Director of Musealia and the exhibition project.
"I don't think that there is a more important exhibition presented in New York at the moment. This one about Auschwitz explores the essence of mankind, analyzes the limits of what is human, and asks important questions about our contemporary responsibility. I am glad people will be able to see it there longer," says Dr. Piotr M. A. Cywiński, Director of the Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum.
Auschwitz. Not long ago. Not far away. traces the development of Nazi ideology and tells the transformation of Auschwitz from an ordinary Polish town known as Oświęcim to the largest German Nazi concentration camp and the most significant site of the Holocaust— at which ca. 1 million Jews, and tens of thousands of others, were murdered. Victims included Polish political prisoners, Sinti and Roma, Soviet prisoners of war, Jehovah's Witnesses, and those the Nazis deemed "homosexual," "disabled," "criminal," "inferior," or adversarial in countless other ways. The exhibition tells not only the story of their persecution and murder, but also the myriad ways ordinary people responded to the unfolding genocide, including inspiring stories of resistance, resilience, courage, and altruism. In addition, the exhibition contains artifacts that depict the world of the perpetrators—SS men who created and operated the largest of the German Nazi concentration and extermination camps.
With more than 700 objects and 400 photographs, mainly from the Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum, the New York presentation of the exhibition allows visitors to experience artifacts from more than 20 international museums and institutions on view for the first time in the North America, including hundreds of personal items—such as suitcases, eyeglasses, and shoes—that belonged to survivors and victims of Auschwitz. The exhibition also features 10 artifacts on loan from the Anne Frank House in Amsterdam, which include the spilled, dried beans Anne wrote about in her diary and that were later discovered lodged between the cracks of stairs in the home where she hid from the German Nazis. The beans have never been displayed anywhere before. Most recently, the Museum announced the exhibition's incorporation of a shofar (a ram's horn that is made into a special wind instrument used during Jewish High Holiday services) that was hidden and clandestinely blown in the Auschwitz.
The Museum of Jewish Heritage has incorporated into the exhibition nearly 100 rare artifacts from its collection that relay the experience of survivors and liberators who found refuge in the greater New York area.
Auschwitz. Not long ago. Not far away. at the Museum of Jewish Heritage – A Living Memorial to the Holocaust is made possible with lead support by Bruce C. Ratner, George and Adele Klein Family Foundation, Ingeborg and Ira Leon Rennert, and Larry and Klara Silverstein & Family. The exhibition is presented in part with major support by The David Berg Foundation, Patti Askwith Kenner, The Oster Family Foundation, and The Bernard and Anne Spitzer Charitable Trust. The New York premiere is made possible in part by Simon & Stefany Bergson with additional support from The Knapp Family Foundation. | https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/museum-of-jewish-heritage--a-living-memorial-to-the-holocaust-extends-the-groundbreaking-exhibition-on-auschwitz-in-response-to-high-demand-300944891.html |
The National Cowboy & Western Heritage Museum in Oklahoma City is proud to present, “Pueblo to Pueblo: The Legacy of Southwest Indian Pottery,” open through April 8.
This traveling exhibit features 65 pieces from the Kansas City Museum and Union Station Inc. and another 23 pieces from the National Cowboy Museum’s own Pueblo pottery collection. Additionally, a number of photographs and documents are on display explaining to guests the importance of specific artifacts and their origins.
Pueblo pottery of the Southwest is one of the most beautiful and enduring artistic traditions in all of Native North America. It is a tradition rich with history – not only an expression of cultural identity, but also a reflection of the relationship between Pueblo peoples and the influences from outside their own community. Today, there are about 20 Pueblo tribes with a total population in excess of 50,000.
Pottery-making in the American Southwest is a tradition that first emerged about 2,000 years ago. Historically, it was a functional art form, passed from generation to generation over the span of centuries by people living in permanent villages known as pueblos. The pottery of each individual tribe was unique and distinguished by a variety of characteristics painted onto the surface, such as the clay source and shape of the vessels and designs, or lack thereof.
Artifacts in “Pueblo to Pueblo” date from the mid-19th to the mid-20th centuries, illustrating the remarkable variety of pottery created during that very dynamic time of transformation. Some of the vessels in the exhibition are very conservative and adhere to the traditional style of a particular Pueblo, while others incorporate innovations specifically designed for the retail market.
It is also during this time period that certain individuals, such as Nampeyo from Hopi and Maria Martinez from San Ildefonso, became recognized for the quality of their work. The exhibition includes outstanding examples of their work.
The exhibit is made possible by Smith Kramer Fine Art Services and curated by Bill Mercer, a researcher and scholar of Native American art. The Museum has organized a companion Native American art exhibition titled “The Sun and His Wife” and a robust schedule of art demonstrations, gallery walks and special activities. For more details go to the website.
Nationally accredited, the National Cowboy & Western Heritage Museum is located in Oklahoma City's Adventure District at the junction of I-44 and I-35. The Museum is open daily 10 a.m. to 5 p.m. For more information, call (405) 478-2250 or visit www.nationalcowboymuseum.org.
Current Issue | Previous Issues | Coupons| Welcome | Information | Sports
Attractions | Local Area Maps | Radio Stations | Calendar of Events
Hotels & Motels | Shopping | Restaurants | Contact Us | Media Kit | Return Home
Copyright 2000-2012 KEY of Oklahoma, Inc. All Rights Reserved. | http://www.keyokc.com/0312/story9.html |
Available under License Creative Commons Attribution Non-commercial No Derivatives.
7MB
Official URL: http://wirkkalabryk.fi/juhlavuosi/juhlavuosi/ideak...
Abstract
Architectural submission to international competition Helsinki Finland.
the Conceptual approach was to invoke a room to FORESEE where objects could be cast, experiences could be carved, and artifacts composed. The focus of this proposal for the Wirkkala-Bryk Archive was to create a new relationship between the physical archive and the public.
The archive space is split into three exhibition areas - Cast, Carve, and Compose - inspired directly by the design processes of Tapio Wirkkala and Rut Bryk. Each area provides a different context for the visitor to relate to and interact with the physical collection. If the visitor chooses, they can simply move around the edges of the exhibition and observe the finished artifacts like a conventional museum.
The more interested visitor can explore a multi sensory interactive display to discover more about the inspiration behind and design processes for the objects on display. Finally the visitor has an opportunity to explore their own relationship with design in the central Create space, where they can share their experiences with other visitors as well as create designs of their own.
CAST: The Projective Frame. Enter and Discover
Inspired by the process of casting, this area of the exhibition comprises an outer surface of display walls with rooms on the inside. Windows and openings encourage the visitor to penetrate this display edge and enter the spaces behind. In these rooms visitors can discover more about design and development processes that went into creating the artifacts.
CARVE: The Ingrained sculpture. Peel and Explore
Positioned as objects in space, this area of the exhibition has a number of large display cabinets that visitors move around and between. These cabinets have a series of doors, drawers and hatches that visitors can open and explore. In this way the outer surfaces are peeled away to reveal the history and inspiration behind objects displayed, mimicking the process of carving.
COMPOSE: The Contested Pattern. Position and Compare
Moveable and interchangeable, the smaller cabinets in this area can be relocated and juxtaposed to form different compositions. Visitors can physically interact with the exhibit by moving the objects themselves to compare, contrast and explore relationships that may not be apparent at first glance. With the exhibit in constant flux, every visitor inherits the layout left to them by their predecessor.
Additionally, a conservation area was integrated: to Conserve – protect and reveal.
Rather than an off-site repository, the proposal houses the archive in an environmentally controlled glazed box
suspended from the ceiling. This c-shaped repository above the heads of visitors becomes part of the exhibition by allowing oblique views of archive artifacts. Archive racks slide out over the central space, enabling easy access to individual objects for the renewing of the display and for research purposes. | https://clok.uclan.ac.uk/35824/ |
York Pennsylvania Museums
We have tried to find unusual, historic, and fun things to do in Pennsylvania this weekend, and we have found that this piece of nature is one of the best day trips in the state when traveling in any direction outside of Harrisburg. There are a number of museums in York County that are located just a few miles from York City, Pennsylvania, but this is the only one within a half-hour drive of York City. It is a small town of just over 1,000 inhabitants, located on the eastern outskirts of the city, about a mile from downtown York.
This historic treasure is the official museum of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania and includes an impressive collection of our Pennsylvania heritage. The museum offers a wide range of exhibits on York County history, as well as a wide range of artifacts and artefacts.
If you just want to walk through the room and see what the artists have created, or if you want to learn something from one of their workshops, add this place to your list of museums to visit in Doylestown, PA. Visit the museum and take a look at the art and history of York County.
These are just a few, but you should definitely be on the lookout for the York County Museum of Art's new exhibit, "The Art of York."
An interesting artifact is the gallows in the old York County Prison, which was used for the last hangings in York County. It shows some of the most interesting pieces from the early 19th and early 20th century. In this huge institution you will find a large-format printing press from George F. Motteras & Sons, a working grate mill and waterwheel, a crane railing and much more.
The exhibition gallery uses artifacts to show the various business communities in York County that have flourished and built up over the years. The American story, there is one that is related to each of them, and that includes the environment. Spread over two floors, this museum has a large collection of artefacts from the early 19th and early 20th centuries, as well as some of the most interesting pieces of history.
Here are some must-see places in York County that can easily turn into a memorable day trip for you, such as the Pennsylvania Museum of Natural History, Penn State University Museum and the University of Pennsylvania.
This museum and research library offer a glimpse into the history of Bucks County, and the museum's Historical and Medical Library houses a collection of over 1,000 books and manuscripts on medical history.
The Nordmuseum houses over 360,000 objects from archaeology to zoology, with which children can interact. This museum covers an area of 10,000 square metres and houses a collection of more than 1,500 artifacts and artefacts from around the world.
Early settlers tour elemental includes hands - on activities that illustrate the early settlement of York County. While here, you can stroll through the museum and see various artifacts and exhibits from that time. With a $15 ticket, you can visit the York Museum of Natural History, the oldest museum in Pennsylvania.
It is a great day, as you can combine a visit here with the entrance fee, which includes a visit to the York Museum of Natural History and practical activities to learn about the history of York County and Pennsylvania. Check out your favorite museums below to find out what has caught your interest, and also check out some of our favorite PA hiking trails when the weather is nice.
Visit the York Museum of Natural History, the oldest museum in York County and one of the oldest museums in the state. This museum offers a wide variety of exhibits as well as educational activities for children and adults.
The museum has been recognized by the Smithsonian as a National Historic Landmark, an extremely rare honor that speaks well of the love and care of automobiles.
For those interested in the supernatural, this museum is one of the best day trips in Pennsylvania. If you want to add more outdoor excitement to your day trip to Central Pennsylvania, visit neighboring Hickory Run State Park. We found Hersheypark as funny as when we visited, so we pack the car and head to Central Pennsylvanian for a day. An hour and a half from Harrisburg, Jim Thorpe, the southern end of the park, begins with a scenic drive through the woods, a few miles of hiking trails and many hiking and biking trails.
It takes 2-3 hours for the family to visit the State Museum, without the exhibitions in the planetarium.
The museum does a great job of capturing the history of the Civil War battlefields of Gettysburg and the Battle of Little Bighorn. Enter the interior museum, which offers you the opportunity to gain access to the collection of photographs, artifacts and other artifacts from the war and its aftermath. | https://www.helloyork.com/local_articles/museums/43723/york-pennsylvania-museums |
Preeceville and District History Book (reprinted) is for sale at $75 available at the Town Office or from Lorne Plaxin.
Information is now being collected for Lines of the Past Volume 2.
If you have any connection to Preeceville or were missed being a part of Volume 1, please contact Agnes at 306-547-3047 or email [email protected].
Follow us on Facebook
Follow our Scandinavian Supper
The Preeceville and District Heritage Museum has been established to preserve the unique heritage of Preeceville and District.
The Idea of a museum began back in 1985. Members of the Preeceville Historical Society, who published the Preeceville history book Line Of The Past, reasoned that a museum would be the next logical project. In 2005, a delegation approached the town council with the idea of establishing a Heritage Museum in the old Nurses' Residence.
The group proposed that this idea would preserve a heritage site, create major tourist attraction for the town and highlight and preserve the unique heritage of Preeceville.
The town council agreed with the idea and the museum was born.
The ownership of the museum remains with the Town of Preeceville, and is sponsored by the Preeceville Economic/Tourism Committee and operated by Preeceville and District Museum Board which collects, preserves, and exhibits collections of artifacts, documents, photos, maps and books.
The museum's 22 theme rooms have artifacts and displays dedicated to the memory of the early pioneers of the area. The main lobby has photographs of many early pioneers and a Preece Wall of photos dedicated to the Preece family who donated the land for the Preeceville townsite. The newest addition to the museum is the Children's Room.
The other rooms include a sports room, an olde tyme school rooms, a hospital room, a pioneer kitchen, a church room, a club room, a pioneer bedroom and a room dedicated to the veterans of both World Wars.
The varied culture of the area are depicted by the displays and colorfully costumed mannequins in the Ukrainian, Scandinavian and British Isles rooms.
An agricultural room shows how steampower and horse power were used by the pioneers to break and work the land. Many photos show the different ways that the crops were harvested. The life size wooden milking cow complements the artifacts of the dairy room.
The last area includes a Masonic/electronic room, an old time general store, a loom room, a library/research room, a dentist's room, a Fashions Through the Ages room, and a nearby towns room that has pictures and articles from all the surrounding communities.
The museum has an outdoor clay oven that offers freshly baked clay oven bread during Old Home Week and other events.
The museum building has a unique history in itself. It was built in 1940 in Yorkton and served as a dormitory for pilots in the Commonwealth Pilot Training Program during World War 2.
Young men all over the British Commonwealth came to Yorkton to learn to fly before they were sent overseas. There they became fighter pilots who served in The Battle of Britain and Europe or bomber pilots who became part of Bomber Command that disabled the Nazi war machine.
After the war buildings were empty, they were offered to any community that needed them. The nurses and matrons of the old hospital had accommodations all over town so the the hospital board decided to apply for the pilot quarters. In 1948 the buildings were brought to Preeceville in sections, and placed on a full basement that was constructed prior to the arrival of these sections.
The building was heated by steam heat and provided very adequate, cozy housing for nursing aides, matrons and other hospital personnel until 1970. After, these rental suites were occupied by the public and office space was also rented out.
The building has served many noble purposes and now it is utilized to help preserve the history of Preeceville and District.
The museum is open from May long weekend until September long weekend from
Tuesdays through Sundays from 1 pm to 5 pm.
It is located at 239 Highway Ave. East (next to the firehall).
The mailing address is Box 511, Preeceville, Sask. S0A 3B0, and the summer phone number is 306-547-2774. Email [email protected]. | http://www.townofpreeceville.ca/museum.html |
Reduced sales for conventional vehicles in the Q1 of 2021
It is now apparent that reduced sales for conventional vehicles as recorded for the first quarter of 2021 herald the wide entry of electric vehicles after doubling market share in just one year. Sales of traditional cars with internal combustion engines consuming fossil fuels continued to decline in the European Union.
Of course, it should be stressed that petrol and diesel continue to dominate 65.4% of the car market. From January to March 2021, the volume of diesel cars decreased by 20.1% compared to a year ago and reached 593,559 cars sold across the European Union.
Demand for petrol cars was also lower but not as much as Diesel with sales falling by 16.3% from 1.3 million units sold in the first quarter of 2020 to 1.1 million so far this year. Petrol’s share of the European Union market fell from 52.3% in the first quarter of 2020 to 42.2% in the same period in 2021.
Read more : Fossil fuel consumption responsible for 20% of Deaths Worldwide
On the other hand, in Q1 2021 on the European market, electric vehicles rose further to 59.1% and translated into 146,185 vehicles. Of course, it should be stressed that the government incentives in many European countries give a particularly strong boost to sales of electric vehicles.
Registrations of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEV) increased by 175.0%, a total of 208,389 units. One of the drivers of this growth was Italy, where 16,103 plug-in cars were registered in the first quarter – an annual increase of 445.7%. | https://www.evnewstopic.com/2021/05/reduced-sales-for-conventional-vehicles-in-the-q1-of-2021.html |
“Lost Opportunity”: Analysts warn that a “normal” Covid-19 recovery plan is set to burn out the 1.5C carbon balance by 2030
The carbon balance of the 1.5C warming scenario will be exhausted by the end of the last decade, after the pandemic recovery package has almost failed to guide the world into a more sustainable development path. This is a clear conclusion of the latest report from global risk management and energy research firm DNVGL, which claims that the coronavirus pandemic response is a “lost opportunity” to accelerate energy transitions.
5th edition of the company Energy conversion outlook Most of the Covid-19 recovery packages emphasize how they have been spent maintaining the status quo within the existing industry, rather than facilitating faster deployment of clean infrastructure. ..
Despite the rapid electrification of the electricity sector and shrinking demand for fossil fuels, DNV GL warns that energy shifts are not happening fast enough to meet global climate goals and global emissions. Volume is projected to decline by only 9% by 2030. Analysts predict that the world is on track to experience a global temperature rise of 2.3C by 2100, which puts warming “2C below” pre-industrial levels. It exceeds the ambitious goal of the Paris Agreement to curb.
DNV CEO Remi Ericsson urged the government to apply the “solution and urgency” it presented in the face of a pandemic to its efforts to address climate emergencies. “Many pandemic recovery packages have focused primarily on protecting existing industries rather than transforming them,” he said. “Rather than” building better “, we do a lot of” rebuilding “. This is a lost opportunity, but it is not the last way to quickly move to a deeply decarbonized energy system. “
As renewable energy costs continue to fall and beat fossil fuel power plants, clean energy is set to dominate the world’s power grid, the report said. Meanwhile, electricity’s share of final energy demand will double from 19% today to 38% over the next 30 years as electrification of different parts of the economy accelerates.
However, despite these benefits, the report warns that fossil fuels are on track to maintain a 50 percent share of the global energy mix by the middle of the century. Oil demand is expected to halve and coal usage is expected to fall by a third by 2050, but natural gas demand has grown slowly over the last decade, leveling off in the 2030s and then by 2050. Analysts predict a 10% reduction. ..
The study identifies hydrogen as the fuel most likely to address emissions in areas such as aviation, heavy industry, shipping, and trucking, where emissions are most likely to be addressed, but in current orbit, hydrogen and electronic fuels are It is said that it will reach about 5 per unit. After starting scale-up in the mid-2030s, by 2050 the energy mix cents.
As a result, Eriksen urged the government and industry to accelerate this timeline and bring hydrogen to market faster. “It will take extraordinary action to get the hydrogen economy into full swing early, but it’s an extraordinary era,” he said. “Window to avoid catastrophic climate change will soon be closed, and the cost of not doing so is unimaginable.”
DNV is the “green” hydrogen produced by splitting water using electrolysis and renewable energy to dominate the market by the middle of the century, with 18% of the world’s supply generated using grid electricity. And predicts that 42% will be generated from “dedicated off-the-grid”. Renewable energy”. Meanwhile, only 19% of the world’s hydrogen supply is expected to be produced using fossil gas and carbon capture and storage. This is also called “blue” hydrogen, and the report predicts that “green hydrogen” will benefit from the economy and steadily lose market share. Economies of scale and clean electricity cost reduction.
Promoting energy efficiency should also be an important priority for policy makers, according to the report’s authors. They state that energy efficiency represents the “largest undeveloped resource” in the fight against climate change as the world’s population and economy grow.
The report also highlights the need to strengthen carbon recovery and storage technology development to recover carbon emissions over the next few decades, noting that developments to date are “too slow” and fossils. Only 3.6% of fuel emissions are 2050 at current rates. | https://autobala.com/lost-opportunity-analysts-warn-that-a-normal-covid-19-recovery-plan-is-set-to-burn-out-the-1-5c-carbon-balance-by-2030/161553/ |
A rise in the level of renewable energy power generation saw fossil fuel generation fall to record lows last month for the second successive August. Generation from fossil fuels amounted to just 8.7TWh last month, only marginally higher than the 8.6TWh posted in August 2017. These figures represent the lowest levels of fossil fuel generation in a single calendar month since the Second World War.
Rob Lalor, senior analyst at EnAppSys commented: For the second August running, the GB power market has seen record low levels of fossil fuel generation driven by low demand for electricity and growth in levels of renewable generation. This occurred despite reduced levels of nuclear and wind generation in 2018.
The summer months of the year typically see lower levels of electricity demand against the levels seen across winter months "“ demand last month was down 27% on the 12-month high "“ but rising levels of renewables generation in the summer months have been key to reductions in emissions over time.
Levels of wind generation are typically far higher during winter months, but solar generation will peak during the sunniest periods of the year. This offers a complementary balance between the fuel types and although last month levels of renewable generation were down 31% from the 12-month high, renewables still provided a quarter of all generation.
That 12-month high came in January 2018, when levels of wind generation were at their peak for the year, but with higher levels of electricity being used in winter, fossil fuel generation amounted to 13.5TWh during that month. This leaves summer "“ and in particular, August "“ as the cleanest month of the year, with levels of emissions below those noted at any other time.
Despite this, nuclear continued to provide 27% of power in August 2018 "“ marginally more than that provided by all renewable sources "“ but this remains a summer trend that has been evolving over time as demand has fallen and levels of renewable generation have climbed.
Back in August 2008, fossil fuel generation levels peaked at 19.2TWh "“ 55% higher than those recorded in the month just past. The largest contributor to this decrease has been reduced levels of electricity demand, driven by increased energy efficiency and the closure of energy-intensive industry over time. These factors alone account for 4.9TWh, or 46%, of the overall reduction.
Over the same period, increased levels of renewable generation triggered an additional 4.1TWh fall in fossil fuel generation, or 39% of the reduction "“ with the remaining 1.6TWh coming from other sources.
These combined forces have turned August into an increasingly clean month for the power market "“ indeed, the cleanest calendar month of the year in modern times. If levels of solar capacity start to rise once again, this trend should see significant uplift; otherwise, growth will depend very much on the fortunes of the wind and nuclear fleets in the market. | https://smartsolarukireland.com/article/105205/Growth_in_renewables_generation_sees_fossil_fuel_records_tumble_in_August_ |
In December 2021, the Saudi Energy Minister Prince Abdulaziz bin Salman al-Saud warned that the world is heading towards an energy crisis if investments in the oil sector continue to decrease.
Prince Abdulaziz touted investment as the only way to preserve energy supplies and meet market needs.
Last week, the price of an oil barrel shot up to $140 per barrel. The price hike can be traced back to an increase in demand and a drop in supplies as well as political events the world is experiencing today, the most important of which is the Russian-Ukrainian war and the Iranian nuclear talks.
Prince Abdulaziz’s warning came in response to an international drive towards reducing investment in fossil fuels, gas and oil, which led to a decrease in direct and indirect investments in the energy sector, estimated at hundreds of billions of dollars from 2014 until 2021.
Companies Roll back Investments
A report issued by CleanTechnica – a US-based website specializing in clean energy - indicated that multinational companies’ volume of investments taken out of fossil fuels in 2014 amounted to about $52 billion. In 2018, it amounted to more than $125 billion.
In 2019, 1110 institutions with assets of more than 11 trillion dollars committed to getting rid of fossil fuels. The once strong industry started witnessing a steady decline in its position. Because of the decrease in the number of institutional investors, lower profits, and weak expectations, companies such as BP, Equinor and Repsol wrote off a total of more than $11 billion in North American shale oil assets.
In 2020, 42 investment institutions from 14 countries announced the withdrawal of their investments from fossil fuels, and BlackRock, the world’s largest investment management company, announced that environmental sustainability would be a key and decisive factor in future investment decisions.
Moreover, the New York State Pension Fund decided to phase out oil and gas companies by 2024 and completely decarbonize its portfolio, estimated to be worth more than $500 billion, by 2040.
Increasing Taxes, Selling Assets
Mazen Al-Sudairy, head of research at Al-Rajhi Capital, said that the most important problems facing companies investing in fossil fuels include the increase in the cost of taxes in exchange for subsidizing renewable energy, and some countries, especially in Europe, adopting strict policies to get companies to invest in renewable energy.
Al-Sudairy noted that the decision by EU leaders to impose a “carbon tax” to reduce the use of fossil fuels had an evident impact on oil companies, especially considering current crises.
These policies prompted some companies to sell part of their assets, such as Shell and the Italian Eni, Al-Sudairy told Asharq Al-Awsat.
Moreover, BP is currently selling its stake in the Russian company, Rosneft, which constitutes 15% of the company’s production.
The London-based multinational oil and gas company has also exited fossil fuel investments in the US and is expected to pull the plug faster on its fossil fuel investments in the near future.
This puts pressure on the oil industry.
Al-Sudairy added that BP announced its intentions to sell its fossil fuel assets at a value of $25 billion by 2025, which is equivalent to about 13% of the company’s total fixed assets. The research expert said the move would “make matters worse,” especially with the increase in global demand for fossil fuels.
The structural lack of investments and insufficient capital spending will have major impacts on global production of fossil fuels, stressed Al-Sudairy.
He pointed out that in the event of continued reluctance to invest in the sector, the market would lose about 16 million oil barrels by 2030.
There is a need for investments in fossil fuels to exceed 450 billion dollars annually, emphasized Al-Sudairy.
The world’s largest international oil companies, or IOCs, sold over $198 billion of assets between 2015 and 2020, over four times the amount they invested into clean energy technologies, said a Bloomberg New Energy Finance report.
European IOCs notably diverged from their US peers. Equinor was the only IOC to see clean energy investment outstrip divestment proceeds.
Despite high levels of divestment from ExxonMobil, Chevron, and ConocoPhillips, they collectively invested just $757 million in clean energy, only 1% of the divestment proceeds.
Paris Agreement Battle
The Paris Climate Accords, signed in Paris in 2015, had entered into force in November 2016. The international climate treaty focuses on facing the problem of greenhouse gas emissions and finding solutions to adapt and mitigate their damage to the environment.
It also looks seriously at the obvious effects of climate change and seeks to launch initiatives that contribute to reducing emissions to get rid of dependence on fossil fuels.
One of the architects of this agreement is former US Secretary of State John Kerry, who is now the presidential envoy on climate affairs.
The Paris agreement was followed by calls from international institutions to get rid of investment in fossil fuels to access renewable energy, with the International Energy Agency leading a campaign of warnings against investors for not financing new oil, gas and coal projects.
Saudi Warnings
Prince Abdulaziz renewed his warning of challenges emerging to policymakers due to the rise in prices, describing the campaign against investments in the oil and gas sectors as “short-sighted and will have an impact on global welfare.”
The energy minister stressed that the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia would continue to invest in the oil and gas sectors as well as renewable energy.
He explained that the world is going through a stage of energy transition, “and it is wrong to focus on one aspect such as renewable energy because the world economy requires various sources of energy to develop.”
Prince Abdulaziz said that sustainability, which is the result of the circular economy of carbon, will be dependent on technology capable of ensuring a rise in the demand for fossil fuels while addressing emissions through technology.
It is noteworthy that G20 countries had agreed to adopt the circular economy approach to carbon, which was proposed by Saudi Arabia at the G20 Riyadh Summit in 2020.
For its part, the International Energy Agency said it expected a decline in demand to coincide with an increase in supplies during the coming period, expecting a decrease in oil demand by about 100,000 barrels per day in 2021 and 2022.
“Supplies may rise by 6.4 million barrels per day next year, compared to an increase of 1.5 million barrels in 2021,” said the agency in its December 2021 report.
“Continuing to retreat from the cuts may lead to a surplus of about two million barrels in the second quarter of 2022,” the report added.
On the other hand, a report issued by OPEC in 2020 predicted that global demand for crude oil will grow by 2025 to 103.7 million barrels per day, and by 2030 it will rise to 107.2 million barrels per day, then to 108.9 million barrels per day by 2035.
According to the report, global oil demands will grow to 109.3 million barrels per day by 2040. | https://english.aawsat.com/home/article/3537221/rushing-clean-energy-could-stifle-everyone |
COVID-19 and the energy sector
The economic fallout from COVID-19 has severely affected the energy sector, and will continue to do so well into the future – potentially having significant implications for energy access in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia. Simon Trace, EEG’s programme director, explains more.
During the COVID-19 pandemic, the energy sector has faced multiple challenges, from huge reductions in demand and plummeting oil prices to supply chain disruptions and on-grid and off-grid projects being brought to a standstill. The full impact the virus will have on the energy market remains to be seen, but many of the issues being faced could have long-lasting implications for energy access efforts in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia, where hundreds of millions of people still live without reliable electricity.
It is thought the disruptions caused by COVID-19 are likely to affect electrification, slowing, and in some cases even reversing, advances. Current and future electrification plans, are, for example, likely to be compromised by the financial difficulties the energy sector is facing, as are the maintenance and upgrade programmes needed to provide a reliable service. A combination of falling demand, lower prices and a rise in non-payment of bills means that energy revenues going to governments and industry are set to fall by well over $1 trillion in 2020, according to the World Energy Investment 2020 report from the International Energy Agency (IEA).
Reduced energy demand and falling prices
Countries that have been hit hard by COVID-19 have seen a sizeable decrease in demand for power. A shift in people working from home has caused electricity demand patterns to take new shape, with weekday consumption patterns resembling those of weekends. And, as economic activity has declined, the energy requirements of major users, such as manufacturing plants and factories, has reduced.
Countries in full and partial lockdown were experiencing an average 25% and 18% decline (respectively) in energy demand per week in mid-April, according to IEA analysis of daily data. In India, the lockdown reduced power demand by 20-30%, particularly from high-paying industrial and commercial consumers. In South Africa, the lockdown led to a drop of 30% in energy demand, with energy-intensive mining and manufacturing industries, which account for about 60% of national consumption, not being fully operational.
Furthermore, a report from the International Energy Agency projects that global energy demand is set to fall 6% in 2020 – seven times the decline after the 2008 global financial crisis. It says the plunge in demand for nearly all major fuels is staggering, especially for oil, gas and coal. In fact, a recent report from financial thinktank Carbon Tracker has found that falling demand and rising investment risk is likely to slash the value of oil, gas and coal reserves by nearly two thirds, and that COVID-19 has hastened the peak for their demand.
The recent collapse in oil prices was partly related to COVID-19 and lower demands (global demand reduced by 29 million barrels a day from about 100 million a year ago). According to S&P Global Platts, the world still has one billion barrels in storage, and the data firm Fitch Group projects the global oil industry will lose $1.8 trillion in revenue this year.
Major global gas markets have also experienced price falls to record lows, with lockdowns and reduced industrial output stunting demand. Meanwhile, the coal industry, which has been in decline in many countries for several years, has seen demand falling further due to COVID-19. The IEA puts coal demand at 8% less during this year’s first quarter compared to the first quarter of 2019, with the significant drop attributed to lower demand in the electricity sector, in which two-thirds of coal is consumed.
The growth of electricity generation from renewables also appears to have slowed as a result of the pandemic – but so far renewables appear to be holding up much better than other major fuels. However, BloombergNEF has lowered its forecast for solar, battery and electric vehicles markets in 2020.
Non-payment of bills
Alongside this backdrop of reduced demand, utilities’ revenues are being further eroded through non-payment of bills. Lockdown restrictions and social distancing measures have limited people’s ability to earn a living, and have affected businesses’ profits, making it difficult for customers to pay for electricity.
Some governments have put short-term relief measures in place so that consumers continue to have access to electricity while they are unable to work and pay for their service. These measures have included discounted and/or delayed bill payments and bill payment ‘holidays’. In Côte d’Ivoire, authorities extended payment deadlines for all households, and will allow payments to be made in several instalments. Similar initiatives have been seen in Burkina Faso, Democratic Republic of Congo, Niger, Senegal, Myanmar and Nepal. However, unless compensated, such measures will directly impact utilities’ revenues and collections, further threatening their financial viability.
In the off-grid market, the COVID-19 Energy Access Relief Fund aims to enable off-grid energy companies in Sub-Saharan Africa and Asia to both maintain their customers' existing energy services and retain the staff required to deliver future services.
Reduced investment
Organisations with reduced cash flows and weakened balance sheets will be cutting back on investment. In fact, the IEA has said the COVID-19 pandemic has set in motion the largest drop in global energy investment in history, with spending expected to plunge in every major sector this year – from fossil fuels to renewables and efficiency.
According to the IEA’s World Energy Investment 2020 report, at the start of 2020, global energy investment was on track for growth of around 2% (the largest annual rise in spending in six years), but it’s now expected to plummet by 20%, compared with last year. The IEA says that in the longer-term, a post-crisis legacy of higher debt will present lasting risks to investment, which could be particularly detrimental for some developing countries, where financing options and the range of investors can be more limited (new analysis in the World Energy Investment 2020 report highlights that state-owned enterprises account for well over half of energy investments in developing economies).
The IEA report suggests renewables investment has been more resilient during the crisis than fossil fuel investment, but spending on rooftop solar installations has been strongly affected, and final investment decisions in the first quarter of 2020 for new utility-scale wind and solar projects has fallen back to the levels of three years ago.
According to Wood Mackenzie estimates, 2020 global solar and energy storage installations are expected to drop nearly 20% compared to pre-COVID-19 projections, and wind turbine installations are expected to decline by 6%.
Disruption to current projects and existing systems
Meanwhile, the projects that have the financial resources to go ahead are being hampered by COVID-19 related supply chain disruptions, quarantines, lockdowns, social distancing measures and travel restrictions.
For example, many of the world’s largest solar panel, battery and wind turbine manufacturers are located in China, and the COVID-19 restrictions imposed in the country are likely to have disrupted supply chains and delayed delivery of key components. This could have hampered construction programmes and increased costs as those commissioning works look to suppliers outside of China.
Supply chain disruptions also threaten the maintenance (and therefore reliability) of existing electricity systems, which in many countries in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia are already fragile and unstable.
Furthermore, COVID-19 will be compromising the resilience of existing infrastructure in other ways, with rapid changes in demand patterns (such as reductions in commercial demands and increases in domestic ones) testing system flexibility, and lockdowns, quarantines and travel restrictions resulting in depleted workforces.
An example of how countries may be coping with such challenges comes from Ghana, where lockdown halted on-grid programmes in Accra. As COVID-19 cases levelled off and various aspects of the lockdown were gradually lifted, every infrastructure contractor involved in improving the energy grid was asked to develop Health & Safety guidelines tailored to the COVID-19 context before restarting implementation.
It has become clear that the energy market has come under immense strain as a result of COVID-19 – and EEG is funding several projects on the relationship between the pandemic and the sector, with the aim of learning lessons that can be applied to future energy system planning, operation and maintenance. We are funding research, an online workshop and the production of several Energy Insights, including one that explores the targeted measures being taken by international energy-related organisations to support key players in the energy sector during the COVID-19 pandemic.
There has been much debate about the impact COVID-19 will have on all aspects of life – and energy is one sector that is set to change fundamentally. During the pandemic, the sector has seen huge reductions in demand and plummeting prices, households and businesses have struggled to pay their electricity bills, maintenance teams have been depleted, and supply chains, new projects and investment plans have been disrupted. There is however much talk of recovery, and the opportunity to ‘build back better’ in a way that reduces poverty, boosts growth and lowers environmental impact. The recent Tracking SDG 7: The Energy Progress Report presents policymakers and development partners with global, regional and country-level data to inform decisions and identify priorities for a sustainable recovery from COVID-19 that scales up affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy. | https://www.energyeconomicgrowth.org/blog/covid-19-and-energy-sector |
Carbon dioxide emissions from the domestic electric power industry have continued to decline after hitting a peak thirteen years ago, according to a new report from the U.S Energy Information Administration.
The recent report from EIA shows that slower demand growth and increased use of natural gas instead of coal by power companies has reduced total CO2 emissions to 1,744 million metric tons, the lowest level since 1987.Since 2005, domestic power sector emissions of CO2 have declined by 28 percent compared to CO2 emissions from other energy sectors, which fell by 5 percent over the same period.
Overall power generation by fossil fuels now accounts for 62 percent of the supply with the balance generated from non-carbon sources. In 2005, domestic power was 72 percent fossil fuel supplied, the report stated. | https://www.shaleplaywatermanagement.com/news/9-news/71-power-sector-carbon-emissions-continue-decline |
Flip Side of the Coin: Can this be a turning point in the battle against climate change?
COVID-19 measures around the world disrupted the economy, but also positively impacted the environment as slowing industrial activity reduced its CO2 emissions. In this data story, the European Data Portal examines how CO2 emissions from industries, in particular the energy industry, changed due to COVID-19.
COVID-19 measures around the world caused disruption and posed significant burdens on our economies. However, the flip side of the coin is that these measures also positively impacted our environment, by reducing the emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) and other pollutants - such as sulphur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOX) – from numerous sectors, such as transport, energy and aviation. Reduced pollutant emissions result from, for instance, lower demand for services, closing of large buildings such as offices and schools, and a reduction of industrial activity. These events are in no way an achievement to aim for. However, the situation that arose is worth analysing to determine what we could learn from it, for when things go back to some degree of normality.
In this data story, the European Data Portal Team examines the positive environmental impact of COVID-19 by assessing how the pandemic resulted in decreased CO2 emissions, specifically from the energy industry. The causes for reduced CO2 emissions are elaborated upon by examining changes in demand for the energy industry’s production. Furthermore, the data story touches upon the effects of COVID-19 in terms of a shift towards more sustainable energy sources.
Though this data story focuses exclusively on CO2 emissions from the energy industry, the effects of COVID-19 on air pollution caused by the transport and aviation sectors are addressed in another data story by the European Data Portal Team.
CO2 emissions worldwide decreased significantly due to COVID-19
The Integrated Carbon Observation System provides data on COVID-19-related change in CO2 emissions from fossil fuels. For example, the observed reduction in CO2 emissions in comparison to the same period in 2019 is visualised for the EU and UK, as well as on a global level in figure 1 below.
Figure 1: Percentual change in daily fossil fuel CO2 emissions from January to May 2020 in comparison to January to May 2019. Source: Integrated Carbon Observation System
The figure highlights that a decrease in CO2 emissions from fossil fuels was visible on a global level before changes were evident in EU and UK CO2 emissions. This finding can be explained by the fact that COVID-19 first appeared in China and gradually spread across the world, moving its epicentre in phases from Asia, towards Europe and America.
At its lowest point in April 2020, daily global CO2 emissions decreased by 17%, in comparison to its benchmark one year earlier. However, CO2 emissions in the EU and UK decreased to a larger extent during the same time period, showing a 27% decrease.
Stringent government measures restricted global industrial activity
The swift and global spread of COVID-19 led governments to take stringent measures, one of them being shutting down offices and factories to prevent contagion at the workplace. This created a shock on the global economy and concerned industry experts, since it was the biggest episode of this kind since World War II.
From January 2020 onwards, when China acknowledged its first COVID-19 cases and started taking large scale action, industrial production fell dramatically, with a decline of 50% in automobile production and 30% in cement production during the first two months. When COVID-19 spread to Europe in February and the lockdown measures were implemented in March, the industrial activity contracted strikingly, as illustrated by data from Eurostat (figure 2).
Figure 2: Volume Index of Industrial Production. Source: Eurostat
The unexpectedly fast spread of COVID-19 disrupted activities in all industries, from manufacturing to supply chain networks. Car production suddenly halted, industrial manufacturing companies faced supply chain disruptions and aerospace manufacturing slowed down since air carriers reduced their flight schedule by 60-95% due to air travel restrictions.
As a positive consequence, the industrial pollutant emission numbers decreased massively. While the slower industrial activity presents its economic challenges, it also enabled the environment to partially recover and now offers the opportunity to build a more sustainable future.
Decline in energy demand positively impacted CO2 emission
Government policies concerning the lockdowns altered the global energy demand patterns. The energy industry is experiencing the biggest decline in 70 years with an expected 6% fall in the energy demand in 2020. The magnitude of what we are experiencing is equivalent to seven times the impact of the financial crisis in 2008.
In Figure 3, created by the International Energy Agency (IEA), the massive impact of restrictions on industrial and commercial activities can be observed. The lockdown measures first implemented in China in late January caused the impact on energy demand to be visible immediately, as the country is responsible for a large part of energy demand, accounting for 24% in 2019. Lockdown measures were subsequently implemented by India and European countries in March and by the United States in April, which resulted in a huge slump from 5% to 52%, since the US population is responsible for 53% of the global primary energy consumption.
Figure 3: Share of global primary energy demand affected by mandatory lockdowns. Source: IEA
The decrease in the global energy demand, correlates with reduction in the CO2 emissio. Historically, global crises mark the lower energy demand hence lower CO2 emissionn rates (figure 4). The slowdown of economic activity during COVID-19 cut down the usage of energy sources, such as coal, oil, gas and electricity by 3.8% in the first quarter and projected to drop by 6% in 2020, results with 2.6Gt reduction in CO2 emission. When comparing COVID-19 with the financial crisis in 2008, the drop in CO2 emissions during the financial crisis was followed by a drastic rebound in emissions. This highlights an important lesson for the current crisis with regards to being mindful about potential increases of emission levels after the worst impacts of COVID-19.
Figure 4: Rate of change in global energy demand compared to the annual CO2 emission change. Source: IEA
Reduced demand resulted in a reduction in energy prices
As a result of the large decrease in energy demand, energy prices decreased sharply in the first quarter of 2020, as illustrated by data on price indices from the World Bank in Figure 5.
Figure 5: Price indices for energy, agriculture and metal commodities from January 2018 to March 2020 (Index values represented in the vertical axis are initialized to 100 as of 1st January 2018). Source: World Bank
The figure illustrates that during the first quarter of 2020, the price index for energy dropped 44.3% from its pre-COVID level of 88 in January 2020 to 49 in March 2020. Over the whole of 2020, expectations are that energy prices will average out 40% lower than in 2019. In comparison, metal prices are projected to fall 13% over 2020, whereas agricultural prices are expected to remain broadly stable. Hence, energy prices are suffering the most from COVID-19, followed by metal, whereas agricultural commodities seem to be the more resilient to changes in economic activity than the industrial commodities.
COVID-19 accelerates the shift towards low-carbon and renewable energies
COVID-19 not only brought about decreased CO2 emissions from energy due to a lower demand, but also highlights an increasing demand for renewable energy. When considering the projections for changes in demand per fuel in 2020 in figure 6, the IEA predicts that energy demand for coal was hit the hardest by COVID-19 as a result of restrictions on industrial activity. This reduction in demand for coal is beneficial, as coal usage is solely responsible for 46% of the global CO2 emission. Oil demand also decreased as a result of international travel bans and low economic activity, leading to further reduction in the carbon footprint.
Figure 6: Projected change in primary energy demand by fuel in 2020, compared to 2019. Source: IEA
In total, the IEA expects total energy demand to decrease by 6% over 2020. Nonetheless, demand for renewables is expected to increase in 2020, partially due to the successful solar project outcomes from last year. This rise in demand for renewables will contribute to an increasing share of low-carbon energy sources in the mix hence benefiting the environment.
Another example of how a shift in energy sources is taking place is when considering electricity generation from low-carbon technologies, in comparison to coal. IEA research highlights that low-carbon technologies first accounted for a larger share of global electricity generation than coal in the year 2019, as illustrated by figure 7.
Figure 7: Global generation of electricity in shares, from coal and low-carbon sources, from 1971 to 2020 (predicted for 2020). Source: IEA
In 2020, this trend is expected to continue, as the IEA calculates low-carbon to account for 40% of the global generation of electricity, compared to a 34% share for coal due to the lowered economic activity as a result of lockdowns. Similarly to energy demand above, an important factor in the accelerated increase of the share of electricity generated from low-carbon sources is that global energy generation is expected to fall with 5% in 2020.
Even though COVID-19 positively impacted CO2 emissions, more efforts are required
COVID-19 has caused a global health crisis with a tragic impact on people’s lives. In order to contain the virus, societies and economies have taken unprecedented measures. On the other side, these measures resulted in a significant reduction of pollutant emission levels. However, the decrease in CO2 emissions is expected to be temporary, as once lockdowns and restrictions across the world are lifted, industrial activity will increase and CO2 emission levels may swiftly rebound towards pre-COVID-19 levels – something that can be already observed for air pollution in China.
Larger shifts towards low-carbon energy sources are required to minimise the negative effects of climate change and ensure liveability in most countries. Therefore, COVID-19 gave us an opportunity to illustrate that we have the ability to reduce the harm we cause to the environment, however the change towards more sustainable practices needs to be progressed and be a priority when the countries restart.
Through data, we could witness the sudden impact of COVID-19 and related reduction in CO2 emissions. This ability emphasises the importance of open data in documenting the phenomena, creating awareness and triggering action towards more sustainable economies.
Disclaimer: The analysis for figures 1 and 2 was conducted across 69 countries, 50 US states and 30 Chinese provinces. These countries together represent 85% of the world population and 97% of global CO2 emissions.
Contact form: https://www.europeandataportal.eu/en/feedback/form
Looking for more open COVID-19 related datasets or initiatives? Visit the EDP for COVID-19 curated lists and follow us on Twitter, Facebook or LinkedIn. | https://www.europeandataportal.eu/en/impact-studies/covid-19/flip-side-coin-can-be-turning-point-battle-against-climate-change |
CATHAY Pacific confirmed on Monday that it would lay off some 600 staff in its biggest cost-cutting exercise in two decades, as it looks for ways to stem losses and claw its way back to profitability.
It is not the only one facing turbulence; despite historically low oil prices, a number of airlines are facing strong headwinds, ranging from deteriorating yields to government policies.
At Cathay Pacific's headquarters in Hong Kong, around 190 management and 400 non-managerial staff will be made redundant; the numbers represent 25 per cent and 18 per cent of management and non-managerial positions respectively, the airline said in a statement.
No frontline employees, pilots or cabin crew will be hit, but the group will push for productivity improvements; meanwhile, it will also restructure its cargo unit.
The airline's chief executive Rupert Hogg, who assumed the role on May 1, said: "We've had to make tough but necessary decisions for the future of our business and our customers. As we look to the future, we will have a new structure that will make us leaner, faster and more responsive to our customers' needs."
Shares in Cathay Pacific rose HK$0.26 (S$0.04) in response, and closed at HK$11.58 on Monday.
South China Morning Post reported that the carrier is in the early phase of a three-year transformation programme and is seeking to save HK$4 billion in that time frame.
This comes after the carrier posted its first annual loss in eight years in March, sinking into the red with losses of HK$575 million for 2016; in the year-ago period, it made profits of HK$6 billion.
Its bottom line was hit by fuel hedging losses, a decline in business travel and an eroding market share arising from the rapidly expanding Chinese carriers.
Endau Analytics' aviation analyst Shukor Yusof expects more job cuts are in the offing: "I don't think 600 out of over 30,000 would help them very much. But they've taken the right step. Labour costs are among the highest at Cathay Pacific compared to many carriers around the world, not just the region."
Amid over-capacity, the Hong Kong carrier is likely to end up cutting capacity and downsizing its network, he said; this means cabin crew and pilots could also be affected down the line.
Working more closely with shareholder Air China is another avenue Cathay Pacific should consider in its restructuring, he suggested.
Singapore Airlines (SIA) has also embarked on a wide-ranging review of its business to reposition itself for long-term growth, as competition remains stiff in both the premium and budget segments.
Last week, the Singapore carrier revealed a surprise S$138.3 million fourth-quarter loss, which sent its share price reeling.
It announced that it would re-integrate SIA Cargo back into the group. The majority of SIA Cargo's nearly 900 employees will be retained in the new cargo division; some will be transferred to other divisions or elsewhere in the SIA group.
DBS Group research analyst Paul Yong, who has a target price of S$10.10 per SIA share, said: "While (the business review) may pay off in the longer term, we remain cautious on the near-term earnings outlook for SIA, as its flagship passenger business continues to face stiff competition and soft yields, leading to lower profitability."
Shares in SIA continued to fall on Monday, sliding 19 cents to close at S$9.79; it had shed 78 cents last Friday.
Mr Shukor said the yield decline will probably "get worse before it stabilises", and that demand for the airline's premium seats has fallen since the financial crisis in 2008/2009.
Even with burgeoning travel demand, premium carriers in the region such as Cathay Pacific and SIA are grappling with deteriorating yields, cost pressures and tough competition from Chinese and Gulf carriers.
Buoyed by cheaper fuel prices and new, fuel-efficient aircraft, long-haul, low-cost carriers could also add to the headaches faced by full-service carriers. Norwegian, for instance, is set to start direct flights out of Changi Airport to London from September, a route now operated by SIA and British Airways.
Meanwhile, SIA's budget arm Scoot will commence long-haul flights to Athens from June; it is set to add another route, possibly to Honolulu, by year's end. Over in Malaysia, AirAsia X will start flying to Honolulu mid-year and is eyeing more routes in the West.
Dubai's Emirates hasn't been spared either. Earlier this month, it reported an 82 per cent nose-dive in full-year profits, partly due to recently implemented travel policies banning carry-on laptops on flights between the Middle East and the US. As a result, Emirates has had to reduce flight frequencies on five of its US routes, citing waning demand.
Qantas, on the other hand, is reportedly projecting its second best annual profit this year, having kick-started its own transformation programme back in 2014.
One bright spot for now is that jet fuel prices are still relatively low, although they are widely expected to rise again.
The International Air Transport Association (Iata) has projected that the world's airlines will rack up US$29.8 billion in collective profits this year. However, 60 per cent of the industry profits will be driven by North American carriers, thanks to recent consolidation.
Asia-Pacific carriers, once the industry's star performers, are expected to contribute to just 20 per cent of industry profits this year. | https://www.businesstimes.com.sg/companies-markets/cathay-pacific-to-axe-600-jobs-amid-yield-cost-pressures-on-airlines |
Bradford-based double-glazing business Safestyle has experienced a decline in profits in the first half of 2017 as the market took a hit.
In the six months to 30 June 2017, Safestyle achieved revenue of £82.5m, an increase of 1.4 per cent on the £81.4m generated in the same period the year before.
However, underlying profit before tax shrank by 15.1 per cent from £10.6m to £9m in 2017.
The business has blamed the reduced profits on the reduction of the market. Statistics by industry body FENSA show the rate of market decline in H1 2017 accelerated from a Q1 reduction of 2.4 per cent to 17.2 per cent in Q2.
The business’ response has been to protect revenues and gain market share, which now stands at 11.2 per cent as of 30 June 2017.
Steve Birmingham, chief executive of Safestyle, said: “The first half of 2017 was an increasingly challenging market however Safestyle increased revenue and market share albeit at a higher cost than historically.
“As a result, we have experienced a decline in profits in what was the severest contraction of our market since 2008/09.
“So far in H2 we have maintained our order intake in line with the previous year and have already commenced a number of initiatives to reduce our cost base. | http://investmoneyuk.com/challenging-market-hits-safestyle-profits/ |
Contributed by Robert Lyman © September 2020
In late December, 2019, the outgoing Governor of the Bank of England, Mark Carney, gave a speech to a Lloyd’s of London dinner. In it, he warned members of the international financial industry that their valuation of loans and investments should be reduced to consider the losses that fossil fuel companies will suffer from a catastrophic collapse in value as a result of climate change policies. The key danger, he alleged, was that changes in government policies will leave oil drillers and coal miners with stranded assets – reserves that have little value because the fight against climate change will “require” them to be left in the ground.
In this article, I will compare Carney’s claims with what is actually happening in global energy markets, as well as what can reasonably be expected to drive energy markets over the foreseeable future, according to the best authorities available. I will try to show that the financial institutions and energy companies that pass up opportunities to invest in fossil fuels will run a far greater risk of foregoing significant profits.
Global demand for oil, natural gas and coal is now and will continue to be driven by demographic and economic trends in Asia, not in Europe and North America. The resulting large increases in demand for these fuels, which will probably become evident no later than 2022, must be satisfied. If government policies and investor reticence and/or lack of investment capital result in insufficient supply to meet this burgeoning demand, prices will rise significantly. While that, in turn, will dampen demand growth, it will yield very large profits to producers and provide them with the cash flow needed to expand reserves and production with less reliance on traditional sources of lending.
In such a future, the institutional investors can, of course, refuse to join in the profit-taking. I doubt they will.
About the Author: Robert Lyman is an economist with 27 years’ experience as an analyst, policy advisor and manager in the Canadian federal government, primarily in the areas of energy, transportation, and environmental policy. He was also a diplomat for 10 years. Subsequently he has worked as a private consultant conducting policy research and analysis on energy and transportation issues as a principal for Entrans Policy Research Group. He is a frequent contributor of articles and reports for Friends of Science, a Calgary-based independent organization concerned about climate change-related issues. He resides in Ottawa, Canada. Full bio. | https://blog.friendsofscience.org/2020/09/13/stranded-assets-are-a-myth-mark-carney/ |
Адрес: Российская Федерация,г. Москва, ул. Я как улучшен дикую коноплю ачто в соответствии со ст. Главная Вредные объекты Сорняки сельскохозяйственных культур Алфавитный перечень сорняков Двудольные широколистные Конопля дикая. Вредные объекты Болезни зерновых культур Болезни семечковых культур Вредители зерновых колосовых культур Сорняки сельскохозяйственных культур Болезни картофеля Болезни винограда Виды СЗР Виды гербицидов Виды инсектицидов Виды фунгицидов Виды протравителей Действующие вещества Формуляции Фузариоз зерна Как повысить урожайность и плодородие почвы Видео-материалы Брошюры Кукуруза Подсолнечник.
Перевести обратно на Британский Соединенные Штаты Перевести. The Tor Project is a c 3 nonprofit based in the US. Please consider making a contribution today to help us resist the surveillance pandemic. Every dollar makes a difference. The network is comprised of thousands of volunteer-run servers known as Tor relays. You can help keep Tor strong, secure, and independent by making a donation.
Tor Browser для Android - единственный официальный мобильный браузер, поддерживаемый Tor Project, разрабами самого массивного в мире инструмента для обеспечения конфиденциальности и свободы в Вебе. Тор Project - это некоммерческая организация c 3 , базирующаяся в США. Пожалуйста, задумайтесь о том, чтоб сделать вклад сейчас, чтоб посодействовать нам противостоять пандемии эпиднадзора.
Каждый бакс имеет значение. Все файлы cookie автоматом удаляются, когда вы заканчиваете просмотр. Все, кто смотрит за вашими привычками просмотра, могут узреть, что вы используете Tor. О торговой марке, авторских правах и….
Ссылка вход в гидру. Выбирая на Hydra анонимные методы оплаты вы дополнительно страхуете себя. Вот средний скриншот правильного веб-сайта Hydraruzxpnew4af Onion: Ежели в адресной строке доменная зона. Так же веб-сайт может не раскрываться из за заморочек на стороне Вашего Веб провайдера. Принципиально знать, что ответственность за покупку….
Hydra через tor. Up-to-date information on Hydra ссылка Also on our website you can find all the information you need to access the main links of the crypto market. Перечень зеркал Гидра Our site contains an up-to-date list of Hydra mirrors that work without interruption, providing…. Гидра hydra тор hydra ssylka onion com.
Сейчас, торговая площадка Hydra представляет собой не просто веб-сайт, а целый набор сервисов. Модер форума. Ежели «человеческие» красноватые комнаты по-прежнему, к счастью, остаются кое-чем быстрее мифическим, чем настоящим, то впечатлительным зоозащитникам на данный момент настоятельно рекомендуется не читать текст ниже. Правильное наименования. Ошибка гидра. Стоит проверить, работают ли остальные не принципиально, какие онион веб-сайты, опосля что, сделать следующее: Попытайтесь обновить Тор-браузер до крайней версии.
В большущем каталоге маркета Гидра вы можете отыскать большущее количество продуктов, что просто нереально приобрести в других местах. Ввиду того, что Tor-browser работает медлительнее собственных легальных…. Union hydra зеркала. Непрерывность путей Квартал 5B по проекту бюро Raum в Нанте соединяет кабинеты и мастерские жд компании, городской паркинг и доступное жилище. Ансамблевое решение Квартал Tafelhof Palais по проекту бюро Макса Дудлера связал исторический центр Нюрнберга и наиболее новейшие районы.
Агентство Digital Guru занимается управлением репутацией и исследованиями…. Рабочее зеркало гидры онион hydrapchela com. Глядеть сериал Клинок года онлайн в неплохом качестве совсем безвозмездно и без регистрации! Вот мы и подошли к установке Onion Browser….
Here are some things you should look out for:. As a result, it is possible for a government or internet service provider to eavesdrop on traffic between the exit node and destination servers. Since the full list of Tor exit nodes is publicly available, any unencrypted traffic leaving exit nodes is likely to be monitored closely. Another security concern is when the entry relay and exit relay both exist on the same Internet autonomous system AS — like if the same network operator owns both IP addresses.
If this is the case, it is possible for that network operator to use timing-based statistical techniques to determine that a particular network request originated from a particular computer. Additionally, it can be expensive, so it is not usually a concern except for high-value targets.
Other signals may also be used to fingerprint users. Most people move their mouse in a distinct way which can be used to correlate a Tor browsing session with a regular, non-Tor browsing session. As with regular web browsing, it is always possible to have your web browser compromised as a result of a security bug.
Anyone using Tor is automatically enough of a surveillance target that protecting your security is important. All hidden service domain names end in. Although much of the news surrounding Tor and Tor hidden services makes it seem as though using them is like walking down a dark alley at night, there are plenty of perfectly legitimate uses for hidden services as well.
Some extremely privacy-conscious individuals make their blogs or websites exclusively accessible through Tor hidden services so that their real-life identity cannot be determined. The US government has steadily improved its technologies for catching and prosecuting criminals who use Tor for illegal purposes.
As mentioned above, Tor is vulnerable to timing attacks and other types of advanced compromises that require government-like resources. For that reason, a government with sufficient resources can deanonymize some Tor requests if they control the right internet service providers which is almost always true of the American government.
If you decide to access the Dark or the Deep web , do it in a safe way. Virtual private network VPN services are frequently marketed as a way to improve privacy or gain anonymity. In reality, VPN services can be hit-and-miss when it comes to privacy. Some are certainly better at protecting data than Tor, whereas others will compromise your privacy more than not using one at all. VPNs are point-to-point tunnels.
In that sense, they are similar to Tor. However, there are few ways this claim can be proven beyond a reasonable doubt. The biggest advantages of VPNs over Tor include much better connection speeds for downloading videos and other large files. Also, with a VPN, you can choose the server your data is routed through, or at least the country in which that server is located.
Read more: Tor over VPN. In most of the world, using Tor is perfectly legal. However, there are plenty of illegal activities that can be facilitated with Tor hidden services, so Tor usage may be seen as suspicious by many governments or internet service providers. That said, you can use any other search engine you choose—but note that DuckDuckGo uses the least tracking of any major search engine.
Additionally, there are a number of other ways to track users aside from IP addresses. Be sure not to reveal your identity in any other way, like signing into an account you use from another connection. Tor Browser includes a variety of tracking prevention features that help prevent unique browser and device characteristics from being used to fingerprint you across the web.
No matter what, vigilance is always necessary to protect your anonymity. Not reliably. Using Tor in China is significantly more complicated than in most other parts of the world; it generally requires tunneling traffic to another country and then using Tor over that connection.
If you already have a VPN that works for getting access to websites that are blocked in mainland China, you may be able to use Tor through that VPN, which can improve your privacy significantly. If you want to protect your privacy and anonymity as much as possible while browsing the web, Tor and the Tor Browser may be a good choice. Tor is a widely used and well-studied way to avoid surveillance and censorship from internet service providers and government agencies. It also offers access to.
To use Tor effectively, you must be mindful of a variety of security and privacy concerns, as laid out earlier in this article. Depending on your threat model — which potential threats you want to protect against — you may need to take aggressive measures to keep your browsing anonymous, some of which can make browsing inconvenient. Virtual private network VPN services are marketed similarly to Tor. However, while they offer significantly higher speeds, their protection against surveillance depends on the specific service provider.
In conclusion, Tor is a powerful tool that must be wielded smartly. It can allow you to avoid all kinds of digital oppression—just like journalists and human rights activists do around the world every day. If used incorrectly, it will only provide a false sense of security.
Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked. If you purchase via links on our site, we may receive affiliate commissions. What does Tor do? The primary uses of Tor are the following: Bypassing censorship and surveillance Visiting websites anonymously Accessing Tor hidden services.
But apart from a network and a bunch of websites, you would also need a browser and a search engine. This article focuses to shed some light on the best anonymous dark web browsers among all that are available. The deep web browsers are very important for the purpose of anonymous deep web browsing.
With these being done frequently, people tend to lose their security and privacy. That being said, some people would definitely not like being tracked online. Past incidences have made it clear, especially with big brands doing it such as Facebook and Google. The dark web browsers will help those who will bow before complete anonymity and security over the internet, especially when they are on the dark web. The dark web is the dark and anonymous part of the World Wide Web, whose significant other aspect is the clear web or the surface web, also called the clearnet.
Whenever you type anything in a search engine on the clear web, say Google, it fetches the blogs, websites, videos, images, software, application and more. The dark web is relatively a small part of the deep web, ideally.
The security of the dark web or darknet is such that the dark web search engines and as well as the government will find it pretty exhausting to track the browsing histories. Though safe access to the dark web brings privacy and anonymity to its users, it also brings difficulties for the government as a trove of illicit and underworld cyber activities is part of the dark web. This might be just one of the many reasons the dark web is often regarded as creepy and unethical.
The advantages of the dark web include:. The disadvantage of the dark web websites include:. The dark web is definitely not a safe place to be around, especially for the ones who are not very much aware of the hidden zone of the internet. But with proper precautionary measures, one can do a lot of stuff on the dark web or the deep web. Additionally, to hide your identity, you will require a promising VPN , preferably a premium one.
You would also have to follow specific rules when you are on the darkweb such as letting out as little information as possible when you are online, selecting what information to provide, covering up your webcam and disabling the microphone, not running any other background applications, not revealing your identity, using a pseudonym and more.
To start off, you would also require a bunch of. You can get it on the Hidden Wiki, Wikipedia for the hidden internet. After that, you can browse those links and further explore other dark web links as well. But beware of the phishing links. Do not attempt to download anything from the dark web as it may contain malware. As the dark web and the deep web constitute the hidden part of the internet, not every browser is compatible with taking you beyond the surface web. Thus, you would require customized or specialized browsing procedures that include the usage of a unique set of deep web browsers or the darknet browser for penetrating this particular confidential space.
In this particular segment, we will be looking at the ten best dark web browsers or the dark web browsers for android and iPhone additional to the desktops, Mac and Laptops that come handy and keep your browsing anonymous.
The chosen dark web browsers listed here will help you in masking your identity and restrict the other entities from tracking your IP address. But you will also need a premium VPN for remaining completely anonymous. Here we go! Also commonly known as The Onion Router, it is the best browser for the deep web by far. It is a hidden web browser offering its users the most basic and simplistic browsing experience.
If you are a beginner, it is the best choice for you to stick with. The Tor browser is an open-source deep web browser made available for Mac, Linux and Windows computers. It can also be treated as a mobile browser since it works well on both the Android and iOS operating system.
The first anonymous browser ever introduced to get on the dark web is TOR. It offers the most secure ways to start browsing on the dark web. I2P is the acronym for the Invisible Internet Project that permits you to access the internet without a hassle both on the dark web and surface web via a layered stream. It makes it pretty challenging to identify or locate you as this constant stream of data masks your information.
With the help of this I2P browser , you can utilize both the private and public keys. It also implements the darknet technology and a decentralized file storage system for helping its users remain anonymous, just the way Bitcoin works. However, it is a bit complicated, but the web anonymizing browser does the job.
It is a fantastic alternative if you are reaching out for something apart from the Tor darknet browser. Freenet is an anonymity-based network for the dark web links utilizing free software to fight censorship of information and protect freedom of speech. The users get access to the chat forums, websites and several types of content that are available only through the network that Freenet provides. It is less vulnerable to attacks owing to the decentralized approach to its design.
There is no place for copyrights in Freenet. It mentions that the sole reason for enforcing copyrights is generally to entail the communication monitoring that compromises the freedom of speech. The platform also proposes a patronage system based on community. If you want to go incognito with the help of a dark web browser or anonymous browser , you may be interested in Tails. For ensuring anonymity and privacy, it pressurizes all incoming and outgoing connections via the Tor filters.
The cryptographic tools of Tails ensure all emails, files and messages are safe. Tails do not keep any records of your connections unless asked explicitly. The Tails come in a package of a variety of in-built applications such as an OS, an anonymizing browser , instant messaging service, office suite etc. All those are pre-configured, keeping in mind the anonymity and security. It is also an open-source deep web browser based on Tor. It uses Metaproxy Sandboxing, Kernel hardening, Package security, Binary integrity, Application network policies and Filesystem encryption for building robust security to their network.
The sandboxing helps isolate your browsing experience extracting the instances where it detects a malware, and then it separates from the standard browsing container. Similar to I2P, the Subgraph operates on various layers assisting the users with non-interrupted internet access by retaining their anonymity and privacy.
It can be chosen as a tool for dark web browsing, depending on the fact that it bears so many advanced security features. You might be confused when we mentioned Firefox. You might wonder if Firefox being a regular browser, how will it be used for surfing the deep web links? Well, Firefox is just not a standard browser. You will be able to see it grouped with Safari, Google Chrome, Opera and more. However, Opera is also not just a regular browser.
Firefox requires to be routed for connecting through the Tor network to provide you with entirely anonymous web surfing. Thus, you will have to configure the proxy access manually, which is very simple. Tor listens to port by default. This is one thing that you have to set in your configuration.
Горячая телефонная линия Отдел по работе. Жгучая телефонная линия с 09:00 до с Покупателями 8-495-792-36-00 9:00 до 18:00. Звонок платный Время Отдел по работе. - по пятницу - с пн. | https://skincarestore.ru/tor-browser-mac-os-skachat-besplatno-russkaya-versiya-hydra/370-does-the-tor-browser-working-hydra.php |
After gaining access to a system, a hacker commonly needs to cover their tracks in order to avoid detection. Many antiviruses operate by searching through the list of files stored on a computer’s filesystem and comparing them to signatures of known malware variants. If a hacker can conceal the existence of their files from an AV or other security tools, their probability of detection dramatically decreases.
Hiding files
When trying to hide files on a computer, there are a variety of different options. In general, there is a tradeoff between the effectiveness of the hiding techniques and the level of privileges necessary to accomplish them. While some methods may be extremely difficult for a user to detect, they also require elevated privileges on the system. More accessible methods, on the other hand, are much easier to detect.
Different means of hiding files may be specific to different operating systems, but many are generally applicable. Some of the options for hiding files on a system include:
- Hidden files and folders
- Unexpected locations
- Alternate data streams
- Function modification
- Function hooking
In this section, we provide a brief introduction to each of these techniques and an overview of some of their pros and cons.
Hidden files and folders
One of the simplest and most well-known methods of hiding files is using the hidden files attribute. This functionality is built into most operating systems and is intended to ensure that users do not mess with files that they shouldn’t.
On Windows, files can be marked as hidden through the use of attrib.exe or through File Explorer. On Linux, any file whose filename begins with a period is marked as hidden by default.
While this technique is probably the easiest means of hiding files, it’s also the easiest to detect. The technique is well known, and it is easy to set Windows File Explorer or ls on *nix to show even hidden files.
Unexpected locations
Another simple means of hiding files from a user is by placing them in unexpected locations. While the user can easily see these files if they are looking for them, they’re unlikely to do so.
One example of this is placing a malicious file in the Recycle Bin on Windows. Most users ignore the Recycle Bin and may believe that anything there has already been dealt with by an antivirus. However, files located there can still execute and cause damage.
Another example of an unusual location is the System32 folder on Windows. Since this folder contains files vital to the functionality of the operating system, most users won’t look there, let alone terminate or delete a potentially suspicious file that is located there.
Alternate data streams
Alternate data streams (ADS) are a feature of the NTFS file system. They allow additional data or even files to be attached to a file. These data streams are not by default, making them a good place to hide malicious files or executables.
However, ADS can be easily detected if a user or tool knows what they are doing. Windows’ Streams tool is one option for detecting them, and PowerShell has built-in functionality to do so. As a result, ADS are best used for hiding files from casual detection.
Function modification
On both Windows and *nix systems, there are certain applications designed to provide lists of files located on the filesystem. For example, Linux uses the ls command to provide this list.
These applications can be modified to hide the presence of certain files on the system. A modified version of ls could be configured to specifically ignore certain attacker-owned files.
This technique is effective as long as the user does not detect the fact that ls has been modified. Modifications can easily be detected by comparing the hash of the binary to a known-good hash, and many security tools are designed to perform this comparison and generate alerts if a discrepancy is discovered.
Function hooking
For those wanting to hide their files from more than just the casual user, the use of function hooks is a good option. Function hooking is the technique used by rootkits to hide malware on a system.
When an application wants a list of the files stored on a computer, the processes running and so on, it calls a low-level function of the operating system. This function runs, generates the list, and then sends it back to the calling application.
With function hooking, a rootkit intercepts all calls and responses between applications and these low-level functions. This allows the program to ensure that the lists of files provided do not include any files that the rootkit wants to remain hidden.
Function hooking is made possible due to the fact that many of these low-level functions operate in the operating system’s kernel, while applications run in user mode. In Windows, applications call kernel functions through interrupts or model specific registers (MSRs). Both of these can be hooked by a rootkit, ensuring that the rootkit controls all kernel calls.
Alternatively, the System Service Descriptor Table (SSDT) is a table in the kernel containing pointers to all kernel functions. If a rootkit modifies this table to point certain functions to code under its control, the rootkit ensures that it controls any attempts to read lists of files on the operating system.
Regardless of the specific method used, function hooking is one of the most effective means of hiding files on a system. However, it often also requires elevated levels of access, since kernel-level data structures must be modified.
Conclusion: Covering your tracks
Hiding files on a compromised machine is a common step in covering tracks after gaining access. The methods described here each have their pros and cons, but they provide the capability to hide a hacker’s files from anyone from the clueless user to a sophisticated antivirus. | https://resources.infosecinstitute.com/topic/hiding-files-on-windows-linux-macos/ |
Dexphot, a malware that steals digital assets, has been revealed to have widely spread and infected almost 80,000 computers all over the world. According to a publication from security analysts at Microsoft, the infestation process began in October last year and peaked in July this year.
The analysts say that Dexphot usually hides itself within actual processes run by a system, as a way to disguise its own activities which include cryptocurrency mining and stealing digital assets. If the malware is found, any attempt to remove it still causes reinfection.
“The Dexphot attack used a variety of sophisticated methods to evade security solutions. Layers of obfuscation, encryption, and the use of randomized file names hid the installation process. Dexphot then used fileless techniques to run malicious code directly in memory, leaving only a few traces that can be used for forensics.”
Malware is one of the most popular systems used by attackers to infect an unsuspecting owner’s computer system and make several different changes. There have been several cases of not just crypto-stealing malware, but also infections remotely installed a system that is used to hijack system resources and secretly mine cryptocurrencies. These attackers make a lot of money using energy and other resources remotely exploited. | https://kryptomoney.com/80000-computers-have-been-infected-with-malware-that-steals-crypto/ |
Checklist 44: A look at encryption, past and present.
This week we take a look at the recent history and current state of encryption.
For as long as we’ve been able to communicate, we’ve wanted to keep some of our communications secret. That’s made encryption important throughout history – never more so than today.
It is no longer something limited to governments and top secret documents, either; we use encryption every day, even if we don’t notice it, and we can even go one step further now. We can personally encrypt our own data and all our communications if we want—if we’re willing to sacrifice some small convenience.
Should you? And how does it work? Those are the types of questions we’ll answer on this week’s episode of The Checklist. Encryption in all its many forms can be a tough beast to understand. We’ll be breaking down some of its history and the ways you encounter it on the web. So without further ado, let’s get started by looking at where digital encryption came from and where it’s headed now.
- Why do we need encryption and when do we use it?
- Early encryption methods and what we use today.
- Encryption on the web.
- What happens when encryption breaks?
- Encrypting your data and communications.
Why do we need encryption and when do we use it?
As we mentioned earlier, encryption is not new. We’ve been figuring out ways to hide messages and information for strategic or personal purposes for centuries. In the past, we relied mostly on ciphers — substituting letters for one another via an often-complex process. While that might have been fine for Roman soldiers sending written messages back to their commanders, computers make cracking most old ciphers a breeze. We needed to develop new ways to deal with the challenges created by easy access to computational power. Why, though?
The answer is simple yet important. As computers grew from being machines used by hobbyists to public tools of incredible importance, businesses incorporated them into their operations more too. The development of networks and the emergence of the Internet means that we don’t just store information locally, it’s often stored somewhere else, somewhere we don’t control. Because of that, someone else might be able to access it instead of us. For the most part, early encryption efforts and standards were the sole domain of governments. No one wants to transmit Top Secret information in the clear. Over time, though, the public began to seize on its importance too.
Encryption is the answer for everything from protecting private files from prying eyes to safeguarding financial transactions conducted over a network. With computer systems holding so much valuable information, it was a natural next step between the 70s and 90s to develop ways to protect data.
With the rapid development of viruses and the explosion of malware that began in the late 80s and early 90s, encryption became even more important. Revelations about governments snooping on activities by individual Internet users, coupled with demands to reveal information, led to some developments we’ll discuss.
We’ll go into how some of this works today, but it’s worth knowing that we already encounter encryption daily in a few ways. Do you manage your banking online? You’re communicating with the bank using encryption. Are you blasting out messages to your friends from Facebook Messenger or WhatsApp? What about just visiting a site like Google or Amazon? You’re encountering encryption there, too. For others, it’s less passive and more active: encrypting emails, hard drives, and more.
In just about every case, you’re dealing with information you don’t want anyone else to see. Behind the scenes, a massive number of mathematical calculations goes on to make all that possible. There are keys, handshakes, and all kinds of other jargon to explain — but the good news is that for the most part it “just works” to provide us with peace of mind. With the many things we use our phones and computers for today, it’s a good thing, too! It wasn’t always that way; it took some time to reach this point.
Early encryption methods and what we use today.
Okay, so it’s one thing to understand why need encryption and where we find it — but where did it all start? We didn’t jump straight to the fortress-like 256-bit encryption commonly employed to protect sensitive data today. It was a long evolution, spurred forward by both public and private developments. It’s taken the efforts of many bright professionals, mathematicians, and scientists — plus a good number of amateur cryptographers — to bring us to today’s standards for encryption.
Speaking of standards, that is a good place to start when tracing some of the first developments in digital encryption. Obviously, this is a subject that could fill several books, so we can’t cover everything in today’s episode, but there is a ton of reading material out there for those curious. That said, let’s zero in our first look at the development of an early government standard for encrypting sensitive data, known as DES or Data Encryption Standard. It made its first appearance in the 1970s at the hands of IBM.
Before we discuss the generalities of how DES works, let’s sort out some terminology. DES is what is known as symmetric encryption, and it uses “keys” to help unlock data encoded by someone else. In a symmetric encryption algorithm like the DES, the same “key” is used to both encrypt and decrypt a given piece of data. This key could be a password or some other identifying information.
If the key remains well protected, the only way to break through something like DES is to undertake a brute force attack. There’s a lot more that goes into symmetric key cryptography — otherwise, you would rightly think it might be easy to break. It’s interesting to learn about DES, but it gets heavy with the jargon fast. Even so, you don’t need a degree to understand how these systems work!
Okay, back to DES, which we know is symmetric encryption. Why’s it so important? Because it was the first major standard for encryption, it set the stage for a lot of how we practice digital encryption today. Even at that time, more than a few people were skeptical about its design, with stories of NSA involvement in perhaps making the algorithm weaker than it could be. Ultimately its design ensured it would not stay in active use in serious applications beyond the end of the 90s.
DES uses a key length of only 56 bits — compared to today’s standards which often rely on 256 bits or more. This short length meant that, as computers became faster, executing a successful brute force attack on a DES-encrypted file became far easier. By 1999, a DES key could be brute forced in under a day. Though there is a variation that uses three encryption passes to improve security, it’s still not in common use anymore.
By the mid-2000s, we had a replacement to really lock down our data. Called AES, or the Advanced Encryption Standard, it took the DES algorithms and refined them to an immense degree. More than that, AES did away with the tiny 56-bit key and replaced with the ability to create variable key lengths. AES supports keys that are 128-bit, 192-bit, and even a whopping 256 bits. Brute forcing such a key would take an almost uncountable number of years even with some of today’s strongest hardware on your side. Though there are some theoretical problems, AES is unbreakable when we use it correctly.
Encryption based on AES, especially AES-256, is extraordinarily common today and the foundation for much of our secure communications. However, there are other ways to communicate securely, although they require a different approach. Besides symmetric encryption, we also have asymmetric methods too. If you’ve ever heard of “Pretty Good Privacy”, typically just called PGP, it was a major innovator in the asymmetric encryption space. Let’s break down what that means.
There are two keys in asymmetric encryption: a public one and a private one. You might, for example, share your public key with friends. You use this key to encrypt a message. (How we know your key is valid is another can of worms, but there are solutions in place.) On the other end, a key known only to the recipient — the private key — decrypts the message. The most common implementation of this methodology is RSA, and it uses keys between 1024 and 2056 bits. Asymmetric encryption is the technology behind much of the encryption on the web.
Encryption on the web.
With that in mind, let’s turn our attention now to the more practical side of encryption, rather than just focusing on the methodologies used to make it work. We use encryption in a lot of ways, and not only to encrypt our hard drives or to exchange messages directly with another person. Cryptography is very important across the Internet, too.
Don’t forget: there are plenty of hackers out there who would love to spy on all the information passing back and forth between you and the servers you interact with on the web. That data might include your passwords, credit card details, and more. Meanwhile, websites need a way to verify the authenticity of your passwords — and they can’t just store them in clear text, either. All these functions rely on encryption or a related process.
What related processes? Let’s start by talking about hashing. Though it is not technically a type of encryption itself, it’s so closely related we must mention it. We covered some info on hashes back in our episode about authentication. For a full rundown on how hashing works, we suggest you check it out! However, for those of you who missed it, we can explain it in quick and simple terms.
We take some piece of data, like your password, and run it through an algorithm that performs a large number of complex mathematical operations to spit out a final result, called the hash or hash value. That hash value is unique to the data being hashed. So if the data changed, so would the hash. A website can then store only the hash of your password. Later, when you go to log in to the website later, it creates of hash of the password you entered – and if it matches the hash value stored in their system, the password must be a match, and you’re in!
Hashing is also used to digitally “sign” things, which is a guarantee of authenticity. Signing is important for everything from software distribution to sharing sensitive documents. If the hash value does not match, you know it is not a legitimate copy — something has been added or altered. Hackers will go out of their way to try and circumvent this protection method. Every day, you’re probably encountering hashing without even knowing about it!
Sometimes, it’s possible to break these hashing functions, though. This is called a collision: a piece of data that can produce a hash value identical to an entirely different piece of data. The more collisions possible in a hash function, the less secure it is; we’ll touch on that more when we talk about the broken MD5 and SHA-1 functions today.
You use encryption daily as you browse the web, too. We often recommend you always check to make sure you are on a “secure connection” when logging in to a site or making a purchase. The easiest way to tell, of course, is to look for “HTTPS” or a lock icon in your browser bar. HTTPS is short for “HyperText Transfer Protocol” (the language of the web) over SSL (encryption). However, as encryption continues to evolve, SSL connections are migrating to Transport Layer Security connections, or TLS.
TLS is a multi-step process that allows your computer and a website, or other applications, to talk to each other while verifying the authenticity of the data exchanged. TLS works through a combination of hashing and public key encryption, like the kind we just explained. By exchanging keys and verifying one another, it is much more difficult for a hacker to execute a “man in the middle” attack.” After the initial exchange of information, you create a secure communications channel to the website. A new, unique, and one-time public key encrypts all the data transmitted between you and the site so no one can access it.
You may even be sending messages to your friends securely without knowing. We’ll dive into this deeper into a moment, but many apps — like Facebook’s Messenger — now employ what we call “end to end” encryption. From the moment data leaves your devices, it’s already been scrambled and remains that way throughout its transmission. In an era when digital snooping is on the rise, and we often hear concerns about government surveillance, end to end encryption is the future of personal cryptography. These three examples are just a few of the ways we encounter encryption, but when you start to pay attention, you’ll begin to see them in practice everywhere.
What happens when encryption breaks?
Wherever there is a lock, there will be a thief who wants to figure out how to defeat it and find out what it secures. The same goes for encryption. The breaking of DES and its eventual replacement in favor of the AES system is a good example of how the methods we use today won’t always work as well tomorrow. What we might consider “uncrackable” could turn out to be very vulnerable — once technology advances to the point where it can handle the complexity, at least.
For the most part, we can trust encryption to keep our data safe. Sometimes, though, we need to adjust rapidly to changes in the industry, especially when we find weaknesses in an encryption method. We’ve also become painfully aware over the past few years how hackers can use encryption again us through the deployment of things like ransomware. Thinking on that, what are some of the ways encryption has failed us and what do we need to consider when choosing solutions for ourselves?
Let’s start by going back to the topic of hashing algorithms. We mentioned that some hash methods have vulnerabilities called collisions. Over the years, we’ve had to discard more than one hashing algorithm due to numerous collisions. Detecting vulnerabilities is an important part of using encryption: once we find weaknesses, it’s important to fix or move away from those standards as quickly as possible. Otherwise, we risk attacks. Such was the case with the MD5 hashing algorithm.
Vulnerabilities in MD5 were known as early as 1996, but it wasn’t until 2004 that a working collision attack was published. It wasn’t long after that where MD5 was no longer recommended for serious security applications by anyone; computational power was now cheap enough to make it a trivial matter to generate an MD5 collision. Combined with how quickly MD5 hashes compute, it is simply no longer ideal for either hashing passwords or for generating security certificates.
Thus, we migrated to other hashing algorithms that do not yet have feasible attack methods, like the SHA-1 algorithm. That’s not to say MD5 is completely useless now — but for serious applications, it’s not worth the risk. Of course, earlier this year, the first major SHA-1 collision was detected — something predicted for several years. Don’t worry, though: we have newer, stronger standards, like SHA-256, to take its place as we go forward. In fact, many applications which use SHA have implemented SHA-256 simply because it was available already and was a stronger algorithm than SHA-1.
The dimise of MD5 caused plenty of problems. Websites still using MD5-hashed passwords have sometimes suffered some serious breaches. Besides that, though, we haven’t had many major security problems due to broken encryption. Most services migrate well before anyone functionally breaks an existing encryption standard. More often, we need to worry about encryption weaponized by malware authors.
When ransomware hits your machine, it rapidly encrypts your files so the authors can demand payment from you. Many people ask if there is anything you can do after ransomware has infected a machine, but the unfortunate answer is almost always “no”. Why? These programs typically rely on AES-256 to conduct their encryption. As we know from our earlier discussion, AES-256 is functionally unbreakable today. So once your drive is encrypted by ransomware, you’re locked out. And without the key, you won’t get your data back. It won’t matter if you’ve encrypted your own files, either — ransomware can just encrypt them again.
This threat is why it is so important to keep your systems updated and to use malware protection at all times. It also emphasizes the need to have recent backups of your system! As one of the biggest problems on the web today, and in the wake of WannaCry, it is worth reminding our listeners again just how important it is to pay attention to these issues. While Mac ransomware is still relatively rare, we can be sure that someone out there is working to figure out a way to make more!
Encrypting your data and communications.
Earlier, we talked about some of the ways we encounter encryption in our daily lives. More websites default to using HTTPS than ever before, in large part as a response to the changing malware threats we face today. You don’t have much of a choice in whether you use these things; it’s a basic practice on the web. However, that doesn’t mean you can’t go the next step and start employing encryption in other areas of your life as well. Though you might not be a journalist trying to protect your sources from exposure, even the average computer user can gain some peace of mind from trying out these technologies.
Encrypting your data, the stuff that resides on your hard drive, is a popular step to take these days. Not only do you secure any personally identifiable information from prying eyes, but you can also ensure that you’re the only person with legitimate access to your backup files. For Mac users, Apple makes it easy to deploy strong encryption on your files through FileVault. We’ve got another episode of The Checklist waiting for you in our archives where we cover everything about using FileVault effectively — check it out and see if it’s the right choice for you. Don’t forget to remember your encryption password, though. Much like ransomware, without that password, you cannot access those files!
It is easier than ever to encrypt your communications, too. In the past, we had to rely primarily on systems like PGP or the instant messaging encryption protocol known as Off the Record Messaging. Today, you don’t need to install an additional plugin or go through a complex setup process. We mentioned Facebook Messenger as being one app that employs end to end encryption — but of course, how do we know what Facebook does with our messages internally?
That’s always one risk to relying on a third party for handling your encryption, but there are other good apps out there that you can use with greater confidence. WhatsApp and Signal are two, though WhatsApp has certainly had some stumbles in its forays into E2E encryption. Signal prides itself on providing a very secure platform for users to communicate with encryption on a mobile platform. We’ve discussed the pros and cons of several these apps in the past as well; if you’re interested in employing them yourself, we encourage you to do plenty of homework first.
You can also still use asymmetric encryption to communicate securely over email. However, employing these methods can require an increased amount of setup. What those methods are and which personal encryption solutions are best for a given application can vary. Something for a future episode, perhaps!
Well, we’re a long way from the relatively care-free days of early Computing, when the old joke was that computer security meant locking the door at night. Now, protecting our data and our personal information from thieves and hackers requires cryptographic protection. Luckily, we are in the midst of many advances in the field, and more software authors adopt rigorous encryption methods every day. Though its political future might be uncertain, one thing we do know for sure: it’s the best way to achieve privacy for your data.
As always, we thank you for joining us for another weekly edition of The Checklist. We encourage you to learn more about the various encryption methods that are available — it’s only going to become more important over time! | https://www.securemac.com/checklist/look-encryption-past-present |
MITRE ATT&CK® is an open framework for implementing cybersecurity detection and response programs. The ATT&CK framework is available free of charge and includes a global knowledge base of adversarial tactics, techniques, and procedures (TTPs) based on real-world observations. ATT&CK mimics the behavior of real-life attackers, helping IT, security, and compliance organizations efficiently identify security gaps, evaluate risks, and eliminate vulnerabilities.
ATT&CK provides a common taxonomy that lets various constituents (SecOps teams, red and blue teams, penetration testers, security solution providers, threat intelligence vendors, etc.) communicate using the same language. ATT&CK also includes a Groups database that tracks the activities of threat actors and cybercriminal syndicates around the world.
MITRE ATT&CK Background and Scope
In 2013, researchers at the MITRE Corporation began documenting the various methods threat actors use to penetrate networks and carry out attacks. Since then, MITRE has identified hundreds of different techniques adversaries use to execute cyberattacks. ATT&CK organizes these techniques into a collection of tactics to help security practitioners efficiently detect, isolate, and remediate threats. The tactics describe what the adversary is trying to do (e.g., steal credentials) and the techniques describe the actions the adversary takes to achieve their goals (e.g., brute force methods).
MITRE publishes a series of ATT&CK matrices describing common cybersecurity tactics, techniques, sub-techniques, and mitigations for various operating environments including:
- ATT&CK for Enterprise Matrix for Windows, macOS, Linux, cloud, containers, and network systems
- ATT&CK for Mobile Matrix for Apple iOS and Android devices
- ATT&CK for Industrial Control Systems Matrix for Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) systems and other industrial control systems
ATT&CK for Enterprise Matrix Overview
The ATT&CK for Enterprise Matrix details the tactics and techniques threat actors use to penetrate a network, compromise IT systems, escalate privileges, and move laterally without detection. Early versions of the matrix focused on enterprise networks and on-premises IT infrastructure. Over time MITRE expanded the scope of ATT&CK for Enterprise to include IaaS, PaaS, and SaaS environments.
ATT&CK for Enterprise Matrix (v9) covers a variety of desktop and server operating systems (Windows, macOS, Linux), cloud platforms (AWS, Microsoft Azure, Google Cloud Platform), SaaS solutions (Azure AD, Microsoft 365, Google Workspace) and network resources. It captures the various tactics threat actors commonly employ before and during an attack, as summarized in the table below.
|Tactic||The Adversary is Trying to:|
|Reconnaissance||Gather information they can use to plan future operations|
|Resource Development||Establish resources they can use to support operations|
|Initial Access||Get into your network|
|Execution||Run malicious code|
|Persistence||Maintain their foothold|
|Privilege Escalation||Gain higher-level permissions|
|Defense Evasion||Avoid being detected|
|Credential Access||Steal account names and passwords|
|Discovery||Figure out your environment|
|Lateral Movement||Move through your environment|
|Collection||Gather data of interest to their goal|
|Command and Control||Communicate with compromised systems to control them|
|Exfiltration||Steal data|
|Impact||Manipulate, interrupt, or destroy your systems and data|
The MITRE ATT&CK Matrix is exhaustive. V9 includes 14 distinct tactics made up of 185 techniques and 367 sub-techniques. Most enterprises take a phased approach to ATT&CK, aligning security investments with perceived risks. | https://www.cyberark.com/what-is/mitre-attack/ |
It is great to have a buddy in your travel but there are people who love solo travelling and it is a good idea to take precautions when travelling alone, but there are also some risks involved. The following are tips to ensure that you remain safe while travelling alone. There are many ways in which travelling alone can be dangerous. Here are some things you should keep in mind when travelling alone.
One of the first things to do is to talk to other people. There are many opportunities to talk to strangers while alone and it is important that you take advantage of these opportunities. When you talk with others you will feel safer because you will be aware of any potential hazards or problems. This is especially important if you are travelling alone in an area that is off-limits or out of the way of where you are coming from.
A good idea is to plan your itinerary before you leave home. Many travellers take the advice of a friend or family member and then spend the whole trip trying to fit activities into their itinerary. However, this is not always a good idea. Planning your trip ahead of time allows you to think about what activities you want to do while you are on your trip and gives you the chance to plan those activities out. You will also have the comfort of knowing that you have the resources you need to carry with you such as water and supplies.
You also need to remember to stay safe when travelling alone. Many people who have experienced the joys of being accompanied by a friendly person have never wanted to leave that person behind while travelling alone again. Therefore, it is important that you choose a safe and comfortable place to walk, drive or jog and spend your time alone. If possible, choose somewhere that you know everyone else likes to visit.
Carry emergency numbers with you if you must travel by yourself. These numbers can be kept in a safe place and accessible to you in case of an emergency. Having access to these numbers means you can call for help much quicker than trying to fathom your way through the wilderness. In addition, if there is anything that could happen while you are alone, you can call for help immediately. For example, if a pickpocket sees you look disheveled or walking with weak legs, they will pass right by to continue their mission of robbing you.
A good idea is to carry your own hand luggage, rather than using expensive handbags that you hope someone will give you. This is a good idea because you can identify any potentially suspicious behaviour that others might pick up on. That way, it will be easier for you to get your own hand luggage to leave if you feel the need. In addition, having your own hand luggage means you have control over the security precautions and therefore can choose to leave them at home or leave them with the concierge if you feel particularly threatened.
If you are traveling by car, it is a good idea to put valuables out of sight in a hidden compartment. In addition, it is a good idea to remove your valuables from your car before leaving the hotel. Some hotels offer concierge services to their customers who wish to remove their valuables from their hotel rooms and then place them in a safe place outside of the hotel. However, if you do not have this service, then do not take unnecessary chances with your valuables by leaving them in your hotel room.
It is always advisable to travel safe and be prepared. Traveling by yourself is inherently risky and dangerous situation. However, if you take the necessary precautions to stay safe then you should be able to avoid the most risky situations when travelling alone. Just follow these tips and you should be fine. | https://www.goheyride.com/how-to-stay-safe-when-travelling-alone/ |
France is a relatively safe country. Most crimes are non-violent, but pick-pocketing is a significant problem.
The majority of crimes directed against foreign visitors, including U.S. citizens, involve pick-pocketing, residential break-ins, bicycle theft, and other forms of theft with minimal violence. However, as in any big city, robberies involving physical assault do occur in Paris and other major urban areas. Visitors to congested areas and known tourist sites (e.g., museums, monuments, train stations, airports, and subways) should be particularly attentive to their surroundings. Crimes against visitors are generally crimes of opportunity, though these crimes are more likely to involve violence on the street late at night or when the victim detects the theft and resists the criminal. As in any major city, women should exercise extra caution when out alone at night and/or consider traveling out at night with companions. In general, Paris taxis are safe and professionally operated, but there has been an increase in reported harassment and assaults on women by taxi drivers.
Caution is required throughout France when driving through economically depressed areas where there is a high incidence of “smash and grab” robberies. Thieves will approach a vehicle that is stopped in traffic, smash a window, reach into the vehicle to grab a purse or other valuable item, and then flee. Keep doors locked and valuables out of sight.
There is generally an increase in the number of residential break-ins in August, when most French residents take vacation, and in December. The majority are attributed to residents not using security measures already in place, including double-locking doors and locking windows. Home invasions are often preceded by phone calls to see if the resident is at home. Often thieves who manage to gain access to the apartment building will knock on apartment doors to see if anyone answers, offering the excuse they are taking a survey or representing a utility company.
PARIS: Crime in Paris is similar to that in most large cities. Violent crime is relatively uncommon in the city center, but women should exercise extra caution when out alone at night, and should consider traveling out at night with trusted companions. There has been an increase in reported sexual harassment, and sometimes assault, by taxi drivers.
Pickpockets are by far the most significant problem. In addition to purses and wallets, smart phones and small electronic devices are particular targets. In Paris, pickpockets are commonly children under the age of 16 because they are difficult to prosecute. Pickpockets are very active on the rail link (RER B) from Charles de Gaulle Airport to the city center. Travelers may want to consider using a shuttle service or one of the express buses to central Paris rather than the RER. In addition, passengers on metro Line 1, which traverses the city center from east to west and services many major tourist sites, are often targeted. A common method is for one thief to distract the tourist with questions or disturbances, while an accomplice picks pockets, a backpack, or a purse. Schemes in Paris include asking if you would sign a petition or take a survey, and presenting a ring and asking if you dropped it. Thieves often time their pickpocket attempts to coincide with the closing of the automatic doors on the metro, leaving the victim secured on the departing train. Many thefts also occur at the major department stores (e.g., Galeries Lafayette, Printemps, and Le Bon Marché), where tourists may leave wallets, passports, and credit cards on cashier counters during transactions. Popular tourist sites are also popular with thieves, who favor congested areas to mask their activities. The crowded elevators at the Eiffel Tower, escalators at museums such as the Louvre, and the area surrounding Sacré Coeur Basilica in Montmartre are all favored by pickpockets and snatch-and-grab thieves.
There have been some instances of tourists being robbed and assaulted near less utilized metro stations. The area around the Moulin Rouge, known as Pigalle, requires extra security precautions to avoid becoming a victim. Pigalle is an adult entertainment area known for prostitution, sex shows, and illegal drugs. Unsuspecting tourists have run up exorbitant bar bills and been forced to pay before being permitted to leave. Other areas in Paris where extra security precautions are warranted after dark are Les Halles and the Bois de Boulogne.
PROVENCE ALPES MARITIMES (PACA) / LANGUEDOC-ROUSSILLON (Marseille, Montpellier, Perpignan, Carcassonne Avignon, Aix en Provence, Arles, Cannes, Nice): The PACA/Languedoc-Roussillon region enjoys a fairly low rate of violent crime directed at tourists. The most common problems in the region are thefts from cars (both stopped in traffic and parked) and from luggage trolleys at the major transportation hubs, including the Nice airport and railway stations in Marseille, Avignon, and Aix en Provence. Purse snatchings in transportation hubs are also a common problem.
The U.S. Consulate General in Marseille has noted an increase in holiday rental-home burglaries and in necklace snatching. Keep your car doors locked and windows rolled up at all times. Valuables should be hidden out of site to prevent snatch-and-grab attempts. Maintain visual contact with your car when visiting tourist sites, when using rest facilities at gas stations, or stopping to enjoy panoramic views, even for a short period as thieves will break windows to access items left in cars. Victims have reported break-ins within minutes of leaving an unattended car. Keep your passport in a separate location from other valuables.
Organized crime has increased in the south of France—especially in Marseille and Corsica, where feuding groups have been responsible for several recent violent incidents—and although U.S. citizens are not targeted, you should maintain awareness and keep emergency contact information on hand should you find yourself in the wrong place at the wrong time.
STRASBOURG: Strasbourg's historic center enjoys a fairly low rate of violent crime. Pickpockets and snatch-and-grab thieves tend to concentrate their efforts in the Petite France historic district popular with visitors.
BORDEAUX AND THE AQUITAINE, LIMOUSIN, AND POITOU-CHARENTES REGIONS: Bordeaux and other cities in southwest France are considered fairly safe. In cities and during popular festivals that draw huge crowds, you should be wary of pickpockets and other tourist-aimed crimes, especially near public transportation. Stolen purses, ID cards, and passports left in cars – particularly around renowned landmarks are common.
NOTE: Swimmers should be careful of strong riptides and swells in the Bordeaux area.
LYON: Although levels of violent crime are low, Lyon has a fair amount of petty crime and vandalism. Late-night weekend rowdiness is common in the center of town and in areas with night clubs. The city’s public transportation system is safe. To combat reckless and drunk drivers and prevent them from fleeing accident scenes, Lyon initiated 30 kilometer-per-hour zones in commercial districts, and the local police have increased controls for drunken driving. Police have also installed speed and red-light radar systems. The number of stolen passports and personal items in the district remains relatively low, and attacks are rare. Home break-ins have increased recently; according to the local news, there are 30-35 per day. Police response to sporadic armed robberies and violence is generally immediate and decisive. A recent wave of armed robberies in luxury goods stores and cash exchange businesses ended with the arrest of an organized gang of delinquents. Bicycle thefts are also a serious risk, as Lyon becomes increasingly bicycle-friendly and more people cycle around town.
NORMANDY: Break-ins and thefts from cars in the parking lots at the Normandy beaches and American cemeteries are common. Do not leave valuables unattended in a car. Locking valuables in the trunk is not an adequate safeguard as thieves often pry open car trunks to steal bags and other valuables.
OVERSEAS (NON-EUROPEAN) FRENCH DEPARTMENTS AND TERRITORIES: Please see the Country Specific Information for French Guiana, French Polynesia, and the French West Indiesfor crime trends in these areas.
RENNES: In general, the city of Rennes is relatively safe and secure, and crime rates throughout the consular district tend to be lower than in larger cities elsewhere. There are occasional crimes in the center of Rennes related to drunkenness and rowdy behavior, with the largest and most boisterous crowds tending to gather on Thursday nights in the area around Rue Saint Michel (a.k.a. “Rue de la Soif” or “Thirst Street”) and the adjacent Place Sainte Anne. The local authorities make security a priority. Tourists occasionally encounter theft of valuables and passports. Valuables left unattended in rental cars overnight, or for extended amounts of time, are particularly susceptible to theft. In particular, tourist sites around Brittany warn travelers against leaving expensive items in plain view in parked cars due to frequent vehicle break-ins. Do not leave luggage unattended on trains.
TOULOUSE AND THE MIDI-PYRENEES: Toulouse and the Midi-Pyrenees region are considered generally safe. Car theft, vehicle break-ins, petty theft, and burglary are the most common crimes, and they are relatively more frequent in areas near the railway station. Car-jacking and home invasions may occur, particularly in wealthier areas surrounding Toulouse. Home invasions usually target valuables and cars, but may include violence. Itinerant street people, often in groups accompanied by dogs, are increasingly prevalent in downtown Toulouse, particularly in warmer weather. While alcohol and drug abuse can make them unpredictable, incidents of crime are relatively rare.
Tips on How to Avoid Becoming a Victim: Common-sense security precautions will help you enjoy a trouble-free stay. Most problems can be avoided by being aware of one's surroundings and avoiding high-risk areas.
When going out, carry only essential items: ONE credit/ATM card, ONE piece of identification, and no more than €40-50. Avoid carrying high-value jewelry and large amounts of cash. Valuables should be kept out of sight and in places difficult for thieves to reach, such as internal coat pockets or in pouches hung around the neck or inside clothes. Shoulder bags and wallets in back pockets are an invitation to a thief.
Keep photocopies of travel documents and credit cards separate from the originals, along with key telephone numbers to contact banks for credit card replacement. Raise your awareness level while in crowded elevators, escalators, and metro cars. When possible, take a seat or stand against a wall to deter pickpockets and try to maintain a 360-degree awareness of the surrounding area.
Carry only a purse that zips closed and ensure that it is carried under the arm and slightly in front of the body. Swing backpack-type purses around so that they are slightly in front of your body. Carry your wallet in a front pocket. While on foot, remain aware of your surroundings at all times and keep bags slung across your body and away from the street.
Many U.S. citizens have had purses or bags stolen from the back of a chair or from under the table while in cafes, restaurants, and nightclubs/bars, including higher end establishments. Again, keep your valuables with you and never leave them unattended or out of your sight. Do not leave valuables in hotel rooms. If you must leave valuables in the hotel, consider using the hotel safe.
Thieves often operate in groups and often come to each other's aid if confronted. If a thief is caught in the act, a simple pick-pocketing could turn into an assault (or worse) if you attempt to capture the thief. You can shout out for police assistance to attract attention, but do not pursue the thief.
Do not use ATMs in isolated, poorly lighted areas or where loiterers are present. Be especially alert to persons standing close enough to see the Personal Identification Number (PIN) being entered into the machine. Thieves often conduct successful scams by simply watching the PIN as it is entered and then stealing the card from the user in some other location. If your card gets stuck in an ATM, immediately report the incident to both the local bank and your bank at home.
Many theft and assault victims are targeted when making their way home from a late night out after drinking alcohol. If you go out late at night, do so with a group of friends. There is safety in numbers.
Use only authorized taxis. Authorized taxis in Paris have the following equipment:
An illuminated “Taxi Parisien” sign on the roof;
A display meter showing the cost of the trip;
A display at the rear of the vehicle and visible from the exterior that enables the monitoring of the daily duration of use of the vehicle; and
A plate fixed to the front fender bearing the license number.
There has been an increase in sexual harassment and assault of women by taxi drivers in recent years. Women may want to consider having another individual walk them to a taxi and, in plain view of the driver, note the license number of the vehicle, or call a friend while in the taxi and communicate the license number. Letting the driver know that others are aware of your trip and the license number of the taxi may reduce the chances of becoming a victim.
Avoid public parks after dark, as they are often frequented by drug dealers and prostitutes.
You are responsible for ensuring that you meet and comply with foreign entry requirements, health requirements and that you possess the appropriate travel documents. Information provided is subject to change without notice. One should confirm content prior to traveling from other reliable sources. Information published on this website may contain errors. You travel at your own risk and no warranties or guarantees are provided by us. | https://www.countryreports.org/travel/france/crimes.htm |
Question: What Is Distillation?
Distillation Definition
Distillation is a widely used method for separating mixtures based on differences in the conditions required to change the phase of components of the mixture. To separate a mixture of liquids, the liquid can be heated to force components, which have different boiling points, into the gas phase. The gas is then condensed back into liquid form and collected. Repeating the process on the collected liquid to improve the purity of the product is called double distillation. Although the term is most commonly applied to liquids, the reverse process can be used to separate gases by liquefying components using changes in temperature and/or pressure.
A plant that performs distillation is called a distillery. The apparatus used to perform distillation is called a still.
Uses of Distillation
Distillation is used for many commercial processes, such as the production of gasoline, distilled water, xylene, alcohol, paraffin, kerosene, and many other liquids. Gas may be liquefied and separate. For example: nitrogen, oxygen, and argon are distilled from air.
Types of Distillation
Types of distillation include simple distillation, fractional distillation (different volatile 'fractions' are collected as they are produced), and destructive distillation (usually, a material is heated so that it decomposes into compounds for collection).
Simple Distillation
Simple distillation may be used when the boiling points of two liquids are significantly different from each other or to separate liquids from solids or nonvolatile components. In simple distillation, a mixture is heated to change the most volatile component from a liquid into vapor. The vapor rises and passes into a condenser. Usually, the condenser is cooled (e.g., by running cold water around it) to promote condensation of the vapor, which is collected.
Steam Distillation
Steam distillation is used to separate heat-sensitive components. Steam is added to the mixture, causing some of it to vaporize. This vapor is cooled and condensed into two liquid fractions. Sometimes the fractions are collected separately, or they may have different density values, so they separate on their own. An example is steam distillation of flowers to yield essential oil and a water-based distillate.
Fractional Distillation
Fractional distillation is used when the boiling points of the components of a mixture are close to each other, as determined using Raoult's law. A fractionating column is used to separate the components used a series of distillations called rectification. In fractional distillation, a mixture is heated so vapor rises and enters the fractionating column. As the vapor cools, it condenses on the packing material of the column. The heat of rising vapor causes this liquid to vaporize again, moving it along the column and eventually yielding a higher purity sample of the more volatile component of the mixture.
Vacuum Distillation
Vacuum distillation is used to separate components that have high boiling points. Lowering the pressure of the apparatus also lowers boiling points. Otherwise, the process is similar to other forms of distillation. Vacuum distillation is particularly useful when the normal boiling point exceeds the decomposition temperature of a compound. | http://superaffiliate.site/technique-dinstillation-auriculaire/ |
In a mixture, since the constituent substances do not lose their identity, they can be separated easily by physical methods, taking advantage of the differences in their physical properties.
Mixture of Solids and Liquids
Sedimentation and Decantation
Sedimentation is the process of separating an insoluble solid from a liquid in which it is suspended by allowing it to settle to the bottom of the container. If this also involves pouring off of the liquid leaving the solid behind, it is called decantation.
Filtration
Filtration is used for separating insoluble solids from a liquid.
When a mixture of chalk and water is poured through a filter paper in a funnel, chalk particles remains as residue in the filter paper, while the water gets collected in the beaker below as filtrate. (see Fig. )
Evaporation
Evaporation is used for recovering dissolved solid substances from solutions by evaporating the solvent. The solute “dissolves out” and is left behind.
Sugar can be recovered from a sugar-water mixture by evaporation. The water evaporates to leave the solute behind. Copper sulphate, potash alum, potassium nitrate etc. can also be recovered from their aqueous solutions by evaporation.
Crystallisation
Crystallisation is a sophisticated form of evaporation technique in which crystals of the solute are encouraged to develop during the process of “dissolving out” from the solution as the solvent evaporates.
Distillation
Distillation is the process of heating a solution containing soluble solids to form vapours of the liquid and then cooling the vapours to get the liquid back.
A mixture of common salt and water is taken in a distillation flask and heated. Steam rises up and comes out into the condenser, which is a coaxial tube with a central tube for vapour to pass through, and an outer tube through which cold water circulates to form a cold water jacket. Steam condenses in the central tube and collects in a receiver as distillate. (see Fig. )
Mixture of Solids
Sublimation
Sublimation is a process in which some solids, on heating, are transformed directly to vapour without passing through the liquid phase. This technique can be used to separate a mixture of solids, one of which can undergo sublimation. The vapours are then cooled separately to get the sublimed solid back, a process called deposition. (Fig. )
Sublimation is used in the separation of substances like ammonium chloride, iodine, napthalene, camphor and sulphur.
Extraction
In some cases, one substance in the mixture is soluble in a particular liquid solvent whereas the other(s) is(are) insoluble in it. The process of dissolving out the soluble component from a mixture, and subsequently treating the solution to get the solid, is called extraction.
Magnetic Separation
This method of separation is exemplified by the separation of iron filings.
A mixture with iron filings as one of the components can be separated using a magnet to attract the iron particles away from the mixture.
Chromatography
Chromatography is an advanced technique of separation in which individual components of a mixture are separated from each other using the property of differential migration (different rates of flow). Here, a mobile phase, carrying the mixture, is passed through a selectively adsorbentAn adsorbent substance has the capability of retaining particles of other solids, liquids or gases on its surface, as opposed to the process of absorption in which the particles are taken inside the bulk of the absorbing substance. stationary phase, which can retain the components of the mixture to different degrees. (Fig. )
Mixture of Liquids
Fractional Distillation
Fractional distillation is the process of separating two or more miscible liquids by a modified distillation process, in which the distillates are collected as fractions having different boiling points. The separation of the liquids by this method is based on the difference in their boiling points. (Fig. )
Fractional distillation makes use of a fractionating column or distillation column, a tube which provides different temperature zones inside it during distillation, the temperature decreasing from bottom to top. It provides surfaces on which condensations (of less volatileA volatile substance is one which tends to easily evaporate liquids) and vaporizations (of more volatile liquids) can occur before the vapours enter the condenser in order to concentrate the more volatile liquid in the first fractions and the less volatile components in the later fractions.
Fractional distillation is very effective is separating mixtures of volatile components, and is widely used in laboratories and industries.
Crude petroleum is separated by the process of fractional distillation into different fractions like gasoline, lubricating oil, kerosene, diesel etc.
Gravity Separation
In gravity separation, a mixture of two immiscible liquids can be separated using a separating funnel, the working of which is based on the differences in the densities of the liquids. The heavier liquid which settles below is drained out first from below the funnel into a beaker, and then the lighter liquid is drained out into another beaker.
Feedback
If your email client is configured, click here to send your feedback.
Otherwise, send an email to [email protected] with subject line: "Feedback: Separation of Mixtures".
List of References
NCERT, Science – Textbook for Class IX, viewed 25 February, 2008, <http://www.ncert.nic.in/textbooks/testing/Index.htm>, (n.d.).
Bibliography
NCERT, Science – Textbook for Class IX, viewed 25 February, 2008, <http://www.ncert.nic.in/textbooks/testing/Index.htm>, (n.d.).
|MonographsHigh SchoolChemistryMatter|
|
|
Copyright © 2009-2025 Mentorials.com. All Rights Reserved.
[Site best viewed at 1024 x 768 resolution, using Mozilla Firefox 3.5 and above]
Some clipart images used herein were obtained from IMSI's MasteClips® and MasterPhotos™ Premium Image Collection. | http://www.mentorials.com/high-school-chemistry-matter-separation-of-mixtures.htm |
Organic compounds when isolated from natural sources or prepared by organic reactions are seldom pure; they are usually contaminated with small amounts of other compounds which are produced along with the desired product. Before carrying out the qualitative and quantitative_ analysis of the organic compounds, in order to characterise them, it is very important of purify them. The various steps involved in the characterisation of an organic compounds are:
(a) Purification
(b) Qualitative analysis
(c) Quantitative analysis
(d) Determination of molecular mass
(e) Calculation of empirical and molecular formula
(f) Elucidation of the structure by various methods including chemical methods.
In this unit, we shall consider some of the methods commonly employed for the purification, qualitative analysis and quantitative analysis of an organic compound.
PURIFICATION
The common techniques used for the purification of a particular compound are based on its nature and also on the nature of the impurities present in it. The various methods used for this purpose are:
1. Crystallisation 2. Sublimation
3. Differential extraction 4. Distillation
5. Fractional distillation
6. Distillation under reduced pressure
7. Steam distillation 8. Chromatography.
1. CRYSTALUSATION
Crystallisation is a process of solidification of a pure substance from its dissolved state. This is the most common way of purifying organic solids. This method is based upon differences in their solubility in a given solvent or a mixture of solvents. Since most of the organic compounds are not fairly soluble in water, other solvents such as alcohol, acetone, chloroform, ether, etc., are also commonly used for this purpose. The process involves the steps given below:
(i) Selection of the Solvent
A small quantity of the substance is heated with 2- 3 m1 of the solvent under examination. When partial or complete dissolution has taken place, the solution is cooled. If a considerable proportion of the dissolved substance separates out in the form of crystals, the solvent is considered suitable. Thus, a suitable solvent is one in which:
(a) The substance dissolves on heating readily and crystallises out on cooling.
(b) The solvent must not react chemically with the substance.
(c) Either it should not dissolve impurities or their solubility is much more than the substance to be purified so that during crystallisation, they should be left in the mother liquor.
Some examples are: ethanol can be used for purification of sugar containing impurities of common salt. Common salt does not dissolve in ethanol.
Similarly, a benzoic acid containing impurities of naphthalene can be purified by using hot water which dissolves only benzoic acid but not naphthalene.
(ii) Preparing the Solution
The impure substance is powdered and heated with the solvent in a flask. The amount of solvent should be just sufficient to dissolve the substance on heating. In the case of solvents with low boiling points, the flask is fitted with a water condenser or an air condenser to avoid the loss of sol vent on heating (Fig. 39.1).
(iii) Filtration
The hot saturated solution prepared above is then filtered preferably through a fluted filter paper placed in a glass funnel (Fig. 39.2). The use of fluted filter paper makes the filtration rapid. If the organic substance crystallises during filtration, the filtration cannot be done with ordinary filter paper as the crystals will be formed on the filter paper itself and proper
filtration will not be possible. In such cases, the filtration is done with the help of hot water funnel (Fig. 39.3). The hot water that is circulated in the outer funnel keeps the solution hot and the crystals cannot be formed on the funnel itself
(iv) Crystallising
The hot filtrate is .allowed to cool slowly in a beaker or a crystallising dish. In this way, large and beautiful crystals are obtained. Scratching the sides of the vessel often facilitates crystallisation.
(v) Separation and Drying of Crystals
The crystals are separated from the mother liquor by filtration with the help on a Buchner funnel and a suction pump (Fig. 39.4). The crystals obtained on the filter paper
are washed two or three times with small quantities of the pure solvent. They are dried by pressing between folds of filter paper and are then left in a steam over or an air over for some time, if the substance is stable and high’ melting. The crystals are finally dried over sulphuric acid or calcium chloride in vacuum desiccator.
Sometimes the crystals obtained are slightly coloured because of the presence of traces of impurities. In such cases, they are redissolved in a small amount of the solvent and a little of animal charcoal is added. The suspension thus obtained is boiled, filtered and recrystallised as described above.
2. SUBLIMATION
Sublimation is a process of conversion of a solid into gaseous state on heating without passing through the intermediate liquid state and vice versa.
This process is used for the separation of volatile solids, which sublime on heating from the non-volatile solids. The impure substance is heated in a dish covered with a perforated filter paper over which an inverted funnel is placed (Fig. 39.5). The stem of the funnel is plugged with a little cotton. Vapours of the solid, which sublime, pass through the holes in the filter paper and condense on the cooler walls of the funnel. The non-volatile impurities are left behind in the dish.
Iodine, camphor, naphthalene, benzoic acid, etc., are purified by this method.
3. DIFFERENTIAL EXTRACTION
Organic compounds, whether solids or liquids, can be recovered from aqueous solutions by shaking the solution in a separating funnel with a suitable organic solvent which is immiscible with water but in which the organic compound is highly soluble. This process is known as extraction or solvent extraction. Some commonly employed solvents are, ether, benzene and chloroform. The process is carried out as follows: The aqueous solution is mixed with a small quantity of the organic solvent in a separating funnel (Fig. 39.6). The funnel is stoppered and its contents shaken for some time
when the organic solvent dissolves out the solute. The mixture is now allowed to settle and in this way solvent and water from two separate layers. The lower aqueous layer is run out by opening the tap and the solvent layer is collected separately. The whole process may be repeated to remove the solute completely from the aqueous solution. The solute is finally recovered from the organic solvent by distilling off the latter.
4. DISTILLATION
Distillation is a process of conversion of a liquid into vapours by heating followed by condensation of vapours so produced by cooling. The method is used for the purification of liquids which boil without decomposition and are associated with non-volatile impurities. The impure liquid is boiled and the vapours, thus, formed are condensed to get the pure liquid.
The apparatus employed for the process consists of a distillation flask having a side tube connected with a condenser. An air condenser which is a long glass tube is used for liquids with boiling points above 380 K and a water condenser in the case of other liquids. The neck of the flask is closed with a cork through which passes a thermometer and the bulb of the thermometer is kept just below the opening of the side tube. A receiver is attached to the lower end of the condenser (Fig. 39.7). The substance is placed in the distillation flask and one or two pieces of unglazed porcelain or glass bends are added to prevent bumping of the liquid .during distillation. The flask is heated on a water bath or sand
bath in the case of highly volatile and inflammable liquids, while it is heated directly with the flame when distilling high boiling liquids. The liquid changes into vapours which pass through the condenser and are condensed back into the liquid form. The liquid distillate is collected in the receiver while the impurities are left behind in the distillation flask.
5. FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION
This process is used to separate mixture of two or more miscible liquids having different boiling points. It can be carried in two ways as under.
(a) By using an apparatus of simple distillation
When the two liquids have their boiling points wide apart, say about 40° or more, the mixture may be separated by using simple distillation apparatus. The more volatile liquid (low b.p.) distils over first and is collected in a receiver. When the temperature begins to rise again, the receiver is disconnected. A new receiver is attached when the temperature again becomes constant. At this stage, the less volatile liquid distils over and is collected. The two fractions thus obtained are redistilled separately, a number of times, to ensure complete purity of the liquids.
(b) By using a fractionating column
When the boiling points of the two liquids are quite close(difference less than 30°) the separation is effected by fitting the distillation flask with a fractionating column (Fig. 39.8).
A fractionating column is a long tube provided with obstructions to the passage of the vapours upwards and that to liquid downwards. Various types of fractionating columns commonly used are shown in Fig. 39.9.
The fractionating column is fitted into the neck of a round-bottomed flask containing the mixture of liquids (say A with b.p: 350 K and B with b.p. 360 K). The column itself is fitted with a thermometer and is attached to a condenser. On heating the flask the vapours obtained consist of more of A and less of B. As the vapours rise up the fractionating column, they condense partially· and the condensed liquid flows down. Naturally, the vapours of B (having lower boiling point) condense more readily than the vapours of A (having lower boiling point). As a result, the vapours moving up get richer in A. The condensed liquid flowing down meets the ascending stream of vapours and in the process takes away more of B. This process is repeated throughout the length of fractionating column. Consequently, the vapours which escape from the top of the column into the condenser consist almost of A. Thus, the distillate received is almost pure A whereas the liquid left behind in the flask is very rich in B. This process may be repeated to achieve the complete separation of liquids.
Fractional distillation has found remarkable application in modem industry especially in the distillation of petroleum, coaltar and crude alcohol.
6. DISTILLATION UNDER REDUCED PRESSURE
Principle. A liquid boils when its vapour pressure becomes equal to the applied pressure or external pressure. If applied pressure is decreased, the same liquid will now, boil at a lower temperature. Thus, this process is employed if the liquid has a tendency to decompose near its boiling point. Under reduced pressure, the liquid will boil at a low temperature and the temperature of decomposition will not be reached. Glycerol, for example, boils with decomposition at 563 K but if the pressure it reduced to 12 mm, it boils at 453 K without decomposition.
The apparatus used for distillation under reduced pressure is shown in Fig. 39.10. The liquid to be distilled is taken in a two necked flask called “Claisen’s flask”. It is fitted with a long capillary tube in the main neck and a thermometer in the side neck. The side tube of the second neck is connected to a condenser carrying a receiver at the other end. The receiver is further connected to a vacuum pump and a manometer which indicates the pressure. The whole apparatus is tested to be air-tight.
The flask is usually heated on an oil bath or sand both. During the distillation a stream of air bubbles is allowed to pass through the capillary tube to prevent bumping by ensuring steady pressure. The desired pressure is maintained by working the pump.
Distillation under reduced pressure finds a number of applications in various industries. For example, in sugar
7. STEAM DISTILLATION
The process of steam distillation is employed in the purification of a substance from non-volatile impurities provided the substance itself is volatile in steam and insoluble in water. This method is based on the facts that:
(i) A liquid boils at a temperature when its vapour pressure becomes ·equal to the atmospheric pressure.
(ii) The vapour pressure of a mixture of two immiscible liquids is equal to the sum of the vapour pressures of the individual liquids.
In the actual process, steam is continuously passed through the impure organic liquid. Steam heats the liquid but itself gets practically condensed to water. After some time, the mixture of the liquid and water begins to boil because the vapour pressure of the mixture becomes equal to the atmospheric pressure. Obviously, this happens at a temperature which is lower than the boiling point of the substance or that of water. For instance, a mixture of aniline (b.p. 453 K, with decomposition), and water (b.p. 373 K), under normal atmospheric pressure, boils at 371 K. At this temperature the vapour pressure of water is 717 mm and that of aniline is 43 mm and, therefore, the total vapour pressure is equal to 760 mm. Thus in steam distillation the liquid gets distilled at a temperature lower than its boiling point and any chances of decomposition are avoided.
The proportion of water and liquid in the mixture that distils over is given by the relation
w1 / w2 = p1 xl8
w2 P2 x M
where w 1 and w2 stand for the masses of water and the organic liquid that distils over; p 1 and p2 represent the vapour pressures of water and the liquid at the distillation temperature and M is molecular mass of the liquid (molecular mass of water being 18).
The apparatus set up for steam distillation is shown in Fig. 39 .11. The impure liquid (or the solid, along with some water) is taken in a round-bottomed flask which is kept in a slightly slanting position. It is attached to a steam generator and steam is passed into the flask. The flask may be gently heated on a sand bath to prevent undue condensation of steam in it. The distillate consisting of water and the organic substance is collected in the receiver. The pure substance is separated from water with the help of a separating funnel or by extraction with a suitable solvent
8.CHROMATOGRAPHY
It is most useful and modem technique of separation and purification of organic compounds. The method was first developed by Tswett in 1903.for the separation of coloured substances into individual components. Since then the method has undergone tremendous modifications. Nowadays various types of chromatographic methods are in use to separate any mixture, into its constituents irrespective of whether it is coloured or colourless.
Chromatography in general, may be described as the technique of separating the constituents of a mixture by the differential movement of individual components through the stationary phase under the influence of mobile phase.
Different types of chromatographic techniques are employed depending upon the nature of stationary and mobile phases.
Two of the important categories of chromatography are:
(A) Adsorption chromatography
(B) Partition chromatography
A. ADSORPTION CHROMATOGRAPHY
This category of chromatography is based on the principal of differential adsorption of various components of the mixture on a suitable adsorbent. Some components are more strongly absorbed than others. When the mobile phase is allowed move over the stationary phase (adsorbent), the components of the mixture move by varying distances over the stationary phase. Two main types of chromatographic techniques based on the principal of differential adsorption are:
• Column chromatography
• Thin layer chromatography.
Column Chromatography
This is the simplest chromatographic method. In this technique, the mixture of substances or the substance to be purified is passed through the column of suitable adsorbent. The constituents get adsorbed to the different extent. In general the following steps are involved (Fig. 39.12).
(i) Preparation-of Column
A column is prepared in a long burette like glass tube having a stopcock near the bottom. A plug of cotton or glass wool is placed at the bottom of the column to support the adsorbent. The tube is packed uniformly with suitable adsorbent which is usually taken in the form of a slurry in petroleum ether. This constitutes the stationary phase. The commonly employed adsorbents are: activated aluminium oxide (alumina), magnesium oxide, silica gel, starch and Fuller’s earth. Nearly one-fourth of the tube is left empty. A loose plug of cotton or glass wool is then placed at the top of the adsorbent column.
(ii) Adsorption Process
The substance to be purified is added, (as such if it is a liquid or in the form of its solution in some suitable solvent if it is a solid) at the top of the column and allowed to pass
slowly through it. As it passes through the column, the different components of the mixture get adsorbed. Different constituents of mixture get adsorbed to the different extent and forms bands at different parts of column.
(iii) Elution
It is a process of extraction of the adsorbed components from the adsorbent with the help of suitable solvent called eluent. Eluent is added as soon as the last portion of the mixture to be separated enters the column. This acts as a moving phase. The eluents usually employed are petroleum ether, carbon tetrachloride, benzene, alcohol, etc., and their selection depends upon the relative solubilities of the components of the mixture in them. More than one eluent may be used in certain cases. The eluents dissolve out the different components selectively. The weakly adsorbed component is eluted more rapidly than a strongly adsorbed component. Such a progressive separation of a mixture is shown in Fig. 39.13. Different components of the mixture are collected in the form of different fractions in separate conical flasks. The eluent from each fraction is then distilled off to get the various components in pure form.
This technique is now widely used in research laboratories for the purification of different substances and for the separation of mixtures. For example, a mixture of an alcohol and a liquid hydrocarbon may be separated by using alumina as adsorbent and petroleum ether as eluent.
Thin Layer Chromatography (TLC)
Thin layer chromatography is another type of adsorption chromatography, which involves separation of the substances of a mixture over a thin layer of an adsorbent. Various steps involved are (i) Preparation of TLC plate two pencil lines are draw across the width of the plate about 1 em each from the top and bottom end. The lower pencil mark is called the starting line and the upper line is called the finish line or solvent line. A thin layer (about 0.2 mm thick) of an adsorbent (silica gel or alumina) is spread over a glass plate of suitable size.
The plate is known as thin layer chromatography plate (TLC plate). (ii) Separation process the solution of the mixture to be separated is applied as a small spot about 2 cm from one end of the TLC plate. The glass plate is then placed in a closed jar containing the solvent (Fig. 39.14). As the solvent in the jar moves up, the components of the mixture move up along the plate to different distances depending on their degree of adsorption and separation takes place. The relative adsorption of each component of the mixture is expressed in terms of its retention factor i.e., R, value (Fig. 39.15).
R= Distance moved by the substance from base line /
Distance moved by the solvent from base line
For or example, R t for component A= x A / y ; R f for compound B= x B / y
The spots of coloured compounds are visible on TLC plate due to their original colour. The spots of colourless compounds which are invisible to the eye can be detected by any of the following techniques.
(a) u .v light. This method is used for certain organic compounds which produce fluorescence effect in u .v light. The spots of such substance can be detected by placing under u .v lamp.
(b) Use of iodine vapours. In this method, the developed TLC plate is placed in a covered jar containing a crystals of iodine. Spots of the compounds which adsorb iodine will become brown.
(c) Chemical methods. This method involves spraying of suitable chemical reagents on the TLC plate. · For example, amino acids may be detected by spraying the plate with ninhydrin solution. Similarly, aldehyde/ketone can be detected by spraying the plate with 2, 4-dinitropheny hydrazine.
B. PARTITION CHROMATOGRAPHY
Partition chromatography is liquid-liquid graphy unlike TLC and column chromatography represents solid-liquid chromatography. In chromatography, the stationary phase as well as mobile are both liquids.
Principle. Partition chromatography is based continuous differential partitioning (distribution) components of a mixture between stationary and mob phases. One of the common example of partition chromatograph is paper chromatography. In paper chromatography, a special quality paper known as chromatography paper is used. Paper is mainly cellulose, but cellulose does not constitute stationary phase. The stationary phase in paper Chromatography is water, trapped or chemically bound to cellulose. The mobile phase is liquid mixture of two or more substances with water as one of the component.
Process. A suitable strip of chromatographic paper is taken and starting line is drawn across the width of the paper about 1 or 2 cm from the bottom. A spot of the mixture of components to be separated is applied on the starting line with the help of fine capillary or syringe. The spotted paper is then suspended in suitable solvent (or a mixture of solvents (Fig. 39.16). This solvent acts as the mobile phase. The solvent rises up the paper by capillary action and flows over the spot.
The different component of the mixture travel through different distances depending upon their solubility in (or partioning between) the stationary and mobile phases. When the solvent reaches the top end the paper is taken out and is allowed to dry. The paper strip so developed is known as a chromatogram. The spots of the separated coloured compounds are visible at different heights from the position of initial spot on the chromatogram. The spots of the separated colourless compounds may be observed either under ultraviolet light or by the use of an appropriate spray reagent as discussed under thin layer chromatography.
CRITERIA OF PURITY OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
After purification, the test of purity of an organic compound is the next important step. A pure organic compound possesses characteristic physical properties such as refractive index specific gravity boiling point, crystalline structure and melting point. If a purified sample shows the same properties that the pure substance is known to possess, if may be considered as pure and no further purification is required. However, for practical purposes in laboratory only melting point (in the case of solids) and boiling point (for liquids) are used as criteria for a purity. A pure organic solid has a definite and sharp (sudden, rapid and complete) melting point, while an impure substance has a lower and indefinite melting point. The melting point of a solid may be defined as the temperature at which the solid and liquid states of the compound are in equilibrium with each other at an external pressure of 1 atmosphere.
Determination of melting point of a solid A capillary tube, 5 to 6 cm long and 1 mm in diameter, is closed at one end and finally dried and powdered organic solid is inserted in it. The tube is tapped to accumulate the crystals at the bottom of the capillary tube. Filling is continued until the length of the packed solid is 3 to 4 mm.
The apparatus used for the determination of melting point is shown in Figs. 39.17(a), (b) and (c). The bulb of the thermometer is dipped in sulphuric acid bath and then taken
out. The capillary tube is then placed along with the thermometer in such a manner so that the sealed end of the capillary is near the bulb. The capillary tube sticks to the thermometer due to surface tension and viscosity of the acid. The thermometer is now lowered in the bath and held in a position so as to keep half of the capillary tube out the bath. The bath is slowly heated as to keep the temperature uniform throughout the bath. When the solid in the capillary tube just shows signs of melting, the heating is stopped. The temperature at which the substance just melts and becomes transparent is recorded. This is the melting point of the organic solid.
Thiele’s tube or round bottom flask (50 mL) or a boiling tube can be used for the determination of melting point of an organic solid.
If the determined melting point is the same as that of the pure compound, the sample in question is also said to be a pure substance.
Mixed melting point: The melting point of two thoroughly mixed substances is called mixed melting point. This can also be used for ascertaining the purity of a compound.
The substance, whose purity is to be tested, is mixed with a pure sample of the same compound. The melting point of the mixture is determined. If the melting point of the mixture is sharp and comes out to be the same as that of pure compound, it is sure that the compound under test is pure. On the other hand, if the melting point of the mixture is Jess than the melting point of the pure compound, the compound in question is not pure.
Boiling point: The boiling point of a liquid is defined as the temperature at which the vapour pressure of a liquid is equal to external pressure. Boiling points are also normally quoted for standard atmospheric pressure. A pure organic liquid boils at a fixed temperature which is characteristic of that substance.
If enough liquid is available, it can be distilled in a distillation apparatus and the constant temperature recorded by the thermometer is the boiling point (Fig. 39.18).
Boiling point is not as reliable a test of purity as is the melting point for the solids. There are many liquids which are miscible with other liquids and mixtures have fixed boiling points (azeotrope). Thus, other physical properties are being used for deciding the purity.
Fig. 39.18 Determination of boiling point.
When the amount the liquid is small, Siwoloff’s method (capillary tube method) is used. | http://www.chemistry-assignment.com/separation-and-purification-of-i-organic-compounds |
Chromatography systems, although similar in function, can have important variance in their standard equipment which decides their best use. The following information provides an overview to the instrumentation involved in chromatography systems of low-pressure liquid chromatography (LPLC), high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), and gas chromatography (GC).
LPLC system instrumentation and components
Modern low-pressure liquid chromatography (LPLC) systems consist of a column, injector, low-pressure pump, detector, and often a fraction collector. The mobile phase is pulled into the chromatography system by the action of the pump. From there, it travels to the injector where the sample to be tested is added. The injector may also act as a controller, switching between many connected mobile phases throughout the assay. After the injector, the sample is carried into the column where separation occurs. From the column, analyte passes into a detector. The detector analyzes the effluent to identify different chemical species and to generate data as a result. From the detector, the mobile phase is pumped into the waste receptacle or collected for further study. (The machine which collects eluent from the column is called a fraction collector and organizes the collected samples based on their time of elution.)
A peristaltic pump for chromatography
A peristaltic pump is commonly used when performing an LPLC assay. Peristaltic pumps use a rotor to pinch tubing and generate a vacuum. The vacuum pulls liquid from the reagent source, and the rollers move the reagent along the tubing pathway. The reagent only touches the tubing. The rollers move the fluid by collapsing the tubing from the outside surface and pushing the fluid captured between adjacent rollers over the roller head and away from the pump. After an assay is complete, the tubing can then be removed and cleaned, or replaced. Tubing is available in many formulations to achieve the right balance of chemical compatibility, tubing size, operating temperature, pressure, and tubing lifespan. The major advantage of peristaltic pumping for chromatography applications is the ability to create an entirely self-contained system that allows for easy changeover and maintenance.
The LPLC column
The column used for LPLC can be an empty glass container or prepacked. The stationary phase of an LPLC assay is either a solid or solid coated with liquid. The physical structure of the column has some effect on the distinguishable separation, known as resolution, of the end data.
The stationary phase within a column is decided by the type of separation which needs to occur. When paired with the correct mobile phase, analytes may be separated along the lines of polarity, affinity, chirality, size, and charge. Biological assays frequently make use of affinity columns, which use the preferential binding of active proteins or amino acids to separate biological components from a mixture. These columns may come packed with solid media that is uncoated or pretreated for an application. Immobile metal ion affinity chromatography (IMAC) columns are a common choice when creating an affinity assay. Protein A affinity uses a stationary phase coated in a bacterial protein that bonds with immunoglobulin A, allowing for its purification through LPLC. Desalting columns are used to separate macromolecules from smaller molecules in the same mixture, such as when removing salts from a protein mixture or phenol from nucleic acid preparations.
Need chromatography products?
Shop complete line of Masterflex pumps. | https://www.coleparmer.com/blog/2018/11/13/overview-instrumentation-chromatography-systems/ |
Contributed by Al Kaziunas and Rolf Schlake of Applied Separations
Organic solvents used in chemical processes have enormous environmental and economic costs. They contribute to health problems, adversely impact the environment, are flammable, contribute to smog formation and are eco toxic. The elimination of hazardous organic solvents and the search for useful non hazardous solvents is a prime goal of green chemistry. CO2 as a liquid or supercritical solvent meets many of the characteristics of an ideal green solvent.
CO2 used as a solvent is recovered as a by-product from various industrial processes including fermentation, cement, and fertilizer manufacturing sites. The CO2 generated is purified, compressed and cooled to the liquid state at 20 bar and -20C and stored or transported in insulated bulk containers for reuse in many liquid and supercritical CO2 processes.
The properties of CO2 are well known and can be exploited for many useful scientific purposes and industrial processes. For example, the density of supercritical CO2 can be changed dramatically by small changes in the pressure or temperature around the critical point. CO2 viscosity is very low and the surface tension of supercritical CO2 is nonexistent. Diffusivity is high, which in combination with low viscosity induces significant changes in condensed phases.
Also, supercritical CO2 influences the properties of components with which it is mixed. For example, supercritical CO2 can dissolve many non polar compounds far beyond its vapor pressure. Also, a significant amount of supercritical CO2 can dissolve into condensed phases drastically reducing the surface tension and viscosity of the condensed phases making processing of viscous materials easier.
The following applications cover some of the areas where the properties of CO2 can be exploited and used productively in green applications.
Extractions
Supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) of a solid material is carried out by pumping supercritical CO2 through a fixed bed of solid substrate. The supercritical CO2 flows through the fixed bed and dissolves soluble components until the substrate is depleted. The loaded solvent is then directed to a separator where the soluble components are precipitated by reducing pressure and temperature. The CO2 is condensed and recirculated.
Extraction of Solid Natural Products
Supercritical CO2 has the ability to diffuse into solid particles and dissolve many valuable non polar molecules. Examples of existing CO2 extractions include:
Countercurrent Separation of Liquid Natural Products
Countercurrent separation of low volatility components of a liquid material can be carried out in a packed column with supercritical CO2. Counter current extraction using supercritical CO2 is an alternative to vacuum distillation and short path distillation. This process is carried out at moderate temperatures and avoids thermal degradation of sensitive components. Some examples are:
Supercritical Drying, Cleaning, and Degreasing Supercritical
CO2 has no surface tension and can easily penetrate micro pores that are not accessible to liquid solvents. This characteristic is useful for drying or cleaning of many porous materials including:
Impregnation with Supercritical Fluids Supercritical
CO2 may also be used to deposit or impregnate materials with soluble components. The low viscosity and high diffusivity of supercritical CO2 allow rapid penetration into solid materials. The small supercritical fluid molecules diffuse into leather, wood, polymers and other porous material carrying dissolved components. The components remain in the porous solid upon depressurization of the CO2. Some examples include:
Particle Formation
Carbon dioxide may be used to form nanoparticles by many different techniques. Generally compounds that are soluble in supercritical CO2 may be depressurized through a nozzle or restrictor into an atmospheric chamber. The rapid expansion of the supercritical solution results in the nucleation and formation of many small particles. This technique is known by the acronym of RESS (rapid expansion of a supercritical solution).
Many pharmaceutical compounds are not soluble in supercritical CO2 and can only be dissolved in a polar organic solvent. The ability of supercritical CO2 to dissolve significantly into a polar organic solvent and expand the volume of the solvent 10 fold reduces the solubility of dissolved compounds and initiates precipitation of the previously dissolved particles in the expanded solvent. This CO2 antisolvent technique is generally described as Gas AntiSolvent or GAS. Many variations of the antisolvent technique are available using specific nozzle configurations and solvent introduction techniques.
Supercritical CO2 is a unique solvent that has the characteristics of variable density, low viscosity, and high diffusivity. The manipulation of these characteristics has led to numerous applications of this green solvent in diverse areas including extractions, impregnations, particle formation, and cleaning.
References
“The Nexus Blog” is a sister publication of “The Nexus” newsletter. To sign up for the newsletter, please email [email protected], or if you have an ACS ID, login to your email preferences and select “The Nexus” to subscribe.
To read other posts, go to Green Chemistry: The Nexus Blog home.
You must be a registered user to add a comment. If you've already registered, sign in. Otherwise, register and sign in. | https://communities.acs.org:443/t5/GCI-Nexus-Blog/Why-is-CO2-a-Green-Solvent/ba-p/16071 |
Distillation, involves the process of converting a liquid into a vapor and then condensing it back into liquid form. The simplest example of this is the deposition of vapor in a kettle as distilled water droplets on a cold surface. Distillation is used to separate liquids from non-volatile solids, such as in the separation of fermented materials from spirits, or in the separation of liquids having two or more different boiling points, such as in the separation of gasoline, kerosene, and lubricating oils from crude oil. Other industrial applications include the processing of chemical products such as formaldehyde and phenol, and desalination of seawater.
Most distillation methods used in industry and laboratory research are variations of simple distillation. This basic operation requires the use of a still or distiller in which the liquid is heated, a condenser to cool the vapor, and a receiver to collect the distillate. In heating a mixture of substances, the most volatile or lowest boiling point substances are distilled first and the others are distilled later or not distilled at all. This simple apparatus is perfectly satisfactory for purifying liquids containing nonvolatile substances and is adequate for separating liquids with widely varying boiling points. For laboratory use, the device is usually made of glass and connected to a cork, rubber stopper or frosted glass fitting. For industrial applications, larger metal or ceramic devices are used.
Multi-effect distillation, often called multi-stage flash distillation, is another elaboration of simple distillation. This operation is used primarily by large commercial desalination plants and does not require heat to convert the liquid to vapor. The liquid is simply transferred from a vessel at high pressure to a vessel at lower pressure. The reduced pressure causes the liquid to evaporate rapidly; the resulting vapor is then condensed into a distillate.
Steam distillation is another method of achieving distillation at a temperature below the normal boiling point. It is suitable when the material being distilled is immiscible (cannot be mixed) and does not react chemically with water. Examples of such materials include fatty acids and soybean oil. The usual procedure is to pass steam into the liquid in the distiller to provide heat and cause the liquid to evaporate.
A variation of the decompression process uses a vacuum pump to produce a very high vacuum. This method is called vacuum distillation and is sometimes used to process substances that normally boil at inconveniently high temperatures or decompose when boiling at atmospheric pressure.
A method called fractional distillation or differential distillation has been developed for certain applications,such as petroleum refining, because simple distillation is ineffective for separating liquids with boiling points close to each other. In this operation, the vapors from the distillation are repeatedly condensed and re-evaporated in an adiabatic vertical column. Of particular importance in this regard are the distillation head, the fractionation column and the condenser, which allow some condensed vapor to be returned to the distillation. The goal is to achieve the closest possible contact between the rising vapor and the descending liquid so that only the most volatile substances are allowed to enter the receiver as vapor, while returning the less volatile substances to the distillers as liquid. The purification of the more volatile components by this contact between the countercurrent vapor and liquid streams is known as distillation or concentration. | https://www.slchemtech.com/news/what-are-the-methods-of-distillation.html |
# Continuous distillation
Continuous distillation, a form of distillation, is an ongoing separation in which a mixture is continuously (without interruption) fed into the process and separated fractions are removed continuously as output streams. Distillation is the separation or partial separation of a liquid feed mixture into components or fractions by selective boiling (or evaporation) and condensation. The process produces at least two output fractions. These fractions include at least one volatile distillate fraction, which has boiled and been separately captured as a vapor condensed to a liquid, and practically always a bottoms (or residuum) fraction, which is the least volatile residue that has not been separately captured as a condensed vapor.
An alternative to continuous distillation is batch distillation, where the mixture is added to the unit at the start of the distillation, distillate fractions are taken out sequentially in time (one after another) during the distillation, and the remaining bottoms fraction is removed at the end. Because each of the distillate fractions are taken out at different times, only one distillate exit point (location) is needed for a batch distillation and the distillate can just be switched to a different receiver, a fraction-collecting container. Batch distillation is often used when smaller quantities are distilled. In a continuous distillation, each of the fraction streams is taken simultaneously throughout operation; therefore, a separate exit point is needed for each fraction. In practice when there are multiple distillate fractions, the distillate exit points are located at different heights on a fractionating column. The bottoms fraction can be taken from the bottom of the distillation column or unit, but is often taken from a reboiler connected to the bottom of the column.
Each fraction may contain one or more components (types of chemical compounds). When distilling crude oil or a similar feedstock, each fraction contains many components of similar volatility and other properties. Although it is possible to run a small-scale or laboratory continuous distillation, most often continuous distillation is used in a large-scale industrial process.
## Industrial application
Distillation is one of the unit operations of chemical engineering. Continuous distillation is used widely in the chemical process industries where large quantities of liquids have to be distilled. Such industries are the natural gas processing, petrochemical production, coal tar processing, liquor production, liquified air separation, hydrocarbon solvents production, cannabinoid separation and similar industries, but it finds its widest application in petroleum refineries. In such refineries, the crude oil feedstock is a very complex multicomponent mixture that must be separated and yields of pure chemical compounds are not expected, only groups of compounds within a relatively small range of boiling points, which are called fractions. These fractions are the origin of the term fractional distillation or fractionation. It is often not worthwhile separating the components in these fractions any further based on product requirements and economics.
Industrial distillation is typically performed in large, vertical cylindrical columns (as shown in images 1 and 2) known as "distillation towers" or "distillation columns" with diameters ranging from about 65 centimeters to 11 meters and heights ranging from about 6 meters to 60 meters or more.
## Principle
The principle for continuous distillation is the same as for normal distillation: when a liquid mixture is heated so that it boils, the composition of the vapor above the liquid differs from the liquid composition. If this vapor is then separated and condensed into a liquid, it becomes richer in the lower boiling point component(s) of the original mixture.
This is what happens in a continuous distillation column. A mixture is heated up, and routed into the distillation column. On entering the column, the feed starts flowing down but part of it, the component(s) with lower boiling point(s), vaporizes and rises. However, as it rises, it cools and while part of it continues up as vapor, some of it (enriched in the less volatile component) begins to descend again.
Image 3 depicts a simple continuous fractional distillation tower for separating a feed stream into two fractions, an overhead distillate product and a bottoms product. The "lightest" products (those with the lowest boiling point or highest volatility) exit from the top of the columns and the "heaviest" products (the bottoms, those with the highest boiling point) exit from the bottom of the column. The overhead stream may be cooled and condensed using a water-cooled or air-cooled condenser. The bottoms reboiler may be a steam-heated or hot oil-heated heat exchanger, or even a gas or oil-fired furnace.
In a continuous distillation, the system is kept in a steady state or approximate steady state. Steady state means that quantities related to the process do not change as time passes during operation. Such constant quantities include feed input rate, output stream rates, heating and cooling rates, reflux ratio, and temperatures, pressures, and compositions at every point (location). Unless the process is disturbed due to changes in feed, heating, ambient temperature, or condensing, steady state is normally maintained. This is also the main attraction of continuous distillation, apart from the minimum amount of (easily instrumentable) surveillance; if the feed rate and feed composition are kept constant, product rate and quality are also constant. Even when a variation in conditions occurs, modern process control methods are commonly able to gradually return the continuous process to another steady state again.
Since a continuous distillation unit is fed constantly with a feed mixture and not filled all at once like a batch distillation, a continuous distillation unit does not need a sizable distillation pot, vessel, or reservoir for a batch fill. Instead, the mixture can be fed directly into the column, where the actual separation occurs. The height of the feed point along the column can vary on the situation and is designed so as to provide optimal results. See McCabe–Thiele method.
A continuous distillation is often a fractional distillation and can be a vacuum distillation or a steam distillation.
## Design and operation
Design and operation of a distillation column depends on the feed and desired products. Given a simple, binary component feed, analytical methods such as the McCabe–Thiele method or the Fenske equation can be used to assist in the design. For a multi-component feed, computerized simulation models are used both for design and subsequently in operation of the column as well. Modeling is also used to optimize already erected columns for the distillation of mixtures other than those the distillation equipment was originally designed for.
When a continuous distillation column is in operation, it has to be closely monitored for changes in feed composition, operating temperature and product composition. Many of these tasks are performed using advanced computer control equipment.
### Column feed
The column can be fed in different ways. If the feed is from a source at a pressure higher than the distillation column pressure, it is simply piped into the column. Otherwise, the feed is pumped or compressed into the column. The feed may be a superheated vapor, a saturated vapor, a partially vaporized liquid-vapor mixture, a saturated liquid (i.e., liquid at its boiling point at the column's pressure), or a sub-cooled liquid. If the feed is a liquid at a much higher pressure than the column pressure and flows through a pressure let-down valve just ahead of the column, it will immediately expand and undergo a partial flash vaporization resulting in a liquid-vapor mixture as it enters the distillation column.
### Improving separation
Although small size units, mostly made of glass, can be used in laboratories, industrial units are large, vertical, steel vessels (see images 1 and 2) known as "distillation towers" or "distillation columns". To improve the separation, the tower is normally provided inside with horizontal plates or trays as shown in image 5, or the column is packed with a packing material. To provide the heat required for the vaporization involved in distillation and also to compensate for heat loss, heat is most often added to the bottom of the column by a reboiler, and the purity of the top product can be improved by recycling some of the externally condensed top product liquid as reflux. Depending on their purpose, distillation columns may have liquid outlets at intervals up the length of the column as shown in image 4.
#### Reflux
Large-scale industrial fractionation towers use reflux to achieve more efficient separation of products. Reflux refers to the portion of the condensed overhead liquid product from a distillation tower that is returned to the upper part of the tower as shown in images 3 and 4. Inside the tower, the downflowing reflux liquid provides cooling and partial condensation of the upflowing vapors, thereby increasing the efficacy of the distillation tower. The more reflux that is provided, the better is the tower's separation of the lower boiling from the higher boiling components of the feed. A balance of heating with a reboiler at the bottom of a column and cooling by condensed reflux at the top of the column maintains a temperature gradient (or gradual temperature difference) along the height of the column to provide good conditions for fractionating the feed mixture. Reflux flows at the middle of the tower are called pumparounds.
Changing the reflux (in combination with changes in feed and product withdrawal) can also be used to improve the separation properties of a continuous distillation column while in operation (in contrast to adding plates or trays, or changing the packing, which would, at a minimum, require quite significant downtime).
#### Plates or trays
Distillation towers (such as in images 3 and 4) use various vapor and liquid contacting methods to provide the required number of equilibrium stages. Such devices are commonly known as "plates" or "trays". Each of these plates or trays is at a different temperature and pressure. The stage at the tower bottom has the highest pressure and temperature. Progressing upwards in the tower, the pressure and temperature decreases for each succeeding stage. The vapor–liquid equilibrium for each feed component in the tower reacts in its unique way to the different pressure and temperature conditions at each of the stages. That means that each component establishes a different concentration in the vapor and liquid phases at each of the stages, and this results in the separation of the components. Some example trays are depicted in image 5. A more detailed, expanded image of two trays can be seen in the theoretical plate article. The reboiler often acts as an additional equilibrium stage.
If each physical tray or plate were 100% efficient, then the number of physical trays needed for a given separation would equal the number of equilibrium stages or theoretical plates. However, that is very seldom the case. Hence, a distillation column needs more plates than the required number of theoretical vapor–liquid equilibrium stages.
#### Packing
Another way of improving the separation in a distillation column is to use a packing material instead of trays. These offer the advantage of a lower pressure drop across the column (when compared to plates or trays), beneficial when operating under vacuum. If a distillation tower uses packing instead of trays, the number of necessary theoretical equilibrium stages is first determined and then the packing height equivalent to a theoretical equilibrium stage, known as the height equivalent to a theoretical plate (HETP), is also determined. The total packing height required is the number of theoretical stages multiplied by the HETP.
This packing material can either be random dumped packing such as Raschig rings or structured sheet metal. Liquids tend to wet the surface of the packing and the vapors pass across this wetted surface, where mass transfer takes place. Unlike conventional tray distillation in which every tray represents a separate point of vapor–liquid equilibrium, the vapor–liquid equilibrium curve in a packed column is continuous. However, when modeling packed columns it is useful to compute a number of theoretical plates to denote the separation efficiency of the packed column with respect to more traditional trays. Differently shaped packings have different surface areas and void space between packings. Both of these factors affect packing performance.
Another factor in addition to the packing shape and surface area that affects the performance of random or structured packing is liquid and vapor distribution entering the packed bed. The number of theoretical stages required to make a given separation is calculated using a specific vapor to liquid ratio. If the liquid and vapor are not evenly distributed across the superficial tower area as it enters the packed bed, the liquid to vapor ratio will not be correct in the packed bed and the required separation will not be achieved. The packing will appear to not be working properly. The height equivalent to a theoretical plate (HETP) will be greater than expected. The problem is not the packing itself but the mal-distribution of the fluids entering the packed bed. Liquid mal-distribution is more frequently the problem than vapor. The design of the liquid distributors used to introduce the feed and reflux to a packed bed is critical to making the packing perform at maximum efficiency. Methods of evaluating the effectiveness of a liquid distributor can be found in references.
### Overhead system arrangements
Images 4 and 5 assume an overhead stream that is totally condensed into a liquid product using water or air-cooling. However, in many cases, the tower overhead is not easily condensed totally and the reflux drum must include a vent gas outlet stream. In yet other cases, the overhead stream may also contain water vapor because either the feed stream contains some water or some steam is injected into the distillation tower (which is the case in the crude oil distillation towers in oil refineries). In those cases, if the distillate product is insoluble in water, the reflux drum may contain a condensed liquid distillate phase, a condensed water phase and a non-condensible gas phase, which makes it necessary that the reflux drum also have a water outlet stream.
## Multicomponent distillation
Beside fractional distillation, that is mainly used for crude oil refining, multicomponent mixtures are usually processed in order to purify their single components by means of a series of distillation columns, i.e. the distillation train.
### Distillation train
A distillation train is defined by a sequence of distillation columns arranged in series or in parallel whose aim is the multicomponent mixtures purification.
### Process intensifying alternatives
The Dividing Wall Column unit is most common process-intensifying unit related to distillation. In particular, it is the arrangement in a single column shell of the Petlyuk configuration that has been proved to be thermodynamically equivalent.
## Examples
### Continuous distillation of crude oil
Petroleum crude oils contain hundreds of different hydrocarbon compounds: paraffins, naphthenes and aromatics as well as organic sulfur compounds, organic nitrogen compounds and some oxygen-containing hydrocarbons such as phenols. Although crude oils generally do not contain olefins, they are formed in many of the processes used in a petroleum refinery.
The crude oil fractionator does not produce products having a single boiling point; rather, it produces fractions having boiling ranges. For example, the crude oil fractionator produces an overhead fraction called "naphtha" which becomes a gasoline component after it is further processed through a catalytic hydrodesulfurizer to remove sulfur and a catalytic reformer to reform its hydrocarbon molecules into more complex molecules with a higher octane rating value.
The naphtha cut, as that fraction is called, contains many different hydrocarbon compounds. Therefore, it has an initial boiling point of about 35 °C and a final boiling point of about 200 °C. Each cut produced in the fractionating columns has a different boiling range. At some distance below the overhead, the next cut is withdrawn from the side of the column and it is usually the jet fuel cut, also known as a kerosene cut. The boiling range of that cut is from an initial boiling point of about 150 °C to a final boiling point of about 270 °C, and it also contains many different hydrocarbons. The next cut further down the tower is the diesel oil cut with a boiling range from about 180 °C to about 315 °C. The boiling ranges between any cut and the next cut overlap because the distillation separations are not perfectly sharp. After these come the heavy fuel oil cuts and finally the bottoms product, with very wide boiling ranges. All these cuts are processed further in subsequent refining processes.
### Continuous distillation of cannabis concentrates
A typical application for distilling cannabis concentrates is butane hash oil (BHO). Short path distillation is a popular method due to the short residence time which allows for minimal thermal stress to the concentrate. In other distillation methods such as circulation, falling film and column distillation the concentrate would be damaged from the long residence times and high temperatures that must be applied. | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuous_distillation |
PrincipleFlash distillation uses vaporization to separate the compounds. Hot liquid mixtures get vaporized in flash vaporization when they pass from high-pressure zones to low-pressure zones. Liquid vaporizes as pressure is reduced, which reduces the boiling point. The process of vaporization leads to a decrease in temperature as the liquid vaporizes. Vapour molecules with low boiling points become condensed while vapour molecules with high boiling points remain in the vapour phase. These two phases are in contact until saturation occurs. Vapours are allowed to condense further at the bottom, while liquids fall to the bottom and are collected.
MethodologyPumping liquid mixtures through heaters raises their temperature and enthalpy. After flowing through a valve, the liquid is partially vaporized as the pressure is reduced. The liquids and vapours separate when they reach a large enough volume, the "flash drum". Due to the close proximity of the vapours and the liquid, the "flash" occurs, and the phases of the product approach equilibrium. Both continuous and multi-level operation are possible. During operation, all inputs are synchronized to outputs, such that the proportions of vapour and liquid in the flash drum remain constant at all times.
Applications
- This chemical is used in the refining of crude oil.
- By multi-stage flash distillation, it is used to desalinate ocean water.
- Separating heptane from octane is also possible with this apparatus.
Fractional Distillation
PrincipleDissolved liquids are separated through fractional distillation, which entails the separation of miscible liquids. Recurrent distillation and condensation are usually used to separate the mixture into its constituent parts. During heating, fractions of the mixture begin to vaporize, causing separation. Different liquids boil and evaporate at different temperatures, which is the basic principle behind this type of distillation. Due to its low boiling point, the substance with the lowest boiling point is the first to evaporate when the mixture is heated.
MethodologyThe fractional distillation process does not require many apparatuses. Distilling flasks, condensers, receivers, fractionating columns, thermometers and means of heating are included.
The apparatus is set up in such a way that a mixture of two highly volatile miscible liquids A and B is prepared. The solution is added to the distilling flask while the fractionating column is mounted at the tip of the flask. A slow heat is applied to the solution to increase its temperature. In the flask, vapours rise as the mixture begins to boil. Volatile components A are present in this sample. After passing through the fractionating column, the vapors are cooled to form a liquid in the condenser. In the process, the two mixtures are continuously vaporized and condensed until they are completely separated. | https://www.pharmaguideline.com/2007/02/basic-principle-and-methodology-of-flash-and-fractional-distillation.html |
Separating the components of a mixture :
Many of the material around us are mixtures, these mixtures have two or more than two constituents mixed in them. It may not be possible to use a mixture as such in homes and in industries. We may require only one or two separate constituents of a mixture for our use. So, we have to separate the various mixtures into their individual constituents to make them useful in our daily life.
The various constituents of a mixture have different physical properties such as density, solubility, size of particles volatility, boiling points, etc.
Heterogeneous mixtures can be separated into their respective components by simple physical methods such as hand picking, sieving, filtration etc. in everyday life. However, for separating homogeneous mixtures special techniques are employed depending upon the difference in one or more.
`Separation of coloured components (Dye) from Blue or Black ink :
The blue ink (or black ink) used in fountain pens is a liquid mixture. It is a mixture of a 'dye' in water. We can separate the 'coloured component (dye) by the process of evaporation. In process of separation, we do not heat the china dish containing ink directly over the flame.This is because the 'dye' obtained from ink can get decomposed by the high temperature produced by the direct heating with a burner. We use a 'water bath' for evaporating ink.
Experiment to obtain coloured component (Dye) from ink :
We take a beaker and fill it half with water (as a water bath). About 5ml of ink (Blue ink or black ink) is put in a china dish. The china dish containing ink is then placed over the mouth of the beaker containing water, which is kept on a tripod stand.
We now start heating the beaker with a burner, soon the water in beaker starts boiling to form steam, this steam heats the ink in the china dish. Due to this heating, the water present in ink starts evaporating gradually. When all the water has evaporated from the ink. we stop heating. We will find that a small amount of a solid coloured material is left in the china dish. Thus we can separate the volatile component (Solvent) from its non-volatile solute by the method of evaporation.
Separation of Cream from milk :
Sometimes the solid particles in a liquid are very small and pass through a filter paper. for such particles, the filtration technique cannot be used for separation. Such mixtures are separated by centrifugation.
Centrifugation :
The method of separating finely suspended particles in a liquid, by whirling the liquid at a very high speed is called centrifugation.
Principal of centrifugation: It is based on that when a very fine suspension or a colloidal solution is whirled rapidly, the heavier particles are forced towards the bottom of liquid and the lighter stay at the top.
Method :
Milk is a suspension of tiny droplets of oil cream in a water of liquids. The milk is put in a closed container in big centrifugation machine. When the centrifugation machine is switched on, the milk is rotated at a very high speed in its container. Due to this, the milk separates into 'cream' and 'skimmed milk'. The cream, being lighter, floats over the skimmed milk can then be removed. Thus, the cream is separated from milk by centrifugation.
Application of centrifugation :
Separation of a mixture of two immiscible liquids :
The separation of two immiscible liquids is based on the difference in their densities. The apparatus used for separation is separating funnel.
Methods :
The mixture of two immiscible liquids is put in a separating funnel and allowed to stand for some time. The mixture separates into two layers according to the densities of the liquids in it.
Water and kerosene oil are two immiscible liquids. Pour the immiscible liquids mixture in the separating funnel. Allow the mixture to stand for half an hour or more. It forms two layers. Water being heavier forms the lower layers in the separating funnel. Whereas kerosene, being lighter, forms the upper layer: on opening the stop-cock of separating funnel, the lower layer of water comes out first and collected in a beaker. When the water layer has completely run off, then the stopcock is closed. The kerosene is left behind in the separating funnel. It can be removed in a separate breaker by opening the stop-cock again.
Application :
Separation of a mixture of common salt and Ammonium Chloride :
This method is used in the separation of such solid-solid mixtures where one of the components sublimes on heating. However, it is useful only if the components of the mixture do not react chemically on heating. So, we can separate ammonium chloride from a mixture of common salt and ammonium chloride by this process.
Methods :
The mixtures of common salt and ammonium chloride are taken in a china dish and placed on a tripod stand. The china dish is covered with an inverted glass funnel. A loose cotton plug is put in the upper, open end of the funnel to prevent the ammonium chloride vapours from escaping into the atmosphere. The china dish is heated by using a low Bunsen flame, on heating the mixture ammonium chloride changes into white vapour. These vapours rise up and get converted into solid ammonium chloride on coming in contact with the cold, inner walls of the funnel.
When the mixture gives off no more white fumes, lift the funnel, scrap the fine white powder from its sides on a piece of paper. This is pure ammonium chloride. The residue left behind in the funnel is sodium chloride. Some examples of solids which sublime are camphor, naphthalene and anthracene.
Chromatography :
The process of separation of different dissolved constituents of a mixture by adsorbing them over an appropriate adsorbent material is called Chromatography. Kroma in Greek means colour. The adsorbent medium is generally magnesium oxide, alumina or filter paper.
There are many types of chromatography but the simplest form is the paper chromatography. This separation is based on the fact that the different constituents of a mixture get adsorbed differently on the same adsorbent material because they have different rates of movement. The rate of movement of each adsorbed material depends upon.
The relative solubility of the constituent of a mixture in a given solvent. The relative affinity of the constituents of the mixture for the adsorbent medium. Paper chromatography is very useful in separating various constituents of coloured solutes present in a mixture lime, ink, dyes etc.
Separation of coloured constituents present in a mixture of ink and water.
Method :
The different coloured dyes present in black ink can be separated by performing a paper chromatography.
Application :
To separate
1. Colours in a dye
2. Pigments from natural colours
3. Drugs from the blood.
Separation of a mixture of two miscible liquids :
Those liquids which mix together in all proportions and form a single layer are called miscible liquids. Alcohol and water are miscible liquids because they mix together in all proportions and form a single layer on mixing.
To separate a mixture of two or more miscible liquids for which the difference in boiling points is less than 25K, fractional distillation process is used.
A simple fractionating column is a long vertical glass tube filled with glass beads. The glass beads provide a large surface area for hot vapours to cool and condense respectively.
Separate a mixture of Ethyl alcohol and water
Method :
Ethyl alcohol and water are miscible liquids. The boiling point of ethyl alcohol is 78°C and the boiling point of water is 100°C, a mixture of ethyl alcohol and water can be separated by fractional distillation. The mixture of ethyl alcohol and water is heated in distillation flask fitted with a fractionating column. When the mixture is heated, both ethyl alcohol and water form vapours as their boiling points approach. The ethyl alcohol vapour and water vapour rise up in the fractionating column. The upper part of the fractionating column is cooler, so as the hot vapours rise up in the column, they get cooled, condense and trickle back into the distillation flask. As the experiment goes on, the fractionating column warms up by the heat released by the condensed vapours. After some time, the temperature at the top of the column is much less than at its bottom. When the temperature at the top of the fractionating column reaches 78°C, then ethyl alcohol vapour passes into the condenser, gets cooled and collects in a beaker kept at the end of the condenser. The ethyl alcohol water mixture is kept boiling at such a rate that the thermometer shows the boiling points of ethyl alcohol (78°C). In this way, all the ethyl alcohol distils over and gets separated.
Separation of the Gases of the air :
Air is a mixture of gases like nitrogen, oxygen, argon, carbon dioxide, helium, neon etc. The major component of air is nitrogen (78.03%). The second major component of air is oxygen (20.99%) and the third major component of air is argon (0.93%).
All these gases are obtained from the air on a large scale. This is because air is the cheapest source of these gases.
Air is a homogeneous mixture and can be separated into its components by fractional distillation of liquid air.
Methods :
Separation of pure copper sulphate from an impure sample :
The process involved in obtaining pure copper sulphate from its impure sample is crystallisation.
Crystallisation :
The process of cooling a hot, concentrated solution of a substance to obtain crystals is called crystallisation. Crystallisation is a process that separates a pure solid in the form of its crystals from a solution.
Methods :
Application :
1. Purification of salt that we get from sea water
2. Separation of crystals of alum (phitkari) from impure samples.
Supply of drinking water in a city :
In cities, drinking water is supplied from water works. In water works, the methods like sedimentation, decantation, loading, filtration and chlorination etc are used to remove undesirable materials from water. The source of water supply in a city is either a nearby river or a lake called reservoir. The river water and lake water usually contain suspended solid substances and some germs, so, before this water can be supplied to homes, it must be purified to remove suspended impurities as well as germs.
The purification of river water or lake water is done in the following steps.
(1) Sedimentation: The water is allowed to stand in big tanks, where heavier suspended impurities settle down. To increase the rate of sedimentation, alum is added to it. The impurities settle at the bottom.
(2) Filtration: The semi-clear water is allowed to pass through beds of sand, charcoal and gravel to remove suspended impurities.
(3) Removal of harmful - organism or sterilisation: The harmful bacteria in filtered water can cause very serious diseases such as typhoid, cholera etc. Thus, to the filtered water bleaching powder or chlorine gas is added. This kills the microorganisms and hence the water becomes fit for drinking. This water is directly pumped into overhead tanks for supply to a city. | https://edurev.in/studytube/Separating-Components-of-a-Mixture-Is-Matter-Aroun/fc3a7f8f-5c18-4d17-a76c-708d764f7142_t |
This course overviews the fundamental concepts and results underlying the science of computing. It will provide both an introduction to algorithm design, discussing concrete algorithms and data structures, and an investigation into the limits of mechanization (intractability and noncomputability). The course addresses the needs both of professional programmers and students with little or no programming background. The style of presentation will make intensive use of visual techniques, complementing the traditional programmatic approach to algorithmics.
Frequency
This course normally runs twice a year.
Course dates
|20th February 2023||Oxford University Department of Computer Science - Held in the Department||0 places remaining.|
|2nd October 2023||Oxford University Department of Computer Science||0 places remaining.|
Objectives
At the end of the course, students will we able to solve algorithmic problems using a range of methods. They will know concrete algorithms and a variety of different data structures. They will also be aware of problems that computers cannot solve.
Contents
Contents
1. Introduction and Historical Review
2. Algorithms and Data
- Elementary Data Structures: lists and arrays
3. Programming Languages and Paradigms
4. Algorithmic Methods
- Design of Algorithms by Induction
- Divide and Conquer
- Greedy Algorithms
- Dynamic Programming and Memoization
5. Correctness of Algorithms
6. Efficiency of Algorithms
- Sorting: comparison-based sorting, sorting networks, key-based sorting
- Searching: comparison-based searching, key-based searching
- Order Statistics and Priority Queues
- Graph Algorithms
- Computational Geometry
7. Inefficiency and Intractability
8. Noncomputability and Undecidability
9. Algorithmic Universality and its Robustness
Requirements
There are no prerequisites, though some familiarity with programming (in any language) will be helpful. | https://www.cs.ox.ac.uk/softeng/subjects/ALG.html |
You are viewing the 2017-18 archived Undergraduate Catalog. Please note that any courses you search will display results for the current academic year. If you need course information for the 2017-18 academic year, please select the desired subject from the subject list on this page.
Search Results
CSE 331LR Algorithms and ComplexityLecture
Introduces paradigms for designing algorithms and fundamental limitations to what algorithms can do. Covers basic algorithm design paradigms of greedy algorithms, divide and conquer algorithms and dynamic programming, as well as a selection of advanced algorithmic topics, such as randomized algorithms, algorithms for distributed systems and basic algorithms for machine learning. Topics related to limitations of algorithms include NP-completeness and undecidability. Coverage includes analyzing algorithms via proofs and programming assignments to implement algorithms.
Grading: Graded (GRD)
Typically Offered: Fall, Spring
Prerequisites: MTH 142 and CSE 250 and (CSE 191 or MTH 311). Approved Computer Science, Computer Engineering, Bioinformatics/CS Majors only. | https://catalog.buffalo.edu/archive/1718/courses/?abbr=CSE&num=331 |
Jan 20, 2017
I liked the fact that the algorithms are not just the introductory searching and sorting algorithms. The assignments are fairly difficult (I have decent scripting experience), but not impossibly so.
Sep 29, 2017
good course, I like the fact you can use a lot of languages for you programming exercises, the content is really helpful, I would like to have more indications from the grading system to save time.
автор: Namish A•
Jun 12, 2020
I loved this course as it has taught me the basics of every algorithm that needs to be implemented in daily life of a programmer.
I have learned a good amount of techniques from this course.
автор: Himanshu A•
May 27, 2020
Really an Amazing Experience and get to learn so much in short time, Even harder Algorithms are starting to get clicked in my neurons... Thank you Teachs for so much Knowledge and Practice..
автор: Shabbir K•
Apr 12, 2020
A really really good course. All the instructors were great. The course content was perfect, the level of programming assignments is good. Overall a very detailed course. Highly Recommended!
автор: Jay C•
Jun 12, 2020
It was awesome to be part of this course.I started learning Dynamic Programming for the first time with this course.Thanks to Lecturers and Professors and University for making this Course.
автор: Sawal M•
Apr 18, 2017
Great course! The programming assignments are very helpful in understanding the topics in the course. It would be better if the threshold to pass the assignment is increased to 50% or more.
автор: Balaji R•
Jul 03, 2020
This course was really helpful, I have learnt more from this course than I have from my college. The only problem I had was that I found it hard to understand one of the professors accent.
автор: Priyesh P•
Apr 11, 2019
I had a very good experience doing this course. I have refined my algorithmic skills with this course and can apply the concepts really well at competitive programming. Thanks to coursera!
автор: Jasmine N•
Aug 07, 2016
I thought this was really helpful for my day to day career as a developer. It helped give me better tools to talk about what I am working on as well as introducing me to some new concepts.
автор: Danstan O O•
May 13, 2019
This course is great and has helped me get started well with algorithms. Thanks, Coursera, and the partners. Learning with implementation examples in different languages is really great.
автор: Nishit P•
May 08, 2020
It is an absolutely best guide for the intermediate learners trying to gain a sharper knowledge on algorithms and techniques which they know about but find it difficult to understand!
автор: Prashant S•
Oct 26, 2017
Very well organised series and all problems are explained with the help of good examples, you need basic programming understanding of functions and arrays to go through these lecture.
автор: Guntur K J•
Jul 02, 2020
this course has made me speed up my algorithms of my programs and the puzzles provided before a particular topic are so good that we can understand how we should approach a problem.
автор: Rishabh A•
Apr 12, 2020
The course is really good and provides a good understanding. Just the assignments provided are too tough which I a good thing but there is no proper information on how to solve them.
автор: Sam D•
Aug 04, 2017
I really enjoy this course, and I can definitely say that this specialization is perfect for those who would like to learn programming from the base and use it in different languages
автор: Hemanth K B•
Aug 04, 2016
I have solved more problems in this course compared to any other courses. This course has laid foundation to solve more problems in Dynamic Programming. Thank you to the entire team.
автор: pratik r•
Sep 11, 2017
every important concept are cleared in this course.This course gives you idea to how to take right approach by giving tools like greedy algo, divide & conquer and dynamic approach.
автор: Himanshu y•
Jan 01, 2020
coursera is really a best platform to learn the new skills . this course will definitely helped me a lot for getting my new job. fresher's like me are really thankful to coursera.
автор: Nguyen M H•
Oct 22, 2018
I am embedded software engineer, I want to learn more about computer science. This course give me usefull techniques to solve problem. Thanks instructor for well lecture and slide
автор: philip g•
Apr 20, 2017
Awesome course. Great exercises (although can be frustratingly challenging at times!) Divide and conquer and dynamic programming new to me, have learned a lot. Highly recommended!
автор: Saruar M•
Jan 15, 2019
Great course! explanations are good, problems are challenging enough to help truly understand the material. No nonsense. Highly recommend to who is beginning to learn algorithms.
автор: Patrick L•
May 19, 2016
Love how clear the professors explain the not-so-straighforward context. I enjoyed every single moment. The assignments constitute the biggest part of understanding and learning.
автор: Henry H•
Jun 30, 2020
The course provided me with a very solid foundation of algorithms and provided an excellent array of homework challenges. Every intermediate programmer should take this course.
автор: Khai P T•
Dec 02, 2018
The course is fundamentally useful, this helped me out a lot to discover my enthusiasm since my background is non-IT. I'm on the way to the second course in this specialization!
автор: Jack W•
Jul 25, 2017
Really good comprehensive overview of fundamental algorithmic techniques. The programming assignments are challenging at times, but the forums are super helpful for discussions. | https://ru.coursera.org/learn/algorithmic-toolbox/reviews?authMode=signup&page=11 |
The basic topics are covered in the undergraduate course COMP 4039, Introduction to Data Structures and the more advanced topics are covered in the graduate course COMP 6785, Analysis of Algorithms.
Topics:
- Basic notions of discrete mathematics: sets, functions, equivalence relations, recursive functions, trees, graphs, binary representation of integers and real numbers.
- Asymptotic behavior of a function: O, Ω and Ө notation, asymptotic comparison of functions, solution of recursive functions by using induction or the Master Theorem. A proof of the Master Theorem is not required however the student should be able to apply the theorem.
- Sorting: asymptotic analysis of the execution time of several sorting algorithms: Bubble sort, Merge sort, Heapsort, Quicksort. Lower bound of sorting algorithms based on comparisons.
- Special sorting algorithms: Radix sort, Bucket sort y Linear sort. Order statistics
- Analysis and implementation of elementary data structures: lists, queues, stacks, pointers.
- Analysis, implementation and application of more advanced data structures: priority queues, disjoint sets, binary trees, search trees, balanced trees, Red-Black trees, AVL trees, interval trees,
- Analysis of graph algorithms: breath first search, depth first search, connected components minimum spanning trees, Kruskal and Prim Algorithm, shortest paths algorithms.
- Analysis and application of programming techniques: divide and conquer, greedy method and dynamic programming
Bibliography:
- Introduction to Algorithms, T.H. Cormen, C.E. Leiserson and R.L. Rivest, MIT Press.
- The Design and Analysis of Computer Algorithms, A.V. Aho, J.E. Hopcroft and J.D. Ullman, Addison-Wesley.
- Computer Algorithms/C++, E. Horowitz and S. Sahni, Computer Science Press.
- Algorithms and Data structures, N. Wirth, Prentice Hall.
- The Art of Computer Programming, D. Knuth, Vol. 1-3, Addison-Wesley Professional.
- Algorithms, R. Sedgewick, Addison-Wesley Pub, 2nd edition.
- An Introduction to the Analysis of Algorithms, R. Sedgewick and P. Flajolet, Addison-Wesley Professional
- Applied and Algorithmic Graph Theory, G. Chartrand and O.R. Oellermann , International Series in Pure and Applied Mathematics, McGraw-Hill, Inc. | https://math.uprm.edu/academic/programs/dir-graduate/dir-exams/algorithms.html |
The course was really amazing which provided deep knowledge from basic to advance that how algorithms works and how to design algorithms. Thanks to all the expert teachers who taught in this course.
I liked the fact that the algorithms are not just the introductory searching and sorting algorithms. The assignments are fairly difficult (I have decent scripting experience), but not impossibly so.
автор: Himanshu A•
Really an Amazing Experience and get to learn so much in short time, Even harder Algorithms are starting to get clicked in my neurons... Thank you Teachs for so much Knowledge and Practice..
автор: Shabbir K•
A really really good course. All the instructors were great. The course content was perfect, the level of programming assignments is good. Overall a very detailed course. Highly Recommended!
автор: Souvik G•
This is very nice course taught by professional teachers. This course guides us to learn the basics of the computer algorithms based on the real world projects for the software development.
автор: Jay C•
It was awesome to be part of this course.I started learning Dynamic Programming for the first time with this course.Thanks to Lecturers and Professors and University for making this Course.
автор: Sawal M•
Great course! The programming assignments are very helpful in understanding the topics in the course. It would be better if the threshold to pass the assignment is increased to 50% or more.
автор: Vidhan G•
It was a course worth spending my time for..The assignments were of very good quality and the topics were taught very well , also the teaching staff of this course were very well informed.
автор: Balaji R R•
This course was really helpful, I have learnt more from this course than I have from my college. The only problem I had was that I found it hard to understand one of the professors accent.
автор: Priyesh P•
I had a very good experience doing this course. I have refined my algorithmic skills with this course and can apply the concepts really well at competitive programming. Thanks to coursera!
автор: Jasmine N•
I thought this was really helpful for my day to day career as a developer. It helped give me better tools to talk about what I am working on as well as introducing me to some new concepts.
автор: Danstan O O•
This course is great and has helped me get started well with algorithms. Thanks, Coursera, and the partners. Learning with implementation examples in different languages is really great.
автор: Nishant J•
This is an excellent course as it forces you to think. It took me over two months to complete and at times it felt really hard but now that I have finished it, I am really glad I did.
автор: Nishit P•
It is an absolutely best guide for the intermediate learners trying to gain a sharper knowledge on algorithms and techniques which they know about but find it difficult to understand!
автор: P S•
Very well organised series and all problems are explained with the help of good examples, you need basic programming understanding of functions and arrays to go through these lecture.
автор: Suraj•
Amazing experience. Gained so much in knowledge along with hands-on exercises. I could brush up my concepts taught in first year of B.Tech. Thankyou so much for the course. Gratitude
автор: GUNTUR K J•
this course has made me speed up my algorithms of my programs and the puzzles provided before a particular topic are so good that we can understand how we should approach a problem.
автор: Rishabh A•
The course is really good and provides a good understanding. Just the assignments provided are too tough which I a good thing but there is no proper information on how to solve them.
автор: Sam D•
I really enjoy this course, and I can definitely say that this specialization is perfect for those who would like to learn programming from the base and use it in different languages
автор: Hemanth K B•
I have solved more problems in this course compared to any other courses. This course has laid foundation to solve more problems in Dynamic Programming. Thank you to the entire team.
автор: pratik r•
every important concept are cleared in this course.This course gives you idea to how to take right approach by giving tools like greedy algo, divide & conquer and dynamic approach.
автор: Yashuv B•
This course is worth taking because it makes one start from basic sorting algorithm to advanced dynamic algorithm with great fundamental concept and examples. Thanks to the team!!
автор: Himanshu y•
coursera is really a best platform to learn the new skills . this course will definitely helped me a lot for getting my new job. fresher's like me are really thankful to coursera.
автор: Nguyen M H•
I am embedded software engineer, I want to learn more about computer science. This course give me usefull techniques to solve problem. Thanks instructor for well lecture and slide
автор: Philip G•
Awesome course. Great exercises (although can be frustratingly challenging at times!) Divide and conquer and dynamic programming new to me, have learned a lot. Highly recommended!
автор: Saruar M•
Great course! explanations are good, problems are challenging enough to help truly understand the material. No nonsense. Highly recommend to who is beginning to learn algorithms.
автор: Patrick L•
Love how clear the professors explain the not-so-straighforward context. I enjoyed every single moment. The assignments constitute the biggest part of understanding and learning. | https://ru.coursera.org/learn/algorithmic-toolbox/reviews?page=14 |
Jan 20, 2017
I liked the fact that the algorithms are not just the introductory searching and sorting algorithms. The assignments are fairly difficult (I have decent scripting experience), but not impossibly so.
Sep 29, 2017
good course, I like the fact you can use a lot of languages for you programming exercises, the content is really helpful, I would like to have more indications from the grading system to save time.
par Priyesh P•
Apr 11, 2019
I had a very good experience doing this course. I have refined my algorithmic skills with this course and can apply the concepts really well at competitive programming. Thanks to coursera!
par Jasmine N•
Aug 07, 2016
I thought this was really helpful for my day to day career as a developer. It helped give me better tools to talk about what I am working on as well as introducing me to some new concepts.
par Danstan O O•
May 13, 2019
This course is great and has helped me get started well with algorithms. Thanks, Coursera, and the partners. Learning with implementation examples in different languages is really great.
par Prashant S•
Oct 26, 2017
Very well organised series and all problems are explained with the help of good examples, you need basic programming understanding of functions and arrays to go through these lecture.
par Sam D•
Aug 04, 2017
I really enjoy this course, and I can definitely say that this specialization is perfect for those who would like to learn programming from the base and use it in different languages
par Hemanth K B•
Aug 04, 2016
I have solved more problems in this course compared to any other courses. This course has laid foundation to solve more problems in Dynamic Programming. Thank you to the entire team.
par pratik r•
Sep 11, 2017
every important concept are cleared in this course.This course gives you idea to how to take right approach by giving tools like greedy algo, divide & conquer and dynamic approach.
par Himanshu y•
Jan 01, 2020
coursera is really a best platform to learn the new skills . this course will definitely helped me a lot for getting my new job. fresher's like me are really thankful to coursera.
par Nguyen M H•
Oct 22, 2018
I am embedded software engineer, I want to learn more about computer science. This course give me usefull techniques to solve problem. Thanks instructor for well lecture and slide
par philip g•
Apr 20, 2017
Awesome course. Great exercises (although can be frustratingly challenging at times!) Divide and conquer and dynamic programming new to me, have learned a lot. Highly recommended!
par Saruar M•
Jan 15, 2019
Great course! explanations are good, problems are challenging enough to help truly understand the material. No nonsense. Highly recommend to who is beginning to learn algorithms.
par Patrick L•
May 19, 2016
Love how clear the professors explain the not-so-straighforward context. I enjoyed every single moment. The assignments constitute the biggest part of understanding and learning.
par Khai T•
Dec 02, 2018
The course is fundamentally useful, this helped me out a lot to discover my enthusiasm since my background is non-IT. I'm on the way to the second course in this specialization!
par Jack W•
Jul 25, 2017
Really good comprehensive overview of fundamental algorithmic techniques. The programming assignments are challenging at times, but the forums are super helpful for discussions.
par Olesch A D•
Jun 10, 2018
The course instructors were very enthusiastic which definitely increased the excitement of learning. Assignments are challenging in the later weeks which is a huge plus point.
par Omar A E•
May 21, 2018
The course is very nice and i enjoyed most of the parts, however i think we can do better in the dynamic programming lessons , it was very hard to keep up with the instructor.
par Sean W•
Jul 09, 2017
Programming assignments are well calibrated in terms of difficulty and are where most of my learning happened. Alexander Kulikov stands out as a particularly good instructor.
par ANIL K G•
Dec 05, 2018
Its increased my thinking ability, now I am way to write efficient algorithm ad well as program. I recommend to every programmer should join this course and take advantage.
par Andreas M•
Dec 18, 2017
This course teaches the basics of algorithms. I watched it on 1.75 times speed with pauses at important points, because a lot of it is repetitive, especially the beginning.
par Jimut B P•
Jan 26, 2017
superb programming assignments, created sophisticated logic for solving high edge problems using O(log n) or O(n logn) complexity, this was very challenging and nice course
par Shivraj S•
Jan 31, 2019
Enjoyed the course. Would really appreciate if the auto-grader for assignments was for individual questions instead of all the questions clubbed together in an assignment.
par Abdous M•
Aug 21, 2019
My first MOOC, I learned so much, the lessons are clear and the exercises diversified, I encourage everyone to do the Algorithmic Toolbox, you will surely not regret it.
par Divya S•
Sep 03, 2019
Very good base in algorithms! My only request is, please reply to forum comments as it is difficult when programs fail and we do not know the test cases they failed on!
par Wong L L•
Aug 19, 2017
Excellent introduction to algorithms, though it can be quite challenging for beginners. Very good assignments for practice too. Good job to the course content creators. | https://fr.coursera.org/learn/algorithmic-toolbox/reviews?page=9 |
Principles of design of efficient algorithms: recursion, divide and conquer, balancing, dynamic programming, greedy method, data structure selection. Correctness and analysis of algorithms. Examples drawn from problems in sorting, searching, set manipulation, pattern matching, graphs, matrices, polynomials, and integers. | https://www.cis.um.edu.mo/msccourses.php?code=CISC7007°ree=2&year=16 |
Passionate Learner!
We all know that Data structures and Algorithms are the backbone of every concept we use. There are many concepts involved in Data structures and algorithms (for the sake of convenience, I'll use DSA). There will be many questions for a beginner like how to start learning DSA, as there are many concepts involved and he/she might get confused at the start. In this post, we are going to see a roadmap for learning DSA, which worked out for my friends. I am not saying that this is the perfect roadmap for DSA. You can use your own plans also but this is just an idea. So let's get started.
Pick any programming language of your choice. If you want to build DSA from scratch, I'll suggest C/C++.
For a fantastic building, you need an extraordinary basement. Get a good understanding of pointers, structures, classes, dynamic memory allocation, and recursion. Learn how to find time and space complexities of algorithms and learn about the notations.
Learn about what is an array, how do they work, how data is stored in an array, how memory is managed in an array, and all other things. After knowing the basics of arrays, learn about the operations that we can perform on arrays like, insertion, deletion, replacing, searching, etc.
Searching algorithms.
Learn basic searching algorithms such as, Linear search and Binary search, with their time complexities and use cases. There are many searching algorithms but learning these first will give a clear understanding of others.
Sorting algorithms.
Learn basic sorting algorithms that follow a NORMAL APPROACH such as selection sort, bubble sort, etc.
Learn about Divide and Conquer methodology. Sorting algorithms such as merge sort, quick sort, and others follow this methodology.
This is an important programming paradigm.
Learn about what is a linked list, how do they work, how data is stored, how memory is managed, and all other things. After knowing the basics of linked lists, learn about the operations that we can perform on them like insertion, deletion, searching, traversing, reversing, etc. Learn about their applications. Also know the different types of linked lists.
Follow the same steps as mentioned for linked lists.
Now we are coming to the most important part. Learn about binary trees, binary search trees, traversal methods, the height of a tree, and all other operations. Learn about the Depth-first search and Breadth-first search.
The same goes for Graphs. A tree, in fact, is a special type of graph.
Almost all algorithmic concepts that come under trees will definitely come under graphs. Do an IN-DEPTH analysis for understanding these data structures.
Greedy is an algorithmic paradigm. Almost 70 percent of algorithms under trees and graphs follow this methodology.
Greedy Algorithms
1.Dijkstra’s shortest path algorithm.
2.Prim’s and Kruskal's Minimum Spanning Tree.
3.Dial’s Algorithm (Optimized Dijkstra for small range weights)
And other algorithms that follow the greedy approach. These are very important algorithms. After learning, apply this concept in other kinds of data structures to get the solution to the problem in that specified data structure.
This is also an algorithmic paradigm. Give more concentration to this one, as this is the toughest one of all other paradigms. Know the basics of how this paradigm works and move to the understanding of these algorithms.
Algorithms
1.Traveling salesman problem
2.Coin change problem
3.Bit Masking.
Get a good grasp of these algorithms by practicing them again and again.
Know the foundation of this algorithm and learn about the N-Queens Problem. Practice as many problems as you can
After learning, try to apply a problem solving technique in some other data structure. For example, try dynamic programming approach in solving problems in arrays. | https://hackernoon.com/learning-roadmap-for-data-structures-and-algorithms-cu2032qh |
The course was really amazing which provided deep knowledge from basic to advance that how algorithms works and how to design algorithms. Thanks to all the expert teachers who taught in this course.
I liked the fact that the algorithms are not just the introductory searching and sorting algorithms. The assignments are fairly difficult (I have decent scripting experience), but not impossibly so.
By Daniel P•
The last topic (dynamic programming) was significantly more challenging than everything else in the course. It was also a topic I have not had previous exposure too -- overall, a great course!
By Fahri C D•
Good coverage of the material, with several videos dedicated to individual topics, accompanied with complementing problem sets which have a decent selection of semi-optional advanced problems.
By Dominykas I•
I really enjoyed my time spent on the course trying to understand how to implement algorithms. Although I didn't do everything 100%, the experience was amazing and I did learn a lot of stuff.
By Patrick G•
Great course! My only concern was that some of the homeworks seemed to take a little longer than advertised, but I really appreciate getting in-depth practice solving these types of problems.
By Carlo D•
Great course. All the presented algorithms were clearly explained, with step by step examples. Weekly assignment were a variation of presented exampled but still challenging and not trivial.
By Kartikey S•
This is a good course which improved my algorithmic thinking skills and taught me some algorithms which can be used to solve problems. This course enabled me with the tools to solve problems
By Namish A•
I loved this course as it has taught me the basics of every algorithm that needs to be implemented in daily life of a programmer.
I have learned a good amount of techniques from this course.
By Himanshu A•
Really an Amazing Experience and get to learn so much in short time, Even harder Algorithms are starting to get clicked in my neurons... Thank you Teachs for so much Knowledge and Practice..
By Shabbir K•
A really really good course. All the instructors were great. The course content was perfect, the level of programming assignments is good. Overall a very detailed course. Highly Recommended!
By Jay C•
It was awesome to be part of this course.I started learning Dynamic Programming for the first time with this course.Thanks to Lecturers and Professors and University for making this Course.
By Sawal M•
Great course! The programming assignments are very helpful in understanding the topics in the course. It would be better if the threshold to pass the assignment is increased to 50% or more.
By Vidhan G•
It was a course worth spending my time for..The assignments were of very good quality and the topics were taught very well , also the teaching staff of this course were very well informed.
By Balaji R•
This course was really helpful, I have learnt more from this course than I have from my college. The only problem I had was that I found it hard to understand one of the professors accent.
By Priyesh P•
I had a very good experience doing this course. I have refined my algorithmic skills with this course and can apply the concepts really well at competitive programming. Thanks to coursera!
By Jasmine N•
I thought this was really helpful for my day to day career as a developer. It helped give me better tools to talk about what I am working on as well as introducing me to some new concepts.
By Danstan O O•
This course is great and has helped me get started well with algorithms. Thanks, Coursera, and the partners. Learning with implementation examples in different languages is really great.
By Nishant J•
This is an excellent course as it forces you to think. It took me over two months to complete and at times it felt really hard but now that I have finished it, I am really glad I did.
By Nishit P•
It is an absolutely best guide for the intermediate learners trying to gain a sharper knowledge on algorithms and techniques which they know about but find it difficult to understand!
By Prashant S•
Very well organised series and all problems are explained with the help of good examples, you need basic programming understanding of functions and arrays to go through these lecture.
By Suraj N•
Amazing experience. Gained so much in knowledge along with hands-on exercises. I could brush up my concepts taught in first year of B.Tech. Thankyou so much for the course. Gratitude
By GUNTUR K J•
this course has made me speed up my algorithms of my programs and the puzzles provided before a particular topic are so good that we can understand how we should approach a problem.
By Rishabh A•
The course is really good and provides a good understanding. Just the assignments provided are too tough which I a good thing but there is no proper information on how to solve them.
By Sam D•
I really enjoy this course, and I can definitely say that this specialization is perfect for those who would like to learn programming from the base and use it in different languages
By Hemanth K B•
I have solved more problems in this course compared to any other courses. This course has laid foundation to solve more problems in Dynamic Programming. Thank you to the entire team.
By pratik r•
every important concept are cleared in this course.This course gives you idea to how to take right approach by giving tools like greedy algo, divide & conquer and dynamic approach. | https://www.coursera.org/learn/algorithmic-toolbox/reviews?authMode=login&page=13 |
Introduces basic elements of the design and analysis of algorithms. Topics include asymptotic notations and analysis, divide and conquer, greedy algorithms, dynamic programming, fundamental graph algorithms, NP-completeness, approximation algorithms, and network flows. For each topic, beside in-depth coverage, we discuss one or more representative problems and their algorithms. In addition to the design and analysis of algorithms, students are expected to gain substantial discrete mathematics problem solving skills essential for computer scientists and engineers. | http://www.buffalo.edu/class-schedule?switch=showclass&semester=Spring&division=UGRD&dept=CSE®num=10222 |
The course was really amazing which provided deep knowledge from basic to advance that how algorithms works and how to design algorithms. Thanks to all the expert teachers who taught in this course.
SG
19. Jan. 2017
I liked the fact that the algorithms are not just the introductory searching and sorting algorithms. The assignments are fairly difficult (I have decent scripting experience), but not impossibly so.
von Jasmine N•
7. Aug. 2016
I thought this was really helpful for my day to day career as a developer. It helped give me better tools to talk about what I am working on as well as introducing me to some new concepts.
von SJ B•
20. Okt. 2021
I enjoyed the course. A very good introduction to the subject. The assignments were standard. All over a good learning experience. Looking forward to completeing the whole specialization.
von Danstan O O•
13. Mai 2019
This course is great and has helped me get started well with algorithms. Thanks, Coursera, and the partners. Learning with implementation examples in different languages is really great.
von Nishant J•
10. Sep. 2020
This is an excellent course as it forces you to think. It took me over two months to complete and at times it felt really hard but now that I have finished it, I am really glad I did.
von Nishit P•
8. Mai 2020
It is an absolutely best guide for the intermediate learners trying to gain a sharper knowledge on algorithms and techniques which they know about but find it difficult to understand!
von Prashant S•
26. Okt. 2017
Very well organised series and all problems are explained with the help of good examples, you need basic programming understanding of functions and arrays to go through these lecture.
von Suraj N•
16. Jan. 2021
Amazing experience. Gained so much in knowledge along with hands-on exercises. I could brush up my concepts taught in first year of B.Tech. Thankyou so much for the course. Gratitude
von GUNTUR K J•
2. Juli 2020
this course has made me speed up my algorithms of my programs and the puzzles provided before a particular topic are so good that we can understand how we should approach a problem.
von Rishabh A•
11. Apr. 2020
The course is really good and provides a good understanding. Just the assignments provided are too tough which I a good thing but there is no proper information on how to solve them.
von Sam D•
3. Aug. 2017
I really enjoy this course, and I can definitely say that this specialization is perfect for those who would like to learn programming from the base and use it in different languages
von Hemanth K B•
3. Aug. 2016
I have solved more problems in this course compared to any other courses. This course has laid foundation to solve more problems in Dynamic Programming. Thank you to the entire team.
von pratik r•
11. Sep. 2017
every important concept are cleared in this course.This course gives you idea to how to take right approach by giving tools like greedy algo, divide & conquer and dynamic approach.
von Kelly R R H•
19. März 2022
Very great course I had to say that assesment with the initial code in Pytorch IDE was very helpul! Sometimes the solution in edge cases does not work (always try all edge cases)
von Yashuv B•
10. Mai 2021
This course is worth taking because it makes one start from basic sorting algorithm to advanced dynamic algorithm with great fundamental concept and examples. Thanks to the team!!
von Himanshu y•
1. Jan. 2020
coursera is really a best platform to learn the new skills . this course will definitely helped me a lot for getting my new job. fresher's like me are really thankful to coursera.
von Hung n m•
22. Okt. 2018
I am embedded software engineer, I want to learn more about computer science. This course give me usefull techniques to solve problem. Thanks instructor for well lecture and slide
von philip g•
20. Apr. 2017
Awesome course. Great exercises (although can be frustratingly challenging at times!) Divide and conquer and dynamic programming new to me, have learned a lot. Highly recommended!
von Riddhiman M•
9. Dez. 2021
Very well organized and elaborately presented course. Most topics are taught from ground up and are supplemented with very interesting logical problems and programming questions.
von Saruar M•
14. Jan. 2019
Great course! explanations are good, problems are challenging enough to help truly understand the material. No nonsense. Highly recommend to who is beginning to learn algorithms.
von Patrick L•
19. Mai 2016
Love how clear the professors explain the not-so-straighforward context. I enjoyed every single moment. The assignments constitute the biggest part of understanding and learning.
von Akash C•
3. Nov. 2020
Algorithms and Data Structures are very important for any coder. This course is the best course with challenging problems you can find on the internet. It's totally worth doing.
von Henry H•
29. Juni 2020
The course provided me with a very solid foundation of algorithms and provided an excellent array of homework challenges. Every intermediate programmer should take this course.
von Tran K•
2. Dez. 2018
The course is fundamentally useful, this helped me out a lot to discover my enthusiasm since my background is non-IT. I'm on the way to the second course in this specialization!
von Jack W•
25. Juli 2017
Really good comprehensive overview of fundamental algorithmic techniques. The programming assignments are challenging at times, but the forums are super helpful for discussions.
von Mihir D•
7. Jan. 2022
This course is for the people who like to think and who truly love algorithms. Assignments in this course are excellent, and other online courses should use this as an example. | https://de.coursera.org/learn/algorithmic-toolbox/reviews?page=15 |
Welcome to E-Books Directory
This is a freely downloadable e-book.
The Design of Approximation Algorithms
Read this book online or download it here for free
Custom Search
The Design of Approximation Algorithms
by D. P. Williamson, D. B. Shmoys
Publisher: Cambridge University Press 2010
ISBN/ASIN: 0521195276
ISBN-13: 9780521195270
Number of pages: 496
Description:
This book shows how to design approximation algorithms: efficient algorithms that find provably near-optimal solutions. The book is organized around central algorithmic techniques for designing approximation algorithms, including greedy and local search algorithms, dynamic programming, linear and semidefinite programming, and randomization. | http://www.e-booksdirectory.com/details.php?ebook=5141 |
Develops techniques used in the design and analysis of algorithms, with an emphasis on problems arising in computing applications. Example applications are drawn from systems and networks, artificial intelligence, computer vision, data mining, and computational biology. This course covers four major algorithm design techniques (greedy algorithms, divide-and-conquer, dynamic programming, and network flow), undecidability and NP-completeness, and algorithmic techniques for intractable problems (including identification of structured special cases, approximation algorithms, local search heuristics, and online algorithms).
Non-Cornell students must get permission of instructor to enroll.
Prerequisites
CS 2800 and 3110.
No upcoming classes were found. | https://sce.cornell.edu/courses/roster/cs-4820 |
Prerequisites: computer programming skills, probability,
basic data structures and algorithms, basic discrete
mathematics.
The course covers main approaches to design and analysis
of algorithms including important algorithms and data
structures, and results in complexity and computability.
The
main contents are: review of algorithm analysis (search in
ordered array, binary insertion sort, merge sort, worst-case
and average-case time complexity, minimum complexity of
sorting n elements for small n, 2-3 trees, asymptotic
notation); divide and conquer algorithms (master theorem,
integer multiplication, matrix multiplication, fast Fourier
transform); graphs (breadth-first search, connected
components, topological ordering, depth-first search, way
from planar graphs to Robertson-Seymour theorem); dynamic
programming (chain matrix multiplication, shortest paths, edit
distance, sequence alignment, extensions of dynamic
programming); greedy algorithms (binary heaps, Dijkstra’s
algorithm, minimum spanning tree, Huffman codes,
matroids); randomized algorithms (selection, quick sort,
global minimum cut, hushing); P and NP (Cook’s theorem,
examples of NP-complete problems); approximate
algorithms for NP-hard problems or polynomial algorithms
for subproblems of NP-hard problems (set cover, vertex
cover, maximum independent set, 2-SAT); partial recursive
functions (theorem of Post, Diophantine equations);
computations and undecidable problems (existence of
complex problems, undecidability of halting problem,
theorem of Rice, semantic and syntactical properties of
programs).
Prerequisites: CS 260 Design and Analysis of Algorithms,
CS 220 Data Analytics.
The course covers tools for design and analysis of decision
trees, decision rules and tests, their applications to
supervised machine learning, and related topics including
current results of research.
The main contents are:
introduction (basic notions and examples from applications);
tools (relationships among decision trees, rules and tests,
bounds on complexity of tests, decision rules and trees,
algorithms for construction of tests, decision rules and trees);
applications (supervised machine learning); some of the
additional topics (decision tables with many-valued
decisions, approximate decision trees, rules and tests, global
and local approaches to the study of problems over infinite
sets of attributes, applications to combinatorial optimization,
fault diagnosis, pattern recognition, analysis of acyclic
programs, data mining and knowledge representation);
current results of research. | https://trees.kaust.edu.sa/Pages/Teaching.aspx |
Introduction to Algorithms and Data Structures (EE255)
Programme:
B.Tech (E&E)
Semester:
Fourth
Category:
Programme Specific Electives (PSE)
Credits (L-T-P):
04 (3-1-0)
Content:
Mathematical basis and notions for algorithm analysis. Sorting, Divide and Conquer, Linear time sorting, Elementary Data Structures, Priority Queues, BST and RBT.
Design and Analysis Paradigms – Dynamic Programming, Greedy Algorithms, Graph Algorithms.
References:
1. T.H. Cormen, C.E. Leiserson, R.L. Rivest , C. Stein, Introduction to Algorithms, 2nd Edition, PHI, 2004.
2. D.E. Knuth, The Art of Computer Programming, Volumes I and III, Addison-Wesley, 1973.
3. Anany Levitin, Introduction to the Design and Analysis of Algorithms, Pearson Education, 2003.
Department: | https://eee.nitk.ac.in/course/introduction-algorithms-and-data-structures-ee255 |
1. What is Greedy Algorithm?
A greedy algorithm, as the name suggests, always makes the choice that seems to be the best at that moment. This means that it makes a locally-optimal choice in the hope that this choice will lead to a globally-optimal solution. However, generally greedy algorithms do not provide globally optimized solutions.
Formal Definition
A greedy algorithm is an algorithmic paradigm that follows the problem solving heuristic of making the locally optimal choice at each stage with the hope of finding a global optimum.
In general, greedy algorithms have five components:
- A candidate set, from which a solution is created
- A selection function, which chooses the best candidate to be added to the solution
- A feasibility function, that is used to determine if a candidate can be used to contribute to a solution
- An objective function, which assigns a value to a solution, or a partial solution, and
- A solution function, which will indicate when we have discovered a complete solution
2. Advantages and Disadvantages of Greedy Algorithm
- Finding solution is quite easy with a greedy algorithm for a problem.
- Analyzing the run time for greedy algorithms will generally be much easier than for other techniques (like Divide and conquer).
- The difficult part is that for greedy algorithms you have to work much harder to understand correctness issues. Even with the correct algorithm, it is hard to prove why it is correct. Proving that a greedy algorithm is correct is more of an art than a science.
3. List of Algorithms based on Greedy Algorithm
The greedy algorithm is quite powerful and works well for a wide range of problems. Many algorithms can be viewed as applications of the Greedy algorithms, such as :
- Travelling Salesman Problem
- Prim's Minimal Spanning Tree Algorithm
- Kruskal's Minimal Spanning Tree Algorithm
- Dijkstra's Minimal Spanning Tree Algorithm
- Graph - Map Coloring
- Graph - Vertex Cover
- Knapsack Problem
- Job Scheduling Problem
4. Examples
4.1 Counting Coins
This problem is to count to a desired value by choosing the least possible coins and the greedy approach forces the algorithm to pick the largest possible coin. If we are provided coins of ₹1, ₹5, ₹10 and ₹20 (Yes, We've ₹20 coins :D) and we are asked to count ₹36 then the greedy procedure will be −
- Select one ₹20 coin, the remaining count is 16
- Then select one ₹10 coin, the remaining count is 6
- Then select one ₹5 coin, the remaining count is 1
- And finally, the selection of one ₹ 1 coins solves the problem
Though, it seems to be working fine, for this count we need to pick only 4 coins. But if we slightly change the problem then the same approach may not be able to produce the same optimum result.
For the currency system, where we have coins of ₹1, ₹6, ₹10 and ₹20 value, counting coins for value 36 will be absolutely optimum but for count like 32, it may use more coins than necessary. For example, the greedy approach will use 20 + 10 + 1 + 1, total 4 coins. Whereas the same problem could be solved by using only 3 coins (20 + 6 + 6)
4.2 Finding Largest Sum
If we've a goal of reaching the largest-sum, at each step, the greedy algorithm will choose what appears to be the optimal immediate choice, so it will choose 12 instead of 3 at the second step, and will not reach the best solution, which contains 99.
Hence, we may conclude that the greedy approach picks an immediate optimized solution and may fail where global optimization is a major concern. | https://developerinsider.co/introduction-to-greedy-algorithms/ |
following topics will be covered with emphasis on formal analysis and design, Dynamic Datastructures; 2‐3 trees, Red‐black trees, binary heaps, binomial and Fibonacci heaps, Skip lists,
universal hashing. Data structures for maintaining ranges, intervals and disjoint sets with
applications. Basic algorithmic techniques like dynamic programming and divide‐ and‐conquer,
Sorting algorithms with analysis, integer sorting algorithms with analysis, integer selection,
Graph algorithms like DFS with applications, MSTs and shortest paths.
Database System Architecture ‐ Data Abstraction, Data Independence, Data Definition and Data
Manipulation Languages. Data Models ‐ Entity‐Relationship, Network, Relational and Object
Oriented Data Models, Integrity Constraints, and Data Manipulation Operations. Relational
Query Languages: Relational Algebra, Tuple and Domain Relational Calculus, SQL and QBE.
Relational Database Design: Domain and Data dependency, Armstrong’s Axioms, Normal
Forms, Dependency Preservation, Lossless design. Query Processing and Optimization:
Evaluation of Relational Algebra Expressions, Query Equivalence, Join strategies, Query
Optimization Algorithms. Storage Strategies: Indices, B‐trees, Hashing; Transaction Processing :
Recovery and Concurrency Control, Locking and Timestamp based Schedulers, Multiversion
and Optimistic Concurrency Control schemes. Advanced Topics; Object‐oriented and Object
Relational Databases, Logical Databases, Web Databases, Distributed Databases, Data
Warehouse and Data Mining.
1. Gregory L. Heileman , Data Structure, Algorithm and OOP, Tata Mc Graw Hill, NewDelhi.
2. Adam Drozdek, Data Structures & Algorithm in C++,Vikas publication House.
3. Silberschatz, H. Korth, Database System Concepts, 5th Edition, McGraw‐Hill. | https://www.iist.ac.in/academics/curriculum/subject/info/1060 |
Data Science Stats Review: Pearson’s, Kendall’s, and Spearman’s Correlation for Feature Selection
An important part of the data science development cycle is determining which features should be included in a model. While it may be tempting to throw all of your available data into the model and hope your selected algorithm figures it out, there are a number of benefits to using feature selection techniques to whittle down the data going into your model.
- Improved training time. Decreasing the number of features will decrease the time and computational resources needed to train your model. Features that are redundant or non-informative slow down your development without improving results.
- Decreased likelihood of overfitting. Giving our model fewer features will decrease complexity. Complex models are prone to overfitting and not generalizing well.
- Increased model interpretability. In many business use cases, model interpretability is a contributing factor to whether or not a model will be accepted and productionalized. Fewer features can make our models easier to explain.
The metrics discussed in this post, Pearson’s, Kendall’s, and Spearman’s, are all useful when using a feature selection technique referred to as filter-based feature selection. As the name implies, in filter-based feature selection you use a selected metric to filter out irrelevant or redundant columns in your data. Each column of your data is scored using the appropriate statistical method, ranked based on the score, and then included or excluded from the final model based on the discretion of the data scientist. Pearson’s, Kendall’s, and Spearman’s correlations are a few, but not all, of the metrics that can be used.
Pearson’s Correlation
This is the most common form of correlation and is the one you probably remember covering in an intro stats course. The Pearson correlation coefficient between two variables will always return a value between -1 and 1. The further the value is from 0 the stronger the relationship. A value of 1 signifies a perfect positive linear relationship (i.e., if one variable increases by a unit the other will increase by a corresponding known amount and that amount does not change) while -1 represents a perfect negative linear relationship (i.e., when one variable increases the other decreases) and 0 represents no relationship.
Prior to using Pearson’s a number of assumptions should be verified. Both variables should be continuous variables, sometimes referred to as interval or ratio variables (all ratio variables are interval variables, but only certain cases of interval variables are ratio variables). The two variables you are checking the correlation between should both be normally distributed, think bell curve when you plot them. The relationship between the two variables should be linear, so if you plot them and see clear curves or a parabola this is likely not the best choice. Finally, outliers need to be handled ahead of time as they can greatly affect the correlation coefficient that is returned. If you can check all the boxes above you are good to use Pearson’s and base your feature selection off of it.
Kendall’s Rank Correlation
While Pearson’s measures a linear relationship between two variables, Kendall’s and Spearman’s, which is covered later, both measure the monotonic relationship. While linear relationships mean two variables move together at a constant rate, think straight line, monotonic relationships measure how likely it is for two variables to move in the same direction, but not necessarily at a constant rate. The upward exponential curve formed by y=x^2 (assuming positive values for x) would have a strictly positive monotonicity because as x increases y also always increases, but the curved line is not linear because the rate y changes vary at different values of x. Like Pearson’s correlation, Kendall’s will return a value between -1 and 1 with -1 being a strictly negative monotonic relationship (the variables are inversely related), 1 being a strictly positive monotonic relationship, and 0 representing no relationship.
Kendall’s is often used when data doesn’t meet one of the requirements of Pearson’s correlation. Kendall’s is non-parametric meaning that it does not require the two variables to fall into a bell curve. Kendall’s also does not require continuous data. Because it is based on the ranked values of each variable it will work with continuous data, but it can also be used with ordinal data. Ordinal data has a ranking, but the intervals between ranks are not necessarily consistent. Examples would be levels of education (high school, college, master’s, Ph.D.) or a self-evaluation of your Python skills (beginner, intermediate, expert).
Spearman’s Rank Correlation
Spearman’s is incredibly similar to Kendall’s. It is a non-parametric test that measures a monotonic relationship using ranked data. While it can often be used interchangeably with Kendall’s, Kendall’s is more robust and generally the preferred method of the two. An advantage of Spearman’s is that it is easier to calculate, but in a data science context, it is unlikely you’ll be working anything out by hand and both methods are computationally light relative to many other tasks you’ll be performing.
The three correlation methods covered in this blog all have easy implementations in both Python and R. Consider taking your filter-based feature selection a step further by researching additional metrics like Chi-Squared, Fisher Score, and Mutual Information Score.
Want to Learn More?
Have any questions, comments, or curiosities? Feel free to reach out to me on LinkedIn or via email: [email protected].
About Tessellation
We are a modern analytics consultancy. We enable and manage organizations’ analytics and self-service teams by educating people, optimizing technology, developing world-class products, and providing sustainable results. Curious to know how we can level up your organization’s analytics? Click here!
Interested in joining the Tessellation Team as a data analyst, Tableau expert, dashboard designer, or data scientist? We’re hiring! Check out our latest job listings on our website and on our Linkedin page! | https://tessellationtech.io/data-science-stats-review/ |
Few people know that the cardinal is one of the most fascinating birds in North America. These small, red birds are found in wooded areas all over the continent, and their nests are always a sight to see. Cardinals are well known for their bright red feathers and cheerful song, but there is more to these birds than meets the eye. In this article, we will take a closer look at cardinals and their unique nesting habits.
Where do Cardinals Nest?
Cardinals, part of the family Cardinalidae, are a group of brightly-colored songbirds renowned for their beautiful songs. These birds are native to North and South America, with some species found in Europe, Africa, and Asia.
Cardinals build nests in trees or shrubs near open areas that offer plenty of food sources. They also occasionally build nests on the ground, in abandoned buildings, or under porch eaves.
Cardinals build their nests using materials such as twigs and grasses that they find within their territory. They line the nest with softer materials like fur, feathers, mosses, and hair to create a comfortable environment for their eggs. Cardinals are monogamous birds and will often use the same nest throughout their lives, adding to it each year as needed.
Cardinals typically lay three to five eggs in a clutch and both the male and female will take turns incubating them. The incubation period lasts around two weeks and once the chicks hatch, they are fed by both parents.
Cardinals are highly protective of their nests, and will often aggressively defend it against potential predators. They may swoop down or make loud warning sounds when a predator is nearby. If a predator does manage to get too close, cardinals may even abandon their nest altogether in order to protect the chicks from harm.
Cardinal nests can be found throughout the United States and Canada. In the eastern United States, they are often seen in forested areas such as woodlands, parks, and backyards. They can be found in similar habitats throughout western North America but prefer to build their nests in more open areas like fields and meadows.
Can Cardinals reuse their nests?
The answer to this question is a resounding yes! Cardinals, like many other birds, are capable of reusing their nest for up to five years. Cardnial nests are typically built with grasses, twigs, and feathers that have been collected from the surrounding area.
The female cardinal will then add in some moss and animal fur to create a cozy nest. Cardinals will line their nests with feathers to provide warmth and insulation during cold nights, or when the weather turns bad.
Although cardinals are able to reuse their nest for up to five years, they usually prefer to build new ones every season. This is because after repeated use, the old nests can become soiled and worn down, making them less desirable. Additionally, the birds may find something better or more suitable for building a new nest elsewhere.
When cardinals do decide to rebuild in a location they used before, they will typically start from scratch and not use any of the original materials that were left behind. This helps to ensure that their nests are as clean and comfortable as possible for the new generation of baby cardinals.
In addition to being able to reuse their nests, cardinals are also very protective of them. Cardinals will defend their nest from predators, such as hawks or other birds, using a variety of vocalizations and aggressive displays. They have even been known to attack animals or people when they feel their nest is threatened.
Cardinals are also very loyal to their mates. Once a male cardinal has chosen a mate, he will usually stay with her for life. This can create some interesting situations if the pair decide to reuse an old nest from the previous nesting season!
Overall, it’s clear that cardinals are capable of reusing their nests for up to five years and can be very loyal to each other. The loyalty and protection these birds show towards their mates and nesting sites is truly admirable. With this knowledge, it’s easy to understand why so many people enjoy watching these birds from afar or even building birdhouses in their yards to attract them.
If you’re looking to get up close and personal with cardinals, make sure that you take the time to observe their behavior in order to protect their nesting sites. With proper care and respect, these birds can offer years of enjoyment and companionship.
What does a Cardinal Nest look like?
Cardinals typically construct their nests in tall shrubs or trees, often near the trunk and close to the ground. They make a cup-shaped nest out of twigs, grasses, moss, rootlets, string and other materials that are bound together with mud or spider webs.
The outside is typically camouflaged with lichens, bark, or leaves, while the inside is lined with finer materials such as grasses and feathers. The finished product usually measures around 4-7 inches across and 3-5 inches deep.
Cardinals will often re-use the same nest over multiple breeding seasons, adding new materials each time to keep it in good condition. They will sometimes build a new nest if the old one becomes damaged or destroyed, however.
Cardinals tend to prefer coniferous trees for nesting since their twiggy, dense branches provide more stability than those of deciduous trees. They will also sometimes use man-made materials such as clothesline strings and wire mesh in their nests.
A cardinal pair will usually build their nest together, each taking turns bringing in material and working on the structure. It usually takes about 6-10 days for a cardinal couple to construct a complete nest.
Where do Cardinals usually build their nests?
Cardinals are known for their characteristic song and brilliant red feathers, but they’re also known for their unique nests. Cardinals typically build a sturdy cup-shaped nest in the fork of a tree or shrub. They can also be found nesting on outdoor structures like light posts, birdhouses, window ledges, and building eaves.
Female cardinals will construct the nest by weaving together twigs, grasses, and other soft materials. The inside of the nest is lined with softer materials like fine grasses or feathers for cushioning.
Cardinals may also build their nests closer to ground level on bushes or in hedges. In urban areas, cardinals may even be found nesting in roadside ditches. This is usually done when there are no trees nearby or if the birds feel threatened by predators like hawks, cats, and raccoons. Cardinals will often return to the same nesting spot year after year.
Cardinals also have specific areas they prefer for building nests. They tend to choose open spaces with some shade as well as areas with plenty of food sources nearby.
What kind of trees do Cardinals nest in?
Cardinals typically nest in shrubs or trees with dense foliage, including evergreens, hardwoods and conifers. They are particularly fond of apple, pear and other fruit trees, as well as mulberry, cedar, juniper, pine and spruce.
They also tend to favor thickets such as hedgerows or thick patches of vines, as well as flowering shrubs like forsythia and holly. Cardinals will occasionally build their nests in man-made structures such as light poles and street lamps, or even on window ledges.
Nesting Habits – Where they nest when the eggs hatch
Cardinals are cavity nesters, meaning they will build their nests in tree hollows or sheltered spots like dense shrubs. Cardinals typically build their nest on the edge of a branch that is well-protected from predators.
The female cardinal will select the nesting site and begin to construct her nest with twigs, grasses, weeds, strips of bark, and mud. Once the nest is finished, she will line it with soft materials such as feathers, fur, or plant down.
When the eggs hatch, both parents take part in feeding their young. The female typically incubates the eggs while the male brings food to feed both her and their offspring.
Cardinals can produce two or three broods each year, so they must constantly be on the lookout for food sources. Cardinals will feed their young in the nest until they are able to fly and find food on their own.
It is interesting to note that when a cardinal pair produces more than one brood in a single season, all of the chicks may remain together after fledging, forming a “gang” of cardinals that may stay together for up to six weeks or longer, depending on the availability of food sources.
Should I Remove Old Cardinal Nest?
When it comes to cardinal nests, you may be wondering if it is a good idea to remove an old nest. While there is no definite answer as to whether or not you should do this, some reasons for taking out an old nest include safety concerns and avoiding potential disease transmission.
Safety Concerns
In terms of safety concerns, there are potential risks associated with leaving an old cardinal nest in the same location year after year.
If a tree or structure is located near a human dwelling, this could cause problems for both humans and the birds if the nest becomes unstable due to weather or other factors. In addition, if predators become aware of where the nest is located, they may try to access it, putting the birds at risk.
In some cases, it is best to remove old nests to ensure that the birds and their young are safe from potential harm. This can help prevent injuries or even worse, fatalities. Additionally, if you find an old nest on a tree near your home, it may be wise to take it down in order to protect your property from any potential damage.
Disease Transmission
Another reason why it may be a good idea to remove an old cardinal nest is to avoid disease transmission. Old nests can become breeding grounds for parasites and other diseases, which could easily spread to other birds who use the same area.
In addition, old nests may contain eggs or chicks that have already hatched, and these can become a source of disease as well. By removing an old nest, you can help to prevent the spread of any diseases or parasites that may be present.
Overall, whether or not you should remove an old cardinal nest depends on your own personal situation.
What do baby Cardinals look like when they leave the nest?
Baby cardinals are quite distinct from their adult counterparts. The young birds have a brownish-grey color with some orange and white highlights around the face and wings, while the adults are vivid red in color.
They also have shorter tails than adult cardinals. After leaving the nest, baby cardinals are able to fly but not very well, so they aren’t able to migrate yet.
Baby cardinals are fed by their parents for the first few weeks after leaving the nest, but after that they become more independent and can feed themselves. They learn how to hunt and scavenge on their own very quickly, which helps them survive outside of the nest.
Baby cardinals tend to stay near their parents for up to two months after leaving the nest, and then they eventually move away and establish their own territories.
When baby cardinals first leave the nest, they are quite vulnerable. They have not yet learned how to defend themselves against predators or how to find food efficiently. This is why it’s important that adult cardinals stay close by to protect their young and help them learn the skills they need to survive.
The baby cardinals’ feathers are still growing, so they may look a bit scruffy compared to their adult counterparts. They also have larger heads in proportion to their bodies, giving them an almost cartoonish appearance. As they continue growing, they eventually start to look more like adult cardinals.
Baby cardinals are also quite curious and need to be taught not to fly too close to humans or other animals, as they can easily be injured. They are very social creatures, so it’s important that they learn how to interact with their own species in order to survive in the wild.
Baby cardinals can live up to 10 years in the wild, and sometimes even longer. During that time, they will go through many transformations as they grow into adulthood. From the scruffy little fledglings leaving their nest to the majestic adult cardinals adorning our backyards, these birds are a true sight to behold.
So the next time you see a baby cardinal, take a moment to appreciate its unique beauty and marvel at how far it has come from its humble beginnings in the nest. With any luck, it will continue to thrive and bring joy to us for many years to come.
How can I attract a nesting Cardinal to my yard?
Cardinals are beautiful and colorful birds that can add a splash of vibrant red to your backyard. Inviting cardinals to nest in your yard is a great way to appreciate nature and provide a safe habitat for these lovely birds. If you’re interested in attracting nesting cardinals, here are some tips to make sure you have the best chance:
1. Set Up Bird Feeders – Setting up a bird feeder is the first step in attracting cardinals to your yard. Cardinals are primarily seed-eaters, so choose bird feeders that offer sunflower seeds and other mixed seeds suited for their diet. Place the feeder in an open area away from predators and fill it with fresh seed regularly.
2. Provide Water Sources – Cardinals need a reliable source of water to drink and bathe in all year round, so it’s important to make sure you provide them with accessible sources of water. Creating a shallow pool or bird bath that allows the birds to easily land is ideal, but you can also offer water through a bird fountain or even in a traditional bird bath.
3. Plant Native Plants – Cardinals are attracted to native plants and will seek them out for food and shelter. Planting native shrubs, trees, and flowers such as serviceberry, dogwood, hawthorn, cedar waxwings, bayberries, and sumac will create a wonderful habitat that cardinals will find irresistible.
4. Create Nesting Sites – The next step is to create ideal nesting sites for the cardinals so they feel comfortable and secure. Plant native shrubs and trees with dense foliage for them to hide in and build their nests, or provide nesting boxes specifically designed for them.
5. Protect the Cardinals – Finally, it’s important to protect your cardinals and their nests by keeping cats and other predators away from them. You can also install barriers around the nesting sites to keep curious kids or pets away.
Conclusion
Cardinal nesting is an important part of nature and a beautiful sight to behold. Cardinals build their nests in high places in trees or shrubs that provide good protection from predators. They use a variety of materials like twigs, grasses, feathers, mud, plant fibers etc., to construct the nest which will typically be used for up to two years before being abandoned.
Cardinals usually lay 3-4 eggs and the female is responsible for incubating them for around 12 days before they hatch. Both parents then feed the young until they are ready to leave the nest after about two weeks.
FAQs
What foods do Cardinals eat?
Cardinals have a varied diet, which includes both plant and animal matter. These beautiful birds are primarily seed-eating birds that feed on grasses, grains, and other seeds found in their natural habitat. They also enjoy eating fruits, such as mulberries and cherries. Cardinals will also eat insects like caterpillars and moths, as well as spiders, snails, and even other small birds.
Cardinals are ground feeders and they eat directly from the ground or off of low vegetation. They typically find food by scratching in the dirt with their feet to uncover seeds, insects, and other food sources that may be hidden beneath the surface. Cardinals also enjoy eating at bird feeders, where they are able to find a variety of food sources.
Can you find Cardinals in other countries?
Cardinals are a type of bird that is typically found in North America. however, there have been sightings of cardinal nests in other countries, such as Cuba, the Bahamas, and even as far as Japan. It is believed that the cardinal was introduced to these countries via the pet trade. Cardinals are a popular choice for pet birds because of their vibrant plumage.
While cardinal sightings in other countries are relatively rare, it is not entirely uncommon to see them in places outside of their natural range.
Where do Cardinal Birds Sleep At Night in Winter?
cardinal birds are interesting creatures. In the winter, they sleep in cardinal nests. The cardinal nest is lined with soft materials, such as feathers, down, and cotton. The cardinal bird’s head and body are protected by the cardinal nest from the cold weather outside.
The cardinal bird’s feet are also protected by the cardinal nest so that the cardinal bird does not get frostbite. The cardinal bird’s beak is also protected by the cardinal nest so that the cardinal bird can breathe easily. When it is time for the cardinal bird to wake up, the cardinal bird opens its beak and lets out a loud noise. The cardinal bird then flies out of the cardinal nest and starts to search for food. | https://chipperbirds.com/cardinal-nest/ |
Can Birds Change Their Nesting Strategy?
January 1, 2005 by Susana Peluc and Gregory Gough
Predation is a major force driving the evolution of animals. For birds, the greatest risk of predation occurs during the nesting season when a great variety of animals prey on eggs and nestlings. Among the many predators are: raccoons, snakes, foxes, and other birds. So birds must exercise great care in choosing their nest sites. Each kind of bird seems to have its preferred nesting strategy. For example, woodpeckers always build their nests in tree cavities and grebes always build a floating nest. But can birds change their nesting strategy?
The orange-crowned warbler is a small bird that nests all across North America, from Labrador to Alaska and south through the western United States to southern California. In the fall, this insect-eater migrates to the warmer areas of the southern United States and Mexico. Across its entire breeding range, consisting of thousands of square miles, it always builds its nest on the ground in dense vegetation. Except on Catalina Island.
Catalina Island is part of the Channel Island group and is located about 20 miles off southern California. Only here do orange-crowned warblers often build their nests in trees. National Zoo scientists Susana Peluc and Scott Sillett set out to investigate why the nesting strategy would be different on this island. They set up a study site in the steep canyons of the island, a favorite haunt of the warblers.
Orange-crowned warblers are quite abundant in the vegetated canyons on the island. The island is steep and rocky with peaks rising 2000 feet above sea level. Open grassy areas are frequented by introduced herds of buffalo, deer, and goats.
But in the canyons there is a dense overstory of evergreen oak trees and a lush ground layer of vegetation that is very appealing to the warblers. Some warblers build their nests in the trees, while others nest on the ground. The incentive for nesting in trees is that more young fledge in tree nests as compared to ground nests.
Tree nests are so successful because Catalina Island has no scrub jays, a relentless egg-stealer on the mainland and on nearby Santa Cruz Island. Jays are adept at finding nests among tree branches and eating the eggs or young. Nests built on the ground, and concealed among grasses and other vegetation, are safer from the jays. But do warblers on Catalina Island even know what a jay is? Are they building nests in trees because they know there are no jays around?
Susana and Scott designed an experiment to test the warblers. Females that were looking for nest sites were divided into three groups: some were presented with a model of a scrub jay, and the stuffed bird was moved frequently, and taped jay calls were played.
Other females were presented with a stuffed house finch, a warbler-sized bird that eats seeds. The third group was the control group, they were left alone. All the females that had been terrorized by the dummy jay built their nests on the ground while females in the other groups often nested in the trees. Not only did the warblers recognize the jay as a predator, but they shifted their nesting strategy in response.
In 2005, research will also be conducted on another member of the Channel Islands, Santa Cruz. This island has jays, the endemic Santa Cruz scrub-jay, and also has numerous feral pigs, which have decimated the vegetation at the ground level. So the warblers here get a double whammy: efficient predators of nests in trees, and little cover in which to hide their nests on the ground. Not surprisingly, warblers are not very numerous on Santa Cruz Island. Efforts are currently underway to control the pig overpopulation, and scientists will be studying the warblers to see how they respond.
This article summarizes the information in this scientific paper:
Peluc, Susana I., Sillett, Terence Scott, Rotenberry, John T. and Ghalambor, Cameron K. 2008. Adaptive phenotypic plasticity in an island songbird exposed to a novel predation risk. Behavioral Ecology, 19(4): 830-835. | https://nationalzoo.si.edu/scbi/migratorybirds/science_article/?id=140 |
On May 1, 2012, the American Avocet visited McKinley Beach at Milwaukee’s lakefront. Sometimes this bird is seen during migration if it strays from its normal course. Along with many other photographers, I was delighted to capture images of this infrequent visitor to Wisconsin.
During migration, the American Avocet doesn’t spend much time in one location, typically 24 hours or less. So if you hear about one, you best be on your way!
American Avocet
Binomial name: Recurvirostra americana
Category: Stilts and Avocets
Description: Black and white plumage on the body. Reddish-brown feathers on the head in summer for breeding season; white in the winter. Thin, upturned bill and long, gray legs.
Size: 16″-20″ long, 27″ – 30″ tall
Weight: 10 – 15 oz.
Habitat: Ponds, lakes, and shorelines
Diet: Crustaceans and insects
Nesting: Shallow nest near water such as shorelines or small islands. The nest may be made out of thin sticks, dried grasses, or a depression in sand. Typically 3 or 4 eggs will be laid at one time and will be incubated by both parents. The parents aggressively protect their nests. After hatching, the young will leave the nest within 24 hours and feed themselves.
Notes: The American Avocet has a tricky way of dealing with predators. When in danger, its bird call pitch may change to simulate the Doppler effect. This confuses predators into thinking the bird is approaching more quickly than it really is!
To see the full gallery of images, please click here. | http://www.windowtowildlife.com/american-avocet/ |
Quail are birds that are related to the pheasants and partridges. They’re popular as game birds in many cultures and have been raised for their meat, eggs, and feathers. If you planning to raise quails for their eggs, you may wonder when do they start laying.
Quails will start laying eggs around 4-6 months after hatching, but it’s not always easy to tell exactly when they’re ready. The exact time when they will lay eggs will determine on the season, their diet, and their age.
In this article, we will find when and if your quails are ready to lay eggs.
When Do Quails Start Laying Eggs?
Quail usually start laying eggs around 4-6 months after hatching, so if your quails are around 1-2 months old then they might be ready to lay. If you have a specific date in mind, you can use a quail egg incubator to set up an artificial environment that mimics the temperature and humidity of their natural habitat.
This will give them enough time to grow and develop before they start laying eggs.
Signs Of Adult Quails
When quails start to lay eggs, they’ll become more active and will spend most of their time on the ground. They’ll also develop a full ruff around their neck and chest area. If your quails are still very young, you’ll notice that they have not yet developed this ruff around their necks.
When the quails become an adult, there will be some signs to look for. Below are signs of adult quails:
- The birds will have started nesting
- They will be laying eggs
- Their wing feathers will have darkened and grown longer
- They may be producing an egg clutch or they may only be able to produce one egg at a time
How To Tell If Your Quail Is Ready To Lay Eggs
The first way to tell if your quail is ready to lay eggs is by checking the weight. If they weigh more than 6 ounces, they’re likely not ready yet. It takes a while for these birds to grow and get big enough to start laying eggs.
Another way to know your quail is ready to lay eggs is by checking whether the brown spot on their wings is gone. Quails start developing their brown spots around 6-12 months after hatching. This condition usually goes away on its own within 2-3 weeks, but you can use this as an indicator that your quails are starting to mature.
Once your quails are ready to lay eggs, you’ll see them sit on the ground with their tails outstretched and head down while they’re waiting for a mate to arrive. Their body will be trembling slightly, and they’ll emit soft chirps as they wait for a mate to come.
When a mate arrives, she’ll approach her partner and mount him before laying her egg in his nest cavity without ever touching it with her feet or bill. Once she has laid her egg, both will take turns to sit on the egg.
Where Do Quails Lay Eggs?
Quails lay their eggs on the ground and do not build nests as other birds do. They lay eggs on bare ground or on low-growing vegetation such as grasses, weeds, and clover leaves.
However, depending on the environment and if they don’t feel safe, the quails may lay their eggs in bushes, shrubs, and under fallen trees. Quail eggs are a tasty treat for many animals and they need to protect them from hungry predators.
When Do Quail Eggs Hatch?
Quails can lay up to 12 eggs at once and they will incubate them for about 18 days before they hatch.
Quail eggs that are hatched in an incubator are a bit different. The incubation period for quail eggs varies, depending on the temperature of the environment in which they are placed.
The most common quail egg incubation period is 21 days. However, it varies from 18 to 27 days depending on the temperature and humidity in the incubator.
Do Quails Build a Nest?
The first sign that your quails are ready to lay eggs is if they start building a nest. They will begin building the nest in an area that’s protected from predators, such as under shrubs or around a tree.
They will also start nesting during the day, so you should be able to observe the birds for signs of nesting activity.
How Often Do Quails Lay Eggs?
A quail can lay eggs at least once a day, but the frequency of laying eggs varies depending on the age of the bird, its diet, and other factors.
In a year, you can expect a single quail to lay about 300 eggs.
Conclusion
Now that you know how long it takes quails to lay eggs, it’s time to start looking at the signs of adult quails.
Quails are sensitive to changes in their environment and can quickly change their nesting location, so they are often considered single-season birds. That said, they will often lay eggs on the same day they are sexually active and are known to lay eggs in the spring and early summer. Sometimes the first egg will occur before the quail is eight weeks old but usually requires around 12 weeks to complete the process. | https://chickensguide.com/when-do-quails-start-laying-eggs/ |
Do hummingbirds nest in louisiana
Do hummingbirds stay in Louisiana year round?
The birds will generally pick a winter territory and stay through February or March and then take off across the continent. Louisiana hummingbird birders and bird-banders have been tracking these birds for several years.
What months are hummingbirds in Louisiana?
Usually arrive in mid-April, although some come as early as mid- March. Mating and nesting usually occurs in June. They usually return to their wintering grounds in Mexico and Central America by late July. Some of them migrate south later, but usually they are all gone by mid-October.
What month do hummingbirds build nests?
In the southern U.S., hummingbird breeding begins as soon as March. In contrast, the process may not start until July in cooler, northern or montane regions. Some western species, such as the Anna’s Hummingbird, may start nesting with the first winter rains in November.
Where do hummingbirds put their nests?
deciduous trees
Females build their nests on a slender, often descending branch, usually of deciduous trees like oak, hornbeam, birch, poplar, or hackberry; sometimes pine. Nests are usually 10-40 feet above the ground. Nests have also been found on loops of chain, wire, and extension cords.
What time of day are hummingbirds most active?
A hummingbird’s favorite time of day to visit a feeder and feed on your nectar is usually dawn and dusk, or early in the morning and late in the afternoon before sunset.
How long are hummingbirds in Louisiana?
Life is not easy for the Ruby-throated Hummingbird, yet these birds often remain in their winter homes for nearly six months.
How do you protect a hummingbird nest?
Keeping the nest hidden in a bush is the best protection. That’s why hummingbird nests are often camouflaged with lichens and pieces of bark to match the branch. One way birds reduce the risk of nest predators is to hatch the eggs and get the young fledged and out on their own as soon as possible.
Where do hummingbirds go at night?
Hummingbirds find warm, sheltered spots in trees to spend the night. Usually this means somewhere deep in the leaves and branches so they’re as protected as possible from the weather.
Do hummingbirds recognize humans?
Hummingbirds recognize and remember people and have been known to fly about their heads to alert them to empty feeders or sugar water that has gone bad.
What destroys hummingbird nest?
Hummingbird Nest Destroyed By A Crow.
Do squirrels eat hummingbird eggs?
Even frogs, fish, snakes and lizards can snag a low-flying hummingbird. Other dangers include larger, aggressive birds who will kill and eat smaller birds, squirrels who raid the bird feeders or insects who invade hummingbird feeders. Squirrels, chipmunks, blue jays and crows will eat hummingbird eggs and babies.
How long do hummingbird babies stay in nest?
Hummingbird eggs are about the size of navy beans. Most females lay two eggs, which they incubate for 15 to 18 days. Juvenile hummingbirds fledge (leave the nest) 18 to 28 days after hatching.
Do birds mourn the loss of their babies?
Ospreys, penguins, pigeons, and jaybirds will perch by their empty nest or the spot where the baby died for long periods, sometimes calling out softly after their lost chick.
Do hawks protect hummingbirds?
But not only are hawks not a threat—it seems they may actually protect hummingbirds from their predators, Mexican Jays. We know that timid species often hang out near more aggressive species for protection.
Do wind chimes scare hummingbirds?
Do Windchimes Scare Hummingbirds Away? It’s a simple idea: hang windchimes from your feeder, and birds won’t come near. Well… it does work for some people.
What bird kills itself when its mate dies?
In one of the alleged case, one duck did so after the death of its mate. Another example of an alleged case of animal suicide is the case of the dolphin which most often portrayed Flipper on the 1960s television show Flipper.
Why do birds throw babies out of the nest?
Birds throw babies out of the nest to kill them because they are either undernourished, developed some sickness, or have died due to sickness. Birds like storks throw babies out of the nests because they are unable to support feeding too many chicks, and will only allow the healthiest chicks to survive.
Do mother birds sleep in the nest with their babies?
Mother birds don’t sleep in the nest with their babies unless it’s a particularly cold night. Most of the time, mother birds sleep outside the nest somewhere nearby so that the chicks have plenty of room to move and grow. Many adult birds sleep in tree cavities or while perched in bushes.
Do cardinals mate for life?
Cardinals are predominately monogamous and will mate for life. The females build the shallow-cupped nest with some assistance from the male. Small twigs, strips of bark, grasses, and leaves gathered by both the male and female are woven together by the female and then lined with soft grasses and animal hair.
How do Eagles find a mate?
Finding A Mate
As is the case with many other bird species, the female bald eagle chooses who she wants to mate with. To choose her mate, the female selects a male she likes the look of to fly with. During this process she’ll pick a stick and drop it to see if the male can catch it.
Do almonds hurt birds?
In conclusion, yes, parrots can eat almonds, but it’s important to make sure that they are sweet almonds – not bitter. Bitter almonds are considered highly toxic to both humans and parrots, and it only takes one bitter almond to have fatal consequences for your bird.
What time of year are baby cardinals born?
Northern cardinals usually raise two broods a year, one beginning around March and the second in late May to July. Northern cardinals breed between March and September. | https://virtualpsychcentre.com/query-do-hummingbirds-nest-in-louisiana/ |
BiodiversityWorks works with private landowners, beach associations, and land trusts to monitor and protect nesting Piping plovers (Charadrius melodus), American oystercatchers (Haematopus palliatus), Least terns (Sterna antillarum), Common terns (Sterna hirundo), Roseate terns (Sterna dougallii), and Black skimmers (Rhyncops niger). We collaborate with other conservation organizations on Martha’s Vineyard to ensure that all beaches and small islands with suitable nesting habitat are monitored and protected along the island’s 124 miles of shoreline.
Each spring and summer we protect nesting areas with symbolic fencing (posts and rope) so that people and birds can share the shore safely. We walk many miles of beach locating nesting pairs, censusing their numbers, and collecting data on nest and chick survival. We also work to reduce predation pressure by superabundant predators (primarily American crows and striped skunks) at beaches where they eat more than 60% of eggs laid or chicks hatched. Besides the joy of seeing chicks hatch and fledge, sharing our passion for beach-nesting birds is a favorite part of our work. At the bottom of this page you will find a map of the beaches were we work and a summary of the birds we protected and their productivity from 2011 – 2020.
Piping Plovers
Piping plovers are small migratory shorebirds that nest on open, sandy beaches from Newfoundland to North Carolina. The females lay a clutch of four eggs over a period of a week in a simple scrape in the sand. Both the male and the female share incubation duties over 26 days and, like many other shorebird species, the chicks are precocial when they hatch. Covered in downy feathers, chicks leave the nest scrape within hours of hatching and are able to feed themselves. Their parents protect them from predators using distraction displays and brood the chicks to keep them warm and dry or shaded from the hot sun. Piping plovers are perfectly adapted for life on the beach, but habitat loss to development and coastal erosion, displacement by people recreating on the beach, and increased predation on eggs and chicks has led to population declines throughout their range.
Atlantic Coast Piping plovers are federally protected as a ‘threatened’ species, and they are also protected under the Massachusetts endangered species act. Currently, there are ~ 2,000 pairs nesting from Newfoundland to North Carolina. The recovery goal for this population is 2,000 pairs, with an average productivity of 1.5 chicks per pair over a five year period. Each year, we protect 30 – 39 pairs of piping plovers at beaches across the island. Click here to read more about the Piping plover and here for a slideshow.
Martha’s Vineyard has a lot of food subsidies for beach-nesting bird predators such as skunks, crows, and gulls, and these human food subsidies artificially boost numbers of these predators. Sadly, this can result in the loss of 70 – 80% of eggs in a season. One tool we can use to protect some nests is a predator exclosure. Have you seen one of these circular wire fences inside a beach bird nesting area and wondered about it? The wire mesh is large enough for a plover to walk in and out, but excludes larger egg predators. The netting over the top prevents crows and gulls from flying into the circle of fencing and isn’t a problem for the plovers who like to walk to their nests. With a state permit, we can exclose a nest in 15 minutes or less and not cause harm to the eggs. We are grateful when volunteers are able to help us. While these protect eggs, they can be risky if a hawk or owl is nesting nearby and hunts the adults, so we are careful about where we use predator exclosures.
Least, Common and Roseate Terns
Least terns and common terns are both listed as a ‘Species of special concern’ in Massachusetts while roseate terns are ‘endangered’ both federally and under Massachusetts law. Least terns often share habitat with piping plovers while common and roseate terns do so occasionally. Terns are colonial nesters and a colony can consist of a few pairs to a several hundred pairs. These birds are more aggressive and will dive at intruders that get too close to the colony. Their incubation period is several days shorter than piping plovers, and while their chicks also hatch with a downy covering, the tern parents feed their chicks. To learn more about each species, Click here to learn more about least terns. Click here to learn more about common terns, and Click here to learn more about roseate terns.
American Oystercatchers
American Oystercatchers are conspicuous shorebirds with their long, bright orange bills specialized for opening bivalves. Much like piping plovers, American oystercatchers nest on sand or gravel beaches, and small islands. Although they are not a listed species, they are very sensitive to human disturbance and benefit from the symbolic fencing that we put in place to protect their nests and chick rearing areas. Oystercatcher chicks sometimes lie motionless in the wrackline (seaweed) on the beach where they could be stepped on by people or dogs. It’s important to stay away from posted nesting areas.
We are collaborating with the American Oystercatcher Working Group to locate new nesting areas, protect nesting pairs, re-sight banded birds from prior years, and to learn more about the migration habits of these birds.
Click here to learn more about the American Oystercatcher.
If you are interested in volunteering with our beach-nesting bird program, visit our volunteer page for more information.
We can’t always predict the location or size of a colony from year to year, so terns require that we be able to respond quickly to colony initiation with protective predator fencing. Even one skunk raiding for eggs can cause complete colony failure in only a few days. In 2011, a peregrine falcon caused abandonment of several tern colonies on the island, and in 2015 a couple of tern colonies were raided by crows. Little Beach, owned by Sheriff’s Meadow Foundation, has become a very productive site for nesting birds. In 2015, 75 pairs of Common terns, 10 pairs of Roseate Terns and and 5 pairs of Black Skimmers also nested on the narrow spit.
Black Skimmers
Black Skimmers are colorful and charismatic birds that delight many beach goers who enjoy watching these birds skim for their supper. They are also colonial nesters and often prefer to nest with the more aggressive tern species. This species began nesting in Massachusetts in the 1990’s and they are at the northernmost extent of their breeding range here. For the past several years, Martha’s Vineyard has hosted the only colony in the state and has been growing annually.
We began a collaborative banding project with MassWildlife and The Trustees in 2017 capturing and banding chicks with field readable bands before the fledged. We have banded over 30 chicks thus far and some of our 2017 chicks returned to nest as adults in 2020 for the first time. We are excited to be receiving re-sights of our banded black skimmers from Florida every winter. Amelia Island, on the Atlantic coast of Florida, is a popular place for them to spend the winter along with a few other sites on that coast. We have also had a re-sight from Clam Pass on the gulf side of Florida. | https://biodiversityworksmv.org/programs-projects/beach-nesting-bird-protection/ |
In the year 9 AD, a Roman army met annihilation in the foreboding shadows of the Teutoburg Forest in northern Germany. As many as 30,000 died in that Germanic ambush, a rare and horrific defeat for a burgeoning Empire just entering its prime.Arguably worst of all was the fact that Publius Quinctilius Varus, still infamous in 2019 for having led his force to complete destruction in year 9, lost his eagles.
A life was a life, but those eagles were sacred, and Augustus spared neither time, expense, nor soldiers’ lives in seeking both bloody vengeance and their swift return. Every Roman legion carried an eagle standard, and to surrender such a symbol of Rome’s vitality to an enemy was worse than losing an actual battle: such was the belief of the Romans, and such was the preeminence of the eagle as their symbol. That reverence is not unique to Western Civilization; the eagle is the human ideal of all that is noble and powerful, regardless of culture or continent. The only two eagle species of North America are also its most iconic emblems: the Bald Eagle graces the Great Seal of the United States, its talons bearing both the olive branch and the arrows of war; the Golden Eagle with a snake in its beak is a Mexican icon dating back to the Aztecs, who saw that same bird as a divine sign from their god well before Columbus was even born. They never knew about Rome or its eagles, yet the symbol was to them the same.
Crazy Horse wore a single eagle feather tied in his hair, all the power he needed at the Greasy Grass or Little Bighorn.Eagles embodied just as much for his people and for other groups indigenous to the Americas as they did for anyone in Europe. Mongolians on the other side of the world still hunt on the steppes of Asia with Golden Eagles, just as their ancestors did – and as Genghis and Kublai did – in a tradition of partnership and awe that dates to time immemorial.There are more than sixty kinds of eagle to be found in the world, which makes our North American pair seem rather paltry, in quantity at least.As might be expected, that many eagles invariably leads to some specialized examples, famously illustrated by the Harpy Eagle of South America. This massively strong terror of the treetops boasts almost comically short wings, at least in comparison to its more traditional cousins; in this sense, it resembles the Accipiters of North America, short-winged hawks whose forest environments require hunting at breakneck speeds and with hairpin turns, where even the slightest miscalculation means immediate death. The Harpy Eagle, living in the rainforest, relies on the same concept of movement, even if one of its favorite foods is the happy-go-lucky sloth. Hardly a speed demon to catch, but still: flying through the jungle, especially if you’re the size of an eagle, requires incalculable deftness.
In contrast to its South American cousin, and also to the Bald Eagle that only calls our own continent home, the Golden Eagle of Mexican flag fame is a true world conqueror. This is the bird of the Great Khans, the Holy Roman Emperors, the Russian Tsars, and the Caesars themselves. Theirs is the shadow passing overhead that makes even wolves think twice. Symbols of power, emblems of empires, eagles of all sorts are embodiments of human unity. And that is their most incredible legacy. After all, for all our differences, and for all the distances between us in life and in thought, it says something indeed if people across oceans, across time and across continents, can see the same bird and all think the same thing.
https://en.natmus.dk/historical-knowledge/denmark/prehistoric-period-until-1050-ad/the-early-iron-age/the-chieftains-grave-from-hoby/the-battle-of-the-teutoburg-forest/
Bird Builders
Gail Cochrane
Liberty Wildlife Volunteer
A high level of intelligence allows bird species to design and engineer ingenious nests. Birds instinctively duplicate a pattern copied by every member of their species to create structures where they may safely raise families. In the case of species that build elaborate nests instinct is accompanied by learned behaviors and practice.
The eyesight of a bird affects the type of nest built. Some birds, particularly plant eating waterbirds, have monocular vision; they can’t see out of both eyes at once. These species often nest on the ground, scratching out depression nests. Others like hawks, owls and insectivores that pursue their prey, have binocular vision. Using both eyes together greatly aids in both hunting and in construction of intricate nests.
Raptor species have hooked beaks that rip tissue with great efficiency, but are not the best tools for building complicated nests. Hummingbirds, bush tits and orioles are species that have the intelligence, the equipment (long narrow beaks) and the eyesight to build especially cunning nests.
The young of precocial birds hatch covered in down and with their eyes open. These birds often nest on the ground and the chicks are soon moving about independently. Precocial birds include ducks and quail. Altricial nestlings hatch out naked and with eyes tightly sealed. The parents of these babies must build nests that are well-hidden or high in a tree top, or both, to try and conceal their vulnerable offspring.
Nests are unique to each bird species because of many exterior factors. Diversity of habitats and potential sites, as well as competition among species for nest space creates a rich fabric of variations. Fundamental engineering requirements hinge on the nature of the substrate. Available materials, form, structure and placement must all be considered. Every situation demands a solution to challenges. Barn swallows build fortresses of mud to protect their young. Cactus wrens place their nests in the midst of spiny cholla cacti. Birds like vultures and condors that nest on cliffs do not need to construct nests that are camouflaged or securely woven into trees. They just lay their eggs on the ledge. The eggs of these species must be more conical than round, so if they roll, they roll in circles.
Blueprints of bird nests appear hardwired, as do the movements required to build them. A study of weaver-bird nesting behaviors revealed that young birds repeatedly grasp the sheath of their own feathers and the feathers of other birds in the flock while still fledglings. These grasping motions will be used in nest building when the bird embarks on its first breeding season.
Nest building is an energy intensive effort, often requiring hundreds of gathering expeditions to collect the necessary materials. Young birds polish skills such as finding, cutting and transporting suitable nest materials over time. Scientists have observed that birds show a tendency to collect materials within a certain range of color and size. Green twigs and grasses will be easier to bend, strip and weave than those that have turned brown.Researchers from Ohio Wesleyan University suggest that some birds may select nesting material with antimicrobial agents to protect their young from harmful bacteria.
The nests built by young weaver-birds, hummingbirds and bush tits are crude compared to those of adults. These builders of complicated nests benefit from practice. Skills that must be mastered to weave intricate nests include the most effective sequences of movement, the securing of twigs, and the dexterity to hold materials with the feet as well as the beak. Birds must also learn not to undo what it has already woven.
Evolution continues to exert an influence on bird nests. Some birds that live in close proximity to humans have added human structures as potential nest sites. Great horned owls nest on man-made ledges, as do peregrine falcons. In an ever-changing environment, successful species keep coming up with elegant solutions to tough challenges.
Sources:
Bird Nests and Eggsby Pinau Merlin
The Development of Nest Building Behaviors in Weaverbirds. Elsie Collias and Nicolas E. Collias
Evolution of Nests and Nest-Building in Birds by Nicholas E. Collias, Dept of Zoology, Uof Cal LA
Ornithology: Eastern Kentucky University http://people.eku.edu/ritchisong/birdnests.html
Is a Bird a Mammal?
(and other interesting bird facts)
Claudia Kirscher
Liberty Wildlife Volunteer
- Even though birds are warm blooded, they are not mammals. They are members of the Aves class. Birds have feathers, wings, beaks with no teeth, and lay eggs. They feed their young by regurgitating partially digested food.
- Mammals (Mammalia class) have hair or fur, give birth to live young, and feed their young with milk from mammary glands. Mammals have paws, hands and hooves. The only mammals that lay eggs are the platypus and the echidna. Their eggs are soft; however, they do have fur and nurse their young.
- The chicken is the most common species of bird found in the world.
- The ostrich has eyes about the size of a billiard ball (larger than its brain).
- A woodpecker does not sing, instead it will drum its beak against a tree or other object. Other woodpeckers can identify which bird it is by the sound of the drumming.
- The bird with the most feathers is the whistling swan, with up to 25,000 feathers. Hummingbirds, on the other hand, are so small that they have fewer than 1,000.
- Male ducks do not quack, typically it is the female who quacks.
- A group of geese on the ground is gaggle, a group of geese in the air is skein.
- The wandering albatross has the longest wingspan of any living bird, 11-plus feet.
- When a hawk has eaten its fill (in falconry terms when it’s “crop is full”) it won’t want to hunt. Another way of saying it’s eaten its fill is to say it’s “fed-up.” The phrase has moved from a bird who doesn’t want to hunt anymore to a person who doesn’t want to do something anymore.
- A falconry hawk has a leash (called a “jess”) to stop it from flying away. When the bird is on the falconer’s arm, he’ll put part of the jess “under his thumb” or “wrap it around his little finger” to keep control of the bird; both phrases have become part of our everyday use.
- Birds can sleep with one eye open and half of their brain awake (called unihemispheric slow-wave sleep) and it allows birds to detect approaching predators while resting. They can also do this while flying during migration.
- Though it looks like a bird’s knee is bending backwards, what is bending backward is actually its ankle. Below its ankle is an extended foot bone, leading to the toes. A bird’s real knee is usually hidden by feathers.
Good luck on your next Trivia game ! !
National Geographic; How Stuff Works; Wikipedia; Allabout birds; factretriever
Kid Stuff
Carol Suits
Nurturing Nature
Did You Know?
Watch Bald Eagles on nests incubating eggs and feeding babies. See how to draw an eagle head! But first, learn more about the Bald Eagle.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BEgEIEfSuvU Bald Eagle facts for kids
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cttbjCLCh1w Watch this Bald Eagle mom find the fish that got away!
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EUY51PmJB5o – Pittsburgh Hays Bald Eagles on nest. Check to see if all the eggs have hatched!
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YYMBJE0xk1sBig Bear Valley, California eagles
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LsGZpAHfhGAHow to draw a Bald Eagle head! | https://libertywildlife.org/nature-news-march-2019/ |
The popularity of bird photography is booming, and advances in digital technology have put stunning images within ever-easier reach. But with this reach comes the critical responsibility of protecting the birds we photograph. This is never more important than during nesting season, when birds are both doing their most important work—reproducing—and are at their most vulnerable. Here are some basic guidelines that can enable us to get the nest shots we want without jeopardizing the well-being of the birds we love.
Do your research
Spend some time learning about your subject before you head out. What are the threats to the young? What do the birds eat? What eats them? Is the species a skittish, furtive nester? What is its conservation status? If your subject is threatened or endangered, minimizing your disturbance is even more critical.
Learn to read the signs
Ethical bird photography requires being constantly aware of the behavior of our subjects, and on the lookout for signs of stress or fear. These may vary across species, but common distress behavior may include a stiff upright posture and a widening of the eyes (particularly with owls); attempts to look as big as possible, sometimes with wings flared out; and warning vocalizations. Do the parents fly away and not return? If they’re avoiding the nest because you’re close, the unprotected nestlings or eggs could be threatened by the hot sun or chilly temperatures. A photographer once set up a blind near an American White Pelican rookery, unintentionally flushing the parents, which stayed away all day. Hundreds of chicks perished in the direct sun.
I’ve heard photographers in Florida complain about waiting at an owl nest for hours, frustrated that they’re unable to get the “food delivery” shot. What people may not realize is that parents could either be afraid of them or instinctively reluctant to draw attention to the nest by returning to it. If an hour or two has passed with no sign of the parent, retreat a good distance to see if you’re what’s keeping the parents away.
Keep your distance
Telephoto lenses are a good choice, since you can shoot from a distance. But how far away do you need to be? There’s really no hard-and-fast rule. Some backyard nests, for example, can be approached much less intrusively than, say, a woodland warbler’s nest in the forest. The sensitivity of individual birds can also vary within the same species, depending on location. Many of Florida’s Great Horned Owls appear quite comfortable near humans, while in other parts of the country they can be very sensitive to disturbance. A robin’s nest or a Mourning Dove’s nest in your front yard can bear close scrutiny. A kingfisher’s nest on a riverbank, or a kestrel’s wood box, cannot.
For birds that are skittish at the nest, blinds are advised. Pop-up hunting blinds are one option; higher-end blinds made expressly for photographers are another. Set the blind up as far in advance as possible—days or even weeks—so the birds get used to it. Some photographers say that having two people enter the blind and then having one leave can sometimes fool the bird into thinking the blind is empty. There are also body blinds that are a lot more portable and yield a smaller profile. Last, cars can make a great “movable blind.” Many times birds are more comfortable when you’re in your car than on foot.
Protect nests from predators
The biggest threat to eggs and chicks, even when the parents are present, is predators. For nests hidden from plain view, visits should be kept to a minimum to avoid damage to vegetation and the creation of pathways that predators can follow. Never move or remove anything around the nest. All too often, photographers take shears and cut away vegetation from around a nest in order to get a clear line of sight and a “cleaner” image. Those very branches or leaves are likely providing essential camouflage from predators, or protection from wind, rain and sun. The bird chose that site precisely for its particular cover.
Never remove nestlings or eggs from a nest
This goes without saying—but it still needs to be said! Handling the young or the eggs to better arrange your photo is just plain wrong.
Consider the cumulative impact of photographers
Repeated visits by multiple photographers have a cumulative impact. If a nesting bird is disturbed often enough, it may abandon its nest (and eggs). Sometimes it’s clear that lots of birders or other photographers have visited a nest. In that case, you should be ready to simply forego this photographic opportunity.
Protect nest sites after you have taken the photo
Before publishing or sharing images of nesting birds, especially if they’re threatened or endangered, remove all GPS-embedded data from the image. Thinking of sharing your photo on social media? Keep in mind it is our responsibility to protect sensitive areas and species by refraining from indiscriminately disclosing their location, as the general public may not understand the potentially mortal implications of approaching a nest site. | https://www.audubon.org/news/dos-and-donts-nest-photography |
Eggs are among the most enchanting and mysterious of natural objects. All birds lay eggs, and with very few exceptions, incubate them. Eggs range in size from those of the Bee Hummingbird (Mellisuga helanae) at less than 1/2 inch long to those of the ostrich at almost 7 by 5-1/2 inches. While it is true that the smallest bird lays the smallest eggs, and the largest birds lay the largest eggs, this proportion of body size to egg size does not always hold true for all birds.
The largest egg ever laid by a bird was that of the extinct Elephant Bird (Aepyornis). It measured 14-1/2 by 9-1/2 inches. It is assumed that it held two gallons of fluid and weighed in at 27 pounds. This was only about 3% of the gigantic bird’s weight. The ostrich’s egg weighs nearly 3 pounds, or about 1.7% of its body weight. The Bee Hummingbird’s egg weighs about 1/2 gram, or around 10% of its body weight. From this, you might think that larger birds lay proportionately smaller eggs. But there are exceptions to the rule. For example, the chicken-sized Kiwi lays an egg that weighs about 1 pound, or approximately 25% of its body weight.
Not all birds that are the same size and weight lay eggs of the same size. For example, the Killdeer and the American Robin are the same size, but the egg of the Killdeer is much larger. The Killdeer eggs require about 26 day to hatch. When the young are hatched, they are well-developed precocial chicks born with feathers and are able to run in a matter of a few minutes. The smaller Robin egg is incubated for only 13 days, but hatches out a helpless, naked, usually blind (eyes open several days after hatching) altricial chick in a much more primitive state than that of the Killdeer. The Robin young remain in the nest for 10 to 14 days, after which time they venture forth, but are still under the care of their parents. Within a species, the younger birds in their first year of nesting lay smaller eggs. Occasionally, a bird will lay an abnormally small, or runt, egg. This aberration usually does not hatch.
The shapes of eggs can vary. Most eggs are like those of chickens, somewhat rounded at one end and pointed at the other. The eggs of owls, ostriches, and kingfishers are round. Swallows and swifts lay elongated ones. Grebe eggs are pointed at both ends. Hummingbirds lay elongated eggs that are blunt at both ends. Shorebirds, murres and quail lay eggs that are sharply pointed at one end and rounded at the other. This exaggerated shape is an adaptation that offers some advantages. Shorebirds usually lay 4 relatively large eggs. With the pointed ends toward the center of the nest, a minimal amount of space is necessary. Quail lay large clutches of 10 or more eggs, and once again, a pear shape economizes the nest space. Murres, auks, and other alcids, i.e. guillemots, puffins, and murrelets, use cliffs as nesting sites. A pear-like shaped egg tends to roll around on its axis rather than roll off a cliff like a round one would.
Birds of closely related species usually lay similarly colored eggs. Studies of the proteins in egg whites showed that there were fewer differences in these proteins in closely related groups than in distantly related groups. Within each species, the shape and coloration of eggs is alike, and resemblances are seen in related groups of birds.
Like reptiles, many birds lay white eggs. It is generally believed that originally all bird eggs were white. Through natural selection, colors that made eggs less conspicuous were developed. Probably first ground colors and then markings such as blotches, streaks, scrawls, and speckles evolved to aid in the disguise of eggs. In support of this theory, it is noted that birds that nest in cavities where the eggs are hidden from view, lay white eggs. Examples are found among woodpeckers, swifts, parrots and kingfishers. Birds that lay white eggs in open nests, like hummingbirds, herons, owls and grebes begin incubation as soon as the first egg is laid, thereby effectively hiding the eggs from the view of predators. Some ducks, geese, grebes and many gallinaceous birds lay white eggs in ground nests. Just before they leave the nest, they cover their eggs with plants or grasses to conceal them from predators.
There are far more birds that lay colored or tinted eggs than those that lay white eggs. The pigments used to color eggshells are derived from the breakdown of hemoglobin from ruptured red blood cells. Transported to the uterus by the blood in the form of bile pigments, the color is deposited on the developing shell during the last 5 hours before the egg is laid. Quite often the markings seem to be concentrated in a wreath around the larger end of the egg. This is because the large end of the egg comes first in the final descent through the oviduct, and picks up the major portion of pigment from the cell walls. Besides providing cryptic patterns to conceal the eggs from predators, pigmentation also protects eggs from the harmful radiation of the sun.
Not all birds that are cavity nester lay white eggs. Bluebirds lay light blue eggs, but place them in an “unnecessary nest” that they build on the cavity floor. Similarly, some wrens, nuthatches, chickadees, and crested flycatchers lay colored eggs in nests built in the bottom of cavities. This is believed to indicate that they once built open nests, but have recently, in evolutionary terms, developed a hole-nesting habit.
The total number of eggs laid in one nesting is called a clutch. From one to twenty three eggs are found in a clutch. Some birds, like albatrosses, shearwaters and tropicbirds, lay four. Loons, hummingbirds, goatsuckers and most pigeons lay two eggs. Practically all other birds that lay more than two eggs experience a range of clutch size.
Food supply, latitude, nest site, and the degree of development of young at hatching also influence clutch size. Rough-legged Hawks and Snowy Owls lay larger clutches of eggs in years when lemmings (their main prey) are plentiful. Barn Owls will nest year round if meadow voles and/or other rodents are abundant. Birds that nest in the tropics generally lay smaller clutches than those that nest in more northern latitudes where the days are longer and more food is available. Ground nesters, whose eggs are more likely to be discovered by mammalian predators, generally lay larger clutches than birds that nest in trees or on remote islands. In birds that require an extensive incubation period and a long time to raise to independence, like eagles and albatrosses, only one clutch is laid in a season. Some of the smaller songbirds lay two or three clutches every season.
Birds are among the best architects in nature and use a wide variety of plant and other materials in constructing nests. Many plant parts are extensively used including the fiber and plant down as well as the occasional use of leaves, flowers, catkins, and twigs. Animal parts are also well used, especially fine fur, hair, and other bird feathers. These materials are well woven (in most cases) into tight and sturdy structures. Human hair, horse hair, dog fur, and a wide variety of soft plant materials can be put out in clean suet baskets or vinyl mesh bags. We encourage our customers who attract and feed birds in their back yards to assist the birds at this time of the year by providing a variety of nesting materials. Not only are you giving them a helping hand, but the rewards are great as we get to observe them building their nests, laying eggs, incubating them, and watching parents raise them from nestlings to fledglings – very stimulating, engaging, and entertaining for adults and educational for children. Come by and see our wonderful selection of nesting materials you can use. Do not use dryer lint. It is too short fibered, does not contribute to the structural strength of the nest, and doesn’t really benefit the birds. | https://wildbirdsonline.com/blogs/news/mysterious-eggs |
Saving the environment one bee at a time!
Removing the bee cocoons from my Mason Bee nesting block:
Carefully separate the nesting block planks from each other. Gently loosen the mud around the cocoons and carefully scrape them out onto a flat surface. Once you have all the cocoons removed from the nesting block take a piece of sandpaper and bend it to the shape of the nesting block channel and sand back-and-forth to loosen all the mud that is in the channel. Then take an air compressor or a vacuum cleaner and blow or vacuum all the mud out of the nesting block channel. You may have to repeat this one or two times to ensure they are clean. Turn your nesting block boards around and also blow them or vacuum them completely clean, using the same procedure on the house to make sure that there are no mites left behind. Assemble your Nesting block boards and tie them together with electric tape or a strong rubber band. Protect the openings of your nesting block boards that no predators can enter over the winter months while it is in storage.
Cleaning your Mason Bee Cocoons:
When you have cocoons laying on a flat surface remove as much mud that you possibly can without damaging them. Then place the cocoons in a strainer while running water to rinse them off. This may take a few times until the coccons are completely clean. The cocoons are safe to rinse and you will not damage them.
When cocoons are clean place them on paper towel for drying. When they are completely dry place them in a jar by adding a small amount of play sand and gently shaking them back-and-forth to remove the remaining mites that are invisible but still there. I would repeat this one additional time with new sand.
Your cocoons are now ready for storing until spring.
Why do Mason Bees need our help in nature for their survival?
1. Climate
In the winter months, if we get a few days of warm weather they think it's spring and will emerge and starve or if we get a major frost they will freeze to death.
2. Parasites & Predators
The Mason Bee brings in mites from the blossoms and takes them right into her nest. The mites multiply very quickly and destroy all the food the baby Mason Bees needs for survival. Mites walk to neighbouring nesting holes. They are very hearty and will not die even in cold weather or if you place them in your freezer.
Mason Bees tend to reuse the same locations from the year before where she laid her larva. Therefore, entering an infested home where the predators are waiting for her to lay her larva to devour it.
3. Houdini Fly
The Houdini Fly is one of our latest and most dangerous predators for
Mason Bees. This fly originates from Europe. She will sit and wait
outside the Mason Bee home and wait for the Mason Bees to leave.
The Houdini Fly will then enter the home and lay her eggs on top
of the Mason Bee larva. When her eggs develop they are many tiny
maggots. The maggots will then devour the Mason Bee larva. A
solution to this is cleaning nesting blocks every fall. The Houdini Fly
maggots need to be destroyed.
Houdini Fly destroying complete Nesting Condo
4. Parasitic Wasps
The Parasitic Wasp lay their eggs inside the bee larva. Dozen of adult
wasps emerge from each affected bee cocoon and return to infect the
larva the next pollination season. Harvest the cocoons to reduce the
attack of these sneaky pests. In June, when you see no more Mason
Bees flying in and out of their nesting blocks, remove your nesting
blocks and put them in a safe cool place. This will prevent predators
from trying to enter the nesting blocks.
Nesting Block Systems I do not Recommend:
1. Nesting Straws
I do not recommend Mason bee Nesting block with nesting straws. The mites that the Mason bees bring in their home are very small. Therefore they will travel throughout the Bees nesting block inside the straw, also underneath the straw. When you remove the straw from the nesting block there's always a supply of mites being left behind in the existing channel to devour your new crop of baby Mason Bees in the spring.
2. Bamboo Nesting Blocks
Mason Bees like bamboos sticks as nesting block. I do however not recommend bamboo sticks. Bamboo sticks come in various sizes, some openings are too small or too large. Some are too short with knots in them which will only give you a small supply of male Mason Bees. They cannot be cleaned unless you totally break them then they are not useable. Cleaning Mason Bee nesting block is a must in order to have a successful healthy Mason Bee crop.
3. Plastic Mason Bee Nesting Block
They are too cold for the bees. Wood is a warmer product which is the same when they're out in nature.
Mason Bee Rentals
I am considering renting out Mason Bee homes with nesting blocks. I will inspect the location to make sure it is suitable for Mason Bees before I rent out the home.
Custom Observation Trays
Locations of our Mason Bee Homes
Here are some of the parks and public locations where Mason Bees are hard at work and creating excitement: | https://www.themasonbeecompany.com/info |
Nests are structures built by certain animals to hold eggs, offspring, and occasionally animals themselves. Although nests are most closely related to birds, all kinds of vertebrates and some invertebrates build nests. They may consist of organic materials such as branches, grass and leaves, or they may be a simple depression in the ground, or a hole in a rock, tree or building. You can also use artificial materials, such as thread, plastic, cloth or paper. Nests can be found in all types of habitats.
Nesting is driven by a biological impulse called the nesting instinct of birds and mammals. Usually, each species has a unique nest. The complexity of nest is related to the level of parental care of adults. Nesting is considered to be the main adaptive advantage between birds. They show the biggest change in the nest, ranging from simple holes on the ground to exquisite public nests that can accommodate hundreds of people. Prairie groundhog nests and several social insects can hold millions of people.
Nesting is often driven by the biological impulse of pregnant animals to protect their offspring, which is called nesting instinct. Animals build nests to protect their eggs, their offspring or themselves from danger. The simplest nest like structure is suitable for avoiding predators' eggs, protecting them from sunlight or other environmental factors, or just preventing them from spreading in the current. In some cases, nesting also helps to provide a safe number of spawning animals.
Many nesting workers provide parents' care for young people, while others just leave after laying eggs. In birds, they usually hatch (by sitting on eggs). In general, the complexity of the nest increases with the level of parental care provided. Nesting will strengthen social behavior and allow more people to be accommodated in a narrow space, thus increasing the bearing capacity of the environment. Insects with the most complex nest structure also have the largest social structure. In mammals, the naked mole mouse shows a caste structure similar to that of social insects, and has built a wide range of caves that can accommodate hundreds of people.
In general, birds are the most skilled nesters, although not all kinds of birds build nests. Some birds lay their eggs directly on rock ledges or exposed soil without first changing the area. Complex nesting is considered to be one of the main adaptive advantages of birds. Nests help regulate temperature and reduce the risk of predation, thus increasing the chances of adult offspring.
Bird's nests vary from simple depressions on the ground (called debris) to a collection of disorganized branches, to carefully woven pendants or spheres. Giant toes are one of the few groups that do not breed directly, hatching their young in a rotten vegetation. One of them is the giant macro (macrocephalon maleo), which uses hot volcanic sand to keep its eggs warm. There are falcons, owls and many water birds in simple nesting. Weavers may show off the most exquisite nests and complete them with bundles of grass tied together. Most nests are located somewhere in the middle, while most cup-shaped nests are made of mud, branches, leaves and feathers. Some birds, such as flamingos and swifts, use saliva to help hold their nests together. Edible bird's nests are made of saliva only. The reddish brown hornero nests are made entirely of mud and dung, which are placed on branches so that the sun can harden them into usable structures. Tailoring birds sew the leaves together to provide cover for their nests. | https://pngpngpng.com/nature/nest.html |
May 12, 9 am
It is with much anticipation that I set out today in hope of finding some nesting birds. For weeks now, it has been apparent that birds are displaying territoriality everywhere I go. The Red- winged blackbirds are the most dramatic with the showing off of their bright red epaulets ((shoulder pads), but the Song sparrows, and Black Phoebes are also doing their best to sing the loudest, or just seem to be acting macho, since It is the males who mostly do all of this noise and posturing.
The Black Phoebe, Sayornis nigricans is busy singing its chirpy song that has been described as Tee-hee, tee-ho. It is a beautiful sleek, black and white bird that loves to flip and wag its tail up and down. Being a flycatcher, it eats many insects that it catches in the air plus even catches some small fish, since it prefers to live near water. This is a fairly common bird which lives in towns or backyards if there is a riparian area nearby. As I watch this pair on the Outlet creek I notice there is a mud nest on the pump housing where they are flying around. As I near it and use my phone to take a photo in the nest I discover that there are 4 whitish eggs with brown spots. It is apparent that mud has been used to layer the outside of this nest with some grass to create a large cup shaped bowl lined with finer grassy materials. They often will come back to the same nesting sites year after year. Black phoebes are found along streams or near water from California to Argentina.
The second nest I find is out in the grassland area carefully hidden from viewing. It has been woven into the tall grass stalks from last year with grasses and cattails. Lichen has been added which makes it look quite artistic but it may be that the lichens antiseptic qualities and of course its camouflage value, make it an important addition to this beautiful nest. The bright blue eggs with their spattering of maroon color and its location makes me think this is a Red- winged blackbird, Agelaius phoeniceus, nest. In the next moment I see and hear a male Red-winged flying close to me. It is distracting me and proclaiming its territory.These guys have more than one one mate and will protect their areas aggressively by attacking intruders and being real loud if humans are too near. I realize my presence is making the birds nervous so I retreat. As I move away a female Red-winged flies into the nest.
The third nest I find is also in the big clumps of Harding grass, Phalaris aquatica, but it has baby birds in it! I see the mom fly out and know right away it is a song sparrow, Melospiza melodia. This male is also trying to distract and warn me to get away with its chattering and wining sounds. The scientific name of this bird lets you know that it has a beautiful and melodious song. This is also a bird of fields and meadows near water but will be found in thickets, brush, marshes, roadsides, and gardens.Song sparrows mostly eat insects especially in summer but in winter this bird depends heavily on seeds, mainly those of grass and weeds. It forages mostly on the ground and sometimes in shallow water. Because they have small territories the density of nesting birds can be high in good habitat. This nest is packed with the four babies waiting to be fed. I back away and let the mom and dad get back to their enormous task of feeding these hungry ones.
As I walk back through the fields towards my car I look across the waving grasses and wonder how many nests are out there?How does a species that nests on the ground survive through the spring storms, predators, and the big footed ones such as myself even though I am trying to be careful? | http://mcrcd.org/hidden-nests-in-the-grass-and-wetlands |
Sebastian (Boneblade Runner)
The boneblade runner is a mixed species of bird that can be found in the dense forests of the fictional world of Arcania. It is a carnivorous species that has a particular fondness for human cuisine, particularly sushi and tacos.
In terms of mating habits, boneblade runners are known for their elaborate courtship rituals, which involve the male performing elaborate aerial displays and presenting the female with gifts of food. The female will typically lay a clutch of 3-4 eggs at a time, and both parents will take turns incubating and caring for the chicks.
One of the most unique adaptations of the boneblade runner is its ability to camouflage itself within its surroundings, thanks to its feather coloration which changes to match the surroundings. It is also capable of producing a high-pitched screeching sound that can disorient and deter potential predators.
Some humans do keep boneblade runners as pets, although they can be quite mischievous and require a lot of attention and training. A good name for a pet boneblade runner might be “Pogo” or “Zap”.
In terms of nesting habits, boneblade runners are known for their elaborate nests, which are made of woven grasses and decorated with colorful feathers and trinkets. They typically build their nests in the upper canopy of the forest, high above the ground to avoid predators.
To avoid predators, boneblade runners are skilled at using their camouflage abilities and their high-pitched screeching to deter potential threats. Their natural predators include large predatory birds and some species of dragon.
In terms of personality, boneblade runners are known for their intelligence and curiosity, and they have been known to mimic the sounds of other animals. They can be quite playful and mischievous, and they have been known to steal shiny objects and hide them in their nests.
A group of boneblade runners is known as a “flutter” or a “clutch”. | https://blog.abluestar.com/flockingai/146-sebastian/ |
While boating north of the JFK Causeway I recently noticed a shiny Labrador splashing its way toward one of the spoil islands east of the Intracoastal Waterway.
It was a playful scene that was harmless because on the island there were no nesting waterbirds.
It's hard to know whether the dog owner had checked first to see whether birds were nesting on the island. I hope he did. In a perfect world, checking for active nests before approaching would be automatic, roughly from March through August.
Now is the season when herons, egrets, skimmers, terns and other waterbirds are most vulnerable while guarding their eggs and young. They need our help. Their enemies include habitat loss, oil spills, urban sprawl, increasing threats from predators within a shrinking space, along with human ignorance, indifference and carelessness.
Avoiding active rookery islands is one thing each of us can do on our own to protect each generation of waterbird. Disturbing nesting birds, either intentionally or inadvertently, is unlawful and subject to a $500 fine.
While you may think — and I've heard it spoken — our bird populations must be healthy because they seem so abundant and obvious. The fact is nearly every species of native waterbird is in decline.
Isn't it strange that anglers who hold themselves up as conservationists by releasing trout over a certain length, will wade too close to a rookery in May. I call these cafeteria conservationists because they pick and choose which species are worthy of their care, while neglecting the other interlocking components of the ecosystem they enjoy.
It simply doesn't work that way. Proper conservation requires a comprehensive approach, with attention to all that is natural within an ecosystem. Each species is linked to form a perfect coexistence. We can purposely behave in harmony with the system or choose to disrupt the balance.
Most disturbances are the ordinary variety: running a boat along a nesting shoreline, wading, paddling or kite-boarding too near an active rookery. Photographers looking for a closer shot also are guilty. Most violators would claim ignorance if confronted. Or they might dismiss the consequence as insignificant.
These are dangerous rationalizations when compounded numerous times each nesting season year after year.
Spread the word that when nesting birds become agitated by a disturbance, they usually take flight and become quite vocal. This is the signal that you're too close. Once flushed, the nests and contents are exposed to deadly heat and opportunistic predators, mostly gulls and grackles, which prey on eggs and young birds within seconds.
So another skimmer chick is lost, perpetuating a decline that puts the population at 25 percent of what it once was.
The Coastal Bend Bays & Estuaries Program, along with Audubon Texas and other groups, have a long history of trying to reverse downward trends in waterbird populations. They struggle with this through innovative habitat management, by posting warning signs, with volunteer patrols and public outreach. Their efforts are lost without our cooperation.
Please fish, swim and play from at least 50 yards away. And never discard fishing line within reach of wildlife.
David Sikes’ Outdoors columns appear Thursday and Sunday. Contact David at 361-886-3616 or [email protected]. | https://www.caller.com/story/sports/outdoors/2017/04/05/give-nesting-birds-break/99862564/ |
Listen:
There are poems on the wing upon the mountainsides – fraught with beauty and peril. A female bunting with grass in her mouth is one such poem. In May, lazuli buntings return to the mountains and valleys of Montana. Lazuli – stone of azure, jewel of the sky. As spring ripens into summer, the males with their blue hoods and russet breast bands sing from atop shrubs and trees, and begin the rite of passion.
Bird passion. Soon after mating, the female bunting embarks upon her poem, searching for strands of last year’s dried grasses, peeling strips of ninebark, which she weaves and tucks together into a cup to hold her eggs. She’ll pick a patch of ninebark, chokecherry, serviceberry, snowberry or even wildrose in which to build her nest. To find it you’ll have to bend low, searching with your “nest eye” about two feet off the ground. She’ll line the nest inside with something soft, perhaps leaves, spider silk or animal hair.
That poem finished, the female bunting lays up to four eggs – pale blue, the color of sky on the horizon. But a significant threat to her eggs arises from invading cowbirds. Cowbird females parasitize other species’ nests while laying up to 40 eggs of their own during the breeding season. The cowbird may damage host eggs when laying hers, or poke a hole in them or even remove the eggs altogether. The female bunting may abandon a parasitized nest, but unlike some host species she does not attempt to remove the cowbird egg or re-nest on top of it with a new layer of weaving.
With human-caused forest fragmentation and widespread introduced cattle, cowbirds have spread across the continental United States from their original habitat associated with prairie bison.
A bunting with a caterpillar in its mouth is another poem of summer. Both the male and female lazuli feed their young from the burgeoning of insects on the land, and about a week after the eggs are laid the bunting chicks hatch – blind and orangish-pink with fuzzy gray down. Within days, their eyes open and feather sheaths develop.
Here lies tenderest bunting life, the distillation of caterpillar and grasshopper, of Montana summers and Mexican winters, the culling by crow and fox. About ten days after hatching, the chicks fledge, making a short foray from the nest. The mother lazuli continues to feed them, bringing mouthfuls to her young perched in the cover of a bush.
Between the time lazuli buntings nest and the chicks fledge, the nesting site lies vulnerable to predators. Hawks and owls patrol the skies. Raccoons and foxes make nocturnal rounds.
Human observation may take its toll as well, for even eyes touch lives. If you are out this summer watching nesting birds, bear in mind the responsibility of such enjoyment. The disturbance of your discovery may cause the female to abandon a newly built nest. And some predators, like the magpie, take keen notice of our activity. Any scent we leave behind may attract other animals. If visiting a nest site, take a circuitous path rather than straight in and out. And take care not to damage vegetation, which may cue predators to the presence of a nest.
This summer, listen for the song of the lazuli bunting atop a serviceberry – lazuli, jewel of the sky. The males’ harmonics and trills, buzzes and beeps, announce another season of hope and bounty as the buntings weave their poems from the land.
Every week since 1991, Field Notes has inquired about Montana’s natural history. Field Notes are written by naturalists, students, and listeners about the puzzle-tree bark, eagle talons, woolly aphids, and giant puffballs of Western, Central and Southwestern Montana and aired weekly on Montana Public Radio.
Click here to read and listen to more Field Notes. Field Notes is available as a podcast! Subscribe on iTunes, Google Play, or wherever you listen to podcasts.
Interested in writing a Field Note? Contact Allison De Jong, Field Notes editor, at adejong [at] montananaturalist [dot] org or 406.327.0405.
Want to learn more about our programs as well as fun natural history facts and seasonal phenology? Sign up for our e-newsletter! You can also become a member and get discounts on our programs as well as free reciprocal admission to 300+ science centers in North America! | https://www.montananaturalist.org/blog-post/lazuli-buntings-deep-blue-jewels-of-montanas-skies/ |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.